Everand Logo

Welcome to Everand!

  • Discover millions of ebooks, audiobooks, and so much more with a free trial

    Only $11.99/month after trial. Cancel anytime.

    Fourier Series
    Fourier Series
    Fourier Series
    Ebook159 pages1 hour

    Fourier Series

    By G. H. Hardy and W. W. Rogosinski

    ()

    Read preview

    About this ebook

    Geared toward mathematicians already familiar with the elements of Lebesgue's theory of integration, this classic, graduate-level text begins with a brief introduction to some generalities about trigonometrical series. Discussions of the Fourier series in Hilbert space lead to an examination of further properties of trigonometrical Fourier series, concluding with a detailed look at the applications of previously outlined theorems. Ideally suited for both individual and classroom study.
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherDover Publications
    Release dateMay 27, 2013
    ISBN9780486316284
    Fourier Series

    Read more from G. H. Hardy

    Related to Fourier Series

    Titles in the series (100)

    View More
    View More

    Related ebooks

    Mathematics For You

    View More
    View More

    Related podcast episodes

    Related articles

    • Article

      Physicists Attack Math’s $1,000,000 Question

      Apr 4, 2017

      Physicists are attempting to map the distribution of the prime numbers to the energy levels of a particular quantum system.

      4 min read

    • Article

      The Deepest Uncertainty: When a hypothesis is neither true nor false.

      Jun 6, 2013

      Georg Cantor died in 1918 in a sanatorium in Halle, Germany. A pre-eminent mathematician, he had laid the foundation for the theory of infinite numbers in the 1870s. At the time, his ideas received hostile opposition from prominent mathematicians in

      4 min read

    • Article

      Math After COVID-19

      Apr 28, 2020

      Math After COVID-19
      4 min read

    • Article

      Why Mathematicians Should Stop Naming Things After Each Other

      Sep 2, 2020

      Any student of modern math must know what it feels like to drown in a well of telescoping terminology. For a high-profile example, let’s take the Calabi-Yau manifold, made famous by string theory. A Calabi-Yau manifold is a compact, complex Kähler ma

      6 min read

    • Article

      Math’s Beautiful Monsters: How a destructive idea paved the way for modern math.

      Apr 3, 2014

      Much like its creator, Karl Weierstrass’ monster came from nowhere. After four years at university spent drinking and fencing, Weierstrass had left empty handed. He eventually took a teaching course and spent most of the 1850s as a schoolteacher in B

      10 min read

    • Article

      How to Build a Search Engine for Mathematics: The Surprising Power of Neil Sloane’s Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences.: The surprising power of Neil Sloane’s Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences.

      Oct 22, 2015

      On the average summer Saturday, the mathematician Neil Sloane woke up to a crisis. “There are always crises,” he said— albeit crises of the teapot tempest variety. One Saturday over breakfast, he faced an inbox message titled “edits from outer space.

      10 min read

    • Article

      Math’s Beautiful Monsters

      Oct 26, 2017

      Much like its creator, Karl Weierstrass’ monster came from nowhere. After four years at university spent drinking and fencing, Weierstrass had left empty handed. He eventually took a teaching course and spent most of the 1850s as a schoolteacher in B

      10 min read

    • Article

      U.S. Mathematician Becomes First Woman To Win Abel Prize, 'Math's Nobel'

      Mar 19, 2019

      "I find that I am bored with anything I understand," Karen Uhlenbeck once said. That sentiment is part of why she won what many call the Nobel of mathematics Tuesday.

      3 min read

    • Article

      Euclid as Founding Father: We hold this mathematics to be self evident.

      Oct 13, 2016

      Despite the man’s awkward gestures, unkempt hair, and ill-fitting suit, it was one of the most extraordinary speeches that Reverend John Gulliver had ever heard. It was March 1860, and the venue was Norwich, Connecticut. The following morning Gullive

      8 min read

    • Article

      How Math’s Most Famous Proof Nearly Broke

      Dec 20, 2018

      Andrew Wiles gave a series of lectures cryptically titled “Modular Forms, Elliptic Curves, and Galois Representations” at a mathematics conference in Cambridge, England, in June 0f 1993. His argument was long and technical. Finally, 20 minutes into t

      8 min read

    • Article

      How Math’s Most Famous Proof Nearly Broke: Andrew Wiles thought he had a solution to an age-old puzzle. Until it began to unravel.

      May 28, 2015

      Andrew Wiles gave a series of lectures cryptically titled “Modular Forms, Elliptic Curves, and Galois Representations” at a mathematics conference in Cambridge, England, in June 0f 1993. His argument was long and technical. Finally, 20 minutes into t

      8 min read

    • Article

      Infinity Comes In Several Versions

      Nov 17, 2021

      In everyday life, the saying about the whole being more than the sum of its parts often applies, but in maths, it is different. A paradox becomes clear when you look at numbers. Numbers that can represent a distance along a line are known as real num

      1 min read

    • Article

      4th Intervals

      Jan 13, 2021

      4th Intervals
      5 min read

    • Article

      Soloing with 4th Intervals

      Oct 23, 2019

      Soloing with 4th Intervals
      5 min read

    • Article

      Intermediate Lesson

      Feb 18, 2020

      Intermediate Lesson
      3 min read

    • Article

      How Physics Is Like Three-Chord Rock: Like a set of common chords, the same math appears in diverse fields of physics.

      Jun 12, 2014

      A few years back, 12 million of us clicked over to watch the “Pachelbel Rant” on YouTube. You might remember it. Strumming repetitive chords on his guitar, comedian Rob Paravonian confessed that when he was a cellist, he couldn’t stand the Pachelbel

      6 min read

    • Article

      Pentatonic Substitutions, Part 1

      Feb 9, 2021

      DID YOU KNOW that every major and natural minor scale contains within its structure six different pentatonic scales — three major and three minor? Once understood and utilized, this multipentatonic awareness can open up the fretboard in many convenie

      6 min read

    • Article

      Blossom Theory

      Dec 2, 2020

      Blossom Theory
      6 min read

    • Article

      Intermediate Lesson

      Jul 14, 2020

      Intermediate Lesson
      2 min read

    • Article

      All Things Ornamental Trilling With Ease

      Nov 17, 2023

      Trills appear in music from all style periods, usually indicated by the tr symbol above the note. For those of you who have been tuning in to my masterclasses for a while, you may note that I wrote another article on trills inside issue 75. Here, tho

      5 min read

    • Article

      Intermediate Lesson

      Jan 21, 2020

      Intermediate Lesson
      3 min read

    • Article

      A Universe Made of Tiny, Random Chunks: The space-time that makes up our universe is inherently uncertain.

      Jun 6, 2013

      One of science’s most crucial yet underappreciated achievements is the description of the physical universe using mathematics—in particular, using continuous, smooth mathematical functions, like how a sine wave describes both light and sound. This is

      6 min read

    Related categories

    Reviews for Fourier Series

    0 ratings

    0 ratings0 reviews

    What did you think?

    Tap to rate

    Review must be at least 10 words

      Book preview

      Fourier Series - G. H. Hardy

      1.

      I. GENERALITIES

      1.1. Trigonometrical series. A trigonometrical series (t.s.) is a series of the form

      where

      We call this series T(θ) or simply T.

      The partial sum of T(θ), of rank n, is

      The coefficients an and bn are given, in the first instance, for n 0 and n 1 respectively. We define an and bn, for other integral values of n, by

      and cn by

      so that

      Conversely, if the cn are given, we may define an and bn by (1.1.6). Then

      We may therefore also define T(θ) as

      and sn(θ) by (1.1.7).

      We shall call (1.1.1) a ‘real’ and (1.1.7) a ‘complex’ t.s. The adjectives refer to the trigonometrical or exponential functions which occur in the series. The coefficients an and bn in (1.1.2) may be complex; but we may suppose them real, when this is convenient, by considering the real and imaginary parts of T(θ) separately. The series are formal series: there isno implication of their convergence for all or any θ. But (1.1.8) should be thought of as a limiting form of (1.1.7), i.e. as a series in some sense ‘equally extended’ in the positive and negative directions.

      In the simplest cases the series have a sum function ƒ(θ), and their coefficients can be expressed simply in terms of ƒ(θ). Suppose, for example, that the series are uniformly convergent. Then, multiplying by cos mθ and sin mθ or, in the complex case, e–miθ. integrating term by term over (– π, π), using the familiar formulae

      and finally replacing m by n, we find that

      If ƒ is real, an and bn are real, cn and c−n conjugate. If ƒ is even, bn = 0 and

      If ƒ is odd, an = 0 and bn may be reduced similarly.

      1.2. Trigonometrical series and harmonic functions. It will be useful to begin by indicating the formal connections between the theory of t.s. and the general theory of harmonic and analytic functions, of which in a sense it is a part. In what follows z = x + iy = reiθ = x − iy = re−iθ its conjugate. To fix our ideas, we suppose an and bn real (so that cn and c−n are conjugate). We also suppose an and bn bounded (as they will be in nearly all our work). The power series in r which we write down will then be convergent for r < 1 and, for a fixed r, uniformly in θ.

      If

      then u is a harmonic function, a solution of either of the equations

      It is real and regular for r < 1. We can also write

      and T(θ) is the result of writing r = 1 in either form of u. Now

      where

      Thus u is the real part of ƒ(z). Also, if we write

      we have

      where

      We shall call u and v conjugate harmonic functions, and the series

      obtained by writing r = 1 in (1.2.8), the conjugate series (c.s.) of T(θ).

      It will be convenient to prove here two formulae needed in Ch. III. If C0 = c0, Cn = 2cn for n > 0, so that ƒ(z) = ∑Cn zn, and r < 1, then

      Hence (combining the first equation with the conjugate of the second)

      for n > 0. Actually, our C0 here is real.

      1.3. Trigonometrical Fourier series. Our proof of the formulae (1.1.10) depended on the hypothesis that T(θ) was uniformly convergent, a drastic assumption unlikely to be satisfied by a t.s. chosen at random. The formulae themselves suggest that we should look at the series from a quite different point of view.

      We start from a (real or complex) function ƒ(θ) integrable (in the sense of Lebesgue) in the interval (−π, π). It is then convenient to define ƒ(θ), for all real θ, as a function with period 2π, so that ƒ(θ + 2π) = ƒ(θ), and in particular ƒ(π) = ƒ(− π), whenever ƒ(θ) is defined for one of the values of θ in question.

      We now define an, bn, and cn by (1.1.10). We call an and bn the ‘real’, cn the complex, Fourier constants (F.c.) of ƒ(θ), and (1.1.1) or (1.1.8) its Fourier series (F.s.). We express the fact that an and bn are the F.c. of ƒ(θ), and (1.1.1) its F.s., by writing ƒ ~ (an, bn) or

      Similarly we write ƒ ~ (cn) or ƒ(θ) ~ Σcn eniθ, and call (1.1.1) the ‘real’, (1.1.8) the ‘complex’, F.s. of ƒ(θ(ƒ) for the F.s. of ƒ, and T for the conjugate t.s.

      Since all the functions in (1.1.10) are periodic, we can replace the range of integration by any range (ξ, ξ + 2π). In particular, it is often convenient to regard (0, 2π), rather than (− π, π), as the fundamental interval.

      To say that a t.s. is a F.s. is to say that its coefficients an, bn, or cn are expressible in the form (1.1.10), that is to say that a certain system of integral equations has a solution. It is plain that the meaning of this statement depends on the definition of integration which we are using. We have adopted Lebesgue's: any restriction or enlargement of the definition of integration would lead to a corresponding change in the class of F.s.

      We shall see, for example, that the series

      are not, in our sense, F.s.; but the coefficients of each series can be expressed in ‘Fourier form’ by an appropriate generalization of the notion of an integral. Those of (1.3.2) can be expressed in the form

      a ‘Stieltjes integral’ in which ϕ(θππ for negative, zero, and positive θ; and those of (1.3.3) in the form (1.1.10), ƒ(θ) being the sum of the series and the integral for an (which is 0) a ‘principal value’ in the sense of Cauchy.

      A t.s. may or may not converge, and it may or may not be a F.s.; and there is no obvious correlation between the two properties (though the simplest series may be expected to have both). The series (1.3.3) converges for all θ, but is not a F.s.; on the other hand there are F.s. which do not converge for any θ. It is not even plain a priori that a t.s., known to converge and to be a F.s., is necessarily the F.s. of its sum.

      Trigonometrical series are a special class of orthogonal series; and there is a considerable part of their theory which is best regarded as part of the theory of these more general series, and which we shall develop from this point of view in Ch. II. But we must begin by a short résumé of certain parts of the theory of functions of a real variable with which we shall assume the reader to be acquainted.

      1.4. Measure and integration. We take as known the elements of Lebesgue's theory of measure and integration. We denote by L(a, b), or simply L, the class of functions ƒ(x) integrable, in Lebesgue's sense, over (a, b). The interval of integration will always be finite. We shall sometimes say ‘ƒ is L’ for ‘ƒ belongs to L’. We regard the integral of a non-negative function ƒ as defined whenever ƒ is measurable, and having a finite or infinite value according as ƒ is or is not L.

      We call a set of measure 0 a null set: null sets are irrelevant in the theory of integration. If ƒ and g differ only in a null set, we say that they are equivalent, and write ƒ ≡ g. We also say that ƒ = g for almost all x, or almost always (or almost everywhere), or ‘p.p.’ (presque partout). If ƒ ≡ 0, we say that ƒ is null. We write mE for the measure of a set E.

      We shall sometimes use letters for other classes of functions besides L; in particular we shall denote by B, C, Ck, and V the classes of bounded functions, continuous functions, functions with k continuous derivatives, and functions of bounded variation.

      We take for granted the classical theorems concerning integration and differentiation, the theorems of partial integration and substitution, the first and second mean value theorems, and the two most familiar theorems concerning passage to the limit under the integral sign. These last are: (i) if ƒn(x)→ ƒ(x) p.p. and |ƒn(xϕ(x), where ϕ(x) is L and independent of n, then

      (ii) the conclusion is also true if ƒn(x) increases with n for all, or almost all, x provided that ∫ƒn(x)dx≠ − ∞. In case (i) we shall say that ƒn(x) converges dominatedly to ƒ(x). In particular the conditions are satisfied if ƒn(x)→ ƒ(x) for all x, and |ƒn(xH, in which case

      Enjoying the preview?
      Page 1 of 1