Aryan Avatars

PREFACE

In the backdrop of an autobiographical canvas, I attempt to explore the anthology of embryonic influences that have shaped the character of my undiluted, earthy ancestral village near the India-Nepal border. While probing the ethereal sphere of pre-historic darkness and the antecedents of the Aryan roots over the convoluted passage of three millennia, I describe the significant impact on the Indian psyche of the Indus Valley Civilisation, hegemonic Hindu kingdoms, and Muslim and Christian colonialism. Of particular importance is the course of the Indian indenture system that catapulted thousands of illiterate and poverty-stricken peasants to distant European colonial outposts.

The graphic narrative of rural India captures the first visit to Kabuliha in 1961. The rustic descendants mull over the economic prosperity and social lifestyle of the People of Indian Origin (PIO) living in distant lands and perceive of them as living avatars. Of all the labour recipient countries, Fiji evoked deep awe and respect as mythically, it was Krishna's 'Ramnik Dweep' (Beautiful Island) and the media caricatured it as the 'Little India' of the Pacific.

Born and bred in Fiji in the religiosity of eclectic Hinduism, I chart the metamorphosis from an orthodox Hindu pedigree to the realm of Marxist socialism and active atheism. Apparently, this intrusive and combative mindset has not endeared me to the majority of my associates.

While previewing the pockmarked sphere of Fiji's divisive colonial cesspit, I ponder on the corrosive culpability of racism, the rise, and fall of a displaced communal entity in the corridors of Fiji's polity, and the painful dispersal of an enterprising ethnic group in the aftermath of Fiji's first coups of 1987.

I write with some passion on my involvement in the birth of Fiji Labour Party, disenchantment with the party's pre-1987 electoral polemics and my absorption by the ruling Alliance Party. While sitting as the Acting Lord Mayor of the capital city in early 1987, I describe the unfolding drama of the first two coups in Suva and the evolving rubric of coup culture. In the background of these political distortions, I venture to predict what future might hold for Fiji.

As a work of socio-political research, I have cited several primary and secondary sources, but the views expressed are entirely mine for which I am alone responsible.

Mahendra Sukhdeo

Melbourne, Australia

March 8, 2014

Maps of India and Fiji

Regional Map of India

Map of Fiji

PART 1: THE INHERITANCE: CASCADING FROM CIVILISATION TO COLONIALISM

CHAPTER 1

Aryans and Mauryans: Legends Merging into History

What is and what is not 'historical' is a moot question; so are the issues of which geographical area in the Darwinist mould holds the seeds of the first creation. With the unlocking of part of the abstract literary texts of the East alongside continuing archaeological discoveries, there is an academic divide on the early accounts of the evolutionary theories. The shift from the hunters and gatherers of Africa to the Neanderthals of Europe was too simplistic in its preview. The early European scholars romanticised aspects of early Indian culture as a nexus of the Orient. With the unravelling of parts of Indus Valley Civilisation and the Aryan period, the tendency was to project the Indian cultural milieu as an adjutant of Persia and by extension eventually that of ancient Greece. In this scheme of scholarship, the primacy and pristine character of the Indus Valley Civilisation was undermined.

Excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro (principal areas of Indus Valley Civilisation) in 1920-21, radio carbon dating of the artefacts in 1950/60s at the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research in Bombay and recent archaeological discoveries in India have enabled a more accurate enumeration of the chronological framework. Cumulatively, they exposed a host of evidence to suggest that the Indian seminal roots remained germane to the soil albeit attempts to corrode its cultural identity. Use of more modern technology such as satellite mapping in the discipline of archaeology, computerised script decipherment, and DNA testing is likely to herald a revolution in the understanding of our roots and human conception.

It is now known that the corpus of nearly 4,000 post-Indus Valley Harappa inscriptions remain to be deciphered and as they get decrypted there could be a sweeping shift in our approach to the study of ancient civilisations and human existence. So is the case with texts handed down orally, but written later, such as parts of Mahabharata and Ramayana. Eight times the size of Iliad and Odyssey put together, the ancient Indian epic Mahabharata, written over 800 years (between 400 BCE and 400 CE), is regarded as the longest single poem in the world.[1] Ramayana, written in Sanskrit by Valmiki and re-written in Hindi verse by Tulsidas is a reverential referral for every Hindu household. These two epic texts form the core of the values that have guided the Hindus for centuries. Were they authentic record of oral recitation or were they 'bardic tales'[2] manipulated to fit the geographical context and social nuances of the time?

Anointing legendary accounts with historicity are common in any society. The division between prehistoric and historic is somewhat artificial. With the validation of empirical evidence, the span will contract. Perusing any so-called 'historical' novel or spoken account with a fine-toothed comb, one can always pick up some historical absurdities. However, the two planks of legends - tales of legendary myths and legendary accounts of events based on undeciphered literary texts - are separate entities. Myths per se cannot be demystified. It is unfortunate that archaeological excavations and demythologisation of ancients scripts, rooted as they are on financial outlays, get tilted in favour of the Anglo-American/Christian-Jewish bloc aimed at maintaining their hegemonic status in world affairs including that of supremacy in human evolution and existence.

For instance, in early 1960s, 12 years had lapsed after India's independence and yet we studied Indian history divided into Ancient History (Indus Civilisation and the Aryan era), Medieval History (principally Mughal dynasties), and Modern History (euphemism for the British period). These categories resonated with the three distinct religious persuasions, namely Hinduism, Islam and Christianity and by extension, the three religions were successively characterised as ancient, medieval and modern. It was a toxic brew for our adolescent mindset as it encased the belief that Christianity and the British was the beacon of more progressive ideas.

In addition, deliberate emphasis placed on dynastic studies[3] provided the fallacious view that the ancient and medieval periods bore the recurring motif of empire building and tribal infighting whereas the study of modern history covering the British raj (rule) projected the advent of non-dynastic governance of reforms and developments. Any reading of United Kingdom History shows that the Britishers were not immune from violent tribalism.

Historical sources: Archaeological excavations

Principally, there are three data sources to study India's past. The first is the historical evidence from archaeological studies. The roots of human existence are traceable to a period well before 1400 BCE. In India, the Second Inter-Glacial period (400,000-200,000 BCE)[4] was the repository of the first traces of human activity involving the use of stone implements. This was followed by a slow gestation of evolution (the Kot Diji cultures of the pre-Indus period around 3300-2800 BCE) leading to the seismic splendour of the Indus Valley Civilisation. The Indus Civilisation from 6000 BCE to 2400 BCE followed by the more mature Harappa Culture, 2400 to 2000 BCE in its composite form was India's Golden Age.

Sir John Marshall's excavations in early 1920s led to the discovery of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. His edited report, titled 'Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilisation' (London, 1931) throws some light on the probable existence of a religion superimposed by a yogic God, later identified as Shiva, with attributes of fertility and totem (lingum). The excavations show their systematically regulated towns/cities with underground drainage system, coordinated streets, public baths, spacious granaries, and rectangular houses (with private bathrooms and conveniences). The housing structure speaks of their adherence to physical cleanliness and purity. The prevalence of burial rather than cremation indicates the theme of life after death. In the absence of public temples, it is likely that the people worshipped their personal deities at home. The seal-motifs indicate reverence for sea and land animals/mammals as well as the fauna and flora of the time such as the pipal tree (Ficus religioso or Bo tree). Sacrifice of animals and grains may have been occurring but there were no ritualistic sacrificial fire 'yags' as was prevalent in the later Vedic period. It was during this era that the solar symbol, svastika (swastika) was revered for its positive significance in the 'wheel of life' until it was demonised by the victors of the Second World War to scorn the Nazis for using it as the vehicle of their conceived nativity and power.

These excavations and those in the post independent period unravelled a valuable treasure-trove of information on urban planning, architecture, arts and crafts, and the life-style of the people. Two of the more recent excavations carried out by the Archaeological Survey of India have their significance in portraying India's portage awareness, early maritime linkages with Arabia, and the geographical reach of the Indus Valley Civilisation. In the outpost of Lothal in the Kutch Gulf (in Gajarat), the team led by S.R.Rao unearthed an artificial platform with rectangular streets and a spectacular brick dockyard with a link channel to the gulf. It is world's first tidal dock indicative of the existence of active maritime interaction with Mesopotamia and Persia from around 3000 BCE. The discovery of a ring-like shell compass showed their expertise in marine navigation some two millennia before the Greeks. However, it is the outlying excavation sites of Rupar in the Punjab and Alamgirpur in Uttar Pradesh, particularly the latter, that is of personal interest. The presence of Harappa and post Harappa settlements in these sites indicate that the pattern of life may well have reached the Gangetic plains from where our ancestors originated.

Indus Valley Civilisation, described as the earliest of all civilisations, was thus the watershed between the beginnings of human existence over the previous 4000 years and the initial mould for many aspects of classical and even modern Indian civilization. Gordon Childe had acclaimed Harappa's unique technology as 'technically the peer of the rest'[5] (that is Egypt and Babylon). In a more dramatic fashion, the American writer, Mark Twain (1835-1910) had described India as 'the cradle of the human race, the birthplace of human speech, the mother of history…'.[6]

By 1700 BCE, because of changes in geological and ecological conditions, the Harappa culture was cascading downwards and by 1500 BCE, it had almost disintegrated. Similar global climatic changes later in 1100 CE ended the Mayan Civilisation[7] in South America. In spite of the richness and sophistry of these civilisations, it is clear that they were not able to combat the consequences of climatic change. The current delusion with man-induced atmospheric pollution may hold the key for the future climatic catastrophe.

Literary and traditional sources

The other two data sources appertain to deciphered Vedic literature and traditional accounts, including folklores. The Vedas which means 'knowledge par excellence' was handed down orally over several centuries and then compiled in its original pre-Sanskrit script over several generations and is regarded as sacred if not the paramount source of all knowledge.[8] The Vedic period refers to the time when the Vedas were composed and orally transmitted roughly between 1700 to 150 BCE. The earliest of the Vedas, the Rig Veda, consists of 1028 hymns. The others such as Sama Veda (book of songs), Yajur Veda (manual of sacrifices), and Atharva Veda (account of non-Aryans) were of later date.

The traditional narratives such as the stories of Puranas and Brahmanas are post-Vedic explanatory notes, written in prose, on sacrifices and other rituals in each Veda. It also included the Upanishads (theosophical speculation) based on a spirit of rationalism and philosophical postulates. Brahmanas (the texts) are not to be confused with Brahmins (priestly social class). Nor should it be confused with Brahma the mythical creator of the Universe.

The Hindus trace their foundation of life and living to the cornucopia of Vedic literature. However, their primal narrative is more akin to the evolutionary theory of self-conception interwoven with the building blocks of heredity. Their traditional account relates to the cosmic creators, the trilogy of Brahma (the Creator), Vishnu (the preserver), and Shiva (the destroyer). Their first lineal figure was the mythical Manu Svayambhu, a hermaphrodite, self-born from Brahma. From the female half of the body, two sons and three daughters were born. Their progeny of Manus, one of whom Prithu became the first king of the earth (Prithvi). It was during the time of the 10th Manu that the Vishnu ordained 'great flood' occurred submerging everything. Only Manu, his family, and seven sages survived. The god Vishnu took the form of a large fish that pulled the boat with the survivors on to a mountain peak. It was the beginning of the human race. Christian and Islamic religious texts also refer to the mythical flood at the start of human conception. Of the nine sons of Manu, the eldest also a hermaphrodite and therefore known by the duality of names, Ila and Ilâ that gave birth to two separate royal dynasties, namely the Solar dynasty (Suryavamsha) from Ila and Lunar dynasty (Chandravamsha) from Ilâ. The Puranas trace Manu's progeny to the royal heroes of the two epics, Mahabharata and Ramayana. BCE 3102 is the traditional date of the Mahabharata war between the Kaurvas and Pandavas. Recent excavations at Hastinapur, capital of the Pandavas, indicate that the war may have occurred around 900 BCE when the Aryans had populated north-west parts of India.

The Aryans

The intermittent controversy continues to rage whether the Aryans were indigenous inhabitants of the subcontinent[9] or an external group of intruders who pushed the original inhabitants to the south. Romila Thapar[10], an Indian historian, taking the cue from the earlier expose, 'Ancient India' by R.C.Mazumdar argues that the ethnicity of the earliest people in the subcontinent was not identical and concludes that to 'refer to the coming of the Aryans is therefore inaccurate'. The period 1500 BCE witnessed the start of the Indo-Aryan people mingling into the rich milieu of the Indus basin and spreading out into the Gangetic plain that saw the beginnings of small urban settlements surrounded by a prolific growth of villages. Identified with the Painted-Grey Ware culture (1100-500 BCE), the group known as the Aryans were initially pastoralists and later agriculturalists who lived in timber/thatched wattle and daub houses. Vedic sources corroborated the broad sweep of culture. The four Vedas together with the epic Ramayana and Mahabharata reconstruct Aryan life and institutions that we know of today.

The use of the word 'Aryan' avers to being 'noble, of good family' and originates from the Sanskrit word, 'ārya' meaning 'noble, pious, righteous'. Aryans worshipped Hindu deities and performed yajna (sacrificial function) for them. Āryāvarta referred to the home of the Aryans from the Himalayas (in the north) to the Vindhya ranges (in the south), from eastern seaboard to the Western Sea. In the epic texts, Āryāputra referred to the honorific pedigree of many characters. From Sanskrit, it may have been absorbed into Latin (Arianus, Ariana) and Greek (Aria, Areia) being names applied to classical times of eastern Persia and its inhabitants. Ancient Persians used it to refer to themselves (O.Pers.aria), hence Persia, now Iran. Iran adjoining the Indian subcontinent shared with it in large part the pedigree of the Vedic era. The spread of language and the use of domesticated horses in war chariots were common to both Iran and the Indian subcontinent. From Persia, the Arabs grafted their Arabic notations copied from Hindu numerals, including the concept of zero. Recent researches at Boghazkoi (in Turkey) have unearthed inscriptions recording treaties between the Hittites and Mitani rulers indicating worship of Vedic gods, Indra, Varuna and Mitra in Asia Minor at least as early as 1400 BCE.[11] Besides, around 519 BCE, the north-western India had come under the control of Cyrus, the Achaemenid Empire of Persia and Gandhara, its 20th province, was the main source of mercenaries for his army.

The Aryan culture and governance was patriarchal, oligarchic, and theoretically classless. The social classes of kshatriyas (aristocrats/militarists), purohits (priests acting as astrologers/advisors) and vaisyas (the common people) coexisted on occupational lines. It is only when they differentiated the darker coloured, flat-featured 'dasas' or 'panis' (later labelled as 'shudras' (indigenous people of non-Aryan origin) that the seeds of caste system took its root. A hymn of the Rig-Veda (X.90) describes the mythical moorings of caste division:

When the gods made a sacrifice with the Man as their victim…how many parts did they divide him? The Brahman was his mouth, his arms the warrior (Rajanya). His thighs became the Vaishya; of his feet, the Shudra was born. [12]

Gradually, the kings capped on the role of Vedic royalty, anointed by the Brahmins (the priests) and supported by the Kshatriyas (skilled in military artisanship). The priests blessed the Vedic kings with divinity that ascribed them with absolute powers. Sacrifices became the regular vortex of the culture cascading from king down to the lower class (sudras). The cattle remained the beast of burden. Consumption of beef on special occasions and enormous intake of ambrosia soma (intoxicant) provided an avenue for socialisation[13]. With the sanctity accorded to fire as an agent of purity, the custom of burial gave way to cremation.

Similarly, the Aryan idea of the universe and existence was in the beginning cosmic and later atheistic. The initial religious beliefs were primitive animism or paganism. Here anything beyond the common person's control or understanding was solemnised as part of divinity. Thus, Indra was a superego, the god of thunder and rain and destroyer of all unwanted forces. Life after death was at first seen as punishment for the sinners and rewards for the virtuous. Later, the doctrine of Karma (action) became part of the broader concept of Dharma, the apex of social order. It implied that your actions in previous and current life would determine your future life. The notion of Karma was the philosophical base for the justification of caste. Many of the attributes of the Aryan culture has survived till the present day.

About 140 kilometres from Ayodhya, our ancestral area was sandwiched between Kosala, the kingdom of legendary Rama, and Videha, home of the mythical princess Sita. The conjectural reign of Rama is associated with pomposity, prosperity and justice. Indians still hark back to this fabled utopian state (Ramrajya) and aspire to establish it as part of the political framework. Gandhi was one of the main proponents of this kind of unachievable, far-fetched socio-economic solution.

At the end of the Vedic era, India gave birth to two epoch-making figures, namely Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha in 563 BCE and Mahavira in 550 BCE. Their teaching inspired two different streams of religion (Buddhism and Jainism respectively) that provided a threat to nascent Brahmanism. Brahmanism neither was nor is a composite religious creed. The Brahmins (the priests) who were supposedly the purveyors of the Aryan traditions and Vedic knowledge institutionalised their esoteric position within the framework of the evolving caste system by subscribing to strict rules of existence and daily operations. Both Jainism and Buddhism was an antidote to the Brahmanical orthodoxy: questioning the authority and inclusiveness of the Vedas, antagonistic to animal sacrifices and opposed to the caste system. Both of them appealed to the Vaishyas and the lower classes as well as the mercantile community. While Jainism was an ascetic, atheistic, strictly vegetarian and resolutely non-violent, it had its impact in localised areas of India, particularly Gujarat and Rajasthan. In contrast, Buddhism, the karma (action) based atheistic creed with its emphasis on meditation, renunciation, salvation and the 'Middle Path' spread its wings far and wide not only in India but beyond into Europe, South-east Asia, China, and Japan.

The Mauryans (321-185 BCE)

In 326 BCE, after subduing Syria, Egypt, and Persia, the Greek supremo, Alexander the Great[14] invaded India through the Hindu Kush and took over parts of Indus valley. Facing the physical might of the Indian elephants for the first time, he finally overpowered the opposing forces, but at a cost. His army was exhausted that prevented him from proceeding to the Gangetic plains. Instead, he returned to Babylon and 4 years after his death, his empire collapsed. Macedonian record of his conquest and pattern of life in north-western India was the first such historical account.

While the Greek culture spread in parts of north-western India, the centre of power gravitated towards the areas now known as Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Here, the rivalry among the four main miniature kingdoms of Kashi (Banaras), Kosala, Magadha and the Vrijis finally gave way by 321 BCE to the rise of Magadha, the first historic, imperial state of northern India with its seat at Rajagriha. Now for the first time in the history of the subcontinent, a man without the pedigree of nobility or the sanctity of priestly divinity rose to be the first emperor of India and