Brittle Fracture and Damage of Brittle Materials and Composites: Statistical-Probabilistic Approaches

Brittle Fracture and Damage of Brittle Materials and Composites

Statistical-Probabilistic Approaches

Jacques Lamon

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Dedication

Copyright

Introduction

1: Flaws in Materials

Abstract:

1.1 Introduction

1.2 The theoretical strength and the intrinsic strength of materials

1.3 The fracture strength of materials

1.4 The flaws

1.5 Severity of individual flaws

1.6 Influence of flaw populations

1.7 Consequences of failure predictions

2: Statistical-Probabilistic Approaches to Brittle Fracture: The Weibull Model

Abstract:

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Weibull statistical model

2.3 Probability of fracture for a uniaxial non-uniform tensile stress field

2.4 Probability of fracture from the surface of specimens

2.5 Weibull multiaxial analysis

2.6 Multiaxial approach based on the principle of independent action of stresses

2.7 Summary on the Weibull statistical model

3: Statistical-Probabilistic Theories Based on Flaw Size Density

Abstract:

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Failure probability

3.3 Expressions for flaw size density and distribution

3.4 Introduction of stress state

3.5 Models

3.6 Limits of the flaw size density-based approaches

4: Statistical-Probabilistic Theories Based on Flaw Strength Density

Abstract:

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Basic equations of failure probability in the elemental strength approach

4.3 Elemental strength model for a uniform uniaxial stress state: Argon–McClintock development

4.4 The Batdorf model

4.5 The multiaxial elemental strength model [LAM 83]

5: Effective Volume or Surface Area

Abstract:

5.1 Introduction

5.2 The Weibull model: the effective volume for a uniaxial stress state

5.3 The multiaxial elemental strength model: the effective volume for a multiaxial stress state

5.4 Analytic expressions for failure probability, effective volume or surface area (Weibull theory)

5.5 Some remarkable exact expressions for failure probability, effective volume or surface area (multiaxial elemental strength theory)

5.5 Conclusion

6: Size and Stress-state Effects on Fracture Strength

Abstract:

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Uniform uniaxial stress state

6.3 Non-uniform uniaxial stress state

6.4 Multiaxial stress state: multiaxial elemental strength model

6.5 Applications

6.6 Conclusion

7: Determination of Statistical Parameters

Abstract:

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Methods of determination of statistical parameters

7.3 Production of empirical data

7.4 Bias and variability

7.5 Effect of the presence of multimodal flaw populations

7.6 Fractographic analysis and flaw populations

7.7 Examples

8: Computation of Failure Probability: Application to Component Design

Abstract:

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Computer programs for failure predictions

8.3 The CERAM computer program

8.4 Validation of the CERAM computer code

8.5 CERAM-based ceramic design

8.6 Relation test specimen/component: identification of allowable material properties

8.7 Determination of statistical parameters using CERAM

8.8 Application to multimaterials and composite materials

8.9 Conclusion

9: Case Studies: Comparison of Failure Predictions Using the Weibull and Multiaxial Elemental Strength Models

Abstract:

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Predictions of failure under flexural load

9.3 Prediction of thermal shock failure

9.4 Conclusion

10: Application of Statistical-Probabilistic Approaches to Damage and Fracture of Composite Materials and Structures

Abstract:

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Damage mode by successive cracking in continuous fiber reinforced composites

10.3 Flaw populations involved in damage and pertinent flaw strength density functions

10.4 Matrix fragmentation: series system model

10.5 Approach based on Poisson process

10.6 The Monte Carlo simulation method

10.7 The fragment dichotomy-based model (parallel system)

10.8 Evaluation of models: comparison to experimental data

10.9 Ultimate failure of unidirectionnally reinforced composite (Weibull model, uniform tension) in the presence of matrix damage

10.10 Application to composites: unified model

10.11 Conclusion

Bibliography

Index

Dedication

For Florence, my wife

For Natacha and Tatiana, my daughters

For my family

Copyright

First published 2016 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Press Ltd and Elsevier Ltd

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:

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Notices

Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

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© ISTE Press Ltd 2016

The rights of Jacques Lamon to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

ISBN 978-1-78548-121-5

Printed and bound in the UK and US

Introduction

Keywords: Brittle materials, Deterministic strength, Fracture mechanics, Fracture resistance, Probabilistic-statistical approaches, Statistical approaches, Weibull distribution

The fracture resistance of materials is an important issue for the reliability of systems. A lack of reliability wastes money and has slowed technological progress in many areas. Flaws are the principal source of fracture in many materials, whether brittle or ductile, whether nearly homogeneous or composite. They are introduced either during fabrication, or surface preparation, or during exposure to aggressive environments (e.g. oxidation and shock). The critical flaws act as stress concentrators and initiate cracks that propagate instantaneously to failure in the absence of crack arrest phenomena as encountered in brittle materials. In those brittle materials susceptible of crack arrest (such as continuous fiber reinforced ceramics), flaws initiate crack-induced damage. Fractures cannot be understood without a full description of microstructural features.

There are numerous brittle materials, including ceramics, glass, concrete, metals and polymers. Glass and ceramic fibers can be added to the list. Many industrial systems or structures use brittle materials. Furthermore, technological progress and the need for systems with high performances favors the development of new structural materials, which display interesting advantages such as a low density, a high resistance to elevated temperatures and aggressive environments, and good mechanical properties. These materials are the subject of important research and development programs.

It is still believed that fractures occur when nominal stress reaches a critical value, termed the strength of material. This stress is improperly considered to be a material property. It is often used as a fracture criterion. Griffith explained the failure of brittle materials. He showed on glass specimens that the low fracture strength observed in experiments was due to the presence of microscopic flaws. From this, fracture mechanics was developed. Fracture mechanics is the field of mechanics concerned with the study of the propagation of cracks in materials. Fracture mechanics concepts are used to predict the resistance to failure of materials and structures that contain a crack. Fracture toughness gives the fracture stress as a function of crack size. It is a common practice to assume that a flaw of some chosen size will be present in components, and use the linear fracture mechanics approach to calculate the stress required to propagate the crack. However, experimental failure data obtained for brittle materials are generally not reproducible, and they fluctuate by as much as an order of magnitude. The deterministic strength concept is questionable. Weibull argued that a statistical approach would be more appropriate. He proposed the so-called Weibull distribution, which he claimed applied to a wide range of problems including the strength of steel. The foundation of his theory has been questioned, and more physical statistical-probabilistic approaches to brittle fracture have thereafter been devised.

In brittle materials, flaws are numerous and randomly distributed. Their location in the material, their dimensions and their severity are generally unknown a priori. As a result, it is impossible to predict the behavior of brittle material under load with deterministic concepts. Fractures seem to be erratic. Brittle materials are often considered as unreliable.

The statistical approaches to brittle fractures provide functions that describe the distribution of fracture strengths. With the equations of probability, the occurrence of fracture can be predicted. There are two main types of probabilistic-statistical approaches to brittle fractures:

– the phenomenological and macroscopic approaches such as the Weibull model;

– the fundamental approaches that consider the flaws as physical entities. These approaches are based on flaw strength density functions. Flaw strength is defined using either the elemental strength concept or flaw size. These approaches make better predictions and are more robust than the Weibull approach because of the underlying flaw strength density function.

Fracture mechanics deals with the propagation of well-defined cracks exclusively, i.e. those cracks whose size and location are known. The probability of the presence of a flaw that initiates the crack must be introduced in the analysis. This is the added value of probabilistic approaches to brittle fracture. Similarly, the introduction of statistics in physics allowed for significant progress. Statistical physics uses methods of probability theory and statistics in solving physical problems. In particular, statistical mechanics provides a framework for relating the microscopic properties of individual atoms to the macroscopic properties of materials.

This book focuses on probabilistic approaches to brittle fracture with emphasis placed on those approaches which consider the flaws as physical entities, and more particularly the approach based on the multiaxial elemental strength concept for multiaxial problems. The following issues are discussed successively in the chapters of the book:

– the effects of flaw populations on fracture strength;

– the main statistical-probabilistic approaches to brittle fracture;

– the use of these methods for predictions of failure and effects induced by flaw populations (such as effects of size and loading mode);

– the application of these methods to component design;

– the methods of estimation of statistical parameters that define flaw strength distributions;

– the extension of these approaches to damage and failure of continuous fiber reinforced ceramic matrix composites.

Several examples of failure predictions are discussed that should be helpful to the readers. These case studies can be useful for a better understanding or for solving problems. Most examples come from high-performance ceramics, which represent quite well the family of brittle materials, and exemplify the type of fracture problems encountered with brittle materials.

This book will be of use to students, engineers and researchers who are interested in fracture and brittle materials. It tackles theoretical and experimental aspects. It proposes concepts, tools and methods to solve problems of fracture or design. Thus, for many brittle materials, their introduction in industrial systems requires appropriate approaches that are efficient to predict not only the conditions of fracture or damage in service, but also the associated risk of occurrence of these conditions.

1

Flaws in Materials

Abstract:

Any material can contain flaws, i.e. materials are never free of flaws. According to dictionaries, a flaw is an imperfection, often concealed, that impairs soundness. Here, a flaw is a heterogeneity that disrupts the theoretical order and introduces a discontinuity or a singularity. Flaws impede the working of materials and systems, as well as various optical, magnetic, mechanical, etc. properties. Various words are used for flaws, depending on length scale: dislocation, vacancy, impurity, interstitial (crystal defects), fault (geology), cavity, hole, etc. The flaws of interest in this book are those which are responsible for fractures. The occurrence of flaws is not completely avoidable in the processing, fabrication or service of a material/component. They may appear as cracks, voids, metallurgical inclusions, weld defects, design discontinuities or some combination thereof.

Keywords

Crack extension; Environment; Fracture strength; Machining flaws; Multimodal flaw; Processing flaws; Resistance; Strength; Stress field; Submicrostructure flaws

1.1 Introduction

Any material can contain flaws, i.e. materials are never free of flaws. According to dictionaries, a flaw is an imperfection, often concealed, that impairs soundness. Here, a flaw is a heterogeneity that disrupts the theoretical order and introduces a discontinuity or a singularity. Flaws impede the working of materials and systems, as well as various optical, magnetic, mechanical, etc. properties. Various words are used for flaws, depending on length scale: dislocation, vacancy, impurity, interstitial (crystal defects), fault (geology), cavity, hole, etc. The flaws of interest in this book are those which are responsible for fractures. The occurrence of flaws is not completely avoidable in the processing, fabrication or service of a material/component. They may appear as cracks, voids, metallurgical inclusions, weld defects, design discontinuities or some combination thereof.

Flaws are the weakest link of materials. They may have any shape. In certain materials, their size can be as small as a few micrometers (engineering ceramics and glass) or a fraction of a micrometer (fibers of carbon, ceramic or glass). They act as stress concentrators: they cause stress to increase locally, so that the local stress can exceed the intrinsic strength. Intrinsic strength is the strength in the absence of flaws. In single crystals, it is the stress required to break atomic bonds. It is called the theoretical strength or the ideal cohesive strength. It depends essentially on atomic bonding force. In polycrystalline materials, it takes smaller value than the theoretical strength, because of the presence of grain boundaries.

The fracture stress of materials depends on characteristics of flaw populations. As a result, it depends on extrinsic factors that contribute to flaw criticality such as specimen size, loading conditions, etc. Its sensitivity to flaws is significant when flaw extension is instantaneous and causes catastrophic failure. Brittle materials are very sensitive to flaws. The class of brittle materials includes numerous materials such as ceramics, glass, concrete, metals and polymers (at temperature < 0.75 Tg (Tg = glass transition)). By contrast, in ductile materials (like metals) or in damageable materials (like continuous fiber reinforced composites), the effect of flaws on ultimate fracture is less critical because their propagation is hampered by crack arrest phenomena (such as dislocations, slip bands, debonding at interfaces, etc.). However, in ceramic matrix composites, flaws initiate damage.

Flaws must be regarded as fundamental constituents of materials. As a result of their presence, fracture strength exhibits several features that are discussed in this first chapter. These features need to be known and accounted for in order to make sound predictions of in-service failure of components. For convenience in the discussion, we will consider the case of engineering ceramics on which a large amount of research work has been produced. They are a representative class of brittle materials.

1.2 The theoretical strength and the intrinsic strength of materials

Flawless single crystals consist of arrays of atoms that form a regular lattice. Binding of atoms involves interatomic forces, resulting from the energy of crystal. A repulsive energy and a form of attractive energy contribute to total energy. The interatomic forces ensure cohesion. Fractures occur when the links between atoms in a plane are no longer realized, splitting the material apart. The elementary modes of fracture are:

– cleavage or opening mode: the fracture plane is perpendicular to stress direction (Figure 1.1);

Figure 1.1 Interatomic force-intensity curve derivative of the total energy: d is the distance between two atoms, a 0 is the distance for binding energy (0° K): d = a o + Δa

– slipping or shearing mode: the fracture plane is parallel to the loading direction.

The opening mode governs brittle fracture. The theoretical strength (also termed ideal cohesive strength) is the stress required to break the interatomic links in the fracture plane. An exact calculation of the theoretical strength is possible for simple cases such as ionic crystals. Approximation considers the interatomic stress curve of a crystal replaced by a half sine wave (Figure 1.2).

   [1.1]

Figure 1.2 Brittle fracture by cleavage: fracture of interatomic bonds across plane XX, perpendicular to the direction of tensile stresses (σ)

E is the Young's modulus, γs is the specific fracture energy and a0 is the interatomic distance.

Estimates of theoretical strength range between 0.05 and 0.1 E. The Young's modulus of crystalline materials with strong interatomic bonds (covalent or ionic) is several hundreds of GPa (Table 1.1). The theoretical strength is as large as 10 GPa.

Table 1.1

Young's moduli and fracture strengths of metals, glass and high-performance ceramics.

1.3 The fracture strength of materials

The tensile strength (also called ultimate strength) measured on a variety of materials is generally less than 1 GPa (Table 1.1): it is less than 0.9 GPa for ceramics, and less than 3 GPa for single filaments. It may be more than 100 times as small as the theoretical strength.

This discrepancy was resolved by Griffith, who proposed that the theoretical strength required to break