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    The Second World War (1): The Pacific
    The Second World War (1): The Pacific
    The Second World War (1): The Pacific
    Ebook131 pages2 hours

    The Second World War (1): The Pacific

    By David Horner

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    The war in the Pacific began with the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 and ended with the atomic bombs on Hirsoshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, which led to the surrender in Tokyo Bay on 2 September 1945. It was a war of great naval battles, such as those in the Coral Sea, at Midway, and at Leyte and of grim jungle battles, at Guadalcanal, New Guinea and Burma. This book explores the many facets of this complicated conflict, which reshaped the face of Asia and splintered forever European invincibility as a colonial power.
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherBloomsbury Publishing
    Release dateJun 6, 2014
    ISBN9781472809766
    The Second World War (1): The Pacific
    Author

    David Horner

    David Horner is an emeritus professor at the Strategic and Defence Studies Centre, Australian University, Canberra, where he was previously professor of Australian defence history. A graduate of the Royal Military College, Duntroon, who served as an infantry platoon commander in South Vietnam, Colonel Horner is the author of over thirty books on military history and defence, including High Command (1982) and Blamey: The Commander-in-Chief (1998).

    Read more from David Horner

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      Book preview

      The Second World War (1) - David Horner

      Background to war

      The expansion of Imperial Japan

      The Pacific War was caused by the expansionist ambitions of Imperial Japan and the train of events that led to it can be described fairly easily. It is much harder to explain why Japan initiated a war against the one country that had the power to crush it – the USA. The answer is perhaps found in Japan’s unique culture and history. Having not experienced defeat for a thousand years, and believing in the superiority of their race, culture, and spirit, the Japanese could not conceive of defeat. Somehow, trusting in the living-god Emperor, they would win, even if many would die in the process.

      The origins of the war therefore lie in Japan’s emergence after more than two centuries of isolation from the outside world. To protect itself from foreign influences, in the early seventeenth century Japan had expelled all foreigners and had severely restricted foreign access. This isolation was shattered in 1853, when four American warships appeared in Tokyo Bay and their commander, Commodore Matthew Perry, began negotiations that led eventually to a commercial treaty between the USA and Japan.

      Thereafter the Japanese moved rapidly to modernize their country. The power of the feudal warlords collapsed and in 1868 the new Emperor announced a policy of seeking knowledge from around the world. Japan adopted a vaguely democratic constitution with an elected parliament or Diet. Compulsory education was introduced, although with heavy emphasis on obedience to the Emperor. Asked by their teachers about their ‘dearest ambition,’ schoolboys would answer, ‘To die for the Emperor.’ The Japanese craved European technology and expertise, but did not have the time or the inclination to absorb Western ideas of democracy or liberalism.

      Japanese insecurity and expansionism

      The Japanese were acutely conscious of their vulnerability. Over the preceding centuries, European powers had seized colonies in the Asia-Pacific area. Britain held Malaya, Burma, and India, the French were in Indo-China, the Dutch owned the East Indies (now Indonesia) and Germany had part of New Guinea. The Europeans and the Americans had also won concessions from a weak and disorganized China. If Japan were to survive, it had to establish a powerful and modern army, and a capable navy, and to support these forces it had to begin a rapid process of industrialization. Lacking natural resources but possessing a large, industrious population, Japan had to secure supplies of raw materials and find markets for its goods.

      The Japanese observed that the European powers had gained economically by exploiting their military and diplomatic power in Asia. Taking this lead, in 1894 Japan initiated a short and successful war with China over access to Korea, and the following year China ceded Formosa (Taiwan) and the Liaotung peninsula in southern Manchuria, which included the fine harbor of Port Arthur. Under pressure from Russia, Germany, and France, Japan was forced to withdraw from Manchuria. Russia moved into Manchuria, while Germany and France grabbed further concessions in China. To the enraged Japanese, it seemed that there was one rule for the European powers and a different rule for Asian countries. Three years later the USA took control of the Philippines.

      The Japanese were determined to gain control of those areas that they saw as vital to their economic survival. In 1904 Japan blockaded Port Arthur, and moved troops into Korea and Manchuria. In a bloody war with heavy casualties on both sides, the Japanese defeated the Russian army in Manchuria and destroyed the Russian fleet sent to relieve Port Arthur (see Osprey Guide To, The Russo-Japanese War 1904–1905). For the first time, an Asian power had defeated a European power, and the Japanese army gained in prestige and power. Japan took control of the Liaotung peninsula and stationed troops to protect the Manchurian railroad. By 1910, Japan had annexed Korea.

      Japan obtained tremendous advantages from the First World War. As one of the Allies, it seized Germany’s possessions in China and the Pacific, but never sent land forces to Europe. Fueled by the demands of the war, Japanese industries continued to expand and Japan built up its merchant navy.

      In the postwar settlement, Japan retained the former German Pacific colonies under a mandate from the League of Nations, but was upset by the Allies’ refusal to endorse a statement about nonracial discrimination. Japan was thus confirmed as a principal power in the Pacific, but was viewed with suspicion by both the USA and Britain. At a conference in Washington in 1921–22, the USA, Britain, and Japan agreed to limit their capital ships according to a ratio of 5:5:3, and the USA and Britain undertook not to fortify their Pacific possessions. Japan was aggrieved at apparent restrictions to its navy, but as both Britain and the USA also deployed their forces in the Atlantic, Japan was left as the most powerful navy in the western Pacific. Still suspicious of Japan, in 1923 Britain decided to establish a naval base at Singapore, to which it would send its main fleet in time of crisis in the Pacific.

      Meanwhile, the Japanese economy and society were coming under great strain. During the 1920s numerous earthquakes – the largest striking Tokyo in 1923 – shattered cities and factories. As the world economic system began to falter, Western countries applied trade restrictions that hurt Japanese industries. The Great Depression is generally thought to have begun with the Wall Street crash in 1929, but by 1926 more than three million Japanese industrial workers had lost their jobs. The Japanese government came under increasing pressure from militant nationalistic groups, often led by young army officers. This was a similar environment to that which led to the rise of Nazism in Germany, fascism in Italy and communism in various countries. In Japan a homegrown militarism built on the Japanese people’s belief in their national uniqueness and their heaven-granted mandate to assume leadership in east Asia.

      In Manchuria and northern China, Japan was facing new challenges. The Soviet Union was likely to oppose Japanese ambitions in the Far East. And in China, nationalist forces were being consolidated under Chiang Kai-shek. Fiercely nationalistic Japan ignored the nationalist aspirations of other Asian countries such as China and Korea.

      The Japanese semiautonomous Kwantung Army, policing the Manchurian railroad, was a highly political organization that attracted the best and most ambitious Japanese officers and dominated commercial development in the ostensibly Chinese province. On 18 September 1931, officers of the Kwantung Army falsely accused the Chinese of sabotaging the Port Arthur–Mukden railroad. Against the wishes of both the Japanese government and the commander of the Kwantung Army, Japanese forces attacked the numerically stronger armies of the local Chinese warlords and quickly overran Manchuria. Powerless, the Japanese government acquiesced, and the following year Japan established a puppet state – Manchukuo – nominally ruled by Emperor Pu Yi, but actually controlled by the Japanese commander of the Kwantung Army. In 1932 the Japanese seized the nearby province of Jehol and added eastern Chahar in 1935. Manchukuo had a population of 34 million, of whom 240,000 were Japanese (increasing to 837,000 in 1939).

      This so-called Manchurian Incident marked the beginning of full-scale Japanese aggression in Asia. The US Secretary of State condemned Japan, and after an investigation the League of Nations branded Japan as the aggressor. In response, in March 1933 Japan withdrew from the League of Nations. The Japanese War Minister, General Araki Sadao, complained that the League of Nations did not respect Japan’s ‘holy mission’ to establish peace in the Orient, but vowed that the day would come when ‘we will make the world look up to our national

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