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The Effect of Creep and Other Time Related Factors on Plastics and Elastomers
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The second edition of the classic data book, The Effect of Creep and Other Time Related Factors on Plastics and Elastomers (originally published in 1991), has been extensively revised with the addition of an abundance of new data, the removal of all out-dated information, and the complete rebuilding of the product and company listings.
This new edition also has been reorganized from a polymer chemistry point of view. Plastics of similar polymer types are grouped into chapters, each with an introduction that briefly explains the chemistry of the polymers used in the plastics. An extensive introductory chapter has also been added, which summarizes the chemistry of making polymers, the formulation of plastics, creep-testing, test methods, measurements, and charts, as well as theory and plastic selection.
Each chapter is generally organized by product and concludes with comparisons of brand or generic products. The appendices include a list of trade names, plastics sold under those names, and manufacturer. A list of conversion factors for stress measures is also included.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Laurence W. McKeen earned a B.S. in Chemistry from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1973 and a Ph.D. in 1978 from the University of Wisconsin. He began his career with DuPont in 1978 as a mass spectroscopist, but moved into product development in the Teflon® Finishes group in 1980. Dr. McKeen has accumulated over 28 years of experience in product development and applications, working with customers in a wide range of industries, which has led to the creation of dozens of commercial products.
More than 8 core chapters, which serve as a databank for evaluating the creep of plastics Over 600 uniform graphs for more than 45 generic families of plastics are explained Types of graphs include: (1) Isochronous Stress–Strain Curves at Various Times and Temperatures (2) Creep Strain or Creep Deformation versus Time at Various Stress Levels and Temperatures (3) Various Modulus Measures (Tensile, Compressive, Flexural) versus Time at Various Temperatures (4) Hoop Stress versus Time at Various Temperatures (5) Stress Cracking and Other Plastics Failure versus Time (6) Creep Rupture versus TimeActions du livre
Commencer à lireInformations sur le livre
The Effect of Creep and Other Time Related Factors on Plastics and Elastomers
Description
The second edition of the classic data book, The Effect of Creep and Other Time Related Factors on Plastics and Elastomers (originally published in 1991), has been extensively revised with the addition of an abundance of new data, the removal of all out-dated information, and the complete rebuilding of the product and company listings.
This new edition also has been reorganized from a polymer chemistry point of view. Plastics of similar polymer types are grouped into chapters, each with an introduction that briefly explains the chemistry of the polymers used in the plastics. An extensive introductory chapter has also been added, which summarizes the chemistry of making polymers, the formulation of plastics, creep-testing, test methods, measurements, and charts, as well as theory and plastic selection.
Each chapter is generally organized by product and concludes with comparisons of brand or generic products. The appendices include a list of trade names, plastics sold under those names, and manufacturer. A list of conversion factors for stress measures is also included.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Laurence W. McKeen earned a B.S. in Chemistry from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1973 and a Ph.D. in 1978 from the University of Wisconsin. He began his career with DuPont in 1978 as a mass spectroscopist, but moved into product development in the Teflon® Finishes group in 1980. Dr. McKeen has accumulated over 28 years of experience in product development and applications, working with customers in a wide range of industries, which has led to the creation of dozens of commercial products.
More than 8 core chapters, which serve as a databank for evaluating the creep of plastics Over 600 uniform graphs for more than 45 generic families of plastics are explained Types of graphs include: (1) Isochronous Stress–Strain Curves at Various Times and Temperatures (2) Creep Strain or Creep Deformation versus Time at Various Stress Levels and Temperatures (3) Various Modulus Measures (Tensile, Compressive, Flexural) versus Time at Various Temperatures (4) Hoop Stress versus Time at Various Temperatures (5) Stress Cracking and Other Plastics Failure versus Time (6) Creep Rupture versus TimeÀ propos de l'auteur
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The Effect of Creep and Other Time Related Factors on Plastics and Elastomers - Laurence W. McKeen
Table of Contents
Cover image
Title page
Copyright
Preface
Chapter 1. Introduction to Plastics and Elastomers
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Types of Stress
1.3 Basic Concepts of Creep
1.4 Plastics and Polymers
1.5 Mechanisms of Creep in Plastics
1.6 Poisson’s Ratio
1.7 Using Creep Data in Plastic Product Design
1.8 Summary
REFERENCES
Chapter 2. Styrenic Plastics
2.1 Background
2.2 Polystyrene (PS)
2.3 AcryIonitrile-Styrene-Acrylate (ASA)
2.4 Styrene-Acrylonitrile (SAN)
2.5 Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS)
2.6 Methyl Methacrylate-Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (MABS)
2.7 Styrene-Maleic Anhydride (SMA)
2.8 Styrenic Block Copolymer (SBC)
2.9 Styrenic Blends
Chapter 3. Polyether Plastics
3.1 Background
3.2 Acetals—Polyoxymethylene (POM) Homopolymer
3.3 Acetal Copolymer—Polyoxymethylene Copolymer (POM-Co)
3.4 Modified Polyphenylene Ether/Polyphenylene Oxide (PPE or PPO)
Chapter 4. Polyesters
4.1 Background
4.2 Polycarbonate (PC)
4.3 Polybutylene Terephthalate (PBT)
4.4 Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)
4.5 Liquid Crystalline Polymer (LCP)
4.6 Polyphthalate Carbonate (PPC)
4.7 Polyester Blends and Alloys
Chapter 5. Polyimides
5.1 Background
5.2 Polyetherimide (PEI)
5.3 Polyamide-Imide (PAI)
5.4 Polyimide (PI)
Chapter 6. Polyamides (Nylons)
6.1 Background
6.2 Polyamide 6 (PA 6, Nylon 6)
6.3 Polyamide 11 (PA 11, Nylon 11)
6.4 Polyamide 12 (PA 12, Nylon 12)
6.5 Polyamide 66 (PA 66, Nylon 66)
6.6 Polyamide 610 (PA 610, Nylon 610)
6.7 Polyamide 612 (PA 612, Nylon 612)
6.8 Amorphous Polyamide
6.9 Polyamide 46 (PA 46, Nylon 46)
6.10 Polyphthalamide/High-Performance Polyamide (PPA)
6.11 Polyarylamide (PAA)
6.12 Semi-crystalline Polyamide (PACM 12)
Chapter 7. Polyolefins and Acrylics
7.1 Background
7.2 Polyethylene (PE)
7.3 Crosslinked Polyethylene (PEX)
7.4 Polypropylene (PP)
7.5 Polymethylpentene (PMP)
7.6 Ultra High Molecular Weight Polyethylene (UHMWPE)
7.7 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
7.8 Cyclic Olefin Copolymer (COC)
7.9 Acrylics
Chapter 8. Thermoplastic Elastomers
8.1 Background
8.2 Thermoplastic Polyurethane Elastomers (TPUs)
8.3 Thermoplastic Copolyester Elastomers (TPE-Es or COPEs)
Chapter 9. Fluoropolymers
9.1 Background
9.2 Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
9.3 Polyethylene Chlorotrifluoroethylene (E-CTFE)
9.4 Polyethylene Tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE)
9.5 Fluorinated Ethylene Propylene (FEP)
9.6 Perfluoroalkoxy (PFA)
9.7 Polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE)
9.8 Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF)
Chapter 10. High-Temperature Polymers
10.1 Background
10.2 Polyetheretherketone (PEEK)
10.3 Polyethersulfone (PES)
10.4 Polyphenylene Sulfide (PPS)
10.5 Polysulfone (PSU)
10.6 Polyphenylsulfone (PPSU)
Chapter 11. Table of Poisson’s Ratios
APPENDIX 1: Abbreviations
APPENDIX 2: List of Trade Names
APPENDIX 3: Unit Conversion Tables
Index
Copyright
William Andrew is an imprint of Elsevier
Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP, UK
30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA
First edition 2009
Copyright © 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher
Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights
Department in Oxford, UK: phone (+44) (0) 1865 843830; fax (+44) (0) 1865 853333; email: permissions@elsevier.com. Alternatively visit the Science and Technology website at www.elsevierdirect.com/rights for further information
Notice
No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein. Because of rapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independent verification of diagnoses and drug dosages should be made
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
McKeen, Laurence W.
The effect of creep and other time related factors on plastics and elastomers / Laurence W. McKeen.--2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-8155-1585-2
1. Plastics--Thermal properties. 2. Plastics--Testing. 3. Elastomers--Thermal properties. 4. Elastomers--Testing. I. Title.
TA455.P5M3445 2009
620.1’92333--dc22
2008053872
ISBN: 978-0-81-551585-2
For information on all Elsevier publications visit our website at elsevierdirect.com
Printed and bound in United States of America
09 10 11 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Preface
This book is an update to the first edition, published in 1991. A lot has changed in the field since that first edition, and a lot has not changed. There are new plastic materials. There has been a huge turnover in ownership of the plastic producing companies. There has been a lot of consolidation, which of course means discontinued products. Thus this update is much more extensive than the usual next edition.
It has been reorganized from a polymer chemistry point of view. Plastics of similar polymer types are grouped into nine chapters. Each of these chapters includes an introduction with a brief explanation of the chemistry of the polymers used in the plastics.
An extensive first chapter had been added. It is an introductory chapter that summarizes the chemistry of making polymers, the formulation of plastics, creep testing and test methods, creep measures and charts, theory, and plastic selection.
Most plastic products and parts are expected to be used under periodic or constant stress and at temperatures other than room temperature. Chapters 2–10 are a databank that serves as an evaluation of the creep of plastics. Over 600 uniform graphs for more than 45 generic families of plastics are contained in these chapters. The following types of graphs may be included:
(1) Isochronous Stress–Strain Curves at Various Times and Temperatures
(2) Creep Strain or Creep Deformation versus Time at Various Stress Levels and Temperatures
(3) Various Modulus Measures (Tensile, Compressive, Flexural) versus Time at Various Temperatures
(4) Hoop Stress versus Time at Various Temperatures
(5) Stress Cracking and Other Plastics Failure versus Time.
(6) Creep Rupture versus Time
The data in each chapter is generally organized by product. The unreinforced products are at the front of the chapter. Next are the reinforced grades in order of increasing reinforcement levels. Generally glass reinforcement is presented before mineral and carbon reinforcement. Comparisons of products or generic products are found at the end of each chapter.
Within each product usually isochronous plots are first, followed by creep strain. Subsequent to those are modulus plots. Creep rupture and hoop stress plots are usually at the end.
Chapter 11 contains Poisson’s ratio numbers in tabular form.
The appendices include a list of trade names, with plastics sold under those names. The manufacturer (at the time of this writing) is also listed. A list of conversion factors for stress measures is included.
Some data from the first edition has been removed. Removed data include those of discontinued products, and the data on mechanical property changes as a function of thermal or environmental aging. The thermal and environmental aging data may become part of a new book in this series. Product names and manufacturers have been updated.
Acknowledgments
This book is an update to an authorless
work by the same title. It was published in 1991. Of course it was not really authorless.
This was one of the first books published by the cofounder of William Andrew Publishing, William Woishnis. Bill Woishnis and his staff assembled this book and it was originally offered in loose leaf and binder form. His support and feedback on content are greatly appreciated
A number of teachers have greatly impacted my education and deserve special thanks. Ms. Anna Kruse was my high school chemistry teacher (Lyman Hall High School, Wallingford, CT) who not only was a great educator but also motivated this particular young student to study chemistry beyond the classroom. That included writing articles for an educational chemistry magazine while in high school and after school projects, one that eventually led to the 1969 International Science Fair. The many outstanding chemistry teachers at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI) provided the best and most thorough undergraduate chemistry education in the country. RPI continues to do so in nearly all the fields of science and engineering. Finally, my major professor at the University of Wisconsin, Professor James W. Taylor, was a great educator and ultimately developed my teaching abilities.
I am especially appreciative of the confidence, support, and patience of my friend Sina Ebnesajjad. He was also the primary proofreader of the manuscript. I would not have been given the opportunity to do this work had it not been for the support of Martin Scrivener, President of William Andrew.
My family has been particularly supportive through the long hours of writing and research from my home office. My wife, Linda, has been behind this work 100%.
My daughter Lindsey graduated from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute with a Bachelor of Science in Biomedical Engineering. She continues there working on a PhD in Biology. We talked often about polymers, plastics, and materials, as she had studied those subjects. My sons, Michael, a senior management major at James Madison University, and Steve, an education major at La Salle University, were always supportive.
Larry McKeen
Wilmington, Delaware, December 2008
Chapter 1
Introduction to Plastics and Elastomers
1.1 Introduction
In an earlier book in this series, The Effect of Temperature and Other Factors on Plastics and Elastomers,¹ the general mechanical properties of plastics were discussed. These mechanical properties as a function of temperature, humidity, and other factors are presented in graphs or tables. That work includes hundreds of graphs of stress versus strain, modulus versus temperature, impact strength versus temperature, etc. However, when one starts designing products made of plastics, these graphs do not supply all the necessary information. This is because these graphs show the results of relatively short-term tests. Their value in design is in the initial selection of materials in terms of stiffness, strength, etc. Designs based on short-term data obtained from a short-term test would not predict accurately the long-term behavior of plastics. This is partly because plastics are viscoelastic materials. Viscoelastic by definition means possessing properties that are both solid-like and liquid-like. More precisely with reference to plastics, viscoelastic means that measurements such as modulus, impact strength, and coefficient of friction are sensitive not only to straining rate, temperature, humidity, etc., but also to elapsed time and loading history. The manufacturing method used for the plastic product can also create changes in the structure of the material, which have a pronounced effect on properties.
The rest of this chapter first deals with the types of stress and provides a short introduction to creep. Then the chemistry of plastics is discussed and because plastics are polymeric materials the focus is more on polymer chemistry. The discussion includes polymerization chemistry and the different types of polymers and how they differ from each other. As plastics are rarely neat,
reinforcements, fillers, and additives are reviewed. This is followed by a detailed look at creep, including creep-specific tests and creep graphs. The discussion takes a look at what happens at the microscopic level when plastics exhibit creep. Section 1.4. is taken from The Effect of Temperature and Other Factors on Plastics and Elastomers book, but it has been refocused on creep properties.
1.2 Types of Stress
Creep is the time-dependent change in the dimensions of a plastic article when it is subjected to a constant stress. Stress can be applied in a number of ways. Normal stress (σ) is the ratio of the applied force (F) over the cross-sectional area (A), as shown in Equation 1.1:
(1.1)
1.2.1 Tensile and Compressive Stress
When the applied force is directed away from the part, as shown in Fig. 1.1, it is a tensile force inducing a tensile stress. When the force is applied towards the part, it is a compressive force inducing a compressive stress.
Figure 1.1. Illustration of tensile stress and compressive stress.
1.2.2 Shear Stress
Shear stress (τ) is also expressed as the force per unit area, as shown in Equation 1.2. The shear force is applied parallel to the cross-sectional area A
as shown in Fig. 1.2.
Figure 1.2. Illustration of shear stress.
(1.2)
1.2.3 Torsional Stress
Torsional stress (τ) occurs when a part such as a rod or shaft is twisted as in Fig. 1.3. This is also a shear stress, but the stress is variable and depends on how far the point of interest is from the center of the shaft. The equation describing this stress is shown in Equation 1.3:
Figure 1.3. Illustration of torsional stress.
(1.3)
In this equation, T is the torque and c is the distance from the center of the shaft or rod. K is a torsional constant that depends on the geometry of the shaft, rod, or beam. The torque (T) is further defined by Equation 1.4, in which θ is the angle of twist, G is the modulus of rigidity (material dependent), and L is the length.
(1.4)
The torsional constant (K) is dependent upon geometry, and the formulas for several geometries are shown in Fig. 1.4. Additional formulas for the torsional constant have been published.²
Figure 1.4. Torsional constants for rods or beams of common geometries.
1.2.4 Flexural or Bending Stress
Bending stress or flexural stress commonly occurs in two instances, as shown in Fig. 1.5. One is called a simple, supported structural beam bending and the other is called cantilever beam bending. For the simple, supported structural beam, the upper surface of the bending beam is in compression and the bottom surface is in tension. The neutral axis (NA) is a region of zero stress. The bending stress (σ) is defined by Equation 1.5, where M is the bending moment (which is calculated by multiplying a force by the distance between the point of interest and the force), c is the distance from the neutral axis (NA in Fig. 1.5), and I is the moment of inertia. The cantilevered beam configuration, which is also shown in Fig. 1.5, has a similar formula. The formulas for M, c, and I can be complex, depending on the exact configuration and beam shape, but many have been published.³
Figure 1.5. Illustration of flexural or bending stress.
(1.5)
1.2.5 Hoop Stress
Hoop stress (σh) is the mechanical stress defined for rotationally symmetric objects such as pipe or tubing. The real world view of hoop stress is the tension applied to the iron bands, or hoops, of a wooden barrel. It is the result of forces acting circumferentially. Figure 1.6 shows stresses caused by the pressure (P) inside a cylindrical vessel. The hoop stress is indicated on the right in Fig. 1.6, which shows a segment of the pipe.
Figure 1.6. Illustration of hoop stress.
The classic equation for hoop stress created by an internal pressure on a thin-wall cylindrical pressure vessel is given in Equation 1.6:
(1.6)
where P is the internal pressure, t is the wall thickness, and r is the radius of the cylinder. The SI unit for P is pascal (Pa), while t and r are in meters (m).
If the pipe is closed at the ends, any force applied on them by the internal pressure will induce an axial or longitudinal stress (σ1) on the same pipe wall. The longitudinal stress, under the same conditions as in Fig. 1.6, is given by Equation 1.7:
(1.7)
There could also be a radial stress especially when the pipe walls are thick, but thin-walled sections often have negligibly small radial stress (σr). The stress in the radial direction at a point in the tube or cylinder wall is shown in Equation 1.8:
(1.8)
where P is the internal pressure in the tube or cylinder, a is the internal radius of the tube or cylinder, b is the external radius of the tube or cylinder, and r is the radius to the point in tube where the radial stress is calculated.
Often the stresses in a pipe are combined into a measure called the equivalent stress, which is determined using the Von Mises equivalent stress formula shown in Equation 1.9:
(1.9)
where σ1 is the longitudinal stress, σh is the hoop stress, and τc is the tangential shear stress (from
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