A Complete Manual of Amateur Astronomy: Tools and Techniques for Astronomical Observations

ROBINSON

INTRODUCTION

AMATEUR ASTRONOMY IN AMERICA

Above us, the sparkling stars of the night skies stretch out like thousands of diamonds suspended on the curtain of space. Unfolding through the beauty and the mysteries of this seemingly endless expanse are patterns and answers familiar to those willing to study them—not only the professional astronomer but the casual stargazer as well. Across our country—indeed, the world—millions of amateur astronomers are involved with the study of the skies simply because of their love for the heavens.

There is an affinity for the eternity of space experienced by all of mankind, a kind of motherhood in the stars to those who study space. Since the beginning of humans on earth, there have been stargazers, but never in the history of astronomy has the interest developed at such a pace as we are experiencing now. From the movie screen to the backyard, people are now involved with the night sky, and there is a place for any person wanting to try a hand at amateur astronomy.

In our country’s infancy there were no professional astronomers. The study of the skies from American soil depended solely on the efforts of the public. Perhaps there is not so wide a gap in astronomy as in other scientific fields between the amateur and the professional. The fact that the amateur receives no pay for his or her efforts seems to be the only dividing line. This dedication and love for the science of astronomy are what spur the amateur into action and cause people with busy lifestyles to make time in the wee hours of night to experience the fascination of space.

Almost 350 years ago, on June 25, 1638, an eclipse of the moon was recorded by a Rhode Island amateur astronomer, marking the first observation in astronomy on American soil for a scientific purpose. I say for a scientific purpose simply because this observer bothered to note the length of time required for the earth’s shadow to pass entirely across the face of the moon. An observation by Thomas Hariot was made of a bright comet in 1585, but this North Carolina amateur did not record any of his observations, so no scientific data remain.

Telescopes during the late seventeenth century were of little help in bringing the influence of science to America. John Winthrop, Jr., the first governor of Connecticut, owned two of the largest telescopes of that time. However, these small instruments would not be considered good enough for use even by the beginning stargazer of today. Winthrop’s telescopes were eventually given to Harvard College in 1672 and were put to excellent use there, in spite of their limited size. The great comet of 1680 was observed with one of these telescopes from Harvard, thus beginning the first observations of the sky be an established American observatory, the observer being a nonprofessional resident of the College. A severe fire destroyed all but one of Winthrop’s instruments, as well as most of Harvard College, late in the seventeenth century. The remaining telescope was, at the time of the fire, on a foreign expedition to observe a transit of Venus across the disk of the sun. However, the fine brass vintage telescope eventually fell into the hands of British collectors and now rests far away in England.

By the eighteenth century two almanacs had been published that aided the ordinary person living in colonial America and called the happenings of the skies to the attention of otherwise unaware readers. Benjamin Franklin’s Poor Richard’s Almanac was the best seller of the time, with as many as 100,000 copies sold each year in a society of only 2 million people. The reason for the success of this and other almanacs was the importance of astronomical knowledge in all walks of life. It was needed to navigate across the countryside, rivers, lakes, and oceans, for surveying the ever-increasing land of America, for charting the wilderness, and even to tell the time of day. Astronomy was also important to astrology because the casting of horoscopes was of much greater importance to the people of the eighteenth century than it is today. Farmers and merchants used the almanac for weather forecasting throughout the year to aid in the growing, harvesting, and transporting of crops.

By the early eighteenth century, American amateur astronomers began to contribute significantly to European science. Aurorae, sunspots, eclipses of the sun and moon, Jupiter’s satellites, Mercury, Venus, and particularly meteors and fireballs dominated the scene of American research. Between 1700 and 1776 over 100 papers were contributed by amateur New England astronomers for publication by the Royal Astronomical Society of Britain. In one such paper, John Winthrop, IV, the grandson of the Connecticut governor, discussed the possibility that meteors come from interplanetary space (outside of the earth’s atmosphere) rather than from within the clouds, as was the accepted theory at the time. Until 1807, however, Winthrop’s theory created very little stir in Britain and Europe, and people did not take his belief seriously. In that year, a huge fireball that was spotted over the skies of Connecticut broke apart, dropping hundreds of pounds of fragments to the ground, thus supporting Winthrop’s claim that the meteors must be heavy particles floating in space.

Still, with so much individual effort being put forth, the year 1800 began with nothing in the way of an observatory for public or research use. In 1832 the Astronomer Royal of England noted, I am not aware that there is any public observatory in America, though there are some very able observers. The dawn of American professional astronomy began midway in the nineteenth century when the Naval Observatory at Washington, D.C., was established in 1844. In 1847 the giant 15-inch refractor at Harvard College was put to use by the father of American astronomy, William Cranch Bond, a clockmaker from Boston. Interestingly, Bond was self-trained in his knowledge of astronomy and was an amateur in the strictest sense until taking the Harvard appointment. His enthusiasm for astronomy set the pace for the future of all American astronomers, both professional and amateur.

By 1850 there were many observatories of professional quality in the United States, and by 1885 this number had grown to at least 144, most of which were supported and funded only through public endowment, with no government funds. But almost as if slapped in the face, the American amateur astronomer—the very element that fought for and supported the study of space for two centuries—began to lose prestige after 1850, primarily because of the great numbers of professional observatories and the large telescopes being put in them. Not that efforts could not be made by the amateur, but the enthusiasm waned. Even into the twentieth century this feeling of subservience to the professionals continued. In the first half of this century those who might have been involved in the study of the sky experienced two wars and a crippling depression. The sky was still there, but the eyes to see it were lacking.

TO THE PRESENT

Perhaps if it had not been for a few die-hard amateurs and telescope makers in New England and a handful of enthusiasts in California, the amateur’s contribution to astronomy might have made way entirely for the glass giants of the professional. By 1950 amateur astronomy got that shot of enthusiasm it needed, and a revival began that would sweep the country like wildfire. Just what the sparkplug was, we still do not know. Some reasons why the public may have taken off with such great enthusiasm for the stars are the following:

Two magazines, neither of which might have continued on their own, merged to provide one strong voice for the efforts of the amateur and to keep the public abreast of sky events. The Telescope and Sky became Sky and Telescope, the best-read astronomical journal in American history.

Telescope making had become an interesting hobby for young and old alike, and even those not interested in watching the stars began to make scopes in their spare time.

At the same time, commercial outlets emerged across the country providing factory instruments to the amateur with quality that rivaled that of the professional telescopes.

The space age had opened with Sputnik and lighted a fire in the intellect of the public. Moonwatch teams, consisting of amateur astronomers, were established to follow the paths of the new space satellites as they crossed the sky. This activity allowed amateurs to feel once again that they were contributing to the science of astronomy.

The interest developed so rapidly that public planetariums were established throughout the United States, increasing the enthusiasm of the people that had been whetted by newspaper reports of our space achievements.

Then, using the moonwatch teams and the planetariums as focal points, amateurs soon discovered others with the same interest and astronomy clubs began to be formed, first in the large metropolitan areas, and then spreading even to rural areas in every state. Even the clubs themselves began to organize on a national basis, and organizations supporting amateur research soon gave the amateur astronomer a reason to develop knowledge.

In Cambridge, Massachusetts, the American Association of Variable Star Observers prompted amateurs to follow the light changes of stars that are not constant in brightness. Now, nearly 75 years after its formation, the AAVSO has accumulated over 4 million observations of scientific quality—all from amateur stargazers. Thirty years ago, The Association of Lunar and Planetary Observers was founded in New Mexico to provide an outlet for serious amateur research on the moon and planets, and to date it has accumulated one of the most extensive records of observations of the planets ever amassed—again all from the nonprofessional observer. And even for the not-so-serious person, national organizations support our efforts. The Astronomical League is composed of virtually every major astronomy club in the United States, supporting the amateur’s causes, sponsoring publications, and organizing national meetings to promote that exciting feeling of being involved with astronomy.

THE AMATEUR ASTRONOMER’S CONTRIBUTION TO SCIENCE

Can the amateur astronomer still contribute to the science as in the past? It would seem that in this day of sophisticated computerized space ships and telescopes that do not even need an operator for a night’s observing, little could be done to supplement the professional’s work. Nothing could be further from the truth. Perhaps the best example of just how far an amateur astronomer can take his or her interests was seen at the turn of the twentieth century, just when it seemed that the amateur had lost any influence in a society filled with professionally trained astronomers and giant telescopes.

An American businessman, Percival Lowell, had a theory. It was a unique theory dealing with the planet Mars, perhaps the most mysterious celestial object of his day. Lowell was not an astronomer, nor had he had any formal training in astronomy other than what he had taught himself. Yet he had an idea, and he had the intellect and fortitude to resist all the criticism of the professional-oriented society. Indeed, in 1893–1894 Lowell constructed what was to become the foremost observatory in the world for the studies of planets. Located in Flagstaff, Arizona, the Lowell Observatory shines above all the rest in its uniqueness; it was the home of Mars fever, the enthusiasm and eagerness to find life on Mars, that swept the country in that period. And it was at Lowell that the only discovery in the United States of a planet—Pluto—was made. The Lowell Observatory continues to be a foremost center for the study of comets, Mars, Jupiter, and more. More uniquely, however, it continues to be like no other major research facility: it still is a private observatory, founded by an amateur astronomer, and supported entirely by his perpetual endowment for its continuance.

It was Lowell’s perseverance and his financial ability to support his hobby that enabled him to make his contribution to science. Today, it is for different reasons that the amateur astronomer continues to provide scientific data otherwise unavailable to the professional. And, unlike Lowell, the amateur’s efforts are heartily welcomed by the professional, no matter how insignificant the observations might at first seem.

The amateur astronomer is able to watch the sky in a way that the professional cannot. Indeed, many professionals rarely get a chance actually to look at the sky, being restricted to electronic instrumentation within some room beneath the observatory floor while a technician operates the tracking mechanism for the observatory telescope. Amateur astronomers are not restricted in things to observe. If a bright new comet appears, the amateur’s scope can be turned to it for valuable observations. On the other hand, the professional usually has waited long and patiently for time on one of the large telescopes to undertake a pet project. Even a bright comet is not allowed to interrupt a project that has been a year in waiting.

In many cases, the professional observatory is too we// equipped to observe many of the things studied by the amateur. Many times sophisticated instrumentation on large observatory telescopes cannot be removed, nor would anyone wish to remove it if it could be. Consequently, many of the largest telescopes can no longer be looked through. The amateur is thus given the edge for studies of the planets and other sudden transient events. And while the professional telescopes are getting more and more complicated and specialized, the amateur’s telescopes are getting larger and larger, rivaling many times the full capability of a neighboring college or university. Indeed, perhaps the best-instrumented, modest sized observatories are those belonging to amateurs. These small private observatories are complete with photoelectric photometers with strip-chart recorders, bifilar micrometers for measurements of double stars, specialized cameras for planetary photography, complete libraries, darkrooms, and much more—all of which are used every clear night.

But what can the stargazer without all this fancy gadgetry do in amateur astronomy? Truly, the sky is the limit. Even a good pair of eyes can be useful for astronomical observation during passages of bright comets and meteor showers, and even observations of many variable stars that can be seen with the naked eye.

Most of the bright comets discovered by the naked eye have been found by amateur astronomers using crude home-built, wide-field telescopes or good binoculars. Searching for comets right after sunset in the western evening sky, or just before dawn in the eastern sky, can be a relaxing way to learn the sky and an exciting way to literally spell your name across the sky. Japanese amateur astronomers—notably, Iwata, Ikeya, Kosato, and Seki—have found considerable numbers of bright comets and have received national fame in their native country. Likewise, Australian amateur astronomers can hold their own in comet discoveries. The most successful comet searcher of the twentieth century, William Bradfield of Australia, has discovered as of now 13 comets—all with a home-built 6-inch telescope assembled from scrap lumber and burlap twine.

In addition to discovering comets, amateurs devote much time to monitoring these objects as they approach and pass close to the sun. Again, the professional does not have the time for such studies, and if it were not for the amateur astronomer, much valuable data would be lost. Even the naked eye or binoculars can be useful in such observations to note the development of the curving tail of the comet, sudden increases in brightness, and other remarkable details when the comet approaches the intense radiation of the sun.

Another naked-eye project for the amateur is the surveillance of meteor showers as they come from the radiant, that point in the sky from which a shower of meteors appears to originate. Meteors belonging to shower groups can be followed night after night to determine when the maximum number per hour can be seen. It is possible through naked-eye observation to pinpoint the time of maximum to within a half hour, giving the professional data that give clues as to the motion of the meteor cloud, its density, and the part of space in which the meteors originate.

The photographically minded amateur can provide some useful information from meteor watching as well. A simple 35 mm camera mounted on a tripod and shooting with color slide film can record the tracks of bright meteors as they pass, thus providing astronomers with a rule as to the point of origin of the meteor.

Almost all the data being systematically recorded on the planets other than that sent back by spacecraft are supplied by the amateur astronomer who diligently draws and photographs the visible faces of Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. The professional astronomer’s attention has turned away from the planets in an effort to explain celestial phenomena of greater cosmological significance; but they have turned their attention from the planets before the answers were at hand. So again, the amateur astronomer, with the volunteer labor, provides the necessary data.

Amateurs study the clouds, early morning mists and fogs, violent dust storms that occur in Martian summers, and the changes in the polar caps of Mars and its dark regions, known as maria, or seas. As in Percival Lowell’s time, the amateur continues to provide most of the continuous observations of the mysterious red planet.

Jupiter offers a realm of research for the amateur astronomer that is not studied by the professional. Monitoring of the circulation patterns of Jupiter’s clouds, the rotational patterns and changes of the Great Red Spot, and the development of massive storm centers on Jupiter are all best studied by the amateur astronomer’s equipment. The solar system, forgotten by the professional, becomes a field of badly needed research for the nonprofessional astronomer.

Perhaps the area above all others in which the professional is admittedly indebted to the amateur’s efforts is the study of the stars. Stars that vary in light are numbered in the millions throughout our Milky Way galaxy; some take years to make a complete light cycle, others only take minutes. Because of the great numbers of these stars and, many times, because of the unpredictable nature of their light changes, professionals rely almost exclusively on the observations of amateurs to plot the nature of each star’s light. From these plottings, the very evolution of the star can be speculated on. In many cases, stars not seen by the naked eye as anything but a point of light are discovered to be double stars, and their masses, the size of their orbits, and even their distance from earth can all be determined through the dedication of thousands of amateur observers of variable stars.

The possibilities are endless. Whether a person is a casual stargazer or an advanced amateur astronomer involved with supplemental research, the sky continues to provide a new show every night.

THE FUTURE OF AMATEUR ASTRONOMY

A lot of people are becoming involved with astronomy. Indeed, it appears that almost everyone has that latent interest in the cosmos evolving from the subconscious to the conscious. People are excited about the sky, and the awareness is changing into a curiosity. As the answers to the curiosities begin to unfold, the fascination of astronomy becomes a habit—an overwhelming obsession that relaxes, teaches, tranquilizes, yet stimulates the imagination of all who pursue its nature.

Astronomy has been called the fastest growing hobby of the American culture. Astronomers are appearing almost monthly on the Tonight Show, and even Johnny Carson is an avid amateur astronomer. Newspaper articles appear daily announcing the discovery of some new stranger-than-science phenomenon of deep space, and weekly columns are now syndicated in the country’s largest newspapers to keep readers abreast of the happenings in the night skies.

The fact is that astronomy involves every one of us—we are made of the stars themselves. And people can seek their roots in the stars just as they can in libraries and genealogical records.

And as long as the sky can be seen, the trend will continue—to search the skies with eyes eager to learn is a natural for man. We can look into the dark night sky and peer into the past as it was millions of years ago; we can speculate, theorize, imagine as far as our minds want to go.

The sky belongs to us all; it is there for the looking. And amateur astronomy is free for the curious to explore. Tonight, begin exploring the night sky. Begin with a comfortable lawn chair or a blanket spread on the ground. Invite a friend or involve the whole family. Soon, before your eyes, the fascination with the night sky, the constellations, the planets as they trek slowly through the unchanging heavens, and the darkness of space itself begins to unfold. The more we learn, the more complex the mysteries become. Welcome to the world of amateur astronomy. It is like heaven on earth!

1

THE SELECTION OF A TELESCOPE

Getting that first telescope or the instrument you have been planning as your final investment is an exciting adventure. A new telescope can bring hours—even years—of enjoyment to the whole family. Moving up to a larger, more efficient instrument allows the serious amateur astronomer to engage in research, astrophotography, and make a contribution to the scientific field of astronomy.

However, in either case—for the beginner or the semiprofessional astronomer—the choice of a telescope is a serious matter and one that should be thoroughly planned prior to the final investment. As in many other endeavors, there is no one perfect telescope for general all-purpose, all-interest viewing. Many telescopes are well suited for studies of the planets, exhibiting very fine detail of Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn’s magnificent ring system. Others show these objects too glaringly without enough built-in magnification to do much good, yet these instruments excel in astrophotography or in views of the star clouds stretched through the summer Milky Way. Picking up some popular astronomy magazine with its dazzling array of advertisements from commercial sources merely compounds the difficult question: Which telescope is best suited for my interests?

THE MANY FUNCTIONS OF AN ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE

The beginning astronomer is usually baffled by claims for power, that is, magnification that will seemingly bring anything one wishes into view. Small department-store types of telescopes are often advertised as having such excessive magnifications as 454, 600, or even 1000. Such magnifications are not practical, even in the largest amateur telescopes. What, then, is the purpose of the telescope? It would seem at first that magnification is the primary purpose of the instrument, but there are more important functions to look for in choosing an instrument.

Light Grasp

Opinion varies, and much is already in print about the quality and performance of astronomical telescopes, but there is no substitution for size, that is, the diameter of the aperture of the primary optics. A larger telescope will exhibit more subtle detail in nebulous objects and show fainter stars because it simply has more surface area on which light is collected. Basically, before all other considerations, a telescope must be a light collector. This does not mean that instruments of smaller aperture are not suitable for astronomical studies, but only that in most cases added light grasp is an asset. The brightness of all celestial objects is designated on a somewhat arbitrary scale, known as the apparent magnitude scale, in which we assume that a star near the naked-eye limit—approximately magnitude 6—is is about 100 times fainter than a star of the magnitude 1. The basis for the assumption arose early in the second century BC when the astronomer Hipparchus compiled a star catalog containing about 1000 stars; each of the brightest stars of the major constellations were assigned first magnitude, whereas those just at the limit of naked-eye vision were said to be sixth magnitude. Consequently, a difference of five magnitudes corresponds to a ratio of 100:1, or–as suggested by astronomer Norman R. Pogson in 1856–each magnitude corresponds to the fifth root of 100, or 2.512. Put another way, a star of magnitude 1 is simply 2.512 times brighter than one of magnitude 2. It is somewhat confusing to those new to astronomy that the brigher stars have lower numbers than do the fainter ones. Exceptionally bright objects even have negative numbers to allow for the continuation of the Hipparchus/ Pogson concept.

Such magnitudes are known as apparent, or relative, because they serve only to intercompare stars and celestial objects as we perceive their brightnesses from earth. Obviously, a star appears quite bright to us if it is very close, and it appears fainter as it moves farther away. It is important to astronomers to understand the real or absolute magnitude of objects. How much light does a star actually emit into space? All stars emit light in relation to their size and temperature. By knowing the distance of the celestial object, we can compute the real brightness because the light we receive from the object varies inversely to the square of the distance that the object is from us.

Comparing the absolute magnitudes of stars allows astronomers to evaluate in more depth the physical nature of the processes of those stars. If we were able to establish just how bright each celestial object would appear if all were positioned at exactly the same distance from earth, the evaluations are simplified. Thus, the absolute magnitude of any celestial object is defined as the magnitude that that object would have if it were positioned at a distance of 10 parsecs in space, or about 32.6 light years. Our own star, the sun, shines with an apparent magnitude of −26.5, yet at that distance its absolute magnitude is a mere +4.85, near the limit of the naked eye, which is magnitude +6.

In most studies by amateur astronomers, references made to magnitude concern apparent magnitude—the brightness of the object as we see it in our instruments or with our naked eyes. The professional astronomer and theorist are more concerned with the absolute magnitude. Yet the apparent magnitude and the absolute magnitude can be derived each from the other. The first advantage of light grasp is that the limiting magnitude of a telescope increases with increased aperture. We think of limiting magnitude in terms of the faintest star that is visible under the best conditions in any given aperture. Most tables that compare aperture to limiting magnitude seem somewhat conservative in my estimation. There is no doubt that the most acute eye is capable of perceiving a faint star just beyond another’s view, but the values should be near constant for the majority of observers (See Table 1-1).

In very exacting situations, with trained observers, the magnitude limit of any telescope can be increased by adjusting the magnification upward slightly, thus increasing the threshold contrast of the object and the background sky.

The figures given in Table 1-1 can be misleading for persons not prepared to interpret them first. For example, even though a 25 cm (10-inch) reflector might be capable of showing stars to magnitude 14.2, there is no way the same telescope could be used visually to survey for galaxies of that same magnitude. When magnitudes of celestial objects are expressed, it is in terms of integrated light, that is, light compacted to a point source, like a star, and then measured. Thus, for example, the bright galaxy Messier 33 in Triangulum is a quite difficult object to view in a 25-cm telescope, even though its total brightness is greater than magnitude 6. Such extended objects will appear considerably brighter if their sizes are relatively small by comparison to Messier 33, whose light is spread out over an area greater than 1° of sky.

TABLE 1-1. Limiting visual magnitudes of telescopes of selected aperture.a

Increased aperture will likewise increase the resolution of an instrument, but atmospheric turbulence and differential cooling and heating of optics of larger telescopes will often cancel the resolution gained by an increase of objective diameter.

Resolution

Another important function of a telescope, resolution, is related not only to the size of the objective lens or mirror, but to the quality of the optics and the conditions under which they are used. According to Dawes’ criteria of telescope resolution, the larger the diameter of a telescope’s optics, the finer the detail that can be seen, as expressed in the formula:

where seep" represents the minimum separation in seconds of arc of two stars of equal magnitude, at which each star is clearly seen to be distinct from the other in a given aperture. Dawes’ criterion is 4.56, and d is the diameter of the telescope lens or mirror, in inches. Table 1-2 lists telescopes of various apertures and their resolving power, according to Dawes’ limit.

The limits set forth by the foregoing equation seem to hold fairly well but only in instances of excellent visibility and steady air. If the air is quite turbulent, due to the rapid mixing of warm and cool air, no telescope can expect to achieve the performances given in Table 1-2. Likewise, only the finest optical surfaces can attain resolution close to the figures in Table 1-2. In addition, instruments of short focal length (f/6 or faster) generally cannot resolve nearly as well as telescopes of longer focal length. Consequently, we would expect the long-focus, clear-aperture refractors to excel in resolution—and they do, in cases reaching or exceeding Dawes’ limit.

Resolution of an optical system is also affected by the bending and scattering of light that must happen through most reflector telescopes. In classical Newtonian and Cassegrainian telescopes the light as it enters the tube must pass across not only the secondary mirror but also the supporting mechanism (the spider) for that mirror. In the catadioptic, or compound, telescopes, in which a front correcting lens supports the secondary mirror, the scattering of light is much less severe.

TABLE 1-2. Resolution of telescopes according to Dawes’ criteria.

Magnification

If a telescope has great light-gathering power (large aperture) and good resolution (aperture + quality optics + air steadiness), it also should be well suited for magnification. As a matter of fact, in very steady conditions a magnification of 50 power per inch of aperture must be used to achieve optimum resolution. Anything more, and the image degrades rapidly. Even under the steadiest conditions, the eye is a limiting factor in maximum, and even minimum, magnification.

For example, under dark sky conditions, with the human eye totally dark-adapted, the pupil should measure about 8 mm. A beam of parallel light wider than the eye’s ability to receive it emerging from an eyepiece of very low power results in vignetting (i.e., loss of perception of the entire field of view). Thus, every telescope is ruled by the low-power law for minimum magnification. This law is expressed by the formula:

represents the lowest usable magnification for a particular instrument, and the aperture of the telescope is expressed in millimeters divided by 8 mm (the diameter of the pupil of the human eye when fully dark-adapted).

It has probably occurred to you at this point that there is most likely some criterion for determining the maximum power that can be utilized. The human eye achieves greatest resolution when the pupil is constricted to only 3 mm. This is because constriction causes the focal ratio of the eye to change from about f/2.7 to about f/7. Yet, when substituting 3 mm for the 8 mm of the fully dilated eye, the resulting values are still less than the highest useful magnifications. I have found, through practice, that the most practical upper limit of magnification is about five times the lower limit. Table 1-3 gives recommended lowest, optimum, and highest magnifications of telescopes of various aperture.

The upper limits of magnification on any given night, of course, will depend on the state of the atmosphere for that night. On the crisp cool nights when the sky is amazingly transparent, the steadiness of the air is usually quite poor. Conversely, when there is a heat inversion in the summer months, with stagnant air overhead, the air is usually quite steady, allowing for excellent views of the planets and double stars. Like resolution, the magnification potential of a telescope increases on such nights because the boiling of the earth’s air is at minimum and definition is steady and uninterrupted.

Telescopes that have a minimal number of light obstructions in the optical path are potentially higher magnifiers than other types. Refractors, with their clear unobstructed aperture, usually can hold more magnification while maintaining steady images than can a reflector of equivalent size.

TABLE 1-3. Recommended lowest and highest magnifications for given telescopes.

TELESCOPE DESIGN AND RECOMMENDED USE

Three basic types of telescopes are of interest to beginning and advanced amateur astronomers. All three types are capable—at least to some degree—of performing the functions of light grasp, resolution, and magnification. Any type of telescope can be used for almost every project described in the following chapters, but some are better suited for particular uses than others. The refractor telescope is that which is commonly brought to mind when someone mentions astronomy. The refractor uses a lens as its light collector at one end, and an observer at the other. Its counterpart is the reflector, which uses a mirror, as its name implies. The third common telescope in amateur hands is the compound, or cotadioptic design, which uses both mirrors and lenses to provide long focal lengths and quality image formation. Each of the three types has certain advantages and disadvantages, but when properly used each gives endless enjoyment and is a tool whereby the projects described in the following chapters can be begun with scientific vigor.

The Refractor

The refractor telescope is what the layman envisions as a telescope: a long tube with a lens at one end and a human eyeball at the other. The front element, or objective, is a convex lens of long focal length (see Figure 1-1 a), followed by a second lens of equal size. Together the pair of lenses form an achromatic lens, one that should provide images in their true colors.

However, any piece of glass has prismatic capability, refracting various wavelengths of light in varying degrees, and even achromatic lenses are not free from some spurious violet coloration. The longer the focal ratio of the system (f/12 and longer), the less detrimental the color becomes. If it were not for the second, or flint lens, behind the convex glass (the crown lens), the spurious blue introduced through the aberration of light would render the instrument almost useless.

To produce an achromatic objective for a refractor requires an optician to grind, polish, and figure four surfaces, not just one, as in the case of a reflector telescope. Such work is time consuming and expensive; likewise, the pure glass, free of defects and bubbles, must be carefully and individually selected from expensive stock. The heart of the refractor—its objective lens—is therefore a very costly item.

Refractors become quite massive in the larger sizes. Even a 4-inch refractor has a tube 60 inches long and must be mounted high enough to allow the observer easy access beneath the eyepiece when the instrument is aimed overhead. Because of this requirement for rigidity to accommodate the long tube, the height of the instrument, and the size of the optical path, refractors must be mounted on much more massive mountings than a reflector of normal (f/8) focal ratio with an equivalent aperture. Figure 1-2 shows a 4-inch refractor in use. Transportation of refractors with apertures of 4 inches and greater also becomes quite a problem. If one does not have some type of observatory shelter in which to house the instrument, it must be disassembled each night following observing and taken back indoors. If one wishes to take the telescope to the mountains where the skies are darkest, the refractor is usually of prohibitive size. Nonetheless, the refracting telescope is still the favorite among many critical observers because it provides very dark background sky, large image scale, and superb resolution. I have even heard the comment, "I would surely rather look at the sky than to have to watch a reflection of the same thing." Perhaps there are still some aesthetics involved in amateur astronomy.

The first refractor used for astronomical observations to any degree was made by the famous Galileo Galilei in 1609. Through it he discovered the four major satellites of Jupiter, craters on the moon, sunspots, and the phases of Venus.

The refractor is an excellent choice for the discriminating observer of the moon, planets, and sun (instrumental requirements for those projects are discussed in Chapters 6, 8-10, and 5, respectively). The instrument in sizes 4 inches and larger provides crisp, sharp images of such objects, and is less subject to internal heating currents than open-tube instruments. The long focal length of the refractor is advantageous for planetary study, resulting in a large image scale with minimal eyepiece magnification.

FIGURE 1-1. Basic designs of (a) the refractor, (b) the Newtonian reflector, (c) the classical Cassegrain, and (d) the Maksutov catadioptic.

FIGURE 1-2. A commercially made 10-cm (4-inch) refracting telescope.

However, the refractor telescope is quite expensive compared to the other types, and it is not particularly outstanding for observations of variable stars, faint comets, or galaxies. A refractor with at 2.5-inch aperture costs $200 or more, depending on the mounting that holds the instrument. One with a 6-inch lens can cost up to $18,000. The largest refracting telescope in use in the world today remains the 40-inch Yerkes telescope in Wisconsin. No larger lens can ever be used effectively because the lenses must be supported around the edge (so as not to obstruct the light path). Sag would occur in the thick middle portion of lenses larger than 40 inches, distorting the clarity of the images produced. Table 1-4 demonstrates the optimum applications for the refractor telescope.

TABLE 1-4. Uses of the refractor telescope.

The Reflector

A well-made reflecting telescope is perhaps the best buy on the telescope market, offering maximum performance, portability, adequate light grasp, and a very comfortable price tag. For amateur use there is one ever-popular type of reflecting telescope—the Newtonian reflector devised by Isaac Newton in 1672. This style uses a highly polished parabolic mirror, finished to the curve of a parabola, which focuses light in the same manner as a refractor lens. Unlike the refractor, however, the reflector allows the light to be diverted rather