Essential Grammar of the Modern Greek- http://www.projethomere.com

Greek
An Lssent|o| Crommor of
the Modern Longuoge
Creel: An ssential Crannar cf tle McJern Ianguage is a concise anu
usei-iienuly ieeience guiue ro rle mosr imoiranr asecrs o ôuein
Gieek.
Ir iesenrs a iesl anu accessiLle uesciirion o rle language in sloir, ieau-
aLle secrions. Lxlanarions aie cleai anu suoireu Ly examles rliouglour.
1le Crannar is iueal oi leaineis o all levels anu is suiraLle oi rlose
involveu in inueenuenr sruuy anu oi sruuenrs in sclools, colleges, univei-
siries anu auulr classes o all ryes.
Iearuies incluue:
Vaiiery o examles
Cleai exlanarions o giammarical reims
Discussion o oinrs vlicl oren cause ioLlems
Higlliglreu Gieek/Lnglisl comaiisons anu conriasrs
Creel: An ssential Crannar cf tle McJern Ianguage vill lel you ieau,
seak anu viire virl giearei conhuence.
David Holton is Reauei in ôuein Gieek ar rle Univeisiry o CamLiiuge
anu a Iellov o Selvyn College. Peter Mackridge is Pioessoi o ôuein
Gieek ar rle Univeisiry o Oxoiu anu a Iellov o Sr Cioss College. Irene
Philippaki-Warburton is Pioessoi o Linguisrics ar Reauing Univeisiry.
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BcutleJge ssential Crannars
ssential Crannars aie availaLle oi rle olloving languages:
Clinese
Danisl
Durcl
Lnglisl
Iinnisl
Hungaiian
ôuein HeLiev
oivegian
Polisl
Poiruguese
Sveuisl
1lai
Uiuu
Otler titles cf relateJ interest jublisleJ by BcutleJge:
Gieek: A Comielensive Giammai o rle ôuein Language
y DaiiJ Hcltcn, eter MaclriJge anJ Irene lilijjali-Varburtcn
Colloqual Gieek
y Nili Vatts
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Greek
An Lssent|o| Crommor of
the Modern Longuoge
David HoIton,
Peter Mackridge and
lrene PhiIippaki-Warburton
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Flrst publlsbeo 2004
by Poutleoge
11 New Fetter Lane, Lonoon LC4P 4LL
Slmultaneously publlsbeo ln tbe USA ano Canaoa
by Poutleoge
29 West 35tb Street, New York, NY 10001
out|edge |s on |mpr|nt of the 7o,|or & lronc|s Croup
2004 Davlo Holton, Peter Mackrloge ano |rene Pblllppakl-Warburton
All rlgbts reserveo. No part o| tbls book may be reprlnteo or
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8r|t|sh L|5ror, Coto|ogu|ng |n Pu5||cot|on uoto
A catalogue recoro |or tbls book ls avallable |rom tbe 8rltlsb Llbrary
L|5ror, of Congress Coto|og|ng |n Pu5||cot|on uoto
A catalog recoro |or tbls book bas been requesteo
|S8N 0415232104 (pbk)
0415232090 (bbk)
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Th|s eo|t|on pub||sheo |n the Tay|or 8 |ranc|s e-L|brary, 2005.
To purchase your own copy o th|s or any o Tay|or 8 |ranc|s or Pout|eoge's
co||ect|on o thousanos o e8oo|s p|ease go to www.e8oo|store.tano.co.u|.
|S8N 0-203-6+521-9 Naster e-boo| |S8N
|S8N 0-203-67303-+ (Aoobe ePeaoer |ormat)
Preface xi
Abbreviations and synboIs xiii
Chapter 1 The aIphabet and pronunciation
1.1 1le Gieek allaLer 1
Pronunciation 3
1.2 Vovels 3
1.3 ComLinarions o vovels 4
1.4 Consonanrs 4
1.5 ComLinarions o consonanrs
1.6 Plonological lenomena acioss voiu Lounuaiies 9
Stress and intonation 10
1. Woiu sriess 10
1.S Lnclisis 11
1.9 Inronarion 11
Chapter 2 The writing systen 14
2.1 Accenrs (rle monoronic sysrem) 14
2.2 Orlei uiaciirics 15
2.3 1le use o cairal anu lovei-case lerreis 15
2.4 Puncruarion 16
2.5 1le riansciirion o oieign names 1S
Chapter 3 The noun and the noun phrase 19
3.1 Consriruenrs o rle noun liase 19
3.2 Iuncrions o rle noun liase 20
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Contents
1
Gender, number and case 22
3.3 Genuei 22
3.4 umLei 24
3.5 Case 24
Jhe articles 25
3.6 1le oims o rle uehnire airicle 25
3. 1le oims o rle inuehnire airicle 26
Nouns 27
3.S Declensions: an oveiviev 2
Masculine nouns 2S
3.9 ouns in -u (aiisyllaLic) 2S
3.10 ouns in - (aiisyllaLic) 31
3.11 ouns in -o 31
3.12 ouns in -ru 34
3.13 ImaiisyllaLic nouns in -u, -u, -, -, -r, -ou 34
Ieminine nouns 36
3.14 ouns in -u (aiisyllaLic) 36
3.15 ouns in - virl luial -r 3S
3.16 ouns in -o 39
3.1 ouns in - virl luial -rt 40
3.1S ImaiisyllaLic nouns in -u anu -ou 40
3.19 ouns in -e 41
Nouns oI common gender 42
3.20 ouns vlicl may Le eirlei masculine oi eminine 42
Neuter nouns 44
3.21 ouns in -o 44
3.22 ouns in -t 45
3.23 ouns in -t 46
3.24 ouns in -o 4
3.25 ouns in -u 4
3.26 ouns in -to 4S
3.2 Orlei neurei nouns in - 49
3.2S Orlei neurei nouns enuing in vovels 50
3.29 ouns in -v 51
Special types oI noun 52
3.30 ouns virl a clange o genuei in rle luial 52
3.31 InueclinaLle nouns 53
Ad|ectives 54
3.32 Aujecrives in ourline 54
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vl
Jhe Iorms oI ad|ectives 54
3.33 Aujecrives in -o, -, -o 54
3.34 Aujecrives in -o, -u, -o 55
3.35 Aujecrives in -o, -tu, -o 56
3.36 Aujecrives in -u, -tu, -u 56
3.3 Aujecrives in -, -tu, -t 5
3.3S 1le aujecrive (quanrihei) nou 5
3.39 Aujecrives in -, -r 59
3.40 Aujecrives virl neurei in -tko 60
3.41 Aujecrives in -ev, -ouou, -ov 62
3.42 InueclinaLle aujecrives 63
Comparison oI ad|ectives 63
3.43 Oveiviev 63
3.44 1le comaiarive 63
3.45 1le ielarive sueilarive 64
3.46 1le aLsolure sueilarive 65
3.4 Iiiegulai comaiarives anu sueilarives 65
Jhe use oI noun phrases and oI ad|ectives 67
3.4S Agieemenr virlin rle noun liase 6
3.49 1le use o rle cases: inriouucrion 6S
3.50 1le use o rle nominarive 69
3.51 1le use o rle accusarive 69
3.52 1le use o rle genirive 2
3.53 1le use o rle vocarive
3.54 1le use o rle uehnire airicle
3.55 1le use o rle inuehnire airicle S1
3.56 ALsence o airicle S1
3.5 1le use o aujecrives S3
Chapter 4 Pronouns and deterniners 87
4.1 Peisonal ionouns: veak (cliric) oims S
4.2 Peisonal ionouns: emlaric oims 91
4.3 Demonsriarive ionouns anu uereimineis 92
4.4 Possessive ionouns anu uereimineis 94
4.5 Inreiiogarive ionouns anu uereimineis 95
4.6 Inuehnire ionouns anu uereimineis 96
4. Relarive anu coiielarive ionouns anu uereimineis 99
4.S 1le univeisal ionouns ku0rvu anu ku0rtt anu rle
uisriiLurive uereiminei ku0r 101
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vll
4.9 Orlei ionouns anu uereimineis 101
4.10 Quanriheis 103
Chapter 5 NuneraIs 105
5.1 1aLle o caiuinal anu oiuinal numeials 105
5.2 1le ueclineu oims o caiuinal numeials 10S
5.3 ûlrilicarive numeials 109
5.4 Collecrive numeials 110
5.5 umeials in exiessions o rime, sace anu quanriry 110
Chapter 6 The verb and the verb phrase 112
6.1 Inriouucrion ro rle veiL liase 112
6.2 Pieliminaiy nores on rle veiL sysrem 116
6.3 Peison anu numLei 11
6.4 1ense, asecr, voice anu moou 11S
6.5 1le use o rle renses anu orlei veiL oims 120
6.6 Deecrive, imeisonal anu ueonenr veiLs 125
Jhe basic Iorms 125
6. 1le veiL 'ro Le` 126
6.S Iiisr-conjugarion veiLs 126
6.9 Seconu-conjugarion veiLs (rye A) 130
6.10 Seconu-conjugarion veiLs (rye B) 134
6.11 Seconu-conjugarion veiLs virl assive only 13
6.12 VeiLs virl conriacreu acrive iesenr oims 13S
6.13 VeiLs virl iiiegulai oim o acrive ueenuenr 140
Jhe Iormation oI active and passive perIective stems 141
6.14 Peiecrive srems o hisr-conjugarion veiLs 141
6.15 Peiecrive srems o seconu-conjugarion veiLs 146
6.16 1le assive eiecr airicile 14
Jhe Iormation oI other tenses and verb Iorms 149
6.1 1le eiecrive anu imeiecrive uruies 149
6.1S 1le eiecr renses anu rle auxiliaiy veiL re 150
6.19 1le conuirional anu eiecr conuirional 151
6.20 1le suLjuncrive oims 151
Augment 152
6.21 SyllaLic augmenr 152
6.22 Vocalic augmenr 152
6.23 Inreinal augmenr 153
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Contents
vlll
Irregular verbs 154
6.24 Dehnirion o an iiiegulai veiL 154
6.25 1aLle o iiiegulai veiLs 154
Chapter 7 The adverb and the adverbiaI phrase 169
.1 1yes o auveiL: mannei, lace, rime, quanriry, erc. 169
.2 1le use o auveiLs anu auveiLial liases 13
Jhe Iormation oI adverbs Irom ad|ectives 177
.3 AuveiLs in -u 1
.4 AuveiLs in -e 1S
.5 Orlei auveiLs oimeu iom aujecrives 19
.6 Comaiison o auveiLs 19
Chapter 8 The preposition and the prepositionaI
phrase 181
S.1 Inriouucrion ro ieosirions anu ieosirional liases 1S1
S.2 1le uses o inuiviuual ieosirions 1S2
S.3 Comounu ieosirions, auveiLs useu as ieosirions 1S9
Chapter 9 Conjunctions and particIes 193
9.1 Co-oiuinaring conjuncrions 193
9.2 SuLoiuinaring conjuncrions 194
9.3 Pairicles 195
Chapter 10 The cIause 203
10.1 1yes o clause 203
Main clauses 203
10.2 Sraremenrs 203
10.3 Suggesrions, visles, iequesrs, iomises erc. 204
10.4 Commanus anu ioliLirions 204
10.5 Yes/no quesrions 205
10.6 Wl- quesrions 206
10. egarion 20
10.S Lxclamarions 211
Subordinate clauses 212
10.9 Relarive clauses 212
10.10 Inuiiecr quesrions 216
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10.11 Inuiiecr commanus 21S
10.12 Comlemenr clauses 21S
10.13 Conuirional consriucrions 223
10.14 Concessive clauses 225
10.15 1emoial clauses 226
10.16 Clauses o mannei 22
10.1 Clauses o uiose (hnal clauses) 22
10.1S Clauses o iesulr 22
10.19 Clauses o cause 22S
Other syntactic phenomena 229
10.20 Woiu oiuei, roicalizarion anu ocusing 229
10.21 Co-oiuinarion 232
10.22 Comaiison 234
10.23 Relexive exiessions 23
10.24 Reciiocal exiessions 23S
10.25 Imeisonal uses o veiLs 239
Chapter 11 Word fornation 241
11.1 Suhxarion 241
11.2 Piehxarion 244
11.3 Comounu oimarion 246
Chapter 12 ConversationaI features 248
12.1 Polireness anu amiliaiiry 24S
12.2 Pioei names anu er names 251
12.3 Gieerings anu visles 255
Appendices 258
1 Coiiesonuence raLle o ionouns, uereimineis
anu auveiLs 25S
2 Some aLLieviarions in common use 260
GIossary of grannaticaI terns 263
5one reconnended books for further study 271
lndex of grannaticaI categories and concepts 274
lndex of Greek words 278
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Contents
1le aim o rlis Look is ro ioviue a concise, Lur suhcienrly ueraileu,

uesciirion o rle Gieek language as soken anu viirren in Gieece rouay.
Gieek is a liglly inlecreu language, anu consequenrly ve lave lau ro
uevore consiueiaLle sace ro rle Lasic arreins o ueclension anu conjuga-
rion vlicl leaineis neeu ro masrei. Hovevei, ve also give close arrenrion
ro rle sriucruie o liases anu senrences, i.e. ro rle synrax o rle language,
vlicl orlei giammais lave renueu ro riear iarlei cuisoiily. 1liouglour
rle Look, oui inrenrion is ro ioviue a ieliaLle guiue ro Gieek giammai
anu usage, u ro uare in reims o Lorl irs linguisric aioacl anu rle
linguisric mareiial ve use ro exemliy rle vaiious asecrs o rle language.
1le Look is inrenueu ro seive rle neeus o auulr leaineis, Lorl rlose arrenu-
ing classes anu rlose sruuying alone, o sclool sruuenrs u ro A level, anu
o hisr-yeai univeisiry sruuenrs, airiculaily Leginneis oi neai-Leginneis.
1le reiminology useu is ro a giear exrenr riauirional, alrlougl ve lave
maue ceirain innovarions in rle inreiesrs o giearei riansaiency anu ieci-
sion (as ve uiu in rle Ccnjrelensiie Crannar vlicl ve co-aurloieu). Ioi
examle, ve ralk aLour rle simle asr rense iarlei rlan rle 'aoiisr`, a reim
inleiireu iom uesciirions o Ancienr Gieek giammai, Lur no longei
meaningul oi rle mouein language. All linguisric reims aie ully exlaineu
in rle rexr, as vell as in rle glossaiy. We iequenrly conriasr Gieek virl
Lnglisl, in oiuei ro aiu rle leainei in unueisranuing rle linguisric concers
anu caregoiies involveu. Arrenrion is aiu ro airiculai oinrs o uihculry
oi Lnglisl-seaking leaineis anu ro rle mosr imoiranr uieiences Lerveen
rle rvo languages. All rle linguisric earuies ve uiscuss aie illusriareu Ly
aioiiare examles o rleii use in vlole liases oi senrences. We give
iioiiry ro rle eveiyuay soken language, anu rlis is ielecreu in rle
iuiomaric language o rle Lnglisl rianslarions given oi all examles. ôie
oimal soken anu viirren usages, vlerlei o giammarical oims oi o
senrence sriucruies, aie also noreu anu signalleu as sucl.
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Prefoce
1lis giammai is inrenueu ro seive as a voik o ieeience. Ir uoes nor
ioviue a giaueu couise o sruuy, oi vlicl ve assume rle leainei vill use
orlei mareiials. (Some suggesrions o suiraLle voiks aie given ar rle enu
o rle Look.) Wlar rle Look uoes oei, in comaiison virl mosr
'merlous`, is moie ueraileu anu sysremarically oiganizeu inoimarion aLour
rle linguisric earuies vlicl rle leainei vill encounrei. Useis can consulr
rle giammai in oiuei ro sulemenr rle Lasic inoimarion iesenreu in
couise Looks, anu rlus acquiie a ullei unueisranuing o rle giammarical
sriucruie o Gieek anu arreins o conremoiaiy usage.
Some comaiison sloulu Le maue virl oui Creel: A Ccnjrelensiie
Crannar cf tle McJern Ianguage. 1le iesenr volume is nor simly a
sloireneu veision o rle eailiei one, omirring rle less common earuies o
rle language. Wlile ir is riue rlar ve lave omirreu a goou many moilo-
logical earuies rlar aie nor commonly useu in rle soken language, rle
ssential Crannar is sriucruieu in a quire uieienr vay: giammarical
oims anu rleii usage aie geneially coveieu rogerlei (iarlei rlan Leing
seaiareu in uieienr airs o rle Look). As ai as ossiLle ve lave avoiueu
ieeririon o rle same mareiial, sucl as examles o usage. 1le iesenra-
rion o giammarical lenomena in rle iesenr voik rakes inro accounr rle
uieienr neeus o irs useis, anu, as alieauy menrioneu, rleie is moie exlicir
comaiison virl Lnglisl. On rle orlei lanu, rle rvo Looks lave mucl in
common as iegaius rle analysis iesenreu anu rle reiminology useu. Useis
o rlis Look vlo visl ro conrinue rleii sruuy o Gieek ro a moie auvanceu
level vill Le aLle ro iogiess ro rle Ccnjrelensiie Crannar, vleie rley
vill hnu uirlei anu moie ueraileu inoimarion aLour oims anu sriucruies
vlicl narive seakeis emloy in soken anu viirren iegisreis.
Iinally, a nore on ionunciarion: in rle secrions rlar ueal virl rle sounus
o Gieek anu virl sriess arreins, rle unueilying sounus aie given Lerveen
slasles (/ /). 1lese sounus may lave uieienr vaiianrs in ionunciarion.
1le acrual ionunciarion is given in squaie Liackers (| ]), using a simli-
heu veision o rle Inreinarional Ploneric AllaLer (IPA). Leaineis vlo aie
nor amiliai virl rle IPA aie auviseu ro sruuy rle secrions uesciiLing rle
ionunciarion o inuiviuual vovels anu consonanrs, anu eirlei ro consulr
a narive seakei oi ro lisren ro suiraLle casserres, in oiuei ro acquiie a suie
gias o rle ionunciarion o Gieek, airiculaily o rlose sounus vlicl
aie nor ounu in Lnglisl.
Daviu Holron
Perei âckiiuge
Iiene Pliliaki-WaiLuiron
Aiil 2003
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Pre|ace
ll
acc. accusarive (case)
auj. aujecrive
ue. air. uehnire airicle
ue. ueenuenr (veiL oim)
I cr em. eminine
gen. genirive (case)
im. imeiarive (moou)
imei. imeiecr (rense)
inue. air. inuehnire airicle
lir. lireially
^ cr masc. masculine
cr neur. neurei
nom. nominarive (case)
ass. assive (voice)
l. luial
sg. singulai
voc. vocarive (case)
| inuicares a veiL vlicl las no assive eiecrive oims
/ / aiounu lerreis oi gious o lerreis inuicares unueilying sounus
| ] aiounu lerreis oi gious o lerreis inuicares acrual ionunci-
arion, using an auareu veision o rle Inreinarional Ploneric
AllaLer
arei a lerrei inuicares rlar rle sounu is alaralizeu
/ inuicares alreinarives
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A55rev|ot|ons ond s,m5o|s
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In rlis secrion ve ocus on lerreis, vlile in secrions 1.21.S ve concenriare
on sounus.
The Greek aIphabet
1le Gieek allaLer consisrs o rvenry-oui lerreis. 1le raLle on age 2
iesenrs eacl lerrei (in uei anu lovei case) in allaLerical oiuei, irs Gieek
name, anu irs Lasic ionunciarion (oi uirlei uerails o ionunciarion see
secrions 1.21.6).
Anyone vlo knovs lov ro ionounce rle Gieek lerreis can ionounce
any viirren voiu in rle language, rlis is unlike Lnglisl, vleie ve oren
uon`r knov lov a voiu is ionounceu unless ve lave leaiu ir soken.
On rle orlei lanu, as in Lnglisl, ir is oren imossiLle ro rell lov ro sell
a voiu rlar ve lave leaiu soken.
1aken on rleii ovn, seven lerreis o rle allaLer ieiesenr vovel sounus
(u, r, , t, o, u, e), anu sevenreen ieiesenr consonanr sounus (all rle iesr).
Bur vlen some lerreis aie comLineu rogerlei, rley aie ionounceu uiei-
enrly. Lacl o rle olloving comLinarions ieiesenrs a single sounu:
ut /e/
rt /i/
ot /i/
ou /u/
ut /i/
1le comLinarion uu is ionounceu |a] ar rle enu o a voiu anu Leoie rle
olloving consonanrs: n, t, k, , 0, , o, , , Lur |av] Leoie a vovel oi any
orlei consonanr (i.e. , , y, , , , , v). Similaily, ru is ionounceu |e]
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Cbapter 1
7he o|pho5et ond
pronunc|ot|on
oi |ev] in rle same osirions, anu rle iaie comLinarion u is ionounceu
|i] oi |iv].
Paiis o iuenrical consonanrs aie ionounceu like a single consonanr,
excer yy, vlicl is ionounceu |( )g] oi |( )g'] (see secrion 1.4). In auui-
rion, rle olloving comLinarions o lerreis ieiesenring consonanrs aie
ionounceu in a secial vay:
yk like yy (see aLove)
n |(m)L]
vt |(n)u]
t |uz]
Iinally, o is ionounceu |z] Leoie a voiceu consonanr (, y, , , , , v).
Pronunciation..
VoweIs
1le Gieek sounu sysrem las hve uisrincr vovels: /i, e, a, o, u/.
1le vovel /i/ is ionounceu Lerveen rle Lnglisl vovel in 'Lir` anu rlar in
'Lear`. 1le Gieek vovel /i/ coiiesonus ro six uieienr sellings: t, , u,
ot, rt anu ut, e.g. to nutt |ro eoi] 'rle clilu`, Erv |eleni] 'Helen`, nou
|oli] 'veiy, mucl`, ot konot |i koi] 'rle laLouis`, nort |Loii] 'mayLe`,
uto0rte |io0ero] 'I auor`.
1le vovel /e/ is ionounceu like rle Lnglisl vovel /e/ in 'ker` Lur ir is
ionounceu sliglrly longei anu virl lis moie oen. 1le Gieek /e/ coiie-
sonus ro rvo uieienr sellings: r anu ut, e.g. rvr |lene] 'rley say`,
kutvr |klene] 'rley ciy`.
1le vovel /a/ is similai ro rle a in 'arlei`. Ir coiiesonus ro rle selling
u, e.g. Mutu |i maiia] 'âiy`.
1le vovel /o/ is ionounceu Lerveen rle Lnglisl vovel in 'or` anu rlar
in 'Louglr` Lur rle lis aie sliglrly moie closeu anu moie iounueu. 1le
vovel /o/ coiiesonus ro rvo uieienr sellings: o anu e, e.g. to eo |ro
ooio] 'rle iesenr`.
1le vovel /u/ is somevleie Lerveen rle vovels in rle Lnglisl voius 'ur`
anu 'Loor`. Ir coiiesonus ro rle selling ou, e.g. tou nuttou |ru eoju]
'o rle clilu`.
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vowels
3
1le vovel /i/ may lose irs vovel qualiry anu Lecome non-syllaLic i
unsriesseu anu olloveu Ly anorlei vovel.
on-syllaLic /i/ is ionounceu as |j] (like rle y in 'yes`) i ir ollovs a voiceu
consonanr |L, u, g, v, o, y, z, i, m], as in nuttu |eoj] 'cliluien` (conriasr
nutrtu |eoia] 'euucarion`), oi as voiceless |x'] (ionounceu like rle l in
'luge`) i ir ollovs a voiceless consonanr |, r, k, , 0, x, s], as in u tu
|ix'a] 'slelves`. 1lis geneial ieuucrion o /i/ ro |j], oi |x'] uoes nor aly
ro voius iom rle moie oimal vocaLulaiy: comaie tot |vjoli] 'violin`
virl tooyo |violoyos] 'Liologisr`.
Conbinations of voweIs
ComLinarions o rvo oi rliee vovels aie ossiLle, e.g. vruo |neaios]
'young man`, vrorvtko |neoelinikos] 'mouein Gieek`. In voius like
oot /ioloi/ 'clock, varcl`, nurt /i/ 'ir goes` anu rrt /lei/ '(s)le/ir says`,
vleie rle unsriesseu /i/ ollovs a vovel, ir may Le ionounceu like rle y
in rle Lnglisl voius 'roy`, 'sy`, 'sray`, erc.
Consonants
1leie aie rvenry-hve consonanr sounus, vlicl ve ieiesenr Ly rle
olloving symLols: , r, k, L, u, g, , 0, x, v, o, y, k', x', g', j, s, z, l, l', i, m,
n, , .
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1
Tbe alpbabet
ano
pronunclatlon
4
3||ab|a| |ab|ooeota| |eota| /|veo|a Ve|a |a|ata|
vL vD vL vD vL vD vL vD vL vD vL vD
Ploslve p b t o k g k
1
g
1
Nasal m n
Flap r
Frlcatlve | v 0 o y
1
j
Slbllant s z
Llqulo 1 1
1
vL: volceless
vD: volceo
|1le voiceless losives |], |r] anu |k] aie ionounceu like rleii Lnglisl
equivalenrs in 'sor`, 'sray` anu 'scor` iesecrively. Hovevei, unlike rleii
Lnglisl counreiairs, rlese Gieek consonanrs iemain virlour asiiarion
(exulsion o Liearl) even in inirial osirion Leoie a vovel. |] coiie-
sonus ro rle selling n, e.g. o nutru |oareias] 'rle arlei`, kune
|kos] 'somevlar`.
1le voiceu LilaLial losive |L] coiiesonus ro rle selling n. Ir is orion-
ally ieceueu Ly a sloir |m] vlen ir is virlin a voiu, e.g. kounuo
|ku(m)Lios] 'Lesr man`. 1lis ieceuing nasal is geneially aLsenr vlen |L]
occuis ar rle Leginning o a voiu, e.g. notu |Lora] 'Loor`.
1le voiceless uenral losive |r] coiiesonus ro rle selling t, e.g. to noto
|rooro] 'rle uiink`.
1le voiceu uenral losive |u] coiiesonus ro rle selling vt anu is orion-
ally ieceueu Ly a sloir nasal |n] vlen ir occuis virlin a voiu, e.g.
uvttnuo |a(n)uialos] 'oonenr`. 1lis ieceuing nasal is geneially
aLsenr vlen |u] occuis ar rle Leginning o a voiu, e.g. vtuve |uino] 'I
uiess (someone)`.
1le voiceless velai losive |k] coiiesonus ro rle selling k, e.g. kuo
|kalos] 'goou`, uko |akomi] 'srill`. |k] las a vaiianr |k'], vlicl is io-
nounceu like rle hisr consonanr in rle Lnglisl voiu 'queue`, Leoie rle
vovels /e/ anu /i/, e.g. kr t |k'eh] 'goou moou`, rkrtvo |ek'inos] 'rlar one`.
1le voiceu velai losive |g] coiiesonus ro rle sellings yy anu yk, anu is
orionally ieceueu Ly a nasal | ] (ionounceu like rle ng in Lnglisl
'angei`), e.g. ryketo |e( )gomio] 'iaise`, ryyovo |e( )gonos] 'gianuson`.
|g] las a vaiianr |g'], ionounceu like rle g in 'singulai`, vlen ir ieceues
eirlei |e] oi |i], e.g. rykuo |e( )g'ios] 'iegnanr`.
1le voiceless laLiouenral iicarive |] is ionounceu like rle Lnglisl f in
'ar` anu ir coiiesonus ro rle selling , e.g. uo |ios] 'liglrlouse`,
vr o |neos] 'smog`. 1le lerrei u is also ionounceu as |] in rle comLi-
narion uu oi ru vlen ir is olloveu Ly one o rle olloving sounus |, r,
k, , 0, x], e.g. uuto |aros] 'le`, ru |ex'i] 'visl`, ru0uv |e0ini]
'iesonsiLiliry`.
1le voiceless uenral iicarive |0] is ionounceu like rle tl in rle voiu
'rlink` anu ir coiiesonus ro rle selling 0, e.g. 0re |0elo] 'I vanr`, r0vo
|e0nos] 'narion`.
1le voiceless velai iicarive |x] is ionounceu like rle cl in rle Scorrisl
voiu 'locl`. |x] coiiesonus ro rle selling , e.g. oo |xoios] 'uance`,
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Consonants
5
tre |riexo] 'I iun`. |x] las a vaiianr |x'] Leoie rle vovels |e] anu |i],
vlicl is ionounceu like rle l in 'luge`, e.g. rt |x'eii] 'lanu`, u
|aix'i] 'Leginning`.
1le voiceu laLiouenral iicarive |v] is ionounceu like rle i in 'vain` anu
coiiesonus ro rle selling , e.g. uku |vika] 'Loar`, uyo |avyo] 'egg`.
|v] also coiiesonus ro rle u in ru anu uu vlen rlis comLinarion is
olloveu Ly a vovel oi one o rle olloving sounus |v, o, y, m, n, z, l, i],
e.g. uyrtrue |majiievo] 'I cook`, ruyveoouv |evynomosini] 'giari-
ruue`, nuue |vo] 'I sro`.
1le voiceu uenral iicarive |o] is ionounceu like tl in 'rlis` anu coiie-
sonus ro rle selling , e.g. tve |oino] 'I give`, urtu |oia] 'eimission`.
1le voiceu velai iicarive |y] is ionounceu like |x] excer rlar ir is voiceu
(i.e. virl viLiarion o rle vocal cloius). |y] coiiesonus ro rle selling y, e.g.
yutu |yra] 'car`, yououvt |yuiuni] 'ig`, uyevu |ayonas] 'sriuggle`. Wlen
|y] ieceues eirlei |e] oi |i], ir is ionounceu |j] (like rle y in 'yes`), e.g. yrt-
tovu |jironas] 'neiglLoui`, nyutve |ijeno] 'I go`. |j] is also rle iesulr o
rle comLinarion y + unsriesseu /i/ + vovel, e.g. ytuto |jarios] 'uocroi`.
1le voiceless uenral siLilanr |s] is ionounceu like rle Lnglisl s in 'simle`
Lur virl rle ionr o rle rongue roucling rle Lack o rle reerl. Ir coiie-
sonus ro rle sellings o anu (ar rle enu o rle voiu) , e.g. ortu |sii]
'iov, seiies`, uoo |osos] 'oiesr`.
1le voiceu uenral siLilanr |z] is ionounceu like rle Lnglisl z Lur virl rle
ionr o rle rongue roucling rle Lack o rle lovei reerl. Ir coiiesonus ro
rle selling , e.g. ev |zoni] 'Lelr`, oue |luzo] 'I vasl laii`. 1le sounu
|z] also coiiesonus ro rle selling o vlen ir is olloveu Ly one o
rle consonanrs |v, y, m, n], e.g. ovo |zminos] 'svaim`, ove |zvino]
'I eiase`.
1le uenral liquiu |l] is ionounceu like rle Lnglisl l in 'ellov` anu ir coiie-
sonus ro rle selling , e.g. oyo |loyos] 'voiu, seecl`, nou |ol]
'many`. 1le comLinarion o + unsriesseu /i/ + vovel gives rle ionunci-
arion |l'], vleie rle miuule o rle ro o rle rongue roucles rle miuule o
rle ioo o rle mourl, as in rtu |el'] 'olive, olive riee`.
1le voiceu alveolai la |i] is ionounceu like rle Scorrisl |i]. 1le ionr
o rle rongue ras rle ionr o rle ioo o rle mourl once oi rvice. Ir coiie-
sonus ro rle selling , e.g. vro |neio] 'varei`, kuto |k'iiios] 'misrei`.
1le LilaLial nasal |m] coiiesonus ro rle selling , e.g. o |milo]
'ale`, 0ru |0ema] 'rleme`.
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Tbe alpbabet
ano
pronunclatlon
6
1le alveolai nasal |n] coiiesonus ro rle selling v, e.g. voo |nomos]
'lav`, 'Avvu |na] 'Ann`. 1le vaiianr | ] (ionounceu like n in Biirisl
Lnglisl 'nev`), vleie rle miuule o rle rongue roucles rle miuule o rle
ioo o rle mourl, is rle iesulr o rle comLinarion v + unsriesseu /i/ +
vovel, e.g. rvvtu |e ] 'nine`. 1le vaiianr | ] (ionounceu like rle n in
angei), vleie rle Lack o rle rongue roucles rle Lack o rle mourl, is
ounu Leoie one o rle consonanrs /x, y, k, g /, e.g. uykevu |a( )gonas]
'elLov`, uyo | xos] 'anxiery`.
Conbinations of consonants
Gieek las a iicl sysrem o consonanr clusreis (consisring o u ro rliee
consonanrs) ar rle Leginning o a voiu anu an even iiclei one (u ro oui
consonanrs) in rle miuule o a voiu.
1le ionunciarion o comLinarions o consonanrs is sriaiglroivaiu. Ir
noimally coiiesonus ro rle selling, excer rlar rle uouLle consonanrs
rlar aeai in rle selling aie ionounceu as single consonanr sounus:
yuu |yima] 'lerrei`, uu |al] 'Lur`. 1le only excerion is rle comLi-
narion yy, vlicl is ionounceu as |( )g]: ryyut |e( )gii] 'moon`. ôsr
o rle Lnglisl consonanr comLinarions also occui in Gieek. Belov ve lisr
rlose rvo-consonanr comLinarions o Gieek vlicl uo nor occui ar rle
Leginning o a voiu in Lnglisl.
s ut |sii] hsl
rs torn |rsei] ocker
ks rvo |ksenos] oieignei
uz tukt |uzki] hielace
n nvruu |nevma] siiir
kn kvoo |knizmos] ircling
rm tu |rmima] secrion
kr ktvo |krinos] Leasr
r nto |risi] liglr
mn v |mnimi] memoiy
0l 0t |0lisi] sauness
oi oo |oiomos] ioau
xl oo |xlomos] ale
xi ovo |xionos] rime, yeai
vl uku |vlkas] sruiu
vi uu |vioi] evening
yi yuu |yima] lerrei
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Comblnatlons
o|
consonants
7
yl yuko |ylikos] sveer
r teo |roxos] ooi
s0 o0rvo |s0enos] sriengrl
sx oorto |sxolio] sclool
vo ouu |voomoa] veek
vy yue |vyzo] I rake our
yo yuve |yoino] I unuiess (someone)
0 0uve |0no] I aiiive
r tro |reio] ving
x0 0rotvo |x0esinos] yesreiuay`s
yn yve |ynomi] oinion
xn vut |xnii] riace
zm ovo |zminos] svaim
zv ove |zvino] I eiase
zy oyouo |zyuios] cuily
ore rlar rle o in rle sellings o, o, oy o rle lasr rliee examles aLove
is ionounceu |z].
1leie aie comLinarions o rliee consonanrs, mosr o vlicl also occui in
Lnglisl. We give Lelov rle rliee-consonanr comLinarions vlicl aie nor
ounu ar rle Leginning o a voiu in Lnglisl.
skl oko |skliios] laiu
skn okvtnu |sknia] gnar, miuge
si o uyte |siajizo] I sram
An inreiesring claiacreiisric o Gieek is rlar many voius may Le ounu
virl rvo uieienr consonanr clusreis, uieiing in Lorl selling anu
ionunciarion, as in rle olloving examles:
ote |oxro] okte |okro] eiglr
tr |xres] 0r |x0es] yesreiuay
r tu |er] rntu |er] seven
tuve |rno] 0uve |0no] I aiiive
uoko |sk'imos] uoo |sx'imos] ugly
0u nrtote |0aisro] 0u nrto0e |0ais0o] I vill Le eisuaueu
1le uieience Lerveen rle oims o rle aLove rvo columns is srylisric: rle
oims in rle hisr column aie noimally useu in colloquial seecl, vlile
rlose in rle seconu aie noimally useu in oimal viiring.
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Tbe alpbabet
ano
pronunclatlon
8
PhonoIogicaI phenonena across word boundaries
Some auararions o ionunciarion occui Lerveen voius vlicl oim a
single liase, namely: Lerveen an airicle anu rle olloving voiu, Lerveen
a veak ionoun anu rle olloving veiL, Lerveen rle negarive airicles rv
anu v anu rle olloving veiL, oi Lerveen a ieosirion anu rle irem
goveineu Ly rlar ieosirion.
1le hnal /n/ o rle uehnire airicles tov anu tv oi o rle veak ionouns
tov anu tv oi o rle negarive airicles rv anu v, vlen olloveu Ly a
voiu Leginning virl a //, is eirlei ionounceu |m] oi is nor ionounceu
ar all. Ar rle same rime rle inirial // o rle olloving voiu is ionounceu
|L]: tov nutru /ron areia/ |ro(m)Lareia] 'rle arlei` (acc. sg.), tov
nur /ron iiame/ |ro(m)Liiame] 've rook lim`, v nutr /min re/
|mi(m)Lre] 'uon`r go`.
1le inirial consonanr /r/ o a voiu olloving a hnal /n/ is ionounceu |u],
vlile rle nasal sounu /n/ may Le uelereu: tov tro /ron rielo/
|ro(n)uielo] 'rle mauman` (acc. sg.), tv ttouv /rin rimisan/
|ri(n)uimisan] 'rley lonouieu lei`, rv toe /oen rolmo/ |oe(n)uolmo]
'I uon`r uaie`.
1le inirial consonanr /k/ o a voiu olloving a hnal /n/ is ionounceu |g]
vlile rle /n/ ieuuces ro | ] oi may Le omirreu: tov kurouv /ron klesan/
|ro( )glesan] 'rley invireu lim`, rv re /oen kseio/ |oe( )gzeio]
'I uon`r knov`. (ore rlar vlen /k/ Lecomes |g] rle olloving /s/ Lecomes
voiceu |z], as in rle lasr examle.)
1le hnal /s/ o an airicle, a veak ionoun oi rle airicle u 'ler` is
ionounceu |z] i rle voiu rlar immeuiarely ollovs las a voiceu inirial
consonanr: t eouvr /ris oosane/ |rizoosane] 'rley gave lei`, u
yruoe /as jelso/ |azjelso] 'ler me laugl`.
1le hnal /n/ o rle eminine airicle anu veak ionoun tv is noimally
uelereu in Lorl seecl anu viiring vlen immeuiarely olloveu Ly a voiu
virl inirial /, 0, x, v, o, y, j, s, z, l, i, m, n /: t(v) r /rin leksi/ |rileksi]
'rle voiu`, t(v) oruotkuv /rin sevsrikan/ |risevsrikan] 'rley
iesecreu lei`, t(v) torvou /rin hloksenisa/ |rihloksenisa] 'I gave
lei losiraliry`. 1le hnal -v o rle negarive airicle v Lelaves in rle
same vay: r unuout 'uon`r iry me`, rnrt 'uon`r look`,
0uevrt 'uon`r ger angiy`.
Wlen a veak ionoun oi airicle enus in a vovel anu rle olloving veiL
Legins virl rle same vovel, rle hisr vovel may Le omirreu: 0u uyouoe
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Pbonologlcal
pbenomena
across woro
bounoarles
9
|0aayoiso] oi 0` uyouoe |0ayoiso]. Wlen rle vovels aie uieienr, one
o rle rvo vovels, iiiesecrive o rleii ielarive osirion, may Le uelereu.
/i/ anu /e/ may Le uelereu i rley aie nexr ro an /o/, /u/ oi /a/: to rtnu |roia]
oi to `nu |roa] 'I saiu ir`, to reou |roeoosa] oi to èou |rooosa] 'I gave
ir`, tu rtu |raioa] oi tu ù |roa] 'I sav rlem`, oou reou |sueoosa] oi
oou èou |suoosa] 'I gave you`, 0u re |0aexo] oi 0u è |0xo] 'I slall
lave`. /o/ anu /u/ may Le uelereu i rley aie nexr ro an /a/: ou unuvtor
|mua(n)uise] oi ` unuvtor |ma(n)uise], '(s)le ielieu ro me`.
1le hnal /o/ oi /a/ o rle neurei uehnire airicle may Le uelereu Leoie a
voiu Leginning virl /a/: to uyot |roayoii] oi t` uyot |rayoii] 'rle Loy`,
tu uyotu |raayoija] oi t` uyotu |rayoija] 'rle Loys`.
1le hnal vovel o rle ieosirions or /se/ 'in, ar` (oLligaroiily) anu uno
/ao/ 'iom` (orionally) is uelereu Leoie a olloving uehnire airicle: or +
to Aovtvo oto Aovtvo |srolonoino] 'in Lonuon`, uno + tv A0vu
un` tv A0vu |arina0ina] 'iom Arlens`.
1le hnal /e/ o a rvo-syllaLle singulai eiecrive imeiarive may Le uelereu
i olloveu Ly a neurei veak ionoun oi a noun virl a uehnire airicle:
rr to /eie ro/ r` to |eiro] 'Liing ir`, rr to tto /eie ro vivlio/
r` to tto |eirovivlio] 'Liing rle Look`, kor tu /kose ra/ ko`
tu |kosra] 'cur rlem`.
5tress and intonation..
Word stress
Lveiy Gieek voiu o rvo oi moie syllaLles las sriess on one o irs vovels.
1le vovel rlar caiiies rle sriess is ionounceu ar a liglei ircl anu is
sliglrly longei anu louuei, comaie rle Lnglisl voiu 'olisl`, vleie rle
sriess alls on rle hisr vovel, virl 'olice`, vleie rle sriess alls on rle
seconu.
1le sriess o a voiu may occui eirlei on rle lasr syllaLle, rle lasr Lur one
syllaLle, oi rle rliiu syllaLle iom rle enu: uyunto |ayairos] 'likeaLle`,
tuuoo |rax'ioiomos] 'osrman`, uyto |yiios] 'vilu`. Among rle
voius rlar inlecr, only rle aujecrives ierain rle sriess on rle same syllaLle
in all rleii inlecreu oims (see secrions 3.333.3S anu 3.40).
In some classes o nouns rle sriess may move one oi rvo syllaLles ro rle
iiglr, e.g. u0u |m0ima] 'lesson`, gen. sg. u0uto |ma0imaros], gen.
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Tbe alpbabet
ano
pronunclatlon
10
l. u0utev |ma0imron], uokuo |oskalos] 'reaclei`, gen. sg.
uokuou |oasklu], gen. l. uokuev |oasklon], 0uuoou |0lasa]
'sea`, gen. l. 0uuooev |0alason] (see secrions 3.293.9).
In some veiLs rle sriess may move ro rle ler in asr renses: onouue
|suozo] 'I am sruuying`, imeiecr onouuu |suoaza] 'I vas sruuying`.
Wlen rle inlecrional enuing cieares rliee unsriesseu syllaLles ar rle enu
o rle veiL oim rle oiiginal sriess moves one syllaLle ro rle iiglr: rout
|oexome] 'I accer`, rouotr |oexomasre] 've accer` (see Clarei 6).
EncIisis
Lnclisis o sriess (rle uevelomenr o a seconu sriess) alies virlin a
liase vlicl consisrs o one oi moie veak ionouns anu rle ieceuing
voiu vlicl rlese ionouns aie associareu virl. Sucl comLinarions aie:
veiLs olloveu Ly veak oLjecr ionouns, nouns oi aujecrives olloveu Ly
ossessive ionouns, anu auveiLs olloveu Ly veak ionouns. In rlese
comLinarions, vleie rle Lasic sriess alls moie rlan rliee syllaLles iom
rle enu an auuirional sriess is auueu ro rle seconu vovel ro rle iiglr o
rle oiiginal sriess, e.g.
kuror + tov /klese ron/ kuror tov |kleseron] 'invire lim`
nur + tou + to /ie ru ro/ nur tou to |ieruro] 'rake ir iom
lim`
tvovtu + oou + tu /oinonras su ra/ tvovtu oou tu
|oino(n)usura] 'giving rlem ro you`
o uokuo + u /o oskalos mas/ o uokuo u |o
oskalozmas] 'oui reaclei`
unrvuvtt + ou /aenanri sas/ unrvuvtt ou |aena(n)uisas]
'oosire you`
lntonation
1le inronarion associareu virl sraremenrs is similai ro rlar o Lnglisl.
1leie aie, lovevei, uieiences in rle inronarion o quesrions.
1le main inronarion conrouis aie as ollovs:
In yes/no quesrions rle ircl o rle voice iises anu rlen sliglrly alls ro
a miu level ar rle enu o rle urreiance:
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Lncllsls
11
1 2 3 2
1 Ou tov rt tov Ntko uuto,
Wlll you see Nlck tomorrow?
An aLiur iise anu all conveys suiiise:
2 3 2
2 'H0r kt o Ituvv,
So [obn came too?
1o slov suiiise anu ask oi moie inoimarion rle ircl iises anu
iemains ligl ar rle enu o an urreiance:
3 3 4
3 Ou rt uuto tov Ntko!,
Wbat! You are golng to see Nlck tomorrow!?
1o exiess uouLr rle ircl alls ar rle enu o an urreiance anu rlen
immeuiarely iises:
1 2 2 1 2
4 'Ioe vu nurt rkrtvo to uvrto.
(S)be may get tbat loan.
A sraLle alling inronarion ar rle enu o rle urreiance inuicares
conclusion:
1 1 2 1
5 Kut ouvr uutot kuu kt rrt kuutru.
Ano tbey llveo bapplly ever a|ter (llt. 'Ano tbey llveo well ano
we even better').
1le inronarion eak (rle voiu ionounceu virl rle liglesr ircl) o a
senrence noimally alls on rle lasr sriesseu voiu in rle veiL liase Lecause
rlis voiu ieiesenrs inoimarionally rle mosr imoiranr irem:
6 H 'Avvu 0u rrt ut t tov Ntuo.
Ann wlll be brlnglng N|ck wltb ber.
7 H 'Avvu 0u uyrt ono:.
Ann wlll be leavlng ton|ght.
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1
Tbe alpbabet
ano
pronunclatlon
12
1le voius tov Ntko anu unor aie rle mosr signihcanr elemenrs o rlese
urreiances in reims o inoimarion anu caiiy rle main sriess o rle urreiance.
Ir is ossiLle ro lace emlasis on one o rle elemenrs in a senrence vlen
you vanr ro exiess suiiise oi ro convey conriasr (see secrion 10.20). 1le
emlasizeu elemenr oren occuis ar rle Leginning o rle urreiance, rlougl
ir may occui in orlei laces roo. Ir is alvays associareu virl iising ircl
olloveu Ly a all.
8a Tov Ntuo 0u rrt ut t 'Avvu.
N|ck ls tbe person Anna wlll be brlnglng wltb ber (not
somebooy else).
b H 'Avvu 0u rrt ut t tov Ntuo.
Anna wlll be brlnglng N|ck (not somebooy else).
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|ntonatlon
13
Accents (the nonotonic systen)
1le iules given leie aly ro rle monoronic (single-accenr) sysrem rauglr
in Gieek sclools since 19S2. Ioi uerails o rle oluei olyronic sysrem, vlicl
is srill useu Ly many viireis, see Ccnjrelensiie Crannar, . 343.
An acure accenr is laceu ovei rle sriesseu vovel in any voiu o moie rlan
one syllaLle, e.g. eo |xoios] 'sace, lace`, oo |xoios] 'uance`. 1le
accenr is laceu Leoie an inirial cairal lerrei ieiesenring a sriesseu vovel
('Oo |omiios] 'Homei`), Lur no accenr is viirren vlen rle voiu is
viirren enriiely in cairals. Wlen a sriesseu vovel sounu is viirren as rvo
lerreis, rle accenr is laceu ovei rle seconu lerrei: toto |rixos] 'vall`.
Similaily, in rle comLinarions uu anu ru (vlen ionounceu |a], |av], |e]
oi |ev]), rle accenr is laceu on rle seconu lerrei, e.g. nuue |vo] 'I sro`.
Hovevei, vlen rvo lerreis aie ionounceu as seaiare vovels, rle accenr
is laceu on rle hisr one i rlar is rle sriesseu vovel, e.g. yutuo
|yjoaios] 'uonkey`. Wlen a voiu is sriesseu on rvo syllaLles as a iesulr
o enclisis (see Secrion 1.S), rle accenr is viirren ovei eacl o rle sriesseu
vovels: o rur o ou |oeksoelozmu] 'my cousin`.
In geneial, rle accenr is nor viirren on voius o one syllaLle. Ir is lovevei
ieraineu on voius rlar lave Lecome monosyllaLic as a iesulr o vovel uele-
rion, e.g. r` to (sloir oi rr to) 'Liing ir`. In auuirion, rle accenr is
viirren on rliee single-syllaLle voius ro uisringuisl rlem iom orlei voius
rlar aie orleivise viirren rle same:
rle conjuncrion 'oi`, ro uisringuisl ir iom rle eminine nominarive
singulai oim o rle airicle
rle quesrion voius nou 'vleie` anu ne 'lov`, ro uisringuisl rlem
iom rle ielarive anu comlemenrizei nou anu rle comlemenrizei
ne
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Cbapter 2
7he wr|t|ng s,stem
Ir is iecommenueu rlar rle accenr Le viirren on rle veak eisonal ionoun
vlen ir uncrions as rle oLjecr o a olloving veiL, in cases vleie orlei-
vise ir miglr Le ieau as a ossessive mouiying a ieceuing noun: rlus
1a H tru ou rtnr
Tbe motber tolo me (ou ls tbe lnolrect object o| tbe verb
rtnr)
b H tru ou rtnr
M, motber salo (ou ls a possesslve pronoun mool|ylng tbe
noun tru)
Iinally, rle accenr is also useu arei Gieek cairal lerreis uenoring oiuinal
numeials, e.g. Ireyto B' 'Geoige II` (see secrion 5.1).
Other diacritics
Aair iom rle accenr, rvo orlei uiaciirics aie useu, rle uiaeiesis anu rle
aosriole.
1le uiaeiesis is viirren on rle seconu o rvo aujacenr vovels ro inuicare
rlar rley aie ionounceu seaiarely, e.g. yu uou |yajoiu] 'uonkey` (gen.
sg.). 1le uiaeiesis is nor useu vlen rle hisr o rle rvo vovels is sriesseu,
e.g. yutuo |yjoaios] 'uonkey` (nom. sg.). Wleie a uiaeiesis aeais on
a sriesseu vovel, rle uiaeiesis anu accenr aie viirren rlus: xo xi |kaik'i]
'caique`, vleie rle u anu rle olloving t aie ionounceu seaiarely.
1le aosriole inuicares rlar a vovel las Leen uelereu, e.g. 0u `0e 'I`ll
come`, 0` uvre 'I`ll come u`. Wlen rle aosriole is useu, rle rvo voius
aie seaiareu Ly a sace, as slovn in rle aLove examles.
The use of capitaI and Iower-case Ietters
As in Lnglisl, a cairal lerrei is useu ar rle Leginning o a senrence anu ar
rle Leginning o names o eole, laces, rle uays o veek, rle monrls,
anu ieligious esrivals. Alrlougl usage vaiies, voius ueiiveu iom sucl
nouns aie usually viirren virl a lovei-case inirial lerrei:
1a rvu 'Evu
a Greek
b rvtk ouotk
Greek muslc
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Otber
olacrltlcs
15
1irles Leoie ioei names usually Legin virl a lovei-case lerrei:
2 kutu Mtouk
Mrs Mltsakl
Usage vaiies in rirles o Looks, erc., some viireis ieeiiing ro use an inirial
cairal only oi rle hisr voiu, orleis oi eveiy voiu:
3a uTo ttto otr uvt
b uTo Ttto Itr uvt
7he 7h|rd Wedd|ng
Punctuation
Gieek geneially ollovs rle same iules as Lnglisl iegaiuing uncruarion.
We hisr lisr rle clie uncruarion maiks, rlen ve conhne ouiselves ro rle
main uieiences Lerveen Gieek anu Lnglisl usage.
1le clie uncruarion maiks aie:
ull sro (UK) oi eiiou (USA) (trrtu): .
comma (kou): ,
iaiseu oinr (uve trrtu):
colon (tn trrtu/uve kut kute trrtu): :
quesrion maik (retuttko): ,
exclamarion maik (0uuuottko): !
aienrleses oi Liackers (nurv0rort): ( )
1le ull sro is useu cliely
ro inuicare rle enu o a senrence
ro inuicare an aLLieviarion: n.. 'e.g.`, n.X. 'B.C.`
ro inuicare clock rimes: 11.40
ro uiviue laige numLeis inro gious o rliee hguies, rlus Gieek
1.234.567 coiiesonus ro Biirisl anu US 1,234,56.
1le comma is useu ro seaiare clauses oi liases virlin a senrence. Ir is
also useu ro seaiare an inregei iom a uecimal vleie Lnglisl uses rle ull
sro (uecimal oinr), rlus Gieek 34,45 coiiesonus ro Biirisl anu
Ameiican 34.45. In auuirion, rle comma is viirren in rle ionoun anu
uereiminei o,tt (virlour a sace arei rle comma) ro uisringuisl ir iom
rle comlemenrizei ott.
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Tbe wrltlng
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16
1le iaiseu oinr coiiesonus ro rle Lnglisl semicolon, i.e. ro a Lieak less
signihcanr rlan one inuicareu Ly a ull sro Lur moie signihcanr rlan one
inuicareu Ly a comma.
1le colon is useu esecially ro inriouuce a lisr o irems anu ro inriouuce
uiiecr seecl.
1le quesrion maik looks rle same as rle Lnglisl semicolon, virl vlicl
rle oieign leainei musr Le caieul nor ro conuse ir. Ir is useu ar rle enu
o a senrence exiessing a uiiecr quesrion.
1le exclamarion maik is useu ar rle enu o a senrence exiessing an excla-
marion oi consisring o a vocarive noun liase, oi a commanu oi
ioliLirion, e.g. Ituvv! 'Eu e! ']oln! Come leie!`
Paienrleses aie useu ro isolare a voiu oi liase rlar is inreiolareu inro
a liase, clause oi senrence.
In auuirion, rle lylen (rvettko) is useu ro join voius rogerlei (tu
rntokr-uotun 'a liglrning visir`), vlile rle uasl (nuuu) is useu,
somerimes virl a sace eirlei siue, ro seaiare liases, e.g.:
1 O Ituvv 0u r0rt ~ rnte! ~ uuto.
[obn wlll come | bope! tomorrow.
In iacrice, lovevei, many viireis conuse rle rvo. 1le uasl is also useu
ro inriouuce rle seecl o eacl claiacrei in a uialogue (see Lelov).
1leie aie rvo uieienr convenrions oi inuicaring uiiecr seecl. Accoiuing
ro rle hisr, eacl claiacrei`s seecl is inriouuceu Ly a uasl, virl no inui-
carion o rle Lounuaiy Lerveen rle seecl anu rle naiiarive. Alreinarively,
rle seecl can Le conraineu virlin quore maiks (rtouyeytku).
2a ~ Auotue, t rtnu, 0r uyu.
b uAuotue t rtnu u0r uyu.
'Un|ortunately,' | tolo ber, 'you've come too late.'
Quore maiks aie also useu oi rirles anu oi quoring any iece o language
voiu oi voiu:
3 ot uTut
tbe 7|mes
4 o ryorvo uttto oo
tbe so-calleo 'tblro way'
Iinally, susension oinrs (unootenttku) aie oren useu ro inuicare eirlei
an incomlere senrence oi rlouglr, oi ro leau u ro a voiu oi liase rlar
is inrenueu ro come as a suiiise ro rle ieauei:
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Punctuatlon
17
5 Ou 'tuv eutu vu . . .
|t woulo be nlce to . . .
6 A! vu noouor vu r0rt . . .
Ob, l| only you coulo come . . .
7 Zu vtku, rve ku0oouv ot 0ro ou, nkr . . .
o ne0unouyo!
Suooenly, as | was slttlng ln my seat, ln came tbe prlme
mlnlster!
The transcription of foreign nanes
1lis is a roic aLour vlicl rleie is consiueiaLle uisagieemenr. Some oluei
oieign names lave Leen naruializeu in Gieek in oims rlar inlecr
accoiuing ro rle Gieek sysrem, e.g. o Autvo '|Clailes] Daivin`,
O o 'Oxoiu`. Orlei names aie riansciiLeu accoiuing ro rleii
ionunciarion, oi as close ro rle oiiginal ionunciarion as ir is ossiLle ro
ger virl rle Gieek allaLer, e.g. o Mnou 'Busl` (ionounceu like noirlein
Lnglisl 'Lus`), to Ao 'Avtrr |rolosnuzeles] 'Los Angeles`. In rle asr,
arremrs veie oren maue ro aclieve a comiomise Lerveen rle ionun-
ciarion anu rle selling o rle voiu in rle oiiginal language, e.g. o Htr
'Perei`, to Kutntt 'CamLiiuge`. In iecenr yeais some linguisrs lave
iecommenueu rlar all oieign names sloulu Le selr as simly as ossiLle
in Gieek, ignoiing rle oieign selling anu iecommenuing riansciirions
sucl as Httr anu Krntt, Lur rlese mouein veisions aie srill conrio-
veisial. On rle orlei lanu, ir is veiy common oi oieign names rlar uo
nor lave an esraLlisleu riansciirion in Gieek ro Le viirren in rle Roman
allaLer.
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Tbe wrltlng
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18
Constituents of the noun phrase
A noun is a voiu rlar names a eison, rling oi concer (e.g. ']oln`,
'voman`, 'lare`, 'loe`). A noun liase is noimally a liase vlose clie
consriruenr is a noun. Ir may consisr o a noun alone (e.g. ']oln`), oi ir may
consisr o a noun accomanieu Ly vaiious mouiheis (airicle, aujecrive, erc.,
e.g. 'a Lusy voman`, 'some nev lares`, 'alse loes`). Somerimes a noun
liase consisrs o an aujecrive oi ionoun (e.g. 'me`, 'someone`) iarlei rlan
a noun. In Gieek, a noun liase may also consisr o a liase oi clause
ieceueu Ly rle uehnire airicle to.
Heie aie some examles o noun liases in Gieek (oi rle sake o
simliciry, rlese examles aie all in rle nominarive case, Lur Leai in minu
rlar virlin a noun liase, all orlei ueclinaLle voius musr agiee virl rle
noun in genuei, numLei anu case (see secrion 3.4S)):
1 o Ituvv (oe|. art. noun (masc. sg.))
[obn
2 rvu uono onttt (lnoe|. art. aoj. noun (neut. sg.))
a wblte bouse
3 uo uonu ontttu (numeral aoj. noun (neut. pl.))
two wblte bouses
4 uuto to onttt (oemonstratlve oe|. art. noun (neut. sg.))
tbls bouse
5 uuto to uono onttt (oemonstratlve oe|. art. aoj. noun)
tbls wblte bouse
6 ou uutu tu uonu ontttu (quantler oemonstratlve oe|.
art. aoj. noun)
all tbese wblte bouses
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Cbapter 3
7he noun ond the
noun phrose
7 noto uono onttt, (lnterrogatlve aoj. noun)
wblcb wblte bouse?
8 to onttt ou (oe|. art. noun possesslve pronoun)
my bouse
9 rvu vro (lnoe|. art. aoj.)
a young |man]
10 rye (empbatlc pronoun)
|, me (subject)
11 to ott ruouv tt rkoyr (oe|. art. clause)
tbe ||act] tbat tbey lost tbe electlons
A noun liase may incluue anorlei noun liase in rle genirive (12), oi a
ieosirional liase (13), oi a clause (1415):
12 to onttt tou Itovv
[obn's bouse (llt. 'tbe bouse of-the john` )
13 to onttt ot yvto
tbe corner bouse (llt. 'tbe bouse ot-the corner')
14 to onttt nou oyopooo (relatlve clause)
tbe bouse (wh|chj l 5ought
15 to yryovo ott o np0unoupyo tzo: (complement clause)
tbe |act thot the pr|me m|n|ster spoke
Functions of the noun phrase
1le clie uncrions o rle noun liase aie
ro acr as rle suLjecr o a veiL (in rle nominarive: 1),
ro acr as rle uiiecr oLjecr o a veiL (in rle accusarive: 2),
ro acr as rle inuiiecr oLjecr o a veiL (in rle genirive: 2),
ro acr as a suLjecr ieuicare (3),
ro acr as an oLjecr ieuicare (4),
ro Le rle oLjecr o a ieosirion (5),
ro auuiess someone (in rle vocarive: 6).
1 O 2t: ovo (nom.) 0u r0rt uuto.
Stephen wlll come tomorrow.
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Tbe noun
ano tbe
noun pbrase
20
2 Auto 0u tou eoour tou 2t: ovou (gen.) to pouo
tou (acc.).
Tomorrow we'll glve Stephen (lnolrect object) h|s c|othes
(olrect object).
3 O Ituvv rtvut oouozo (nom.).
[obn's o teocher.
4 Tov totouv oouozo (acc.).
Tbey appolnteo blm o teocher.
5 H Mutu 0r uno t O:ooozovtu (acc.).
Mary came |rom 7hesso|on|k|.
6 Itr uvr! (voc.)
Stepben!
ôie iequenrly, lovevei, rle inuiiecr oLjecr exiesseu Ly a noun liase
is linkeu ro rle iesr o rle clause Ly rle ieosirion o|r] (+ accusarive):
7 Auto 0u eoour otov 2t: ovo tu ouu tou.
(same meanlng as 2)
A ieuicare aeais in rle same case as rle voiu ro vlicl ir ieeis (nomi-
narive oi a suLjecr ieuicare, accusarive oi an oLjecr ieuicare).
Ceirain ryes o noun liase in rle accusarive may acr as an auveiLial
liase o rime oi lace (see also secrion 3.51):
8 tov Iouvto
ln [une
Iinally, a noun liase may ueenu on anorlei noun. 1le ueenuenr noun
liase may Le in rle genirive ro inuicare ossession (9), oi ir may Le in rle
same case as rle main noun ro inuicare conrenr (1012: rlis lasr use is
uieienr iom Lnglisl):
9 to onttt tou Itovv
john`s bouse
10 rvu kto notot: (botb noun pbrases, rvu kto ano
nututr, are ln tbe same case (nomlnatlve or accusatlve)
accorolng to tbelr |unctlon ln tbe clause)
a kllo of pototoes
11 ttu noukutu upoot (botb noun pbrases, ttu
noukutu ano kuot, are ln tbe same case (nomlnatlve or
accusatlve) accorolng to tbelr |unctlon ln tbe clause)
tbree bottles of w|ne
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Functlons o|
tbe noun
pbrase
21
12 Tou utour rvu noukrto uptvou (tbe noun pbrases
rvu noukrto ano ktvou are ln tbe accusatlve because
tbey are tbe olrect object o| tbe verb).
We gave tbem a buncb of ||||es.
Gender, nunber and case..
Gender
Lveiy Gieek noun Lelongs ro one o rliee genuei classes: masculine, emi-
nine oi neurei. 1lese uo nor coiiesonu ro rle uivision Lerveen male,
emale anu inanimare. eveirleless, mosr nouns uenoring lumans aie
masculine i rle eison is male, anu eminine i rle eison is emale. 1lus
rle nouns uvtu 'man (male), lusLanu` anu Ituvv ']oln` aie mascu-
line, vlile yuvutku 'voman, vie` anu Erv 'Helen` aie eminine.
Hovevei, uv0eno 'eison, luman Leing` is alvays masculine anu nutt
'clilu` is alvays neurei iiiesecrive o rle sex o rle eison rley ieei ro,
vlile kottot 'giil` anu uyot 'Loy` aie also neurei.
ouns uenoring animals, inanimare oLjecrs, suLsrances, naruial lenomena
anu aLsriacr concers may Le masculine, eminine oi neurei:
okuo 'uog` is masculine anu yutu 'car` is eminine (rlougl rleie is a
eminine oim okuu 'Lircl` anu a masculine oim yuto 'romcar`),
vlile rvo alreinarive oims exisr oi 'uonkey`, namely rle masculine
yutuo anu rle neurei yutout, Lesiues rle eminine yutouu
'emale uonkey`
ukuoo 'maikei (en)` is masculine, kurku 'claii` is eminine
anu tunrt 'raLle` is neurei
uuyuo 'meicuiy` is masculine, ktetu 'clalk` is eminine anu
uo 'voou` is neurei
uru 'aii, vinu` is masculine, o 'iain` is eminine anu uut
'lail` is neurei
noro 'vai` is masculine, rru0rtu 'ieeuom` is eminine anu
kr t 'ligl siiirs` is neurei (in acr rle majoiiry o aLsriacr nouns aie
eminine)
1le genuei o a noun las ro Le leaineu ar rle same rime as rle noun. 1lis
is nor uihculr, since a noun in rle nominarive singulai oim can almosr
alvays Le ieauily assigneu ro one o rle rliee genueis: all masculine nouns
enu in - (see secrions 3.93.13), almosr all eminine nouns enu in eirlei
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Tbe noun
ano tbe
noun pbrase
22
-u oi - (see secrions 3.143.19), anu mosr neurei nouns enu in -o, -t oi
-u (see secrions 3.213.29).
âny nouns mosr o rlem uenoring eole vlo iacrise ceirain ioes-
sions aie o common genuei, e.g. |o oi ] noro '|rle] iesiuenr`.
Alrlougl rleii enuings ollov rle ueclension arreins o masculine nouns,
rley may Le masculine oi eminine (anu aie rleieoie accomanieu Ly
masculine oi eminine airicles, aujecrives, erc.) accoiuing ro rle sex o rle
eison uenoreu (see secrion 3.20).
Airicles, aujecrives anu orlei mouiheis rlar agiee virl a noun in rle same
noun liase uo so virl rle genuei o rle noun iarlei rlan rle sex o rle
ionouns anu eison oi animal uenoreu: rlus in rle senrence
1 H (|em.) Mutu (|em.) rtvut uozo (masc.) ov0pno
(masc.).
Mary ls o n|ce person.
rle aujecrive kuo is in rle masculine oim ro agiee virl rle masculine
noun uv0eno 'eison` iarlei rlan in rle eminine oim, even rlougl
âiy is emale. Ioi agieemenr virlin rle noun liase see secrion 3.4S anu
oi agieemenr o ieuicares see secrion 6.1.
Wlen no noun is useu anu rle sex o rle eison oi eisons ieeiieu ro is
unknovn, oi vleie rley consisr o a mixruie o males anu emales, rle
ionouns anu uereimineis aeai in rle masculine oim:
2 Hoto (masc.) rtvut,
Who ls lt?
3 Av r0rt uov:vo (masc.) ozzo (masc.), nr tou (masc.)
vu nrtrvrt.
|| on,one e|se comes, tell them to walt.
4 'Ozot (masc.) ou tov rrtr.
A|| o| you know blm.
In examle 2 rle seakei is asking oi someone`s iuenriry, iiiesecrive o
vlerlei ir is a male oi a emale, similaily rle seakei in 3 uoes nor knov
rle sex o rle ielevanr eison. Lxamle 4 may Le auuiesseu ro a giou o
males oi ro a mixeu giou o males anu emales.
1le neurei o numeials is useu vlen counring. Comaie examle 5, vleie
rle numeial is in rle neurei oim Lecause ir is useu simly as a numLei,
virl examle 6, vleie rle numeial is in rle eminine oim ro agiee virl
rle eminine noun ortr, vlicl ir mouihes:
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Genoer
23
5 ortu tpto
page three
6 tp:t ortr
three pages
Nunber
umLei is a caregoiy rlar alies ro noun liases (nouns, aujecrives,
ionouns anu uereimineis) anu ro veiLs. As in Lnglisl, rleie aie rvo
numLeis, namely singulai anu luial. In Gieek, numLei is alvays inuicareu
in rle inlecrion o eveiy one o rlese voius (excer oi rle veiy ev inuec-
linaLle voius, mosrly nouns anu aujecrives, oi vlicl see secrions 3.31 anu
3.42). As in Lnglisl, uicrionaiies lisr rlese voius in rle singulai unless rley
aie only useu in rle luial.
Almosr all nouns, ionouns anu uereimineis lave one ser o case oims oi
rle singulai anu anorlei ser o case oims oi rle luial, a ev, lovevei,
only lave singulai oi luial oims. (Ioi rle ueclensions o rlese voius see
secrions 3.S3.30 anu 4.14.10.) Similaily, veiLs lave one ser o eison
oims oi rle singulai anu anorlei oi rle luial, rle use o rle singulai
oi luial oims o rle veiL ueenus on vlerlei rle suLjecr is singulai oi
luial. (Ioi numLei in rle veiL see secrion 6.3.)
oimally, a noun uenoring a single eison, rling, erc. is in rle singulai oim,
vlile a noun uenoring moie rlan one eison, rling, erc. is in rle luial:
1 rvu onttt (sg.)
one house, a house
2 uo onttto (pl.)
two houses
Hovevei, in Gieek, as in Iiencl, rle luial o eisonal ionouns anu veiLs
is useu vlen auuiessing a single eison olirely (see secrion 12.1).
Case
Ioi eacl o rle rvo numLeis (singulai anu luial) eacl noun, aujecrive,
ionoun anu uereiminei las a ser o case enuings vlicl inuicare rle synrac-
rical uncrion o rle noun liase in rle clause. 1le cases in Gieek aie
nominarive, accusarive, genirive anu vocarive. Ioi rle use o rle cases see
Case in rle glossaiy, anu secrions 3.503.53.
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Tbe noun
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noun pbrase
24
The articIes..
Like orlei languages, Gieek las rvo ryes o airicle vlicl ieceue nouns
anu ceirain orlei voius: a uehnire airicle ('rle`) anu an inuehnire one ('a`,
'an`). 1le oims o rle airicles aie given Lelov. Ioi rle use o rle airicles
see secrions 3.543.56.
The forns of the denite articIe
1le uehnire airicle is ueclineu oi genuei, numLei anu case anu las rle
olloving oims:
S|ogo|a ||oa|
| | | | | |
Nomlnatlve o to ot ot tu
Accusatlve tov t(v) to tou tt tu
Genltlve tou t tou tev tev tev
1le eminine accusarive singulai oim musr lave rle hnal -v vlen rle voiu
immeuiarely olloving Legins virl a vovel oi virl any o rle olloving
consonanrs oi consonanr clusreis: k, n, t, yk, n, vt, , . Lxamles:
1 tv uvot
(ln) tbe sprlng
2 tv kutu Artou
Mrs Alelou (acc.)
Beoie orlei consonanrs rle -v may Le omirreu (anu noimally is nor
ionounceu), e.g.
3 t Arutru
on Monoay
Wlen rle ieosirion or ('ro`, 'ar`, 'in`, 'on` erc.) is olloveu Ly a noun
vlicl las a uehnire airicle, rle ieosirion comLines virl rle airicle as
one voiu: otov, ot(v), oto, otou, ott, otu. Ioi examle:
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Tbe |orms o|
tbe oenlte
artlcle
25
4 ott o0r
on tbe banks
1le airicle musr agiee in genuei, numLei anu case virl rle noun vlicl ir
mouihes. Ioi uirlei inoimarion aLour rle use (anu omission) o rle ueh-
nire airicle see secrions 3.54 anu 3.56.
The forns of the indenite articIe
1le inuehnire airicle las only singulai oims, vlicl aie ueclineu oi genuei
anu case:
| | |
Nomlnatlve rvu tu rvu
Accusatlve rvu(v) tu(v) rvu
Genltlve rvo tu rvo
1le oims o rle inuehnire airicle aie almosr iuenrical ro rlose o rle
numeial 'one` (see secrion 5.2). 1le only excerion is rlar rle eminine
oims o rle inuehnire airicle aie ionounceu as one syllaLle, vlile
rlose o rle numeial can Le ionounceu emlarically as a rvo-syllaLle
voiu, virl sriess on rle hisr syllaLle (viirren tu). Comaie rlese rvo
examles:
1a to rouu
a week
b ovo to rouu
only one week
1le hnal -v o rle accusarive oims o rle masculine anu eminine is nor
oLligaroiy, Lur may Le useu Leoie voius Leginning virl a vovel oi any
o rle consonanrs k, n, t, oi , e.g.
2 ytu tov u yuvutku
|or anotber woman
3 o' :vov kuto
to a gentleman
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Tbe noun
ano tbe
noun pbrase
26
1le inuehnire airicle agiees virl irs noun oi genuei anu case. In liases
vlicl link rvo oi moie nouns, rle aioiiare oim musr ieceue eacl
noun in rle seiies:
4 :vo uutt, :vo ntouvt kut to utonrtortu
a knl|e, a |ork ano a paper napkln
Ioi uirlei inoimarion aLour rle use (anu omission) o rle inuehnire
airicle see secrions 3.553.56.
Nouns..
DecIensions: an overview
A noun is a voiu uenoring a eison, lace, rling, aLsriacr qualiry, acrion
oi conuirion (e.g. in Lnglisl, 'voman`, 'Helen`, 'Gieece`, 'sli`, 'Leaury`,
'eace`). Lveiy Gieek noun Lelongs ro one o rle rliee genueis (masculine,
eminine anu neurei) anu ro a airiculai ueclension, Ly vlicl ve mean rle
arrein o uieienr enuings vlicl maik rlem oi numLei (singulai anu
luial) anu case (nominarive, accusarive, genirive, vocarive). Ioi genuei,
numLei anu case see secrions 3.33.5. 1le ueraileu ueclension arreins aie
ser our in secrions 3.93.29. Some nouns, airiculaily ones o oieign
oiigin, aie inueclinaLle, vlicl means rlar rley lave a single oim vlicl
uoes nor clange oi numLei oi case (see secrion 3.31).
In rle raLles rlar ollov, nouns aie classiheu iimaiily Ly genuei, anu
seconuaiily Ly rle enuing o rle nominarive singulai. In many insrances,
rle enuing o rle nominarive singulai is suhcienr ro inuicare rle ielevanr
ueclension. Ioi examle, all nouns virl a nominarive singulai enuing in
-o aie neurei anu ollov rle arrein in secrion 3.21. Bur rlings aie nor
alvays so sriaiglroivaiu. ouns enuing in -o may Le masculine (secrion
3.11), eminine (secrion 3.16) oi neurei (secrion 3.24), virl iesulring uiei-
ences in rle vay rley oim rleii orlei cases in rle singulai anu luial.
We can ser our some Lasic iules oi rle ueclension o nouns:
âsculine nouns alvays enu in a vovel + - in rle nominarive
singulai. In rle accusarive rley uio rle -. 1le genirive singulai is
rle same as rle accusarive, virl rle excerion o nouns in -o, vlicl
lave genirive in -ou.
Ieminine nouns, excer oi one rye, lave rle same oims oi
nominarive anu accusarive singulai, vlicl enu in a vovel. Ioi rle
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Declenslons:
an overvlew
27
1111
genirive singulai rley auu -. 1le nominarive anu accusarive
luial also lave rle same oims, enuing in -. 1le excerion is
nouns in -o, vlicl ollov rle same arrein as masculine nouns
in -o.
ouns o common genuei may Le eirlei masculine oi eminine,
ueenuing on rle sex o rle eison rley ieei ro. 1ley ollov rle
arrein o rle coiiesonuing masculine nouns enuing in -u, -,
-o oi -ru (see secrion 3.20).
eurei nouns lave a single oim oi rle nominarive anu accusarive
singulai, anu a single one oi rle nominarive anu accusarive
luial. 1le luial ryically enus in -u, virl rle excerion o nouns
in -o.
1le genirive luial o nouns o all ueclensions enus in -ev.
1le siruarion is maue moie comlicareu Ly rle osirion o sriess, vlicl
may move, anu Ly orlei eculiaiiries in rle enuings o ceirain ueclensions.
Hovevei, rle raLle on rle evious age slovs, in summaiy oim, rle
enuings o rle mosr common ryes o noun.
1le vocarive is nor slovn seaiarely oi eminine oi neurei nouns, as ir is
rle same as rle coiiesonuing nominarive. (1le only excerion is eminine
nouns in -o, vlicl uo nor noimally lave a vocarive.)
MascuIine nouns..
Nouns in -o (parisyIIabic)
We neeu ro make a uisrincrion Lerveen aiisyllaLic nouns, vlicl lave rle
same numLei o syllaLles in rle luial as in rle singulai (e.g. singulai
nutru 'arlei`, luial nutrr 'arleis`), anu imaiisyllaLic nouns,
vlicl auu an exria syllaLle in oiming rleii luial (e.g. nunu 'iiesr`,
luial nunur 'iiesrs` see secrion 3.13 oi sucl imaiisyllaLic mascu-
line nouns). PaiisyllaLic masculine nouns in -u aie uiviueu inro rvo ryes,
accoiuing ro rle sriess o rle genirive luial: (a) rlose rlar lave a genirive
luial virl sriess on rle enulrimare syllaLle, (L) rlose rlar unueigo a slir
o sriess ro rle hnal syllaLle in rle genirive luial. Wirl rlese excerions,
rle sriess iemains on rle same syllaLle as in rle nominarive singulai.
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Mascullne
nouns
29
(a)
o yrttovu nelgbbour
S|ogo|a ||oa|
Nom. yrttovu yrttovr
Acc./voc. yrttovu yrttovr
Gen. yrttovu yrttovev
ore rlar yrttovu anu orlei nouns sriesseu on rle rliiu syllaLle iom rle
enu unueigo a slir o sriess in rle genirive luial. ouns sriesseu on rle
enulrimare syllaLle, sucl as uykevu, lave no slir o sriess. Lxamles:
uykevu 'elLov`, uyevu 'sriuggle`, utevu 'cenruiy`, uvuntu
'liglrei`, 'Evu 'Gieek (man)`, eu 'leio`, kuvovu 'iule`, kuuoevu
'learvave`, krovu 'guaiuian`, kouku 'iaven`, uuyyu 'rlioar,
laiynx`, utuu 'virness`, nutru 'arlei`, ntvuku 'icruie, Loaiu`,
nuktou 'agenr`, ntyktnu 'iince`, noo uyu 'ieugee`, otutevu
'Laiiacks`, ouvrtu 'aei-cli`, oevu 'ruLe`, uuku 'guaiu`,
rtevu 'vinrei`.
(L)
o toutotu tourlst
S|ogo|a ||oa|
Nom. toutotu toutotr
Acc./voc. toutotu toutotr
Gen. toutotu toutotev
Lxamles: uvtu (oi uvu) 'man, lusLanu`, uttotu 'usrair`,
u 'cougl`, uku 'ool`, kuutu 'slaik`, otu 'seigeanr`,
vu 'monrl`, anu all orlei masculine nouns in -tu anu -totu.
Ioi ceirain nouns, alreinarive oims o rle genirive singulai enuing in -o aie
occasionally ounu in oimal conrexrs: vo (insreau o vu) is oren useu
in uares, e.g. ott rkurntu tou vo 'on rle sevenreenrl o rle monrl`.
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Tbe noun
ano tbe
noun pbrase
30
Nouns in - (parisyIIabic)
1lese nouns (aair iom rvo excerions given ar rle enu o rlis secrion)
alvays lave sriesseu -ev in rle genirive luial. Consequenrly rlose nouns
rlar aie sriesseu on rle enulrimare syllaLle move rle sriess ro rle hnal
syllaLle in rle genirive luial. (Ioi imaiisyllaLic nouns in -, i.e. rlose
rlar auu an exria syllaLle in rle luial, see secrion 3.13.)
o ryut workman
S|ogo|a ||oa|
Nom. ryut ryutr
Acc./voc. ryut ryutr
Gen. ryut ryutev
âny nouns rlar ollov rlis ueclension enu in -t. Lxamles incluue:
uvuyveot 'ieauei`, yunt 'sculroi`, tru0uvt 'uiiecroi`, r0rovt
'volunreei`, rntut 'assengei`, ku0yt 'ioessoi, seconuaiy-sclool
reaclei`, ku0r t 'miiioi`, kr t 'rlie`, u0t 'scloolLoy, (male)
uil`, vuut 'sailoi`, vtkt 'vinnei`, nrut 'cusromei, clienr`,
nott 'oer`, noot 'riairoi`, otuttet 'soluiei`, u t 'railoi`,
ottt 'sruuenr`, ut 'ence`, rut 'liai`. Orlei nouns rlar ollov
rlis arrein (virl slir o sriess in rle genirive luial) incluue ttone
'Looksellei` anu nuttu 'ariiaicl`.
1vo orlei nouns, vlicl oim rleii luial iiiegulaily, sloulu Le menrioneu:
nutuv 'vice-clancelloi, iecroi (o a univeisiry)` anu nro 'amLas-
sauoi`. In rle singulai rley ollov rle same arrein as ryut, Lur rle
luial is quire uieienr: nominarive/accusarive/vocarive nutuvrt, geni-
rive nutuvrev. 1le luial o nro las rlese same enuings, virl rle
sriess iemaining on rle hisr syllaLle: nrort, nrorev.
Nouns in -o
ouns in rlis caregoiy may Le sriesseu in rle nominarive singulai on any
o rle lasr rliee syllaLles: oyo 'uiivei`, ktvutoyu o 'cinema`,
uv0eno 'man, luman Leing`. In nouns o rle hisr rvo kinus, rle sriess
iemains on rle same syllaLle rliouglour rle ueclension:
3.11
3.10
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Nouns ln -g
31
o oyo orlver
S|ogo|a ||oa|
Nomlnatlve oyo oyot
Accusatlve oyo oyou
Genltlve oyou oyev
vocatlve oyr oyot
1lis is a veiy laige caregoiy anu incluues: ur o/ur o 'Liorlei`,
u0o 'uegiee, maik`, yuo 'veuuing, maiiiage`, yto 'son`, oo
'ioau`, r0o 'enemy`, kuto 'rime, vearlei`, kuo 'Liancl (o sruuy)`,
kooo 'voilu`, voo 'lav`, uuyko 'caienrei`, oo 'reim`, ouuvo
'sky, leaven`, notuo 'iivei`, ortoo 'eairlquake`, okono 'uiose,
rune`, okuo 'uog`, toto 'vall`, tono 'lace`, unvo 'slee`, to
'iienu`, oo 'eai`, eo 'sace, aiea`, eo 'slouluei`.
1le rliiu kinu, nouns sriesseu on rle rliiu syllaLle iom rle enu, iesenrs
rvo uieienr arreins. In rye (a) rle sriess moves ro rle enulrimare
syllaLle in rle genirive singulai anu in rle accusarive anu genirive luial,
in rye (L) rle sriess iemains on rle same syllaLle rliouglour rle
ueclension:
(a)
o uv0eno man, buman belng
S|ogo|a ||oa|
Nomlnatlve uv0eno uv0enot
Accusatlve uv0eno uv0enou
Genltlve uv0enou uv0enev
vocatlve uv0enr uv0enot
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Tbe noun
ano tbe
noun pbrase
32
(L)
o kuoyro monk
S|ogo|a ||oa|
Nomlnatlve kuoyro kuoyrot
Accusatlve kuoyro kuoyrou
Genltlve kuoyrou kuoyrev
vocatlve kuoyrr kuoyrot
1ye (a) incluues many nouns vlicl suivive iom Ancienr Gieek anu orlei
nouns vlicl aie likely ro occui in moie oimal conrexrs. Lxamles: uvro
'vinu`, uvttnooeno 'ieiesenrarive`, uokuo 'reaclei`, tuoo
'coiiiuoi`, uo 'mayoi`, rryo 'cleck, conriol`, rnoo
'meiclanr`, 0uvuto 'uearl`, 0ouo 'noise`, Iuvouuto ']anuaiy` (anu
orlei names o monrls), kutotko 'inlaLiranr`, ktvuvo 'uangei`, kuto
'genrleman, î`, oo o 'sroiey`, notuo 'sli`s carain`, noro
'vai`, nooyo 'iologue`, otooo 'iailvay`. 1ye (L) incluues
moie iecenr oimarions, esecially comounus. Lxamles: uvrouo
'vinumill`, uv oo 'ascenr`, uvttuo 'eclo`, kut oo 'uescenr`,
uuvokno 'vegeraLle gaiuen`, nutuv0eno 'iogue`, nutokuto
'oul vearlei`, novoovto 'roorlacle`, novokr uo 'leauacle`,
rutuo 'Lig liai`, anu also some eisonal names, sucl as Ooeo,
Itr uvo, Xuuuno. Hovevei, rle uisrincrion Lerveen rle rvo ryes
is nor comlerely hxeu: oims virlour slir o sriess like tou oto-
oou, oi virl slir o sriess like tou novokr uou aie also ounu.
Secial menrion musr Le maue o rle vocarive o given names. Insreau o
rle noimal -r enuing, masculine names in -o sriesseu on rle enulrimare
syllaLle usually lave a vocarive in -o: Arko, Muko, Ntko, Hrto,
Huuo, Tuoo, conriasr Aruvr, 4ttnnr, Itr uvr, erc. A ev orlei
nouns o rvo syllaLles also lave a vocarive singulai in -o, e.g. yro 'olu
man`, as uo uiminurives in -uko: tuuko 'lirrle iienu`.
ore also rlar rle noun ovo 'yeai` las an alreinarive genirive luial
ove(v) useu oi exiessions o age (see secrion 5.5, examles 9 anu 10).
On rle luial oims o rlis noun see uirlei secrion 3.30.
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Nouns ln -
33
Ieminine nouns in -o aie consiueieu in secrion 3.16, oi nouns virl rle
same enuing vlicl may Le eirlei masculine oi eminine (common genuei)
see secrion 3.20.
Nouns in -:o
ouns o rlis rye aie ueclineu like rlose in -u (secrion 3.9) in rle singulai,
Lur lave nominarive, accusarive anu vocarive luial in -rt, anu genirive
in -rev:
o kouru barber
S|ogo|a ||oa|
Nom. kouru kourt
Acc./voc. kouru kourt
Gen. kouru kourev
Lxamles: u oru 'amloia, uin`, yovru 'arlei` (also somerimes
yovto, ueclineu like nouns in secrion 3.11, rle luial yovrt 'aienrs` is
moie common), trru 'iiesr`, okunuvru 'saei`, toru 'secrion,
secroi`.
âny nouns o rlis ueclension ieeiiing ro eisons aie o common genuei,
oi examles see secrion 3.20.
lnparisyIIabic nouns in -o, -o, -, -, -:, -ou
1le reim 'imaiisyllaLic` ieeis ro rle acr rlar rlese nouns lave an exria
syllaLle in rleii luial oims, vlicl alvays enu in -r (nominarive,
accusarive anu vocarive) oi -ev (genirive). In rle singulai rley uio rle
- o rle nominarive in rle orlei cases, Lur kee rle same vovel (-u, -,
-r oi -ou). 1le nominarive singulai o sucl nouns may Le sriesseu on any
o rle lasr rliee syllaLles: yuutu 'milkman`, uvu 'gieengiocei`,
ouvu 'Lakei`. We consiuei rlese rliee ryes Lelov, noring ceirain
excerions in rle oimarion o rle luial:
3.13
3.12
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Tbe noun
ano tbe
noun pbrase
34
(a)
o yuutu mllkman
S|ogo|a ||oa|
Nom. yuutu yuutur
Acc./voc. yuutu yuutur
Gen. yuutu yuutuev
Lxamles:
Singulai in -u, luial -ur: uuku 'ea`, otu 'noirl vinu`,
uvu 'niglrmaie`, kuyu 'quaiiel`, kuo uyu 'gouimer`,
kouu 'Lucker`, nru 'riouLle`, uevu 'millei`, nunu 'iiesr`,
nuu 'money`, oouytu 'enknie`, o ouyyuu 'songe hslei`,
ovtu 'muiueiei`, uu 'lalva`, uu 'hsleiman`, eu
'Lakei`, anu ioei names sucl as Aouku anu Iuuu
Singulai in -, luial -r: utu 'Lunglei`, kutu rt
'smoorl oeiaroi, vanglei`, ku rt 'coee-louse keeei`,
ruk 'connoisseui`, nrk 'uiunkaiu`, noytut 'uecoiaroi`,
nutut 'seconu-lanu uealei`, nunouto 'sloemakei`, tutt
'raxi uiivei`, anu ioei names sucl as Keot, Puyku, Xut
Singulai in -r, luial -rr: yrvtr 'un-lovei`, kuvunr 'soa`,
ku r 'coee`, kr tr 'mearLall`, rkr 'sor, srain`, rr 'lois
uòeuvie, rirLir`, rvrr 'violer`, tvur 'minaier`, nuvor 'ansy`,
nour 'uiee, masl`, trvrkr 'rin`, u tr 'inoimei`
Singulai in -ou, luial -our: nunnou 'gianuarlei`, masl
(L)
o uvu greengrocer
S|ogo|a ||oa|
Nom. uvu uvur
Acc./voc. uvu uvur
Gen. uvu uvuev
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|mparlsyllablc
nouns
35
Lxamles:
Singulai in -, luial -r: uku 'Loarman`, kuuu
'loiseman`, rrvt 'Liave young man`, nuku 'giocei`,
votkoku 'lanuloiu, louseloluei`, nunnou 'gianuuau`,
ttovtr 'lelmsman`, uoun 'Lurclei`, anu ioei names sucl as
Buot, Muvo, Huuuk, Ttkoun. 1lese nouns aie alvays
sriesseu on rle rliiu syllaLle iom rle enu in rle luial, e.g.
uounr 'Lurcleis`.
Singulai in -u, luial -ur: nunu 'uncle, olu man`. ore rlar
rle sriess moves one syllaLle oivaiu in rle luial.
ore also nouns in -uktu vlicl lave a luial in -ukr: yuuuktu
'Lesecracleu eison, oui-eyes `, kotuktu 'vomanizei, liir`, touv-
tuktu 'Lag snarclei`, turuktu 'lucky uevil`.
(c)
o ouvu baker
S|ogo|a ||oa|
Nom. ouvu ouvur
Acc./voc. ouvu ouvur
Gen. ouvu ouvuev
Lxamles:
Singulai -, luial -r (virl sriess on rle rliiu syllaLle iom rle
enu): youvu 'uiiiei`.
Singulai -u, luial -ur (virl sriess on rle enulrimare syllaLle):
tortyku 'clie sleleiu`.
Feninine nouns..
Nouns in -o (parisyIIabic)
1le uisrincrion Lerveen aiisyllaLic (same numLei o syllaLles in singulai
anu luial oims) anu imaiisyllaLic (an auuirional syllaLle in rle luial)
vlicl vas maue oi masculine nouns in -u (secrions 3.9 anu 3.13) is valiu
3.14
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Tbe noun
ano tbe
noun pbrase
36
leie roo. (Ioi imaiisyllaLic nouns in -u see secrion 3.1S.) Similaily, ve
musr also uiviue rle aiisyllaLic eminine nouns in -u inro rvo ryes
accoiuing ro rle sriess o rle genirive luial. 1ye (a) nouns lave rle sriess
on rle enulrimare syllaLle in rle genirive luial. 1ye (L) move rle sriess
ro rle hnal syllaLle in rle genirive luial (i rley aie nor sriesseu on rle
hnal syllaLle rliouglour rleii ueclension).
(a)
rntu bope
S|ogo|a ||oa|
Nom./Acc./voc. rntu rntr
Gen. rntu rntev
Lxamles:
Wirl sriess on rle same syllaLle rliouglour: ukttvu 'iay o liglr,
iauius`, rouu 'veek`, rtkovu 'icruie, image`, r rtu
'nevsaei`, tru 'morlei`, ouu 'giou, ream`, nuttu
'arleilanu`, ortu 'age`, otuyovu 'uio`, otu tu 'iaisin`, anu
many orlei nouns in -uu oi -tu.
Wirl movemenr o sriess ro rle enulrimare syllaLle in rle genirive
luial: ktuku 'scale`, ountyyu 'riumer`, ouyyu 'runnel`,
uvutottu 'ossiLiliry`, tkuvottu 'aLiliry`, tuutottu 'iuenriry,
iuenriry caiu`, tuuttu 'seeu, geai` anu all orlei nouns in -ottu
oi -uttu.
Some nouns lave an alreinarive genirive singulai in -o, vlicl is some-
rimes useu in oimal conrexrs, e.g. Euo 'Gieece` (insreau o Euu).
(L)
0uuoou sea
S|ogo|a ||oa|
Nom./Acc./voc. 0uuoou 0uuoor
Gen. 0uuoou 0uuooev
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Femlnlne
nouns
37
Lxamles: uykuu 'ancloi`, ut0ouou 'lall`, uuvu 'ueence`, utu 'value`,
unrytu 'sriike`, unonrtu 'arremr`, rovu 'neeule`, yr uu 'Liiuge`,
yeoou 'rongue, language`, yuutu 'neckrie`, yuvutku 'voman, vie`,
ourtu 'voik`, rruvu 'ieseaicl`, tru 'iuea`, kutu 'leair`, krutu
'anrenna, aeiial`, kutu 'lauy, îs`, uu 'mass, lum`, rtoou 'Lee`,
()ru 'uay` (genirive luial alvays rev orlei oims virl - aie
iegaiueu as moie oimal), otu 'are, uegiee (o a ciicle)`, otootkrtu
'moroi-cycle`, vtoutu 'romaro`, vutu (oi vuktu) 'niglr`, otkoyrvrtu
'amily`, ootu 'oiclesria`, nutrtu 'squaie`, tu 'ioor`, outu
'lag`, tutvtu 'hlm, rae`, tunru 'Lank`, tunu 'lole`, eu 'counriy`,
eu 'loui`. Similaily all eminine nouns virl rle suhxes -ttu (e.g. u0-
ttu 'scloolgiil, (emale) uil`) oi -toou (e.g. uottoou 'queen`), anu
aLsriacr nouns in -rtu, -tu, oi -otu (e.g. rvvotu 'meaning`). Also rle luial
lace names Burr 'Biussels`, Ivtr 'Inuia, Inuies`, Irurr
'Seyclelles`, all o vlicl lave genirive sriesseu on rle hnal syllaLle (e.g.
Burev). 1le lace name A0vu 'Arlens` can lave rle oimal genirive
luial A0vev in ohcial names, e.g. Huvrntotto A0vev 'Univeisiry
o Arlens`.
Nouns in - with pIuraI -:
ouns in rlis caregoiy, like rlose in -u in secrion 3.14 (L), lave an oLlig-
aroiy slir o sriess ro rle hnal syllaLle in rle genirive luial (i rley aie
nor sriesseu on rle lasr syllaLle rliouglour). 1ley musr Le uisringuisleu
iom orlei eminine nouns in - vlicl oim rleii luial in a uieienr vay
(see secrion 3.1).
trv art, sklll
S|ogo|a ||oa|
Nom./Acc./voc. trv trvr
Gen. trv trvev
Lxamles: uyun 'love`, uuy 'clange`, u 'Leginning, iincile`,
tto0k 'liLiaiy`, uo 'ra, siing (o varei)`, ytot 'celeLiarion,
easr, name uay`, yve 'oinion`, unuv 'exense`, tukon 'inreiiu-
rion` (luial 'loliuays`), tk 'riial, lavsuir`, rntot 'science`, ko
3.15
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Tbe noun
ano tbe
noun pbrase
38
'uauglrei`, uon 'muu`, uv 'macline`, ut 'nose`, vtk 'vicroiy`,
tt 'iice, lonoui`, tu 'luck`, ev 'voice`, u 'soul`. Similaily rle
luial lace names Oronur '1leimoylae`, Inrtor 'Serses`.
Some nouns excerionally oim rleii genirive luial in -uev (similai
ro rle imaiisyllaLic nouns in secrion 3.1S): ur /ur 'sisrei`,
(r)ur /(r)ur '(emale) cousin`, vu 'Liiue, uauglrei-in-lav,
sisrei-in-lav`.
Nouns in -o
Ieminine nouns in rlis caregoiy lave exacrly rle same enuings as mascu-
line nouns in -o (secrion 3.11), Lur aie o couise accomanieu Ly rle
eminine oims o rle airicles. ouns sriesseu on rle rliiu syllaLle iom
rle enu move rle sriess ro rle enulrimare syllaLle in rle genirive singulai
anu rle accusarive anu genirive luial. 1lese eminine nouns uo nor
noimally lave a vocarive.
r0oo metboo
S|ogo|a ||oa|
Nomlnatlve r0oo r0oot
Accusatlve r0oo r0oou
Genltlve r0oou r0oev
Lxamles: uuooo 'aLyss`, uo 'sanu`, uvoo 'ascenr`, Bto 'BiLle`,
turkto 'uialecr`, turto 'uiamerei`, rtooo 'enriance`, roo
'exir`, rnrtrto 'anniveisaiy`, nrto 'conrinenr`, 0uuyo 'yaclr`,
ku0oo 'uescenr`, kunvooo 'climney`, re oo 'avenue`, voo
'islanu`, oo 'srieer`, nuuyu o 'aiagial`, nuoo 'siue srieer`,
nrtrto 'eiimerei`, nrtoo 'eiiou`, nooo 'iogiess`, ooo
'cohn, coise`, roovoo 'eninsula`. 1leie aie also many names o
rovns, iegions, counriies anu islanus vlicl ollov rlis ueclension in rle
singulai (rley lave no luial): e.g. Atyunto 'Lgyr`, 'Avo, Buto
'Beiiur`, Entuuo, 'Hnrto, Kotv0o 'Coiinrl`, Kuno 'Cyius`,
Nuo, Oooo 'Ouessa`, Hronovvoo 'Peloonnese`, Xto anu, in
acr, almosr all names o islanus enuing in -o.
3.16
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Nouns ln -
39
Nouns in - with pIuraI -:t
ouns in rlis caregoiy geneially ollov rle ueclension o orlei eminine
nouns in - in rle singulai (see secrion 3.15), Lur rle luial oims aie quire
uieienr. 1le sriess o rvo-syllaLle voius iemains on rle same syllaLle
rliouglour rle ueclension (e.g. yveo 'knovleuge`, luial yveort). 1le
sriess o voius o moie rlan rvo syllaLles moves one syllaLle oivaiu in
rle luial oims. In rle genirive singulai, rlese nouns also lave an alrei-
narive oim vlicl can Le useu in moie oimal conrexrs, virl rle same
movemenr o sriess as in rle luial.
kurvo government
S|ogo|a ||oa|
Nom./Acc./voc. kurvo kurvort
Gen. kurvo kurvorev
or kurvore
Lxamles: u vu 'oice, sriengrl`, ntot 'airl`, no 'ciry`, anu almosr all
nouns enuing in -o, - oi -: e.g. ut to 'alicarion`, uno uo 'ueci-
sion`, u no 'viev, oinion`, yrvvo 'Liirl`, yveo 'knovleuge`, eo
'ueclaiarion`, tuokr uo 'enjoymenr`, rkrturuo 'exloirarion`,
rk uo 'exiession`, rveo 'union`, 0ro 'osirion, lace`, kutuotuo
'conuirion, siruarion`, ktvo 'movemenr`, rtu uo 'rianslarion`, or
'aerire`, nuuoo 'riauirion`, nuuotuo 'eioimance`, noto
'oeriy`, okr 'rlouglr`, otuo 'sro`, or o 'ielarion(sli)`, trouo
'relevision`, uno0ro 'lyorlesis, aaii`, u 'ieezing`. Similaily rle lace
names Akono 'Acioolis`, Kevotuvttvouno 'Consranrinole,
IsranLul`, Nruno 'ales`, anu rle luials 'Avrt 'Anues`, 'Anrt 'Als`.
lnparisyIIabic nouns in -o and -ou
1lese eminine nouns auu an exria syllaLle in rleii luial, jusr like rle
masculine imaiisyllaLic nouns uiscusseu in secrion 3.13. 1leii luial
alvays enus in -r (nominarive, accusarive anu vocarive) oi -ev (geni-
rive), anu rlis enuing is auueu uiiecrly ro rle nominarive singulai, vlicl
alvays enus in a sriesseu vovel, eirlei -u oi -ou. Like orlei eminine nouns,
rley lave a genirive singulai in -.
3.18
3.17
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3
Tbe noun
ano tbe
noun pbrase
40
ytuytu granomotber
S|ogo|a ||oa|
Nom./Acc./voc. ytuytu ytuytur
Gen. ytuytu ytuytuev
Lxamles: kuu 'missus, mauam`, uu 'mummy`, vovu 'goumorlei`,
vtuvtu 'nuisemaiu`.
urnou |o
S|ogo|a ||oa|
Nom./Acc./voc. urnou urnour
Gen. urnou urnouev
Lxamles: yeooou 'gossiing voman`, utou 'monkey`, nuuu0ou
'sroiy-rellei`, nouoyou 'clarreiLox`, unvuou 'sleey-leau`, anu many
orlei voius ieeiiing ro emales anu oren coiiesonuing ro a masculine
noun in -u oi -, e.g. evukou 'louu-mourleu voman`, comaie
evuku 'louu-mourleu man`.
Nouns in -
Ieminine nouns enuing in -e incluue many eisonal (given) names, oren
uiminurives, rley uo nor usually lave a luial. 1leie aie rvo ryes, vlicl
uiei in rle oimarion o rleii genirive. 1le sriess iemains on rle same
syllaLle as in rle nominarive.
4ooe Froso (olmlnutlve o| Eu oouv)
Nom./Acc./voc. 4ooe
Gen. 4ooe
3.19
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Nouns ln -
41
Lxamles: Ayue, Aye 'rle Aigo` (Lur rleie is an alreinarive genirive
Ayou), Arone, He, Kuue, Mue anu mosr uiminurives in -e iom
emale given names.
e ecbo (no plural)
Nom./Acc./voc. e
Gen. ou
Lxamles: nrt0e 'eisuasion`, rte 'rliir`, anu rle ioei names Irte
']eiiclo`, Ate 'Lero` (virl an alreinarive genirive Ate).
Nouns of connon gender..
Nouns which nay be either nascuIine or feninine
âny nouns ieeiiing ro eisons, airiculaily nouns rlar uenore occua-
rions, aie o common genuei. In orlei voius, rle same oims o rle noun
aie useu oi Lorl male anu emale eisons, Lur rle airicle anu any orlei
voius vlicl mouiy ir (sucl as aujecrives) inuicare vlerlei rle noun
uenores a male oi emale eison oi eisons in rle secihc conrexr. Ioi
examle:
1a rvu kuo 0onoto
a gooo actor
b tu ku 0onoto
a gooo actress
ouns o common genuei ollov rle ueclension arreins o masculine
nouns, Lur virl masculine oi eminine airicle erc. as aioiiare. Some
examles:
Like masculine nouns in -u (secrion 3.9): o/ rnuyyruttu
'ioessional man/voman`, o/ rntotovu 'scienrisr, sclolai`, o/
utuu 'virness`, o/ tutu 'casliei`
Like masculine nouns in - (secrion 3.10): o/ ourut 'memLei o
ailiamenr`, o/ tkuot 'juuge`, o/ kuttrv 'airisr`, o/
ot 'ioLLei`, o/ nott 'cirizen`
3.20
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3
Tbe noun
ano tbe
noun pbrase
42
Like masculine nouns in -o (secrion 3.11): o/ ytuto 'uocroi`, o/
ootoyu o 'jouinalisr`, o/ tkyoo 'lavyei`, o/ eyu o
'ainrei`, o/ u0uttko 'marlemarician`, o/ ouotko 'musician`,
o/ otkovoooyo 'economisr`, o/ noro 'iesiuenr`, o/
ouuyo 'souse`, o/ unuo 'emloyee`, o/ unouyo
'goveinmenr minisrei`, o/ etoyu o 'lorogialei`, o/
uooyo 'syclologisr`
Like masculine nouns in -ru (secrion 3.12): o/ yuutru
'secieraiy`, o/ trvru 'inreiierei`, o/ rtouyyrru 'uLlic
iosecuroi`, o/ ouyyu ru 'viirei, aurloi`. Wlen ieeiiing ro
emales, rle genirive singulai o rlese nouns las rle enuing -re, e.g.
t yuutre
Hovevei, many masculine nouns ieeiiing ro eole oim a coiiesonuing
eminine noun Ly auuing a suhx oi uieienr enuing, e.g. o ku0yt
'male ioessoi`, ku0yttu 'emale ioessoi`, o uokuo 'male
reaclei`, uokuu 'emale reaclei`, Lur rle lisr o rlose rlar use rle same
oim as rle masculine oi emale ieeienrs, as in rle aLove examles, is
gioving as a iesulr o vomen enreiing moie ioessions (oi rle oimarion
o eminine nouns iom masculine ones see secrion 11.1).
1leie is one orlei rye o noun o common genuei, virl singulai in -
anu luial in -rt. Sriicrly seaking, rlese aie aujecrives useu as nouns
(coiiesonuing ro rle aujecrives in secrion 3.39), Lur rleii singulai enuings
aie iuenrical virl rlose o rle masculine nouns in secrion 3.10 (excer oi
rle alreinarive genirive oim).
o/ ouyyrv male/|emale relatlve
S|ogo|a ||oa|
Nom. ouyyrv ouyyrvrt
Acc./voc. ouyyrv ouyyrvrt
Gen. ouyyrv ouyyrvev
or ouyyrvou
Orlei examles: uo0rv 'sick eison, arienr`, ruyrv 'noLleman oi
noLlevoman`. In rlese rvo cases rle genirive singulai oim in -ou is rle
moie common one (vlile oi ouyyrv ir is rle oim in -).
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Nouns wblcb
may be eltber
mascullne or
|emlnlne
43
Neuter nouns..
Nouns in -o
ouns in rlis caregoiy may lave sriess on any o rle lasr rliee syllaLles.
As in rle case o masculine nouns in -o (secrion 3.11), ve musr uisrin-
guisl rvo ryes oi nouns o moie rlan rvo syllaLles sriesseu on rle rliiu
syllaLle iom rle enu, accoiuing ro vlerlei rle sriess moves in rle geni-
rive singulai anu luial. In nouns o rye (a) rle sriess moves ro rle
enulrimare syllaLle in rle genirive, vleieas in rye (L) ir iemains on rle
rliiu syllaLle iom rle enu rliouglour.
(a)
to 0ruto tbeatre
S|ogo|a ||oa|
Nom./Acc./voc. 0ruto 0rutu
Gen. 0rutou 0rutev
Lxamles: uoyo 'loise`, uutoktvto 'cai`, utoo 'eison, inuiviuual`,
tuutto 'assoir`, eutto 'ioom`, rtottto 'ricker`, roo
'exense` (usually in rle luial), rntno 'iece o uiniruie`, rottutoto
'iesrauianr`, rooyto 'calenuai, uiaiy`, krtrvo 'rexr`, ktvto
'morive`, ktto 'Luiluing`, rteno 'oieleau, ionr`, oyuvo 'insriumenr`,
nuvrntotto 'univeisiry`, nooeno 'ace, eison`, tr evo 'relelone`,
anu lace names sucl as Mrtooo anu rlose vlicl lave luial oims only,
e.g. Ieuvvtvu (noimally Ituvvtvu oi Ituvvrvu, Lur genirive luial
alvays Ieuvvtvev), Kuuutu, Ttkuu, 4uouu. Orlei nouns
vlicl lave only luial oims incluue: yrvr0tu 'Liirluay`, tuktu
'ruirion ees`, rvtoo0tu 'enriails`, nrteu 'enviions`, ouyuttu
'congiarularions`, Xtotouyrvvu 'Cliisrmas`.
(L)
to uvtoyuvo marrleo couple
S|ogo|a ||oa|
Nom./Acc./voc. uvtoyuvo uvtoyuvu
Gen. uvtoyuvou uvtoyuvev
3.21
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Tbe noun
ano tbe
noun pbrase
44
Lxamles (virl sriess iemaining on rle same syllaLle): unororo
'areinoon`, utuo 'hngei`, kuouvo 'coal`, kuotuvo 'clesrnur`,
kokkuo 'Lone`, kooktvo 'sieve`, uuvo 'lerruce`, uyouo 'cleek`,
uvutko 'gieengiocei`s slo`, r eto 'cleaiing (in oiesr)`, nooo 'uooi
knoL`, ouktvo 'eacl`, otro 'iion`, ouvvr o 'clouu`, tunrouvtto
'raLleclorl`, ttuvtu uo 'iose`, uoyro 'smile`, uountko 'Lurclei`s
slo`, tovovro 'sleer`, anu all nouns enuing in -utko, -utko, oi
-onouo, as vell as many comounus.
1le uivision Lerveen nouns o rliee oi moie syllaLles rlar lave hxeu sriess
anu rlose rlar move rle sriess las some lexiLiliry: in oimal conrexrs some
rye (L) nouns may slir rle sriess ro rle enulrimare syllaLle in rle geni-
rive singulai anu luial. ouns rlar can lave Lorl ryes incluue: uuyuo
'almonu`, utonoto 'sreamsli`, outuo 'Lurrei`, yovuto 'knee`,
nouto 'Licycle`, nouto 'slee`, oeotto 'lie-jacker, lieLelr`.
In nouns sriesseu on rle lasr oi enulrimare syllaLle, rle sriess iemains on
rle same syllaLle rliouglour: uronuvo 'aeiolane`, tto 'Look`, ouvo
'mounrain`, rvto 'riee`, 0uvto 'uesk`, nuvto 'Larl`, vro 'varei`, uo
'voou`, noto 'sli`, nooo 'amounr`, tro 'earlei`, eto 'village`.
Nouns in -t
eurei nouns in sriesseu -t lave rle same enuings in rle genirive singulai
anu in rle luial cases as rle nouns in -o. 1ley kee rle sriess on rle hnal
syllaLle rliouglour. In all oims excer rle nominarive, accusarive anu
vocarive singulai rle -t- loses irs syllaLic value (see secrion 1.2).
to nutt cbllo
S|ogo|a ||oa|
Nom./Acc./voc. nutt nuttu
Gen. nuttou nuttev
Lxamles: uvt 'lamL`, u tt 'eai`, out 'juice`, krtt 'key`, kuot 'vine`,
uyut 'slo`, ut 'vool` (luial 'laii`), vot 'islanu`, nout 'Liiu`, tt
'kiss`, utt 'aei`, et 'Lieau`, anu all orlei nouns in -t sriesseu on
rle hnal syllaLle, excer oi voius o oieign oiigin sucl as tut 'raxi`,
vlicl aie noimally inueclinaLle (see secrion 3.31). 1le noun net
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Neuter nouns
45
'moining` las genirive singulai netvou, nominarive anu accusarive luial
netvu, genirive luial netvev. ore rlar rle luial lace names Xuvtu
'Clania` anu I uktu 'Sakia` aie sriesseu on rle enulrimare syllaLle in
rle genirive: Xuvtev, I uktev.
Nouns in -t
1lese nouns aie alvays sriesseu on rle enulrimare syllaLle (virl one
excerion, oi vlicl see Lelov). In rle genirive singulai anu luial rley
move rle sriess ro rle hnal syllaLle, virl rle -t- losing irs syllaLic value
(comaie rle nouns in secrion 3.22).
to uyot boy
S|ogo|a ||oa|
Nom./Acc./ voc. uyot uyotu
Gen. uyotou uyotev
Lxamles: uutt 'salr`, ovtt 'roorl`, kottot 'giil`, krutt 'Leu`, ouou-
t 'lovei`, out 'encil`, nuvtrovt 'riouseis`, nunoutot 'sloe`, not
'oor, leg`, onttt 'louse`, tunrt 'raLle`, rt 'lanu`, anu all orlei neurei
nouns in -t. 1leie is one noun vlicl is sriesseu on rle rliiu syllaLle iom
rle enu: tvttot 'ivoiy`, genirive tvttotou (no luial). Diminurives
in -ukt anu -out, e.g. nutukt 'lirrle Loy`, lave no genirive oims, eirlei
singulai oi luial.
A ev nouns enu in -u (insreau o -t). 1ley aie: uu 'evening` (Lur geni-
rive singulai utou, nominarive anu accusarive luial utu, genirive
luial utev), ttu 'ner`, otuu 'eai o coin`. An excerion is uku
'reai`, selr virl u in all irs oims: singulai uku (rle genirive is nor
noimally useu), nominarive anu accusarive luial ukuu, genirive
ukuev. Ioi orlei neurei nouns in -u see secrion 3.2S.
eurei nouns in -ut oi -ot auu a y Leoie rle enuings in all oims orlei
rlan rle nominarive anu accusarive singulai, e.g. tout 'rea`, genirive
touytou. Similaily konoot 'voiiy Leaus`, oot 'clock, varcl`, oot
'amily, lineage`.
3.23
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Tbe noun
ano tbe
noun pbrase
46
Nouns in -o
eurei nouns in -o may Le o eirlei rvo syllaLles (like kuto 'srare`) oi
rliee syllaLles (like ru o 'giounu, reiiiroiy`). 1ley aie all sriesseu on rle
hisr syllaLle in rle nominarive anu accusarive singulai anu move rle sriess
ro rle hnal syllaLle in rle genirive luial. 1liee-syllaLle voius move rle
sriess ro rle enulrimare syllaLle in rle genirive singulai anu rle nomina-
rive anu accusarive luial (rle vocarive case is iaiely useu).
to kuto state
S|ogo|a ||oa|
Nom./Acc. kuto kut
Gen. kutou kutev
Lxamles: uo 'veiglr`, yrvo 'genuei`, uoo 'oiesr`, r0vo 'narion`,
kro 'iohr`, kooto 'cosr` (no luial oims), u0o 'misrake`, tno
'ar`, ro 'memLei`, ro 'lace, air`, ko 'lengrl`, too 'larieu`,
oo 'mounrain`, tro 'enu`, u o 'sryle, mannei`, ro 'uury, ueLr`.
to ru o grouno, terrltory
S|ogo|a ||oa|
Nom./Acc. ru o ru
Gen. ru ou ru ev
Lxamles: ryr0o 'size`, nruyo 'sea`.
Nouns in -o
1lese nouns may Le o rvo syllaLles, like kuu 'vave` (sriesseu on rle hisr
syllaLle), oi o rliee oi moie syllaLles, like unotrrou 'iesulr` (sriesseu
on rle rliiu syllaLle iom rle enu). 1le enuings o rle genirive singulai
anu all luial cases involve an auuirional syllaLle, vlicl las imlicarions
oi rle osirion o rle sriess. 1le genirive singulai anu rle nominarive anu
3.25
3.24
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Nouns ln -o
47
accusarive luial o rlese nouns aie alvays sriesseu on rle rliiu syllaLle
iom rle enu, rle genirive luial alvays las rle sriess on rle enulrumare
syllaLle. 1le vocarive is rle same as rle nominarive Lur is iaiely ounu.
to unotrrou result
S|ogo|a ||oa|
Nom./Acc. unotrrou unotrroutu
Gen. unotrrouto unotrroutev
Lxamles: uyuu 'srarue`, utu 'Lloou`, yuu 'lerrei`, tuuou
'ieauing`, turtu 'inreival`, tuotu 'sace`, uu 'uiama`, ktu
'climare`, u0u 'lesson`, u0totou 'novel`, reu 'uayLieak`,
ovou 'name`, notu 'oem`, nuyu 'rling`, nou 'ioLlem`,
ouotu 'sysrem`, ortuou 'skercl`, oeu 'Louy`, eu 'coloui`, anu
all orlei nouns enuing in -u (virl rvo excerions: kru 'cieam` anu uu
'Llaue`, vlicl aie eminine). Some nouns occui only in rle luial, e.g. yru-
utu 'olu age`, truutu 'iunning aiounu`, utrttoutu 'gieerings`.
Nouns in -to
1lese nouns aie all ueiiveu iom veiLs anu uenore an acrion. 1leii nomi-
narive singulai enus in -oto, -to, oi -to, virl rle sriess on rle rliiu
syllaLle iom rle enu. In rle genirive singulai anu all cases in rle luial
rley lave enuings like rlose o nouns in -u (secrion 3.25), virl rle same
arrein o sriess. 1le genirive luial o rlese nouns is iaiely useu.
to nuoto (act o|) wasblng
S|ogo|a ||oa|
Nom./Acc. nuoto nuotutu
Gen. nuotuto (nuotutev)
Lxamles: yuto 'viiring`, roto 'rying`, koto 'curring`, vtuoto
'uiessing, uiess`, onuoto 'Lieaking`, trto 'iunning`, roto 'Lelav-
ioui`, tutto 'aulr, Llame`.
3.26
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Tbe noun
ano tbe
noun pbrase
48
Other neuter nouns in -
A ev neurei nouns enu in -, Lur aie uisringuisleu iom nouns in -o
(secrion 3.24) Ly rle uieienr vovel o rle lasr syllaLle, oi Ly rle osirion
o rle sriess in rle nominarive singulai. 1le enuings o rle orlei cases
(-to erc.) aie similai ro rlose o neurei nouns in -u (secrion 3.25), Lur
virlour rle syllaLle -u-. 1le osirion o sriess vaiies. In rle hisr examle,
rle sriess o rle genirive singulai anu rle nominarive anu accusarive luial
is on rle rliiu syllaLle iom rle enu, in rle genirive luial ir moves ro rle
enulrimare syllaLle (comaie neurei nouns in -u).
to kru meat
S|ogo|a ||oa|
Nom./Acc. kru krutu
Gen. kruto krutev
Lxamles: nru 'enu, conclusion` anu tru 'monsrei`. 1lese aie rle only
orlei nouns vlicl ollov rlis arrein.
Orlei neurei nouns in - lave rle same enuings auueu ro rle lasr vovel (e
oi o). 1ley kee rle sriess on rle same syllaLle as in rle nominarive
singulai. Iiisr ve give e, vlicl is iiiegulai in rlar rle sriess o irs geni-
rive singulai is on rle lasr syllaLle.
to e llgbt
S|ogo|a ||oa|
Nom./Acc. e etu
Gen. eto etev
Lxamles (virl no slir o sriess): yryovo 'evenr, acr`, ku0rote 'iegime,
srarus quo`. 1le olloving lave no luial oims: urto e 'gasliglr`,
t e 'lal-liglr, rviliglr`, uko e 'uusk`.
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Otber neuter
nouns ln -
49
Other neuter nouns ending in voweIs
A ev orlei neurei nouns iesenr ceirain iiiegulaiiries. Iiisr, rleie aie rvo
nouns vlicl lave a genirive singulai in -to:
to yuu mllk
S|ogo|a ||oa|
Nom./Acc. yuu yuutu
Gen. yuuto (yuuktev)
or yuukto
1le genirive luial o rlis noun is veiy iaiely useu. Similaily, rt 'loney`,
genirive tou rtto oi rtou (no luial).
Seconu, rleie aie rvo neurei nouns enuing in -u vlicl lave a genirive
singulai in -ro, Lur virl uieienr sriess:
to ou aclo
S|ogo|a ||oa|
Nom./Acc. ou oru
Gen. oro orev
to tou bal| (no plural |orms)
Nom./Acc. tou
Gen. toro
Ioi orlei neurei nouns enuing in -u see secrion 3.23.
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Tbe noun
ano tbe
noun pbrase
50
Nouns in -v
In rlis caregoiy aie a numLei o nouns vlicl ueiive iom airiciles, anu
rvo orlei voius vlicl lave sliglrly uieienr enuings. Iiisr ve give rle
nouns oiiginally ueiiveu iom rle neurei oims o airiciles (comaie rle
aujecrive ueclensions in secrion 3.41). 1ley kee rle sriess on rle same
syllaLle as in rle nominarive singulai, excer oi rle genirive luial, vlicl
is alvays sriesseu on rle enulrimare syllaLle.
to rvtu rov lnterest
S|ogo|a ||oa|
Nom./Acc. rvtu rov rvtu rovtu
Gen. rvtu rovto rvtu rovtev
Lxamles: ku0kov 'uury`, rov 'uruie`, ov 'Leing, ciearuie`, nur0ov
'asr`, nuov 'iesenr`, nrtuov 'enviionmenr, suiiounuings`, notov
'iouucr`, nooov, 'qualihcarion, auvanrage`, ouuv 'evenr`, ounuv
'univeise` (no luial), ou rov 'eisonal inreiesr, auvanrage`, evrv
'vovel`.
1le noun nuv 'eveiyrling` las a similai ueclension ro rle aLove, excer
rlar ir is sriesseu on rle hnal syllaLle in rle genirive singulai:
to nuv everytblng
S|ogo|a ||oa|
Nom./Acc. nuv nuvtu
Gen. nuvto nuvtev
Iinally in rlis caregoiy, rle noun rv 'zeio` las rle olloving singulai
oims, Lur no luial:
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Nouns ln -v
51
to rv zero
Nom./Acc. rv
Gen. rvo
5peciaI types of noun..
Nouns with a change of gender in the pIuraI
1le lisr Lelov slovs nouns vlicl aie masculine in rle singulai, Lur lave
a luial o neurei genuei. Somerimes a masculine luial oim also exisrs,
Lur may lave a uieienr meaning:
o ur o/ur o 'Liorlei`, l. ot ur ot/ur ot 'Liorleis`,
tu ur tu/ur tu 'siLlings`
o uto 'Lusl`, l. ot utot oi tu utu
o uo 'iock`, l. ot uot oi tu utu
o roo 'Lonu, ielarionsli`, l. ot root 'Lonus` (meraloiical),
tu rou 'erreis, slackles` (lireial)
o kunvo 'smoke, roLacco`, l. ot kunvot 'smoke`, tu kunvu
'roLacco(s)`
o uto 'neck, rlioar`, l. ot utot 'necks`, tu utu 'soie rlioar`
o oyo 'seecl, ieason, voiu`, l. ot oyot 'seecles, ieasons`, tu
oytu 'voius`
o no 'clay`, l. ot not oi (non-oimal only) tu nu
o nouto 'vealrl`, l. tu nout 'iicles`
o ouvo 'lay`, l. tu ouvu
o okrrto 'skeleron, iamevoik`, l. ot okrrtot 'skelerons,
secracle iames`, tu okrrtu 'slelves oi iames oi uislay o
meiclanuise`
o otu0o 'srarion`, l. ot otu0ot 'srarions`, tu otu0u 'veiglrs`
o ovo 'rime, yeai, rense (o veiL)`, l. ot ovot 'rimes, renses`,
tu ovtu 'yeais`
3.30
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Tbe noun
ano tbe
noun pbrase
52
lndecIinabIe nouns
InueclinaLle nouns lave a single oim, vlicl seives oi all cases, singulai
anu luial. Like all orlei nouns, lovevei, rley lave a genuei: masculine,
eminine oi neurei. 1leie is a laige (anu gioving) numLei o nouns o
oieign oiigin vlicl lave nor Leen assimilareu inro rle Gieek ueclension
sysrem, incluuing lace names anu ioei names. Some common examles
aie given Lelov. Also inueclinaLle aie all rle names o rle lerreis o rle
Gieek allaLer, vlicl aie neurei: u u, tu, erc.
Mascullne:
nuuv barman
Femlnlne:
rtt ellte ouvttyt wblppeo cream
nouttk boutlque orov season
Ouuotyktov Wasblngton DC onrotuttr speclallty
nu beacb tu jazz
ano names o| |ootball teams, e.g. 'Aorvu 'Arsenal'
Common genoer:
o/ uvutr manager o/ rnotr reporter
o/ vtrtrktt prlvate oetectlve o/ otu star
Neuter:
uouvor ll|t kuou u camouNage
ouv steerlng-wbeel krtk cake
ykuu garage kontoutr computer
rue euro also mascullne, a plural
kontoutr ls sometlmes
|ouno
kovtuk cognac rno oay o||
uktytu make-up rttr pentbouse
ut matcb ook sbock
rto metro tuno plcture,
nu bar oasbboaro
nuokrt basketball tuvk (mllltary) tank
vutov nylon tut tal
nunt wlnoscreen ttnouoov corkscrew
nutt party tuk stage |rlgbt,
nouor sweater nerves
uvtrou appolntment, oate rouu zlp
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|noecllnable
nouns
53
Adjectives..
Adjectives in outIine
An aujecrive is a voiu vlicl uenores a ioeiry oi claiacreiisric o a
ceirain noun oi noun liase, e.g. 'vlire`, 'sloir`, 'uihculr`, 'jealous`.
Almosr all Gieek aujecrives inlecr oi genuei, numLei anu case. 1le
enuings lave close similaiiries virl rlose o vaiious noun ueclensions.
Unlike nouns, lovevei, mosr aujecrives kee rle sriess on rle same syllaLle
oi all rleii oims (oi rle excerions see secrions 3.39 anu 3.41). A ev
aujecrives lave a single invaiiaLle oim, anu examles o rlese aie given
in secrion 3.42. 1le use o aujecrives is uiscusseu in secrion 3.5.
Aujecrives may also lave secial oims vlicl aie useu ro exiess comai-
ison. ]usr as in Lnglisl, rleie is a comaiarive ('Liggei`) anu a sueilarive
('Liggesr`) oim oi many aujecrives. 1lese oims aie iesenreu in secrions
3.443.4.
The forns of adjectives..
Adjectives in -o, -, -o
1lis veiy numeious caregoiy comiises aujecrives vlicl lave eirlei a
consonanr oi an unsriesseu vovel orlei rlan /i/ immeuiarely Leoie rle
enuing -o. 1leii enuings coiiesonu ro rlose o nouns as ollovs: mascu-
line like rlose o rle nouns in secrion 3.11, eminine like nouns in secrion
3.15, neurei like nouns in secrion 3.21. 1le sriess iemains on rle same
syllaLle rliouglour.
3.33
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Tbe noun
ano tbe
noun pbrase
54
o blgb, tall
S|ogo|a ||oa|
| | | | | |
Nom. o o ot r u
Acc. o o ou r u
Gen. ou ou ev ev ev
voc. r o ot r u
Lxamles:
Wirl srems enuing in consonanrs: uyytko 'Lnglisl`, ukto
'exensive`, ueoto 'ill`, yruto 'ull`, runvo 'clevei`,
evtuvo 'living, lively`, kuo 'goou`, ktttvo 'yellov`, ryuo
'Lig, giear`, ovo 'alone, only`, ro 'uiy`, oo o 'Leauriul`,
oeoto 'coiiecr`, turo 'lucky`, oto 'useul`, anu all
assive eiecr airiciles enuing in -rvo, e.g. ruutotrvo
'leaseu`
Wirl srems enuing in unsriesseu vovels: ruto 'suie`, tuto
'violenr`, tkuto 'jusr, aii`, oyoo 'eiglrl`, otrro 'soliu`
Adjectives in -o, -o, -o
1le only uieience Lerveen rlis rye anu rlar in secrion 3.33 is in rle
vovel o rle eminine singulai oims: rley lave nominarive, accusarive anu
vocarive in -u anu genirive in -u. 1lis rye incluues aujecrives vlicl lave
/i/ oi any sriesseu vovel Leoie rle enuing -o. Again rle sriess iemains on
rle same syllaLle.
trrto per|ect
S|ogo|a ||oa|
M F N M F N
Nom. trrto trrtu trrto trrtot trrtr trrtu
Acc. trrto trrtu trrto trrtou trrtr trrtu
Gen. trrtou trrtu trrtou trrtev trrtev trrtev
voc. trrtr trrtu trrto trrtot trrtr trrtu
Lxamles: uyto 'vilu`, urto 'emry`, u0eo 'innocenr`, uotrto
'unny`, yrvvuto 'noLle`, kutvouto 'nev`, kuo 'colu`, rtto
'meuium, moueiare`, o0to 'uiiglr, sranuing`, nuto 'olu`, nouoto
'iicl`, onouuto 'imoiranr`, truotto 'luge`, euto 'Leauriul`.
1leie aie some orlei aujecrives vlicl uo nor lave srems enuing in vovels
Lur ollov rle aLove arrein, virl eminine in -u iarlei rlan -. Lxamles:
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Aojectlves ln
-o, -o, -o
55
uko 'exrieme`, ykto 'giey`, ovtrvo 'mouein`, okouo 'uaik`, anu
all aujecrives enuing in -oyo, -ouyo, -ouo oi - oo, e.g. ukt-
ooyo 'iecise`, nuvouyo 'cunning`, novotouo 'iivilegeu`,
kuno oo 'iuirul`.
Adjectives in -o, -to, -o
Ir is rle oim o rle eminine singulai rlar also uisringuisles rlis rye o
aujecrive iom rlose in rle ievious rvo secrions. 1le enuings aie -tu
(nominarive, accusarive anu vocarive) anu -tu (genirive).
yuko sweet
S|ogo|a ||oa|
M F N M F N
Nom. yuko yuktu yuko yukot yukr yuku
Acc. yuko yuktu yuko yukou yukr yuku
Gen. yukou yuktu yukou yukev yukev yukev
voc. yukr yuktu yuko yukot yukr yuku
1leie aie veiy ev aujecrives rlar nust ollov rlis arrein: aair iom
yuko, rle only common one is roko 'iesl`. Hovevei, a numLei o
orlei aujecrives nay oim rleii eminine singulai virl -tu, as an alreina-
rive ro rle moie usual -, oi examle: etko 'uiiry`, tko (ou erc.)
'(my) ovn`, ru o 'liglr`, kuko 'Lau, vickeu`, uv0o 'aii-laiieu`,
teo 'ooi`. 1le osirion o sriess in rle eminine oims is rle same as
in rle coiiesonuing masculine oims, e.g. etktu, Lur tetu.
Adjectives in -u, -to, -u
1lis rye is claiacreiizeu Ly rle -u- vovel o rle masculine anu neurei
singulai oims. 1le iemaining oims lave a non-syllaLic -t- (see secrion
1.2) Leoie rle enuings, vlicl aie rle same as rlose o rle aujecrives in
secrion 3.34. 1le sriess is alvays on rle hnal syllaLle. 1le genirive o rle
masculine anu neurei singulai is iaiely useu.
3.36
3.35
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Tbe noun
ano tbe
noun pbrase
56
uu beavy
S|ogo|a ||oa|
M F N M F N
Nom. uu utu uu utot utr utu
Acc. uu utu uu utou utr utu
Gen. (utou/ utu (utou/ utev utev utev
uu) uu)
voc. uu utu uu utot utr utu
Lxamles: u0u 'leavy`, uou 'rlick, uense`, ru u 'liglr` (an alrei-
narive oim o ru o, -, -o), uku 'long`, nuu 'ar`, nutu 'Lioau`,
tuu 'iougl`, uu 'viue`.
Adjectives in -, -to, -t
1lis rye is veiy similai ro rle ievious one. 1le only uieience is in rle
selling o rle enuings: rle masculine singulai oims lave -- (insreau o
-u-) anu rle neurei singulai oims lave -t (insreau o -u). Again rle geni-
rive singulai o rle masculine anu neurei is iaie (see raLle on . 5S). 1lis
caregoiy consisrs mosrly o aujecrives uenoring coloui oi mareiial.
Lxamles: uootv 'cleiiy-colouieu`, 0uuoo 'sea-Llue`, u 'uaik
Llue`, rvrr 'violer`, ouuv 'sky-Llue`, notoku 'oiange`,
otut 'aslen, giey`, uou 'goluen`. Also r 'iiglr`, an alreina-
rive oim ro rto, -u, -o.
The adjective (quantier) nozu
1le aujecrive (oi quanrihei) nou 'mucl, many` neeus secial arrenrion.
1le enuings o rle nominarive anu accusarive masculine anu neurei
singulai aie Lasically rle same as rlose o rle aujecrives in secrion 3.36.
1le enuings o rle iemaining oims aie iuenrical ro rlose o aujecrives in
-o, -, -o (secrion 3.33), Lur ir is imoiranr ro nore rlar rle srem o rlese
oims enus in uouLle . 1le genirive singulai oims o rle masculine anu
neurei aie iaiely useu, anu rleie is no vocarive (see . 5S).
3.38
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Aojectlves ln
-g, -io, -i
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Adjectives in -, -:
Aujecrives o rlis rye uo nor lave seaiare oims oi rle masculine anu
eminine. 1leie is one ser o oims (singulai anu luial) oi masculine anu
eminine genueis. We give rvo examles Lelov, Lecause o rleii uieienr
sriess arreins. In rle hisr rle sriess iemains on rle same syllaLle (eirlei
rle hnal oi rle enulrimare syllaLle) oi all oims. In rle seconu rle sriess
is on rle enulrimare syllaLle excer rlar ir moves ro rle rliiu syllaLle iom
rle enu in rle nominarive anu accusarive o rle neurei singulai. Aujecrives
in rlis caregoiy uo nor noimally lave vocarive oims.
ukt eact
S|ogo|a ||oa|
|/| | |/| |
Nom. ukt uktr uktrt ukt
Acc. ukt uktr uktrt ukt
Gen. uktou uktou uktev uktev
Lxamles (virl sriess iemaining on rle same syllaLle): u0 'riue`,
uo u 'sae, suie`, u r 'nave`, o t 'oulai`, tr0v 'inrei-
narional`, rttktv 'sinceie`, rntr 'uiligenr, laiu-voiking`, ruyrv
'noLle`, n 'ull`, noutr 'luxuiious`, noor 'oirlcoming`,
netort 'hisr-yeai`, ou 'cleai`, ouvrn 'consisrenr`, ouvr
'conrinuous`, ttrt 'lasring rliee yeais`, ttr 'riiairire`, uyt
'lealrly`, eort 'oval` (anu all orlei aujecrives enuing in -rt).
Aujecrives enuing in -e ollov rle same arrein, excer rlar rleii geni-
rive luial (all genueis) las rle sriess on rle hnal syllaLle, e.g. tke
'iiglrul`, genirive luial tkeev.
ouv0 usual
S|ogo|a ||oa|
|/| | |/| |
Nom. ouv0 ouv0r ouv0rt ouv0
Acc. ouv0 ouv0r ouv0rt ouv0
Gen. ouv0ou ouv0ou ouv0ev ouv0ev
3.39
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Aojectlves ln
-g, -r
59
Lxamles (virl movemenr o sriess ro rle rliiu syllaLle iom rle enu in
rle neurei nominarive anu accusarive singulai): uu0u 'imuuenr`,
rntk 'oLlong`, kuko0 'immoial, malignanr`, ktv 'Leuiiuuen`.
Adjectives with neuter in -tuo
1vo sers o aujecrive can Le classiheu in rlis giou. 1lose in rle hisr ser
(a) mainly uenore lysical aeaiance, claiacrei oi moou. 1leii mascu-
line oims enu in - anu aie ueclineu like rle coiiesonuing nouns in
secrion 3.13 (L), rle eminine oims enu in -u anu ollov rle ueclension o
rle nouns in secrion 3.14 (Lur rleie is no genirive luial oim), rle neurei
oims auu -tko ro rle srem anu aie ueclineu like orlei neurei aujecrives
(e.g. rlose in secrion 3.33). 1le sriess iemains on rle same syllaLle
rliouglour (see . 61). Wlen rley uo nor ieei ro eisons, rlese aujecrives
lave masculine oims in -tko anu eminine ones in -tk (ueclineu like
aujecrives in secrion 3.33), e.g. tu trnrtk e 'a lazy lie`.
Lxamles: yktvtu 'giumLling`, tu 'jealous`, kutoou 'scovl-
ing, sullen`, koutoono 'gossiing`, nuunovtu 'comlaining`,
nrtoutu 'sruLLoin`, totykouv 'mean, miseily`, anu all aujecrives
enuing in -ou, e.g. tkou 'riny`. Similaily many comounu
aujecrives in vlicl rle seconu elemenr uenores a air o rle Louy, e.g.
uv0ou 'aii-laiieu`, uuout 'Llack-eyeu`, out 'snoL-
Lisl` (lireially 'ligl-noseu`).
1le aujecrives in rle seconu ser virl neurei in -tko (L) also mainly uenore
asecrs o lysical aeaiance, claiacrei oi Lelavioui. 1le masculine
nominarive singulai enus in -u oi -, anu rle luial is oimeu as oi rle
coiiesonuing nouns in secrion 3.13 (a). 1le eminine enuings aie rle same
as rlose o rle noun ueclension in -ou in secrion 3.1S. ]usr as rle mascu-
line anu eminine luial oims auu a ro rle srem o rle singulai, so uo
all rle neurei oims, vlicl consequenrly enu in -tko, erc (see . 61).
Hovevei, rlese aujecrives also lave masculine oims in -tko anu emi-
nine ones in -tk, vlicl aie useu oi nouns rlar uo nor ieei ro eisons,
e.g. ruktko ku r 'gouimer coee`.
Lxamles: kotuu 'ar-Lellieu`, nouoyu 'clarreiing`, evuku
'louu-mourleu`. Wirl singulai in -, -ou, -tko, luial -r, -our,
-tku: kuyut 'quaiielsome`, ruk 'cloosy, enrlusiasric`.
1le masculine anu eminine oims o rlese aujecrives aie also iegulaily
useu as nouns, e.g. o uyu 'rle glurron` (comaie secrions 3.13 anu 3.1S).
3.40
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Tbe noun
ano tbe
noun pbrase
60
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Adjectives in -v, -ouoo, -ov
1lis is a iarlei small caregoiy Lur ir incluues some iequenrly useu aujec-
rives. In oiigin, rley aie rle ueclineu airicile oims o veiLs anu may Le
comaieu ro Lnglisl aujecrives in -ing, e.g. rvtu rev 'inreiesring`.
Hovevei, nor all veiLs can oim aujecrives in rlis vay, in acr rleie aie
veiy ev sucl voius in eveiyuay use. 1le masculine oims, excer rle
nominarive singulai, anu rle neurei oims, excer rle nominarive anu
accusarive singulai, lave a srem enuing in -ovt-. 1le eminine oims lave
a srem enuing in -ouo-. In rle genirive luial rle masculine anu neurei lave
sriess on rle enulrimare syllaLle, vlile rle eminine moves rle sriess ro
rle lasr syllaLle. 1le vocarive is iaie, Lur is rle same as rle coiiesonuing
nominarive.
Lxamles: rutrruev 'seconuaiy (in imoirance)`, rvtu rev 'inrei-
esring`, ttuev 'eculiai`, rev 'uruie`, netruev 'iimaiy,
iincial`, onouuev 'sruuying`, unuev 'exisring`.
Orlei aujecrives virl rle same enuings uiei in rle osirion o sriess, e.g.
nuev, nuouou, nuov, luial nuovtr, nuouor, nuovtu 'iesenr`.
1le sriess iemains on rle same syllaLle, excer oi rle genirive luial o
rle eminine, vlicl las rle sriess on rle hnal syllaLle: nuouoev, simi-
laily unev 'aLsenr`, unotuev 'unsuccessul`, tuev 'clancing ro laen,
oiuinaiy`. A ev orleis (ueiiving iom seconu-conjugarion veiLs) lave
-ouv in rle nominarive anu accusarive neurei singulai anu rle syllaLle
-ouvt- insreau o -ovt- in rle ielevanr masculine anu neurei oims: totkev,
-ouou, -ouv 'managing`, rntkutev 'ievailing`. Iinally, rleie is yer
anorlei uieience o vovel (-e- rliouglour) in kurvev, -eou, -ev
'iuling`.
3.41
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Tbe noun
ano tbe
noun pbrase
62
rnrtyev urgent
S|ogo|a ||oa|
| | | | | |
Nom. rnrtyev rnrtyouou rnrtyov rnrtyovtr rnrtyouor rnrtyovtu
Acc. rnrtyovtu rnrtyouou rnrtyov rnrtyovtr rnrtyouor rnrtyovtu
Gen. rnrtyovto rnrtyouou rnrtyovto rnrtyovtev rnrtyouoev rnrtyovtev
lndecIinabIe adjectives
Some aujecrives, mainly loan-voius iom orlei languages, uo nor uecline,
rley lave a single oim oi all genueis anu cases, singulai anu luial.
Lxamles: ykt 'giey`, ku r 'Liovn`, konr 'ull, comlere`, o 'mauve`,
nr 'Llue`, tyr 'sriieu`, o 'ink`, ooktv 'slocking`, toku 'ull u,
ackeu`.
Conparison of adjectives..
Overview
Secrions 3.333.42 give rle Lasic (oi osirive) oims o aujecrives. Wlen
ve vanr ro comaie rle exrenr ro vlicl uieienr eisons oi rlings ossess
a airiculai ioeiry, ve can use rle comaiarive anu sueilarive oims o
aujecrives: 'Liggei, Liggesr`, 'Lerrei, Lesr`. 1le comaiarive esraLlisles a
comaiison Lerveen rvo eisons, rlings oi gious (e.g. ']oln is kinuei
rlan Perei`). We neeu ro make a uisrincrion Lerveen rle ielarive sueila-
rive ('rle kinuesr`) anu rle aLsolure sueilarive ('mosr kinu`, 'exriemely
kinu`). 1le vay sucl comaiarive anu sueilarive oims aie iouuceu in
Gieek iom rle Lasic aujecrive oims is uesciiLeu in rle nexr oui secrions.
The conparative
In Lnglisl rleie aie rvo vays o oiming rle comaiarive: ve can eirlei auu
rle suhx -ei ro rle osirive oim ('oluei`, 'kinuei`, 'cleveiei`, erc.) oi ve can
use rle voiu 'moie` ('moie clevei`, 'moie inreiesring`, erc.). Hovevei, nor
all aujecrives can use Lorl vays o making a comaiarive. In auuirion,
Lnglisl las some iiiegulai comaiarive oims, e.g. 'goou` 'Lerrei`, 'Lau`
'voise`. Similaily in Gieek rleie aie rvo vays o making a comaiarive,
Lur some aujecrives uo nor lave a one-voiu oim, rley can use only a oim
virl rle voiu nto 'moie`. 1leie aie also some iiiegulai oimarions, oi
vlicl see secrion 3.4.
All Gieek aujecrives can lave a comaiarive oim vlicl simly urs nto
Leoie rle osirive oim: nto oo o 'moie Leauriul`, nto roko
'ieslei, moie iesl`, nto trnr 'laziei`, erc. 1le aujecrive is inlecreu oi
numLei, genuei anu case, jusr like rle osirive oims. 1le alreinarive, one-
voiu comaiarive is oimeu iom rle nominarive o rle neurei singulai virl
rle auuirion o rle suhx -tro, e.g. onouutotro 'moie imoiranr`,
3.44
3.43
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|noecllnable
aojectlves
63
nututro 'Lioauei`. Sucl comaiarive oims lave rle sriess on rle rliiu
syllaLle iom rle enu anu aie ueclineu like rle aujecrives in secrion 3.33, i.e.
virl eminine singulai in -. One-voiu comaiarives o rlis kinu uo nor
exisr oi rle olloving: airicile oims in -rvo, aujecrives in -, -tu, -t
oi -ev, -ouou, -ov, aujecrives virl neurei in -tko, inueclinaLle aujecrives.
Sucl aujecrives only lave rle comaiarive virl nto.
1le raLle Lelov lisrs all rle aujecrive ryes iesenreu in secrions 3.333.3
anu 3.393.42, virl rle comaiarive oims availaLle oi eacl. 1le uasl
() inuicares rlar a one-voiu comaiarive oim uoes nor exisr oi rlis rye.
o nto o otro liglei, rallei (secrion 3.33)
trrto nto trrto trrtotro moie eiecr (secrion 3.34)
roko nto roko rokotro ieslei (secrion 3.35)
uu nto uu uutro leaviei (secrion 3.36)
ku rt nto ku rt Liovnei (secrion 3.3)
ukt nto ukt uktrotro moie iecise (secrion 3.39)
ouv0 nto ouv0 ouv0rotro moie usual (secrion 3.39)
trnr nto trnr laziei (secrion 3.40)
uyu nto uyu moie (secrion 3.40)
glurronous
rnrtyev nto rnrtyev moie uigenr (secrion 3.41)
ykt nto ykt gieyei (secrion 3.42)
Ioi rle use o rle comaiarive in comlere senrences, anu oi exiessions
o ineiioiiry (e.g. 'less inreiesring`) see secrion 10.22.
The reIative superIative
1le ielarive sueilarive is useu ro inuicare rlar rle eison oi rling ro vlicl
ir ieeis ossesses a airiculai ioeiry ro rle liglesr uegiee ielarive ro
orleis in rle same giou, e.g. 'rle cleveiesr eison I lave evei mer`, 'rle
mosr imoiranr memLei o rle ream`, 'rle rallesr Luiluing in Luioe`. 1le
ielarive sueilarive is oimeu in rle same vay as rle comaiarive, Lur is
ieceueu Ly rle uehnire airicle. Aujecrives rlar lave a cloice o rvo
comaiarive oims also lave rvo coiiesonuing ielarive sueilarives,
ueclineu in rle same vay. Ioi convenience ve give rle ielarive sueilarive
oims o rle aujecrive ryes lisreu in secrion 3.44:
o o nto o o otro rle liglesr/rallesr
trrto o nto trrto o trrtotro rle mosr eiecr
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Tbe noun
ano tbe
noun pbrase
64
roko o nto roko o rokotro rle ieslesr
uu o nto uu o uutro rle leaviesr
ku rt o nto ku rt rle Liovnesr
ukt o nto ukt o uktrotro rle mosr iecise
ouv0 o nto ouv0 o ouv0rotro rle mosr usual
trnr o nto trnr rle laziesr
uyu o nto uyu rle mosr glurronous
rnrtyev o nto rnrtyev rle mosr uigenr
ykt o nto ykt rle gieyesr
The absoIute superIative
Gieek las a secial kinu o sueilarive calleu rle aLsolure sueilarive,
vlicl is useu ro sriess an excerional ioeiry o a eison oi rling.
Comaie rle Lnglisl 'Sle is a mosr aLle reaclei` oi '1lis nevs is mosr
signihcanr`. In sucl cases ve aie nor making a uiiecr comaiison virl
orlei, less aLle, reacleis oi orlei, less signihcanr, nevs, Lur meiely emla-
sizing rle excerional aLiliry o rle reaclei oi rle excerional signihcance
o rle nevs in quesrion. In Gieek rle aLsolure sueilarive is oimeu iom
rle neurei o rle osirive aujecrive virl rle auuirion o rle suhx -tuto.
Like rle comaiarive anu rle ielarive sueilarive, ir is sriesseu on rle rliiu
syllaLle iom rle enu anu ueclines like aujecrives in -o, -, -o. Aujecrives
vlicl uo nor lave a one-voiu comaiarive in -tro cannor oim an
aLsolure sueilarive.
Some examles: eutotuto 'excerionally Leauriul`, uotkotuto 'mosr
naruial, aLsolurely naruial`, uktrotuto 'exriemely iecise`, u0ututo
'veiy uee inueeu, ioounu`, rootuto 'mosr eminenr`. As can Le seen
iom rle rianslarions given aLove, Lnglisl las a vaiiery o vays o
exiessing rle same iuea.
lrreguIar conparatives and superIatives
Some aujecrives lave comaiarive anu/oi sueilarive uegiees rlar aie nor
oimeu accoiuing ro rle arreins given in secrions 3.443.46. 1le
olloving raLle lisrs rle mosr common iiiegulai oims. 1le comaiarive
anu ielarive sueilarive oims aie rle same, excer rlar rle ielarive sueila-
rive is ieceueu Ly rle uehnire airicle.
3.47
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Tbe absolute
superlatlve
65
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1le olloving comaiarive, ielarive anu aLsolure sueilarive oims uo nor
ueiive iom aujecrives in rle osirive uegiee, some o rlem ueiive iom
orlei airs o seecl, as inuicareu in rle hisr column (voius in Liackers
aie nor noimally useu rouay).
Co,aat|ve/e|at|ve /bso|ote
so,e|at|ve so,e|at|ve
(uve) (o) uvetro uvetuto
above superlor blgbest, supreme
kute (o) kutetro kutetuto
below ln|erlor lowest, mlnlmum
notte nottotro
| pre|er pre|erable
(o) noyrvrotro
prlor, earllest
(o) rtuyrvrotro
subsequent, latest
(notov) (o) notrotro notrotuto
near nearer, nearest very near
The use of noun phrases and of adjectives..
Agreenent within the noun phrase
As ve saiu in secrion 3.1, rle noun liase ryically consisrs o a noun (oi
a voiu suLsriruring oi a noun sucl as an aujecrive oi ionoun), orion-
ally accomanieu Ly one oi moie o rle olloving mouiheis: an airicle, a
uereiminei (oi moie on uereimineis see secrions 4.34.9), an aujecrive, a
numeial oi a quanrihei. All voius in rle same noun liase anu mouiying
rle noun agiee virl rle noun in genuei, numLei anu case (see also secrions
3.33.5). 1lis means rlar all ueclinaLle mouiheis inuicare in rleii inlec-
rion rleii genuei, numLei anu case agieemenr virl rle noun rley mouiy:
1 O ozzo tupo poo rtvut nto uokoo.
7he other ||tt|e rood ls more ol|cult.
3.48
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Agreement
wltbln tbe
noun pbrase
67
In rle noun liase in examle 1, since rle noun oo is masculine anu
aeais leie in rle nominarive singulai, rle airicle o, rle uereiminei uo
anu rle aujecrive tko aie all in rle masculine nominarive singulai oim.
In rle nexr examle:
2 ot ro t ozz tup nzot:to
ln tbe mloole of the other ||tt|e squore
rle noun nutrtu is eminine anu is Leing useu in rle genirive singulai,
oi rlis ieason rle airicle t, rle uereiminei u anu rle aujecrive
tk aie also all in rle eminine genirive singulai oim.
Somerimes a single mouihei (noimally an aujecrive) is useu virl rvo oi
moie nouns. 1le mouihei aeais in rle masculine luial i Lorl nouns
uenore lumans anu Lorl aie masculine, oi i one is masculine anu rle orlei
eminine:
3a Ayontot ou Ituvv kut Iteyo
My deor [obn ano George
b Ayontot ou Ituvv kut Mutu
My deor [obn ano Mary
I rle nouns uenore non-lumans, rle mouihei usually aeais in rle genuei
anu numLei o rle noun neaiesr ro ir:
4 :zzvtu (|em. sg.) ouotk (|em. sg.) kut tuyoutu (neut. pl.)
Creek muslc ano songs
1vo oi moie mouiheis may mouiy a singulai noun virlin rle same noun
liase even vlen rle noun uenores rvo oi moie enriries:
5 O 'Evu (sg.) kut o Touko (sg.) ovttnpoono (sg.)
Tbe Greek ano Turklsb representot|ves
The use of the cases: introduction
1leie aie oui cases in Gieek:
nominarive
accusarive
genirive
vocarive
Lveiy ueclinaLle voiu (airicle, noun, aujecrive, ionoun, uereiminei oi
numeial) inlecrs oi case, alrlougl in iacrice a voiu may nor alvays
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Tbe noun
ano tbe
noun pbrase
68
inuicare unamLiguously vlicl case ir is in. Only one class o nouns, namely
mosr masculines in -o, las a seaiare oim oi eacl o rle oui cases, anu
rlen only in rle singulai. Ioi rle oims o rle cases see secrions 3.63.
(oi airicles), 3.93.30 (oi nouns), 3.333.42 (oi aujecrives), 4.14.10 (oi
ionouns anu uereimineis) anu 5.2 (oi numeials).
The use of the noninative
1le nominarive is rle Lasic case: uicrionaiies lisr ueclinaLle voius in rle
nominarive singulai oim.
1le nominarive is useu ro inuicare rle suLjecr o a veiL (i.e. rle eison,
rling, erc. rlar uoes somerling (1), oi is in a ceirain srare (2), oi unuei-
goes a clange (3), oi las somerling uone ro lim/lei/ir (4)):
1 H Mopto r uyr.
Mor, le|t.
2 O Houzo kotutut.
Pou| ls asleep.
3 H Avvo rnror kute.
Ann |ell oown.
4 uuktotkr o uz: t.
7he th|ef was lmprlsoneo.
In auuirion, rle nominarive is useu ro inuicare a suLjecr ieuicare (i.e. a
voiu oi liase ieeiiing ro rle same eison, rling, erc., as rle suLjecr):
H Mutu rtvut ytotpo.
Mary's o doctor.
1le nominarive is also useu in ceirain moie-oi-less hxeu exiessions, e.g.:
ott troort po
at |our o`c|ock
The use of the accusative
1le accusarive las rvo clie uses. 1le hisr is ro inuicare rle uiiecr oLjecr
o a veiL (i.e. rle eison, rling, erc. rlar is aecreu Ly rle suLjecr):
1a H Mutu rkrtor tv nopto.
Mary sbut the door.
3.51
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Tbe use
o| tbe
nomlnatlve
69
b H Mutu tv rkrtor.
Mary sbut |t.
Similaily, rle accusarive is useu ro exiess an oLjecr ieuicare (i.e. a voiu
oi liase ieeiiing ro rle same eison, rling, erc., as rle oLjecr):
Tov 0ree tzo ou.
| consloer blm o fr|end of m|ne.
Seconu, rle accusarive is useu oi rle oLjecr o mosr ieosirions (oi moie
on ieosirions see Clarei S):
2 O Ituvv 0r uno tv A0vo.
[obn came |rom Athens.
3 Xutou to tto otov Itovv.
| gave tbe book to john.
1le accusarive las a vaiiery o orlei uses. oun liases in rle accusarive
may Le useu auveiLially, esecially in exiessions o measuiemenr in rime
oi sace. Sucl uses o noun liases in rle accusarive incluue rle olloving:
Duiarion (rime)
4 Aouru oz :po.
| workeo o|| do,.
Disrance (sace oi rime)
5 'Etru tpto tzto:tpo.
| ran three k||ometres.
6 Kutor :vo povo.
|t lasteo olone ,eor.
Poinr in rime
7 t vutu
ourlng tbe nlgbt
8 tv Kutuk to unoyruu
on Sunoay a|ternoon
9 tv u ru
tbe net oay
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Tbe noun
ano tbe
noun pbrase
70
10 tov Auyouoto
ln August
11 tv net rouutou
on tbe rst o| February (see also sectlon 5.5)
12 tv uvot
ln sprlng
13 to Huou
at Laster
14 to 2004 (to uo ttur trooru)
ln 2004
15 trt or
tbree tlmes
Rare (rime oi veiglr)
16 trt or tv po
tbree tlmes on hour
17 ttu outu tov tovo
a tbousano oollars o tonne
Dimensions
18a rvu uo :uo novtou uku
a stlck ten cent|metres long
b rvu uo :uo novtou ko
a stlck ten cent|metres |ln] lengtb
1lese examles aie rvo alreinarive vays o saying rle same rling.
Degiee o seaiarion (sace oi rime)
19 Mrve uo poou nuukute.
| llve two streets |urtber oown.
20 H ur ou rtvut :vo povo ryuutr/nto ryu
uno rvu.
My slster ls one ,eor oloer tban me.
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Tbe use o|
tbe accusatlve
71
Goal oi aim
21 Hyu n:ptnoto.
| went for o wo|k.
In exclamarions (vlerlei oi nor rle seakei is auuiessing rle eison
uesciiLeu):
22 tv kurv! (|em. sg.)
poor tblng!
Locarion ar oi morion ro
In colloquial usage rle accusarive o a lace name (useu virlour rle
airicle) may exiess locarion ar oi morion ro rle lace:
23 Ou rtut [otv] Koptv0o (c|. nom. Kotv0o).
|'ll be ln Cor|nth.
24 Hu [otou] An:zounou, (c|. nom. ot Anroknot)
Are you golng to Am5e|ok|p|?
In rlese examles rle voiu in squaie Liackers is inseireu in less colloquial
usage.
The use of the genitive
A noun liase in rle genirive may Le goveineu Ly a veiL, oi ir may ueenu
on a noun. Wlen a noun liase in rle genirive is goveineu Ly a veiL, ir
mosr commonly acrs as rle inuiiecr oLjecr (see 3.52.1). Wlen ir ueenus
on a noun, a noun liase in rle genirive mosr commonly inuicares rle
eison oi rling rlar ossesses rle noun on vlicl ir ueenus, rlougl ir may
inuicare vaiious orlei, moie aLsriacr, ielarions insreau. Bioauly seaking,
rle genirive ueenuing on a noun is equivalenr ro rle Lnglisl ossessive
case ('rle giil`s`) oi ro rle noun ieceueu Ly 'o` ('o rle giil`).
The gentve governed by o verb
Wlen ir is goveineu Ly a veiL, rle genirive oim o a veak eisonal
ionoun oi a noun liase noimally inuicares rlar rle ionoun oi (moie
iaiely) rle noun liase is rle inuiiecr oLjecr o rle veiL, i.e. rle eison ro
J.52.!
3.52
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Tbe noun
ano tbe
noun pbrase
72
vlom an acrion is uone. In examles 13 rle inuiiecr oLjecr uenores rle
eison oi rling ro vlicl somerling is given oi saiu:
1 Mou utor rvu kotr.
(S)be gave me a necklace.
2 T rtnu tu vru.
| tolo her tbe news.
3 Etnu t Mopto tu vru.
| tolo Mor, tbe news.
Wlen rle inuiiecr oLjecr is a noun liase iarlei rlan a ionoun, ir is moie
usually exiesseu Ly or + accusarive (see secrion S.2).
In examle 4 rle inuiiecr oLjecr uenores rle eison oi vlom rle acrion
is uone:
4 2ou re uour oru.
|'ve got strawberrles for ,ou tooay.
In examle 5 rle inuiiecr oLjecr may Le inreiiereu as rle eison iom
vlom somerling is iemoveu:
5 Tou nuv tu nunoutotu.
Tbey took tbe sboes from h|m 0 Tbey took h|s sboes.
In examles 6 rle inuiiecr oLjecr inuicares rle eison aecreu Ly rle
acrion o rle veiL:
6 Tou rnror to uvttt.
He oroppeo h|s banokercble| (llt. 'tolfrom h|m |ell tbe
banokercble|').
7 Mou ronuor rvu ovtt.
One o| m, teetb bas broken (ovtt ls tbe subject) 0 (S)be/lt
broke one o| m, teetb (ovtt ls tbe olrect object) (llt. 'to me
broke (3ro sg.) a tootb').
1le genirive is also useu ro inuicare rle oLjecr (usually a veak ionoun)
o ceirain veiLs rlar uo nor rake uiiecr oLjecrs, sucl as uroe 'I lease`,
nue 'I suir`, anu utvout 'I seem`:
8 Arv ou urort uuto to kuot.
l oon't llke tbls wlne (llt. 'Tbls wlne ooesn't please me').
9 2ou nurt uuto to oru.
Tbls oress sults ,ou (sg.).
10 Eukoo ou utvrtut.
|t looks easy to me.
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Tbe use o|
tbe genltlve
73
The gentve dependng on o noun
Possessive genirive
Wlen a noun liase oi a veak ionoun is in rle genirive ir may inuicare
rlar rle eison oi rling vlicl ir uenores is rle ossessoi o rle eison oi
rling uenoreu Ly rle noun on vlicl ir ueenus:
11a to onttt tou Koto
Kostos`s bouse
b to onttt tou
h|s bouse
12a tu kutu tv :vtpv
tbe brancbes of the trees
b tu kutu tou
the|r brancbes
Ioi rle use o rle airicle in rlis consriucrion see secrion 3.54.
SuLjecrive anu oLjecrive genirive
A noun liase oi ionoun in rle genirive ueenuing on an aLsriacr noun
may inuicare a moie aLsriacr ielarionsli:
13 touytu tou Houzou
Pou|`s creatlon
14 touytu t uotootoo out
tbe creatlon of th|s s|tuot|on
In examle 13 rle noun liase tou Huuou is an examle o rle suLjec-
rive genirive, Lecause Paul is rle eison vlo cieares (i.e. rle suLjecr o rle
ciearive iocess), vlile in examle 14 rle noun liase t kutuotuo
uut is an examle o rle oLjecrive genirive, since rle siruarion is vlar is
cieareu (i.e. rle oLjecr o rle ciearive iocess).
Orlei uses o rle genirive
A noun liase in rle genirive may Le useu in a viue vaiiery o vays,
incluuing rle olloving:
15 Mu tou Mopo0vo
tbe 8attle of Morothon (place)
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Tbe noun
ano tbe
noun pbrase
74
16 ot 'Evr tou :tuootou nptou otvo
tbe Greeks of the twent,-rst centur, (tlme)
17 ntku tou ptoou
tbe sorrow of port|ng (cause)
18 rvu nott t ntpo
a 5eer-glass (l.e. a glass |or beer: purpose)
19 rvu ku0yt tzozoyto
a ||teroture teacber/pro|essor (speclcatlon)
20 oo Kopo
Koro|s Street (street name)
21 ookoutu nozut:z:to
|uxur, cbocolate (quallty)
22 uv0enot t:totou :tou
people of such o k|nd (quallty)
23 rvu nutt t:ooopv povv
a four-,eor-o|d cbllo (measurement)
24 tu ortu n:vt: toz::v
a serles of ve |ectures (content)
25 ottyr :ututo
moments of hopp|ness (content)
The gentve dependng on o numerol, odjectve or pronoun
A noun liase oi ionoun in rle genirive may ueenu on a numeial, aujec-
rive oi ionoun.
umeials anu ceirain aujecrives anu ionouns may Le olloveu Ly a veak
eisonal ionoun in rle genirive vlicl secihes moie naiiovly rle scoe
o rle voiu on vlicl ir ueenus. (I rle irem rlar ueenus on any o rlese
voius is a noun liase iarlei rlan a veak ionoun, rlis noun liase las
ro Le in rle accusarive ieceueu Ly uno: see secrion S.2, examle 6.)
26 ot trt oo
tbe tbree of ,ou
27 kuvrvu tou
none/any of them
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Tbe use o|
tbe genltlve
75
28 o ku0rvu o
eacb of us
29 oot o
all of us
1le inrensive ionoun ovo 'alone` may Le olloveu Ly a veak eisonal
ionoun in rle genirive, rle vlole liase meaning 'Ly onesel`, in rle sense
o eirlei 'virlour comany` oi 'virlour lel`: ov ou 'Ly mysel (em.)`
(see secrion 4.9).
Other uses o( the gentve
1le genirive o rle veak eisonal ionoun may Le useu arei rle comai-
arive oi sueilarive oim o an aujecrive, e.g. ryuutro ou 'Liggei/
oluei (masc. sg. nom.) rlan me`. In iacrice, lovevei, rle comaiarive is
moie usually olloveu Ly uno + accusarive, e.g. ryuutro uno rvu
(see secrion 10.22).
1le veak ionoun in rle genirive may ueenu on ceirain exclamaroiy
voius in gieerings, visles, anu orlei exclamarions (oi moie on gieerings
anu visles see secrion 12.3). Heie again, rle ionoun secihes rle eison
ro oi oi vlom rle visl is maue:
30 Kuru oo!
Gooo oay to ,ou (pl.)!
31 Mnuo t!
Gooo |or her!
32 Hruottku tou!
| bope be gets well soon! (llt. '|may lt be] passlng to h|m')
33 Irtu oou (sg.) or Irtu oo (pl.)!
Hello/Gooobye!
In colloquial usage rleie aie ceirain hxeu exiessions consisring o noun
liases in rle genirive, vlicl lave a meraloiical auveiLial oi aujecrival
use. Heie aie a ev examles:
34 Arv ku oru t npouon.
| olon't no a oress |tbat was] on, good.
35 'Eytvr t uouootpo or t tp:z.
Tbere was o terr|5|e commot|on.
36 H kovt ouotu rtvut t oo.
Sbort sklrts are |n fosh|on.
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Tbe noun
ano tbe
noun pbrase
76
Ceirain ieosirions vlose use is cliely conhneu ro oimal conrexrs
govein rle genirive (see secrion S.2).
A noun liase in rle genirive may somerimes ueenu on a noun rlar las
Leen omirreu:
37 Hyu otou Itovv.
| went to john`s |bouse].
38 Auto to onttt oturt r tou Itovv.
Tbls bouse ls llke john`s |bouse].
The use of the vocative
1le vocarive inuicares rlar rle eison oi rling uenoreu Ly rle noun liase
is Leing auuiesseu:
39 'Eu, 2t: ov:!
Come on, Stephen!
40 Aoo ovr!
Muroerer!
A voiu in rle vocarive may, in amiliai usage, Le ieceueu Ly rle exclam-
aroiy voius er, r oi r, vlicl aie uninlecreu oi case, numLei, anu
genuei (see secrion 12.1).
The use of the denite articIe
1le uehnire airicle in Gieek is useu in a Lioauly similai vay as in Lnglisl,
i.e. ro slov rlar rle noun rlar ir mouihes uenores a secihc irem, comaie
examle 1a, vlicl uses rle uehnire airicle, virl 1L, vlicl uses rle inue-
inire airicle:
1a o okuo
the oog
b :vo okuo
o oog
In auuirion ro rle uses o rle uehnire airicle rlar Gieek las in common
virl Lnglisl, rle Gieek uehnire airicle is useu in rle olloving ciicum-
srances:
3.54
3.53
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Tbe use o|
tbe vocatlve
77
virl ioei names ieeiiing ro secihc eisons oi laces:
2 Mutu
Mary
3 o kuto Hunuonouo
Mr Papaoopoulos
4 Oroouovtk
Tbessalonlkl
Wlen ioei names aie useu in rle vocarive ro auuiess someone, rle airicle
is nor useu (Mutu! 'âiy!`, Kutr Hunuonour! 'î Paauooulos!`).
virl nouns mouiheu Ly rle ossessive ionoun vlen rle noun ieeis
ro a secihc irem, virl rle uehnire airicle rle ossessive is rle
equivalenr o 'my`, erc. (5a), vleieas virlour rle uehnire airicle ir
coiiesonus ro 'o mine`, erc. (5Lc):
5a o to ou
m, |rleno
b :vo to ou
o |rleno of m|ne
c uott tot ou
some |rlenos of m|ne
virl nouns accomanieu Ly a uemonsriarive ('rlis`, 'rlar`):
6 uuto to onttt
tbls bouse
virl nouns accomanieu Ly rle quanriheis oo 'all` anu ooko
'vlole` (rle larrei can Le useu virlour rle airicle, as in SL):
7 oo o kooo
everyone (llt. 'all tbe worlo')
8a ooko to eto
the wbole vlllage
b ooku ovtu
(|or) years on eno (llt. 'wbole years')
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Tbe noun
ano tbe
noun pbrase
78
virl aLsriacr nouns vlen rley aie vieveu as uenoring a uehnire enriry:
9 O oo rtvut rvottkto.
Fear ls an lnstlnct.
virl nouns uenoring suLsrances:
10 O yuvtt rtvut nou oko.
Granlte ls very baro.
virl luial nouns (1112) anu aujecrives (13) uenoring vlole classes
o irems:
11 Ot uvtr uyunuvr to nooo uto.
Men love |ootball.
12 Ayunue to noutu.
| love blros.
13 Ot vrot ukouvr ouvrrtu ouotk.
Young people llsten to muslc all tbe tlme.
Lxamle 11 also illusriares rle use o rle uehnire airicle virl vaiious orlei
kinus o noun (leie nooo uto) vleie Lnglisl uoes nor use ir.
virl uays o rle veek, monrls, yeais, seasons anu esrivals, vleie rle
vlole liase eirlei uenores rle irem irsel (14a1Sa) oi (in rle
accusarive) ieeis ro rle occasion on vlicl somerling laens
(14L1SL):
14a Hotte to Iuuto.
| pre|er Saturoay (c|. :vo Iuuto 'one Saturoay').
b To Iuuto 0u nur rko.
0n Saturoay we'll go |or an outlng.
15a Arv ou urort o rouuto.
| oon't llke February.
b Tov rouuto rrt nou.
|t ralns a lot |n February.
16a To 2001 rv tuv ku ovtu.
2001 wasn't a gooo year.
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Tbe use o|
tbe oenlte
artlcle
79
b To 2001 nyur otv Ayytu.
We went to Lnglano |n 2001.
17a O nruorvo rtevu tuv nou uu.
Last wlnter was very barsb.
b Tov rtevu kuvour okt.
ln wlnter/ln the wlnter we go skllng.
18a Ayune to rvtko Huou.
| love Greek Laster.
b To Huou nyur otv Kt.
We went to Crete ot Laster.
virl uares anu rimes o uay:
19 ott troort
on tbe |ourtb |o| tbe montb], at |our (o'clock)
in exiessions o iare (in rle accusarive):
20 rvutot rkutouto tov vu
one ano a bal| mllllon olper montb
21 rkuto ttortu tv eu
a bunoreo kllometres onlper bour
in rle neurei, ro ruin any voiu oi liase inro a noun liase oi noun
clause, e.g. ro make a noun our o anorlei air o seecl (22), vlen
ralking aLour a voiu (23), oi ro inriouuce a comlemenr clause,
esecially vlen ir ieceues rle main clause (2425):
22 Auto notr rv okr trtut to uuto.
He never tblnks about tomorrow (uuto ls normally an
aoverb).
23 He yu rtut to uuyrtu,
How ls |tbe woro] 'uyrio' spelt (llt. 'wrltten')?
24 To ott rv yutor ukou rtvut kuko out.
|Tbe |act] tbat (s)be basn't come back yet ls a bao slgn.
25 To vu r trtotu nuyutu rtvut uokoo.
To say (2no sg.) sucb tblngs ls ol|cult.
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Tbe noun
ano tbe
noun pbrase
80
Iinally, unlike in Lnglisl, rle uehnire airicle is noimally ieeareu Leoie
rle seconu anu suLsequenr nouns o a co-oiuinareu sequence i rle hisr one
is irsel accomanieu Ly rle uehnire airicle:
26 tu uyotu kut tu kottotu
tbe boys ano glrls
Ioi rle oims o rle uehnire airicle see secrion 3.6.
The use of the indenite articIe
1le Lasic uncrion o rvu, tu, rvu is ro uenore rle numLei 'one`. Ir is
also useu as a ionoun virl a similai meaning ro kunoto 'someone`:
1 'H0r :vo kut or touor.
Someone came asklng |or you (llt. 'ano you (acc. sg.) was-
asklng-|or (3ro sg.)').
1lis means rlar ir is nor alvays useu exacrly like rle Lnglisl inuehnire
airicle 'a, an`, rlougl in many conrexrs ir coiiesonus exacrly ro Lnglisl:
2 Tov uykeor :vo okuo.
A oog blt blm.
3 Etu to t oou.
| saw o (|emale) |rleno o| yours (sg.).
Ioi rle oims o rle inuehnire airicle see secrion 3..
Absence of articIe
In many conrexrs Gieek uoes nor use an airicle ar all vleie Lnglisl uses
rle inuehnire airicle, oi 'any` oi 'some`. Among rlese uses aie rle olloving:
virl a ieuicare (e.g. arei rle veiLs rtut 'I am` anu ytvout 'I
Lecome`: see also secrion 6.1):
1 Etvut tooyo.
(S)be's o llterature teacber.
2 'Eytvr tooyo.
(S)be became o llterature teacber.
arei ouv 'like` (see also secrion 10.22.2):
3 'Etrr ouv nout.
(S)be was trembllng llke o blro.
3.56
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Tbe use o|
tbe lnoenlte
artlcle
81
virl rle oLjecr o a veiL, vleie rle seakei uoes nor visl ro sriess
rlar rle oLjecr is secihc oi uehnire, rlis laens esecially in hxeu
exiessions (46) anu in inreiiogarive, negarive anu conuirional
senrences (11):
4 ourt oukukt.
(S)be's wearlng o jacket (tbe speaker ls not maklng a contrast
between one partlcular jacket ano anotber, but between
wearlng a jacket ano not wearlng a jacket).
5 Enttrou ku oot.
At last |'ve |ouno o watcb (tbe speaker ls not stresslng tbat
(s)be's now |ouno a partlcular watcb, but slmply tbat (s)be's
|ouno a watcb, wbereas prevlously (s)be baon't |ouno one).
6 Kuve tr evu.
|'m maklng o pbone call.
7 'Ert ktvto,
Have you got o moblle?
8 Arv re ktvto.
| baven't got o moblle.
9 Av rtu ktvto 0u tov rnutvu.
|| | bao o moblle | woulo call blm.
10 'Ert ur tu,
Have you on, brotbers ano slsters?
11 Arv re ur tu.
| oon't bave on,/| bave no brotbers ano slsters.
virl rle suLjecr, vlen rlar suLjecr is inuehnire, esecially in
inreiiogarive (12), negarive (13) anu conuirional (14) senrences:
12 Tnurt yuvutku nou vu v to rrt,
|s tbere o woman wbo ooesn't know lt?
13 Arv unurt yuvutku nou vu v to rrt.
Tbere lsn't o woman wbo ooesn't know lt.
14 Av r etouor yuvutku, 0u tv rotrvu ot
ouvur o ou.
|| o woman askeo me, | woulo seno ber to my (|emale)
colleague.
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Tbe noun
ano tbe
noun pbrase
82
o airicle is useu ar all in noun liases uenoring an unseciheu amounr
o a suLsrance (1516) oi an unseciheu numLei o irems (1), vleie
Lnglisl uses 'some`:
15 Ore kuot.
| want some wlne.
16 Xu0kr kuot oto tunrouvtto.
Some wlne bas spllleo on tbe tableclotb.
17 Ayouou nunoutotu.
| bougbt some sboes.
The use of adjectives
Almosr all aujecrives inlecr oi genuei, numLei anu case. Ioi rle oims o
aujecrives see secrions 3.323.4.
1le clie uncrion o rle aujecrive is ro mouiy a noun. An aujecrive may
mouiy rle noun in eirlei arriiLurive oi ieuicarive use.
In arriiLurive use an aujecrive mouihes rle noun in rle same liase, ir musr
agiee virl irs noun in genuei, numLei anu case (oi agieemenr virlin rle
noun liase see secrion 3.4S):
1 rvu oupo okuo (masc. nom. sg.)
a 5|ock oog
2 tu oup yutu (|em. nom./acc. sg.)
a 5|ock cat
1le aujecrive noimally comes immeuiarely Leoie rle noun. Ir may,
lovevei, aeai arei rle noun oi secial emlasis. In sucl cases, i rle
noun is ieceueu Ly rle uehnire airicle, rle airicle musr Le ieeareu Leoie
rle aujecrive, as in examle 4:
3 rvu okuo oupo
a block oog (as opposeo to a oog o| a ol||erent colour)
4 yutu oup
tbe block cat (as opposeo to tbe cat(s) o| a ol||erent colour)
In ieuicarive use rle aujecrive ieeis ro rle suLjecr oi uiiecr oLjecr virlour
Leing in rle same liase, again, ir agiees virl rle noun ir ieeis ro in
genuei, numLei anu case (see also secrion 6.1):
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Tbe use o|
aojectlves
83
5 O okuo rtvut oupo (tbe aojectlve uuo ls a preol-
cate o| tbe subject okuo).
Tbe oog ls 5|ock.
6 Aut yutu rtvut oup.
Tbls cat ls 5|ock.
7 O Ituvv nuvtrutkr tupo (masc. nom. sg.).
[obn marrleo ,oung.
8 To uono kuot ntvrtut noy:vo (neuter nom. sg.).
Wblte wlne ls orunk ch|||ed.
9 'Euu tov toto oonpo (masc. acc. sg.: tbe aojectlve
uono ls a preolcate o| tbe olrect object toto).
| palnteo tbe wall wh|te.
In ieuicarive use an aujecrive may ieei ro a ionoun (10) oi ro an irem
rlar is nor exlicirly menrioneu (11):
10 Tov ruu oonpo (uono ls an object preolcate).
| palnteo blm/lt wh|te.
11 Etvut :unv (runv ls a subject preolcate).
Sbe/lt's c|ever.
Lxamle 10 may ieei eirlei ro a man oi ro an irem rlar is uenoreu in
Gieek Ly a masculine noun, sucl as toto 'vall`. Lxamle 11 may ieei
eirlei ro a voman oi ro an irem rlar is uenoreu in Gieek Ly a eminine
noun, sucl as yutu 'car` oi tru 'iuea`.
1le assive eiecr airicile is useu like an aujecrive in Lorl arriiLurive
anu ieuicarive use (oi irs oimarion see secrion 6.16). Lxamle S aLove,
using nuyervo 'clilleu, iozen` (iom nuyeve 'I clill, ieeze`), slovs
rle assive eiecr airicile in ieuicarive use. An examle o irs arriiLu-
rive use is tu nuyerv ntu 'a clilleu Leei`.
In noun liases seciying a eison`s narionaliry, Gieek uses rle noun
vleie Lnglisl uses rle aujecrive:
12a o oyyzo (masc. noun) ne0unouyo
b oyyzto (|em. noun) ne0unouyo
tbe 8r|t|sh prlme mlnlster
13a Etut Ayyzo (masc. noun).
b Etut Ayyzto (|em. noun).
|'m 8r|t|sh.
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Tbe noun
ano tbe
noun pbrase
84
Comaie rle olloving liases in vlicl rle aujecrive is useu ro uenore
non-lumans (uo uoesn`r sriicrly uenore luman inuiviuuals, Lur rle
concer o 'eole`):
14 o oyyztuo (masc. aoj.) uo
tbe Lng||sh people
15 oyyztu (|em. aoj.) koutvu
Lng||sh cooklng
16 to oyyztuo (neuter aoj.) touo
Lng||sh bumour
As ve sav in secrion 3.54, examle 13 (ot vrot 'young eole`), Gieek
aujecrives can Le useu as nouns. Unlike in Lnglisl, rle aujecrive useu in
rlis vay can Le singulai:
17 o vro
tbe young |man]
In auuirion, a numLei o Gieek aujecrives aie useu ro ieei ro secihc irems
in liases vleie rle noun may Le omirreu. Heie aie some examles, rle
noun rlar can Le orionally omirreu is given leie in squaie Liackers:
18 to ottko [oortoj
(tbe) prlmary scbool
19 ottk [yeoouj
tbe oemotlc language (l.e. spoken Greek)
20 rvtk [yeoouj
Greek (l.e. tbe Greek language)
21 tooo tk [Ioj
tbe Arts Faculty (o| a unlverslty)
22 o trtko [uyevuj
tbe nal (ln sport)
23 to trtuyevtko [rtoj
square metre
24 to kuntuko [tuj
tbe Cyprus questlon
25 o r uto [noroj
tbe clvll war
26 utk [uyou 0 yeoouj
street market 0 slang
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Tbe use o|
aojectlves
85
27 net [nuuotuo 0 tuuttuj
rst per|ormance 0 rst gear
Aujecrives may Le mouiheu Ly auveiLs:
28 nozu kuo
ver, gooo
29 nto kuo
better (llt. 'more gooo')
30 ztyo kuutro
o 5|t better
31 uo0opo otkovotko
pure|, economlc
1ley may also Le mouiheu Ly veak ionouns in rle genirive ro inuicare
ossession (32), rle aujecrive yveoto 'knovn` is iegulaily accomanieu
Ly a genirive veak ionoun ro inuicare rle eison rlar rle ielevanr irem
is knovn ro (33):
32 to nuto o onttt
our olo bouse (= our prevlous bouse, c|. to nuto onttt o
'our bouse wblcb ls olo')
33 tu yveot ou ku0yttu
a (|emale) pro|essor wbo ls an acqualntance of m|ne (llt. 'a
known to-me pro|essor (|em.)')
As in Lnglisl, aujecrives in Gieek may rake comlemenrs. 1lese may Le
ieosirional liases (34), oi clauses inriouuceu Ly vu (35) oi ott (36):
34 Etvut uvot oto o0ottuo.
Sbe's good (llt. 'strong') ot moths.
35 Etvut tuovo vo uov:t out t ouz:to,
|s be copo5|e of do|ng th|s o5?
36 Arv rtvut otyoupo ott 0o :p0ouv.
|t's not certo|n (thotj the,`|| come.
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3
Tbe noun
ano tbe
noun pbrase
86
Pionouns aie voius rlar sranu insreau o nounliases. 1ley eioim rle
synracric uncrions o nounliases as suLjecrs, oLjecrs, erc. Lnglisl exam-
les incluue 'le`, 'sle`, 'someone`, 'anyrling`, 'vlo.`. Dereimineis aie
voius rlar mouiy nouns. We use rlis reim in rlis Look ro ieei ro voius
orlei rlan airicles, aujecrives anu numeials. Dereimineis in Lnglisl incluue
'some`, 'any`, anu 'vlicl` (e.g. in rle liase 'vlicl Look.`). In Gieek, mosr
ionouns, aair iom eisonal ionouns, can also Le useu as uereimineis.
Ioi a raLle o ionouns anu uereimineis (aair iom eisonal ionouns)
see Aenuix 1.
PersonaI pronouns: weak (cIitic) forns
Peisonal ionouns aie useu ro ieei ro rle rliee giammarical eisons: hisr
(sg. 'I, me`, l. 've, us`), seconu ('you`) anu rliiu (sg. 'le, lim, sle, lei, ir`,
l. 'rley, rlem`).
1leie aie rvo uisrincr ryes o eisonal ionoun in Gieek: emlaric anu
veak. In rlis secrion ve iesenr rle veak oims, rle emlaric ionouns
aie iesenreu in secrion 4.2.
Weak ionouns aie useu only in close connecrion virl veiLs, nouns,
auveiLs anu ceirain orlei voius. 1ley consisr o one syllaLle anu rley aie
nor sriesseu. 1ley aie somerimes knovn as cliric ionouns, vlicl means
rlar rley aie alvays ionounceu rogerlei virl rle voiu rley ueenu on
(see also secrion 1.S). 1leie aie no veak oims oi rle nominarive case o
rle hisr anu seconu eison, Lecause rle veiL oim alvays inuicares rle
eison o rle suLjecr, i a suLjecr ionoun las ro Le iesenr Lecause rle
suLjecr is emlasizeu, rlen an emlaric ionoun is useu, as in secrion 4.2,
examle 1.
4.1
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Cbapter 4
Pronouns ond determ|ners
Weak personal pronouns
||st ,esoo. 'e, os' Secooo ,esoo. 'oo'
Sg. ||. Sg. ||.
Acc. r u Acc. or ou
Gen. ou u Gen. oou ou
T||o ,esoo. '||, |e, |t, t|e'
Sg. ||.
| | | | | |
Nom. to t to tot tr tu
Acc. tov t(v) to tou tt/tr tu
Gen. tou t tou tou tou tou
1. Tbe nomlnatlve |orms o| tbe weak pronoun are only useo ln eclamatory ano
lnterrogatlve constructlons a|ter vu 'tbere!' ano nou 'v' 'wbere ls/are', e.g.
vu t! 'tbere sbe ls!', nou 'v' tu, 'wbere are tbey?'.
2. Tt/tr: tbese two |orms, tt ls tbe obllgatory |orm useo be|ore tbe verb,
wblle eltber can be useo a|ter tbe geruno ano a|ter lmperatlves (|or more on
woro oroer see below).
Weak ionouns aie useu ai moie iequenrly rlan emlaric ionouns. A
veak eisonal ionoun may:
acr as rle uiiecr oLjecr (in rle accusarive) oi inuiiecr oLjecr (in rle
genirive) o a veiL,
acr as a ossessive ionoun (in rle genirive) arei a noun,
Le useu as a suLjecrive oi oLjecrive genirive arei a noun (see also
secrion 3.52.2),
(in rle genirive) ollov an aujecrive, numeial, ionoun oi quanrihei,
(in rle genirive) ueenu on an auveiL.
A veak ionoun may Le useu as rle uiiecr oi inuiiecr oLjecr o a veiL. Wlen
ir is a uiiecr oLjecr, ir aeais in rle accusarive case, vlen ir is an inuiiecr
oLjecr ir is in rle genirive. orling can seaiare a veak oLjecr ionoun iom
rle veiL. Weak ionouns as oLjecrs aeai immeuiarely Leoie rle veiL
(12), excer virl imeiarive oims anu virl rle geiunu (34):
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4
Pronouns ano
oetermlners
88
1 2: rtu.
| saw ,ou (sg.).
2 Arv 0u tou rt.
You (sg.) won't see them (masc.).
3 Kottur :!
Look (sg.) at me!
4 Zr utovtu to (neut. sg.), kutuuutvour ott
nokrttut ytu utooyo tto.
Fllcklng tbrougb |t, we reallze lt's a notewortby book.
Ioi an exlanarion o rle seconu sriess on rle veiL oims in examles 3
anu 4 see secrion 1.S. Ioi rle use o veak ionouns ieeiiing ro an oLjecr
noun liase see secrion 10.20.
1vo veak oLjecr ionouns can Le useu rogerlei, one oi rle inuiiecr
oLjecr, rle orlei oi rle uiiecr oLjecr. In sucl cases rle inuiiecr oLjecr comes
Leoie rle uiiecr oLjecr (56: see also secrion 6.1), rlougl arei imeiarives
oi a geiunu rle oiuei is lexiLle ():
5 2ou to rtnu.
| tolo you (llt. '7o-,ou |t |-salo').
6 M ou to rtrt.
Don't sbow them to me.
7 Hr tou to (less commonly Hr to tou).
Tell blm (llt. 'Say to-h|m |t' or 'Say |t to-h|m').
In colloquial usage, rle genirive singulai oim oou may Le ieuuceu ro o`
Leoie a rliiu-eison ionoun: examle 5 aLove voulu Lecome I` to rtnu
(somerimes viirren Ito rtnu).
1le genirive o rle veak ionoun is iegulaily useu as a ossessive ionoun
('my`, 'youi`, 'rleii`, erc., oi rle emlaric ossessive see secrion 4.4). In
rlis use, ir noimally comes immeuiarely arei rle noun, vlicl is noimally
ieceueu Ly rle uehnire airicle (Lur see secrion 3.54):
6 o ur o t
her brotber
7 to r tu tou
the|r money
Wlen useu as a ossessive ionoun, rle veak ionoun may Le laceu arei
an aujecrive oi rle quanrihei oo insreau o arei rle noun:
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Personal
pronouns:
weak (clltlc)
|orms
89
8 to kutvouto o onttt
our new bouse
9 r o ou t uvu
wltb all m, strengtb
1le genirive o rle veak ionoun may Le useu arei rle comaiarive oim
o an aujecrive ro exiess rle seconu reim o a comaiison (10), oi arei
rle ielarive sueilarive oim o an aujecrive ro inuicare rle giou o irems
among vlicl rle orlei reim is suieme (11):
10 H 'Avvu rtvut ryuutr tou (alternatlvely ryuutr
un' uutov).
Anna ls blgger/oloer thon h|m.
11 H 'Avvu rtvut ryuutr o (alternatlvely ryuutr
uno oou u).
Anna ls tbe blggest/oloest of us.
1le genirive o rle veak ionoun can also Le useu arei numeials (12),
ceirain ryes o ionoun (1316: comaie secrions 4.6 anu 4.9) oi rle
quanrihei oo (16) ro seciy rle eison (hisr, seconu oi rliiu) uenoreu
Ly rle orlei reim:
12 ot uo o
tbe two of us
13 ov t
on her own
14 o ku0rvu tou
eacb one of them
15 kuvrvu o
none of us
16 oot oo
all of ,ou
Iinally, veak ionouns in rle genirive aie useu arei ceirain auveiLs
(mosrly auveiLs o lace: see secrion S.3):
17 tnu o
net to us
18 rou t
lnsloe herl|t (|em.)
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4
Pronouns ano
oetermlners
90
PersonaI pronouns: enphatic forns
1le emlaric ionouns inlecr oi numLei anu case, in auuirion, rle rliiu-
eison oims inlecr oi genuei roo.
Lmpbatlc personal pronouns
||st ,esoo. '|, .e' Secooo ,esoo. 'oo'
Sg. ||. Sg. ||.
Nom. rye rrt Nom. rou rort
Acc. rrvu ru Acc. rorvu rou
Gen. rrvu ru Gen. rorvu rou
T||o ,esoo. '|e, s|e, t|e'
Sg. ||.
| | | | | |
Nom. uuto uut uuto uutot uutr uutu
Acc. uuto(v) uut(v)uuto uutou uutr uutu
Gen. uutou uut uutou uutev uutev uutev
1. Tbe accusatlve |orms o| tbe rst- ano secono-person pronouns lose tbelr
lnltlal vowel wben preceoeo by tbe preposltlons uno, ytu, e.g. ytu rvu '|or
me'. Tbe lnltlal vowel o| tbe nomlnatlve |orms o| tbe rst- ano secono-person
pronouns ls o|ten oroppeo ln raplo speecb wben preceoeo by otber woros
enolng ln a vowel, bere tbe omlsslon o| tbe vowel ls normally lnolcateo by
an apostropbe, e.g. Zr e 'ye , 'How sboulo | know?'
2. Tbe tblro-person pronoun ls also useo as tbe oemonstratlve 'tbls' (see sectlon
4.3). |t oecllnes llke aojectlves ln -o, -, -o (see sectlon 3.33), ecept tbat a
nal v ls o|ten aooeo to tbe |orms o| tbe mascullne ano |emlnlne accusatlve
slngular. Otber oemonstratlves can also be useo as tblro-person pronouns
ano are oecllneo ln tbe same way: touto, -, -o 'tbls one', rkrtvo, -, -o
'tbat one'.
3. Tbere are alternatlve colloqulal |orms o| tbe genltlve o| tbe tblro-person
pronoun: mascullne ano neuter slngular uutouvou, |emlnlne slngular
uutv, plural uutevev (all genoers). Tbere ls also a colloqulal verslon o|
tbe mascullne accusatlve plural: uutouvou.
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Personal
pronouns:
empbatlc
|orms
91
Lmlaric ionouns aie useu ro uisringuisl one eison iom anorlei. 1ley
may uncrion as rle suLjecr (12) oi oLjecr (34) o a veiL, oi as rle oLjecr
o a ieosirion (56), oi simly on rleii ovn ():
1 Fou to rtnr!
You (sg.) salo lt! ('|t was you tbat salo lt')
2 Fy rv 0re vu nue.
(As |or me,) l oon't want to go.
3 Foo rtur!
We saw you (pl.)! ('|t was you we saw') (olrect object)
4 F:vo eo' to!
Glve lt to me! (lnolrect object)
5 To rkuvu yt' outov.
| olo lt |or hm.
6 rvu uno o
one o| us
7 ~ Hoto to 0rrt, ~ Fy!
'Wbo wants lt?' 'Me!' ('l oo')
Lmlaric ionouns may also Le useu ro accomany noun liases:
8 ::t ot 'Evr (masc. nom.)
we Greeks
Denonstrative pronouns and deterniners
1leie aie rliee uemonsriarives: uuto, touto anu rkrtvo. 1ley all
uecline like aujecrives in -o, -, -o (see secrion 3.33). 1ley may Le useu
eirlei as emlaric rliiu-eison ionouns ('le`, 'sle`, 'ir`: see secrion 4.2)
oi as riue uemonsriarives ('rlis`, 'rlar`) uncrioning as ionouns oi as uerei-
mineis mouiying a noun (vlicl musr Le ieceueu Ly rle uehnire airicle).
Demonsriarives aie useu ro oinr ro somerling, as in examles 13 Lelov.
O rle rliee, touto is rle leasr commonly useu, ir ieeis ro somerling close
ro rle seakei ('rlis`). Auto also ieeis ro somerling neai rle seakei
('rlis`), vlile rkrtvo, vlicl is less iequenrly useu, ieeis ro somerling
uisranr iom rle seakei ('rlar`). Lxamle 1 slovs uuto anu rkrtvo
Leing useu as uemonsriarive ionouns:
1 Ore outo, ot :u:tvo (neut. sg.).
| want th|s |one] (neut.), not thot |one].
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Pronouns ano
oetermlners
92
Wlen one o rlese voius is useu as a uereiminei (i.e. virl a noun), rle
noun musr Le immeuiarely ieceueu Ly rle uehnire airicle, anu rle uerei-
minei musr aeai oursiue rle comLinarion o airicle + noun. Wlen rle
noun uenores somerling rlar is iesenr ar rle rime o seaking, rle noimal
oiuei is uereiminei + airicle + noun:
2 Mou urort out onru.
| llke th|s umbrella.
3 Fu:tvo to nutt oo nutrt.
7hot cbllo ls always playlng.
In viirren language a uereiminei may Le useu ro ieei ro somerling rlar
las Leen ieviously menrioneu. In rlis case ir noimally ollovs rle noun
iarlei rlan ieceues ir:
4 Ouuut to neto u onttt. To onttt outo tokotuv
oto krvto t no.
| remember our rst bouse. 7h|s house was ln tbe centre o|
town.
Iinally, rle uemonsriarives uuto anu rkrtvo may Le useu virl a iela-
rive clause:
5 Auto nou 0r 0r tuv nrtryo uv0eno.
7he one who came yesteroay was a strange man.
6 Fu:tvot nou rvr trtotu nuyutu 0u rnrnr vu
tte0ouv.
7hose wholPeop|e who say sucb tblngs ougbt to be punlsbeo.
1le qualirarive uemonsriarive trtoto 'sucl, o sucl a kinu, like rlis/rlar,
rlis/rlar soir o` ueclines like aujecrives in -o, -u, -o (see secrion 3.34) anu
uncrions as a ionoun (S) oi uereiminei (9):
7 Arv rtur t:totou otu vtutu ou.
We olon't bave such peop|elthot sort of peop|elpeop|e ||ke thot
ln my youtb.
8 Ore rvu t:toto.
| want one ||ke thotlone of those.
9 Arv rour t:toto nuyutu.
We oon't bave such tblngs/thot sort of tblng/tblngs ||ke thot.
Ir is also commonly useu in rle liase kutt trtoto 'somerling like rlar`.
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Demonstra-
tlve pronouns
ano
oetermlners
93
1le quanrirarive uemonsriarive tooo 'so mucl/many` ueclines like aujec-
rives in -o, -, -o (secrion 3.33). Ir may Le useu as a ionoun (10) oi a
uereiminei (11):
10 'H0uv tooot oru!
So mon, |people] came tooay!
11 M urt too uu!
Don't put ln so much sugar!
'So mucl/many` can also Le exiesseu Ly rle auveiL tooo olloveu Ly rle
aioiiare oim o nou, alreinarively, Lorl tooo anu nou can Le
ueclineu:
12 tooo/tooo nozzo ontttu
so mon, bouses
Possessive pronouns and deterniners
1le veak ionoun in rle genirive is useu as a non-emlaric ossessive
ionoun (see secrion 4.1). 1le emlaric ossessive tko (ou erc.) is Lorl
a ionoun anu a uereiminei (i.e. ir may Le useu on irs ovn, oi rogerlei
virl a noun). Like rle orlei emlaric ionouns, ir is useu ro uisringuisl
Lerveen eisons oi geneially ro give emlasis ('ny louse`, as ooseu ro
youis erc., oi else 'my cun louse`, oi simly 'mine`). 1lese oims aie a
comLinarion o tko virl rle genirive o rle veak eisonal ionoun.
Atko, vlicl musr agiee virl rle genuei, numLei anu case o rle irem
ossesseu, is noimally ueclineu like aujecrives in -o, -, -o (see secrion
3.33), Lur rleie is an alreinarive ser o eminine oims in colloquial use
(tktu erc.), vlicl ueclines like aujecrives in -o, -tu, -o (see secrion 3.35).
Atko (ou erc.) may Le ieceueu Ly rle uehnire airicle oi nor, accoiuing
ro vlerlei ir is useu in a uehnire liase oi an inuehnire liase.
(o, , to) tko, -, -o ou my, mlne, my own
(o, , to) tko, -, -o oou your, yours, your own (wbere tbe
possessor ls a slngle person)
(o, , to) tko, -, -o tou bls, bls own ('lts' etc., wbere tbe
possessor ls non-buman)
(o, , to) tko, -, -o t ber, bers, ber own ('lts' etc.,
wbere tbe possessor ls non-
buman)
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Pronouns ano
oetermlners
94
(o, , to) tko, -, -o u our, ours, our own
(o, , to) tko, -, -o ou your, yours, your own (aooresseo
to more tban one person, or to a
slngle person ln tbe pollte plural
|orm)
(o, , to) tko, -, -o tou tbelr, tbelrs, tbelr own
Like aujecrives, rle emlaric ossessive can Le useu arriiLurively (12) oi
ieuicarively (34) (see also secrion 3.5), oi as rle oLjecr o a ieosirion
(5). ore rle use o rle uehnire airicle in rle uehnire liases in examles
1, 3 anu 5, anu irs omission in rle inuehnire liases in 2 anu 4:
1 To tuo o onttt rtvut nuto.
0ur bouse ls olo.
2 Arv rrt tuo t onttt.
Sbe basn't got a bouse of her own (llt. 'her own bouse').
3 To trrututo onttt rtvut to tuo o.
Tbe last bouse ls ours (l.e. lt's tbe one wbere we llve).
4 To trrututo onttt rtvut tuo o.
Tbe last bouse ls ours (l.e. lt belongs to us).
5 Hur oto onttt oou oto tuo ou,
Sball we go to your bouse or m|ne?
lnterrogative pronouns and deterniners
Inreiiogarive ionouns anu uereimineis ('vlo.`, 'vlicl.`, 'vlar.`, 'lov
mucl.`) Lelong ro rle caregoiy knovn as quesrion voius. (Orlei quesrion
voius coiiesonu ro 'vly.`, 'vlen.`, 'vleie.`. Ioi rle use o quesrion
voius in uiiecr anu inuiiecr quesrions see secrions 10.6 anu 10.10.)
1leie aie rliee inreiiogarive ionouns anu uereimineis: noto 'vlo.`,
'vlicl.`, tt 'vlar.` anu nooo 'lov mucl.`. Tt is inueclinaLle anu may
mouiy nouns o any genuei, numLei oi case. Hooo ueclines like aujec-
rives in -o, -, -o (see secrion 3.33). Hoto ueclines like aujecrives in -o,
-u, -o, excer rlar rle accusarive oim o rle masculine (anu somerimes rle
eminine singulai) auus an -v anu exrenueu veisions o rle genirive singulai
anu luial anu rle masculine accusarive luial oims may Le useu:
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|nterrogatlve
pronouns ano
oetermlners
95
noto wbo?, wblcb?
S|ogo|a
| | |
Nom. noto notu noto
Acc. aotov notu(v) noto
Gen. notou/notuvou notu/notuv notou/notuvou
||oa|
| | |
Nom. notot notr notu
Acc. notou/notuvou notr notu
Gen. notev/notuvev notev/notuvev notev/notuvev
|n place o| tbe genltlve slngular |orms, ttvo 'wbose?' ls o|ten useo |or tbe
mascullne ano neuter, but not |or tbe |emlnlne. Tbere ls a genltlve plural ttvev
(all genoers).
lndenite pronouns and deterniners
Inuehnire ionouns anu uereimineis can Le uiviueu inro rvo kinus: secihc
('someone`, 'somerling`) anu non-secihc ('anyone`, 'anyrling,` 'no one`,
'norling`).
1le secihc ionouns anu uereimineis aie kunoto (ueclineu like aujec-
rives in -o, -u, -o, as in secrion 3.34, Lur virl masculine accusarive singulai
kunotov vlen useu as a ionoun, i.e. virlour a noun), anu inueclinaLle
kutt:
1 Konoto rrtut.
Someone's comlng.
2 Etu uonotov vu rrtut.
| saw someone comlng.
3 Kott rtnrt.
Someth|ng's mlsslng.
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Pronouns ano
oetermlners
96
As a uereiminei, kunoto may Le useu virl a noun in any numLei, genuei
oi case. Kutt may Le useu as a uereiminei virl luial nouns o any genuei
anu in any giammarical case ro mean 'some`:
4 uonoto uokuu
some (|emale) teacber or other
5 uonoto ryu
some plays/lms (or other)
6 uott tot ou
some |rlenos o| mlne
Kutt can Le accomanieu Ly a numLei o uereimineis, e.g. kutt uo
'somerling else`, kutt trtoto 'somerling like rlar`, kutt tko ou 'some-
rling o my ovn`, ir may also Le accomanieu Ly an aujecrive, in vlicl
case rle uehnire airicle is noimally useu, e.g. kutt to euto 'somerling
nice`.
1le non-secihc ionouns anu uereimineis aie kuvrt/kuvrvu 'any(one),
no (one)` anu rle inueclinaLle ttnotu oi ttnotr 'any(rling), no(rling)`. 1le
ueclension o kuvrt/kuvrvu iesemLles rlar o rle inuehnire airicle rvu
(see secrion 3.) anu only las singulai oims:
| | |
Nom. kuvrt/kuvrvu kutu/kutu kuvrvu
Acc. kuvrvu(v) kutu(v)/kutu(v) kuvrvu
Gen. kuvrvo kutu/kutu kuvrvo
1. Tbe |emlnlne |orms wltb stresseo -t- (kutu etc.) are more empbatlc.
2. Tbe nal -v may be aooeo to tbe mascullne ano |emlnlne accusatlve slngular
|orms wben tbey are |olloweo by a woro beglnnlng wltb a vowel or volce-
less ploslve. |n aooltlon, kuvrvuv ls tbe normal |orm o| tbe mascullne
accusatlve slngular wben useo as a pronoun (l.e. wltbout a noun).
3. |n colloqulal speecb, tbe neuter kuvrvu may be sborteneo to kuvu, but only
wben useo as a oetermlner, l.e. mool|ylng a noun, or ln tbe compouno
kuvuuo (see p. 99).
1le non-secihc ionouns anu uereimineis (like rle non-secihc auveiLs:
see rle enu o secrion .2) aie noimally useu in inreiiogarive oi negarive
clauses, oi in orlei clauses rlar uo nor make a sraremenr. Lxamles o
inreiiogarive use:
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|noenlte
pronouns ano
oetermlners
97
7 E uvtotkr uov:vo,
Dlo on,one sbow up?
8 Etnr ttnoto,
Dlo you say on,th|ng?
Wlen rley aie useu negarively virl a veiL, rle veiL musr Le accomanieu
Ly rle aioiiare negarive airicle rv oi v:
9 Kov:vo :v r uvtotkr.
No5od, sboweo up.
10 M otrtrt uov:vov re .
uon`t seno on,one bere.
11 A:v rtnu ttnoto.
| d|dn`t say on,th|ng.
12 Hotte vu v nrt ttnoto.
| pre|er you to say noth|ng.
1lese voius aie also useu virlour a veiL in a negarive sense:
13 ~ Hoto 0r oru, ~ Kov:vo.
'Wbo came tooay?' 'No5od,'.
14 ~ Tt 0rrt, ~ Ttnoto.
'Wbat oo you want?' 'Noth|ng'.
In auuirion, rlese voius aie useu in suLjuncrive (15), conuirional (16) anu
imeiarive (1) clauses:
15 'Ioe vu or rt uov:vo uokuo.
Perbaps a teacber wlll see you.
16 Av or rt uov:vo uokuo, 0u or uvu rrt.
|| a teacber sees you, be'll report you.
17 Itu etu uov:vo uokuo.
Ask a teacber.
1le use o rlese voius as uereimineis (i.e. mouiying nouns) is illusriareu
in examles 151 aLove anu 1S Lelov.
Wlen useu in osirive ueclaiarive senrences, rlese irems lave a vague sense
o 'aioximarely one`:
18 Hrtrvur uoto eu.
We walteo o5out on bour.
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Pronouns ano
oetermlners
98
1le inuehnire non-secihc uereiminei kuvrvu is useu in rle exiession
kutu ou 'occasionally` (nor 'nevei`), vlile kutu is also useu virl
aioximarive numeials (see secrion 5.4), e.g. kutu erkutu 'aLour a
uozen`. 1le inueclinaLle colloquial comounu kuvuuo (sloir oi kuvrvu
uo) means 'one oi rvo, a coule (o)`.
1le oim kuvrt las rvo uisrincr uncrions. Iiisr, ir may Le useu as a
sliglrly moie oimal alreinarive o kuvrvu. Seconu, ir is useu in iarlei
oimal sryles ro uenore rle inuehnire suLjecr o a veiL in a non-negarive
clause, vleie ir coiiesonus ro rle Lnglisl 'one`, in rlis use ir noimally
comes immeuiarely arei rle veiL:
Eukou rnrt uov:t tu ttu unotrroutu tou
norou.
0ne easlly sees (l.e. 'lt's easy to see') tbe |rlgbt|ul results o| war.
1le moie colloquial alreinarive voulu Le ro use rle seconu eison singulai
o rle veiL in rle same inuehnire sense.
Ttnotu, like kutt, can Le accomanieu Ly a numLei o uereimineis, oi Ly
an aujecrive, e.g. ttnot` uo 'anyrling else, norling else`, ttnotu trtoto
'anyrling like rlar, norling like rlar`, ttnotu to euto 'anyrling nice,
norling nice`.
ReIative and correIative pronouns and deterniners
Relarive ionouns anu uereimineis ('vlo`, 'vlicl`, 'rlar`) aie useu ro
inriouuce ielarive clauses. (Ioi ielarive clauses see secrion 10.9.)
1le Lasic equivalenr o rle Lnglisl ielarive ionoun is rle inueclinaLle iela-
rive airicle nou. 1lis uoes nor agiee in genuei anu numLei virl rle noun
mouiheu Ly rle ielarive clause (in 'rle man vlo came`, rle liase 'rle
man` is mouiheu Ly rle ielarive ionoun 'vlo`). Unlike rle Lnglisl iela-
rive (e.g. 'vlo` anu 'vlicl`), rle Gieek ielarive uoes nor clange accoiuing
ro vlerlei rle mouiheu noun uenores a luman oi a non-luman.
1 O uv0eno nou 0r rtvut o ur o ou.
Tbe man who came ls my brotber.
2 O uv0eno nou rtr rtvut o ur o ou.
Tbe man (whom) you saw ls my brotber.
3 To rvto nou utevrt otv uu ou rtvut
notokutu.
Tbe tree thot/wh|ch ls growlng ln my back yaro ls an orange.
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Pelatlve ano
correlatlve
pronouns ano
oetermlners
99
4 To rvto nou rtr rtvut notokutu.
Tbe tree (thot) you saw ls an orange.
In examles 2 anu 4 nore rlar a Gieek ielarive clause musr Legin virl rle
ielarive ionoun oi airicle, rle ionoun cannor Le omirreu, vleieas in
Lnglisl ir can Le omirreu vlen ir acrs as rle uiiecr oi inuiiecr oLjecr o rle
ielarive clause.
Ir is ossiLle ro use nou ro inriouuce any ielarive clause. Hovevei, rleie is
a moie comlicareu alreinarive: rle ielarive ionoun liase o onoto. 1lis
consisrs o rle uehnire airicle olloveu Ly rle voiu onoto, anu Lorl irems
musr Le inlecreu nor only oi genuei anu numLei ro agiee virl rle moui-
heu noun, Lur also oi case ro suir rleii synracrical uncrion virlin rle
ielarive clause (i.e. vlerlei rle ielarive ionoun liase is rle suLjecr, uiiecr
oLjecr, erc.). Onoto ueclines like aujecrives in -o, -u, -o (see secrion 3.34).
Ioi examles o use see secrion 10.9.
Aair iom nou anu o onoto, rleie aie rle olloving coiielarive ionouns
anu uereimineis, vlicl aie useu in iee ielarive clauses (i.e. ielarive clauses
rlar uo nor mouiy a noun):
onoto, -u, -o 'vloevei`, vlicl ueclines like aujecrives in secrion 3.34
(rlis musr nor Le conuseu virl rle ielarive o onoto, vlicl is alvays
useu virl rle airicle anu is alvays sriesseu on rle lasr Lur one syllaLle)
onotoonotr, em. onotunotr, neur. onotonotr 'vloevei`
(sriongei rlan onoto)
o,tt (inueclinaLle) 'rlar vlicl, vlar, vlarevei` (uisringuisleu iom
rle comlemenrizei ott Ly rle comma arei rle hisr lerrei, also
uisringuisl rlis iom tt 'vlar` useu in inreiiogarive senrences)
ottnotr (inueclinaLle) 'vlarevei` (sriongei rlan o,tt)
ooo, -, -o (ueclineu like aujecrives in secrion 3.33) 'as mucl as, as
many as, lovevei mucl, (l.) rlose vlicl, lovevei many`
oooonotr, em. oonotr, neur. ooonotr (same meaning as
ooo, Lur sriongei)
1lese irems can Le useu as ionouns (i.e. virlour nouns) oi as uereimineis
(i.e. virl nouns). Wlen useu as a ionoun, rle masculine singulai
accusarive o onoto is onotov, virl hnal -v. Ioi examles o rleii use see
secrion 10.9.2.
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Pronouns ano
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100
The universaI pronouns uo0:vo and uo0:tt and the
distributive deterniner uo0:
Ku0rvu anu ku0rtt noimally uncrion as ionouns, alrlougl rley aie
occasionally useu as uereimineis. Ku0rvu 'eveiy one, eacl one` is inlecreu
in a Lioauly similai vay ro rle numeial anu inuehnire airicle rvu (secrion
3.) anu rle inuehnire ionoun anu uereiminei kuvrvu (secrion 4.6):
| | |
Nom. ku0rvu ku0rtu/ku0rtu ku0rvu
Acc. ku0rvu ku0rtu/ku0rtu ku0rvu
Gen. ku0rvo ku0rtu/ku0rtu ku0rvo
Ku0rtt 'eacl rling` is inueclinaLle. Lacl o rlese ionouns may orion-
ally Le ieceueu Ly rle uehnire airicle:
1 To rrt o uo0:vo u.
Loch one o| us knows lt.
2 Huunovtrtut r to uo0:tt.
(S)be complalns about ever, s|ng|e th|ng.
Ku0r 'eacl, eveiy` is an inueclinaLle uereiminei useu virl singulai nouns
only. Ir roo may orionally Le ieceueu Ly rle uehnire airicle:
3 Hoorrt (tv) uo0: r.
(S)be takes care over ever, woro.
Ioi ku0r in exiessions o rime see secrion .1.
Other pronouns and deterniners
1le inrensive ionouns anu uereimineis tto 'same` anu ovo 'only,
alone` uecline like aujecrives in -o, -u, -o (secrion 3.34) anu -o, -, -o
(secrion 3.33) iesecrively.
'Ito las rvo clie uses, in Lorl o vlicl ir is ieceueu Ly rle uehnire airi-
cle. As a ionoun, o tto means eirlei 'rle same` oi '(my)sel` accoiuing ro
rle conrexr:
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Tbe unlversal
pronouns
xo0tvo ano
xo0t:t ano
tbe olstrlbu-
tlve oeter-
mlner xo0t
101
1 To tto rtvut.
Tbey're the some (th|ngsj (neuter).
2 Ore vu toe r tv tto.
| want to speak to her |n person (llt. herse|f).
As a uereiminei, vlen ir immeuiarely ieceues rle noun ir accomanies, o
tto means 'rle same`:
3 'Eour to tto nou.
We bave the some problem.
Wlen rle uehnire airicle is ieeareu Leoie rle noun ir accomanies, oi vlen
ir ollovs an emlaric ionoun, o tto means 'mysel`, 'youisel`, erc.:
4 Ore vu toe r tv tto t Mutu/t Mutu tv tto.
| want to speak to Mary herse|f.
5 Eou o tto to rtnr.
You ,ourse|f salo lt.
'Ito is also useu virlour rle uehnire airicle ro mean 'iuenrical, alike`:
6 'Or ot kurkr rtvut tt:.
All (tbe) cbalrs are o||ke.
Movo, virl oi virlour a noun, ryically means 'only`:
7 'Htuv o ovo ottt nou 0r.
He was tbe on|, stuoent (masc.) wbo came.
8 'Htuv o ovo nou 0r.
He was tbe on|, |one] wbo came.
Useu virl a veak ionoun in rle genirive, ovo means 'Ly mysel`, in rle
sense o eirlei 'virlour comany` oi 'virlour lel`:
9 Mrvrt ov t.
Sbe llves on her own.
10 Mov t to rkuvr.
Sbe olo lt 5, herse|f.
1le conriasrive ionoun anu uereiminei uo 'orlei, nexr` (somerimes
'ievious`) ueclines like aujecrives in -o, -, -o virl rle olloving alreina-
rive emlaric oims oi rle genirive: masculine anu neurei singulai
uouvou, eminine singulai uv, luial (all genueis) uevev.
11 tu ozzo nuttu
tbe other cblloren
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Pronouns ano
oetermlners
102
12 tv ozz ou
tbe next/prevlous) tlme
'Ao may Le useu moie rlan once in a single senrence in rle sense o
'some . . . orleis . . .`:
13 'Azzot 0uv, ozzot ot.
Some came, others olon't (llt. 'otbers not').
Arei rle ionouns anu uereimineis kunoto, kuvrvu, noto anu onoto,
uo is rle equivalenr o 'else`: kunoto uo 'someone else`, kuvrvu
uo 'noLouy else`, noto uo 'vlo else`, onoto uo 'vloevei else`.
Wlen useu virl a numeial, uo may eirlei ieceue oi ollov rle
numeial, Lur virl uieienr meanings:
14a ozzo :vo noukut
one more bottle (l.e. an etra one)
b :vo ozzo noukut
o d|fferent bottle
'Ao tooo las rle sense o 'as mucl again` (i.e. rvice as mucl):
15 Av rtur ozzo tooo r tu 0u noouour vu uyou-
oour to onttt.
|| we bao tw|ce os much money, we woulo be able to buy tbe bouse.
Ioi rle use o rle ieciiocal exiession o rvu tov uo 'eacl orlei`, see
secrion 10.24.
Quantiers
A quanrihei is a voiu rlar exiesses quanriry virlour exiessing numLei.
1le quanriheis oo 'all` anu ooko '(rle) vlole` uecline like aujec-
rives in -o, -, -o (secrion 3.33). Like rle uemonsriarives uuto, touto
anu rkrtvo (see secrion 4.3), vlen useu virl a noun oo (alvays) anu
ooko (oren) aie accomanieu Ly rle uehnire airicle, in vlicl case
rley alvays aeai oursiue rle airicle + noun comLinarion:
1 ozo o kooo
o|| tbe worlo/everyone
2 'E uyr tv nttu ozouzp.
(S)be/lt ate tbe who|e ple.
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Quantlers
103
1le luial o oo also uncrions as a ionoun, meaning 'all o rlem`, oi
(ryically in rle masculine) 'eveiyone`, oi (in rle neurei) 'eveiyrling`:
3 'H0uv ozot (masc. pl.).
Lver,one came/Tbey o|| came.
4 Tu kutuuu ozo.
| unoerstooo ever,th|ng/| unoerstooo lt o||.
Orlei quanriheis incluue rle olloving:
nou 'mucl, a lor o, roo mucl, (l.) many, roo many`, comaiarive
nrtoootro 'moie` (nore rlar Gieek uoes nor noimally uisringuisl
Lerveen 'mucl/many` anu 'roo mucl/roo many`)
ukrto 'quire a lor o`
kunooo (less commonly kunooo) 'quire a ev`
notko 'lenry o`
rtkot (luial only) 'some`
tyo '(a) lirrle, (l.) (a) ev`, comaiarive tyotro 'less, (l.) evei`
rutoto 'veiy lirrle, (l.) veiy ev`
o unootno 'rle iesr o` (alvays virl uehnire airicle)
rvu oeo 'a vlole loau o`
1le exiession rvu oeo (oiiginally a noun liase in rle accusarive
meaning 'a ile`) is useu in colloquial seecl anu is inueclinaLle:
5 'H0uv rvu oeo Ituot.
A wbole loao o| |tallans came.
All rle orlei quanriheis inlecr oi genuei, numLei anu case. 1ley uecline
like aujecrives in -o, -, -o excer nou, oi vlicl see secrion 3.3S. 1le
olloving examles illusriare rle use o unootno:
6 to unozotno urut (nom./acc.)
the rest of tbe Nour
7 ot unozotn: u0ttr (nom.)
the rest of tbe scboolglrls
Some quanriheis lave coiiesonuing auveiLs: nou 'veiy` (useu virl rle
osirive oims o aujecrives), 'mucl` (useu virl comaiarive oims o aujec-
rives), 'a lor` (comaiarive nrtoootro 'moie`), ukrtu 'quire (a Lir)`,
tyo 'a lirrle, a Lir` (comaiarive tyotro 'less`), rutotu 'veiy lirrle,
laiuly` (useu virl aujecrives) (see secrion .1: auveiLs o quanriry).
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Pronouns ano
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104
TabIe of cardinaI and ordinaI nuneraIs
1le raLle on . 106 gives rle oims o rle caiuinal anu oiuinal
numeials iom 1 ro 1,000,000,000 (a Lillion). 1le caiuinal numeials aie
rle Lasic oims ('one`, 'rvo`, 'rliee`, erc.). 1le oiuinal numeials inuicare
osirion in a seiies ('hisr`, seconu`, 'rliiu`, erc.). Seveial o rle caiuinal
numeials aie ueclineu oi genuei anu case. In rle raLle rlose oims vlicl
uecline aie iinreu in iralics, in rleii nominarive masculine oims. 1le
uerails o rleii ueclensional arreins aie given in secrion 5.2. 1le oiuinal
numeials aie all ueclineu like aujecrives in -o, -, -o (see secrion 3.33).
'Zeio` oi 'nouglr` is rle neurei noun rv (see secrion 3.29).
Wlen counring, ve use rle ueclinaLle numLeis in rleii neurei oims: rvu,
uo, ttu, trooru, erc. Ioi rle use o rle ull sro anu comma in Gieek
caiuinal numeials anu uecimals see secrion 2.4.
Anorlei sysrem o numeials, vlicl emloys eirlei rle cairals oi rle
lovei-case lerreis o rle Gieek allaLer, is somerimes useu oi ceirain
secial uioses. We slall limir ouiselves ro rle cairal lerreis, vlicl, vlen
olloveu Ly an acure accenr, aie useu as oiuinal numeials iarlei in rle vay
Roman numeials aie useu in Lnglisl. Accoiuing ro rlis allaLeric sysrem,
rle numLeis iom one ro ren aie: A' =1, B' = 2, I' = 3, A' = 4, E' = 5, '
= 6, Z' = , H' = S, O' = 9, I' = 10. (ore rle secial case o ', oren
viirren as IT' (anu ionounceu ottyu), oi rle numeial 6.) Iiom eleven
ro ninereen, I is comLineu virl rle ielevanr numLei, e.g. IA' = 14, 20 is
K'. umLeis o rlis kinu aie oren useu oi clareis oi volumes o Looks,
acrs oi scenes o a lay, cenruiies, anu rle names o kings, queens,
emeiois, ariiaicls anu oes. Some examles:
5.1
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2
3
4
5
6
S
9
1011
1
12111
3
4
5
6
S
9
20111
1
2
3
4
5
6
S
9
30111
1
2
3
4
5
6
S
9
40
41111 105
Cbapter 5
Numero|s
1111
2
3
4
5
6
S
9
1011
1
12111
3
4
5
6
S
9
20111
1
2
3
4
5
6
S
9
30111
1
2
3
4
5
6
S
9
40
41111
5
Numerals
106
Cao|oa| ooea|s Co|oa| ooea|s
1 :vo neto
2 uo/uo rutro
3 tp:t ttto
4 t:oo:pt trtuto
5 nrvtr nrnto
6 rt rkto
7 rntu/r tu roo
8 okte/ote oyoo
9 rvvru/rvvtu rvuto
10 rku rkuto
11 rvrku/rvtrku rvrkuto
12 erku erkuto
13 :uotp:t rkuto ttto
14 :uot:oo:pt rkuto trtuto
15 rkunrvtr rkuto nrnto
16 rkurt/rkut rkuto rkto
17 rkurntu/rkur tu rkuto roo
18 rkuokte/rkuote rkuto oyoo
19 rkurvvru/ rkuto
rkurvvtu rvuto
20 rtkoot rtkooto
21 rtkoot :vo rtkooto neto
22 rtkoot uo rtkooto rutro
30 ttuvtu ttukooto
40 ouuvtu troouukooto
50 nrvvtu nrvtkooto
60 rvtu rkooto
70 rovtu rokooto
80 oyovtu oyokooto
90 rvrvvtu rvrvkooto
100 rkutov/rkuto rkutooto
101 rkutov :vo rkutooto neto
200 touootot tukootooto
1 Too IT' (= Too rkto)
volume 6
2 Hu I' (= Hu ttt)
Act 3 (or |||)
3 otov IO' utevu (= otov rkuto rvuto utevu)
ln tbe 19tb century
4 Buottoou Etourt B' (= Buottoou Etourt
rutr)
Queen Lllzabetb ||
5 o Mtu H' (= o Mtu o oyoo)
Mlcbael v|||
1111
2
3
4
5
6
S
9
1011
1
12111
3
4
5
6
S
9
20111
1
2
3
4
5
6
S
9
30111
1
2
3
4
5
6
S
9
40
41111
Table o|
carolnal ano
orolnal
numerals
107
300 tptouootot/ ttukootooto
tpouootot
400 t:tpouootot trtukootooto
500 n:vtouootot nrvtukootooto
600 :ouootot rukootooto
700 :ntouootot/ rntukootooto
: touootot
800 outouootot/ oktukootooto
otouootot
900 :vvtouootot/ rvvrukootooto
:vv:ouootot
1.000 tztot ttooto
2.000 uo tzto: tottooto
3.000 tp:t tzto: ttottooto
10.000 rku tzto: rkuktottooto
1.000.000 :vo :uotoupto rkutoutooto
1.000.000.000 :vo to:uotoupto torkutoutooto
1. For some numerals tbere are alternatlve |orms. Tbese are sbown ln tbe table
separateo by an obllque llne (/). Tbe |orm glven rst ls tbe more common,
or tbe more styllstlcally neutral. 8ut lt ls o|ten largely a matter o| personal
pre|erence. For tbe numeral 'two', uo (pronounceo as two syllables) ls more
empbatlc tban uo (one syllable) ano ls also tbe |orm useo ln countlng, otber-
wlse, uo ls tbe |orm normally useo ln speecb.
2. Tbe carolnal numerals up to twenty conslst o| one woro. From twenty-one
onwaros, tbe unlts, tens, bunoreos etc. are wrltten as separate woros, e.g.
troort ttur nrvtukootu rvrvvtu rvvru '|our tbousano ve
bunoreo ano nlnety-nlne'.
The decIined forns of cardinaI nuneraIs
1le caiuinal numeials 'one`, 'rliee` anu 'oui`, vlen useu alone oi in a
numLei enuing in any o rlese uigirs (excer oi 'eleven` rvrku/rvtrku
vlicl is inueclinaLle), aie ueclineu as ollovs:
rvu ooe
| | |
Nomlnatlve rvu tu/tu rvu
Accusatlve rvu(v) tu(v)/tu(v) rvu
Genltlve rvo tu rvo
1lese oims aie almosr iuenrical ro rle inuehnire airicle (see secrion 3.).
1le eminine oims tu anu tuv, ionounceu as rvo syllaLles, aie moie
emlaric anu sriess rle singulaiiry o rle noun ieeiieu ro. We can conriasr
to uno 'cne oinr o viev` virl tu uno 'a oinr o viev`.
trt t|ee
| | |
Nom./Acc trt trt ttu
Gen. ttev ttev ttev
1le numeial 'rliireen` (rkutrt) is ueclineu in rle same vay, as aie all
numLeis enuing in 3: rtkoot trt, ttuvtu trt, erc.
troort oo
| | |
Nom./Acc. troort troort trooru
Gen. troouev troouev troouev
5.2
1111
2
3
4
5
6
S
9
1011
1
12111
3
4
5
6
S
9
20111
1
2
3
4
5
6
S
9
30111
1
2
3
4
5
6
S
9
40
41111
5
Numerals
108
Similaily rle numeial 'ouireen` (rkutroort) anu all numLeis enuing
in 4.
1le aujecrive too 'lal` oren comLines virl caiuinal numeials, virl
some secial oims accoiuing ro rle genuei anu case o rle noun vlicl ir
mouihes, e.g. masculine rvuto ovo 'one anu a lal yeais`, eminine
tuto eu 'one anu lal louis`, genirive tuto eu 'o one anu
lal louis`, neurei rvutot tto 'one anu a lal liries`. ore rle oims
trtotot (masculine anu eminine), ttutot (neurei) anu troort-
otot (masculine anu eminine), troouutot (neurei) oi 'rliee anu a
lal` anu 'oui anu a lal` iesecrively. 1le oims uotot, nrvtrtot,
rtot, r tutot, otetot erc. aie inueclinaLle. 1lese oims aie also
useu oi rle lal-louis vlen relling rle rime: see secrion 5.5, examle 6.
1le oims o rle orlei caiuinal numeials vlicl uecline aie as ollovs:
tukootot, tukootr, tukootu 'rvo lunuieu` anu all rle lunuieus
ollov rle luial ueclension o aujecrives in -o (see secrion 3.34). 1le
genirive oren unueigoes a slir o sriess ro rle enulrimare syllaLle,
e.g. ttukootev rtev 'o rliee lunuieu meries`,
ttot, ttr, ttu 'a rlousanu` is also an aujecrive anu ollovs rle
same ueclension, virl ossiLle slir o sriess in rle genirive, as oi rle
lunuieus,
rle rlousanus iom 2,000 onvaius consisr o rle caiuinal numeials
'rvo`, 'rliee`, 'oui`, erc. virl rle eminine luial noun ttur
'rlousanus`, virl vlicl rley musr agiee (iarlei rlan virl any noun ro
vlicl rle numLei ieeis), e.g. rtkoot trt ttur 'rvenry-rliee
rlousanu`. 1leie is a genirive case ttuev, e.g. rkutroouev
ttuev 'o ouireen rlousanu`,
rkutouto 'million` anu torkutouto 'Lillion` aie neurei nouns,
ueclineu like rle nouns in secrion 3.21. Lxamles: rvu rkutouto
'a/one million`, ouuvtu ttu rkutoutu 'oiry-rliee million`, rvu
nooo tev rtkoot rvo rkutoutev rue 'a sum o rvenry-one
million euios`.
MuItipIicative nuneraIs
ûlrilicarive numeials exiess rle iuea o 'single`, uouLle`, 'rieLle` erc.
1ley enu in -no anu aie ueclineu like aujecrives in -o, -, -o (secrion
3.33). 1le commonesr sucl oims aie: uno 'single` (oi 'simle`), tno
'uouLle`, ttno 'rieLle` (oi 'riile`), trtuno 'quauiule`. Similaily
nouno 'mulrile`.
5.3
1111
2
3
4
5
6
S
9
1011
1
12111
3
4
5
6
S
9
20111
1
2
3
4
5
6
S
9
30111
1
2
3
4
5
6
S
9
40
41111
Multlpllcatlve
numerals
109
CoIIective nuneraIs
Collecrive numeials exiess rle iuea o 'giou o rvo`, 'giou o rliee`,
erc. 1ley aie eminine nouns oimeu virl one o rvo suhxes: eirlei -uu
(inclusive numeials oi a uehnire numLei) oi -utu (aioximarive
numeials oi an aioximare numLei). 1le larrei aie usually ieceueu Ly
rle inuehnire uereiminei kutu. Lxamles o inclusive numeials aie:
uuu 'giou o rvo, uuo`, ttuu 'giou o rliee, riio, 1iiniry`, trtuu
'giou o oui`, rkuu 'giou o ren`. Lxamles o aioximarive
numeials aie: kutu nrvtutu 'aLour hve`, kutu erkutu 'aLour a
uozen`, kutu rtkooutu 'rvenry oi so`.
NuneraIs in expressions of tine, space and quantity
In rlis secrion ve give examles o rle uses o numeials in vaiious kinus
o exiession.
Dares aie exiesseu virl rle eminine accusarive singulai o rle oiuinal
numeial oi rle hisr uay o rle monrl, anu oi orlei uays Ly ott virl
rle eminine accusarive luial o rle caiuinal numeial:
1 tv net Anttou
on tbe rst o| Aprll
2a ott rtkoot troort Irntrtou
b ott rtkoot troort tou Irntr
on tbe twenty-|ourtb o| September
1le uehnire airicle is noimally useu virl rle moie colloquial names o rle
monrls, as in examle 2L.
Dares in yeais aie exiesseu virl eirlei to oi otu:
3 to 2004/otu 2004
ln 2004
1imes o uay aie exiesseu Ly ot (oi 'one`) oi ott (oi orlei numLeis)
virl rle eminine accusarive o rle caiuinal numeial, 'o`clock` can Le
exiesseu Ly eu:
4 ott trt eu
at tbree o'clock
1le olloving examles slov lov minures anu iacrions o rle loui aie
exiesseu:
5 ott ote kut rku (rntu)
at ten (mlnutes) past elgbt
5.5
5.4
1111
2
3
4
5
6
S
9
1011
1
12111
3
4
5
6
S
9
20111
1
2
3
4
5
6
S
9
30111
1
2
3
4
5
6
S
9
40
41111
5
Numerals
110
6 ott nrvtr kut to/ott nrvtrtot (see sectlon 5.2)
at bal| past ve
7 ot tu kut trtuto
at a quarter past one
8 Etvut erku nuu rtkoot.
|t's twenty to twelve.
Ioi rle use o rle accusarive ro exiess uuiarion oi oinr in rime see secrion
3.51.
Ages aie exiesseu Ly rle genirive:
9 Hoo(v) povv rtout; -Arkurvvru
'How olo are you?' 'Nlneteen.'
10 Etut :tuoot :vo povv.
| am twenty-one years olo.
11 rvu eo t:ooopv vv
a |our-montb-olo baby
Lxiessions o leiglr, uerl, size anu uisrance use rle accusarive (see also
secrion 3.51):
12a rvu ktto :uon:vt: :tpo o
b rvu ktto :uon:vt: :tpo uo
a bullolng |teen metres blgb
13 tu ukkouu :tuoot novtou u0o
a potbole twenty centlmetres oeep
14 rvu otro uo :tpo ko r n:vt: :uotooto uo
an lron bar two metres long by ve centlmetres wloe
15 To eto ou rtvut :t tzto:tpo uktu.
My vlllage ls sl kllometres away.
In exiessions o quanriry rle reim o measuiemenr anu rle rlings measuieu
aie in rle same case ('in aosirion`):
16 'Htuv rkrt uo tzto: ov0pnot.
Tbere were two tbousano people tbere.
17 Ayouou tpto utzo vtoot:.
| bougbt tbree kllos o| tomatoes.
18 O ku0rvu ntr uo zttpo v:po.
Lacb person orank two lltres o| water.
1111
2
3
4
5
6
S
9
1011
1
12111
3
4
5
6
S
9
20111
1
2
3
4
5
6
S
9
30111
1
2
3
4
5
6
S
9
40
41111
Numerals ln
epresslons
o| tlme, space
ano quantlty
111
lntroduction to the verb phrase
Consttuents o( the verb phrose
A veiL is a voiu vlicl exiesses rle vays in vlicl rle suLjecr o rle
senrence acrs, rle srare in vlicl ir is, a clange ir unueigoes, erc. Beoie
uealing virl rle oims o rle veiL irsel, ve slall consiuei rle vays in
vlicl rle veiL liase uncrions in rle senrence.
1le veiL liase consisrs o eirlei a veiL alone (1), oi a veiL comLineu
virl a numLei o orlei elemenrs sucl as oLjecrs (25), suLjecr anu oLjecr
ieuicares (6), auveiLial mouiheis (), erc. 1le Gieek veiL may also Le
ieceueu Ly airicles exiessing moou, rense, oi negarion (910) anu veak
oLjecr ionouns (1011).
Heie aie some examles o veiL liases in Gieek:
1 O Ntko : uy:.
Nlck |eft.
2 O Ntko : :p: tov Itovv.
Nlck 5rought john.
3 O Ntko :o: to tzto otov Itovv.
Nlck gove the 5ook to john.
4 O Ntko :o: t Mopto :vo poto otuztt.
Nlck gove Mor, o 5eout|fu| r|ng.
5 O Ntko 0o tzo:t otov Itovv.
Nlck w||| speok to john.
6 O Ntko :ytv: unoupyo.
Nlck 5ecome o m|n|ster.
.!.!
6.1
1111
2
3
4
5
6
S
9
1011
1
12111
3
4
5
6
S
9
20111
1
2
3
4
5
6
S
9
30111
1
2
3
4
5
6
S
9
40
41111 112
Cbapter 6
7he ver5 ond the
ver5 phrose
7 O Ntko : uy: 0:.
Nlck |eft ,esterdo,.
8 O Ntko :oz: to tzto otv toovto tou.
Nlck put the 5ook |n h|s 5og.
9 O Ntko 0o uy:t pt t Mopto.
Nlck w||| |eove w|thout Mor,.
10 O Ntko :v 0o oou o:t to z: to.
Nlck won`t g|ve ,ou the mone,.
11 O Ntko ou :tn: ott :v 0o uy:t oupto.
Nlck to|d me thot he won`t |eove tomorrow.
VeiLs aie inriansirive vlen rley uo nor iequiie an oLjecr, as in examle
1, riansirive vlen rley rake one oi moie oLjecrs. 1le oLjecr vlicl is
uiiecrly aecreu Ly rle acrion o rle veiL is rle uiiecr oLjecr (2). Ir is usually
in rle accusarive case. 1le oLjecr vlicl is inuiiecrly aecreu Ly rle acrion
o rle veiL is ieeiieu ro as rle inuiiecr oLjecr anu is exiesseu Ly eirlei a
ieosirional liase (3, 5) oi rle genirive case (4).
1le same veiL may aeai Lorl as riansirive anu inriansirive virl oi
virlour clange in meaning, as in examles 1215:
12 O Ituvv too,:t tv : :pto.
[obn |s reod|ng the newspoper.
13 O Ituvv too,:t nou.
[obn reods a lot.
14 H Erv y:zo:t ouvrrtu.
Helen |s always |ough|ng.
15 H Erv y:zoo: tov Ntuo.
Helen foo|ed N|ck.
Objects ond predcotes
1le uiiecr oLjecr is exiesseu Ly eirlei a ull noun liase ryically in rle
accusarive case (16a), oi an emlaric ionoun in rle accusarive (16L), oi
a veak ionoun in rle accusarive (16c) oi a comLinarion o rle rvo (16u).
1le veak ionoun is laceu immeuiarely Leoie rle veiL oim unless ir is
a geiunu oi an imeiarive:
16a O Buot kuror tv 'Avvo.
8asll lnvlteo Anno.
b O Buot kuror ::vo.
8asll lnvlteo me.
.!.2
1111
2
3
4
5
6
S
9
1011
1
12111
3
4
5
6
S
9
20111
1
2
3
4
5
6
S
9
30111
1
2
3
4
5
6
S
9
40
41111
|ntroouctlon
to tbe verb
pbrase
113
c O Buot : kuror.
8asll lnvlteo me.
o O Buot tv kuror tv 'Avvo.
8asll d|d lnvlte Anno.
A veiL may also lave rvo oLjecrs, one uiiecr anu one inuiiecr. 1le inui-
iecr oLjecr may Le exiesseu in rle genirive case anu ir may consisr o eirlei
a ull noun liase (1a), oi a veak ionoun (1L), oi a comLinarion o
rlese (1c). Borl oLjecr noun liases may comLine virl veak ionouns
(1u). In auuirion, rle veak ionouns may comlerely ielace rle noun
liases (1e):
17a H Arvu utor :vo pozot tou Buot.
Lena gove 8os|| o wotch.
b H Arvu tou utor :vo pozot.
Lena gave h|m o wotch.
c H Arvu tou opto: tou Bootz :vo poto pozot.
Lena gove 8os|| o 5eout|fu| wotch.
o H Arvu tou to opto: tou Bootz to pozot.
Lena gove 8os|| the wotch.
e H Arvu tou to opto:.
Lena gove |t to h|m.
1leie aie some uieiences Lerveen oLjecrs exiesseu virl ull noun
liases anu rlose exiesseu Ly veak ionouns. 1le ull noun liases may
occui in eirlei oiuei so rlar rle uiiecr oLjecr may eirlei ieceue rle inui-
iecr oLjecr (1a) (rlougl rlis oiuei is Lecoming less usual rlan rle ieveise),
oi ollov ir (1cu). 1le comLinarions o veak ionouns, on rle orlei
lanu, aie moie iesriicreu. 1le inuiiecr oLjecr in rle genirive musr alvays
ieceue rle uiiecr oLjecr in rle accusarive (1u). Iuirleimoie, nor all
comLinarions o eison aie ossiLle. 1le eimirreu sequences consisr o
comLinarions o any memLei o column A virl any memLei o column B:
A B
ou tov
oou tv
tou to
t tou
u tt
ou tu
tou
1111
2
3
4
5
6
S
9
1011
1
12111
3
4
5
6
S
9
20111
1
2
3
4
5
6
S
9
30111
1
2
3
4
5
6
S
9
40
41111
6
Tbe verb
ano tbe
verb pbrase
114
1leie aie some veiLs vlicl rake rvo oLjecrs, sucl as tuoke 'I reacl`,
krve 'I riear ro`, vlose uiiecr anu inuiiecr oLjecrs aie Lorl in rle
accusarive case:
18 Kruor tov Itovv :vo noyto.
Treat john to on |ce-creom.
1le inuiiecr oLjecr is mosr usually exiesseu Ly a ieosirional liase
inriouuceu Ly or:
19 O Mtu rotrtr vuu ot Xpuoouzo.
Mlcbael sent a message to Chr,sou|o.
A ev veiLs may comLine virl a single oLjecr eirlei in a ieosirional
liase oi in rle genirive:
20a H Ayyru 0u tort otov Itovv.
Angela wlll speak to john.
b H Ayyru 0u (tou) tort tou Itovv.
Angela wlll speak to john.
A genirive veak ionoun, vlicl is nor an inuiiecr oLjecr, may accomany
a riansirive oi an inriansirive veiL, as in examles 2123. 1lese genirive
veak ionouns exiess rle syclological involvemenr o rle eison
ieeiieu ro Ly rle ionoun virl rle eecr o rle acrion uenoreu Ly rle
veiL:
21 Tou uuouvr tu ortu.
Tbey spolleo h|s plans.
22 Ou ou otreort to noukutoo,
Wlll you lron my sblrt for me?
23 M ou otrvoe0rt.
P|eose oon't get upset.
]usr as in Lnglisl, rle veiL liase may conrain a numLei o auveiLial moui-
hcarions exiessing lace, rime, mannei, cause, uiose, erc. 1lese consisr
o eirlei ieosirional liases oi auveiLial liases oi auveiLial clauses, as
in rle olloving examles:
24 Iuvuvt0kuv otv A0vo (place).
Tbey met |n Athens.
25 'H0r nozu opyo (tlme).
(S)be came ver, |ote.
1111
2
3
4
5
6
S
9
1011
1
12111
3
4
5
6
S
9
20111
1
2
3
4
5
6
S
9
30111
1
2
3
4
5
6
S
9
40
41111
|ntroouctlon
to tbe verb
pbrase
115
26 Tou tor nozu oouo (manner).
(S)be spoke to blm ver, rude|,.
27 To rkuvr ono n:too (cause).
(S)be olo lt out of stu55ornness.
28 Atuurt nou yto vo nop:t uozo o0o (purpose).
(S)be's stuoylng a lot |n order to get good morks.
Some inriansirive veiLs, knovn as linking veiLs, aie olloveu Ly eirlei a
noun liase oi an aujecrival liase in rle nominarive, vlicl uncrions as
rle ieuicare o rle suLjecr. I rle suLjecr ieuicare is an aujecrival liase
ir agiees virl rle suLjecr nor only in case Lur also in numLei anu genuei
(29), i rle suLjecr ieuicare is a noun liase ir agiees virl rle suLjecr in
case only (30):
29 H ur tou rtvut/rytvr nozu v:uptuto.
Hls slster ls/bas become ver, neurot|c.
30 O Ntko rtvut/rytvr otpto t.
Nlck ls/bas become her so|vot|on.
Some riansirive veiLs may, in auuirion ro rle uiiecr oLjecr, rake an oLjecr
ieuicare in rle oim o eirlei an aujecrive liase (31) oi a noun liase
(32). An oLjecr ieuicare agiees virl rle oLjecr ro vlicl ir ieeis in case
(i.e. rle accusarive), anu i ir is an aujecrival liase ir musr also agiee in
numLei anu genuei (31):
31 Oreouv t Boo nozu :unv.
Tbey consloer \osso ver, |nte|||gent.
32 Atotouv t Boo 1noupyo Hot:to.
Tbey appolnteo \osso M|n|ster of Lducot|on.
PreIininary notes on the verb systen
Gieek is a liglly inlecreu language. Lacl veiL is oimeu Ly rle comLina-
rion o a srem anu an inlecrional enuing. 1le srem, vlicl may Le simle
(yu - 'viire`) oi ueiiveu (ytut-ru- 'cuie`), caiiies rle essenrial meaning
o rle veiL, vlile rle inlecrional enuing exiesses a comlex sysrem o
giammarical caregoiies, namely:
Peison: hisr, seconu, rliiu
umLei: singulai, luial
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Tbe verb
ano tbe
verb pbrase
116
1ense: asr, non-asr
Voice: acrive, assive
Asecr: eiecrive, imeiecrive
ôou: imeiarive, non-imeiarive.
1le inlecreu veiL may Le mouiheu Ly rle airicles vu, u, 0u, vlicl
ieceue rle veiL oim anu maik uirlei uivisions o moou (inuicarive/
suLjuncrive) anu rle rense oosirion (uruie/non-uruie). 1le only
invaiianr, non-hnire, veiL oims aie (a) rle geiunu, enuing in -ovtu/
-evtu (nutovtu kut yrevtu 'laying anu laugling`), anu (L) rle non-
hnire veiL oim vlicl ollovs rle auxiliaiy re 'I lave` ro oim rle eiecr
renses (re rtuvteort 'I lave clangeu my minu`).
Person and nunber
1le inlecrional enuings o a hnire veiL maik rliee eisons (hisr, seconu
anu rliiu: see also secrion 4.1) anu rvo numLeis (singulai anu luial). (Ioi
imeisonal veiLs see secrions 6.6 anu 10.25.) 1le eison anu numLei o
rle veiL noimally agiee virl rle eison anu numLei o rle suLjecr, as in
rle olloving senrences:
1 Fy (1st sg.) 0u nzpo (1st sg.) tov oyutuoo.
l wlll po, tbe blll.
2 Fo:t (2no pl.) vu tou tzo:t: (2no pl.).
ou sboulo speok to blm.
In geneial, rle luial o rle suLjecr ionoun anu rle veiL ieeis ro moie
rlan one inuiviuual, Lur in Gieek, as in some orlei Luioean languages,
rle seconu eison luial may also Le useu ro ieei ro only one inuiviuual
in a olire anu iesecrul mannei ('luial o olireness`, see secrion 12.1),
as aLove, vleie rort 'you` may ieei ro one oi moie eisons.
Because rle Gieek veiLal enuing cleaily slovs vaiiarion in eison anu
numLei, a suLjecr ionoun Lecomes ieuunuanr anu, oi rlis ieason, in
many senrences no exlicir suLjecr is srareu:
3 Fznt, vu or z:nou: ouvu.
l hope tbat we w||| see you o|ten.
4 :p:t notr 0o too:t,
uo ,ou know wben (sjhe w||| orr|ve?
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Person ano
number
117
1le suLjecr ionoun is iesenr in rle senrence only i ir is associareu virl
secial emlasis:
5 F:t nuvte rv rour ttnotu.
We, bowever, know notblng.
6 Fou nrnrt vu tou tort.
ou sboulo speak to blm.
7 Auto rtvut to nou.
He's tbe problem.
1le seconu eison singulai anu rliiu eison luial can Le useu virl
geneial inuehnire ieeience:
8 Ee vo,:t (2no sg.) kut kuvrt rv or ukourt.
Here ,ou shout ano nobooy can bear you.
9 Hou tpv: (3ro pl.) tvu re,
Wbere con one eot cbeaply bere?
Tense, aspect, voice and nood
1ense is rle veiLal caregoiy rlar inuicares rle rime ar vlicl somerling
laens. In main inuicarive clauses (see secrion 10.2) rle oinr o rime o
rle veiL is uehneu in ielarion ro rle rime o seaking. In orlei kinus o
clause orlei acrois aie also ielevanr, sucl as rle moou, rle iesence o
airicles anu, oi veiLs in suLoiuinare clauses, rle rense o rle main veiL.
1le veiL oims in Gieek uieienriare only Lerveen asr anu non-asr. 1le
uruie is oimeu virl rle airicle 0u, anu rle eiecr anu lueiecr aie
oimeu virl rle auxiliaiy veiL re 'I lave`.
Asecr is rle veiLal caregoiy rlar inuicares vlerlei rle acrion, iocess, erc.
uenoreu Ly rle veiL is vieveu eirlei (a) as occuiiing ieeareuly oi Leing in
iogiess (imeiecrive asecr), oi (L) in irs roraliry as a single comlereu
evenr (eiecrive asecr), oi (c) as an evenr comlereu in rle asr vlose com-
lerion is ielevanr ro some orlei oinr in rime (eiecr asecr). 1le comLi-
narions o rle rvo caregoiies rense anu asecr iouuce rle veiL oims vlicl
aie oren ieeiieu ro as rle renses o rle veiL. Ioi rle use o rle renses see
secrion 6.5.
Voice is rle giammarical caregoiy rlar in geneial (anu moie cleaily in cases
o acrion veiLs) inuicares vlerlei rle suLjecr is rle iniriaroi o rle acrion
(acrive voice), e.g. rvoe |kunotov] 'I annoy |someone]` oi rle enriry rlar
unueigoes (is aecreu Ly) rlis acrion (assive voice), e.g. rvoouut 'I
am annoyeu`. In sucl siruarions rle oLjecr o rle acrive veiL coiiesonus
6.4
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Tbe verb
ano tbe
verb pbrase
118
ro rle suLjecr o rle assive veiL, vlile rle suLjecr o rle acrive veiL coiie-
sonus ro a ieosirional liase vlicl may Le iesenr oi unueisroou:
1 H Erv (subject) :voz:t nou tov Muko (object).
Helen onno,s Mark very mucb.
2 O Muko (subject) :voz:ttot nou ono tv Fz:v (agent).
Mark |s very mucb onno,ed 5, He|en.
or all veiLs lave Lorl acrive anu assive voices. Iuirleimoie, rle coiie-
larion Lerveen acrive anu assive voice enuings anu rle meaning conveyeu
uoes nor alvays lolu. 1leie aie veiLs virl acrive enuings vlicl uo nor
inuicare acrion, e.g. nrtve 'I am lungiy`, anu veiLs virl assive enuings
vlicl may inuicare acrion anu may rake an oLjecr, e.g. nrtnotouut
|kunotov] 'I look arei |someone]`.
ôou is rle veiLal caregoiy rlar ryically, in main clauses, inuicares rle
arriruue o rle seakei rovaius vlar is conveyeu Ly rle veiL. 1le veiL
oims in rlemselves uieienriare only Lerveen rle imeiarive moou (3),
vleie rle seakei oiueis, iequesrs, erc. rle leaiei ro uo somerling, anu
rle non-imeiarive moous. (Ioi rle use o rle imeiarive see secrion 10.4.)
1le non-imeiarive oims may Le eirlei in rle inuicarive moou (45) oi
rle suLjuncrive moou (6S). 1le inuicarive moou is claiacreiizeu Ly rle
aLsence o rle airicles vu anu u anu Ly rle acr rlar irs negarive airicle
is rv. Ir is useu vlen rle seakei simly srares oi uesciiLes a siruarion.
1le suLjuncrive las rle same veiL oim as rle inuicarive Lur ir is accom-
anieu Ly rle airicles vu oi u (virl a ev maiginal excerions) anu rle
negarive airicle is v (see also secrion 9.3). 1le suLjuncrive is useu ro
exiess visling, loing, execring, lanning, erc.:
3 Ipo: to yuu! (lmperatlve)
Wr|te tbe letter!
4 H Etv oyopoo: kutvouto uutoktvto (lnolcatlve).
|rene 5ought a new car.
5 H Mut :v uotozo: kuu (lnolcatlve).
Mary d|dn`t understond properly.
6 No uoz:oou: kut tov Ituvv, (subjunctlve)
Shou|d we |nv|te [obn too?
7 'Ot, vo v tov uoz:oou: (subjunctlve).
No, |et`s not |nv|te h|m.
8 A uyrt (subjunctlve).
Let blm/ber/lt go.
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Tense,
aspect, volce
ano mooo
119
The use of the tenses and other verb forns
Heie ve slall uesciiLe rle use anu rle uncrion o rle veiL oims (oren
ieeiieu ro as renses) ueiiveu iom rle comLinarion o rle caregoiies o
rense anu asecr (see secrion 6.4). 1le airicle 0u may comLine virl any
o rlese oims ro iouuce a vaiiery o uruie renses anu conuirionals.
1le vaiious comLinarions o eiecrive/imeiecrive asecr anu asr/non-
asr give rle hisr oui simle oims Lelov, vlile rle comLinarion o eiecr
asecr anu asr/non-asr gives rle rvo eiecr renses (names o oims aie
given in Lolu):
^s,-.t |,eect|ve |eect|ve |eect
-s-
Non-past rv-e ro-e re rort
'| tle, (no Lngllsb '| bave tleo'
| am tylng' equlvalent)
present dependent perfect
Past r-rv-u r-ro-u rtu rort
'| was tylng, '| tleo' '| bao tleo'
| useo to tle'
inperfect sinpIe past pIuperfect
Present (mper(ectve non-post)
1le iesenr exiesses eirlei a single evenr rlar is in iogiess (conrinuous)
oi a laLirually ieeareu one:
1 H Kutrtvu nott,:t (repeateo) tu ttuvtu uu uo0: npt.
Katerlna woters tbe roses ever, morn|ng.
2 Aut t otty rtvut otov kno kut nott,:t (contlnuous)
tu ttuvtu uu.
|ght now sbe's ln tbe garoen woter|ng tbe roses.
3 Kototot (contlnuous) teu ytutt ouz:u:t t vuto
(repeateo).
(Sjhe`s os|eep now because (sjhe works n|ghts.
.5.!
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Tbe verb
ano tbe
verb pbrase
120
4 Mv tou tu ytutt ouz:u:t (contlnuous).
Don't speak to blm because he`s work|ng.
1le iesenr may also Le useu occasionally ro uesciiLe viviuly an acrion rlar
rook lace in rle asr. 1lis is knovn as rle 'lisroiic iesenr`:
5 X0r net net tuno:t notu, ovoty kut z:n t
Mutu ru.
Flrst tblng yesteroay mornlng there`s o knock at tbe ooor, l
open |lt] ano see Mary |urlous.
1le iesenr is also useu in live soirs commenraiies:
6 O Mnrku tp::t, ptou:t tv nuu, ooutop:t kut
o,:t yuoz.
8eckbam runs, gets tbe ball, shoots ano scores.
1le iesenr may also uesciiLe uruie evenrs ro convey immeuiacy:
7 M otrvoetrout, tou to tv :y oupto.
Don't worry, l`|| g|ve lt to blm tomorrow.
1le iesenr may also Le useu ro ieei ro an acrion oi siruarion rlar Legan
in rle asr anu conrinues in rle iesenr, vleie Lnglisl uses rle eiecr:
8 Hotpv uuto to uuko ono to T999.
l`ve 5een tok|ng tbls meolclne s|nce 1999.
lmper(ect (mper(ectve post)
1le imeiecr iesenrs an acrion, iocess, erc. as occuiiing laLirually (9)
oi conrinuously (10) in rle asr:
9 Hruot :tp:o uo0: npt ytu to eu kut :vt0o
nou kuu.
Last year l ron |or bal| an bour eoch morn|ng ano l fe|t very well.
10 'Ftp:: no tv nuutu otov tov rtu.
He wos runn|ng towaros tbe sbore when | saw blm.
Smple post (per(ectve post)
1le simle asr iesenrs an acrion as laving Leen comlereu ar some oinr
in rle asr:
11 Atoooo to u0o oou 0r kut :vtunotootuo.
l reod your artlcle yesteroay ano l wos |mpressed.
.5.J
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Tbe use o|
tbe tenses
ano otber
verb |orms
121
12 O Ituvv uoupootu: vu rntrvrt.
[obn got t|red o| lnslstlng.
13 Ayopoo: trtku uutoktvto,
u|d ,ou 5u, a car ln tbe eno?
Dependent (per(ectve non-post)
1le ueenuenr cannor Le useu on irs ovn. Ir is useu in comLinarion virl
rle uruie airicle 0u ro oim rle eiecrive uruie (0u yue 'I vill viire`)
anu virl rle airicles vu oi u ro oim rle eiecrive suLjuncrive (vu/u
roe 'rlar I rie, ro rie, ler me rie`). Ir may also occui arei ceirain conjunc-
rions sucl as uv (uv uyrt 'i you leave`) anu otuv (otuv uyrt 'vlen
you leave`), ir is oLligaroiy arei ntv (ntv uyrt 'Leoie you leave`).
14 O Ituvv 0o o tz: vo:t ott ote.
[obn w||| phone us at elgbt o'clock.
15 Orrt vo tou tz: vo:t ott ote.
He wants you to phone h|m at elgbt o'clock.
Per(ect
1le eiecr is oimeu virl rle iesenr rense o rle auxiliaiy veiL re
olloveu Ly rle non-hnire veiL oim consisring o rle eiecrive veiL srem
lus rle suhx -rt, e.g. re yurt ' I lave viirren`. Ir is useu vlen rle
comlereu acrion in rle asr las iesenr ielevance anu is oren inrei-
clangeaLle virl rle simle asr:
16 'F nt:tlnto trt ku rr uno to net.
l`ve drunk tbree co||ees slnce tbe mornlng.
17 'F op:0:tlop:0uo vu nrtrve.
l`ve got t|red o| waltlng.
Pluper(ect
1lis rense is oimeu virl rle asr rense o rle auxiliaiy veiL re olloveu
Ly rle non-hnire oim, e.g. rtu yurt 'I lau viirren`. Ir is useu ro exiess
an acrion comlereu in rle asr virl consequences ielevanr ro anorlei asr
siruarion, eirlei exlicirly srareu oi unueisroou:
18 Tov :to: ouvovto:t tov Iteyo otuv or rtur.
We`d o|reod, met George wben we saw you.
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Tbe verb
ano tbe
verb pbrase
122
19 Itt rvvru to net :tov: ktou ovopo:t.
At nlne o'clock ln tbe mornlng the, hod alreaoy |eft.
Iuture
1le uruie consisrs o rle uruie airicle 0u olloveu eirlei Ly rle imei-
ecrive non-asr (iesenr rense) ro oim rle imeiecrive uruie, vlicl
iesenrs rle acrion as laLirual oi conrinuous, e.g. 0u rve 'I vill rie ieear-
euly` oi 'I vill Le rying conrinuously`, oi Ly rle ueenuenr ro oim rle
eiecrive uruie, e.g. 0u roe 'I vill rie`, vlicl iesenrs rle acrion as
comlereu.
1le imeiecrive uruie is useu ro inuicare rlar rle acrion o rle veiL vill
Le raking lace ieeareuly oi conrinuously in rle uruie:
20 Ko0: T:topt 0o tp: otou Mtoou tv turvu.
Lver, Wednesdo, we`|| eot at Mltsos's taverna.
21 'Otuv tuort 0o ouz:u:t.
Wben you get tbere (sjhe`|| 5e work|ng.
1le eiecrive uruie is useu ro inuicare rlar rle acrion o rle veiL vill Le
comlereu ar a airiculai oinr in rime in rle uruie:
22 Oo ouvovto t Mut oupto to onoy:uo.
l`|| meet Mary tomorrow ofternoon.
Condtonol
1lis is oimeu Ly rle uruie airicle 0u olloveu Ly rle imeiecr. Ir
exiesses suosirions oi counreiacrual conuirions (oi moie on conui-
rional clauses see secrion 10.13):
23 Av rtu uutoktvto, 0o nyotvo vu tov e.
|| | bao a car l wou|d go ano see blm.
24 Av ru ott oouvu re 0o o: uozouoo.
Hao | known you were bere l wou|d hove |nv|ted ,ou.
Iuture per(ect
1lis consisrs o rle uruie airicle 0u olloveu Ly rle eiecr. Ir exiesses
an acrion rlar vill lave Leen comlereu ar a airiculai oinr in rime in rle
uruie anu vill Le ielevanr ro rlar oinr in rime:
.5.9
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Tbe use o|
tbe tenses
ano otber
verb |orms
123
25 Mrt to kuokutt 0o ::t t:z:to:t to tto nou
yu rt.
8y tbe summer (sjhe`|| hove n|shed tbe book (s)be's wrltlng.
26 Ente ott 0o ::t p:t to nooo nou rturtut.
| bope tbat (sjhe`|| hove found tbe amount (s)be neeos.
Per(ect condtonol
1lis consisrs o rle uruie airicle 0u olloveu Ly rle lueiecr. Ir
uesciiLes an acrion rlar coulu lave laeneu Lur aileu ro uo so. Ir is useu
in rle main clause o counreiacrual conuirions (see secrion 10.13).
27 Av tov rtr yvetort 0o tov :t: ouno0o:t kt
rou.
|| you bao met blm ,ou too wou|d hove ||ked h|m.
28 Av rtuvr r tu 0o tov :tov: ot:tz:t otv Ayytu.
|| tbey bao money the, wou|d hove sent h|m to Lnglano.
The gerund
1lis is an uninlecreu veiL oim useu auveiLially. Irs suLjecr is noimally
iuenrical virl rle suLjecr o rle clause in vlicl ir occuis. Occasionally, rle
suLjecr o rle geiunu may Le uieienr iom rlar o rle clause (32). 1le
geiunu exiesses mannei (29), simulraneiry o rime (30) anu occasionally
cause (31).
29 O ur o t Pttu p0: tp:ovto vu t nrt tu
vru.
Plta's brotber come runn|ng to tell ber tbe news.
30 Mnotvovto tou ukouou vu touv u0ttotu.
As l come |n | bearo tbem wblsperlng.
31 Avoyvpt,ovto tv utu tou 0u tou eoouv no-
uyey.
8ecouse the, recogn|ze bls lmportance tbey wlll glve blm a
promotlon.
32 4:uyovto o Itpyo Erv utor vu kutrt.
As Ceorge |eft, Helen starteo to cry.
.5.!!
.5.!0
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Tbe verb
ano tbe
verb pbrase
124
Defective, inpersonaI and deponent verbs
Beoie ve ser our rle Lasic veiL oims, ve musr nore rlar some veiLs uo
nor ossess rle ull iange o oims oi eacl eison, numLei, rense, asecr
anu voice. Dieienr veiLs lack uieienr airs o rle sysrem.
Deecrive veiLs lave no eiecrive oims anu exisr only in rle imeiecrive
asecr (see secrion 6.4). Lxamles o ueecrive veiLs aie: uvke 'I Lelong`,
yrttovrue 'I am in rle neiglLouiloou (o)`, rtut 'I am` (see secrion 6.),
ru0uvout 'I am iesonsiLle`, re 'I lave` (see secrion 6.1S), uout 'I
hglr`, re 'I knov`, o rte 'I ove, am oLligeu`, nrtrve 'I vair (oi)`,
tre 'I riemLle`, eote 'I ove`.
Imeisonal veiLs lave only rliiu-eison singulai oims. 1le rvo mosr
common veiLs o rlis kinu aie nrnrt 'ir is necessaiy (rlar)` anu nokrttut
'Le aLour ro`. Borl veiLs aie noimally olloveu Ly vu anu a veiL in rle
iesenr oi ueenuenr:
1 Hrnrt vu yutort rt to rort.
You must return by mlooay.
2 'Enrnr vu ourue ku0r ru.
| bao to work every oay.
3 Arv nokrttut vu uyour oru.
We're not golng to leave tooay.
Ioi imeisonal uses o orlei veiLs see secrion 10.25.
Deonenr veiLs lave only assive oims. Ir is imoiranr ro nore rlar rlese
veiLs aie acrive in meaning, Lur rleii enuings aie rlose o rle assive voice.
Lxamles: uto0uvout 'I eel`, uvouut 'I ieuse`, rout 'I ieceive,
accer`, ryuout 'I voik`, touut 'I imirare`, vtrnout 'I am
aslameu`, utvout 'I aeai, seem`, ouut 'I eai`. A ev orlei veiLs
aie semi-ueonenr: rley lave assive oims oi rle iesenr anu imeiecr,
Lur acrive oims oi orlei renses. 1le main ones aie: ytvout 'I Lecome,
laen`, rout 'I come`, ku0out 'I sir`. Ioi rleii orlei renses see rle
raLle o iiiegulai veiLs (secrion 6.25).
The basic forns..
Secrions 6.6.13 give rle Lasic oims o rle veiLs: rle iesenr, imeiecr,
simle asr, ueenuenr, imeiecrive anu eiecrive imeiarives (acrive anu
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De|ectlve,
lmpersonal
ano oeponent
verbs
125
assive in eacl case) anu rle geiunu. Iiom rlese Lasic oims ceirain orlei
oims aie cieareu, rlese aie ueraileu in secrions 6.16.20.
The verb 'to be'
1le veiL 'ro Le` ('I am`, 'you aie`, erc.) is iiiegulai, i.e. rle arrein o
eisonal enuings is nor rle same as oi any orlei veiL, so ir neeus ro Le
leainr seaiarely. 1leie aie only rvo sers o rense oims: iesenr anu asr
(imeiecr).
|eseot |,eect
Sg. 1 rtut | am ouv(u) | was
2 rtout you are oouv(u) you were
3 rtvut (s)be/lt ls tuv(r) (s)be/lt was
Pl. 1 rtuotr we are uotr/ we were
uotuv
2 rtotr/ you are ouotr/ you were
rtouotr ouotuv
3 rtvut tbey are tuv(r) tbey were
1. Tbe |orms o| tbe lmper|ect wltb tbe aooltlonal vowel at tbe eno (ouvu,
oouvu, tuvr) are less |ormal alternatlves.
2. Tbe ol||erence between tbe otber alternatlve |orms (sbown separateo by / )
ls largely a matter o| personal cbolce.
Note tbe ol||erent spelllngs o| tbe lnltlal vowel ln tbe present (rt-) ano lmper-
|ect (-).
First-conjugation verbs
Gieek veiLs aie uiviueu inro rvo main caregoiies:
(1) rlose rlar, in rleii acrive iesenr rense, lave rle sriess on rle lasr
syllaLle o rle srem, e.g. yo e 'I viire`, tuoe 'I ieau` (anu, in acr,
rle majoiiry o Gieek veiLs),
(2) rlose rlar lave a hisr eison singulai o rle acrive iesenr sriesseu on
rle lasr vovel, e.g. uyune 'I love`, tr eve 'I relelone`.
6.8
6.7
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6
Tbe verb
ano tbe
verb pbrase
126
We ieei ro veiLs as Lelonging ro rle hisr oi seconu conjugarion, accoiuing
ro rlis unuamenral uisrincrion. In rlis secrion rle Lasic oims o hisr-
conjugarion veiLs vill Le given. 1lose o seconu-conjugarion veiLs vill Le
given in secrions 6.96.11. Ioi eacl rense oi moou ve give an aioxi-
mare Lnglisl meaning. Ioi inoimarion aLour rle use o rle renses anu
orlei veiL oims see secrion 6.5.
uve | lose
|eseot
/ct|ve |ass|ve
Sg. 1 uve | lose uvout | get lost,
lose mysel|
2 uvrt uvrout
3 uvrt uvrtut
Pl. 1 uvour uvouotr
2 uvrtr uvrotr/
uvoouotr
3 uvouv(r) uvovtut
1. Tbe stress remalns on tbe same syllable, ecept |or tbe passlve 1st person
plural, ano tbe alternatlve |orm o| tbe passlve 2no person plural, wbere lt
moves |orwaro by one syllable.
2. Tbe actlve 3ro person plural |orm wltb -r ls |requent ln tbe spoken language,
but less o|ten useo ln more |ormal contets.
3. |n tbe passlve 2no person plural tbe |orm ln -rotr ls more |ormal, wblle tbat
ln -oouotr ls more colloqulal.
|,eect
/ct|ve |ass|ve
Sg. 1 ruvu | was loslng, uvoouv(u)
useo to lose | was gettlng lost,
loslng mysel|
2 ruvr uvooouv(u)
3 ruvr uvotuv(r)
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Flrst-
conjugatlon
verbs
127
Pl. 1 uvur uvouotuv
2 uvutr uvoouotuv
3 ruvuv/uvuvr uvovtuv/
uvovtououv/
uvovtuvr
1. |n tbe actlve lmper|ect, verbs wltb a one-syllable stem beglnnlng wltb a conso-
nant bave a syllablc augment r- ln tbe slngular ano ln tbe 3ro person plural,
ano tbls augment carrles tbe stress (see sectlon 6.21 |or more oetalls). Tbe
3ro person plural |orm wltb -r (ano no augment) ls more colloqulal. verbs
wltb stems o| more tban one syllable bave no augment, e.g. tuuu '| was
reaolng', |rom tuue.
2. |n tbe passlve lmper|ect tbe stress moves |orwaro one syllable, ecept |or tbe
3ro person plural ln -ovtuv. Tbe alternatlve slngular |orms wltb -u (1st ano
2no persons) or -r (3ro person) are colloqulal. Tbe two alternatlve enolngs
|or tbe 3ro person plural, -ovtououv ano -ovtuvr, are also colloqulal.
S|,|e ,ast
/ct|ve |ass|ve
Sg. 1 ruou | lost u0ku | was lost,
lost mysel|
2 ruor u0kr
3 ruor u0kr
Pl. 1 uour u0kur
2 uoutr u0kutr
3 ruouv/uouvr u0kuv/u0kuvr
1. Tbe slmple past tenses, actlve ano passlve, are baseo on tbe relevant per|ec-
tlve stems, ano lt ls necessary to know wbat tbese stems are |or eacb verb. (For
tbe |ormatlon o| tbe per|ectlve stems o| rst-conjugatlon verbs see sectlon
6.14.) Tbe verb uve bas an actlve per|ectlve stem uo- ano passlve u0-.
Tbe actlve |orms bave tbe same enolngs as tbe actlve lmper|ect, aooeo to tbe
per|ectlve stem. Tbe syllablc augment r- ls requlreo |or verbs wltb one-syllable
stems, ln tbe slngular ano ln tbe 3ro person plural, just as ln tbe lmper|ect.
2. Tbe passlve slmple past ls |ormeo by aoolng an etra syllable -k- ano tbe
past personal enolngs to tbe passlve per|ectlve stem: u0-k-u. Tbe enolngs
are tbe same as tbe corresponolng ones |or tbe actlve slmple past. Tbe stress
|alls on tbe tblro syllable |rom tbe eno ln all |orms. Tbe 3ro person plural ln
-uvr ls less |ormal.
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Tbe verb
ano tbe
verb pbrase
128
|e,eooeot
/ct|ve |ass|ve
Sg. 1 uoe (no Lngllsb u0e (no Lngllsb
equlvalent) equlvalent)
2 uort u0rt
3 uort u0rt
Pl. 1 uoour u0our
2 uortr u0rttr
3 uoouv(r) u0ouv(r)
1. Tbe actlve ano passlve oepenoent |orms are baseo on tbe same stem as tbe
actlve ano passlve slmple past tenses respectlvely. Tbe actlve enolngs are tbe
same as tbose o| tbe actlve present tense. Tbe stress |alls on tbe last syllable
o| tbe stem. Tbe passlve enolngs are tbe same, ecept |or tbe vowel -rt- ln
tbe 2no person plural. 8ut tbere ls a very lmportant ol||erence: tbe stress
|alls on tbe rst (or only) syllable o| tbese enolngs, ratber tban on tbe stem.
2. Tbe 3ro person plural ln botb actlve ano passlve bas a less |ormal alternatlve
enolng ln -r.
|,eect|ve |,eat|ve
/ct|ve
Sg. uvr lose!
Pl. uvrtr
Tbe lmperatlve bas only 2no person |orms, slngular ano plural. Tbe enolngs -r
ano -rtr are attacbeo to tbe lmper|ectlve (present) stem. Tbe plural |orm ls
loentlcal to tbe 2no person plural o| tbe actlve present tense. |n verbs o| more
tban two syllables tbe stress o| tbe slngular |orm goes back to tbe tblro syllable
|rom tbe eno, e.g. tuur 'reao!' Tbere ls no passlve lmper|ectlve lmperatlve.
For tbe use o| tbe lmperatlve |orms ano alternatlve ways o| epresslng
commanos see sectlon 10.4.
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Flrst-
conjugatlon
verbs
129
|eect|ve |,eat|ve
/ct|ve |ass|ve
Sg. uor lose! uoou get lost! lose yoursel|!
Pl. uotr u0rttr
1. Tbe per|ectlve lmperatlve ls |ormeo |rom tbe per|ectlve stem. Tbe slngular
|orms aoo -r |or tbe actlve ano -ou |or tbe passlve. |n verbs o| more tban
two syllables tbe stress o| tbe actlve |orm ls on tbe tblro syllable |rom tbe
eno: contrast rtotuor 'prepare (sometblng)!' wltb rtotuoou 'get your-
sel| reaoy!' Note tbat tbe passlve slngular lmperatlve uses tbe actlve
per|ectlve stem.
2. Tbe actlve plural enolng ls -tr wben tbe last consonant o| tbe stem ls , ,
o, or . A|ter otber consonants tbe enolng ls -rtr, e.g. nuvrtr 'wasb!'
(|rom nrve). Sometlmes verbs wltb per|ectlve stems enolng ln v bave tbe
sborter enolng ln colloqulal use, e.g. kuvtr 'oo!' Tbe plural o| tbe passlve
per|ectlve lmperatlve ls tbe same as tbe 2no person plural o| tbe oepenoent.
3. Actlve slngular lmperatlves wltb a stem enolng ln , , o, or o|ten orop
tbe nal vowel wben |olloweo by a 3ro-person weak pronoun or an object
wltb tbe oenlte artlcle. Lamples: yu' to 'wrlte lt!', or' tu ttu 'brlng
tbe books!'.
4. Some verbs |orm tbelr actlve per|ectlve lmperatlve lrregularly. See tbe table
o| lrregular verbs ln sectlon 6.25.
Ceooo
uvovtu loslng
Tbe geruno ls |ormeo by aoolng tbe enolng -ovtu to tbe lmper|ectlve stem. |t
ls actlve ln meanlng. For tbe use o| tbe geruno see sectlon 6.5.11.
5econd-conjugation verbs (type A)
VeiLs o rle seconu conjugarion aie uiviueu inro rvo ryes, accoiuing ro
rle vovel vlicl ieuominares in rle enuings o rle acrive iesenr rense.
1lose o rle hisr rye (A) aie claiacreiizeu Ly rle u vovel in rle enuings
o rlis rense. 1ye B is uealr virl in secrion 6.10.
VeiLs o rye A incluue rle olloving: uyune 'I love`, unuvte 'I ansvei`,
uote 'I Leai`, oute 'I uive`, yre 'I laugl`, yrvve 'I give Liirl (ro), Leai`,
yrvte 'I celeLiare`, te 'I am rliisry`, koe 'I srick`, kute 'I lolu`,
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6
Tbe verb
ano tbe
verb pbrase
130
kre 'I lang`, kurve 'I govein`, rrte 'I sruuy`, rte 'I counr`, te
'I seak`, vtke 'I conquei`, rvute 'I sray u ar niglr`, rve 'I oiger`,
unve 'I (a)vake`, nute 'I sre, rieau`, nrtve 'I am lungiy`, nrve 'I ass`,
nrnute 'I valk`, nrte 'I ly, rliov`, ne 'I jum`, noue 'I sell`, notte
'I ieei`, ete 'I ask`, otuute 'I sro`, tue 'I ull`, uoe 'I Llov`,
utrte 'I gieer`, ue 'I Lieak, soil`, tune 'I lir`. Some orlei veiLs rlar
can ollov rye A aie lisreu in secrion 6.10.
uyune | love
|eseot
/ct|ve |ass|ve
Sg. 1 uyune/uyunue uyuntrut
| love | am loveo
2 uyunu uyuntrout
3 uyunurt/uyunu uyuntrtut
Pl. 1 uyunur/uyunour uyuntouotr
2 uyunutr uyuntrotr/
uyuntoouotr
3 uyunouv(r)/uyunuvr uyuntouvtut
1. Tbe stress always |alls on tbe enolngs. Tbe passlve present bas a non-syllablc
-t- (see sectlon 1.2) between tbe stem uyun- ano tbe personal enolngs.
2. Wbere alternatlve |orms elst, tbe actlve enolngs -ue, -urt, -ur ano -uvr
ano tbe passlve 2no person plural ln -oouotr are regaroeo as less |ormal.
|,eect
/ct|ve |ass|ve
Sg. 1 uyunouou uyuntoouv(u)
| useo to love | useo to be loveo
2 uyunouor uyuntooouv(u)
3 uyunouor uyuntotuv(r)
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Secono-
conjugatlon
verbs
(type A)
131
Pl. 1 uyunouour uyuntouotuv
2 uyunououtr uyuntoouotuv
3 uyunououv(r) uyuntovtuv(r)/
uyuntovtououv/
uyuntouvtuv(r)
1. Tbe actlve |orms conslst o| tbe stem, an etra syllable -ouo-, wblcb always
carrles tbe stress, ano tbe personal enolngs o| tbe actlve past tenses. verbs
o| type 8 |orm tbelr actlve lmper|ect ln eactly tbe same way.
2. An alternatlve way o| |ormlng tbe actlve lmper|ect o| type A verbs ls also ln
use, malnly ln central ano soutbern Greece. Here tbe etra syllable ls -uy-,
ano tbe stress |alls on tbe tblro syllable |rom tbe eno: uyunuyu, uyunuyr,
uyunuyr, uyunuyur, uyunuyutr, uyunuyuv/uyunuyuvr. Tbese alter-
natlve |orms are not normally useo ln |ormal contets.
3. Tbe passlve |orms are slmllar to tbose o| tbe passlve lmper|ect o| rst-
conjugatlon verbs, but bave a non-syllablc -t- lnserteo between tbe stem ano
tbe enolng.
S|,|e ,ast
/ct|ve |ass|ve
Sg. 1 uyunou uyun0ku
| loveo | was loveo
2 uyunor uyun0kr
3 uyunor uyun0kr
Pl. 1 uyunour uyun0kur
2 uyunoutr uyun0kutr
3 uyunouv/ uyun0kuv/
uyunouvr uyun0kuvr
verbs o| tbe secono conjugatlon normally |orm tbelr per|ectlve stems by aoolng
tbe syllable -o- |or tbe actlve ano -0- |or tbe passlve. (For lmportant ecep-
tlons to tbls way o| |ormlng tbe per|ectlve stems see sectlon 6.15.) To |orm tbe
actlve slmple past, tbe past enolngs are aooeo olrectly to tbe actlve per|ectlve
stem. As ln rst-conjugatlon verbs, tbe passlve slmple past bas tbe aooltlonal
syllable -k- be|ore tbe enolngs. |n all tbese |orms tbe stress |alls on tbe tblro
syllable |rom tbe eno.
Lceptlonally, two verbs ln tbls category bave a syllablc augment ln tbe 1st, 2no
ano 3ro persons lngular ano tbe 3ro person plural o| tbe actlve slmple past: e
'| act' bas tbe slmple past ruou, ano onue (an alternatlve to onue) '| break'
bas ronuou. Apart |rom tbese speclal cases, secono-conjugatlon verbs oo not
bave an augment.
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Tbe verb
ano tbe
verb pbrase
132
|e,eooeot
/ct|ve |ass|ve
Sg. 1 uyunoe (no Lngllsb uyun0e (no Lngllsb
2 uyunort uyun0rt
3 uyunort uyun0rt
Pl. 1 uyunoour uyun0our
2 uyunortr uyun0rttr
3 uyunoouv(r) uyun0ouv(r)
Tbe oepenoent ls baseo on tbe per|ectlve stem, wblcb usually enos ln -o- |or
tbe actlve ano -0- |or tbe passlve. (For eceptlons see sectlon 6.15.) Tbe
enolngs ano posltlon o| stress are tbe same as |or rst-conjugatlon verbs.
|,eect|ve |,eat|ve
/ct|ve
Sg. uyunu love!
Pl. uyunutr
Tbe actlve lmper|ectlve lmperatlve enolngs are -u |or slngular ano -utr |or
plural. 8otb |orms are stresseo on tbe penultlmate syllable. Tbere are no passlve
|orms.
|eect|ve |,eat|ve
/ct|ve |ass|ve
Sg. uyunor love! uyunoou be loveo!
Pl. uyunotr uyun0rttr love one
anotber!
Tbe per|ectlve lmperatlve ls |ormeo |rom tbe per|ectlve stems, just as |or rst-
conjugatlon verbs.
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Secono-
conjugatlon
verbs
(type A)
133
Ceooo
uyunevtu lovlng
Tbe geruno o| secono-conjugatlon verbs bas tbe enolng -evtu. Tbe stress ls
on tbe penultlmate syllable. For tbe use o| tbe geruno see sectlon 6.5.
5econd-conjugation verbs (type B)
1ye B veiLs o rle seconu conjugarion uiei iom rlose o rye A in rle
enuings o rle acrive iesenr, vlicl (aair iom rle hisr eison singulai)
lave rle vovels rt oi ou. 1leie aie also uieiences in rle enuings o rle
assive iesenr anu imeiecr renses, anu in rle imeiecrive imeiarive.
Lxamles o rye B veiLs aie: unotre 'I consrirure`, e 'I live`, noe 'I
can, am aLle`, nuukue 'I iequesr, Leg`, noonu0e 'I riy`, ouyee 'I
oigive`.
1le olloving veiLs can ollov eirlei rye A oi rye B: ukoou0e 'I
ollov`, kuko oe 'I ciiculare, go iounu`, tno0ue 'I ainr`, noee
'I ioceeu, go oivaiu`, oute 'I uiscuss`, ounu0e 'I am onu o,
oigive`, tr eve 'I relelone`, te 'I kiss`, ee 'I hr in, lave ioom
oi`. Sucl veiLs renu ro lave rye B enuings in moie oimal conrexrs.
0ree | consloer, regaro
|eseot
/ct|ve |ass|ve
Sg. 1 0ree | consloer 0reouut
| am consloereo
2 0rert 0rertout
3 0rert 0rerttut
Pl. 1 0reour 0reouuotr
2 0rerttr 0rertotr
3 0reouv(r) 0reouvtut
Tbe enolngs o| tbe passlve present are ratber ol||erent |rom tbose o| type A
verbs. Tbe rst vowel o| tbe enolngs ls ou |or tbe 1st person slngular ano 1st
ano 3ro persons plural, ri |or tbe remalnlng persons (compare tbe corre-
sponolng actlve |orms). Tbls vowel carrles tbe stress.
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Tbe verb
ano tbe
verb pbrase
134
|,eect
/ct|ve |ass|ve
Sg. 1 0reouou (0reououv)
| useo to consloer | was/useo to be
consloereo
2 0reouor (0reouoouv)
3 0reouor 0reouvtuv(r
Pl. 1 0reouour (0reouuotuv)
2 0reououtr (0reououotuv)
3 0reououv(r) 0reouvtuv(r)
1. Tbe actlve lmper|ect ls |ormeo ln tbe same way as |or type A verbs. (Note
tbat type 8 verbs oo not bave tbe alternatlve |ormatlon ln -uyu etc.)
2. |n tbe passlve lmper|ect tbe bracketeo |orms are not normally useo |or
0ree. 8ut tbere are several otber verbs, lncluolng oeponents (see sectlon
6.6), wblcb oo bave 1st ano 2no person |orms, e.g. otre '| oeprlve',
uooouut '| am occupleo', touut '| lmltate', noonotouut '|
preteno'. Sucb verbs may bave tbe aooltlonal vowel -u ln tbe 1st ano 2no
persons slngular, llke verbs o| tbe rst conjugatlon.
S|,|e ,ast
/ct|ve |ass|ve
Sg. 1 0reou 0re0ku
| consloereo | was consloereo
2 0reor 0re0kr
3 0reor 0re0kr
Pl. 1 0reour 0re0kur
2 0reoutr 0re0kutr
3 0reouv/ 0re0kuv/
0reouvr 0re0kuvr
Tbe stems o| tbe slmple past are normally -o- (actlve) ano -0- (passlve), but |or
eceptlons see sectlon 6.15. Tbe enolngs are tbe same as tbose o| type A verbs.
verbs o| tbls type oo not normally bave a syllablc augment, but tbere ls one
lmportant eceptlon: e '| llve' bas tbe actlve slmple past rou, wltb stresseo
augment ln tbe slngular ano ln tbe 3ro person plural rouv (but also ouvr).
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Secono-
conjugatlon
verbs
(type 8)
135
|e,eooeot
/ct|ve |ass|ve
Sg. 1 0reoe (no Lngllsb 0re0e (no Lnglsb
2 0reort 0re0rt
3 0reort 0re0rt
Pl. 1 0reoour 0re0our
2 0reortr 0re0rttr
3 0reoouv(r) 0re0ouv(r)
Tbe oepenoent |orms are baseo on tbe actlve ano passlve per|ectlve stems, ano
correspono eactly to tbose o| verbs o| type A.
|,eect|ve |,eat|ve
/ct|ve
Sg.
Pl. 0rerttr consloer!
Type 8 verbs bave no slngular |orm |or tbe lmper|ectlve lmperatlve. Tbe plural
|orm ls tbe same as tbe 2no person plural o| tbe present tense.
|eect|ve |,eat|ve
/ct|ve |ass|ve
Sg. 0reor consloer! 0reoou be consloereo!
consloer yoursel|!
Pl. 0reotr 0re0rttr
Ceooo
0reevtu consloerlng
Tbe per|ectlve lmperatlve ano tbe geruno are |ormeo ln tbe same way as tbose
o| type A verbs.
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6
Tbe verb
ano tbe
verb pbrase
136
5econd-conjugation verbs with passive onIy
1leie aie oui veiLs vlicl aie similai ro seconu-conjugarion veiLs (virl
sriess on rle enuings in rle imeiecrive renses), Lur uo nor lave acrive
oims. 1ley can Le calleu ueonenr veiLs (see secrion 6.6), rlar is ro say,
rley lave assive oims, Lur aie acrive in meaning. 1lese veiLs aie
0uuut 'I iememLei`, kotuut 'I slee, go ro slee`, unuut 'I iegier,
I am soiiy` anu ouut 'I eai, am aiaiu (o)`.
kotuut | sleep
|eseot |,eect
Sg. 1 kotuut/kotouut kotoouv(u)
| sleep | was sleeplng,
useo to sleep
2 kotuout kotooouv(u)
3 kotutut kototuv(r)
Pl. 1 kotouotr kotouotuv
2 kotuotr/kotoouotr kotoouotuv
3 kotouvtut kotovtuv(r)/
kotovtououv
1. Tbe alternatlve |orms glven |or tbe 1st person slngular ano tbe 2no person
plural o| tbe present tense are botb wloely useo.
2. Tbe lmper|ect enolngs are tbe same as tbose tbe passlve lmper|ect o| rst-
conjugatlon verbs, ecept tbat tbe 3ro person plural bas only |orms stresseo
on tbe enolng.
S|,|e ,ast |e,eooeot
Sg. 1 kot0ku kot0e
| slept, |ell asleep (no Lngllsb equlvalent)
etc. etc.
Tbe slmple past ano tbe oepenoent are |ormeo ln eactly tbe same way as tbe
corresponolng passlve |orms o| secono-conjugatlon verbs.
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Secono-
conjugatlon
verbs wltb
passlve only
137
|eect|ve |,eat|ve
Sg. kotoou sleep!
Pl. kot0rttr
Tbe per|ectlve lmperatlve ls |ormeo ln tbe same way as tbe passlve per|ectlve
lmperatlve o| secono-conjugatlon verbs.
Tbese verbs bave no lmper|ectlve lmperatlve or geruno.
Verbs with contracted active present forns
Some veiLs vlicl lave a srem enuing in a vovel lave 'conriacreu` oims
in rle acrive iesenr rense. 1le enuings o rle acrive iesenr aie: -e, -,
-rt, -r, -tr, -vr. ore rlar rle enuings o rle seconu eison singulai anu
rle hisr, seconu anu rliiu eisons luial lave no vovel. 1le main veiLs
vlicl ollov rlis arrein aie: ukoue 'I leai`, kute 'I Luin`, kute 'I
vee`, re 'I say`, nue 'I go`, tee 'I ear`, tute 'I am ro Llame`. Iuirlei
uerails vill Le given Lelov oi eacl o rlese veiLs.
re | say, tell
|eseot |,eect
Sg. 1 re | say rryu | was saylng, useo to say
2 r rryr
3 rrt rryr
Pl. 1 rr ryur
2 rtr ryutr
3 rvr rryuv/ryuvr
Tbe actlve lmper|ect aoos a -y- to tbe stem, be|ore tbe normal enolngs o| tbe
lmper|ect. verbs wblcb bave a stem beglnnlng wltb a consonant bave tbe syllablc
augment r- ln tbe slngular ano tbe rst |orm o| tbe 3ro person plural. Tbe
augment ls stresseo.
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6
Tbe verb
ano tbe
verb pbrase
138
|,eect|ve |,eat|ve (act|ve)
Sg. ryr speak!
Pl. ryrtr
Ceooo
ryovtu saylng
Tbe lmper|ectlve lmperatlve ano tbe geruno also bave a -y- be|ore tbe enolngs.
Ioi convenience ve give some uirlei nores on eacl o rlese veiLs:
re oims irs assive iesenr anu imeiecr iom rle srem ry-:
ryout, ryoouv(u) 1le simle asr anu rle ueenuenr aie
iiiegulai: rtnu, ne. Ioi orlei iiiegulaiiries see rle raLle o iiiegulai
veiLs (secrion 6.25).
ukoue: acrive imeiecr ukouyu, assive iesenr ukouyout,
imeiecr ukouyoouv(u). Imeiecrive imeiarive sg. ukou, l.
ukoutr. Simle asr ukouou, ueenuenr ukouoe.
kute: acrive imeiecr rkutyu, assive iesenr kutyout, imeiecr
kutyoouv(u). Imeiecrive imeiarive nor noimally useu. Simle asr
rkuu, ueenuenr kue.
kute: acrive imeiecr rkutyu. Simle asr rkuu, ueenuenr
kue. 1le assive o rlis veiL is iaiely useu.
nue: rlis oim uncrions Lorl as an alreinarive iesenr ro nyutve,
anu as rle ueenuenr o rle same veiL. 1le orlei imeiecrive oims
(incluuing rle geiunu) aie Laseu on rle srem nyutv-. Simle asr
nyu. 1leie aie no assive oims.
tee: acrive imeiecr rteyu, assive iesenr teyout, imeiecr
teyoouv(u). Imeiecrive imeiarive sg. teyr, l. tetr. Simle
asr r uyu, ueenuenr ue, vlicl is conjugareu in rle same vay as
rle iesenr o re.
tute: acrive imeiecr r tutyu. Simle asr r tutu, ueenuenr
tute. 1lis veiL las no imeiarive anu no assive oims.
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verbs wltb
contracteo
actlve present
|orms
139
Verbs with irreguIar forn of active dependent
1le acrive ueenuenrs o rle 'iegulai` veiLs examineu in secrions 6.S6.10
aie sriesseu on rle lasr syllaLle o rle srem, e.g. uoe, uort erc. iom
uve 'I lose`. 1leie aie some common veiLs vlicl lave an iiiegulai
ueenuenr oim consisring o a single syllaLle in rle hisr eison singulai,
e.g. e iom toke 'I hnu`. 1lese ueenuenr oims aie sriesseu on rle
enuings, vlicl aie sliglrly uieienr iom rlose o iegulai veiLs. In acr rle
enuings aie rle same as rlose o rle jassiie ueenuenr oims o iegulai
veiLs (comaie u0e, u0rt, erc.).
Sg. 1 e
2 rt
3 rt
Pl. 1 our
2 rttr
3 ouv/ouvr
Tbe slngular |orms ano tbe 3ro person plural |orm ouv are monosyllables
ano are tbere|ore wrltten wltbout an accent.
1le olloving raLle lisrs veiLs vlicl lave ueenuenr oims o rlis kinu.
1le acrive simle asr oims aie also given, as rley aie also oimeu iiieg-
ulaily:
|eseot S|,|e ,ast |e,eooeot
yutve | go out yku ye
rne | see rtu e
toke | no ku e
re | say rtnu ne
nutve | go ln nku ne
ntve | orlnk ntu nte
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6
Tbe verb
ano tbe
verb pbrase
140
Secial menrion musr Le maue o rle ueenuenr o rout. 1leie aie rvo
oims: r0e is conjugareu iegulaily (as in secrion 6.S), rle oim `0e,
vlicl can ollov rle airicles vu anu 0u (suLjuncrive anu eiecrive uruie
iesecrively), loses irs inirial vovel anu is sriesseu on rle enuings, like rle
ueenuenr oims given aLove: (vu/0u) `0e, (vu/0u) `0rt, erc.
Orlei iiiegulai oims o rlese veiLs, sucl as rle eiecrive imeiarive, aie
given in rle raLle o iiiegulai veiLs (secrion 6.25).
The fornation of active and passive perfective stens..
1le eiecrive srems aie useu ro oim rle simle asr, rle ueenuenr anu rle
eiecrive imeiarive, acrive anu assive, oi eacl veiL. In rle olloving rvo
secrions, ve give rle mosr common vays o oiming rlese srems oi hisr-
anu seconu-conjugarion veiLs. 1le assive eiecr airicile, vlicl is
oimeu iom rle assive eiecrive srem, vill Le examineu in secrion 6.16.
Perfective stens of rst-conjugation verbs
1le oimarion o rle eiecrive srems o hisr-conjugarion veiLs ueenus
on rle enuing o rle imeiecrive srem. In rle examles Lelov, veiLs vlicl
lave no assive eiecrive oims aie maikeu virl a uaggei (|).
lmper(ectve stems endng n o vowel.
(a) acrive eiecrive -o-, assive eiecrive -ot- (oi, moie oimally, -o0-),
e.g. ukoue 'I leai`, ukouou, ukouotku. Lxamles: unokrte 'I
excluue`, rkue 'I ull`. Similaily rle ueonenr veiL ouykouout 'I
colliue`.
(L) acrive eiecrive -o-, assive eiecrive -0-, e.g. tue 'I esraLlisl`,
tuou, tu0ku. Lxamles: uvuue 'I analyse`, unoue 'I uismiss`,
|ue 'I go uovn, ser |o rle sun]`, rnrvue 'I invesr`, |toue 'I am
valiu`, ouvre 'I connecr`.
(c) vlen rle imeiecrive srem enus in -r-, rle acrive eiecrive srem enus
in -ruo-, assive eiecrive in -ruot-, e.g. rnvre 'I insiie`, rvr-
nv:uou, rnvruotku. (Ioi rle inreinal augmenr in rle acrive simle
asr see secrion 6.23.) Lxamles: |kuture 'I collase` (simle asr
kutrruou), |nre 'I loar, sail`, |nvre 'I Liearle`.
.!4.!
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Per|ectlve
stems o| rst-
conjugatlon
verbs
141
lmper(ectve stems endng n o lobol consonont or cluster
contonng o lobol.
(u) imeiecrive srem in --, -n-, -nt-, - - oi - t-, acrive eiecrive --,
assive eiecrive - t- (oi, moie oimally, - 0-), e.g. yu e 'I viire`,
ryuu, yu tku. Lxamles: urt e 'I smeai`, uvue 'I liglr`,
unokuunte 'I uiscovei`, unotnte 'I iejecr`, |uotu te 'I lasl`,
u e 'I uye`, unte (oi u te) 'I laim`, yrt e 'I lick`,
rykuturtne 'I aLanuon`, 0ue 'I Luiy`, kre 'I sreal` (see also rle
raLle o iiiegulai veiLs), kue 'I liue`, |une 'I sline`, |rtne 'I
am missing`, nuurtne 'I omir`, norne 'I oiesee`, ue 'I sev`,
okue 'I uig`, |okovtu te 'I srumLle`, |okue 'I sroo`, otte 'I
rvisr, ruin`, tte 'I iuL`, unoyu e 'I sign`. Similaily rle ueonenr
veiLs rntokrntout 'I visir`, okr tout (oi okrntout) 'I rlink`.
(e) vlen rle imeiecrive srem enus in -uu- oi -ru-, acrive eiecrive -u-/
-r-, assive eiecrive -uut-/-rut-, e.g. ytutrue 'I cuie`, ytutru,
ytutrutku. Lxamles: uytrue 'I make angiy, Lecome angiy`,
uvukutrue 'I mix, srii`, |uotrue 'I ser |o rle sun]`, orue 'I
aiiange, hx`, |yurue 'I ask oi, seek`, ourue 'I voik`, uokorue
'I make uihculr`, |rue 'I envy`, erue 'I enliven`, kuutkrue
'I iiue`, |kuutrrue 'I imiove`, |ktvuvrue 'I am in uangei`,
|kovtrue 'I uiav neai`, uyrtrue 'I cook`, urue 'I garlei`,
nrrue 'I conuse`, orue 'I senu`, nuvtrue 'I maiiy`, nuue 'I
cease`, ntotrue 'I Lelieve`, |tutrue 'I riavel`, utrue 'I lanr`,
orue 'I uance`. Similaily rle ueonenr veiL ovrtruout 'I uieam`.
() some veiLs virl imeiecrive srem in -uu- oi -ru-, lave acrive eiec-
rive -uuo-/-ruo-, assive eiecrive -uut-/-rut-, (oi, moie oimally,
-uu0-/-ru0-), e.g. rorue 'I Linu, rie uovn`, roruou, roru-
tku. Lxamles: uvttnooenrue 'I ieiesenr`, unuyorue 'I oiLiu`,
unoyotrue 'I uisaoinr`, unovovrue 'I memoiize`, yrvtkrue 'I
geneialize`, tuktvuvrue 'I iisk`, rknutrue 'I insriucr`, rvrue
'I inreiier`, 0runrue 'I riear, cuie`, |rtuvuotrue 'I migiare`,
vovrue 'I menrion`, no0rue 'I suly`, nootutrue 'I
iorecr`, |okonrue 'I aim`, unuyorue 'I uicrare`. Similaily rle ueo-
nenr veiLs uotrtruout 'I joke`, rkrturuout 'I exloir`,
retruout 'I all in love (virl)`, unontruout 'I susecr`.
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Tbe verb
ano tbe
verb pbrase
142
lmper(ectve stems endng n o velor consonont or cluster
contonng o velor.
(g) imeiecrive srem in -y-, -yy-, -y, -k-, -ok-, -- oi -v-, acrive eiecrive
--, assive eiecrive in -t- (oi, moie oimally, -0-), e.g. tve 'I
rliov`, rtu, ttku. Lxamles: uvotye 'I oen`, |uvtre 'I
enuuie`, rtve 'I slov`, turye 'I cloose`, tuoke 'I reacl`,
teve 'I clase o, rliov our` (acrive simle asr rteu), rrye 'I
conriol, cleck`, |ye 'I exiie`, nrke 'I enrangle`, nrke 'I veave`,
noore 'I ay arrenrion (ro), rake caie`, oneve 'I usl`, o tyye 'I
squeeze`, |tre 'I iun`, tutye 'I vinu, via`, ttuve 'I make, hx`
(acrive simle asr r ttuu), uve'I seaicl (oi)`. Similaily rle ueo-
nenr veiLs rout 'I ieceive`, nrtuyout 'I jum u`.
lmper(ectve stems endng n o dentol consonont.
(l) imeiecrive srem in -- oi -0-, acrive eiecrive -o-, assive eiecrive
-ot-, e.g. nrt0e 'I eisuaue`, rnrtou, nrtotku. Lxamles: turue
'I conriauicr`, |vte0e 'I eel` (acrive simle asr rvteou), nu0e 'I
slae, moulu`, |onrue 'I lasren`.
lmper(ectve stems endng n -oo- or -tt-:
(j) acrive eiecrive --, assive eiecrive -t- (oi, moie oimally, -0-),
e.g. kuooe 'I ioclaim`, kuu, kutku. Lxamles: uvuntu-
ooe 'I uevelo`, uvtuuooe 'I exclange`, rnt uuooe 'I kee in
ieseive`, ntte 'I lir, ger Loieu`, ouvtuooe 'I uiav u, comile`.
Similaily rle ueonenr veiLs rrtooout 'I uevelo`, unutvtooout
'I linr ar`.
lmper(ectve stems endng n --:
(k) acrive eiecrive -o-, assive eiecrive -ot- (oi, moie oimally, -o0-),
e.g. rrtue 'I examine`, rrtuou, rrtuotku. Lxamles: |urtue
'I emry` (acrive simle asr urtuou), uvuykue 'I comel`, yvete
'I knov, ger ro knov`, uvrte 'I lenu`, tuue 'I ieau`, ute 'I
make uizzy`, kouue 'I riie`. Similaily rle ueonenr veiLs uyevt-
out 'I sriuggle`, ryuout 'I voik`, uvtuout 'I imagine`,
rtuout 'I neeu`. 1le giear majoiiry o veiLs enuing in -ue oi
-te oim rleii eiecrive srems in rlis vay. Some common excerions
aie given in rle nexr aiagial.
.!4.
.!4.5
.!4.4
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Per|ectlve
stems o| rst-
conjugatlon
verbs
143
(l) acrive eiecrive --, assive eiecrive -t- (oi, moie oimally, -0-),
e.g. nrtue 'I annoy`, nrtuu, nrtutku. Lxamles: uyyte 'I
roucl`, uue 'I clange`, |outue 'I sink`, kottue 'I look ar`,
kue 'I call`, |vuotue 'I am sleey`, nute 'I lay`, otte 'I
suoir`, o ue 'I slauglrei`, ttvue 'I slake`, |tte 'I cieak`,
|toue 'I scaie, rake iiglr`, | evue 'I call, slour`.
lmper(ectve stems endng n -v- (o(ter o vowel).
(m) acrive eiecrive -o-, assive eiecrive -0-, e.g. rve 'I rie`, rrou,
r0ku. Lxamles: uneve 'I sieau`, yuve 'I unuiess`, uve 'I
unuo`, vtuve 'I uiess`, okeve 'I lir`, uve 'I lose`, uve 'I oui`,
ve 'I ioasr`, anu all veiLs enuing in -eve, excer eve (see nexr
aiagial).
(n) acrive eiecrive -o-, assive eiecrive -ot-, e.g. krtve 'I close`,
rkrtou, krtotku. Lxamles: eve 'I enciicle`, uve 'I sciarcl`,
ntuve 'I carcl` (acrive simle asr rntuou), ove 'I exringuisl`,
| tuve 'I aiiive`, | tuve 'I sir`.
(o) acrive eiecrive -v-, assive eiecrive -0-, e.g. ktve 'I juuge`, rktvu,
kt0ku. Lxamles: tuktve 'I uisringuisl`, |ktve 'I incline`.
Similaily rle ueonenr veiL uvtunoktvout 'I coiiesonu`.
() acrive eiecrive -v-, assive eiecrive -v0-, e.g. ouve 'I ollure`,
ouvu, ouv0ku. Lxamles: unru0uve 'I auuiess`, uno0uuve
'I uiscouiage`, unoukuve 'I iemove`, tru0uve 'I manage`, rv0u-
uve 'I encouiage`, ryr0uve 'I enlaige, magniy`, ouve 'I slaien,
aggiavare`. Similaily rle ueonenr veiLs uto0uvout 'I eel`,
uuvout 'I ueenu mysel`.
VeiLs virl iesenr enuing in -utve neeu ro Le uiviueu inro six ryes:
(q) acrive eiecrive -uv-, assive eiecrive -uv0-, e.g. 0rutve 'I
vaim`, 0ruvu, 0ruv0ku. Lxamles: |uvuoutve 'I Liearle`,
unouutve 'I uisinecr`, rntoutve 'I oinr our`, ru utve 'I glau-
uen`, |nr0utve'I uie`, |ounrutve'I concluue`, uyutve'I moisren`,
u utve'I veave`. Similaily rle ueonenr veiL kuutvout 'I lucruare`.
(i) acrive eiecrive -uv-, assive eiecrive -u0-, e.g. trutve 'I
mauuen`, truvu, tru0ku. Lxamles: ouutve 'I sriike uumL`,
yukutve 'I sveeren`, rotutve 'I vaim`, kou utve 'I ueaen`,
uutve 'I virlei`, rutve 'I uiy`, ntkutve 'I make Lirrei`.
Similaily rle ueonenr veiL otutvout 'I ueresr`.
.!4.7
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Tbe verb
ano tbe
verb pbrase
144
(s) acrive eiecrive -uv-, no assive eiecrive oims, e.g. |uutve 'I
veigl uovn (on)`, uuvu. Lxamles: |uktutve 'I iaise rle iice
o, Lecome ueaiei`, |uoutve 'I make ugly, Lecome ugly`,
|u0utve 'I ueeen`, |ru utve 'I liglren`, |kovtutve 'I sloiren`,
|ukutve 'I lengrlen`, |nuutve 'I arren, Lecome ar`, |n0utve
'I inciease`, |okutve 'I laiuen`, | teutve 'I make ooi, Lecome
ooi`, |ovtutve 'I ger ar`.
(r) acrive eiecrive uios rle syllaLle -utv-, noimally no assive eiec-
rive oims, e.g. |nu0utve 'I suei`, rnu0u. Lxamles: |unotuutve
'I ail` (simle asr unrtuu), |kutuuutve 'I unueisranu`,
|uutve 'I come acioss, laen`, u0utve 'I leain` (see raLle o
iiiegulai veiLs), |nrtuutve 'I succeeu`, |nyutve 'I go` (see raLle o
iiiegulai veiLs), |nouutve 'I lave rime ro uo, carcl`, |tuutve 'I
clance`.
(u) acrive eiecrive -uo-, no assive eiecrive oims, e.g. |otutve 'I
sarisy, Lecome sarisheu`, otuou. Lxamles: |no tutve 'I uo
somerling in rime`, |oenutve 'I all silenr`.
(v) acrive eiecrive -o-, assive eiecrive -0-, e.g. uuutve 'I inciease`,
uuou, uu0ku. Lxamles: |uututve (oi uutuve) 'I sin`,
uvuotutve 'I iesuiiecr`, |ueotutve 'I all ill`, |uotutve (oi
uotuve) 'I siour`.
lmper(ectve stems endng n -u- or -t-:
(v) acrive eiecrive -uto-/-tto- oi -u-/-t- (see Lelov), assive
eiecrive -utot-/-ttot-, e.g. ookue 'I slock`, ookutou oi
ookuu, ookutotku. Lxamles: yuvte 'I gainisl`, ouotue
'I sline`, |nukue 'I emLaik`, nokue 'I Llock`, nukrtue
'I ack u`, |nukue 'I aik`, |nuoue 'I ass (on)`, |noue 'I
ose`, noue 'I riy on, riy our`, orte 'I seive`, tukue 'I ciasl`,
torkue 'I cleck, rick`, | rtue 'I liir`, | rvue 'I Liake`.
1le acrive eiecrive oims virl rle exria syllaLle -to- aie only ounu
oi rle singulai anu rle rliiu eison luial o rle simle asr.
1ley aie nor ounu in rle ueenuenr. So rle simle asr o nukue
las rle olloving ossiLle oims: nukutou/nukuu, nukutor/
nu kur, nukutor/nu kur, nuku ur, nuku utr, nuku touv/
nu kuuv/nuku uvr. 1le ueenuenr is nukue erc.
Important note: the above lists include only the more common verbs. Iurther
examples are given in the Comptehensive Ctammat, pp. 147~55. Ior verbs
not included in the lists it is advisable to consult a good dictionary.
.!4.8
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Per|ectlve
stems o| rst-
conjugatlon
verbs
145
Perfective stens of second-conjugation verbs
ôsr veiLs o rle seconu conjugarion, Lorl rye A anu rye B, oim rleii
eiecrive srems Ly auuing -o- (acrive) anu -0- (assive) ro rle imei-
ecrive srem. Ioi examle: yrvve 'I give Liirl ro`, acrive simle asr
yrvvou, assive simle asr yrvv0ku. (See secrions 6.9 anu 6.10 oi
rle ull oims.) Lxcerions ro rlis arrein aie given Lelov. Ioi eacl veiL
ve inuicare vlerlei ir ollovs rye A oi rye B in rle oims Laseu on rle
imeiecrive srem. VeiLs vlicl lave no assive eiecrive oims aie
maikeu virl a uaggei (|).
(a) acrive eiecrive -uo-, assive eiecrive -uot-, e.g. kre (A) 'I lang`,
kruou, kruotku. Lxamles: (uvt)uvuke (A) 'I ielecr`,
unoone (A) 'I ueracl, senu on seconumenr`, yre (A) 'I laugl, ueceive`,
|te (A) 'I am rliisry`, |e (A) 'I acr` (acrive simle asr ruou),
ryre (A) 'I ool`, |rone (A) 'I Lieak our`, |nrtve (A) 'I am lun-
giy`, |onue (A) 'I Lieak` (acrive simle asr ronuou), |ooe (A) 'I
sro voiking`, ue (A) 'I soil`, |uoyre (A) 'I smile`. Similaily
rle ueonenr veiL kututrut (A) 'I cuise`.
(L) acrive eiecrive -ro-, assive eiecive -rot-, e.g. unotre 'I consri-
rure`, unotrrou, unotrrotku. Lxamles: uke (B) 'I suhce, limir`,
|tuke (B) 'I lasr`, |tutre 'I iemain, am`, kue (B) 'I call`,
|kutre (A/B) 'I vair`, |noe 'I can`, ouvtre 'I conriiLure`,
|ee (A/B) 'I conrain, hr (inro)`.
(c) acrive eiecrive -ro-, assive eiecrive -r0-, e.g. rnutve 'I iaise`,
rnutvrou, rnutvr0ku. Lxamles: u ute (B) 'I iemove`, |ue (A)
'I Lear, sounu`, tute (B) 'I uiviue`, rute (B) 'I excer`, kutu ove
(B) 'I uesise`, |nove (A/B) 'I ain, luir`, otrvoee (B) 'I uisriess`
(also -o-, -0-), oe (A) 'I ur on, veai`. Similaily rle ueonenr veiLs
utrut (A) 'I am Loieu, eu u`, nuunovtrut (A) 'I comlain`.
(u) acrive eiecrive -u-, assive eiecrive -ut-, e.g. nrte (A) 'I rliov,
ly`, nrtuu, nrtutku. Lxamles: uote (A) 'I Leai`, kotte (A)
(alreinarive ro kottue) 'I look ar`.
(e) acrive eiecrive --, assive eiecrive -t-, e.g. tue (A) 'I ull`,
tuu, tutku. Lxamles: |oyke (A) 'I gioan`, oute (A) 'I
uive`, |ovte (A) 'I rlunuei` (acrive eiecrive also -o-), oue (A)
'I squeeze`, ne (A) 'I jum` (acrive eiecrive also -o-), ou e (A) 'I
suck`, okouvte (A) 'I iou`, | uoe (A) 'I Llov`, |ue (A) 'I iusl`.
() veiLs virl imeiecrive srem enuing in a consonanr -v- lave acrive
eiecrive -uo-, assive eiecrive -uot-, e.g. rve (A) Ì oiger`,
6.15
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Tbe verb
ano tbe
verb pbrase
146
ruou, ruotku. Lxamles: |yrve (A) 'I giov olu`, krve (A) 'I
riear |e.g. ro a uiink]`, rnrve (A) 'I exceeu`, |rve (A) 'I vomir`,
nrve (A) 'I ass`.
The passive perfect participIe
All assive eiecr airiciles enu in -rvo anu aie ully inlecreu oi
numLei, genuei anu case, like rle aujecrives in secrion 3.33. 1ley aie
oimeu iom veiLs, alrlougl nor all veiLs lave rlis oim. In airiculai,
inriansirive veiLs (vlicl cannor lave a uiiecr oLjecr) uo nor noimally lave
a assive eiecr airicile. (Some excerions aie given Lelov.) 1le srairing
oinr oi rle oimarion o rlese airiciles is rle assive eiecrive srem.
Some airiciles lave a consonanr Leoie rle enuing -rvo,- vlile orleis
uo nor. Belov ve give rle mosr common arreins oi rle oimarion o rle
assive eiecr airicile iom rle assive eiecrive srem, virl examles
o eacl kinu:
(a) -ot-/-o0-/-v0- -o:vo: uvuykuorvo 'comelleu`, rnvruorvo
'insiieu`, kurorvo 'invireu`, kouuorvo 'riieu`, ouorvo
'ollureu`, rnruorvo 'sueiseueu`, ruorvo 'oigorren`, ot-
orvo 'hxeu, ceirain (unseciheu)`, oorvo 'exringuisleu`, or-
ttorvo 'seiveu`, uuorvo 'soilr, Lioken`.
(L) -0- (arei a vovel, z oi p) -:vo: uyunrvo 'loveu`, uurvo
'incieaseu`, yrvvrvo 'Loin`, rrvo 'rieu`, korvo 'sruck`,
vturvo 'uiesseu`, ookervo 'comlereu`, nurvo 'raken`,
ntkurvo 'emLirreieu`, oturvo 'senr`, otrvoervo 'user`,
urvo 'losr`, rvo 'ioasreu`.
(c) - t-/- 0- -:vo: uvurvo 'lir`, yurvo 'viirren`, rykutu-
rtrvo 'aLanuoneu`, 0urvo 'Luiieu`.
(u) -t-/-0- -y:vo: uvuntuyrvo 'ueveloeu`, uvotyrvo
'oeneu`, rkryrvo 'elecreu`, nooryrvo 'caieu oi`, ottyrvo
'suoireu`, tuyrvo 'ulleu`. In some veiLs rle -y- is somerimes
omirreu, e.g. nrtu(y)rvo 'rliovn`.
ore also:
VeiLs in -rue lave a assive eiecr airicile in eirlei -rurvo oi
-rrvo. 1le hisr oim is ounu virl veiLs rlar aie useu in moie
oimal conrexrs, rle seconu is inoimal. Lxamles: unoyotrurvo
6.16
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Tbe passlve
per|ect
partlclple
147
'uisaoinreu`, yrvtkrurvo 'geneializeu`, rorurvo 'rieu
uovn, oLligareu`, nrrrvo 'conuseu`, nuvtrrvo 'maiiieu`.
VeiLs in -utve iesenr many iiiegulaiiries in rle vay rley oim
rleii assive eiecr airicile (i rley lave one). Heie ve musr
iesriicr ouiselves ro a ev examles: unoturvo 'aileu,
unsuccessul` (iom unotuutve), roturvo 'vaimeu`
(rotutve), u0rvo 'leainr` (u0utve), nr0urvo 'ueau`
(nr0utve), u uorvo 'voven` (u utve), otuorvo
'sariareu, ull u` (otutve). Ioi orlei oims rle use o a
goou uicrionaiy is iecommenueu.
Some veiLs vlicl uo nor lave hnire assive oims Jc lave assive
eiecr airiciles. Lxamles: ukountorvo 'leaning` (iom
ukoune), ueotrvo 'ill` (ueotutve), tuorvo 'rliisry`
(te), uotutorvo 'unlay` (uotue), rututorvo 'lay`
(rutue), 0uervo 'angiy` (0ueve), kurvo 'in reais`
(kute), tno0utorvo 'ainreu, unconscious` (tno0ue),
nrtvuorvo 'lungiy` (nrtve), tutrrvo 'mucl-riavelleu`
(tutrue), otuorvo 'sariareu, ull u`.
Some assive eiecr airiciles o leaineu oiigin lave an exria
syllaLle iehxeu ro rle veiL srem (anu olloving any ieosirional
iehx). 1lis lenomenon is knovn as ieuulicarion. Lxamles o
sucl oims in iequenr use aie: unorrtyrvo 'ioven`
(unortkvue), tutr0rtrvo 'uisoseu` (tu0rte), rorvo
'given` (tve), rktrturvo 'exrenueu` (rktrtve), nrnrtorvo
'eisuaueu, convinceu` (nrt0e), ouykrktrvo 'secihc`
(ouyktve), ouvrrrvo 'connecreu` (ouvre), unoyryurvo
'unueisigneu` (unoyu e), trtrrorvo 'accomlisleu` (tre),
trttrvo 'riire` (tte).
Ioi veiLs vlicl oim rleii assive eiecr airicile iiiegulaily, see rle
raLle o iiiegulai veiLs (secrion 6.25).
Use o( the possve per(ect portcple
1le assive eiecr airicile uncrions as an aujecrive, agieeing in genuei,
numLei anu case virl rle noun ir mouihes:
1 o:vo oytu
wosted (llt. 'lost') woros
Ir can Le mouiheu Ly auveiLs:
.!.!
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Tbe verb
ano tbe
verb pbrase
148
2 'Totru uno uutu nou rytvuv, Atk tuv :vt:z
onoyot:u:v.
A|ter wbat bappeneo, Allce was completely olslllusloneo.
3 To ouvrto tuv nozu uozo opyov:vo.
Tbe con|erence was very well organlzeo.
Like orlei aujecrives (see rle enu o secrion 3.5), ir can Le useu virl
comlemenrs in rle oim o ieosirional liases:
4 Auvo:vot ono tt rnrttr tou, ouvrtouv tov
uyevu.
Strengtbeneo by tbelr eperlences, tbey contlnueo tbe struggle.
5 Bkur tov Keotu vtu:vo ytu to yuo.
We |ouno Kostas alreaoy oresseo |or tbe weoolng.
The fornation of other tenses and verb forns..
The perfective and inperfective futures
ôsr veiLs lave rvo uruie renses, rle eiecrive anu rle imeiecrive,
vlicl uiei accoiuing ro asecr (see secrion 6.4 anu, oi rle use o rle renses,
secrion 6.5). 1le eiecrive uruie ieeis ro an acrion oi evenr vlicl vill rake
lace anu Le comlereu ar a uruie oinr in rime. Ir consisrs o rle airicle 0u
anu rle ueenuenr oim o rle veiL, as in rle olloving examles:
0u yue I slall viire, I`m going ro viire
0u your ve`ll go our
0u toouv rley vill seak, rleyìe going ro seak
0u oke0rt (s)le/ir vill ger u
0u tru0our ve slall go mau
Any veak ionouns musr Le laceu immeuiarely Leoie rle veiL, e.g. 0u
ou to eort 'you vill give me ir`. VeiLs vlicl uo nor lave eiecrive
oims lave no eiecrive uruie (see secrion 6.6).
1le imeiecrive uruie, vlicl uenores a ieeareu, laLirual oi conrinuous
evenr in rle uruie, is oimeu virl rle airicle 0u anu rle iesenr rense
oim o rle veiL, e.g.
0u rtuotr ve slall Le
0u 0uuut I`ll iememLei
0u uoyu our ve slall coiiesonu |Ly lerrei]
6.17
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Tbe
per|ectlve
ano
lmper|ectlve
|utures
149
The perfect tenses and the auxiIiary verb :
As in Lnglisl, rle rliee eiecr renses in Gieek eiecr, lueiecr anu
uruie eiecr aie oimeu virl rle auxiliaiy veiL 'ro lave`. We give hisr rle
Lasic oims o re 'I lave`. 1le iesenr rense las rle same enuings as hisr-
conjugarion veiLs. 1le asr (imeiecr) rense las a uieienr vovel rt- oi rle
hisr syllaLle, Lur rle enuings aie rle same as rlose o orlei acrive imeiecrs.
|eseot |ast
Slngular 1 re | bave rtu | bao
2 rrt rtr
3 rrt rtr
Plural 1 rour rtur
2 rrtr rtutr
3 rouv(r) rtuv(r)
1le eiecr rense consisrs o rle iesenr rense o re olloveu Ly a secial
veiL oim calleu rle non-hnire. 1le non-hnire is in acr iuenrical ro rle
rliiu eison singulai o rle ueenuenr anu exisrs in Lorl acrive anu assive
voices, oi insrance uort anu u0rt aie, iesecrively, rle acrive anu
assive non-hnire oims o uve 'I lose`. ore rlar rle acrive non-hnire
las rle sriess on rle enulrimare syllaLle, vlile rle assive non-hnire las
rle sriess on rle hnal syllaLle. 1lus rle acrive eiecr o uve is re uort
'I lave losr`, rrt uort 'you lave losr`, erc. anu rle assive eiecr is
re u0rt 'I lave Leen losr` (oi 'I lave losr mysel`), rrt u0rt 'you
lave Leen losr`, erc. 1le veiLs given in secrion 6.13, vlicl lave an iiieg-
ulai oim oi rle acrive ueenuenr, lave a one-syllaLle non-hnire oim, e.g.
re rt 'I lave ounu`, rour rt 've lave seen`.
VeiLs o rle seconu conjugarion oim rleii non-hnire anu eiecr in rle
same vay as hisr-conjugarion ones, e.g. re uyunort 'I lave loveu`, re
uyun0rt 'I lave Leen loveu`. Deonenr veiLs lave only a assive oim o
rle eiecr (Lur virl acrive meaning), e.g. re ryuotrt 'I lave voikeu`,
re kot0rt 'I lave sler`, re okr trt 'I lave rlouglr`. Any veak
6.18
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Tbe verb
ano tbe
verb pbrase
150
ionouns musr Le laceu Leoie rle aioiiare oim o re Lur arei rle
negarive airicle, e.g. rv u rrt tort '(s)le lasn`r soken ro us`.
1le lueiecr (oi asr eiecr) rense consisrs o rle asr o re olloveu
Ly rle non-hnire oim: rtu uort 'I lau losr`, rtu u0rt 'I lau Leen
losr` (oi 'I lau losr mysel`).
1le uruie eiecr consisrs o rle airicle 0u olloveu Ly rle eiecr, e.g.
0u re tuort 'I slall lave aiiiveu`, 0u re oke0rt 'I slall lave gor
u`. Any veak ionouns musr Le laceu immeuiarely Leoie rle ielevanr
air o re, e.g. 0u oou to rouv otrtrt 'rley vill lave senr you ir`.
1le rliee eiecr renses exisr only oi veiLs vlicl lave coiiesonuing
(acrive anu/oi assive) eiecrive oims. 1le use o rle eiecr renses is
uiscusseu in secrion 6.5.
The conditionaI and perfect conditionaI
1le conuirional is oimeu virl rle airicle 0u anu rle imeiecr rense, e.g.
0u ouv(u) 'I voulu Le`, 0u ruvu 'I voulu lose`, 0u ytvoouv(u) 'I
voulu Lecome`, 0u ooouv(u) 'I voulu Le aiaiu |o]`. Any veak
ionouns musr Le laceu Lerveen 0u anu rle veiL oim, e.g. 0u ou to
rtvu 'I voulu give you ir`.
1leie is also a eiecr conuirional, vlicl is oimeu virl 0u anu rle luei-
ecr rense, e.g. 0u rtu r0rt 'I voulu lave come`, 0u rtu u0rt 'I voulu
lave gor losr`, 0u rtu kot0rt 'I voulu lave allen aslee`.
Ioi rle uses o rle conuirional anu rle eiecr conuirional see secrion
10.13. 1le vaiious uses o rle airicle 0u aie summaiizeu in secrion 9.3.
The subjunctive forns
Unlike many orlei languages, Gieek uoes nor lave seaiare suLjuncrive
oims as sucl. Insreau a suLjuncrive clause oi senrence is inuicareu Ly rle
use o rle airicles vu oi u Leoie rle veiL, anu a uieienr negarive
airicle v (insreau o rv). 1le veiL may Le in any rense. Ioi uirlei
inoimarion on rle suLjuncrive moou see secrion 6.4, anu oi vaiious uses
o rle suLjuncrive secrions 9.3, 10.3 anu 10.4.
6.20
6.19
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Tbe
conoltlonal
ano per|ect
conoltlonal
151
Augnent..
5yIIabic augnent
SyllaLic augmenr is rle vovel r- iehxeu ro rle srem o rle veiL in a asr
rense, e.g. r-yuu 'I viore`. 1le augmenr is iequiieu vlen rle veiL las
a one-syllaLle srem Leginning virl a consonanr, anu a one-syllaLle enuing.
Since rle sriess o asr-rense oims noimally alls on rle rliiu syllaLle iom
rle enu, rle augmenr caiiies rle sriess. Ir ollovs rlar vlen rle enuing o
rle veiL las moie rlan one syllaLle, no augmenr is neeueu. 1le augmenr
is oLligaroiy only in rle acrive imeiecr anu simle asr o hisr-conjuga-
rion veiLs, anu rlen only in rle hisr, seconu anu rliiu eisons singulai,
anu rle rliiu eison luial vlen rle enuing is -uv. Ioi rle ielevanr oims
o uve see secrion 6.S. (Ioi rle small numLei o seconu-conjugarion veiLs
rlar lave syllaLic augmenr in rle simle asr, see secrions 6.9 anu 6.10.)
1leie aie some iiiegulai veiLs virl a one-syllaLle eiecrive srem vlicl
uo nor lave rle augmenr in rle simle asr. 1ley aie: yku 'I venr our`
(iom yutve), ku 'I ounu` (iom toke), nku 'I venr in` (iom
nutve), nyu 'I venr` (iom nyutve) anu nu 'I rook` (iom nutve).
Hovevei, rle imeiecrs o rlese veiLs (virl rle excerion o nyutve)
uo lave rle augmenr in rle singulai anu rle rliiu eison luial, e.g.
ryutvr '(s)le/ir vas going our`, rnutvuv 'rley useu ro rake`.
VocaIic augnent
SyllaLic augmenr alies ro veiLs rlar Legin virl a consonanr. Vocalic
augmenr, on rle orlei lanu, is ielevanr ro veiLs rlar Legin virl a vovel.
Ir involves a clange o rle inirial vovel in some veiLs Leginning virl r-,
u- oi ut-. 1lese vovels, virl vocalic augmenr, Lecome -. 1leie aie rvo
voius in common use vlicl may lave vocalic augmenr on sriesseu inirial
vovels in rleii acrive asr renses: rnte 'I loe` somerimes las imeiecr
ntu, simle asr ntou (insreau o rntu, rntou), anu rrye 'I
conriol` can lave ryu anu ryu. Bur, as virl syllaLic augmenr, ir is
noimally only a sriesseu syllaLle rlar can lave vocalic augmenr.
1leie aie rliee veiy common veiLs rlar lave rle augmenr - in some asr-
rense oims (even rlougl rlese aie nor veiLs Leginning virl a vovel):
6.22
6.21
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6
Tbe verb
ano tbe
verb pbrase
152
0re 'I vanr` las imeiecr 0ru, Lur in rle oims virl a rvo-
syllaLle enuing rleie is no -: 0rur 've vanreu`,
re 'I knov` las imeiecr ru, Lur, like 0re, no exria vovel in
rur 've knev`, erc.,
ntve 'I uiink` las simle asr ntu, virl - in all eisons anu
numLeis, Lur imeiecr rntvu.
lnternaI augnent
VeiLs rlar lave a ieosirional iehx lace rle augmenr, i rley lave one,
Lerveen rle ieosirion anu rle veiL srem. 1lese iehxes aie ueiiveu iom
Ancienr Gieek ieosirions (many o rlem no longei useu as inueenuenr
ieosirions in rle iesenr-uay language). 1ley aie: u t-, uvu-, uvtt-,
uno-, tu-, rto-, rk- (r- Leoie a vovel), rv- (r- Leoie a laLial conso-
nanr, ry- Leoie a velai), rnt-, kutu-, rtu-, nuu-, nrt-, no-, noo-,
ouv-, (ou- Leoie a laLial consonanr, ouy- Leoie a velai, ou- Leoie ),
unr- anu uno-. Pieosirions rlar enu in a vovel uio rle vovel Leoie
rle augmenr, excer oi nrt- anu no-. 1lus, unoue 'I suLmir` las
simle asr un-r-uu, anu rkrye 'I elecr` las r-r-ru. Wlen rle
augmenr voulu nor lave sriess, ir is noimally omirreu. So rle hisr eison
luial o rle simle asr o rlese rvo veiLs is unouur anu rkrur.
Ioi uirlei examles, see rle olloving in rle raLle o iiiegulai veiLs
(secrion 6.25): uvuue, uvuke, uvutyvue, uvutre, unortkvue,
unovre, unoone, unotuutve, tu0rte, tukonte, rknooe,
ountnte. In some veiLs virl ieosirional iehxes rle inreinal augmenr
is nevei useu, e.g. notrtve 'I suggesr`, simle asr notrtvu.
Some veiLs lave rvo ieosirional iehxes, e.g. ounrtuuve 'I
incluue`. In sucl cases rle augmenr comes Lerveen rle seconu ieosirion
anu rle srem: ounrtruu 'I incluueu`.
Iinally, ve musr nore some insrances o inreinal vocalic augmenr, rlar is,
a clange o vovel ro -- in veiLs virl a ieosirional iehx vlen rle
simle veiL Legins virl a vovel. 1le mosr common examle is rle imei-
ecr anu simle asr o unue 'I exisr`: unu, unu. Inreinal vocalic
augmenr also occuis in unyou, simle asr o unrye 'I go on sriike`.
Ir is orional in nuyyrtu, simle asr o nuuyyre 'I oiuei`, as an
alreinarive ro nuuyyrtu.
6.23
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|nternal
augment
153
lrreguIar verbs..
Denition of an irreguIar verb
Secrions 6.14 anu 6.15 give rle Lasic arreins oi rle oimarion o eiecrive
srems o hisr- anu seconu-conjugarion veiLs. 1lese srems aie useu ro cieare
rle acrive anu assive simle asr, ueenuenr anu eiecrive imeiarive, rle
eiecr assive airicile anu rle non-hnire oims useu in rle eiecr renses.
VeiLs vlicl uo nor conoim ro one o rlese arreins aie iegaiueu as iiiegu-
lai. 1le raLle in secrion 6.25 gives uerails o rle mosr common iiiegulai
veiLs. Also incluueu in rle raLle aie veiLs o rle seconu conjugarion vlicl
uo nor oim rleii eiecrive srem virl rle syllaLle -o- (oi rle acrive) anu
-0- (assive), anu veiLs vlicl lave iiiegulai assive eiecr airiciles.
TabIe of irreguIar verbs
1le raLle is ser our as ollovs: rle hisr column gives rle acrive iesenr rense
o rle veiL oi, in rle case o ueonenr veiLs, rle assive iesenr. Seconu-
conjugarion veiLs aie maikeu A oi B accoiuing ro rle rye o enuings useu
in rle imeiecrive oims (see secrions 6.9 anu 6.10). Imeisonal veiLs aie
given in rle rliiu eison singulai. Ioi veiLs virl a ieosirional iehx,
ve give only rle mosr common examles. e.g. nuuyyre 'I oiuei`. Orlei
comounus o rle same veiL virl a uieienr iehx, e.g. uvuyyre 'I
announce`, unuyyre 'I iecire`, aie nor lisreu seaiarely, unless rley
iesenr signihcanr uieiences.
1le seconu column noimally gives jusr one Lasic meaning o rle veiL, oi
rle ull iange o meanings you sloulu consulr a uicrionaiy.
In rle rliiu column ve give rle hisr eison singulai o rle acrive simle
asr. In rle case o veiLs vlicl uo nor lave a simle asr, rle imeiecr
is given i ir is oimeu iiiegulaily. Ioi ueonenr veiLs rle simle asr
(vlicl las a assive oim) is given in rlis column. I rle ueenuenr oi rle
eiecrive imeiarive is oimeu iiiegulaily, rlese oims aie also given.
Wleie rle simle asr conrains an augmenr (see secrions 6.216.23), rle
augmenr musr Le iemoveu ro oim rle ueenuenr.
1le ouirl column gives rle hisr eison singulai o rle assive simle asr,
rle assive ueenuenr is given i ir cannor Le ieuicreu iom rle simle asr.
1le hrl column gives rle assive eiecr airicile. A uasl () in rle
ouirl oi hrl column inuicares rlar no oim exisrs.
Alreinarive oims aie slovn seaiareu Ly an oLlique line ( / ). Wlen a
vlole voiu is Liackereu, ir is iaiely useu.
6.25
6.24
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6
Tbe verb
ano tbe
verb pbrase
154
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An auveiL is ryically useu ro inuicare rle mannei, rime oi lace o an
acrion ('Lauly`, 'yesreiuay`, 'leie`). An auveiLial liase may consisr o a
single auveiL, oi else an auveiL mouiheu Ly anorlei auveiL ('veiy Lauly`,
'iiglr leie`). An auveiLial is any auveiL oi any liase oi clause rlar unc-
rions as an auveiL. Pieosirional liases (e.g. 'ro Lonuon`) uncrion
auveiLially, Lur ve vill ueal virl rlem seaiarely in Clarei S. A vaiiery
o suLoiuinare clauses uncrion auveiLially, rlese aie uealr virl in secrions
10.1310.19. Ioi rle sake o simliciry ve vill noimally use rle reim
'auveiL` ro ieei ro any auveiL, auveiLial liase oi auveiLial. A raLle
sloving some o rle mosr Lasic auveiLs is given in Aenuix 1.
Types of adverb: nanner, pIace, tine, quantity, etc.
AuveiLs aie mosr commonly useu ro seciy:
mannei
To rkuvr poto.
You olo lt 5eout|fu||,.
lace
'Eu !
Come here!
rime
'Eu o:po!
Come todo,!
quanriry
Euutote nozu.
Tbank you |ver,] much.
7.1
169
Cbapter 7
7he odver5 ond the
odver5|o| phrose
ôsr auveiLs o mannei aie oimeu iom aujecrives, like eutu 'Leauri-
ully` (i.e. 'in a Leauriul vay`), iom euto 'Leauriul` (see secrions
.3.5). 1le orlei mosr common auveiLs o mannei aie:
ne lov (inreiiogarive)
one lovevei (coiielarive: see secrion 10.9)
rtot rlus, in rlis/rlar vay, like rlis/rlar
kune in some vay
ute orleivise, uieienrly, in anorlei vay
ku0oou (nor) ar all
oneonotr in some vay oi orlei, Ly all means, ceirainly
kunou somelov oi orlei
ovo only
ut rogerlei
otyu sorly (quierly), genrly (slovly)
1le mosr common auveiLs o lace aie rle olloving:
nou vleie (inreiiogarive)
onou vleie(evei) (ielarive anu coiielarive)
re leie
rkrt rleie
kunou somevleie
uou elsevleie, somevleie else
nuvtou eveiyvleie
nou0rvu novleie, anyvleie (in inreiiogarive senrences)
onounotr anyvleie, vleievei
nuve u, aLove, usraiis
kute uovn, Lelov, uovnsraiis
rou insiue
re oursiue
rno, nootu in ionr, oivaiu(s)
ntoe Lelinu, Lack(vaius)
kovtu neai
uktu ai avay
uvurou Lerveen
unrvuvtt oosire
tnu, nut neaiLy, nexr uooi
yue aiounu
nru Leyonu, yonuei
u ligl u
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7
Tbe aoverb
ano tbe
aoverblal
pbrase
170
uu lov uovn
ue on rle giounu
rtu ro/on rle iiglr
utotru ro/on rle ler
1le mosr common auveiLs o rime aie rle olloving:
notr vlen (inreiiogarive)
onotr vlenevei (coiielarive)
onotr ar vlicl oinr, vleieuon (also 'in vlicl case`)
teu nov
totr rlen (i.e. ar rlar rime) (also 'in rlar case`)
kunotr ar some rime, somerimes, once
uotr ar anorlei rime, oimeily
nuvtu alvays
notr nevei, evei (in inreiiogarive senrences)
onotrnotr vlenevei, ar any rime
netu hisr
ntv Leoie, ago
rtu, uotru, areivaius, larei, rlen, nexr
rnrttu
vet eaily
uyu lare
no0r rle uay Leoie yesreiuay
0r yesreiuay
oru rouay
uuto romoiiov
r0uuto rle uay arei romoiiov
unor rlis evening, roniglr
nonrot rle yeai Leoie lasr
nr|u]ot lasr yeai
|r] rto rlis yeai
tou ovou nexr yeai
, ktou alieauy
uroe immeuiarely
rnttrou ar lasr
ot jusr
ouvu oren
onuvtu iaiely, seluom
tukttku iegulaily
ouv0e usually
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Types o|
aoverb:
manner,
place, tlme,
quantlty, etc.
171
nut, uvu again
ntu, nrov |any/no] moie
ukou, uko srill, yer
oo all rle rime
kunou kunou iom rime ro rime
notr notr occasionally
tu ou (uo once (rvice, rliee rimes, erc.)
or, trt
or, erc.)
kutu ou iom rime ro rime
In auuirion, rleie aie noun liases inriouuceu Ly rle uereiminei ku0r
'eacl, eveiy` anu useu auveiLially, sucl as:
ku0r ru eveiy uay
ku0r ou eveiy rime
ku0r tooo eveiy so oren
ku0r nooo lov oren
1le clie auveiLs o quanriry aie rle olloving:
nooo lov mucl (inreiiogarive)
ooo as mucl as (coiielarive)
ooonotr lovevei mucl (univeisal coiielarive)
tooo so, so mucl, rlis/rlar mucl
kunooo/kunooo quire a lor
kune somevlar
nou veiy, mucl, a lor, roo |mucl]
nrtoootro moie (comaiarive: see also secrion 10.22)
tyo a lirrle
tyotro less (comaiarive)
rutotu veiy lirrle, laiuly (aLsolure sueilarive)
ku0oou (nor) ar all (in negarive anu inreiiogarive senrences)
trrte, rvtre comlerely, enriiely
ukrtu quire (a lor)
orov almosr, neaily
touutotov ar leasr
nuve kute aLour, aioximarely
nrtnou aioximarely, moie oi less
uov iarlei
rtoou equally
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7
Tbe aoverb
ano tbe
aoverblal
pbrase
172
nuu veiy (Leoie nou: nuu nou 'veiy mucl, roo mucl`)
nto moie (Leoie aujecrive oi auveiL ro oim rle
comaiarive anu rle ielarive sueilarive: see secrions
3.443.45 anu .6)
Ioi noun liases in rle accusarive case in auveiLial use see secrion 3.51.
The use of adverbs and adverbiaI phrases
As rleii name imlies, mosr auveiLs aie noimally useu ro mouiy a veiL:
1 Mtor uozo (aoverb o| manner).
(S)be spoke we||.
2 Mtor : (aoverb o| place).
(S)be spoke here.
3 Mtor 0: (aoverb o| tlme).
(S)be spoke ,esterdo,.
4 Mtor nozu (aoverb o| quantlty).
(S)be spoke o |ot.
Some auveiLs may mouiy an aujecrive oi auveiL. AuveiLs o mannei may
mouiy a eiecr assive airicile:
5 uozo rknutrurvo
we|| tralneo
Some auveiLs o rime may mouiy an aujecrive oi auveiL:
6 o:o rtu
|mmed|ote|, a|terwaros
AuveiLs o quanriry aie veiy commonly useu ro mouiy veiLs (11), aujec-
rives anu auveiLs (1220):
7 Mou uror nozu.
| llkeo (blm/ber/lt) o |ot.
8 Mou uror n:ptooot:po.
| llkeo (blm/ber/lt) more.
9 4ouut ztyo.
|'m o 5|t |rlgbteneo.
10 Mou uror ztyot:po.
| llkeo (blm/ber/lt) |ess.
7.2
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Tbe use o|
aoverbs ano
aoverblal
pbrases
173
11 Mou uror opu:to.
| llkeo (blm/ber/lt) qu|te o |ot.
12 nozu kuo/kuu
ver, gooo/well
13 nozu kuutro/kuutru
much better
14 tooo kuo/kuu
so gooo/well
15 ztyo kuutro/kuutru
o ||tt|e better
16 ztyot:po kuo/kuu
|ess gooo/well
17 uo0ozou kuo/kuu
not ot o|| gooo/well
18 opu:to kuo/kuu
qu|te gooo/well
19 nopo nozu kuo/kuu
extreme|, gooo/well
20 nto kuo/kuu
better
AuveiLs oren mouiy auveiLs o lace. Heie aie some examles o comLi-
narions rlar aie unlike Lnglisl:
21 nto re/rkrt
on tbls/tbat sloe (llt. 'more bere/tbere')
22 nto nuve/kute
|urtber up/oown (llt. 'more up/oown')
23 nto ntv
earller (llt. 'more be|ore')
24 re/rkrt nuve/kute
up/oown bere/tbere (llt. 'bere/tbere up/oown')
25 re/rkrt kovtu
near bere/tbere (llt. 'bere/tbere near')
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Tbe aoverb
ano tbe
aoverblal
pbrase
174
A ev auveiLs o lace anu rime may mouiy a noun:
26 nto notu (place)
tbe 5ock ooor
27 tot: kurvo (tlme)
tbe then government
A ev auveiLs o quanriry may mouiy a numeial oi quanrihei:
28 o:ov oot
o|most everybooy
29 touzototov troort or
ot |eost |our tlmes
Some auveiLs may Le useu on rleii ovn ro oim comlere urreiances, oi
examle:
vut yes
ot no
utotu ceirainly
rvturt OK, all iiglr
kuu! goou!
eutu! lovely! hne!
'Ot can also Le useu ro negare nouns, aujecrives anu auveiLs:
30 ot o Ituvv
not [obn
31 ot kuo/kuu
not gooo/well
32 ot re
not bere
Some auveiLs aie useu ro join clauses oi senrences rogerlei, oi examle:
oe lovevei
eotooo neveirleless
nu` ou uutu neveirleless
tu orttku orleivise
nuvte srill, ar any iare
otnov vell rlen
uu rleieoie
rnorve consequenrly
ueotr Lesiues
ruou Lesiues
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Tbe use o|
aoverbs ano
aoverblal
pbrases
175
Some auveiLs can eirlei Le useu on rleii ovn oi mouiy a vlole senrence,
oi examle:
toe eilas
uo ue ceirainly
rutu o couise
otyouu o couise
uotku naruially
rutue oirunarely, luckily
uotue unoirunarely
Some auveiLs (airiculaily teu, totr, re, rkrt, kuu, eutu, rutue
anu ovo) can rake comlemenr clauses inriouuceu Ly nou in a numLei o
iuiomaric uses, oi examle:
33 tpo nou to r
now thot you mentlon lt (llt. 'now tbat lt you-say')
34 tot: nou uotuv vrot
when we were young (llt. 'tben tbat we-were young')
35 Ano nou ku0out, rv or rne.
From wbere (llt. 'here thot') |'m slttlng | can't see you.
36 Fu:t nou nrtrvu tov Ituvv, 0r Io tu.
Whereos | was epectlng [obn, Sopble came.
37 Kozo nou to okr tkr!
||t's a] gooo |tblng] you tbougbt o| lt!
38 Futu nou ou to rtnr!
||t's] lucky you tolo me!
39 Ou to uyouu, ovo nou rtvut ukto.
| woulo buy lt, on|, lt's epenslve.
A numLei o auveiLs o lace (nuve, kute, rou, re, nootu, ntoe,
kovtu, uktu, uvurou, unrvuvtt, tnu, nut, yue, nru) can Le
useu as ieosirions virl rle genirive oim o rle veak ionoun. 1le same
auveiLs can Le comLineu virl ieosirions ro make comounu ieosi-
rions (see secrion S.3 oi rleii use).
1le inuehnire auveiLs nou0rvu 'novleie, anyvleie`, notr 'nevei, evei`,
ku0oou '(nor) ar all` aie useu in inreiiogarive oi negarive clauses, oi in
orlei clauses rlar uo nor make a sraremenr, oi on rleii ovn, rlar is, in rle
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7
Tbe aoverb
ano tbe
aoverblal
pbrase
176
same ciicumsrances as non-secihc inuehnire ionouns anu uereimineis
(see secrion 4.6):
40 Ou ur not:,
Wlll we ever eat?
41 A:v 0u ur not:!
We'll never eat!
42 Av to rt nou0:vo, uyouor to.
|| you no lt on,where, buy lt.
43 ~ I' uror to ryo, ~ Ko0ozou.
'Dlo you llke tbe play/lm?' 'Not ot o||'.
The fornation of adverbs fron adjectives..
Adverbs in -o
âny auveiLs aie ueiiveu uiiecrly iom aujecrives Ly a clange in rle enuing
o rle voiu. 1leie aie rvo iincial kinus o oimarion, vlicl vill Le
examineu in rlis secrion anu rle olloving one. 1le uieience is mainly
uereimineu Ly rle ueclension arrein o rle aujecrive in quesrion. We slall
rleieoie Le ieeiiing ro rle secrions in vlicl rle oims o aujecrives aie
ser our in ull.
Aujecrives in -o (secrions 3.333.35) lave auveiLs enuing in -u, vlicl aie
iuenrical ro rle neurei luial (nominarive anu accusarive) oim o rle coiie-
sonuing aujecrive. Lxamles: uytu 'viluly, heicely`, uou 'Lauly`,
rutu 'ceirainly`, yuku 'sveerly`, rvtku 'in Gieek`, runvu 'clev-
eily`, kuu 'vell`, u vtku 'suuuenly`, oo u 'Leauriully`, onuvtu
'iaiely`, ouvu 'oren`, oeotu 'coiiecrly`, trrtu 'eiecrly`, etotu
'seaiarely`, u 'ligl u`. Some assive asr airiciles also oim
auveiLs in rlis vay, e.g. unrvu 'sauly`, ouykrktrvu 'secihcally`.
Aujecrives in -u (secrion 3.36), in - virl eminine -tu (secrion 3.3) anu
rlose rlar lave neureis in -tko (secrion 3.40) also oim auveiLs vlicl aie
iuenrical ro rle coiiesonuing neurei luial. Lxamles: u0tu 'uee(ly)`,
utu 'leavily, giavely`, rtu 'on rle iiglr`, tutku 'jealously`,
uktu 'ai avay`, nrtoututku 'sruLLoinly`, trnrtku 'lazily`.
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Aoverbs ln -o
177
Adverbs in -
Ceirain orlei ryes o aujecrive oim auveiLs virl rle suhx -e. 1ley
incluue, mosr imoiranrly, aujecrives in - virl neurei -r (secrion 3.39).
1le sriess o rle auveiL iemains on rle same syllaLle as rle masculine
nominarive singulai o rle aujecrive excer in rle case o aujecrives enuing
in -e: rleii auveiLs lave rle sriess on rle hnal syllaLle. Lxamles:
ukte 'exacrly`, uo ue 'suiely`, tr0ve 'inreinarionally`, uotue
'unoirunarely`, uvtee 'uiiously`, ne 'ully`, okuvuee
'scanualously`, ouvrne 'consequenrly`, ouv0e 'usually`.
A ev aujecrives in -ev, -ouou, -ov (secrion 3.41) also lave auveiLs enuing
in -e Lur oimeu iom rle srem o rle neurei luial -ovt- anu virl sriess
on rle enulrimare syllaLle. Lxamles: rutrruovte 'seconuaiily`,
rnrtyovte 'uigenrly`.
Some aujecrives in -o can also oim an alreinarive auveiL in -e. Wlen
sucl auveiLs aie ueiiveu iom aujecrives sriesseu on rle rliiu syllaLle iom
rle enu, rley lave a slir o sriess ro rle enulrimare syllaLle: onuvto
'iaie` onuvte 'iaiely` (as a moie oimal alreinarive ro onuvtu). Some
common uouLlers, sucl as rutu/rute 'ceirainly`, lave no uieience
o meaning anu laiuly uiei in usage. In orlei cases, lovevei, rle -e
oim renus ro Le useu in moie oimal conrexrs, oi oi srylisric ieasons, oi
examle, utku anu utke 'unjusrly`, uortu anu uorte 'iiiesec-
rively`. Bur somerimes rleie aie imoiranr uieiences o meaning oi usage
Lerveen rle rvo oims, as in rle olloving examles:
kue 'vell, iiglrly`, iarlei rlan kuu, is useu in some sranuaiu
exiessions, sucl as kue 0r 'velcome`, kue can also mean
'lovei seconu |uegiee]`
ruutote 'virl leasuie` Lur ruutotu 'leasanrly`
trrte 'comlerely` Lur trrtu 'eiecrly`
uroe 'immeuiarely` Lur urou 'uiiecrly`
toe 'eilas` las a quire uieienr meaning iom tou 'equally`
une 'simly, meiely` Lur unu 'in a simle vay` (rlougl rlis
uisrincrion is nor alvays maue)
Some common auveiLs in -e vlicl aie ueiiveu iom aujecrives in -o aie:
uronotke 'Ly aii (mail)`, unoute 'aLsolurely`, rnuvrtrve
'ieeareuly`, rnorve 'consequenrly`, kute 'mainly`.
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7
Tbe aoverb
ano tbe
aoverblal
pbrase
178
Other adverbs forned fron adjectives
Some auveiLs aie oimeu iom aujecrives (oi voius ueclineu like aujec-
rives) in a uieienr vay iom rlose uesciiLeu in secrions .3 anu .4.
Ceirain veiy common auveiLs aie iuenrical virl rle neurei singular (nomi-
narive anu accusarive) o rle coiiesonuing aujecrive:
uo 'orlei` (ieally a conriasrive ionoun/uereiminei, see secrion
4.9) las an auveiLial oim uo 'any moie, any longei`, vlicl is useu
only in quesrions oi in negarive sraremenrs oi commanus, e.g. Mv to
kuvrt uo! 'Don`r uo ir any moie!`, rleie is also an auveiL ute
'orleivise`
tyo 'lirrle` gives iise ro rle auveiL tyo '(a) lirrle, ro a small exrenr`
ovo 'alone, only` las rle auveiLial oim ovo 'only`
nou 'mucl, many` las rle auveiL nou 'veiy, mucl, a lor` (oi rle
oims o nou see secrion 3.3S)
Ioi rle use o rle auveiLs o quanriry tyo anu nou see secrion .1.
Conparison of adverbs
Like aujecrives, auveiLs ueiiveu iom aujecrives lave rvo vays o oiming
rle comaiarive uegiee. One vay is ro use nto 'moie` Leoie rle osirive
oim o rle auveiL, e.g. nto oo u 'moie Leauriully`, nto uyu 'larei`,
nto u 'liglei`, nto oeotu 'moie coiiecrly`, nto ouykrktrvu 'moie
secihcally`, nto utu 'moie leavily`. Some orlei auveiLs o lace anu
rime (see secrion .1) can also oim a comaiarive in rle same vay, e.g.
nto kute 'lovei uovn, uirlei uovn`, nto rou 'uirlei in`, nto nru
'uirlei along`, nto ntoe 'uirlei Lack`, nto vet 'eailiei`.
Aujecrives rlar lave one-voiu comaiarive oims in -tro can also
oim comaiarive auveiLs in a similai vay. 1le enuing is -tru, vlicl is
iuenrical virl rle neurei luial (nominarive anu accusarive) enuing o
rle coiiesonuing comaiarive aujecrive, e.g. uytotru 'moie heicely`.
Similaily, sucl aujecrives can also lave an aLsolure sueilarive auveiL
enuing in -tutu, e.g. rukootutu 'exriemely easily`. Some uirlei
examles:
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Otber
aoverbs
|ormeo |rom
aojectlves
179
|os|t|ve Co,aat|ve /bso|ote
aoveb so,e|at|ve
uktu epenslvely uktotru uktotutu
ukte eactly uktrotru uktrotutu
uyu slowly, late uyotru
u0tu oeeply u0utru u0ututu
yrvtku generally yrvtkotru yrvtkotutu
kuu well kuutru kutotu/
utotu
ouv0e usually ouv0rotru ouv0rotutu
ovtu pruoently ovtotru ovtotutu
1le only auveiLs o quanriry (see secrion .1) rlar Le can useu in rle
comaiarive anu sueilarive uegiees aie rle olloving:
|os|t|ve aoveb Co,aat|ve |e|at|ve
so,e|at|ve
tyo (a) llttle tyotro less to tyotro/
to rutoto
at tbe least
nou very, mucb nrtoootro/ to nto nou
nto nou more at tbe most
ore also rle secial oim touutotov 'ar leasr`.
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7
Tbe aoverb
ano tbe
aoverblal
pbrase
180
lntroduction to prepositions and
prepositionaI phrases
A ieosirion ('in`, 'iom`, erc.) is laceu immeuiarely Leoie a noun liase
in oiuei ro inuicare rle ielarion o rlis liase ro some orlei liase. A
liase inriouuceu Ly a ieosirion is knovn as a ieosirional liase ('in
rle louse`, 'iom rle iivei`).
1le clie ieosirions in Gieek aie:
uno 'iom, since, Ly, rlan`
ytu 'oi, aLour`
rt 'unril, u ro`
r 'virl`
ouv 'like`
or 'ro, inro, ar, in`
et 'virlour`
In Gieek, a noun liase (incluuing an emlaric eisonal ionoun) useu
arei one o rle Lasic ieosirions aeais in rle accusarive case, oi
examle:
otv A0vu
tol|n Atbens
o' rrvu
to me (wltb contrastlve empbasls, l.e. not to anyone else)
Hovevei, some ieosirions aie useu virl noun liases in rle genirive case,
e.g. rvuvttov 'againsr`, rutttu 'Lecause o` anu rtuu 'Lerveen`, rlese
rliee aie rle only ones rlar can Le olloveu Ly veak eisonal ionouns.
1le uses o rlese anu orlei ieosirions aie coveieu in allaLerical oiuei
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Cbapter 8
7he prepos|t|on ond the
prepos|t|ono| phrose
in secrion S.2. Iinally, rleie is also a giou o auveiLs (mosrly o lace) rlar
can Le useu eirlei virl a veak eisonal ionoun in rle genirive oi rogerlei
virl one o rle Lasic ieosirions olloveu Ly a noun liase in rle
accusarive case, rlis lasr giou is coveieu in secrion S.3.
A ev ieosirions can Le olloveu Ly an auveiL o lace oi rime, sucl as:
:pt rkrt
up to tbere
ono oru
from tooay
yto teu
|or now
The uses of individuaI prepositions
Heie ve give rle clie uses o eacl ieosirion in allaLerical oiuei.
Ano
'iom` in exiessions o lace:
1 Etut ono tv A0vu.
|'m from Atbens.
2 'E uyu ono tv A0vu.
| le|t Atbens.
'iom` oi 'o` in exiessions o cause:
3 Ou nr0uve ono tv nrtvu.
|'ll ole of bunger.
'iom` oi 'since` in exiessions o rime:
4 Hrtrvu ono to net rt to uu.
| walteo from mornlng tlll evenlng.
5 Mrve otv Hutu ono to 1992.
|'ve been llvlng ln Patras s|nce 1992.
'o ` in airirive exiessions:
6 rvu ono tou tuutr
one of tbe passers-by
8.2.!
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8
Tbe
preposltlon
ano tbe
preposltlonal
pbrase
182
7 kuvrvu ono ou
none of you (empbatlc, c|. sectlon 3.52.3)
'Ly` in exiessions o agenr:
8 H tueo oyuve0kr ono tu ouvtkutu.
Tbe oemonstratlon was organlzeo 5, tbe unlons.
'maue o` in exiessions ieeiiing ro mareiial:
9 rvu tunrt ono uuo
a table |maoe] of marble
'rlan` in exiessions o comaiison:
10 Etut ryuutr ono t Mutu.
|'m oloer (|em.) thon Mary (see also sectlon 10.22).
'rliougl, asr, Ly, along` in exiessions o assage (oren virl rle
veiL nrve 'I ass`):
11 Hruor ono tov tuoo kut nkr oto ouovt.
(S)be went o|ong tbe ball ano entereo tbe llvlng-room.
12 Ou nruoe ono to onttt oou.
|'ll pass 5, your bouse (l.e. '|'ll orop by').
13 H uyu nkr oto onttt ono to nuu0uo.
Tbe Ny came lnto tbe bouse through tbe wlnoow.
In colloquial usage, uno can Le ieuuceu ro un` Leoie rle uehnire airicle:
on' tv A0vu 'frcn Arlens`.
Itu
'oi` in exiessions o Lenehr:
14 To uyouou yto orvu.
| bougbt lt for you.
'oi` in exiessions o uiose:
15 Hue yto evtu.
|'m golng sbopplng (llt. '|-go for sbopplng').
Itu is also useu virl vu ro inriouuce clauses exiessing uiose ('in oiuei
ro/rlar`: see secrion 10.1).
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Tbe uses o|
lnolvloual
preposltlons
183
'aLour` in exiessions o ieeience:
16 Mtouour yto tov Mtu.
We were talklng o5out Mlcbael.
Evuvttov
Useu virl rle genirive o a noun liase (1) oi a veak eisonal ionoun
(1S) ro mean 'againsr`:
17 o noro :vovttov tev vukettkev
tbe war ogo|nst orugs
18 Arv re ttnotu :vovttov oou.
|'ve got notblng ogo|nst you.
Kutu
Useu virl rle accusarive ro mean 'aLour`, esecially in exiessions o
rime:
19 uoto tt rvtrku
o5out eleven
Useu virl rle accusarive ro mean 'accoiuing ro`:
20 uoto t yve ou
|n my oplnlon
Useu virl rle genirive ro mean 'againsr`:
21 uoto t 0uvuttk notv
ogo|nst tbe oeatb penalty
Aoye (also, less commonly, rutttu)
Aoye is useu virl rle genirive o a noun liase ro mean 'Lecause o`:
22 To ut utute0kr zoy t kukokuttu.
Tbe matcb was cancelleo 5ecouse of tbe bao weatber.
Eutttu is useu virl rle genirive o a noun liase oi veak ionoun in
rle same meaning:
23 Ku0uotrour rutttu oou.
We were late 5ecouse of you.
8.2.5
8.2.4
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Tbe
preposltlon
ano tbe
preposltlonal
pbrase
184
Mr
'virl` (in rle comany o)
24 'H0r : tu nuttu t.
Sbe came w|th ber cblloren.
'virl` (insriumenr)
25 'Ekor to et r uutt.
(S)be cut tbe breao w|th a knl|e.
'Ly` (means o riansoir)
26 Ou nur : to re orto/: tu notu.
We'll go 5, bus/on |oot.
mannei
27 Tov uyunurt : nu0o.
(S)be loves blm passlonately (llt. 'w|th passlon').
'Ly` (Lasis o calcularion)
28 Hevout : tov vu.
|'m palo 5, tbe montb.
'uiesseu in`:
29 to kottot : tu kokktvu
tbe glrl |n reo
'ro` in exiessions o eiious o rime:
30 'Eour u0u rvtrku : erku.
We bave a lesson ||rom] eleven to twelve.
'uesire, in sire o` (in rle consriucrion ` oo, in vlicl oo agiees
virl rle noun in genuei, numLei anu case):
31 ' o t rot
desp|te tbe beat
1le consriucrion ` oo nou 'alrlougl, even rlougl` inriouuces concessive
clauses (see secrion 10.14).
Mrtu
Useu virl uehnire noun liases ro mean 'arei`:
32 :to t ouvuutu
ofter tbe concert
8.2.7
8.2.
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Tbe uses o|
lnolvloual
preposltlons
185
Wirl emlaric ionouns anu inuehnire noun liases rtu is noimally
olloveu Ly uno (see secrion S.3: 1ye 1).
Mrtuu
Useu virl rle genirive o noun liases anu veak eisonal ionouns ro
mean 'Lerveen, among`:
33 :tou A0vu kut Oroouovtk
between Atbens ano Tbessalonlkl (more commonly
epresseo by uvurou or accusatlve: ovo:oo otv
A0vu kut t Oroouovtk)
34 :tou u
5etween us, 5etween ourselves
Mrt (also, less commonly, e or re)
'unril, u ro` in exiessions o rime, virl kut ir means 'u ro anu
incluuing` (US: 'rliougl`):
35 Hrtrvu :pt tt rku.
| walteo t||| ten |o'clock]/tbe tentb |o| tbe montb].
36 H rk0ro 0u nuurtvrt uvott :pt uot tv
Kutuk.
Tbe eblbltlon wlll remaln open up to ond |nc|ud|ng Sunoay
(US: 'through Sunoay').
'Ly` in exiessions o rime:
37 To oukukt ou 0u rtvut rtoto :pt tv Ttt.
Your (pl.) jacket wlll be reaoy 5, Tuesoay.
'as ai as, u ro` in exiessions o lace:
38 Ou or nue :pt to Iuvtuyu.
|'ll take you os for os Syntagma.
1le consriucrions rt vu anu rt nou aie useu ro inriouuce remoial
clauses (see secrion 10.15).
Huu
Useu virl noun liases
ro mean 'conriaiy ro`:
39 nopo t 0ro ou
ogo|nst my wlll
8.2.!0
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8
Tbe
preposltlon
ano tbe
preposltlonal
pbrase
186
oren virl rle aioiiare oim o oo, ro mean 'uesire, in sire o`:
40 nop' or tt noonu0rtr t
desp|te ber e||orts
ro exiess rle numLei o minures Leoie rle loui (nore rlar rle voiu
oiuei is rle oosire o Lnglisl, see also secrion 5.5):
41 rku nopo rtkoot
twenty to ten
Huu (virl rle accenr on rle lasr syllaLle) sloulu nor Le conuseu virl
rle auveiL nuu (virl accenr on rle hisr syllaLle), vlicl is useu in rle
consriucrion nuu nou.
Huu is also useu as a conjuncrion in comaiarive consriucrions ('(iarlei)
rlan`: see secrion 10.22), oi in consriucrions sucl as nu` ott anu nu` oo
nou 'alrlougl` ro inriouuce concessive clauses (see secrion 10.14).
Ho
Useu virl noun liases ro mean 'rovaius`, virl veak ionouns rle
consriucrion no to ro genirive is useu:
42 Hyutvur npo t Autu.
We were golng towords Lamla.
43 Iutor npo to :po ou.
(S)be turneo towords me.
Wirl a small numLei o auveiLs o lace, no is olloveu Ly rle neurei
luial o rle uehnire airicle, tu:
44 npo tu nuve
upwaros (llt. 'towords tbe up')
45 npo tu nou,
wbere to?, ln wblcb olrectlon? (llt. 'towords tbe wbere?').
Iuv
Useu virl noun liases anu emlaric eisonal ionouns ro mean 'like`
(iesemLling):
46 rvu uv0eno oov to Mtu
a man ||ke Mlcbael
8.2.!2
8.2.!!
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Tbe uses o|
lnolvloual
preposltlons
187
47 Etout oov (kt) rrvu.
You're ||ke me.
Iuv is also useu in rle consriucrion ouv vu 'as i, as rlougl` (see secrions
10.16 anu 10.22).
Ir
Ir is alvays ieuuceu ro o Leoie rle uehnire airicle (anu is viirren virl ir
as one voiu), in colloquial usage ir may Le ieuuceu ro o` Leoie a voiu
Leginning virl a vovel (o` ou 'in all rlings`). Ir is useu virl noun liases
anu emlaric eisonal ionouns ro mean:
'ro` (inuiiecr oLjecr)
48 To reou ot Xtottvu.
| gave lt to Cbrlstlna.
'ro, inro` (morion)
49 Hyu oto Aovtvo.
| went to Lonoon.
50 Hruou oto uo eutto.
| went (llt. 'passeo') |nto tbe otber room.
'ar, in` (locarion in sace oi rime)
51 Inouuou otu Ituvvtvu.
| stuoleo ot/|n Yannlna.
52 ott rku
ot ten |o'clock on tbe tentb] 0 |o| tbe montb]
'in` (lase o rime)
53 o: tyr rr
|n a |ew oays
'on` (locarion)
54 Bu' to oto tunrt.
Put lt on tbe table.
Xet (or, less commonly, te)
Useu virl noun liases (5556) anu emlaric eisonal ionouns (5) ro
mean 'virlour`:
8.2.!4
8.2.!J
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Tbe
preposltlon
ano tbe
preposltlonal
pbrase
188
55 'H0r pt tu nuttu t.
Sbe came w|thout ber cblloren.
56 pt urtu
w|thout permlsslon
57 Arv 0u to rkuvu pt rorvu.
| woulon't bave oone lt w|thout you/5ut for you.
Xet is also useu in rle consriucrion et vu 'virlour` ro inriouuce
clauses:
58 To rkuvu pt vo to 0re.
| olo lt w|thout wantlng to (l.e. wltbout meanlng to).
Conpound prepositions, adverbs used
as prepositions
In auuirion ro rle one-voiu ieosirions coveieu in secrion S.2, Gieek las
a numLei o comounu ieosirions, maue u o rvo voius, rlar inriouuce
noun liases anu emlaric eisonal ionouns. 1lese aie o rvo ryes:
comounu ieosirions rlar can only Le useu virl noun liases anu
emlaric eisonal ionouns (rye 1),
comounu ieosirions consisring o auveiL o lace ieosirion
(rye 2).
In orlei conrexrs, auveiLs rlar oim air o rle seconu rye can Le useu
virl rle genirive o rle veak eisonal ionoun insreau o a ieosirion.
Type !
1lis rye consisrs o a small numLei o Lasic comounu ieosirions:
uvtt ytu 'insreau o`
1 Hyu rye ovtt yto to Iteyo.
| went |nsteod of George.
Avtt is also useu in rle consriucrion uvtt vu 'insreau o` ro inriouuce
clauses:
2 Avtt vo nurt o Iteyo, nyu rye.
lnsteod of George golng, | went mysel|.
8.J.!
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Compouno
preposltlons,
aoverbs
useo as
preposltlons
189
rkto uno 'excer` oi 'aair iom`:
3 'Oot nyuv :uto ono rvu.
Lveryone went except me.
4 Futo ono tou 'Evr, nuv ro kut Toukot.
Aport from tbe Greeks, |some] Turks took part too.
Ekto is also useu in rle consriucrion rkto uv (alreinarively rkto kt uv
oi rkto ruv) 'unless` ro inriouuce conuirional clauses (see secrion 10.13).
rtu uno 'arei`
5 :to ono to nutt (uno may be omltteo be|ore a noun
accompanleo by tbe oenlte artlcle: see sectlon 8.2.7).
ofter tbe party
6 :to ono rvu
ofter me
Mrtu is also useu in rle consriucrion rtu nou 'arei` ro inriouuce
remoial clauses (see secrion 10.15).
ntv uno 'Leoie`
7 nptv ono to nutt (uno may be omltteo be|ore a noun
accompanleo by tbe oenlte artlcle)
5efore tbe party
8 nptv ono rvu
5efore me
Htv is also useu as a conjuncrion ('Leoie`) ro inriouuce remoial clauses
(see secrion 10.15).
In auuirion, rleie aie a numLei o orlei comLinarions o auveiL ieo-
sirion, sucl as uvuoyu r 'accoiuing ro, in iooirion ro`, ooo ytu 'as
oi`, ou evu r 'accoiuing ro`, orttku r 'ielareu ro`, uotru uno
'arei`.
Type 2
1lis rye consisrs o a giou o Lasic auveiLs o lace rlar may eirlei (a)
Le accomanieu Ly a ieosirion olloveu Ly a noun liase oi emlaric
ionoun in rle accusarive, oi (L) Le olloveu Ly a veak eisonal ionoun
in rle genirive. Wlen rlese auveiLs aie accomanieu Ly ieosirions, rle
olloving comLinarions aie mosr common:
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Tbe
preposltlon
ano tbe
preposltlonal
pbrase
190
uvurou or Lerveen, among
unrvuvtt or/uno oosire
yue uno/or aiounu
tnu or nexr ro
re uno oursiue (nor useu virl veak ionoun)
kute uno unuei, Lelov
kovtu or neai
ut r (rogerlei) virl
uktu uno a long vay iom, avay iom
rou (or) insiue, (uno) rliougl, iom insiue
(see examles Lelov)
nootu uno/or in ionr o
nuve (or) on, (uno) aLove (see examles Lelov)
ntoe uno Lelinu
nut or Lesiue
Heie aie some examles o rlese auveiLs, useu virl anu virlour ieosi-
rions:
9 uvurou otu ontttu
between/among tbe bouses
10 unrvuvtt u
opposlte us
11 yue uno to rvto
arouno tbe tree
12 tnu oou
net to you (sg.)
13 re uno to onttt
outsloe tbe bouse
14 kute uno to tunrt
unoer tbe table
15 kovtu t
near ber
16 ut ou
wltb me
17 uktu uno tv no
||ar] away |rom tbe clty
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Compouno
preposltlons,
aoverbs
useo as
preposltlons
191
18 H yutu u rvrt ouvrrtu :oo oto onttt.
Our cat stays |ns|de tbe bouse all tbe tlme.
19 Hruor :oo ono to onttt.
(S)be/lt passeo through tbe bouse.
20 nootu u
ln |ront o| us
21 To ntuto rtvut nov oto tunrt.
Tbe plate's on tbe table.
22 O tukont rtvut nov ono to tunrt.
Tbe swltcb ls o5ove tbe table.
23 ntoe uno rvu
beblno me (empbatlc)
24 nut oto onttt
besloe tbe bouse
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Tbe
preposltlon
ano tbe
preposltlonal
pbrase
192
Co-ordinating conjunctions
Co-oiuinaring conjuncrions (e.g. 'anu`, 'oi`, 'Lur`) aie useu ro join rvo
liases oi rvo inueenuenr clauses virlin rle same senrence. 1le co-
oiuinaring conjuncrions in Gieek aie:
kut 'anu` (orionally ieuuceu ro kt Leoie a voiu Leginning virl a
vovel in colloquial usage)
'oi`
rttr 'oi else, eirlei . . . oi . . .`
outr 'noi, neirlei . . . noi . . .`
uu, u 'Lur`
oe 'lovevei`
Ioi rle use o rlese conjuncrions see secrion 10.21.
In auuirion, kut is veiy commonly useu Leoie a noun liase, an emlaric
ionoun, an aujecrive, an auveiL oi a ieosirional liase ro mean 'roo,
also`:
1 'H0r ut Mutu (noun pbrase).
Mary came too.
2 'Eour kutvouto onttt. Etvut uot ryuo.
We've got a new bouse. |t's blg too.
3 Etur ut re or (aoverb).
We bao raln bere too.
4 Etur uot otv A0vu or (preposltlonal pbrase).
We bao raln ln Atbens too.
Beoie numeials accomanieu Ly rle uehnire airicle, kut may lave rle
sense o 'Lorl` oi 'all`:
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Cbapter 9
Conunct|ons ond port|c|es
5 uot tu uo nuttu
5oth o| tbe cblloren
6 ut ot trt u
o|| tbree o| us (masc./|em.)
Arei numeials, kut (ionounceu virl leavy sriess) can mean 'ar leasr`:
7 Etvut ttuvtu uot.
(S)be's ot |eost tblrty.
1le exiession r kut, is useu ro mean 'so vlar. vlar o ir.` in iesonse ro
a iece o inoimarion (comaie rle colloquial use in Lnglisl o 'Anu . . ..`):
8 ~ Iutor o nunu ou. ~ E kut,
'My oao's come back.' 'Wbat o| lt?'
Kut is useu in a numLei o iuiomaric exiessions, e.g.:
9 Ou rtuotr ::t ut ::t.
|t'll just be us (llt. 'We'll be we ond we').
10 rvu kt rvu (lnNecteo |or genoer ano case)
bano-plckeo (l.e. selecteo |or blgb quallty)
Kut is also useu in rle consriucrions kt uv, kt u 'even i`, uv kut, kut vu
'alrlougl, even rlougl` ro inriouuce concessive clauses (see secrion 10.14).
1le negarive conjuncrion outr is also useu ro mean 'nor even`:
11 outr rku
not even ten
5ubordinating conjunctions
SuLoiuinaring conjuncrions aie useu ro suLoiuinare one clause ro anorlei
(e.g. 'i`, 'vlen`, 'Lecause`, 'alrlougl`). O rle laige numLei o suLoiui-
naring conjuncrions in Gieek rle mosr common aie rle olloving (oi rleii
uses see secrions 10.910.19):
ielarive airicles/ionouns: nou, o onoto 'vlo, vlicl, rlar` (secrion
10.9)
coiielarive ionouns anu uereimineis: onoto 'vloevei`, o,tt
'vlar(evei)`, ooo 'lovevei mucl, as mucl . . . as` (secrion 10.9)
coiielarive auveiLs: onou 'vleie(evei)`, onotr 'vlenevei`, one
'lovevei`, ooo 'lovevei mucl, as mucl as` (secrion 10.9)
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Conjunctlons
ano partlcles
194
inreiiogarive conjuncrion: uv 'i, vlerlei` (secrion 10.10.1)
inreiiogarive ionouns anu uereimineis: noto 'vlo`, tt 'vlar`, nooo
'lov mucl/many` (secrion 10.10.2)
inreiiogarive auveiLs: nou 'vleie`, notr 'vlen`, ne 'lov`, nooo
'lov mucl`, ytutt 'vly` (secrion 10.10.2)
comlemenrizeis: vu 'ro`, ott, ne, nou 'rlar` (secrion 10.2)
uuLirarive conjuncrion (useu virl veiLs o eaiing, unceirainry oi
uouLr): ne 'in case, lesr` (secrion 10.12.1)
conuirional conjuncrions: uv, ruv, uu 'i`, r ooov 'ioviueu rlar`,
rttr . . . rttr 'vlerlei . . . oi . . .`, rkto (kt) uv 'unless` (secrion
10.13)
concessive conjuncrions: uko kt uv, kt u 'even i`, uv kut, nu`
oo nou, ` oo nou 'even rlougl` (secrion 10.14)
auveisarive conjuncrions: uvtt vu 'insreau o`, et vu 'virlour`
(secrions S.3.1 anu S.2.14)
remoial conjuncrions: otuv 'vlen`, onotr 'vlenevei`, ot, 'as
soon as`, ntv 'Leoie`, u ou, rtu nou 'arei`, eonou, rt nou/vu
'unril`, rve, tv eu nou 'vlile`, ku0e 'as`, ooo 'as long as` (secrion
10.15)
mannei conjuncrions: one, ku0e 'as` (secrion 10.16)
uiose conjuncrions: ytu vu 'in oiuei ro/rlar` (secrion 10.1)
iesulr conjuncrions: nou, eotr '(so) rlar` (secrion 10.1S)
causal conjuncrions: ytutt, tott 'Lecause`, rnrt, u ou, tu
kut/nou 'since` (secrion 10.19)
comaiarive conjuncrions: ouv vu 'as i, as rlougl`, nuu (vu)
'(iarlei) rlan` (secrion 10.22)
ParticIes
Gieek las a vaiiery o veiy imoiranr lirrle voius calleu airicles. 1lese
voius aie veiy veisarile in rleii use, anu mosr o rlem uo nor coiiesonu
iecisely ro any voius in Lnglisl. We slall ueal virl rlem in seven gious:
rle uruie airicle 0u
rle suLjuncrive airicles vu anu u
rle negarive airicles rv, v anu
rle comlemenrizei anu ielarive airicle nou
rle osirive anu negarive iesonse airicles vut anu ot
rle ueicric airicle vu
rle loiraroiy airicle ytu
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Partlcles
195
Some o rle mareiial in rlis secrion oveilas virl mareiial iesenreu in orlei
secrions, Lur since rle airicles aie so imoiranr, some ieeririon is jusriheu.
The (uture portcle 0u
Ou is useu Leoie any hnire veiL oim, anu can Le seaiareu iom ir only
Ly veak ionouns. 1le iime use o 0u is ro exiess acrions rlar aie
execreu ro rake lace in rle uruie. 1le use o rle rvo asecrs o rle uruie
rense (rle eiecrive uruie consisring o 0u olloveu Ly rle ueenuenr, anu
rle imeiecrive uruie consisring o 0u olloveu Ly rle iesenr rense) is
coveieu in secrion 6.5. 1le use o rle conuirional (consisring o 0u olloveu
Ly rle imeiecr rense) anu rle eiecr conuirional (consisring o 0u
olloveu Ly rle lueiecr rense) is also coveieu in rle same secrion.
Aair iom irs use in uruie anu conuirional exiessions, 0u can Le useu
ro exiess ioLaLiliry. Ir can aeai virl any oim o rle veiL in rlis use,
Lur rle mosr ryical oims o rle veiL ir occuis virl aie rle simle asr
(1), rle eiecr (2) anu rle lueiecr (3). Sucl exiessions aie rle equiv-
alenr o Lnglisl 'musr` oi 'musr lave` vlen ieeiiing ro ioLaLiliry iarlei
rlan oLligarion. 1le veiL rense useu is rle same as i rle seakei vas
ralking aLour somerling rlar uehnirely laeneu:
1 Oo tou :o: rkrtvo tu r tu.
He must hove g|ven h|m tbe money blmsel|
(c|. tou reor 'be gave blm').
2 Oo ::t p::t, ytutt tu uu rtvut rrvu.
lt must hove ro|ned, because tbe leaves are wet
(c|. rrt rrt 'lt's ralneo, lt's been ralnlng').
3 Oo :t: p::t, ytutt tu uu tuv rrvu.
lt must hove ro|ned, because tbe leaves were wet
(c|. rtr rrt 'lt bao ralneo, lt bao been ralnlng').
The subjunctve portcles vu ond u
As ve lave saiu in secrions 6.4 anu 6.20, rle suLjuncrive moou o rle veiL
is oimeu Ly any hnire veiL oim (orlei rlan rle imeiarive) ieceueu Ly
one o rle suLjuncrive airicles vu anu u. VeiLs inriouuceu Ly one oi
orlei o rlese airicles aie negareu Ly v iarlei rlan rv. 1lese airicles
cannor Le seaiareu iom rle veiL Ly any irem orlei rlan rle negarive
airicle v anu Ly veak ionouns.
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Conjunctlons
ano partlcles
196
In main clauses vu is useu virl any eison o rle veiL ro inriouuce sugges-
rions, visles anu iequesrs (see secrion 10.3), anu ceirain ryes o commanus
anu ioliLirions (see secrion 10.4):
4 Nu oou tu eoe.
Let me glve tbem to you (o||er or promlse).
5 Nu oou tu eoe,
Sboulo | glve tbem to you? (o||er ln tbe |orm o| a questlon)
6 Nu ou tu eort.
You sboulo glve tbem to me (suggestlon, request or
commano).
7 Nu v tou tu eort.
(S)be sboulon't glve tbem to blm (problbltlon or negatlve
request).
Ir is oren useu virl rle imeiecr rense ro exiess unulhlleu visles:
8 A, vu o' rrnu!
Ob, l| only | coulo see you!
Nu is oren useu arei quesrion voius in quesrions rlar uo nor necessaiily
execr an ansvei:
9 Tt vu kuvour,
Wbat are we to oo? (|requently useo eltber ln lts llteral meanlng
or ln tbe sense o| 'tbere's notblng we can oo about lt')
(c|. Tt 0u kuvour, 'Wbat sball we oo?')
10 Hou vu nyr, uuyr,
Wbere can (s)be/lt bave gone, | wonoer?
(c|. Hou nyr, 'Wbere bas (s)be/lt gone?')
11 Hou vu to re,
How am | supposeo to know? (llt. 'Wbere to |-know lt?')
(c|. Hou to rrt, 'How oo you know?')
Nu inriouuces a viue vaiiery o suLoiuinare clauses, usually as rle suLjecr
oi comlemenr o a veiL. In almosr all cases rle veiL in rle vu-clause is in
rle ueenuenr oi rle iesenr rense. 1yical uses aie:
arei veiLs o vanring (12), loing (13), iomising (14), suggesring
(15) anu riying (16), anu in acr in mosr cases vleie Lnglisl uses rle
inhnirive ('ro` veiL),
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Partlcles
197
arei rle veiL noe 'I can` (in any eison, numLei anu rense excer
rle eiecr renses: 1) anu rle imeisonal veiL nrnrt 'ir is necessaiy`
(vlicl exisrs only in rle iesenr, asr anu conuirional: 1S20),
arei veiLs o eicerion sucl as ukoue 'I leai, lisren`, rne 'I see`,
nuukoou0e 'I varcl`, uto0uvout 'I eel`, uvtuout 'I imagine`
(21) (in almosr all cases rle veiL in rle vu-clause is in rle iesenr
rense),
arei rle veiLs ute 'I Legin` (22), otuute anu nuue 'I sro` (23),
anu ouvrte anu rukoou0e 'I conrinue` (24) (rle veiL in rle vu-
clause is alvays in rle iesenr rense).
12 'H0ru vu tou toe rnrtyovte.
| wanteo to speak to blm urgently.
13 Ente vu r0e uuto.
| bope to come tomorrow.
14 Tnoor0kr vu ou uuort tu ortu.
(S)be promlseo not to spoll my plans.
15 Hotrtvr vu nur ut oto nutt.
(S)be suggesteo tbat we (sboulo) go to tbe party togetber.
16 Hoonu0ouor vu rt uort ytu ou tu noutu tou.
(S)be was trylng to no solutlons to all bls problems.
17 Mnorou vu kuve o,tt 0ru.
| was able to oo wbat(ever) | wanteo.
18 Hrnrt vu uyour uroe.
We must leave lmmeolately.
19 'Enrnr vu uyour uroe.
We bao to leave lmmeolately.
20 Ou rnrnr vu uyour uroe.
We sboulo leave lmmeolately.
21 Tov ukouou vu rrt nou uourotu nuyutu.
| bearo blm say many unpleasant tblngs.
22 'Atouv vu trouv.
Tbey starteo runnlng.
23 Ituutor vu rrt.
|t stoppeo ralnlng.
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Conjunctlons
ano partlcles
198
24 Iuvrtor vu tuurt.
(S)be went on reaolng.
Nu-clauses can also Le useu in inuiiecr quesrions:
25 Arv rur tt vu kuvour.
We olon't know wbat to oo.
1ley can also Le useu as rle comlemenr o a noun (26) oi aujecrive (2):
26 Etvut ku0u uvootu vu uno rrt rtot.
|t's pure stuplolty (|or you) to su||er llke tbls.
27 Etvut uvutov vu r 0uouvtut,
|s lt posslble (tbat) tbey oon't remember me?
Nu can also Le useu arei ceirain ieosirions (uvtt, ytu, te, rt,
ouv, et: see secrions S.2, S.3, 10.15 anu 10.1).
Wlile ve aie iesenring rle airicle vu, somerling sloulu Le saiu aLour
ceirain secial uses o nrnrt anu rle imeisonal oim nort olloveu
Ly vu. In rlis anu rle olloving aiagials ve aie nor conceineu virl rle
oiuinaiy use o rle imeisonal veiL nrnrt ro exiess oLligarion ('I musr,
I sloulu`) anu rle eisonal veiL noe ro exiess aLiliry ('I can, I am aLle`).
Insreau, ve aie uealing virl uses rlar aie similai ro rle uses o 0u in exies-
sions orlei rlan uruie anu conuirional exiessions (see 9.3.1).
Like 0u (anu like Lnglisl 'musr`), nrnrt vu can Le useu ro exiess ioL-
aLiliry iarlei rlan oLligarion. 1yically, rle veiL in rle vu-clause is in rle
simle asr, rle eiecr (2S) oi rle lueiecr, Lur ir can Le in any rense
(e.g. rle iesenr: 30). 1le senrence can Le negareu Ly rle use o rle aio-
iiare negarive airicle in eirlei rle main clause oi rle vu-clause (29).
28 Etu etu oto onttt tou. Hrnrt vu rouv yutort
uno tt tukonr.
| saw llgbts ln tbelr bouse. Tbey must bave come back |rom
bolloay.
29 Arv rrt etu oto onttt tou. A:v nrnrt vu rouv
yutort (or Hrnrt vu v rouv yutort) ukou uno
tt tukonr.
Tbere are no llgbts ln tbelr bouse. Tbey mustn't/can't bave
come back |rom bolloay yet.
30 Hrnrt vu yutouv teu uno tt tukonr.
Tbey must be on tbelr way back |rom bolloay now.
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Partlcles
199
As vell as exiessing aLiliry, nort (vlen ir is useu in rle rliiu eison
singulai o rle iesenr rense) can exiess ossiLiliry (like Lnglisl 'may`:
31). In acr, nort can Le useu on irs ovn ro mean 'mayLe`.
31 Mnort vu rouv yutort uno tt tukonr.
Maybe tbey've come back |rom bolloay/Tbey may bave come
back |rom bolloay.
Wlen useu virl a negarive airicle, nort vu-consriucrions mean
uieienr rlings ueenuing on vlicl veiL is negareu:
32a Mnort vu v rouv yutort uno tt tukonr.
Tbey mo, not bave come back |rom bolloay.
b A:v nort vu rouv yutort uno tt tukonr.
Tbey con`t bave come back |rom bolloay.
A is useu virl any veiL oim ro exiess commanus, eimission, sugges-
rions oi visles. Unlike vu, ir is useu only in main clauses:
33 A u oour uuto to 0ru.
Let's leave tbls subject.
34 A evurt o Hrto ooo 0rrt.
Let Peter sbout as mucb as be llkes.
In comaiison virl vu, exiessions virl u renu ro Le less iessing, since
u comLines rle sense o commanu virl rlar o eimission, oi even inui-
eience:
35 A r0ouv uv 0rouv.
Let tbem come l| tbey want.
36 A ou tu eort, u ou rv 0rrt.
Let blm/ber not glve tbem to me, slnce (s)be ooesn't want to.
A is iequenrly useu arei kut (kt) in concessive clauses (see also secrion
10.14):
37 Muov 0u ytvrt noro, kt u v to 0rour.
War wlll probably bappen, even l| we oon't want lt (to).
A may Le useu virl rle imeiecr rense ro exiess a visl rlar somerling
lau laeneu in rle asr:
38 A v tov ukouyr.
|| only you baon't llsteneo to blm/You sboulon't bave llsteneo
to blm.
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Conjunctlons
ano partlcles
200
The negotve portcles rv, v ond
VeiLs in rle inuicarive aie negareu Ly rv, vlile veiLs in rle suLjuncrive
(i.e. veiLs ieceueu Ly vu oi u) aie negareu Ly v:
39 Arv 0u r0rt.
(S)be won't come.
40 Nu v r0rt.
(S)be sboulon't come.
Mv may uio rle hnal -v Leoie ceirain lerreis (see secrion 1.6).
Aair iom irs use in negarive clauses arei vu oi u, v may Le useu ro
inriouuce negarive commanus (see secrion 10.4). In rlese uses ir cannor Le
seaiareu iom rle veiL excer Ly veak ionouns.
Wlen negaring irems orlei rlan veiLs, uoes nor rake a hnal -v (see
secrion 10..). Ir can also Le useu on irs ovn (virlour hnal -v) in a single-
voiu senrence ro mean 'Don`r!`
The complementzer ond relotve portcle nou
Hou las rliee clie uncrions. Ir may inriouuce a comlemenr clause (41:
see secrion 10.12), a iesulr clause (42: see secrion 10.1S), oi a ielarive clause
(43: see secrions 4. anu 10.9).
41 Aunuut nou rv norou vu r0e oto nutt.
|'m sorry (thot) | wasn't able to come to your party.
42 4evuu tooo nou nou rv noe vu toe.
| sbouteo so mucb (thot) | can't speak.
43 O uvtu nou 0r rtvut o nr0ro ou.
Tbe man who came ls my |atber-ln-law.
The postve ond negotve response portcles vut ond ot
Nut anu ot aie useu in iesonses ro mean 'yes` anu 'no` iesecrively. In
auuirion, ot can Le useu ro negare any air o seecl (see secrion .2,
examles 302) oi a vlole clause (secrion 10.5.1).
The dectc portcle vu
1le ueicric airicle vu (selr rle same as rle suLjuncrive airicle) is useu
as rle equivalenr o Lnglisl 'rleie` vlen oinring our somerling. Ir can Le
9.J.
9.J.5
9.J.4
9.J.J
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Partlcles
201
useu on irs ovn, oi olloveu Ly a noun liase (44) oi a veak eisonal
ionoun (45, see secrion 4.1) in rle nominarive.
44 Nu to nou!
Tbat's tbe problem!
45 Nu to!
Tbere be ls!
The hortotory portcle ytu
1le loiraroiy airicle ytu (selr like rle ieosirion) is useu colloquially
ro exiess exria encouiagemenr Leoie an imeiarive oim o rle veiL:
46 Itu kutor!
Do slt oown!
9.J.7
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Conjunctlons
ano partlcles
202
Types of cIause
1le clause is a synracric unir rlar consisrs o a suLjecr (exlicir oi imlicir)
anu a veiL liase. 1le reim 'senrence` may Le useu ro ieei eirlei ro a
simle clause oi ro a laigei unir, conraining moie rlan one clause. Clauses
anu senrences may Le eirlei main oi suLoiuinare. Accoiuing ro rleii unc-
rion anu synracric claiacreiisrics, main clauses aie suLuiviueu inro rle
olloving ryes:
sraremenrs (secrion 10.2)
suggesrions, visles, iequesrs anu iomises (secrion 10.3)
commanus anu ioliLirions (secrion 10.4)
yes/no quesrions (secrion 10.5)
vl- quesrions (secrion 10.6)
negarive clauses (secrion 10.)
exclamarions (secrion 10.S)
Main cIauses..
5tatenents
A sraremenr is in rle inuicarive moou (see secrion 6.4). In sraremenrs rle
veiL is nor inriouuceu Ly rle airicles vu oi u anu is negareu Ly rv 'nor`:
1 To kutvouto urooto :tvot nou euto.
Tbe new alrport |s very beautl|ul.
2 H Etv 0o no:t otv A0vu tov Arkr.
|rene w||| go to Atbens ln December.
3 To trrututo tou tto :v ou op:o: ku0oou.
| d|dn`t ||ke bls last book at all.
10.2
10.1
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Cbapter 10
7he c|ouse
5uggestions, wishes, requests, pronises, etc.
A main clause exiessing a suggesrion, visl, iequesr, iomise, erc. is in rle
suLjuncrive moou. In orlei voius, rle veiL is inriouuceu Ly rle airicle
vu oi u anu is negareu Ly v:
1 No tv npoo::t!
ou shou|d toke core o| ber!
2 A kut vo ouvo teu otv Kt!
lf on|, l wos ln Crete now!
3 No oo ,to tu u,
Mo, l osk a |avour o| you?
4 No v to n:tt: or kuvrvuv.
ou shou|dn`t te|| anybooy about tbls.
5 A v tov ukouyr.
ou shou|dn`t hove ||stened to blm.
6 No tov :p:t o nutru tou.
Let bls |atber 5r|ng h|m.
Connands and prohibitions
A osirive commanu may Le exiesseu Ly using rle imeiarive moou o
rle veiL, vlicl las uisrincr oims (see secrions 6.S6.12). Somerimes rle
airicle ytu inriouuces an imeiarive senrence ro auu encouiagemenr (see
secrion 9.3.). A negarive commanu (a ioliLirion) is exiesseu Ly v
virl oi virlour rle airicle vu, as in (5) anu ():
1 4:p: ou rvu nott vro.
8r|ng me a glass o| water.
2 2noot: rnttrou!
8e qu|et at last!
3 Ito :p: u kut tyu nuyuktu.
uo 5r|ng us some lce too (please).
4 Ftotooou yyou!
Cet reod, qulckly!
5 Mv :toto,:oot tooo vet.
uon`t get reod, so early.
10.4
10.3
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Tbe clause
204
6 No :p0:t uroe.
(Sjhe shou|d come lmmeolately.
7 No v tov touont:t: otuv turt.
uon`t |nterrupt h|m wben be's speaklng.
Yes/no questions
Yes/no inreiiogarive senrences seek rle ansvei 'yes` oi 'no`. Wleieas in
Lnglisl rlese quesrions aie claiacreiizeu Ly an inveision o rle suLjecr anu
veiL ('Aie you coming.`), in Gieek rley aie claiacreiizeu simly Ly rle
quesrion inronarion (iise o rle voice ircl olloveu Ly a sliglr all ar rle
enu o rle senrence, see secrion 1.9). Somerimes rley aie accomanieu Ly
rle airicles uuyr 'I vonuei` oi ne 'coulu ir Le rle case rlar`, vlicl
ieuuce rle uiiecrness o rle quesrion anu make ir eilas moie olire. 1le
veiL in yes/no inreiiogarive senrences may Le eirlei in rle inuicarive (1, 2,
5, 6) oi in rle suLjuncrive (34):
1 Hp: vru uno tov Ituvv,
Hove ,ou hod any news |rom [obn?
2 H Mut 0o 'p0:t rto otv Ayytu,
W||| Mary come to Lnglano tbls year?
3 No tov uoz:oou: kt uutov,
Shou|d we |nv|te blm too?
4 Tt r, No v tov nopou: ut u,
Wbat oo you tblnk? Shou|dn`t we toke h|m wltb us?
5 Mn o: :vozo: ounrt ou tou,
u|d bls bebavlour 5other ,ou, 5, on, chonce?
6 'Apoy: 0o nov: tukonr ut,
W||| the, go on bolloay togetber, l wonder?
Alternotve yeslno questons
1lese consisr o a osirive inreiiogarive clause anu a negarive inreiiogarive
clause (oi simly rle airicle ot 'no`), seaiareu Ly rle conjuncrion 'oi`:
7a Tov uyunu rv tov uyunu,
Do you love blm or oon't you love blm?
b Tov uyunu ot,
Do you love blm or not?
!0.5.!
10.5
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Yes/no
questlons
205
Leodng yeslno questons
1lese aie oimeu Ly auuing rle rag quesrion rtot rv rtvut, oi rv rtvut
rtot, ar rle enu o a sraremenr:
8 O Iteyo uno uotor vu rtvrt, :tot :v :tvot,/:v
:tvot :tot,
George oecloeo to stay, d|dn`t he?
Wh- questions
1lese senrences use rle aioiiare quesrion voiu ro ask a quesrion aLour
one consriruenr o rle senrence. Quesrion voius aie rle ionouns anu
uereimineis noto 'vlo, vlicl`, tt 'vlar`, anu nooo 'lov mucl`, anu rle
auveiLs nou 'vleie`, ne 'lov`, ytutt 'vly`, nooo 'lov mucl` anu notr
'vlen`. Lxamles S10 illusriare rle use o uereimineis virl nouns. ore
rlar rle veiL o sucl quesrions may Le in rle inuicarive, as in examles
13 anu 59, oi in rle suLjuncrive, as in examles 4 anu 10:
1 Hoto rrt uutr tt uvootr,
Who says tbese sllly tblngs?
2 Hotov 0u tort,
Who wlll you vote |or?
3 Tt t rkuvr too rvtuneo,
Whot maoe sucb an lmpresslon on ber?
4 Hou vu nur ytu tukonr,
Where sboulo we go |or a bolloay?
5 Itott rv oou urort o Oroeuk,
Wh, oon't you llke Tbeooorakls?
6 Hot: 0u ytvouv rkoyr,
When wlll tbe electlons take place?
7 Hooou 0u kurort oto nutt oou,
How mon, wlll you lnvlte to your party?
8 Hoto tzto rv nour vu tuuort,
Wh|ch 5ook olon't you manage to reao?
9 Hotovou nottou o nutru rtvut tkyoo,
Wh|ch ch||d`s |atber ls a lawyer?
10.6
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Tbe clause
206
10 2: noto tzo oou vu eoe to yuu,
Wh|ch fr|end of ,ours sboulo | glve tbe letter to?
ore rlar in quesrions involving ieosirions rle ieosirion musr ieceue
rle aioiiare quesrion voiu oi liase. Unlike in Lnglisl, rle rvo
elemenrs (ieosirion anu vl- voiu) cannor Le seaiareu (see examle 10).
Heie aie some uirlei examles:
11 M: noto tzo t ueor,
Wh|ch fr|end of hers olo sbe quarrel w|th?
12 Ano nou tu uyouor uutu tu eutu nunoutotu,
Where olo you buy tbose beautl|ul sboes from?
13 Ito noto r nrvu,
Who oo you take me for? (|emale speaker)
Multple questons
As in Lnglisl, ir is ossiLle ro quesrion moie rlan one consriruenr in a
senrence, Lur only one o rlese may aeai ar rle Leginning o rle senrence
(1415) unless rle rvo aie co-oiuinareu (16):
14 Tt vu etoe notov,
Whot sboulo | ask of whom?
15 2: notov vu eoe tt,
7o whom sboulo | glve whot?
16 Itott uot : tt z: to 0u uyouort uutoktvto,
Wh, ond w|th whot mone, wlll you buy a car?
Negation
As in rle case o quesrions, negarion may aly ro rle vlole senrence oi
ro one o irs consriruenrs.
Sentence negoton
A senrence is negareu Ly one o rle rvo negarive airicles rv oi v. Ioi
inuicarive senrences rle negarive airicle is rv, vlicl is laceu Leoie rle
uruie airicle 0u (2), oi suLjuncrive senrences rle negarive airicle is v,
vlicl is laceu arei rle airicles vu oi u (34):
!0.7.!
10.7
!0..!
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Multlple
questlons
207
1 O rtevu r rto :v tov uu.
Wlnter tbls year wosn`t severe.
2 O Keotu :v 0o t to ouypo:t uuto.
Kostas won`t forg|ve her for th|s.
3 No v ntot:u:t oou oou rvr.
ou shou|dn`t 5e||eve wbat tbey tell you.
4 A v tov uoz:oou: otnov.
Let`s not |nv|te h|m, tben.
A negarive commanu oi suggesrion may Le exiesseu virl oi virlour rle
airicle vu:
5 (No) : touont:t teu.
uon`t |nterrupt me now.
6 (No) v uo0:oot too eu otov to.
uon`t s|t ln tbe sun so long.
A single-voiu negarive commanu is exiesseu virl rle ioliLirive airicle
! 'uon`r!`
Negotve nterrogotve sentences
1lese senrences consisr o a negarive senrence ionounceu virl an inrei-
iogarive inronarion:
7 A:v 0o ovop0:t otv Euu,
Won`t (sjhe come to Greece agaln?
8 No v tou o tyu r tu,
Shou|dn`t l g|ve h|m some money?
Negoton wth ndente pronoun, determner or odverbol
A non-secihc inuehnire ionoun (secrion 4.6) oi auveiLial (nou0rvu
'novleie, anyvleie`, notr '(n)evei`, ku0oou '(nor) ar all`), accomanieu
Ly a negarive airicle, can Le useu ro oim a negarive senrence:
9 A:v t tor uov:t oto nutt.
No one spoke to ber at tbe party.
10 Kov:vo uno tu nuttu tou :v tou oturt.
None o| bls cblloren takes a|ter blm.
!0.7.J
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Tbe clause
208
11 Ir uov:vo to tou :v rrt rntotoouv.
He doesn`t trust on, o| bls |rlenos.
12 (Nu) v uvu0rt not:!
uon`t ever come back!
13 (Nu) v nutr nou0:vo trtotu eu.
ou shou|dn`t go on,where at sucb a tlme.
1le inuehnire irems, sucl as rlose in iralics aLove, lave an inuehnire
meaning vlen useu in osirive oi negarive quesrions anu commanus:
14 Ou t tort uuyr uov:t oto nutt,
Wlll on,5od, speak to ber at tbe party, | wonoer?
15 Arv 0u nurtr kut uov:vo ookoutukt,
Won't you take o llttle cbocolate?
16 Hur uov:vo nuto ut oou.
Take o coat wltb you.
17 Hyutr nou0:vo 0r,
Dlo you go on,where yesteroay?
1lese inuehnire irems lave a negarive meaning in senrences conraining
et 'virlour` (1S19). 1ley also lave a negarive meaning i rley aie in
emLeuueu suLjuncrive clauses olloving a negareu main veiL (2021):
18 Ee tuurt pt vu tov rvort uov:vo.
Here be can reao w|thout on,one botberlng blm.
19 'H0r pt vu kuturt ttnoto.
(S)be came w|thout brlnglng on,th|ng.
20 A:v 0rrt vu u0rt ttnoto.
(S)be doesn`t want to learn on,th|ng.
21 A:v nrtrvrt vu '0rt uov:t tzo tou.
He doesn`t epect on, fr|end o| bls to come.
Wlen rlese inuehnire irems aie useu as single-voiu ielies ro a ieceuing
quesrion, rley also lave a negarive meaning:
22 ~ Ir notov tu r uutu,
Wbo are you telllng tbese tblngs?
~ Ir kuvrvuv.
No one.
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Negatlon
209
23 ~Hotr troonuvtev 0u oourutrt,
Wben wlll you ever get serlous?
~Hotr.
Never.
Consttuent negoton wth ot
1le negarive airicle ot 'nor` may Le useu ro negare a voiu oi liase Ly
Leing laceu in ionr o rlis voiu oi liase.
24 Ou 0ru vu kuve rvu tutukt, uu ot otv
Ayyzto.
| woulo llke to take a trlp, 5ut not to Lng|ond.
25 H Erv uyunu tov Itr uvo, ot tov Koto.
Helen loves Stepben, not Kostos.
26 'Ot ovo t op:o:t, uu rtvut tr yt' uutov.
Not on|, does she ||ke h|m, but sbe's crazy about blm.
Consttuent negoton wth outr
Consriruenr negarion virl outr 'nor even` is exemliheu in examle 2:
27 Arv nort out: uo utu vu kuvrt.
(S)be can't take even a couple o| steps.
Consttuent negoton wth outr . . . outr . . .
1le exiession outr . . . outr . . . is useu in negarive senrences accom-
anying any voiu oi liase:
28 Arv tov rtu out: t Arutru out: tv Ttt.
| olon't see blm e|ther on Monoay or on Tuesoay.
29 Arv ou urort out: vu or rne out: vu o' ukoue.
| oon't llke e|ther seelng you or bearlng you.
Consttuent negoton wth v ond
1le negarive airicle v is geneially useu ro negare geiunus (3031), vlile
rle negarive airicle , virlour hnal v, is useu ro negare nouns (3233)
anu aujecrives (34), anu occuis in some iuiomaric exiessions (35) (see also
secrion 9.3.3).
!0.7.7
!0.7.
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Tbe clause
210
30 Mv :povto noto rtvut, tou tor kune unotou.
Not know|ng wbo lt was, (s)be spoke to blm ratber abruptly.
31 Ou kuvrt uuto nou oou re 0:zovto uot
(0:zovto).
You wlll oo wbat | say whether ,ou ||ke |t or not.
32 Tu notovtu uutu rtvut nto uktu ytu tou
Fupnotou.
Tbese prooucts are more epenslve |or non-Luropeons.
33 H ut0ouou uut rtvut ytu tou uonvtot:.
Tbls room ls |or non-smokers.
34 ytu ooopou oyou
|or non-ser|ous reasons
35 Kut :tpot:po!
May lt not get on, worse (= Goo |orblo)!
ExcIanations
1lese aie exiessions inuicaring suiiise, Lorl osirive anu negarive,
ueliglr, aumiiarion, erc. 1ley aie ionounceu virl a ligl ircl, vlicl
iemains ligl rliouglour rle exclamaroiy consriucrion. 1yical exclama-
rions aie inriouuceu Ly tt 'vlar` oi nooo 'lov mucl`, usually olloveu Ly
an aujecrive oi an auveiL, somerimes olloveu Ly a clause inriouuceu Ly
nou 'rlar`.
Tt oop o tu uttu t Mut!
How 5eout|fu| Mary's eyes are!
Tt oop nou rtvut Erv!
How 5eout|fu| Helen ls!
Hooo ooo ounrt rrtut!
How 5od|, (s)be bebaves!
Tt upto nou etouvr!
Whot o p|t, tbey spllt up!
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Lclamatlons
211
5ubordinate cIauses..
ReIative cIauses
Relarive clauses aie suLoiuinare clauses rlar mouiy nouns. 1ley aie inrio-
uuceu Ly rle ielarive ionoun liase o onoto 'vlo, vlicl, rlar` oi Ly
rle inueclinaLle airicle nou (same meanings). In oimal uiscouise o onoto
is ieeiieu, vlile in casual uiscouise nou is moie iequenr. Lven in casual
seecl, o onoto is ieeiieu vlen irs synracric uncrion in rle ielarive
clause iequiies rle genirive oi vlen ir is in a ieosirional oi auveiLial
liase. Relarive clauses can Le uiviueu inro iesriicrive oi non-iesriicrive. A
iesriicrive ielarive clause ioviues necessaiy inoimarion oi rle iuenrihca-
rion o rle noun ro vlicl ir ieeis, vlile a non-iesriicrive ielarive clause
auus some exria inoimarion as an areirlouglr. 1le seconu rye is ser o
Ly auses oi commas. Lxamles 13 aie iesriicrive ielarive clauses, vlile
45 aie non-iesriicrive:
1 O kuto o onoto 0r vu r rt tuv ou ottt
oou.
Tbe gentleman who came to see me was a |ellow stuoent o|
yours.
2 Atuuor to tto nou oou uvrtou,
Have you reao tbe book (thot) | lent you?
3 Hyur kut rtur to ryo yto to onoto u tor
Mutu.
We went ano saw tbe lm (thot) Mary spoke to us o5out.
4 O Kuu , o onoto/nou rtvut uno tou nto
o trt nottr u, ryu r or yeoou tkt.
Cava|y, who ls one o| our most popular poets, wrote ln a
mleo language.
5 4ruvr ut tou kut tov Ituvv, o onoto/nou rtvut
uvuno oo.
Tbey also brougbt [obn along, who ls unbearable.
ore rlar rle ielarive ionoun oi airicle can nevei Le omirreu, as ir some-
rimes can Le in Lnglisl.
Ir is ossiLle, esecially in cases o non-iesriicrive ielarive clauses, ro hnu
rle ielarive liase olloveu Ly a seconu insrance o rle noun ir mouihes,
as in examle 6:
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10
Tbe clause
212
6 Hyur vu our t Io tu tv nruorv Kutuk,
onoto 2o to rrt ytvrt nou ko.
Last Sunoay we went to see Sopble, who bas become very
elegant.
1le ielarive liase may Le rle oLjecr o a ieosirion (3 anu 9). In sucl
cases rle ielarive liase o onoto ollovs rle ieosirion:
7 Autot rtvut ot uv0enot ono tou onotou nur
no otr.
Tbese are tbe people (thot) we got ln|ormatlon from.
8 Hotot rtvut uutot : tou onotou toukevrout,
Wbo are tbese people (thot) you are quarrelllng w|th?
9 To oorto rtvut to ktto tnzo oto onoto rtvut
rkkotu.
Tbe scbool ls tbe bullolng next to wh|ch ls tbe cburcb.
Wlen rle ielarive liase in rle genirive case ueenus on a noun, ir may
eirlei ieceue oi ollov rle noun:
10a O to ou, tou onotou tru rtvut uokuu . . .
b O to ou, tru tou onotou rtvut uokuu . . .
My |rleno, whose motber ls a teacber . . .
Relotve clouses ntroduced by nou
1le inueclinaLle airicle nou may Le useu ro inriouuce a ielarive clause,
in vlicl case ir can ieei ro rle suLjecr (11), rle uiiecr oLjecr (12), oi rle
inuiiecr oLjecr (13):
11 Hoto rtvut o ouyyu ru nou nr to Nonr nrot,
Wbo ls tbe autbor who got tbe Nobel last year?
12 Ou nue vu e t ytuto nou ou ouotor.
| wlll vlslt tbe (|emale) ooctor (who) you recommenoeo to me.
13 O vruo nou (tou) eouvr tv unoto tu tv utr.
Tbe young man who tbey gave tbe scbolarsblp to oeserveo lt.
In ielarive clauses inriouuceu Ly nou, vleie rle airicle ieeis ro anyrling
orlei rlan rle suLjecr, rle aioiiare veak ionoun may aeai in rle
ielarive clause. 1lis is orional oi uiiecr oLjecrs (14), Lur aiily iegulai
virl inuiiecr oLjecrs (13) anu auveiLial liases (15).
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Pelatlve
clauses
213
14 Ou nue vu e tu ytuto nou ou (t) ouotor rvu
kuo ou to.
| wlll vlslt a (|emale) ooctor who a gooo |rleno o| mlne
recommenoeo to me.
15 H konru nou uovto t ku0rtut o Ntko rtvut
yuvutku tou.
Tbe glrl neor whom Nlck ls slttlng ls bls wl|e. (C|. tbe equlva-
lent constructlon wltb o onoto ln 9 above)
Relarive clauses inuicaring lace, rime oi insriumenr can Le inriouuceu virl
nou virl no accomanying veak ionoun. 1leii uncrion is ineiieu iom
rle conrexr:
16 To onttt nou our toou ovtu ykrtotkr.
Tbe bouse (thot) we llveo |n |or so many years bas been
oemollsbeo.
17 Tov kuto nou ouvu ottt rrvu r tov 0rto ou.
At tbe tlme (when) | was a stuoent | llveo wltb my uncle.
18 Ito ouorto tokrtut nrvu nou ryur to neto
tou u0totou.
Tbe pen w|th wh|ch be wrote bls rst novel ls ln tbe museum.
1o make rle uncrion o ielarive clauses inriouuceu Ly nou cleaiei ir is
ossiLle ro use a ieosirional liase arei ir:
19 To onttt nou :oo o' outo our . . . (= 16)
20 nrvu nou ' outv ryur . . . (= 18)
Relarive clauses may Le olloveu Ly rle inuicarive, as in all rle examles
given aLove, oi Ly rle suLjuncrive. 1yically ielarive clauses aie in rle
suLjuncrive vlen rle main clause is negarive oi inreiiogarive, oi vlen rle
main veiL exiesses a visl, as in rle olloving senrences:
21 Arv re kuvrvuv o onotolnou vo v uyunurt tu
r tu.
| oon't know anybooy who ooesn't llke money.
22 Zrrt kuvrvu uyut nou vo nouurt r rtr,
Do you know a sbop thot sells newspapers?
23 Ore rvu to otov onoto/nou vo noe vu re
rntotoouv.
| want a |rleno whom | can trust.
In rlese cases rle ielarive clauses inuicare 'o rle kinu rlar`.
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10
Tbe clause
214
Iree relotve clouses
In iee ielarive clauses rle ielarive clause uoes nor mouiy a noun. 1lese
clauses aie inriouuceu eirlei Ly rle coiielarive ionouns onoto, onotoo-
notr 'anyone`, o,tt, ottnotr 'anyrling`, ooo 'as mucl as` oi Ly rle
coiielarive auveiLs onou 'vleievei`, onotr 'vlenevei`, one 'lovevei`,
ooo 'as mucl as`. Lxamles 24a anu 25a illusriare rle use o iee ielarives
as ionouns, vlile 24L anu 25L slov rleii use as uereimineis (see also
secrion 4.):
24a Ekrt tokrt o,ttlottnot: tu uouu oou.
Tbere you can no whotever your beart oeslres.
b Ekrt tokrt o,tt oyto tu uouu oou.
Tbere you no whotever food your beart oeslres.
25a Koutoonorurt onotov/onotovnot: ouvuvtort.
b Koutoonorurt onotov ov0pno ouvuvtort.
(S)be gosslps about on,one (s)be may meet.
26 Ito onttt t, onou/onounot: kotturt, 0u rt
ououtu.
|n ber bouse, wherever you look you wlll see Nowers.
Wlen rle ielarive clause is rle uiiecr oLjecr o a veiL anu rle liase con-
raining rle ionoun oi uereiminei is rle suLjecr o rle ielarive clause inrio-
uuceu Ly onoto, rle case o o noto is rle accusarive iarlei rlan rle execreu
nominarive. 1lis occuis vlen rle ielarive clause ollovs rle main clause.
27 Iunu0rt ovo onotov tv koukrurt.
Sbe llkes only whoever Natters ber.
28 4outut onotovnot: tv noturt.
Sbe ls a|ralo o| on,one who approacbes ber.
A iee ielarive clause may also Le inriouuceu Ly rle coiielarive ionoun
anu uereiminei ooo 'as mucl as`:
29 Iou r ru ouku vu u ooo 0rrt.
| brougbt you gs so you can eat os mon, os you want.
30 'Ooot rv rouv tv ryuotu tou rykute tou
unotntrt.
(S)be |alls those who oo not brlng tbelr work on tlme.
31 'Ooo ut ov tov uouvtrt, uuto tv uyunu.
No motter how much sbe tortures blm, be loves ber.
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Pelatlve
clauses
215
A ielarive clause inriouuceu Ly ooo may Le olloveu Ly anorlei clause
inriouuceu Ly tooo:
32 'Ooo ou tort, tooo 0u oou eoe.
| wlll glve you however mon, you ask |or.
Iiee ielarives aie also ounu virl ieosirional anu auveiLial liases:
33 M: onotov tort, to tto 0u oou nrt.
Whoever you speak to, tbey'll tell you tbe same tblng.
34 'On tou tort, :tot 0u oou tort kt uuto.
He wlll speak to you os you speak to blm.
All coiielarive voius may Le olloveu Ly rle exiession kt uv oi kut vu
vlicl emlasizes inuehnireness, as in 31 aLove anu rle examles Lelov:
35 Eye 0u or nrtrve onot: ut ov r0rt.
| wlll walt |or you no motter when/whenever you come.
36 'Onou uot vo nue, uutv ouvuvte.
No motter where/wherever | go | meet ber.
37 'Ooo ut ov rntrvrt rv 0u r nrtort.
No motter how much/however much you lnslst, you wlll not
persuaoe me.
lndirect questions
Inuiiecr quesrions ollov main veiLs o asking, vonueiing, erc., oi exies-
sions equivalenr ro rlese.
Questonng the whole sentence
An inuiiecr quesrion conceining rle riurl oi alsiry o a vlole clause is
inriouuceu Ly rle conjuncrion uv 'vlerlei` oi ne 'Ly any clance`. 1le
veiL is in rle inuicarive:
1 Arv r etouv notr ov r rvort ouotk tou (
ot).
Tbey never askeo me whether tbelr muslc botbers me (or
not).
2 Anoe ov kutuuutvrt ttnotu.
| wonoer whether (s)be unoerstanos anytblng.
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Tbe clause
216
3 Avuettrtut n t rvr rutu.
Sbe's wonoerlng whether 5, on, chonce tbey're lylng to ber.
An inuiiecr quesrion may Le in rle suLjuncrive virlour rle inriouucroiy
conjuncrion uv oi ne, as in examle 4. 1lese inuiiecr quesrions aie
inriouuceu Ly vu Lecause rle uiiecr seecl equivalenr senrence is a ueliL-
eiarive quesrion (Nu tov nuvtrute ot, 'Sloulu I maiiy lim oi nor.`):
4 Mr etor nor or vo tov nuvtrutrt ot.
Sbe askeo me several tlmes whether sbe sboulo marry blm or not.
Questonng one consttuent
I rle consriruenr quesrioneu is a noun liase ir is inriouuceu Ly rle aio-
iiare quesrion voiu (see secrion 10.6) useu eirlei on irs ovn, as a ionoun
(5), oi as a uereiminei olloveu Ly rle noun (6):
5 Anoe noto nyr kut tou tu rtnr.
| wonoer who went ano tolo blm.
6 Arv re notov unozzzo 0u unouoouv.
| oon't know wh|ch emp|o,ee tbey wlll re.
7 Avuettrtut notovou nrnrt vu eort to uutoktvto.
(S)be ls wonoerlng who (s)be sboulo glve tbe car to.
I rle quesrioneu consriruenr is in rle genirive anu is air o anorlei noun
liase, rle quesrion voiu may eirlei ieceue oi ollov rlar noun liase:
8a Petouv notovou/ttvo o not:po tuv ytuto.
Tbey askeo whose fother was a ooctor.
b Petouv o not:po notovou tuv ytuto.
Tbey askeo whose fother was a ooctor.
Inuiiecr quesrions may also ieei ro ieosirional anu auveiLial liases:
9 Arv u ryouv : noto tuoto tu kuvouv uutu.
Tbey olon't eplaln to us 5, whot r|ght tbey oo tbese tblngs.
10 Petor tv ono noto oyo,t nr tu nunoutotu t.
Ask ber wh|ch store sbe bougbt ber sboes from.
An inuiiecr quesrion aLour someone`s ioession oi orlei qualiry is inrio-
uuceu Ly tt 'vlar`:
11 Avuettrut tt :tvot o k. Hunuuk, ku0yt
ytuto,
| wonoer whot Mr Papaoakls |s a teacber or a ooctor?
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|nolrect
questlons
217
ôieovei, i rle quesrion conceins some qualiry oi claiacreiisric o a noun,
rle inuiiecr quesrion may Le inriouuceu Ly tt rtou noun, oi moie
colloquially tt oot noun 'vlar soir o x`:
12 Anoe tt :tou ov0pno rtvut uuto troonuvtev.
| wonoer whot sort of mon be ls a|ter all.
13 Hr ou otnov tt oot o:p o rtvut uuto.
Now tell me whot k|nd of 5rother be ls.
1le veiL in an inuiiecr quesrion may Le eirlei in rle inuicarive, as in rle
examles aLove, oi in rle suLjuncrive, as Lelov:
14 A u nrt rkrtv notov vo kuroour.
Let ber tell us who to lnvlte.
15 Petor tov ono noto poo vo nur.
Ask blm wh|ch wo, we shou|d go.
lndirect connands
1le uieience Lerveen uiiecr anu inuiiecr osirive commanus is rlar,
vleieas oi rle oimei rle veiL is ryically in rle imeiarive moou, oi rle
larrei ir is in rle suLjuncrive:
1 Tou tor vo tv o o:t ou.
Sbe askeo blm to |eove her ln peace.
2 Tov nuukurour vo t ouvo:uo:t oto oo.
We askeo blm to occompon, her to tbe oance.
In a uiiecr negarive commanu (ioliLirion), as uesciiLeu in secrion 10.4, rle
airicle vu is orional, Lur ir is oLligaroiy in inuiiecr negarive commanus:
3 Tov trtur vo turt.
(S)be oroereo blm not to speak.
4 Anutte vo r tukontrt.
| oemano thot ,ou do not lnterrupt me.
ConpIenent cIauses
Comlemenr clauses may accomany a veiL (1ac), a noun (2) oi an aujec-
rive (3):
10.12
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Tbe clause
218
1a Mou :z:y: ott rv tou uroouv tu utu.
He wos te|||ng me thot be ooesn't llke sb.
b H Etv 0:z:t vo onouuort ouotk.
|rene wonts to stuoy muslc.
c Aun0uo nou nou otrvoe0kr o Itr uvo.
l wos very sorr, thot Stepben got upset.
2 Arv tou urort t:o vo nuvtrutouv tooo yyou.
He ooesn't llke the |deo of tbem gettlng marrleo so soon.
3 Etvut otyoupo ott tov utkouv.
He's sure thot tbey're belng un|alr to blm.
Lacl o rlese consriucrions vill Le uesciiLeu in uerail Lelov.
Complement clouses os objects o( o verb
1lese clauses may Le uiviueu accoiuing ro rle moou o rleii veiL inro
inuicarive clauses anu suLjuncrive clauses.
Inuicarive clauses
1leie aie rliee vaiieries o inuicarive clauses accoiuing ro rle comle-
menrizei rlar inriouuces rlem anu rle rye o main veiL rlar goveins rlem:
(a) Inuicarive clauses olloving veiLs o saying, rlinking, Lelieving, erc.
aie inriouuceu Ly ott oi ne 'rlar`, as in examle 4,
(L) Inuicarive clauses olloving veiLs exiessing syclological srares (joy,
soiiov, iegier, erc.) aie inriouuceu Ly nou (5),
(c) Inuicarive clauses olloving veiLs exiessing eai aie inriouuceu Ly
ne. Mne is nor a negarive airicle. Clauses inriouuceu Ly
ne aie negareu Ly rv (comaie 6a anu 6L).
4a 'Oot ntotruouv ott/n o noro 0u ouvrtotrt.
Lverybooy belleves (thot) tbe war wlll contlnue.
b Mou rtnr ott/n rv or rrt.
(S)be tolo me thot (s)be ooesn't know you.
5a Mrtuvteor nou t rtnr tv u0rtu.
(S)be regretteo telllng (llt. 'tbat (s)be tolo') ber tbe trutb.
b Aun0kr nou rv kutu rr vu tov rt.
(S)be was upset (thot) (s)be olon't manage to see blm.
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Complement
clauses
219
6a Avoue n tou ouvr kutt.
|'m worrleo (thot) sometblng mo, bave bappeneo to blm.
b Avoue n :v r0rt.
|'m worrleo (thot) (sjhe mo, not come.
ore rlar, unlike rle Lnglisl 'rlar`, rle comlemenrizeis ott/ne, nou anu
ne cannor Le omirreu.
SuLjuncrive clauses
Comlemenr clauses in rle suLjuncrive ollov veiLs o visling, loing,
lanning, iequesring, iomising, erc. 1ley aie inriouuceu Ly rle suLjunc-
rive airicle vu anu aie negareu Ly v:
7 Ou 0rur une vo t toour.
We woulo just llke to speak to ber.
8 Ou ovttoe vo r0e vet.
|'ll take care to come early.
9 Ente vo v uyort o Ituvv.
| bope (thot) [obn won`t be late.
SuLjuncrive comlemenr clauses also ollov veiLs exiessing eicerion,
sucl as 'leai`, 'see`, 'eel`, erc. In similai ciicumsrances Lnglisl may use rle
-ing oim o rle veiL.
10 Tov rtur vo n:pnoto:t nou tuottko.
We saw blm wo|k|ng ln a great burry.
11 Arv 0u ukouort tv Krtu vo noponovt:tot notr.
You'll never bear Clea comp|o|n|ng.
12 Tv rvteou vo tp::t.
| |elt ber trem5||ng.
Some veiLs o saying, rlinking erc. rlar noimally rake an ott-clause may
also Le olloveu Ly a vu-clause. 1le uieience Lerveen rlese rvo is rlar
rle ott-clause imlies moie oLjecrive juugemenr vlile rle vu-clause imlies
moie suLjecrive, moie emorional juugemenr, colouieu virl a uegiee o
visling:
13 Htotrue ott 0o o nzpoouv tv u Arutru.
| belleve (thotj the, w||| po, us net Monoay.
14 Htotrue vo o nzpoouv tv u Arutru.
| belleve (thotj the, m|ght po, us net Monoay.
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10
Tbe clause
220
Arei veiLs o eicerion ve may also hnu an ott-clause, as in examles
15 anu 16. Hovevei, leie rle veiL imlies inoimarion iarlei rlan uiiecr
eicerion:
15 Auouoo: ott nouor kut to onttt.
We heord thot (s)be solo tbe bouse too.
16 Ft: otnov ott rtu tkto,
ou see (llt. 'Dlo you see') now tbat | was rlgbt?
1le veiLs re 'I knov` anu u0utve 'I leain` may also Le olloveu eirlei
Ly an ott-clause, in vlicl case rley convey knovleuge as inoimarion
(11S), oi Ly a vu-clause, in vlicl case rley convey knovleuge as aLiliry
oi skill (1920):
17 'Fo0: ott t rryuv rutu.
She found out (thotj tbey were lylng to ber.
18 :p:t ott rtvut nou kuo ot ourtu tou.
He knows (thot) be's very gooo at bls work.
19 'Fo0: vo tvrt kut no ouotu otu oytu tou.
(Sjhe |eorned not to pay mucb attentlon to bls woros.
20 :p:t vo ttov:t nou voottu vtouuktu.
(Sjhe knows how to moke very tasty oolmaoakla.
Somerimes a comlemenr clause may co-occui virl a neurei veak ionoun
arracleu ro rle main veiL. 1lis laens moie iequenrly virl inuicarive
clauses inriouuceu Ly ott, anu somerimes virl suLjuncrive clauses inrio-
uuceu Ly vu oi inuicarive clauses inriouuceu Ly nou:
21 A:v to uotozoo ott 0rr vu ou tort.
l d|dn`t reo||ze (thot) you wanteo to speak to me.
22 To :tovto: ott/nou 0r,
Hove ,ou regretted comlng?
23 To 0:z: nou vo tov ouvuvtort.
(Sjhe wonted very mucb to meet blm.
Complement clouses wth mpersonol verbs or mpersonol
expressons
Imeisonal veiLs sucl as utvrtut 'ir seems`, nrturt 'ir marreis, ir
Lorleis`, urort 'ir leases`, erc., anu imeisonal exiessions sucl as rtvut
kuo 'ir`s goou`, rtvut uno 'ir`s sau`, rtvut oeoto 'ir`s iiglr`, rtvut
!0.!2.2
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Complement
clauses
221
ktu 'ir`s a iry`, erc. rake a comlemenr clause as rleii suLjecr. 1lis
clause may Le inriouuceu virl eirlei ott, nou oi vu ueenuing on rle
meaning o rle main veiL:
24 Mou otv:tot ott 0u uyoouv nut.
lt seems to me (thot) tbey'll be late agaln.
25 Tov n:tpo,:t nou tou turt rtot unotou.
lt 5others h|m thot (s)be speaks to blm so sbarply.
26 Iou op:o:t vo tutrurt,
uo ,ou ||ke to travel?
27 Ftvot ov:po ott kutuotuo 0u rtotrrrt.
lt`s o5v|ous thot tbe sltuatlon wlll get worse.
28 Ftvot nt0ovov vo uyour tv Kutuk.
lt`s ||ke|, (thot) we'll be leavlng on Sunoay.
29 Ftvot upto nou rv 0u ouvuvt0our trtku.
lt`s o p|t, (thot) we won't meet a|ter all.
Complement clouses governed by odjectves ond nouns
A comlemenr clause may Le goveineu Ly eirlei an aujecrive (3032) oi a
noun (3334):
30 Etvut zun:vo nou 0u uyrt.
He's sod thot be ls leavlng.
31 Etvut ouv0to:v vo tv nrtnotouvtut.
Sbe's used to belng pampereo.
32 Etvut otyoup ott tv nuukoou0ouv.
Sbe's certo|n (thot) tbey're |ollowlng ber.
33 Zrt r tov oo ott 0u t kuvouv tu.
Sbe llves wltb the feor thot sbe'll be burgleo.
34 'Ert ryu opo nou 0u tov uvurt.
(S)be's very hopp, (thot) (s)be's golng to see blm agaln.
Clouses (unctonng os noun phroses
A comlemenr clause uncrioning as rle suLjecr (35a anu 36) oi oLjecr
(35L) o a veiL is inriouuceu Ly rle neurei uehnire airicle to. I rle clause
is rle oLjecr, rle veiL in rle main clause may Le accomanieu Ly rle neurei
!0.!2.4
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Tbe clause
222
veak ionoun to. 1le uehnire airicle ieceuing rle comlemenr clause is
geneially ounu vlen rle comlemenr clause is laceu ar rle Leginning o
rle senrence:
35a To ott rtvut rokr uo rtvut yveoto or oou.
|t ls known to everybooy thot be ls stubborn.
b To ott rtvut rokr uo to rouv oot.
Lverybooy knows (thot) be ls stubborn.
36 To vo noonu0rt vu tov nrtort rtvut ututo.
|t's |utlle to try to convlnce blm.
Clauses uncrioning as noun liases can also occui as oLjecrs o ieosi-
rions:
37 Arv 0u tov nrtort : to vo yktvturt ouvrrtu.
You won't persuaoe blm 5, grumbllng all tbe tlme.
38 M: to nou tov rtr vu nutvrt, rytvr kutukokktv.
7he moment sbe saw blm comlng ln, sbe turneo brlgbt reo.
ConditionaI constructions
Conuirional consriucrions consisr o a conuirional clause (i-clause),
ieeiieu ro as rle iorasis, anu a main clause, ieeiieu ro as rle aouosis.
Conuirional clauses aie ryically inriouuceu Ly uv, ruv, uu (all meaning
'i`), rtot kut 'i so mucl as`, rttr . . . rttr . . . 'vlerlei . . . oi . . .`, or
nrtnteo nou 'in rle evenr rlar`, oi r ooov 'ioviueu rlar`. Orlei moie
elaLoiare means o inriouucing rle iorasis aie rkto (kt) uv 'unless`,
(uko) kt uv 'even i`, rote kt uv 'even i`. 1le negarive airicle in conui-
rional clauses inriouuceu Ly rle conjuncrions oi exiessions lisreu aLove
is rv. A iorasis may occasionally Le inriouuceu Ly rle suLjuncrive
airicle vu, in vlicl case rle veiL is negareu Ly v. 1le iorasis may
eirlei ieceue oi ollov rle aouosis. Conuirional consriucrions may Le
uiviueu inro acrual anu counreiacrual.
Ioctuol condtonol clouses
In a acrual conuirional consriucrion, i rle conuirion srareu in rle iorasis
is ulhlleu, ir ollovs rlar vlar rle main clause (rle aouosis) uesciiLes is,
las Leen, vill Le oi can Le ulhlleu also. In rle iorasis o acrual conui-
rionals rle veiL may Le in any rense oi asecr orlei rlan rle lueiecr,
!0.!J.!
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Conoltlonal
constructlons
223
anu rle aouosis may conrain a veiL in any oim. Lxamles o acrual
conuirionals aie iesenreu in rle olloving senrences:
1 Av npoono0:t vu tov nrtort, uov:t ryuo u0o.
lf ,ou`re tr,|ng to persuaoe blm, ,ou`re mok|ng a blg mlstake.
2 Av (0o) tov nopouoz:o:t 0o oou uov:t t u.
lf ,ou osk h|m, he`|| do ,ou tbe |avour.
3 No tov :t teu 0o tov zun0:t.
lf ,ou see h|m now, ,ou`|| fee| sorr, for h|m.
4 Av ouvovt0uov, uov 0o tzoov kut yt' uuto to
0ru.
lf the, met, the, most probably spoke about tbls matter too.
5 'Ftot uot t ooy:zoo:t yuku tov ouyp:t
uroe.
lf he so much os sm||es ot her sweetly, she lmmeolately forg|ves
h|m.
6 Ftt: tou tzo :tt: :v tou tzo, to tto kuvrt.
Whether you speak to blm or don`t speok to h|m, lt makes no
ol||erence (llt. 'lt makes tbe same').
7 Av o: n:tpo: uuto nou rtnu, oou ,t ouyve.
lf ,ou got upset by wbat | salo, l osk your |orglveness.
8 'Ao o: :voz:t o kunvo, ovot: to nuu0uo.
lf tbe smoke 5others ,ou, open tbe wlnoow.
9 Av t:z:to:t: vet :zot: vu u rttr.
lf ,ou n|sh early come ano see us (llt. 'so tbat you see us').
Counter(octuol condtonols
In counreiacrual conuirionals rle iorasis exiesses a siruarion vlicl las
nor Leen iealizeu in rle asr oi is nor Leing iealizeu in rle iesenr anu as
a consequence rle conrenr o rle aouosis is also nor iealizeu oi cannor Le
iealizeu. In rle iorasis o counreiacrual conuirionals, rle veiL is eirlei in
rle imeiecr oi rle lueiecr, vlile in rle aouosis rle veiL is eirlei in
rle conuirional oi rle eiecr conuirional. I rle senrence ieeis ro rle asr,
any o rlese veiL oims may Le useu (10). I rle senrence uoes nor ieei ro
rle asr, only rle imeiecr anu conuirional may Le useu, rlus a conui-
rional senrence rlar uses rle imeiecr anu rle conuirional may ieei
equally ro rle asr oi rle iesenr oi rle uruie (1113).
!0.!J.2
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Tbe clause
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10a Av :ot:zv: rkrtvo to yuu 0o tov :t: n:to:t.
b Av :t: ot:tz:t rkrtvo to yuu 0o tov :n:t0:.
c Av :t: ot:tz:t rkrtvo to yuu 0o tov :t: n:to:t.
lf (sjhe hod sent tbat letter (sjhe wou|d hove persuoded h|m.
11 Av :ot:zv: rkrtvo to yuu 0o tov :n:t0:.
lf (sjhe sent tbat letter (sjhe wou|d persuode h|m 0
lf (sjhe hod sent tbat letter (sjhe wou|d hove persuoded h|m.
12 Av uotozootv: t otrvoetu ou :v 0o tzouo:
rtot.
lf ,ou understood my olstress ,ou wou|dn`t speok llke tbls 0
lf ,ou hod understood my olstress ,ou wou|dn`t hove spoken llke
tbat.
13 A:v 0o tov novtp:uotov: notr ov :v tov oyonouo:.
She wou|d never morr, h|m |f she d|dn`t |ove h|m 0
She wou|d never hove morr|ed h|m |f she d|dn`t |ove h|m.
Concessive cIauses
Concessive clauses exiess a concession on rle air o rle seakei. 1ley
aie inuicarive suLoiuinare clauses inriouuceu Ly rle olloving exiessions:
uv kut 'alrlougl, even rlougl`, nuu to ott, nu` ott, nu` oo nou, nu`
oov ott, oovott, ` oo nou, nuu to yryovo ott 'in sire o rle acr
rlar`. 1le concessive clause usually ieceues rle main clause, Lur ir is also
ossiLle oi rle main clause ro ieceue rle concessive clause.
1 Av uot :v too,:t nou, rrt nou nuyutu.
A|though (sjhe doesn`t reod mucb, (s)be knows a lot.
2 Hop' ozo nou tov nortonotour, rv u ukouor.
A|though we warneo blm, be olon't llsten to us.
3 Hopo to ott rrt nou r tu, totykouvrurtut nou.
ln sp|te of the foct thot (s)be bas a lot o| money, (s)be's tlgbt-steo.
Concessive clauses may also Le inriouuceu Ly kt u 'even rlougl`. 1lese
aie negareu Ly rle airicle v.
4 Mou urort nou uuto to onttt, ut o :tvot tko.
| llke tbls bouse very mucb, even though |t`s small.
5 Ekrtv uno uotor vu nurt, ut o v :t: nooko.
Sbe oecloeo to go even though she d|dn`t hove an lnvltatlon.
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Concesslve
clauses
225
TenporaI cIauses
1emoial clauses srare vlerlei rle acrion o rle veiL o rle main clause
rakes lace Leoie, vill rake lace arei oi rakes lace ar rle same rime as
rlar o rle main clause. 1le mosr common conjuncrion ro inriouuce a rem-
oial clause is otuv 'vlen`. Orlei remoial exiessions aie ouv 'vlen`,
onotr, onotuv 'vlenevei`, onotr 'ar vlicl oinr`, teu nou 'nov rlar`,
totr nou 'ar rle rime rlar`, u ou rtu nou 'arei`, u ou, u otou, uno totr
nou 'since`, eonou 'unril`, rve, ooo, rvooe, tv eu nou 'vlile`, ku0e
'as`, ot 'as soon as`, r ooov 'as long as`, nuve nou 'jusr as`. 1le con-
juncrions otuv, ot, u ou, onotr may Le olloveu Ly rle ueenuenr
vlen nor ieeiiing ro rle asr (35). Eve, ooo, rvooe, tv eu nou aie
ryically olloveu Ly rle iesenr oi imeiecr (6). Htv anu notou 'Leoie`
comLine only virl rle ueenuenr, virl oi virlour vu (). Mrt 'unril` is
olloveu Ly nou anu rle inuicarive vlen rle remoial clause ieeis ro a ieal
acrion (S). 'Oonou anu rt 'unril` may Le olloveu Ly vu vlen rle rem-
oial clause ieeis ro a orenrial iarlei rlan a ieal acrion (9).
1 'Otov z:tn:t yoto oruouv tu novttktu!
When the cot`s owo, tbe mlce wlll play!
2 'Otov tooo: to yuu tou ouyktv0kr nou.
When (sjhe reod bls letter (s)be was very moveo.
3 A ou t:z:to:t, nur r tr evo.
After ,ou n|sh, call me.
4 'Onot: to ono ooto:t ru.
Come whenever ,ou dec|de.
5 Mozt tov :t 0u kutuurt ott rtvut 0uervo.
As soon os (sjhe sees h|m (s)be'll reallze tbat be's angry.
6 Tv po nou :ntv: tov ku r tou, tou ryou to
nou.
Wh||e he wos dr|nk|ng bls co||ee, | eplalneo tbe problem to blm.
7 Hrnrt vu tort r tov Ntko nptv (vo) nouzo:t
to onttt.
You must speak to Nlck 5efore ,ou se|| tbe bouse.
8 'Eteyr :pt nou :ouoo:.
(S)be kept on eatlng unt|| (sjhe 5urst.
9 Ou rntrve :pt vo o: n:to.
| wlll perslst unt|| l persuode ,ou.
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Tbe clause
226
CIauses of nanner
1lese clauses uesciiLe rle mannei in vlicl rle acrion o rle veiL laens,
vill laen oi laeneu. 1ley aie ryically inriouuceu Ly rle mannei
conjuncrions one anu ku0e 'as`, oi rle exiessions rtot nou 'in sucl a
vay`, one kt uv 'in vlarevei vay`. 1lese conjuncrions anu exiessions
aie olloveu Ly a veiL in rle inuicarive.
1 Tu nuyutu rtvut uotue on ou tu
nrtryur.
Matters are un|ortunately os you oescrlbeo tbem to me.
2 Muyrtrr tt uyytvur :tot nou t rtr rtrt
ytuytu t.
Sbe cookeo tbe artlcbokes os ber granomotber bao sbown ber.
3 'On ut ov to our to nuyu, Etv rrt tkto.
No motter how we look at lt, |rene ls rlgbt.
CIauses of purpose (naI cIauses)
Puiose (oi hnal) clauses aie ryically inriouuceu Ly ytu 'oi` olloveu
immeuiarely Ly rle airicle vu. o orlei voiu may inreivene Lerveen rle
rvo. Arei veiLs o morion ytu may Le omirreu.
1 Tv kurour kut rkrtv yto vo v nuunovtrtut.
We lnvlteo ber too |n order to prevent ber complalnlng (llt. 'ln
oroer tbat sbe not complaln').
2 'H0r (yto) vo tv rt uu rkrtv rrtnr.
(S)be came to see ber but sbe was out.
CIauses of resuIt
Resulr clauses aie iequenrly inriouuceu Ly nou 'rlar` oi eotr 'so rlar` ol-
loveu Ly a veiL in rle inuicarive oi suLjuncrive. In sucl senrences rle main
clause oren conrains rle quanrirarive anu qualirarive voius tooo 'so mucl`
(3) oi trtoto 'sucl`, oi rle auveiL rtot (oi oute in moie oimal usage)
oi rle ieosirional liase r trtoto tono 'in sucl a vay` (45).
1 Arv nrnrt vu t rr ttnotu ot: vo uno uotort
ov t.
We mustn't say anytblng to ber so thot sbe can oecloe on ber
own.
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Clauses o|
manner
227
2 Arv tokrt nunoutotu nou vo t kuvouvr.
Sbe can't no sboes thot w||| t ber.
3 'Ert nrt tooo rutu nou kuvrt rv tov ntotrurt
ntu.
He bas tolo so many lles (thot) nobooy belleves blm any
more.
4 'Ettouv to onttt :tot (or : t:toto tpono) nou vu
uvtrrt otou ortoou.
Tbey bullt tbe bouse |n such o wo, thot lt wlll wltbstano
eartbquakes.
5 Ou oou ryoour tv kutuotuo :tot (or out)
ot: vu rrt tu n rtkovu.
We'll eplaln tbe sltuatlon to you |n such o wo, thot you wlll
bave a complete plcture.
ore rlar rle nou oi eotr, unlike Lnglisl 'rlar` in (3), cannor Le omirreu.
1le meaning o iesulr may also Le exiesseu Ly ytu vu:
6 Hrnrt vu rtout nou turo yto vo rt trtoto
to.
You must be very lucky to no sucb a |rleno.
CIauses of cause
1lese aie inriouuceu Ly a vaiiery o conjuncrions, namely ytutt oi moie
oimal tott 'Lecause`, ku0e 'as`, rnrt 'Lecause`, u ou, r ooov, tu
kut 'since`, olloveu Ly a veiL in rle inuicarive. Wlen a clause exiessing
cause is inriouuceu Ly ytutt oi tott ir geneially ollovs rle main clause
(1). Wlen ir is inriouuceu Ly one o rle orlei conjuncrions ir can eirlei
ieceue oi ollov rle main clause (25).
1 Arv 0u ou neoour, ytott/tott rv rour r tu.
We won't pay you, 5ecouse we oon't bave any money.
2 Fn:t rv kot0kr 0r to uu, vte0rt nou
kouuorvo.
8ecouse be olon't sleep last nlgbt, be |eels very tlreo.
3 A ou oou oktotkr, nrnrt vu tov ntotrrt.
S|nce be gave you bls woro, you bave to belleve blm.
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Tbe clause
228
4 Kuvr otnov o,tt 0rrt, o ou rntrvrt tooo nou.
Do wbat you llke tben, s|nce you lnslst so mucb.
5 Mto uot rtout teu re, ru vu r o0ort.
As you are bere now, come ano belp me.
Other syntactic phenonena..
Word order, topicaIization and focusing
Word order
Unlike Lnglisl, Gieek is a liglly inlecreu language. 1lis means rlar rle
suLjecr anu oLjecr o a clause aie noimally cleaily inuicareu Ly rle oim
o rle noun liases rlar make u rle suLjecr anu oLjecr, rle suLjecr is in
rle nominarive case, vlile rle uiiecr oLjecr is in rle accusarive. Ioi rlis
ieason, rle voiu oiuei o Gieek is ai moie lexiLle rlan Lnglisl.
In Lnglisl rle rvo senrences Lelov uo nor mean rle same rling:
1a Tbe oog blt Mlcbael.
b Mlcbael blt tbe oog.
Ir is rle voiu oiuei rlar uisringuisles rle meaning o rlese rvo senrences:
in Lnglisl, rle suLjecr noimally ieceues rle veiL, vlile rle oLjecr
noimally ollovs ir.
In Gieek, since suLjecr anu oLjecr aie uisringuisleu Ly rleii oim, voiu
oiuei is ai less ciucial oi rle meaning o rle senrence. 1lis means rlar
rle olloving hve senrences lave aioximarely rle same meaning:
2a O okuo (nom.) uykeor tov Mtu (acc.).
b Tov Mtu uykeor o okuo.
c Tov Mtu o okuo tov uykeor.
o Auykeor o okuo tov Mtu.
e Auykeor tov Mtu o okuo.
Tbe oog blt Mlcbael.
Topcolzoton ond (ocusng
Wlen ve seak, ve oren use senrences rlar convey comlerely nev inoi-
marion. Ioi insrance, i ve aie Leginning a conveisarion aLour somerling
rlar rle orlei eison knovs norling aLour, ve may say somerling like,
!0.20.2
!0.20.!
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Woro oroer,
toplcallzatlon
ano |ocuslng
229
'Diu you leai vlar laeneu.`, olloveu Ly a senrence like 1a aLove. In
rlis case, 1a voulu convey rorally nev inoimarion. ôie oren, rlougl,
ve comLine voius oi liases rlar ieei ro vlar las alieauy Leen
menrioneu in rle conveisarion virl voius anu liases rlar convey nev
inoimarion. Ioi insrance, rle eison ve aie ralking ro may knov rlar rle
uog Lir someone, Lur may Le unceirain vlo rlis vas. In Lnglisl ve lave
uieienr vays o uisringuisling nev inoimarion iom alieauy knovn
inoimarion, ve can lace leavy sriess on rle nev elemenr (3a), anu ve
can orionally lace ir in an 'Ir is/vas . . . rlar . . .` consriucrion (3L).
3a Tbe oog blt M|choe| (wltb beavy stress on 'Mlcbael').
b |t was M|choe| (tbat) tbe oog blt.
1le same alies i ve vanr ro make ir cleai vlicl animal (e.g. rle uog
iarlei rlan rle car) Lir îclael:
4a 7he dog blt Mlcbael (wltb beavy stress on 'oog').
b |t was the dog tbat blt Mlcbael.
I ir is rle veiL rlar ve vanr ro emlasize (i, oi insrance, rle orlei eison
uouLrs oi uenies rlar rle uog Lir îclael, oi i rle acrion is iesenreu as
a comlere suiiise), ve can use rle auxiliaiy 'uo/uiu` virl rle veiL (5a)
oi ve can use an auveiL sucl as 'acrually` (5L):
5a Tbe oog d|d blte Mlcbael.
b Tbe oog octuo||, 5|t Mlcbael.
In examles (35) rle elemenr in iralics, i.e. rle nev inoimarion rlar is
emlasizeu, is calleu rle ocus. Conveisely, any noun liase rlar is alieauy
knovn anu agieeu on Ly rle seakeis is calleu rle roic o rle senrence.
1le roic in examle 3 is 'rle uog`, in 4 ir is 'îclael`, vlile in 5 Lorl
'rle uog` anu 'îclael` aie roics.
In Gieek, as in Lnglisl, leavy sriess is useu ro inuicare rle ocus o a
senrence, Lur consriucrions sucl as 'Ir is/vas . . . rlar . . .` aie nor iequenrly
useu, anu rleie is no equivalenr in Gieek o rle use o 'uo/uiu` as an auxil-
iaiy veiL. Insreau, Gieek uses an imoiranr uevice oi inuicaring roic anu
ocus, namely rle use oi non-use o veak ionouns ieeiiing ro rle oLjecr.
In examles 2a anu 2u aLove, in vlicl rle oiuei is suLjecr-veiL-oLjecr oi
veiL-suLjecr-oLjecr anu rleie is no veak ionoun, ve lave a senrence rlar
coulu Le useu arei saying 'Diu you leai vlar laeneu.`, rlar is, a
senrence rlar consisrs o enriiely nev inoimarion anu rleieoie one rlar
las no roic anu no ocus.
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Tbe clause
230
A veak ionoun can Le useu rogerlei virl an oLjecr noun liase ro slov
rlar rle oLjecr is rle roic anu rlar rle ocus is some orlei elemenr in rle
senrence (usually rle suLjecr oi rle veiL, Lur somerimes an auveiLial). A
veak ionoun rlar ieeis ro rle oLjecr o a clause is calleu a uouLling
ionoun. 1lis is rle case virl examle 2c on . 229. In rlis senrence
'îclael` is rle roic, vlile rle ocus may Le eirlei 'rle uog` oi 'Lir`,
ueenuing on vlicl o rlese elemenrs is leavily sriesseu. 1lus 2c miglr
Le rianslareu in any o rle olloving vays:
6 |t was the dog tbat blt Mlcbael.
7a Tbe oog d|d blte Mlcbael.
b Tbe oog octuo||, 5|t Mlcbael.
Conveisely, in 2L on . 229, vleie rle oLjecr is laceu hisr Lur rleie is no
uouLling ionoun, rle oLjecr is rle ocus. 1lus examle 2L coulu Le rians-
lareu as:
8 |t was M|choe| (tbat) tbe oog blt.
I ve vanreu ro make îclael inro rle roic (as in examle 6), ve voulu
lave ro use a uouLling ionoun:
9 Tov Mtu tov uykeor o ouuzo.
Inuiiecr oLjecrs Lelave in exacrly rle same vay as uiiecr oLjecrs as ai as
roicalizarion anu ocusing aie conceineu:
10 Tou Itovv rv 0u eoouvr uuo.
|t's john tbey won't glve a pay rlse to.
11 Tou Ituvv :v 0o tou oouv: ouo.
7he, won`t g|ve o po, r|se to [obn.
1o sum u, rle mosr neurial voiu oiuei in Gieek renus ro Le eirlei suLjecr-
veiL-oLjecr oi veiL-suLjecr-oLjecr. I ve vanr ro lace airiculai emlasis
on some elemenr o rle senrence, ve can inriouuce a uouLling ionoun
rlar ieeis ro rle oLjecr ro slov rlar ve aie emlasizing some elemenr
orlei rlan rle oLjecr, rlis elemenr is usually rle suLjecr oi rle veiL, Lur ir
can Le an auveiLial, as in 12 Lelov:
12a Tov Mtu tov uykeor 0: o okuo.
b O okuo tov uykeor 0: tov Mtu.
Tbe oog blt Mlcbael ,esterdo, or |t was ,esterdo, (tbat) tbe
oog blt Mlcbael |as opposeo to tooay].
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Woro oroer,
toplcallzatlon
ano |ocuslng
231
In sucl cases, rle oLjecr may orionally Le laceu Leoie rle veiL, as in 12a.
Conveisely, i ve vanr ro lace airiculai emlasis on rle oLjecr, ve can
lace rle oLjecr Leoie rle veiL anu omir rle uouLling ionoun, as in 2L on
. 229.
Co-ordination
Ir is ossiLle ro co-oiuinare any consriruenrs, vlerlei rley Le clauses,
liases oi simle voius. 1le mosr common conjuncrions maiking co-
oiuinarion aie kut 'anu` (kt Leoie a voiu Leginning virl a vovel), , rttr
. . . rttr . . . 'eirlei . . . oi . . .`, uu oi rle moie colloquial u 'Lur`, outr
. . . outr . . . 'neirlei . . . noi . . .`, anu oe 'lovevei`. 'Oe is useu oi
co-oiuinaring only clauses, ir may aeai eirlei Lerveen rle rvo clauses
(a), oi ar rle enu o rle seconu irem (L), oi Lerveen rle liases o rle
seconu memLei o rle co-oiuinarion (S).
Co-ordnoton o( clouses.
1 Auto 0u e tov Ituvv uot 0u tou toe ytu orvu.
Tomorrow |'ll see [obn ond |'ll speak to blm about you.
2 Ou tr evoe otov Ntko ozzo rv 0u tov kuroe
re.
|'ll telepbone Nlck 5ut | won't lnvlte blm bere.
3 Trtku 0u ou nrt tt ouutvrt vu etoe tv
Erv,
Flnally wlll you tell me wbat's golng on, or sboulo | ask Helen?
4 Eye nuvte 0u nue, :tt: r0rt :tt: rv r0rt.
|n any case | wlll go, whether you come or not.
5 Out: r uyu out: ntu ttnotu uno 0r.
| bave ne|ther eaten nor orunk anytblng slnce yesteroay.
6 T to rtnu o rv 0rrt vu to ntotrrt.
| tolo ber 5ut sbe ooesn't want to belleve lt.
7a Ou or nrtrve oto yu rto, o v
ku0uotrort.
b Ou or nrtrve oto yu rto, v ku0uotrort o.
|'ll be waltlng |or you at tbe o|ce 5ut oon't be late.
!0.2!.!
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Tbe clause
232
8 Ou ur ut, tov oyutuoo o 0u tov neoe
rye.
We'll eat togetber 5ut |'ll pay tbe blll.
Co-ordnoton o( other consttuents.
9 Ou uyouoe to ktttvo noukutoo uot t uu
touvtu.
| wlll buy tbe yellow sblrt ond tbe black bag.
10 Hrnrt vu turrt tov Inuo rrvu.
You bave to cboose Splros or me.
11 Arv t tor Mutu ozzo Erv.
|t wasn't Mary 5ut Helen wbo spoke to ber.
12 Mou urort r (kut) et ut.
| llke lt wltb or wltbout oll.
1le co-oiuinaring conjuncrions kut, outr, rttr anu may aeai Leoie
Lorl o rle elemenrs rlar aie connecreu:
13 Orouvr uot tv nttu ook uot tov okuo
otuto.
Tbey want 5oth tbe oog well |eo ond tbe ple wbole (l.e. tbey
want to bave tbelr cake ano eat lt).
14 Arv rtvut out: o out: kovto.
He's ne|ther tall nor sbort.
15 Arv re tt vu kuve. H 0u to nouoe 0u to
utoe.
| oon't know wbat to oo. L|ther |'ll sell lt or |'ll glve lt away.
In rle aLove examles rle conjuncrion is ionounceu virl leavy sriess.
1le co-oiuinaring conjuncrion kut may also Le useu in rle lace o a suLoi-
uinaring conjuncrion. Some o rlese uses aie exemliheu Lelov:
Kut may ielace vu oi nou arei veiLs o eicerion:
16a Tou ukouou uot u0ttuvr |nsteod of
b Tou ukouou vo u0ttouvr or
c Tou ukouou nou u0ttuvr.
| bearo tbem wblsperlng.
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Co-orolnatlon
233
Kut may ielace vu arei veiLs o Leginning (ute) oi conrinuing
(ouvrte oi rukoou0e):
17a 'Atouv uot tov nuukoou0ououv |nsteod of
b 'Atouv vu tov nuukoou0ouv.
Tbey starteo |ollowlng blm.
18a Iuvrtr uot u rryr rutu |nsteod of
b Iuvrtr vo u rrt rutu.
He contlnueo to lle to us.
Kut may exiess iesulr:
19a Tt kuvrt uot rtvut tooo uvttnu0ttko, |nsteod of
b Tt kuvrt ot: vo rtvut tooo uvttnu0ttko,
Wbat ooes be oo to be so unllkeable?
Kut may ielace a ielarive clause:
20a Mnkr rou rvu vruo uot oouor euto kootout
|nsteod of
b Mnkr rou rvu vruo nou oouor euto
kootout.
|n came a young man (who was) wearlng a beautl|ul sult.
Kut may exiess ieason:
21a Krtor tv trouo uot 0re vu kot0e |nsteod of
b Krtor tv trouo ytott 0re vu kot0e.
Swltcb o|| tbe Tv 5ecouse | want to sleep.
Kut may exiess a conuirion:
22a Kuvr ou uut t u uot 0u oou eoe o,tt 0rrt
|nsteod of
b Av ou kuvrt uut t u 0u oou eoe o,tt 0rrt.
Do tbls |avour |or me ond | wlll glve you wbatever you want.
Conparison
Comaiison may Le exiesseu Ly means o rle comaiarive oim o an
aujecrive oi auveiL. 1le seconu memLei o rle comaiison is inriouuceu
eirlei Ly rle ieosirion uno accusarive (1), oi Ly rle genirive case o a
veak ionoun (2). Huu may also inriouuce rle seconu memLei o rle
comaiison, vlicl is in rle same case as rle hisr memLei (3). Huu is also
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Tbe clause
234
useu vlen rle elemenrs comaieu aie nor noun liases Lur clauses (4),
ieosirional liases (5) oi auveiLials (6):
1 Aut tv rno o oooo rtvut ouptot:po ono tov
nukutuo.
At tbls tlme o| tbe year salmon ls more expens|ve thon coo.
2 H Erv rtvut kutu nou :yozut:p tou.
Helen ls |ar o|der thon h|m.
3 Etvut uozut:po vu u ouvorurt o Ntko nopo o
Mtu.
|t's better tbat Nlkos escorts us rother thon Mlcbael.
4 Hotte vu tou kuve to uttt nopo vo tov ukoue vu
kutrt.
| pre|er to oo wbat be wants thon to bear blm cry.
5 Aourue nto uozo oto yu rto nopo oto onttt.
| work 5etter ln tbe o|ce thon at bome.
6 Kuutru vu r0rt oru nopo uuto.
|t's better tbat you come tooay thon tomorrow.
1le seconu memLei o rle comaiison may Le omirreu i ir is easily unuei-
sroou:
7 Note ott rtot rtvut uozut:po.
| tblnk tbat lt's 5etter tbls way.
Ioi rle comaiarive oim o aujecrives anu auveiLs see secrions 3.44 anu
.6 iesecrively.
Correlotve comporson
Coiielarive comaiison inuicares rlar rle rvo elemenrs ossess a qualiry
ro rle same uegiee. 1le hisr air is inriouuceu Ly rle auveiL ooo 'as mucl
as` anu rle seconu Ly rle auveiL tooo 'so mucl`, oi Ly rle coiielarive
ionoun anu uereiminei ooo anu rle quanrirarive ionoun anu uerei-
minei tooo:
8 'Oou uotu rrt o ouuvo, too: rur oou tve.
| glve you os mon, wlsbes os tbe sky bas stars.
9 'Ooo nto yruoto rtvut, tooo n:ptooot:po vruturt
Kutt.
7he more cbeer|ul be ls the more Kate gets lrrltateo.
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Comparlson
235
10 'Ooo nto nou krtrt, tooo nto totykouv ytvrtut.
7he more be earns the st|ng|er be becomes.
quoton
In equarion rle rvo memLeis comaieu aie iuenrical virl iesecr ro a
ceirain ioeiry. 1le seconu memLei o rle equarion is inriouuceu Ly ouv,
one, e oi ooo. Iuv is olloveu Ly rle accusarive vlen rle seconu
memLei o rle comaiison is a uehnire noun liase (1112), oi rle nomi-
narive vlen ir is inuehnire (13):
11 To nrnovt uuto rtvut yuko oov to rt.
Tbls melon ls sweet ||ke boney.
12 O Ntko rtvut runvo oov tov nutru tou.
Nlck's clever ||ke bls |atber.
13 Irurt oov uo.
He's laugblng ||ke an lolot.
I ouv ieceues a vu-clause, ir las rle meaning 'as i`:
14 Mr kotturt oov vo r rrt uvurt.
(S)be's looklng at me os |f (s)be basn't seen me be|ore.
I rle seconu memLei o rle equarion is inriouuceu Ly e rle meaning is
'in one`s caaciry as` iarlei rlan 'like`:
15 Iou tue :ttuo otu 0ru uuto.
|'m speaklng to you os o spec|o||st ln tbls subject.
'One inriouuces rle seconu memLei o rle equarion in rle nominarive
case:
16 O Huuo rtvut trnr on (ut) :ou.
Paul ls lazy ||ke ,ou.
17 Hrnuturt uyu on revu.
(S)be walks slowly ||ke o tortolse.
Ir is also ossiLle ro exiess equarion Ly lacing tooo Leoie rle hisr
memLei o rle equarion anu ooo Leoie rle seconu. 1le hisr elemenr o
rle equarion may Le omirreu, as in examle 20:
18 Mr ouyktvrt tooo kuotk ouotk ooo kut
ovtrvu.
Classlcal muslc moves me os much os mooern.
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Tbe clause
236
19 Etvut uuyr tooo utu oo ooo 0rrt vu rtvrt,
|s be os lnol||erent os be wants to appear, | wonoer?
20 Arv rtvut oou ooo rou.
Sbe's not os serlous os you.
Reexive expressions
Languages use secial means oi exiessing a siruarion in vlicl rle suLjecr
o rle senrence is Lorl rle acroi o rle veiL anu rle arienr (i.e. rle iecii-
enr o rle acrion). 1leie aie rliee vays o aclieving rlis in Gieek: (a) Ly
rle ielexive exiession o ruuto ou 'mysel`, (L) Ly a assive veiL oim,
oi (c) Ly rle veiLal iehx uuto- arracleu ro a assive veiL oim.
(a) 1le uehnire airicle o anu rle noun ruuto 'sel` o rle ielexive liase
o ruuto ou 'mysel` aeai mosr iequenrly in rle accusarive case vlen
rle ielexive exiession is rle uiiecr oLjecr o rle veiL, as in examles 12.
1le ielexive exiession may also occui in a ieosirional liase (34).
1le uehnire airicle anu rle noun ruuto aie noimally in rle singulai even
vlen rle ossessive ionoun is in rle luial (2):
1 Hrnrt vu ovttrt tov :outo oou.
You must look a|ter ,ourse|f.
2 Movo tov :outo tou kottuouv kut kuvrvuv uo.
Tbey only look a|ter themse|ves ano no one else.
3 Hrnrt vu rrt rntotoouv ovo otov :outo oou.
You sboulo only trust ,ourse|f.
4 H Mutu rrt ryu tru yto tov :outo t.
Mary bas a very blgb oplnlon of herse|f.
(L) 1le assive veiL oim exiesses ielexiviry oi some veiLs o giooming
oi Louily caie, esecially vlen rle suLjecr is luman:
5 Hrnrt vu vtuv:oot rotu tov rtevu re.
You must dress warm ln tbe wlnter bere.
6 Ou zouot kut 0u '0e.
|'ll wosh m, ho|r ano |'ll come.
7 Hut t:vt,:oot,
Are you com5|ng ,our ho|r agaln?
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PeNelve
epresslons
237
(c) A ev ielexives can Le oimeu virl rle iehx uuto- arracleu ro rle
assive veiL:
8 O uv0eno uuto outouotootpo u:.
Tbls man destro,ed h|mse|f.
ReciprocaI expressions
Reciiocal exiessions in Gieek aie useu ro exiess rle Lnglisl equivalenr
o 'one anorlei`. 1leie aie rliee vays o aclieving rlis: (a) Ly rle ieci-
iocal eiiliasis o rvu tov uo 'eacl orlei` oi Ly rle ieosirion
rtuu olloveu Ly a veak ionoun in rle genirive, (L) Ly a assive veiL
oim, oi (c) Ly rle iehx uo- arracleu ro a assive veiL oim.
(a) 1le ieciiocal eiiliasis consisrs o rvo liases: o rvu 'rle one` anu
tov uo 'rle orlei`. Ir is useu virl veiLs exiessing murual eelings oi
acrions morivareu Ly rlese eelings. 1le hisr liase (o rvu) is in rle nomi-
narive case, vlile rle seconu (tov uo) aeais in rle genuei anu case
aioiiare ro irs meaning anu synracric conrenr:
1 Ot uo uutot tot uyunouv nou o :vo tov ozzo.
Tbese two |rlenos love eoch other very mucb.
2 Ert ot yuvutkr nrnrt vu o0our to tv ozz.
We women must belp eoch other.
3 Iuvuyevtovtut o :vo : tov ozzo (0 :tou tou).
Tbey compete w|th eoch other.
4 Iuvu tvouv r tu o :vo otov ozzo.
Tbey o|ten glve money to eoch other.
1le rvo airs o rle ieciiocal exiession may Le seaiareu, rle hisr unc-
rioning as rle suLjecr vlile rle orlei is eirlei in rle accusarive anu
uncrions as rle oLjecr (5), oi is in a ieosirional liase (6). In sucl
consriucrions rle veiL in rle senrence conraining rle ieciiocal eiiliasis
is in rle singulai:
5 To nou rtvut ott o :vo uvttnu0rt tov ozzo.
Tbe problem ls tbat the one olsllkes the other.
6 Arv rrt o :vo rntotoouv otov ozzo.
7he, oo not trust one onother (llt. 'Tbe one ooes not bave
trust ln tbe otber').
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Tbe clause
238
(L) Some veiLs vlicl exiess eelings oi acrions morivareu Ly eelings may
Le useu in rle luial oim o rle assive virl a ieciiocal meaning:
7 O Ntko kut 'Oyu oyontouvtot nou.
Nlck ano Olga |ove eoch other very mucb.
8 Arv tou rtu notr vu tztouvtot.
|'ve never seen tbem k|ss (eoch other).
(c) 1le iehx uo- can Le arracleu ro rle luial o rle assive oims
o a small numLei o veiLs ro give a ieciiocal meaning:
9 Ot kuot tot ozzzounootpt,ovtot.
Gooo |rlenos support one onother.
lnpersonaI uses of verbs
In Lnglisl imeisonal veiLs aeai virl eirlei 'ir` oi 'rleie` as rleii suLjecr,
e.g. 'ir`s iaining`, 'ir seems âiy vill Le lare`, 'rleie`s a lor o noise in leie`.
In Gieek imeisonal veiLs lave no suLjecr anu rley aeai in rle rliiu
eison singulai. In auuirion ro rle veiLs rlar aie only imeisonal (see
secrion 6.6), rleie aie seveial orlei veiLs rlar may Le useu imeisonally.
Imeisonal uses o veiLs incluue rle olloving:
Wearlei veiLs, e.g. rrt 'ir is iaining`, tovtrt 'ir is snoving`:
1 Ano tov Okteto p::t orov ku0r ru.
Slnce October |t`s 5een ro|n|ng almost every oay.
1le imeisonal rrt (lir. 'ir las`):
2 'F:t noou uv0enou rkrt rou.
7here ore a lot o| people ln tbere.
VeiLs sucl as utvrtut 'ir seems`, olloveu Ly eirlei an ott- oi a
vu-clause, anu nokrttut 'Le going ro` olloveu Ly a vu-clause:
3 4otv:tot ott rv tv ntotruouv.
lt seems tbat tbey oo not belleve ber.
4 4otv:tot vo v rtvut ruutotrvo.
He does not seem to be pleaseo.
5 Arv npou:ttot vu tov ruort.
(S)be's not o5out to |orget blm.
10.25
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|mpersonal
uses o| verbs
239
1le veiL urort 'ir leases`, olloveu Ly a vu-clause, is accomanieu
Ly a eisonal ionoun in rle genirive ro exiess rle meaning o rle
Lnglisl exiession 'I like`:
6 Mou op:o:t vu or ukoue vu tu.
l ||ke to bear you talk.
7 Tou op:o:t vu ukourt ouotk.
He ||kes llstenlng to muslc.
1le moual veiLs nrnrt 'ir musr`, nort 'ir is ossiLle`:
8 Hp:n:t vu tou kuroour.
We must lnvlte tbem.
9 Mnop:t vu v tuv uuto o tutt.
Mo,5e be wasn't tbe culprlt.
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Tbe clause
240
1liouglour irs long lisroiy Gieek las alvays lau a giear aciliry oi
ciearing nev voius, eirlei Ly mouiying exisring voius Ly means o a
suhx oi a iehx, oi Ly comLining rvo oi moie voiu srems ro oim a
comounu. 1le giear iiclness o rle Gieek language (as vell as irs iole as
a souice o lexical Loiiovings in orlei languages) is uue in laige measuie
ro rle ease virl vlicl nev voius can Le oimeu. In rle olloving secrions
ve can give only a veiy small selecrion o rle vaiious vays o oiming
voius vlicl lave cieareu rle vocaLulaiy o conremoiaiy Gieek. 1le
iocess uoes nor sro: many o rle elemenrs given in oui examles conrinue
ro Le iouucrive in rle oimarion o nev voius.
5ufxation
âny nouns aie oimeu iom veiLs Ly rle auuirion o a suhx ro rle veiL
srem, e.g.
-t (masculine nouns oi rle eison oi aliance rlar caiiies our rle acrion
o rle veiL), e.g. nonovt 'riainei` (iom nonove), tuyoutot
'singei` (tuyoue), kr t 'rlie` (kre), nuutt 'oLseivei`
(nuute), rtt 'merei` (rte), unooytot 'comurei`
(unooyte) (see secrion 3.10 oi rle ueclension o rlese nouns),
-tu (masculine nouns oi imlemenrs erc.), e.g. uvrtotu 'an, ven-
rilaroi` (iom uvrte), uvuntu 'liglrei` (uvue), ouvrtu
'aei cli` (ouvre) (secrion 3.9: 1ye (a)),
-o, -, - (eminine nouns uenoring rle acrion o rle veiL), e.g. unuvto
'ansvei` (iom unuvte ), nuuto 'oLseivarion` (nuute),
rnt uu 'ieseivarion` (rnt uuooe), evr 'uigesrion` (evrue)
(secrion 3.1),
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Cbapter 11
Word formot|on
-u (neurei nouns uenoring rle acrion oi iesulr o rle veiL), e.g. tuuou
'ieauing` (iom tuue), orteu 'nore` (orteve), o0u
'lel, aiu` (o0e) (secrion 3.25),
-oto, -to, -to (neurei nouns uenoring an acrion), e.g. nuoto 'vasl-
ing` (iom nrve), yuto 'viiring` (yu e), trto 'iunning`
(tre) (secrion 3.26).
Ieminine nouns coiiesonuing ro masculine ones in -t lave rle suhx
-ttu oi -tu, e.g. tru0uvttu 'emale uiiecroi`, ku0utottu 'emale
cleanei`, nuouotuottu 'emale iesenrei`, notttu 'emale oer`, ott-
ttu 'emale sruuenr`, u tu 'emale uiessmakei` (secrion 3.14: rye (L)).
Orlei suhxes oi nouns ieeiiing ro emales incluue:
-toou, e.g. uottoou 'queen` (masculine uottu), yrttovtoou 'voman
neiglLoui` (yrttovu), ntyktntoou 'iincess` (ntyktnu), Inuttu-
ttoou 'Sairan voman` (Inuttut) (secrion 3.14: rye (L)),
-tvu (virl imlicarions o amiliaiiry, oi somerimes ueieciarion, vlen
ieeiiing ro ioessional vomen), e.g. ouruttvu 'voman memLei
o ailiamenr` (iom ourut), tkyotvu 'emale lavyei`
(tkyoo) (see also secrion 3.20 oi rle use o rle masculine oims ro
ieei ro vomen),
-tu, e.g. etu 'leioine` (iom eu), Artkuvtu 'Ameiican voman`
(Artkuvo), Evtu 'Gieek voman` ('Evu) (secrion 3.14:
rye (a)).
ouns uenoring aLsriacr concers oi qualiries aie oren eminine, virl su-
hxes sucl as:
-tu, e.g. rotuotu 'vaimrl`, oo tu 'Leaury` (secrion 3.14: rye (L)),
-uu, e.g. runvuu 'inrelligence`, rokuu 'ieslness` (secrion 3.14:
rye (a)),
-oouv, e.g. tkutoouv 'jusrice`, ruyveoouv 'giariruue`, kuoouv
'kinuness` (secrion 3.15),
-ottu oi -uttu, e.g. uvutottu 'ossiLiliry`, tkuvottu 'caaLiliry`,
tuuttu 'seeu` (secrion 3.14: rye (a)).
Woius uenoring iueologies, Lelies, airisric movemenrs anu scienrihc le-
nomena oren lave rle suhx -too, virl masculine genuei, coiiesonuing
ro Lnglisl nouns in -ism, e.g. 0rttktoo 'osirivism`, uyvttoo
'magnerism`, rutoo 'iealism`, utotoo 'iacism`, oootutoo
'socialism`.
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|ormatlon
242
1le lace vleie an acrion oi Lusiness is caiiieu our can lave rle olloving
suhxes:
-rto, e.g. tuuorto 'osr ohce`, uukrto 'laimacy` (secrion 3.21:
rye (a)),
-to, e.g. ku0utotto 'cleanei`s`, tkuotto 'lav couir`, ryuotto
'laLoiaroiy, voikslo`, yuvuotto 'gymnasium` (secrion 3.21:
rye (a)).
Among rle many suhxes useu ro oim aujecrives, oi ro mouiy rle meaning
o exisring aujecrives, ve may nore:
-rvto oi -tvo (inuicaring rle mareiial iom vlicl somerling is maue),
e.g. otrrvto 'iion`, uuutrvto 'o golu`, utvo 'voollen`,
utvo 'voouen`,
-tko, -tko anu -tuko, e.g. uvtko 'male, masculine`, yutko
'Iiencl`, utko 'mass`, ounu0ttko 'leasanr`, ruttko 'alse`,
otkoyrvrtuko 'o rle amily`,
-tvo (usually inuicaring rime oi lace), e.g. ortvo 'rouay`s, iesenr-
uay`, kuokuttvo 'summei`, tnuvo 'aujacenr, nexr`,
-to (usually inuicaring rle iesulr o a veiL, virl assive meaning), e.g.
yunto 'viirren`, tyuvto 'iieu`, tkto 'mixeu`,
-outotko ('ro a moueiare exrenr`, comaie Lnglisl -isl), e.g. kuoutotko
'quire goou`, ryuoutotko 'Liggisl`.
Diminurives exiess small size, amiliaiiry, aecrion oi, somerimes, ueie-
ciarion. 1le suhxes vlicl aie useu ro oim uiminurives iom nouns
incluue rle olloving:
-uk (arracleu ro rle srem o masculine nouns), e.g. koouk 'oiuinaiy
eison, man in rle srieer, Lur mainly useu oi ioei names, sucl
as Muvouk 'ânolis` (see secrion 12.2 oi uirlei examles),
-ou (oi masculine nouns), e.g. nutrou 'uauuy`, rlis suhx is oren
arracleu ro aujecrives, e.g. yukou 'sveerie`, tkou 'young-
srei` (see secrion 3.40 oi rle ueclension),
-ouu (arracleu ro rle srem o eminine nouns), e.g. ur ouu 'lirrle
sisrei`, ukouu 'lirrle Loar`, rouu 'lirrle voiu`, ottyouu 'Liie
momenr`,
-ttou (arracleu ro rle srem o eminine nouns), e.g. ntttou 'lirrle Leei`,
ettou '(an) loui (oi so)`, anu oren oi eminine ioei names sucl
as Ervttou 'Helen` (see secrion 12.2 oi uirlei examles),
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Su|atlon
243
-ukt (neurei uiminurives mainly, Lur nor exclusively, ueiiveu iom neurei
nouns), e.g. ur ukt 'lirrle Liorlei`, ku rukt 'small coee`, rr-
ukt 'snack`, nutukt 'small clilu`, onttukt 'lirrle louse` (see secrion
3.23).
Augmenrarives exiess laige size oi aumiiarion, anu can Le oimeu virl
rle olloving suhxes:
-u (eminine), e.g. koutuu 'Lig soon`, noukuu 'Lig Lorrle`,
-uu (eminine), e.g. uutoktvtuu 'Lig cai`, kotuu 'Lig Lelly`,
-uu oi -uku (masculine, uenoring rle male ossessoi o a qualiry), e.g.
ourutuu 'laiu voikei`, kr tuu 'Lig rlie`, kotuu 'Lig-
Lellieu eison`, evuku 'louu-mourl` (see secrion 3.13: rye (a)),
-uo (masculine), e.g. nutuo 'Lig (lanusome) lau`, okuuo 'giear Lig
uog` (see secrion 3.11: rye (L)).
Iinally, ve nore some suhxes vlicl aie iequenrly useu ro oim veiLs
(usually iom nouns oi aujecrives):
-te, e.g. outote 'I Liusl`, rkouyovte 'I moueinize`, noyuu-
tte 'I iogiamme`,
-eve, e.g. kouneve 'I Lurron`, uukeve 'I soren`, torneve 'I ocker`,
-ue oi -te (auueu ro srems o voius Loiioveu iom orlei languages),
e.g. nukue'I aik` (see secrion 6.14 (v) oi uirlei examles anu rle
oimarion o orlei veiL oims),
-onote, e.g. utonote 'I uevelo, exloir`, tononote 'I mouiy`, tunonote
'I sranuaiuize`.
Prexation
1le mosr commonly useu iehxes aie ieosirions, incluuing some Ancienr
Gieek ones vlicl no longei exisr as inueenuenr ieosirions. Ioi a lisr o
rlese ieosirional iehxes see secrion 6.23. Lacl iehx las a viue iange
o meanings rlar cannor Le ueraileu leie. Oren rle same Lasic veiL is ie-
hxeu virl uieienr ieosirions ro exiess uieienr meanings. 1lus tve
'I give` (usually in rle oim -te) aeais virl uieienr iehxes in, oi
examle, unote 'I give Lack, arriiLure`, tute 'I give our, uisseminare`,
rkte 'I issue, uLlisl`, rtute 'I riansmir`, nuute 'I lanu ovei`,
note (oi notve) 'I Leriay`, anu virl rvo iehxes in uvtunote 'I
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|ormatlon
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give in ieruin`. Ioi eacl o rlese veiLs rleie is a coiiesonuing eminine
noun: unooo 'yielu, ienueiing`, tuoo 'uisseminarion`, rkoo 'issue,
uLlicarion`, rtuoo 'riansmission`, nuuoo 'suiienuei, riauirion`,
noootu 'Leriayal`, uvtunooo 'ieaymenr`.
Pieosirional iehxes aie ounu in vaiious airs o seecl (veiLs, nouns,
aujecrives, auveiLs). 1le main ones vlicl aie srill iouucrive aie rle
olloving (virl examles o eacl):
uvu- oi rnuvu- ('ie-`): uvunuuteo 'iesroiarion` (lir. 'making olu again`),
rnuvrkrye 'I ie-elecr`,
uvtt- ('in lace o`, 'vice-`, oi 'againsr`, 'anri-`): uvttnoro 'vice-
iesiuenr`, uvttkoouvtottko 'anricommunisr`,
uno- ('ue-`, 'uis-`): unoouv0ro 'uecomosirion`, unouuvttko 'uisinec-
ranr`,
tu- ('inrei-`): tutktuo 'inreiner`, tukuttko 'inreisrare` (auj.), tuou-
vro 'inreiconnecrion`,
rk- anu r- Leoie a vovel (uenores rle iocess o clange): rkouyovt-
oo 'moueinizarion`, rourtreve 'I neurialize`,
kutu- ('veiy mucl`): kutuono 'veiy vlire`, kuture 'I soak, uiencl`,
rtu- ('arei`, 'osr-`): rtuovtrvtoo 'osrmoueinism`, rtunort-
ko 'osr-vai`,
no- ('Leoie`, 'ie-`): noktuttko 'ieliminaiy |iounu o comeririon]`,
nonortko 'ie-vai`,
ouv- ('joinr`, 'co-`): ouu0t 'ellov uil`, ouvunue 'I co-exisr`,
unr- ('ovei`, 'rians-`, 'suei-`): unrutuvttko 'riansarlanric`, unr-
nuuyey 'oveiiouucrion`, unr uotko 'sueinaruial`,
uno- ('unuei`, 'suL-`): unotru0uvt 'unueimanagei`, unoouvoo 'suL-
roral`.
egarive aujecrives aie noimally oimeu virl rle iehx u- (uv- Leoie a
vovel), vlicl can Le comaieu virl Lnglisl 'un-`, 'in-`, 'im-`, erc. 1leie
is oren a slir o sriess: rle negarive aujecrives noimally lave sriess on rle
rliiu syllaLle iom rle enu. 1le osirive anu negarive oims may also lave
uieiences in rleii enuings. Some examles:
yveoto (vell-)knovn uyveoto unknovn
ooto similai uvooto uissimilai
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Preatlon
245
nt0uvo ioLaLle unt0uvo imioLaLle
orttko ielareu uorto unielareu, iiielevanr
ttto lonouiaLle utto uislonouiaLle
uotko naruial u uotko unnaruial
oto useul uoto useless
Orlei common iehxes incluue:
uvu- ('again`, 'ie-` iehxeu ro veiLs): uvute 'I Legin again`, uvu-
tuue 'I ieieau`,
r- (iehxeu ro veiLs, gives rle oosire meaning, c. Lnglisl 'un-`):
rnukue 'I uisemLaik`, rte 'I quencl my rliisr`, rvtuve 'I
unuiess`,
ryuo- ('Lig`): ryuorntrtuttu 'Lig-Lusinessman`,
tko- ('small`): tkonuyutu 'lirrle rlings, riiles`,
vro- ('nev`, 'neo-`): vro uotoo 'neo-Iascism`, vronouto 'nevly iicl`,
nou- ('mucl`, 'mulri-`): nounotttotko 'mulriculruial`, nourkuto-
utouo 'mulrimillionaiie`.
Conpound fornation
In rlis secrion ve slall give some examles o comounus oimeu iom
rvo (oi moie) seaiare voius, a lenomenon vlicl is veiy viuesieau in
Gieek anu vlicl conrinues ro iouuce nev voius. 1le elemenrs rlar make
u a comounu aie ryically linkeu Ly rle vovel -o-. 1le hisr rye o
comounu consisrs o voius rlar link rvo elemenrs vlicl Lelong ro rle
same air o seecl (nouns, aujecrives, veiLs), vleie rle iesulring voiu
comLines rle meaning o Lorl:
Comounus o rvo nouns: uvtoyuvo 'maiiieu coule` (uvtu anu
yuvutku), yuvutkonutu 'vomen anu cliluien` (yuvutkr anu
nuttu), uutontouvo 'knie anu oik` (uutt anu ntouvt),
ovoutrnevuo 'name anu suiname` (ovou anu rnevuo),
Iuutokutuko 'veekenu` (Iuuto anu Kutuk).
Comounus o rvo aujecrives: uonouuo 'Llack anu vlire`
(uono anu uuo), ukootrvo 'long anu naiiov` (i.e. 'oLlong`)
(uku anu otrvo).
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|ormatlon
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Comounus o rvo veiLs: uvuoove 'I lasl on anu o` (uvue
anu ove), uvrokutrutve 'I go u anu uovn` (uvrutve anu
kutrutve), uvotyokrtve 'I oen anu close` (uvotye anu krtve),
nyutvorout 'I come anu go` (nyutve anu rout).
1leie aie veiy many comounus Lelonging ro vaiious airs o seecl, in
vlicl rle rvo elemenrs may Le a noun anu a veiL, rvo nouns, an aujec-
rive anu a noun, erc. Heie ve can only give a veiy small numLei o
examles:
noun anu veiL: ttorotu 'Look-Linuing`, u0tototoyu o
'novelisr`, voo0rte 'I legislare`, otuuokontrut 'I cioss mysel,
make rle sign o rle cioss`, uorte 'I lea rliougl, Liovse`,
ovotte 'I vasre rime`,
rvo nouns: uvrouo 'vinumill`, touotru 'sunser`,
krtuotunu 'keylole`, oovro 'iosevarei`, tuuoutu
'Lullhglr`, truto uuku 'goalkeeei`, tuonttu 'cleese ie`,
utonutkt 'caiu-layei`,
aujecrive anu noun: uytoyououvo 'vilu Loai`, kokktvou 'ieu-
laiieu`, otrvouuo 'naiiov-minueu`, out 'snoLLisl` (lir.
'ligl-noseu`),
aujecrive (oi auveiL) anu veiL: yrotoyu tu 'cairoon`,
kovtootrkout 'I sro sloir`, roe 'I cleai my rlioar`,
aujecrive anu assive eiecr airicile: uuovturvo 'uiesseu in
Llack`, rokourvo 'ieslly ainreu`, ovtokorvo 'iouglly
cur`.
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Compouno
|ormatlon
247
PoIiteness and faniIiarity
Belov ve give rle mosr imoiranr anu mosr commonly useu olireness
maikeis in Gieek.
The polte ((ormol) plurol
1le seconu eison luial (insreau o rle seconu eison singulai) is useu ro
a single auuiessee in rle olloving ciicumsrances:
Wlen rle auuiessee is unknovn oi unamiliai ro rle seakei, sucl as
a assei-Ly (1) oi a raxi-uiivei (2):
1 2o nuukue, ou z:t: tt eu rtvut,
Please can ,ou te|| me wbat tlme lt ls?
2 Mnop:tt: vu otooto:t: otv u yevtu, oo
nuukue ,
Con ,ou stop at tbe net corner, please?
Wlen rle auuiessee is oluei oi o liglei srarus rlan rle seakei:
3 Ou :tot: oto yu rto oo uuto vu oo re tv
ryuotu ou,
Wlll ,ou 5e at ,our o|ce tomorrow so | can brlng ,ou my
essay?
4 Av :tot: kouuorvo :zot: vu uo0to:t: re.
|| you are tlreo come ano slt bere.
In all rle aLove examles rle ionouns anu rle veiLs in iralics aie in rle
seconu eison luial in sire o rle acr rlar rle eison auuiesseu is a single
!2.!.!
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Cbapter 12
Conversot|ono| feotures
inuiviuual. orice, lovevei, rlar in examle 4 rle aujecrive ieuicare
kouuorvo 'riieu`, vlicl also ieeis ro rle same inuiviuual, is nor in rle
luial Lur in rle singulai.
Dmnutves
Gieek oren uses rle uiminurive oims o nouns anu aujecrives virl linguis-
ric acrs like oeis, comlimenrs anu iequesrs, as a uevice ro slov aecrion
oi ro minimize rle imosirion laceu Ly rle seakei on rle auuiessee:
5 Hutr rvu ntouotout (nuukue).
Please take o 5|scu|t.
6 Mu rvrtr tu ntpttoo uko kut ztyo upooout
(nuukue),
Can you brlng us one more 5eer ano o ||tt|e w|ne please?'
7 To upooout rtvut tvoutotuo, ou utvrtut,
Tbe w|ne ls a ||tt|e sour, or ls lt my lmaglnatlon (llt. 'or ooes lt
seem to me?')?
8 Outu nzou,ttoo, oou nyutvrt trrtu.
A lovely 5|ouse. |t sults you per|ectly.
The odverb tyo
In iequesrs rle auveiL tyo may Le useu ro lessen rle imosirion on rle
auuiessee:
9 'Eu ztyo uuto vu tu nour.
Wby not come tomorrow so tbat we can bave a cbat.
10 Hrotr ou ztyo to ovou ou.
Tell me your name, p|eose.
Nu-clouse
A vu-clause may Le useu ro exiess olire suggesrions anu olire iequesrs:
11 No or rnour nto ouvu.
We wou|d ||ke to see you more o|ten.
12 No or etoe kutt,
Mo, | ask you sometblng?
!2.!.4
!2.!.J
!2.!.2
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Pollteness
ano |amlllarlty
249
13 No nutr rt to nrtntro kut vo ottrtr rtu.
You shou|d go as |ar as tbe klosk ano tben turn rlgbt.
Present tense o( the verb
1le seconu eison singulai oi luial o rle iesenr rense is useu in inrei-
iogarive urreiances ro exiess olire iequesrs. Ir is equivalenr ro 'can you,
coulu you.`, oi examle:
14 Avoty:t tyo to nuu0uo,
Con ,ou open tbe wlnoow, please?
15 4:pv:t: to tr evo nto kovtu,
Cou|d ,ou 5r|ng tbe telepbone closer?
Huukue pleose'
All iequesrs may Le accomanieu Ly rle voiu nuukue, vlicl can Le
laceu ar rle Leginning oi rle enu o rle urreiance oi Lerveen majoi liases:
16 Hopouoz nruotr uno to yu rto ou tv Ttt to
net.
P|eose come by my o|ce on Tuesoay mornlng.
17 Mou tvrtr to tto ou, nopouoz,
Can you glve me your book, p|eose?
18 Mou rvrtr nopouoz kt rvu ku rukt,
Can you brlng me a co||ee too, p|eose?
I rle voiu nuukue is ieceueu Ly rle luial ionoun ou (ou
nuukue) ir Lecomes moie oimal. Huukue is also useu as rle
iesonse ro ruutote 'rlank you`:
19 ~ Iu :uoptot nou.
7honk you very mucb.
~ Hopouoz.
You're we|come (llt. 'please').
An alreinarive ro nuukue as a iesonse ro 'rlank you` is rle exiession
Nu 'otr kuu. '8e ln gooo bealtb'.
!2.!.
!2.!.5
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Conversatlonal
|eatures
250
The verb noe
1le seconu eison luial o rle veiL noe in rle iesenr oi in rle conui-
rional is useu ro inriouuce moie oimal iequesrs:
20 Mnop:tt: vu u rrtr kut tov oyutuoo, nuukue,
Con ,ou brlng us tbe blll too, please?
21 Oo nopouoot: vu ou kuvrtr uut t u, nuukue,
Cou|d ,ou oo me tbls |avour, please?
The condtonol 0u 0ru
1le conuirional o 0re 'I vanr`, namely 0u 0ru, is moie olire rlan
rle iesenr:
22 Oo 0:zo rvu tto ytu eo.
l wou|d ||ke a book |or a present.
Iomlorty
1le irems r, r, er 'ley you` aie useu ro arriacr rle arrenrion o some-
one virl vlom rle seakei is aiily amiliai. 1ley may orionally Le ol-
loveu eirlei Ly ou 'you` oi Ly rle hisr name o rle auuiessee in rle vocarive,
oi Ly liases sucl as nutt 'clilu` oi nutt ou 'my clilu`, nuttu 'clil-
uien`, oi orleis in rle vocarive. (Ioi er names see secrion 12.2.)
23 F: ou, nou nyr 0r,
He, ,ou, wbere olo you go yesteroay?
24 Mp: Itovv, tt r vu kuvour,
He, john, wbat oo you suggest we oo?
25 Eutr kut uno e, p: notto.
Come tbls way, ,ou gu,s.
Proper nanes and pet nanes
âny Gieeks aie noimally knovn Ly a hisr name rlar is sliglrly uieienr
iom rleii ohcial name, vlicl is useu oi ohcial uioses sucl as iuen-
riry caius. Heie aie some common examles:
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Proper
names ano
pet names
251
Cc|a| o |veoa o |og||s|
eoo|va|eot (| ao)
A0uvuoto Ouvuo
Aruvo Arko Aleanoer
Arto Ar
Avuotuoto Tuoo
Avtevto Avtev Antbony
Buotrto Buot 8asll
Buottk Buoe
Ireyto Iteyo George
Atto At
Etv Prvu |rene
Euvou Muvo, Muvo Lmmanuel
Euuyyro Buyyr
Euyrvtu Trv
Eu oouv 4ooe
Oroeu Aeu, Ntou
Oroeo Ooeo Tbeooore
Ioutu Toutu [ulle, [ulla
I tyrvrtu Trv
Ieuvvu Ituvvu [oanna
Ieuvv Ituvv [obn
Kevotuvttu/tvu Nttvu
Kevotuvttvo Keotu, Nttvo Constantlne
Mtttu Mtto
Mtu Mtu Mlcbael
Ntkouo Ntko Nlcbolas
Ouuvtu Puvtu
Huvuytetu Itetu
Huvuytet Huvo, Tuk
Inutev Inuo
Itutuv Itru
Itutuvo Itrto
Ietto Iet
Xuuuno Mnun
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12
Conversatlonal
|eatures
252
In auuirion, virlin rle amily anu among close iienus, eole (esecially,
Lur nor only, cliluien) may Le ralkeu aLour anu auuiesseu aecrionarely
virl oims rlar incoioiare uiminurive enuings (see secrion 11.1), sucl as
rle olloving:
3ase o |||oot|ve o
'Avvu Avvouu
Buot Buotuk
Ituvvu Ituvvouu
Ituvv Ituvvuk
Iteyo Iteyuk
Atu Atouu
At Atuk
Erv Ervttou
Kutrtvu Kutrtvte
Keotu Keotuk
Mutu Muouu
Mtu Mtuuk
Ntko Ntkouk (|rom tbe
alternatlve |amlllar |orm
Ntkou)
Huvuytet Huvuytetuk
1leie aie many moie vaiiarions rlan rlis, Lorl in rle eveiyuay oims anu
in rle uiminurive oims. Usage ueenus enriiely on rle inuiviuuals rlem-
selves anu rleii amily anu close iienus, anu some eole ieei ro Le
knovn Ly rleii ohcial name. 1le olloving is a samle o alreinarive
names Ly vlicl many eole aie noimally knovn, norice rlar some alrei-
narive oims may coiiesonu ro moie rlan one Lase oim:
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Proper
names ano
pet names
253
3ase o /|teoat|ve o
Avuotuotu Tuoouu
'Avvu Nuvu
Buottk Bouu, Btku, Kouu
Ireytu Zrttu
Atu Pouu, Pttou
At Mtoo, Mt
Erv Arvu
Ouvuo Ouvo, Nuoo, Iou,
Iuk
Ooeo Ooe
Kuton, Hvron Hon
Kutrtvu Kuttu, Kutt
Kutuk Kouu
Keotu Keot
Mutu Mue, Mutu, Muu,
Mut
Mtu Mtk
Xuuuno Xu, Aun
Gieek vomen`s suinames aie Laseu on rle genirive oim o rleii arlei`s
oi lusLanu`s suinames. 1ley aie inueclinaLle. Ceirain ryes o eminine
suiname noimally aeai in an aiclaic oim (rlis is illusriareu in rle
olloving examles o names virl masculine oims in -t, -tu, anu
in sriesseu vovel -t):
|asco||oe |e|o|oe
Mtouk Mtouk
Mtouko Mtoukou
Mtoonouo Mtoonouou
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Conversatlonal
|eatures
254
Hrtt Hrttou (or Hrtt)
Avuotuotu Avuotuotuou (or
Avuotuotu)
Hott Hottou (or Hott)
Wirl rle eminine oim Mtoonouou (virl slir o sriess as in rle geni-
rive oim o nouns like uv0eno) comaie rle noimal genirive o rle
masculine oim, Mtoonouou (virlour slir o sriess, as in nouns like
kuoyro), see secrion 3.11 (rye (L)).
Greetings and wishes
1le sranuaiu gieerings oi uieienr rimes o rle uay aie:
kuru goou moining
kuonru goou evening
kuvutu goou niglr
Wlen useu oimally, oi ro moie rlan one eison, rlese gieerings can Le
olloveu Ly rle luial o rle veak seconu-eison ionoun ou, e.g. ku-
ru ou 'goou moining ro you`.
Orlei gieerings o a less oimal kinu incluue:
yrtu ou lello OB goouLye (yrtu oou, vlen auuiesseu ro one eison
vlom you knov vell)
utrtr lello OB goouLye
uvtto goouLye
(vu nu) oto kuo! goouLye (lir. 'may you go ro rle goou`)
Conveisarions oren Legin virl:
Tt kuvrt, (jlural cr fcrnal Tt kuvrtr,) Hov aie you.
He rtout/rtotr, Hov aie you.
Tt ytvrout OB He tu nu, Hov aie you gerring on.
He nurt, Hov`s ir going.
Welcomes anu oimal inriouucrions:
12.3
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Greetlngs ano
wlsbes
255
Kue 0utr! OB Kue otoutr! Welcome!
Wlen auuiesseu ro one eison you knov vell, rle oims aie Kue 0r!
OB Kue otor. 1le noimal iely is:
Kue ou ku! (oimal oi ro seveial eole) OB Kue or
ku! (amiliai, ro one eison) Goou ro see you!
Nu ou ouotoe tov to ou Ouvo Hrtonouo. ây I inriouuce
my iienu 1lanos Periooulos.
Xute nou. Pleaseu ro meer you.
Xuku nou. Pleaseu ro lave mer you OB ice ro see/leai you (ar
rle enu o a meering oi lone conveisarion).
1leie aie many visles o a moie oi less sranuaiu kinu rlar use rle aujec-
rive kuo 'goou` virl an aioiiare noun. 1lese exiessions aie in rle
accusarive case:
kuo uu! lave a goou evening!
ku rouu! lave a goou veek! (saiu ar rle srair o rle veek)
kuo vu! lave a goou monrl! (saiu ar rle srair o rle monrl)
ku tuokruo! lave a goou rime!, enjoy youisel!
ku or! enjoy youi meal!, bcn ajjetit!
ku rnttutu!/ku tu! goou luck!
kuo tutt! lave a goou jouiney!
kur tukonr! lave a goou loliuay!
kuo rtevu! lave a goou vinrei! (saiu ar rle enu o rle summei
loliuay eiiou)
kuu Xtotouyrvvu! lay Cliisrmas!
kuo Huou! lay Lasrei!
ku ovtu! lay ev Yeai!
Biirluay visles anu visles on someone`s name uay (i.e. rle easr uay o
rle sainr arei vlom a eison is nameu) can Le exiesseu Ly:
ovtu nou! lay Liirluay! (lir. 'many yeais`, rle same liase
also seives as a geneial visl oi esrivals sucl as Cliisrmas, Lasrei
anu ev Yeai)
vu tu rkutootort! Long lie! (lir. 'may you make rlem a lunuieu
|yeais]`)
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Conversatlonal
|eatures
256
Lxiessions useu in roasrs incluue:
yrtu u! cleeis (lir. 'lealrl ro us`), oi moie oimally otv uyrtu
u!
rt uyrtuv! goou lealrl
Some orlei visles:
ouyuttu! congiarularions!
(kut) rt uvetru! ro youi conrinueu success! (lir. 'anu ro liglei
|rlings]`)
vu ou ort! may (s)le live long oi you! (auuiesseu ro a aienr
vlen a clilu`s Liirl is announceu, oi on secial amily occasions, oi
vlen a clilu is uiscusseu)
r yrtu! lir. 'virl lealrl!` (ro a eison vlo las somerling nev, sucl
as clorles)
nruottku! ger vell soon!
nruottku tou/t I loe (s)le vill ger vell soon
ouunttu/tu ouunttu ou (my) conuolences
kut tou ovou! leie`s ro nexr yeai! (ieeiiing ro an annual evenr)
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Greetlngs ano
wlsbes
257
5one abbreviations in connon use
Belov ve give a lisr o aLLieviarions rlar aie commonly useu in Gieece
anu Cyius, virl rleii Lnglisl equivalenrs. Wlen aLLieviarions ieeiiing
ro insrirurions aie useu, rley aeai in rle same genuei as rle clie noun
o rle ull name, e.g. A.E.H., o O.T.E., to K.T.E.A. Wleie rle aLLievi-
arion is commonly ionounceu, ve give rle ionunciarion in squaie
Liackers.
A = uvutotko (easr(ein))
uy. = uyto/uytu (sainr)
A.E. = uvevuo rtutrtu (limireu comany)
A.E.K. |ek] = A0ttk 'Eveo Kevotuvttvounore |an
Arlens oorLall ream]
ut. = utevu (cenruiy)
A.K.E.A. |ak'el] = Avo0ettko Kou Eyuorvou Auou |a Cyiior
olirical airy]
u. = ut0o (numLei)
A ot = Ar ot (Biorleis, Bios)
B = orto (noirl(ein))
BA = ortouvutotko (noirl-easr)
BA = ortouttko (noirl-vesr)
I.I. = yrvtko yuutru (geneial secieraiy)
I.E.I. |jes] = Irvtko Enttrrto Itutou (Geneial Sra o rle
Gieek Aimy)
y. = yuuto (giam(s))
I.I.E.E. |jesee] = Irvtk Iuvooonovtu Eyutev Euu
(Geneial 1iaue Unions Ieueiarion o Gieece)
A = uttko (vesr(ein))
A.E.H. |oei] = Aootu Entrto Hrkttoou |Gieek
elecriiciry aurloiiry]
. = u (rlar is, i.e.)
t |ois] = torkutouto (Lillion)
A.I. = tneuttko oeu (uilomaric cois)
E.E. = Euenutk 'Eveo (Luioean Union)
E.E.I. = Evtko Eu0o Ituuo (Gieek Reu Cioss)
rk. = rkutouto (million) cr rkutooto (cenrimerie(s))
2
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Appenolces
260
E.K.A.B. |ekv] = E0vtko Krvto 'Aro Bo0rtu (arional Iiisr-
Aiu Cenrie)
EA.AI. |els] = Evtk Aotuvotu (Gieek Police)
EA.TA. |elr] = Evtku Tuuortu (Gieek Posral Seivice)
E.M.T. |emi] = Evtk Mrtreooytk Tnrotu (Gieek
êreoiological Seivice)
E.O.T. |eor] = Evtko Oyuvtoo Toutoou (Gieek
1ouiism Oiganizarion)
E.I.T. |esi] = E0vtko Iuotu Tyrtu (arional Healrl Seivice)
E.T. |er] = Evtk Trouo |Gieek srare relevision
seivice]
E.TA.A.H. = Etutrtu Tutev A0vu-Hrtutu
|ejo] (ArlensPiiaeus Warei Comany)
H/T = rktovtko unooytot (comurei)
H.H.A. = Hvervr Hottrtr t Artk (Unireu Srares
o Ameiica)
I.K.A. |ika] = 'Iuu Kotvevtkev Ao utorev (Gieek srare
social secuiiry oiganizarion)
k. = kuto/kutu (î/îs)
k.u. = kut uu (anu orlei eole/rlings, er al.)
kr . = kr uuto (clarei)
K.K.E. = Koouvtottko Kou Euu
(somerimes (Gieek Communisr Pairy)
ionounceu
|kukue])
kn. = kut otnu (erc.)
K.T.E.A. |krel] = Kotvo Turto Etonurev Are ortev |Gieek
narional Lus seivice]
k.t.. = kut tu otnu (erc.)
.. = oyou utv (oi insrance, e.g.)
. = rto/rtu (merie(s))
.. = rtu to rort (.m.)
M.M.E. = rou utk rvreo (mass meuia)
.X. = rtu Xtotov ( . .)
N = votto (sourl(ein))
NA = vottouvutotko (sourl-easrein)
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Some
abbrevlatlons
ln common
use
261
NA = vottouttko (sourl-vesrein)
N.A. = Nru Aokuttu (ev Demociacy |a Gieek
olirical airy])
O.A. = Ountuk Aronotu (Olymic Aiivays)
O.H.E. |oie] = Oyuvtoo Hvervev E0vev (Unireu arions
Oiganizarion)
O.T.E. |ore] = Oyuvtoo Trntkotvevtev Euu (Gieek
1elecommunicarions Oiganizarion)
H.A.O. = Huvu0vutko A0ttko 'Oto |an Arlens
oorLall ream]
H.A.O.K. |ok] = Huv0roouovtkto A0ttko 'Oto
Kevotuvttvounottev |a 1lessaloniki oorLall
ream]
HA.IO.K. = Huvrvto Iootutottko Ktvu
|asok] (Panlellenic Socialisr ôvemenr |a Gieek olirical
airy])
n. = nuuur (comaie, c.)
n.. = ntv uno to rort (a.m.)
HPO-HO |ioo] = Hoyveottku Hooo utou |Gieek oorLall
ools oiganizarion]
n.X. = no Xtotou ( . .)
n.. = nuurtyuto utv (oi examle, e.g.)
P.I.K. |iik] = Puto evtko 'Iuu Kunou (Cyius
Bioaucasring Coioiarion)
o./or. = ortu (age, .)
t.. = trtuyevtko rto (squaie merie(s))
T.I. = uotroyu o (osrsciir, P.S.)
4.H.A. = 4oo Hoott0rrv Atu (Value Auueu 1ax,
V.A.1.)
. = ttorto (kilomerie(s))
. = rtoyu o (manusciir, ms.)
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Appenolces
262
Ncte: 1lis glossaiy sloulu Le useu in conjuncrion virl rle Inuex o giam-
marical caregoiies anu concers, vlicl ieeis ro rle secihc ages o rle
Giammai vleie rlese reims aie uiscusseu. Woius in iralics aie reims rlar
aie uehneu in rle glossaiy.
accusative see case
active vlen a ierb is in rle acrive voice irs subject is rle
eison oi rling uoing rle acrion (c. jassiie)
ad|ective a voiu rlar uenores a ioeiry oi claiacreiisric o
a ncun (rvu :yozo tunrt 'a big raLle`)
adverb a voiu inuicaring mannei, rime, lace oi quanriry
('Eu ypyopo 'come quiclly`, ru oupto 'come
tcncrrcu`, ru 'come lere`, nozu kuo 'iery
goou`)
adverbial an aJierb oi any liase oi clause rlar uncrions as
an auveiL
adverbial phrase an aJierb on irs ovn oi mouiheu Ly anorlei
auveiL
agent rle enriry caiiying our rle acrion o rle ierb (rle
reim is usually alieu ro rle noun liase arei uno
virl assive veiLs: Tt0kr ono tv uu:pvo
'(S)le vas lonouieu by tle gciernnent`)
alveolar a consonanr sounu maue virl rle Llaue o rle
rongue in conracr virl rle alveolai iiuge (rle
Lony iiuge Lelinu rle uei reerl), sucl as Lnglisl
anu Gieek |n]
apodosis rle clause in a ccnJiticnal sentence rlar exiesses
rle acrion rlar rakes lace i rle conuirion
exiesseu in rle jrctasis is ulhlleu (Av r0rt oto
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C|ossor, of
grommot|co| terms
nutt, 0o :t tov Itovv 'I you come ro rle
airy, ycull see ]cln`)
article a voiu laceu Leoie a ncun ro limir, inuiviuualize
oi give uehnireness ro rle ncun jlrase, rleie aie
rvo kinus o airicle: uehnire (o, , to 'rle`) anu
inuehnire (rvu, tu, rvu 'a(n)`)
aspect giammarical ioeiry o ierbs rlar inuicares
vlerlei rle acrion is iesenreu as comlereu
(jerfectiie), as iogiessive oi ieeareu
(injerfectiie), oi as a asr acrion seen in ielarion
ro some orlei rime (jerfect)
augment rle jrex auueu ro ceirain ierb stens ro make
ceirain oims o rle asr renses (:uou 'I losr`)
augmentative a secial oim o a ncun, oimeu virl a sufx anu
exiessing laige size oi aumiiarion (kotuu 'Lig
Lelly`) (c. Jininutiie)
bilabial a consonanr sounu maue Ly conracr Lerveen rle
rvo lis, as in Lnglisl anu Gieek |] anu |m]
case one o rle oims o a ncun, aJjectiie, jrcncun,
nuneral oi article inuicaring rle syntactic uncrion
o rle noun liase in rle clause, rle nominarive
case inuicares rle subject, rle accusarive rle Jirect
cbject, anu rle genirive noimally rle inJirect cbject
oi rle ossessoi o a ncun, rle vocarive is useu oi
auuiessing someone oi somerling
clause a syntactic unir consisring o ar leasr a hnire ierb
(i.e. a veiL rlar is nor a gerunJ, jarticijle oi ncn-
nite), a clause may Le a main clause (a clause rlar
can sranu inueenuenrly as a sentence) oi a
suLoiuinare clause (a clause vlose meaning
ueenus on anorlei clause)
comparative see Jegree
complement clause a clause rlar comleres meaning o a ierb, ncun oi
aJjectiie (see secrion 10.3)
complementizer a voiu (in Gieek ott, ne, nou) rlar inriouuces a
ccnjlenent clause
compound a voiu maue u o rvo stens (uutontouvu
'knives anu oiks`)
conditional tenses o rle ierb oimeu Ly 0u injerfect oi
jlujerfect ro exiess acrions rlar voulu rake lace
i ceirain conuirions veie ulhlleu (0u ruvu 'I
voulu lose`, 0u rtu uort 'I voulu lave losr`),
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also sentences rlar exiess conuirions (Av r0rt
oto nutt, 0u rt tov Ituvv 'I you come ro rle
airy, you`ll see ]oln`)
con|unction a voiu rlar links liases oi clauses (kut 'anu`, uv
'i`, otuv 'vlen`)
declension rle arrein o enuings Ly vlicl a ncun, aJjectiie,
jrcncun, Jeterniner, erc inuicares numLei, genJer
anu case
deIective verb a ierb rlar las only injerfectiie asject (re
'I lave`)
degree Gieek uisringuisles oui uegiees o comaiison in
aJjectiies anu aJierbs: osirive (euto 'lovely`),
comaiarive (eutotro oi nto euto
'loveliei`), ielarive sueilarive (o eutotro oi o
nto euto 'rle loveliesr`) anu aLsolure sueilarive
(eutotuto 'veiy lovely`)
dental a consonanr sounu oimeu Ly lacing rle ri o rle
rongue neai oi againsr rle ro reerl, as Gieek |s],
|r] anu |l]
dependent rle jerfectiie non-asr oim o rle ierb (uoe)
deponent verb a ierb virlour actiie oims Lur virl acrive
meaning (kotuut 'I slee`)
determiner a voiu rlar is nor an aJjectiie oi nuneral Lur
accomanies a ncun (e.g. ku0r 'eacl`, kunoto
'some`, kuvrvu 'any, no`), mosr Gieek
uereimineis may also acr as jrcncuns
diminutive a secial oim o a ncun, oimeu virl a sufx anu
noimally exiessing small size oi aecrion
(ku rukt 'small coee`)
direct ob|ect a veak jrcncun oi ncun jlrase in rle accusatiie
case inuicaring rle eison oi rling rlar rle acrion
o rle ierb is uone ro
enclisis lenomenon vleieLy a seconu sriess uevelos on
a ncun, ierb, erc. sriesseu on rle rliiu syllaLle
iom rle enu vlen ir is olloveu Ly a veak
jrcncun (o uokuo u 'oui reaclei`)
hnite any ierb oim rlar inuicares Lorl eison anu
numLei
hap a consonanr sounu oimeu Ly a single iaiu
conracr Lerveen rvo vocal oigans (e.g. Lerveen ri
o rongue anu alieclar iiuge in Gieek |i])
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Iocus rle air o rle sentence rlar caiiies rle main sriess
anu consrirures rle mosr imoiranr emlasis oi
conriasr
Iricative a consonanr sounu maue Ly rle movemenr o aii
Lerveen rvo vocal oigans laceu veiy close
rogerlei (e.g. Lnglisl |], |v]) (c. jlcsiie)
genitive see case
gerund an uninlecreu ncn-nite ierb oim rlar uncrions
as an aJierbial (trovtu 'iunning`)
imparisyllabic a noun rlar las an auuirional syllaLle in rle luial
imperative ierb oim useu ro exiess a osirive commanu
(yur! 'viire!`)
imperIect rle injerfectiie asr oim o rle ierb (ryu u 'I
vas viiring, I useu ro viire`)
imperIective rle asject o rle ierb rlar iesenrs an acrion as
Leing iogiessive oi ieeareu
impersonal verb a ierb in rle rliiu eison singulai vlicl las no
subject
indicative rle nccJ o a ierb rlar ryically makes a sraremenr
rlar can Le juugeu as eirlei riue oi alse, ir may also
ask a quesrion ro vlicl rleie is orenrially a
uehnire ansvei, rle inuicarive is negareu virl rv
anu uoes nor comLine virl rle jarticles vu anu u
indirect ob|ect a veak jrcncun oi ncun jlrase uenoring rle enriry
ro oi oi vlicl rle acrion uenoreu Ly rle ierb is
uone (T to reou 'I gave ir tc ler`, to reou
ot Mopto 'I gave ir tc Mary`)
indeclinable a ncun, aJjectiie oi jrcncun rlar uoes nor clange
oim ro inuicare numLei, genuei, case.
inhection (a) rle vay a ueclinaLle voiu (ncun, aJjectiie,
jrcncun, Jeterniner, ierb) clanges oim ro
inuicare numLei, genuei, case, eison anu tense, (L)
rle enuings o voius rlar inuicare rlese caregoiies
intransitive verb a ierb rlar uoes nor noimally lave an cbject (e
'I cougl`, ku0out 'I sir`)
labial any o rle bilabial anu labicJental consonanrs
labiodental a consonanr sounu maue Ly rle assage o aii
Lerveen rle lovei li anu rle uei reerl, as in
Lnglisl anu Gieek |] anu |v]
linking verb a veiL rlar links rle subject virl rle subject
jreJicate (ryically rle veiL rtut 'I am`)
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liquid rle Lnglisl anu Gieek consonanr sounus |l] anu |i]
main clause see clause
modiher any voiu, liase oi clause rlar limirs rle meaning
o a ncun, ierb, aJjectiie oi aJierb
mood a ser o oimal conriasrs anu senantic uieiences
inuicaring rle vay in vlicl rle seakei visles ro
iesenr rle inoimarion o rle senrence, as a
sraremenr o acr (inJicatiie), a visl, loe,
execrarion, lan, erc. (subjunctiie), oi an oiuei
(injeratiie)
nasal a consonanr sounu maue vlen rle aii is ieleaseu
rliougl rle nose, as in Lnglisl anu Gieek |m]
anu |n]
nominative see case
non-hnite a ierb oim rlar uoes nor uislay numLei anu
eison, in airiculai, rle oim useu virl re ro
oim rle jerfect asject (re ypo:t 'I lave
viirren`)
noun a voiu rlar uenores a rling, eison, lace, iocess,
concer, erc. (tunrt 'raLle`, Muko 'âik`,
ktvo 'morion`, tru 'iuea`)
noun phrase a liase consisring o a ncun (alone oi
accomanieu Ly article, aJjectiie, Jeterniner, erc.)
oi a jrcncun (o kuutro nooo uttot 'rle
Lesr oorLallei`, rou 'you`)
numeral a voiu exiessing numLei, caiuinal numeials aie
rle Lasic oims (rvu 'one`, uo 'rvo`), vlile
oiuinal numeials exiess oiuei oi sequence
(neto 'hisr`, rutro 'seconu`)
ob|ect a ncun jlrase oi jrcncun rlar inuicares an enriry
rlar is acreu uon Ly rle subject (see Jirect cbject
anu inJirect cbject)
ob|ect predicate an aJjectiie liase oi ncun jlrase rlar ieeis ro an
cbject (Tov 0reouv o,o '1ley consiuei lim
stujiJ`)
palatal a consonanr sounu maue vlen rle rongue roucles
oi aioacles rle laiu alare, sucl as rle hisr
sounu in Gieek tovt oi Lnglisl luge
parisyllabic a ncun rlar las rle same numLei o syllaLles in rle
luial as in rle singulai
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participle a oim o rle ierb useu as an aJjectiie
(kouuorvo 'riieu`)
particle one o a numLei o small voius, incluuing rlose
ieceuing rle ierb (rle subjunctiie airicles vu anu
u, rle uruie airicle 0u anu rle negarive airicles
rv anu v)
passive vlen a ierb is in rle assive voice irs subject is nor
rle eison oi rling uoing rle acrion Lur rle eison
oi rling acreu uon (c. actiie)
perIect (i) an asject o rle ierb consisring o rle iesenr oi
injerfect oims o re olloveu Ly rle ncn-nite,
ir ieeis ro a asr acrion rlar is iesenreu in ielarion
ro some orlei rime, (ii) a tense o rle ierb
consisring o rle iesenr oims o re olloveu Ly
rle ncn-nite (re yurt 'I lave viirren`)
perIective rle asject o rle ierb rlar iesenrs an acrion as
Leing comlere (c. injerfectiie)
plosive a consonanr sounu iouuceu vlen a comlere
closuie in rle vocal riacr is suuuenly ieleaseu (as in
Lnglisl |], |L], |r]) (c. fricatiie)
pluperIect a tense o rle ierb oimeu virl rle asr oims o
re olloveu Ly rle ncn-nite, ir is useu ro exiess
rle comlerion o an acrion Leoie a seciheu asr
rime (rtu yurt 'I lau viirren`)
prehx a comonenr o a voiu auueu ro rle ionr o a
sten (nponortko 'jre-vai`)
preposition a voiu laceu Leoie a ncun jlrase rlar ryically
inuicares rime, lace oi mannei ('ar`, 'on`, 'virl`)
pronoun a voiu rlar las rle uncrion o a ncun jlrase, ir
may Le an emlaric eisonal ionoun (rrvu
'me`), a veak eisonal ionoun (r 'me`), oi some
orlei kinu o ionoun (noto, 'vlo.`, kunoto
'someone`, kuvrvu 'no one, anyone`), mosr Gieek
ionouns orlei rlan eisonal ionouns may also
acr as Jeterniners
protasis rle clause in a ccnJiticnal sentence rlar exiesses
rle conuirion rlar musr Le ulhlleu i rle acrion o
rle ierb in rle main clause (rle ajcJcsis) is ro rake
lace (Av :p0:t oto noptt, 0u rt tov Ituvv
'If ycu ccne tc tle jarty, you`ll see ]oln`)
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quantiher a voiu rlar exiesses quanriry (e.g. oo 'all`,
nou 'mucl`)
question word a jrcncun oi Jeterniner (noto, 'vlo`, tt 'vlar`,
nooo 'lov mucl`) oi aJierb (nou, 'vleie`, notr
'vlen`, ytutt 'vly`) rlar is useu ro inriouuce
quesrions
reduplication a jrex auueu ro some veiLs in rle assive eiecr
jarticijle, usually oimeu Ly ieearing rle inirial
consonanr o rle srem anu auuing r (n:nrtorvo
'convinceu`)
semantic iegaiuing rle meaning o voius, liases, erc.
semi-deponent verb a ierb rlar las only jassiie oims in rle
injerfectiie asject anu only actiie oims in rle
jerfectiie asject (ku0out 'I sir`, ku0tou 'I sar`)
(c. Jejcnent ierb)
sentence a syntactic unir rlar exiesses a comlere meaning
anu consisrs o one oi moie clauses
sibilant rle consonanr sounus |s] anu |z]
simple past rle jerfectiie asr oim o rle ierb (ryuu 'I
viore`)
stem rle air o an inlecreu voiu (ncun, ierb, aJjectiie,
erc.) ro vlicl jrexes anu sufxes aie auueu
sub|ect rle ncun jlrase uenoring rle eison oi rling uoing
rle acrion o an actiie ierb ('H0r Mopto 'Mary
came`) oi unueigoing rle acrion o a jassiie ierb
(H Mopto tuuuttotkr 'Mary vas injuieu`)
sub|ect predicate an aJjectiie liase oi ncun jlrase ieeiiing ro a
subject Ly means o a linling ierb (O Ntko rtvut
nozu :unvo 'ick`s iery cleier`, O Ntko rtvut
oouozo 'ick`s a teacler`)
sub|unctive rle nccJ o rle ierb rlar ryically iesenrs rle
acrion as visleu oi, loeu oi, execreu, lanneu,
erc., rle suLjuncrive is maikeu Ly rle airicles vu
anu u, anu is negareu Ly v
subordinate clause see clause
suIhx a comonenr o a voiu auueu ro rle enu o a sten
(nuutotrpo 'oluer`)
superlative see Jegree
syntactic iegaiuing rle vay voius, liases, erc. aie joineu ro
make liases, clauses anu sentences
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Glossary o|
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terms
tense giammarical ioeiry o a ierb rlar iimaiily
ieeis ro rle rime o rle acrion, in rlis Look ve
make rvo uieienr ryes o uisrincrion Lerveen
renses: (a) rle geneial caregoiies o asr anu
non-asr, anu (L) rle secihc veiL-oims iesenr,
injerfect, sinjle jast, uruie, jerfect, erc.
topic rle eison oi rling aLour vlicl somerling is saiu
(c. fccus)
transitive verb a ierb rlar may lave an cbject (rne 'I see`)
velar a consonanr sounu maue virl rle Lack o rle
rongue againsr rle sor alare, as in Lnglisl anu
Gieek |k] anu |g]
verb a voiu rlar uenores an acrion oi a srare (yu e
'I viire`, unue 'I exisr`)
vocative see case
voice see actiie anu jassiie
voiced consonant a consonanr sounu iouuceu virl viLiarion o rle
vocal coius (e.g. |u], |m], |v], |z])
voiceless consonant a consonanr sounu iouuceu virlour viLiarion o
rle vocal coius (e.g. |r], |], |s])
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Coursebooks
To vto t!!jvtxo ,to tvo:. Aiisroreleio Paneisrimio 1lessalonikis,
Iuiyma ânoli 1iianraylliui, 3iu eu. 1lessaloniki 199S. WoikLooks
anu casserres availaLle.
K. Aivanirakis anu I. Aivaniraki, Eatxotvovjo:t t!!jvtxo. Delros, nev eu.
Arlens 2002. A comlere couise in rliee volumes, virl casserres anu
voikLooks.
G. BaLinioris anu orleis, E!!jvtxj ,!oooo. E,ttototo otoooxo!to :j
t!!jvtxj o ot::toj tvj ,!oooo. Iuiyma êleron LamLiaki, 2nu
eu. Arlens 1995. Wiirren iimaiily oi rle neeus o ieruining migianrs,
anu enriiely in Gieek, rlis is an arriacrive couise vlicl links giammai
virl inoimarion aLour Gieek culruie. 1leie is also a sulemenraiy
volume virl vocaLulaiy anu ourlines o giammai in Lnglisl. A casserre
is availaLle seaiarely.
G. Carsimali anu orleis, E!!jvtxo at :jv aooto ao:. Vol. 1. Oiganismos
Lkuoseos Diuakrikon Vivlion, Arlens 1999. 1lis is a asr couise
inrenueu oi sruuenrs vlo alieauy knov some Gieek. A seconu volume
vill aeai soon.
G. Carsimali anu orlei, E!!jvtxo oao xov:o: 20 (,!oootxo) a:o:joto ,to
:ov tat0tooj:j lotvj. . . xt totvo. L.DIA.^.^L., Rerlymno, 2001.
1lis Look exlains anu ioviues iacrice oi vaiious giammarical
lenomena o Gieek vlicl iesenr uihculries.
D. Dimiria anu ^. Paacleimona, E!!jvtxo :ooo 1 1. osros, 5rl eu.
Arlens 2002. 1lis is an excellenr Lasic couise, virl casserres anu
voikLook, moie suiraLle oi class use rlan iivare sruuy. 1leie is also
a seconu volume: E!!jvtxo :ooo 2 2.
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Some recommended 5ooks
for further stud,
D. A. Haiuy, Creel Ianguage anJ ecjle. BBC Books, Lonuon 19S3 (virl
casserres). 1le mareiial is arriacrively iesenreu, Lur oimal giammai
is ker ro a minimum.
S. Vogiarziuou, Iearning McJern Creel as a creign/SeccnJ Ianguage: a
Ccnnunicatiie Ajjrcacl. Univeisiry Sruuio Piess, 1lessaloniki 2002.
A vell-illusriareu couise, virl voikLook anu rliee casserres.
. Warrs, Ccllcquial Creel: A Ccnjlete Ianguage Ccurse. Rourleuge,
Lonuon anu ev Yoik 1994. A sre-Ly-sre couise virl cleai iesen-
rarions o giammai, accomanieu Ly rvo casserres.
Grannars
D. Holron, P. âckiiuge anu I. Pliliaki-WaiLuiron, Creel: A
Ccnjrelensiie Crannar cf tle McJern Ianguage. Rourleuge,
Lonuon 199, ieiinreu virl coiiecrions 1999 anu 2002. A ull
uesciirive giammai o rle mouein language.
C. Klaiiis anu G. BaLinioris, Iooaao:txj :j Nto E!!jvtxj.
Aoao!tt:o:o,txj tatxotvovtoxj. Lllinika Giammara, Arlens 1996 .
So ai only rliee (o rle iojecreu six) volumes o rlis auvanceu
giammai lave aeaieu. Ir is Laseu on conremoiaiy language reacling
rleoiy anu aims ar a ull uesciirion o rle moilological anu synracric
sriucruies o rle mouein language.
P. âckiiuge, Tle McJern Creel Ianguage: A Descrijtiie Analysis cf
StanJarJ McJern Creel. Oxoiu Univeisiry Piess, Oxoiu 19S5. 1lis
is nor a ieeience giammai as sucl, Lur iesenrs anu analyses a viue
iange o mareiial illusriaring cuiienr usage. Ir is aimeu ar moie
auvanceu leaineis.
^. A. 1iianualylliuis, Ccncise McJern Creel Crannar. 1ianslareu Ly
]oln B. Buike. Aiisrorle Univeisiry o 1lessaloniki, 1lessaloniki 199.
A rianslarion o rle aLiiugeu veision (194) o rle 'ohcial` giammai
o 1941. 1le 194 auararion conrinues ro Le useu in rle Gieek euuca-
rional sysrem, uesire rle acr rlar ir las nor Leen suLsranrially uuareu
ro ielecr conremoiaiy usage.
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Some
recommenoeo
books |or
|urtber stuoy
272
Dictionaries
]. 1. Piing, Tle cclet OxfcrJ Creel Dicticnary. Oxoiu Univeisiry Piess,
Oxoiu 19S2, ieissueu 2000. A comacr rvo-vay uicrionaiy oi Lasic
use.
D. . Sraviooulos, OxfcrJ Creelnglisl Iearners Dicticnary. Oxoiu
Univeisiry Piess, Oxoiu 19SS. 1lis is rle Lesr availaLle small uicrio-
naiy oi rianslarion iom Gieek ro Lnglisl, ir incluues ieliaLle
inoimarion aLour oims, usage anu iuioms.
D. . Sraviooulos anu A. S. HoinLy, OxfcrJ nglislCreel Iearners
Dicticnary. Oxoiu Univeisiry Piess, 2nu eu. Oxoiu 199S. 1lis is an
auararion o rle OxfcrJ AJianceJ Iearners Dicticnary, anu rleie-
oie inrenueu iimaiily oi rle use o Gieek-seaking leaineis o
Lnglisl. Hovevei, ir is also quire useul oi Lnglisl-seaking leaineis
o Gieek.
1leie aie also rliee laige-oimar monolingual uicrionaiies suiraLle oi
auvanceu leaineis anu narive seakeis:
Attxo :j xotvj vtot!!jvtxj. Aiisroreleio Paneisrimio 1lessalonikis,
Insrirouro eoellinikon Souuon, 1lessaloniki 199S.
G. BaLinioris, Attxo :j vto t!!jvtxj ,!oooo, at oo!to ,to :j ooo:j
ojoj :ov !ttov. Kenrio Lexikologias, Arlens 199S.
L. Kiiaias, Nto t!!jvtxo !ttxo :j o:,oovj ojao:txj ,!oooo, ,ooa:j
xot aoo ootxj. Lkuoriki Arlinon, Arlens 1995.
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aLLieviarions 260~2
accenrs 14~15, 140, 1S, see alsc sriess
accusarive see case
acrive see voice
aujecrives 19, 234, 423, 54~67, 6S,
56, 9, SS9, 91, 936, 99104, 109,
14S, 10, 13, 15, 19, 193,
199, 21011, 21S19, 222, 243, 249,
comaiarive 54, 63~7, 56, 90, 104,
13, 2346, ueclension o 54~65,
inueclinaLle 634, sriess o 1011,
546, 5960, 62, 645, 2456,
sueilarive 54, 63~7, 56, 90, 13, use
o 6, S3~6
auveiLial liases 11516, 169S0,
21213, 21
auveiLs S0, S6S, 90, 104, 11213, 14S,
169~S0, 190, 193, 211, 2312, 235,
245, 24, comaiarive 123, 19S0,
2345, oimarion o 10, 177~9,
inuehnire 20S~10, inreiiogarive 14,
102, 195, 206~7, o mannei 1690,
13, o lace 1691, 134, 16, 19,
1S2, 1S9, 1912, o quanriry 169,
123, 15, 1S0, o rime 169, 115,
19, 1S2, sriess o 11, sueilarive
123, 19S0
agenr 119, 1S3
agieemenr 19, 23, 26, 6S, S3, 94,
109, 1161, 14S, 1S5
allaLer 1~2, 53, 105, 10
alveolai 5
aoiisr xi
aouosis 2234
aosriole 15, 91
airicles 19, 23, 39, 42, 6S, uehnire 910,
14, 1920, 256, 64, 6S, 4, 77~S1, S3,
S9 925, 9, 1004, 110, 130, 1S3,
1SS, 190, 193, 2223, oims o
25~7, inuehnire 20, 25~6, , S1, 101,
10S, uses o S3
asecr 11, 11S, 120, 125, 196, see alsc
veiLs
augmenr 152~3, 154, inreinal 141, 153,
syllaLic 12S, 132, 135, 13S 152, vocalic
1523
augmenrarives 244
LilaLials 45
cairal lerreis 1416
case 19, 24, 26, 54, 63, 6, 9, S3, 91,
945, 9, 100, 1045, 109, 14S, 229,
236, 23S, accusarive 202, 6S~72,
56, SS9, 11316, 1S4, 190, 215,
235, 256, oims o 2563, genirive
201, 6S, 72~7, SS, 90, 94, 11315,
16, 1S1, 1S4, 1S6, 1S990, 21,
235, 254, nominarive 202, 6S9, 116,
202, uses o 6S~77, vocarive 1, 201,
77, see alsc aujecrives, agieemenr,
nouns
clauses 15, 1S9, 203~40, auveiLial 115,
comaiarive 235, comlemenr 1920,
S0, S6, 201, 21S~23, concessive 1S5,
194, 225, conuirional S2, 9S, 123~4,
190, 223~5, 234, imeiarive 9S,
inuicarive 11S, 21921, main 11S, 193,
200, 203~11, noun 19~20, S0, 2223,
o cause 22S~9, o mannei 227, o
uiose 227, o iesulr 201, 227~S, 234,
ielarive 20, 93, 99100, 201, 212~15,
234 (iee ielarive 100, 214~15),
suLjuncrive 9S, 2201, suLoiuinare
11S, 169, 1945, 212~29, remoial
1S6, 190, 226
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lndex of grommot|co|
cotegor|es ond concepts
1lis inuex is inrenueu ro Le useu in conjuncrion virl rle raLle o conrenrs. âny o rle
reims Lelov aie uehneu in rle Glossaiy o giammarical reims. Bolu numLeis ieei ro rle
ages vleie rlese irems aie mosr rloiouglly rieareu.
colloquial usage S, 2, 6, S9, 91, 94,
9, 99, 104, 110, 12632, 14, 16S,
1S3, 1SS, 1934, 212, 21S, 232
commanus 1, 129, 19, 19, 2001,
2045, 20S, inuiiecr 21S, see alsc
ioliLirions
comaiarive see aujecrives anJ auveiLs
comaiison 6, 90, 1S3, 1SS, 234~7
comlemenrizei see ne, ott, nou,
ne
comounu voius 33, 45, 60, 154, 241,
246~7
conuirional see clauses, rense
conjugarion see veiLs
conjuncrions 122, 1S, 190, 1935, 223,
225S, co-oiuinaring 193~4,
suLoiuinaring 194~5, see alsc
inJiiiJual ccnjuncticns in InJex cf
Creel ucrJs
consonanrs 12, 49, 256, 12S, 130,
14, 152, comLinarions o (in
ionunciarion) S, (in viiring) 3, 5,
6S
co-oiuinarion S1, 1934, 20, 232~4
uasl 1
uarive see case
uecimals 16
ueclension see aujecrives, airicles,
uereimineis, nouns, ionouns
uelerion o consonanrs 9, o vovels 910,
14
uemonsriarives 19, S, 91, 924, 103,
qualirarive 93, quanrirarive 94
uenrals 46, 143
ueenuenr 122, 123, 12930, 133,
13641, 154, 196, 226
ueonenr see veiLs
uereimineis 234, 6, S7~104,
uisriiLurive 101, see alsc ionouns anJ
inJiiiJual Jeterniners in InJex cf
Creel ucrJs
uiaciirics 15
uiaeiesis 15
uiminurives 33, 41, 46, 243~4, 249, 253
uiiecr seecl 1
emlasis S, 94, 11, 229~32
enclisis 11, S9
equarion S1, 236~7
exclamarions 6, SS, 211
eminine see genuei
las 56
ocus 229~32
oimal usage 4, S, 30, 3S, 40, 45, ,
99, 12, 134, 1414, 14, 1S, 212,
22S, 255
iicarives 56
uruie see rense
genuei 19, 22~4, 26, 524, 63, 6S,
, S3, 91, 945, 99100, 1045,
109, 116, 14S, 23S, 2414, 2545,
260, common 23, 2S, 34, 42~3, 53,
see alsc aujecrives, agieemenr,
nouns
genirive see case
geiunu SS, 113, 11, 124, 130, 134,
136, 139, 21011
gieerings 6, 255~7
lylen 1
imeiarive 10, 113, 12930, 13334, 136,
13S9, 141, 154, 202, 204, 21S
imeiecr see rense
imeiecrive see asecr
inuicarive see moou
inreiiogarive see auveiLs (inreiiogarive),
ionouns (inreiiogarive), quesrions
inronarion 1113, 205, 20S
laLials 142, 153
laLiouenrals 56
liquius 56
masculine see genuei
moou 11213, 111S, 119, 12, 205,
20, 214, 21S19, 22, inuicarive 203,
22S, suLjuncrive 141, 204 (oims 151,
uses 195~200, 2045, 211S), see alsc
imeiarive
names 16, 1S, 33, 356, 3S42, 44, 46,
53, S, 243, 251~5
nasals 4, 9
negarion 9, 9S, S2, 9, 11213, 151,
12, 15, 19, 196, 201, 2034,
207~11, 214, 223, 2456, see alsc
rv anJ v
neurei see genuei
nominarive see case
non-hnire 11, 122~3, 1501, 154
noun liases 234, S, 92, 104, 114,
116, 1S12, 1S490, 193, 202, 21,
2223, 22931, 2356, consriruenrs o
1920, uses o 202, 67~S3
nouns 15, 19~24, 25, 60, 67~S3, S4,
S9, 92, 94103, 10910, 14S, 145,
190, 199, 206, 21013, 21S1, 222,
241, aLsriacr 22, 9, ueclension o
27~53, genuei o 2S, 523 (see alsc
genuei), inueclinaLle 2, 45, 53, sriess
o 1011, 2S, 303, 3641, 4451,
255
numLei 19, 24, 26, 54, 63, 6S, , S3,
91, 945, 9, 99100, 104, 117~1S,
125, 14S, 23, 24S9, see alsc
aujecrives, agieemenr, nouns, luial,
veiLs
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numeials 19, 234, 26, 6, 5, S1, SS, 90,
99, 101, 103, 105~11, 15, 1934,
caiuinal 105~10, collecrive 110,
mulrilicarive 109, oiuinal 15, 105~7,
110
oLjecrs S2, S9, 92, 100, 113~16, 119,
213, 2223, 22932, 23S, uiiecr 202,
69, 72~3, S3, 14, 215, inuiiecr 15,
201, 23, 1SS, o ieosirions 0,
92, 95
oLligarion 125, 199, 240
alarals 5
airiciles 51, 62, assive eiecr 54,
64, S4, 141, 147~9, 154~6S, 13,
24
airicles 11213, 111S, 122, 151,
195~202, see alsc inJiiiJual jarticles
in InJex cf Creel ucrJs
airirive exiessions 1S2
assive see voice
eicerion, veiLs o 220, 233
eiecr see rense
eiecrive see asecr
eimission 200
eison S, 90, 92, 94, 99, 114, 117~1S,
125, 24S9
lace see rime, lace anu quanriry
losives 45, 9
lueiecr see rense
luial o olireness 11, 24S50, 255,
see alsc aujecrives, nouns, numLei,
veiLs
olireness 205, 2501, see alsc luial
ossession 2, 4, S6, see alsc ionouns,
ossessive
ossiLiliry 200, 240
ieuicares 2021, S4, 112, 116, 249,
oLjecr 0, 116, suLjecr 69, S1
iehxes 241, 244~6, ieosirional 14S,
153, 154, 23S, 2445
ieosirional liase 20, S6, 113, 119,
169, 1S1~92, 193, 212, 21, 235,
23S
ieosirions 9, 20, 0, , 92, 95, 16,
1S1~92, see alsc inJiiiJual
jrejcsiticns in InJex cf Creel ucrJs
iesenr see rense
ioLaLiliry 196, 199
ioliLirions 1, 19, 2045, 21S, see
alsc commanus
ionouns 19, 23, 6S, 56, S1, S4,
S7~104, 111S, conriasrive 102~3,
19, coiielarive (oims o 100, uses o
215~16), inuehnire 96~9, 101, 1,
20S~9, inrensive 6, 101~2,
inreiiogarive 95~6, 206~7, 211S,
eisonal 24, 102, 1S1, 1S, 1S990,
24S (emlaric 20, S9, 91~2, 94,
11314, 1S5, 1SS, 193, veak 911, 15,
26, S6, S7~90, 94, 11215, 1501,
16, 1S2, 1S6, 196, 202, 21314, 221,
223, 230~2, 2345, 240, 250, 255),
ossessive 11, 15, 20, S, S9~90,
94~5, 23, ielarive 99~100 (uses o
21214), univeisal 101, see alsc
uemonsriarives, uereimineis, anJ
inJiiiJual jrcncuns in InJex cf
Creel ucrJs
ionunciarion 110, 15, 1S
iorasis 2234
uncruarion 161S
quanriheis 19, 5, 6, SS, 103~4, 15,
see alsc oo, ooko
quanriry see rime, lace anu quanriry
quesrions 1112, S2, SS, 9, 102,
16, 19, 2059, 214, 250, inuiiecr
199, 2161S
quesrion voius 19, see alsc ionouns
(inreiiogarive), auveiLs (inreiiogarive)
ieciiocal exiessions 23S~9
ieuulicarion 14S
ielexive exiessions 237~S
siLilanrs 56
simle asr see rense
singulai see aujecrives, numLei, nouns,
veiLs
sounus 12
selling 1S, 1S, see alsc accenrs, cairal
lerreis, uiaciirics
srems, imeiecrive anJ eiecrive see
veiLs
sriess 10~11, 12, 1415, S, S9, 100,
110, 2313, see alsc accenrs, aujecrives,
nouns, veiLs
suLjecrs 20, 69, S3, S, 92, 112, 1119,
124, 19, 203, 215, 2223, 229, 231,
23S
suLjuncrive see moou
suhxes 3S, 43, 63, 65, 110, 1S,
241~4
sueilarive see aujecrives anJ auveiLs
rense 112, 11, 11S~25, 12, 196,
199, 223, conuirional 120, 123, 151,
224~5, 251, uruie 11S, 120, 123,
141, 149, 196, uruie eiecr 123,
151, imeiecr 121, 123, 125, 134,
1512, 154, 200, 224~5, eiecr 11S,
122, 123, 150~1, 154, eiecr
conuirional 124, 224~5, lueiecr
11S, 122~3, 124, 151, 224~5, iesenr
120~1, 1223, 1256, 134, 136,
154~6S, 250, simle asr 121~2, 122,
146, 142, 154~6S, see alsc ueenuenr
anJ veiLs
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276
rime, lace anu quanriry, exiessions o
21, 02, 45, 9S0, 10911,
11516, 1693, 1S2, 1S6S
roic 229~32
velais 56, 143, 153
veiLs 9, 15, 20, 22, 24, 4S, 62, 69, 23,
S2, S, S9, 92, 112~6S, 13, 196,
199 2023, 206, 216, 21S23, 2223,
22S, 2312, 234S, auxiliaiy
111S, 122~3, 150~1, conjugarion o
125~6S, ueecrive 125, ueonenr 125,
135, 13S, 1426, 154, imeiecrive
srems 116, 12S30, 139, 141~7,
imeisonal 125, 154, 19S9, 221~2,
239~40, inriansirive 113, 11516, 14,
iiiegulai 126, 139, 154~6S, linking
116, eiecrive srems o 12S, 130, 132,
136, 139, 141~7, 14, 154~6S, semi-
ueonenr 125, sriess o 11, 1269,
1312, 1345, 13S, 1401, 150, 1523,
riansirive 11316, see alsc moou, rense,
voice
vocarive see case
voice 11, 11S~19, 125, 130, assive
239, see alsc veiLs
vovels 14, 6, 911, 1415, 256, 49, 91,
9, 130, 134, 141, 153, comLinarions
o (in ionunciarion) 4, (in viiring) 1,
3, 14
visles 6, 119, 19, 200, 204, 214, 220,
255~7
voiu oiuei 229~32
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uu 193, 2323
uo() 23, 6S, 9, 102~3, 19
uv 122, 190, 2161, 223~5, 22, 234
uv kut 225
uvurou 10, 1S6, 191
unrvuvtt 10, 191
uno 10, 56, 91, 1S1, 1S2~3, 1S5,
1902, 234~5
uuyr 205, 23
u 9, 11, 119, 122, 151, 200, 201,
2034, 20S
u ou 226, 22S~9
ytu (airicle) 202
ytu (ieosirion) 91, 1S12, 1S3~4, 190,
202, 22S
ytutt 206, 22S, 234
yue 10, 191
rv 9, 9S, 119, 151, 203, 20S, 21920,
223, 225
tko 94, 9
tnu 10, 191
re 10, 134, 16
rtui S1, 125, 221, oims o 126
rttr 193, 223~4, 232~3
rkrt 10, 14, 16, 1S2
rvuvttov 1S1, 1S4
rvu 26~7, S1, 10S
rutttu 1S1, 1S4
re 10, 191
rtot 10, 206, 2234, 22S
re 111S, 122~3, 125, 150~1, 160,
239
(conjuncrion) 14, 193, 205, 232~3
0u 111S, 120, 1224, 141, 151, 199,
20S
tto 101~2
ku0r 101, 12
ku0rvu 6, 101
ku0rtt 101
ku0oou 10, 12, 14, 16
ku0e 22S
kut 1S6, 193~4, 2234, 229, 232~4
kunooo() 104, 12
kuvrt 99, 20S9
kuvrvu 23, 5, 99, 101, 103, 110,
1S3, 20S9
kunoto S1, 96~7, 99, 103
kunou 10, 12
kune 10, 12
ku tt 93, 96~7
kute 10, 14, 19, 191
kt u 225
kovtu 10, 14, 191
tyo() S6, 104, 124, 19S0, 249
ut 10, 191
r 1S1, 1S4~5, 190, 225
rou 10, 19, 191
rtu 11, 13, 190, 226
rtuu 1S1, 1S6, 23S
rt 1S12, 1S6, 226
20S, 21011
v 9, S9, 9S, 119, 204, 20S,
21011, 21S, 2201, 223, 225
ne 205, 2161, 219~20
too 109
ot 11, 226
ovo() 6, 101~2, 10, 16, 19
noe 19S200, 240, 251
nootu 10, 191
vu (ueicric airicle) SS, 201~2
vu (suLjuncrive airicle) S0, S6, 11,
119, 122, 125, 141, 151, 1S3,
196~200, 201, 2039, 217~24,
226S, 2334, 236, 23940,
24950
vut 15, 201
re 152, 163
ooko S
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lndex of Creek words
Heie ve lisr a numLei o imoiranr Gieek voius rlar aie rloiouglly rieareu oi
iequenrly menrioneu in rle Crannar.
oo() 23, 6, S, S990, 103~4, 12,
1S5, 1S, 225
oe 193, 232~3
o onoto 100, 212~14
onoto 100, 103, 215~16
onotr 11, 215~16, 226
onotr 11, 216
onou 10, 215~16
one 10, 215, 22, 236
ooo() 100, 190, 215~16, 235~7
otuv 122, 226
ott (comlemenrizei) 16, S0, S6, 100,
219~22, 239
o, tt (ionoun anu uereiminei) 16, 100,
215
outr 1934, 210, 232~3
ot 15, 201, 205, 210
nuve 10, 14, 1S, 191, 226
nuu 13, 1S
nuu 1S6, 225, 234~5
nru 10, 19
nto 635, 1, S6, 134, 19, 236
ntoe 10, 19, 191
nut 10, 191
noto 20, 23, 95~6, 103, 206, 209
nou() 5S, 66, 57~S, S6, 94, 104,
124, 19S0
nooo() 95, 12, 206, 211
notr 112, 206, 20S
notr 11, 16, 20S9
nou (ielarive anu comlemenrizei) 14,
99~100, 201, 211, 212~14, 219~22,
226~S, 2334
nou (quesrion voiu) 14, SS, 10,
1SS
nou0rvu 10, 16, 209
nrnrt 125, 19S9, 240
ntv 122, 11, 14, 190, 226
ne (comlemenrizei ) 14, 219~20
ne (quesrion voiu) 14, 10, 206
ouv S1, 1S1, 1S7~S, 226, 236
or 10, 21, 25, 3, 115, 1S1, 1SS, 1912
trtoto 93, 99, 22S
tt 95, 100, 206, 211, 211S
ttnota/ttnotr 97~9, 209
tooo() 94, 103, 12, 14, 216, 22S,
235~7
totr 11, 16, 226
teu 11, 16, 1S2, 226
et 1SS~9, 209
eonou 226
eotr 227~S, 234
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|noe o|
Greek woros
279
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Essential Grammar of the Modern Greek- http://www.projethomere.com

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