Pest Management of Turfgrass for Sport and Recreation

PEST MANAGEMENT

OF TURFGRASS

FOR SPORT

AND RECREATION

Gary Beehag, Jyri Kaapro

and Andrew Manners

© Gary Beehag, Jyri Kaapro and Andrew Manners 2016

All rights reserved. Except under the conditions described in the Australian Copyright Act 1968 and subsequent amendments, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, duplicating or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. Contact CSIRO Publishing for all permission requests.

National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry

Beehag, Gary W., author.

Pest management of turfgrass for sport and recreation / Gary Beehag, Jyri Kaapro and Andrew Manners.

9780643095144 (paperback)

9781486305759 (epdf)

9781486305766 (epub)

Includes bibliographical references and index.

Turfgrasses – Diseases and pests – Control – Australia.

Turf management – Australia.

Kaapro, Jyri, author.

Manners, Andrew, author.

635.964297

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Foreword

This important book fills a long-felt need in Australian turfgrass circles for an informative account of the wide range of insect and mite species that regularly cause serious, and at times catastrophic, damage to lawns and sports turfgrass. The result of lengthy and detailed preparation, the authors have used their extensive knowledge and wide experience to present carefully verified information on the identification, ecology and distribution of more than 40 species, against a background of the underlying principles of sustainable pest management in turfgrass.

It is a matter of common observation that managed turfgrass is far more prone to damaging outbreaks of insect and mite pests than natural grasslands. However, apart from an increased use of semi-natural grasslands in large-scale landscaping, there is little scope for the replacement of lawns and sports turfgrass by semi-natural grasslands. If lawns and sports turfgrass are to continue to serve their traditional purposes in the face of competition from synthetic surfaces, it is vital that more effective and efficient ways be found for the management of insect and mite pests.

Natural grassland communities typically include several species of perennial grass together with a wide array of other flowering plants of herbaceous habit (both monocots and dicots), all well adapted to the local soil and climatic conditions as a result of natural selection over a long period of time. They also include an immense range of bacteria, algae, protozoa, fungi, insects, mites, spiders, nematodes, worms and small animals living variously in the soil, in the litter layer above the soil and in the sward or canopy. Some of these organisms live freely, some are parasitic, some form mutually beneficial associations with the grasses and other plants. Lifecycle durations vary from less than an hour (many bacteria under favourable seasonal conditions) to several years (some of the insects and fungi).

The food webs of extraordinary complexity that develop in natural grasslands ensure a rapid turnover of organic matter, the release of mineral nutrients and the achievement, at all trophic levels, of balances between prey and predator. The result is a sustainable community with a considerable capacity to endure, without permanent harm, the normal sequence of environmental perturbations such as droughts and floods. If left undisturbed, the robust ecosystem of natural grasslands is generally effective in preventing the build-up of any component species to pest proportions. When foreign species are introduced some will fail to survive, many will become integrated into and ‘managed’ by the ecosystem, but unfortunately there will be some for whom no natural predators exist in the community and, if conditions otherwise are favourable for their growth, they will quickly become destructive pests.

Managed grass communities include semi-natural grasslands, pastures, lawns, and turfgrass at various levels of input intensity. In the order listed, they form a sequence of decreasing diversity in terms of the plants present, until, with the higher classes of lawns and many types of sports turfgrass, we have monocultures of a single cultivar of a particular grass species, with rigorous elimination of all other plants. I have frequently observed that in highly managed turfgrass, compared with productive natural grassland, there is a dramatic reduction in the biological activity of the soil and litter (thatch) in terms of both the range of species present and the number of individuals in particular groups. Many factors contribute to the limited ecosystem development in highly managed turfgrass, especially the grass species monoculture, the low annual dry matter production of the closely mown surface, the removal of clippings, the restricted development of the root system, wear caused by heavy usage and, in some cases, a heavy reliance on broad-spectrum fungicides, insecticides and miticides.

Techniques for managing insect and mite pests are usually classified as cultural, biological and chemical. Cultural approaches to pest management, such as raising the height of cut, returning clippings, or changing to a better-adapted kind of grass, mostly seek to improve the quality of the ecosystem and thereby create a habitat which is less favourable for the development to pest proportions of particular insect and mite populations. Similarly, biological approaches to pest management will succeed only if the introduced organisms become a permanent part of the ecosystem. To help achieve this, it may be necessary to make cultural changes at the same time but, regrettably, in the most intensively managed turfgrass monocultures the biological spectrum of the ecosystem is so limited that the prospects of the introduced organisms surviving for more than a few weeks are exceedingly low.

Despite exploiting cultural and biological control measures to the fullest extent, there will still be situations where the integrity of grasslands and turfgrass can only be maintained by the use of chemical methods. Even in natural grasslands with their well-balanced ecosystems, the natural regulatory mechanisms may be unable to cope when certain foreign species are introduced. In this situation, chemical intervention will be required to limit the spread until appropriate biological control organisms are found and established in the ecosystem. In contrast, for many turfgrass systems managed to meet the specific requirements of particular sporting codes, there is little scope for the employment of cultural and biological methods, leaving chemical control as the primary method for dealing with insect and mite pests.

Ideally, chemical control would see the complete elimination of all stages of the lifecycle of the target pest with a single, low-rate application, without effect on any other organisms in the turfgrass ecosystem or on the wider environment. Such perfection has not yet been achieved, but in the meantime it is encouraging to note that, by careful choice and strategic use of the products, it is possible to make considerable progress towards the ideal. Population monitoring is an essential tool in the strategic use of pesticides and it is my hope that this book’s practically oriented chapter on monitoring will stimulate turfgrass managers at all levels to make full use of this powerful technique.

The dependence of the scientific specialist on a host of field-based collaborators is nowhere better demonstrated than in the matter of insect and mite lifecycles. Some of our pests have been introduced from other parts of the world, and in certain cases their lifecycle has been fully documented in their country of origin. While this forms a useful starting point, it is more than likely that under Australian climatic and cultural conditions there will be differences in the number of generations per year or in the method of overwintering. These differences have major implications for turfgrass management strategies, differences which will be most rapidly and accurately picked up by a network of observant field collaborators over the whole range of the pest.

Similarly with the matter of distribution ranges: for recently introduced insects the range may still be expanding; for native insect pests and long-introduced pests climate change is expected to have a large impact. Even if international efforts are successful in limiting mean temperature rise to 2°C, this is sufficient to allow substantial southward and altitudinal migration in Australia for many turfgrass insects and mites currently confined to the subtropical zone. For areas within the existing distribution of a pest, the temperature rise, combined with the increase in extreme weather events, is certain to alter the pattern of the lifecycle and require changes in the management strategy.

A large body of field-based collaborators reporting their observations to a central scientific group is our best option for keeping the turfgrass industry in touch with the habits and distribution of the largely unseen army of insect and mite pests of turfgrass. In all of this, accurate identification is essential, and since this can at times be difficult even for a specialist, it is pleasing to note that the book includes helpful information on the collection of insect specimens. It is hoped that this will encourage collaborators with important observations on changes in habits or in distribution to to submit specimens to specialists as a matter of routine.

This book will be of lasting value for students and their teachers, turfgrass managers, consultants and research workers. The emphasis throughout is on principles and established facts, supported by frequent references to the scientific literature. The authors are to be congratulated on the publication of this carefully researched and thoughtfully written book which will, I am sure, be warmly welcomed by all involved in the Australian turfgrass industry.

Dr Peter M. Martin

Plant Breeding Institute

University of Sydney

Camden, NSW, Australia

Contents

Foreword

Preface

About the authors

Acknowledgements

Abbreviations

Chapter 1Dynamic world of turfgrass pests

Introduction

Structure of this book

Pest triangle: climate, habitat/turfgrass and pest species

Climate change and pest distribution

Chapter 2Insect and mite morphology and development

Introduction

Characteristics of insects and mites

Conclusion

Further reading

Chapter 3Monitoring for turfgrass pests

Introduction

Monitoring for insects and mites: the basics

Economic thresholds

Collecting and identifying turfgrass insects and mites

Conclusion

Chapter 4Turfgrass integrated pest management

Introduction

Using cultural practices to prevent pests

Beneficial invertebrates in turfgrass

Using pesticides within an IPM framework

Creating a documented management plan

Conclusion

Chapter 5Root-feeding insects

Introduction

Soil scarabs (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)

Root-feeding weevils

Mole crickets (Orthoptera: Gryllotalpidae)

Scale insects

True flies

Ants

Colour plates

Chapter 6Stem-feeding pests

Introduction

Billbugs and weevils (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Leaf beetles (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Flies (Diptera: Anthomyiidae)

Scale insects (Hemiptera: Diaspididae)

Stem-feeding caterpillars

Stem-feeding mites

Chapter 7Foliage-feeding insects and mites

Introduction

Moths

Leaf beetles (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Foliage-feeding weevils

Aphids, leafhoppers and planthoppers

Grass webbing mites (Acarina)

Chapter 8Modern turfgrass insecticides and miticides

Introduction

Registration of turfgrass pesticides in Australia and NZ

Types of pesticide formulations

How insecticides and miticides work

Pesticide application

Environmental fate of turfgrass pesticides

Avoiding side effects of turfgrass pesticides

Appendix

References

Glossary

Index

Preface

Pest Management of Turfgrass for Sport and Recreation is the first comprehensive reference textbook to encompass identification, biology and management of insect and mite pests of turfgrass in Australia and New Zealand. Information to write the book was obtained from numerous sources. Starting with our own collective knowledge and experience with insects and mites, uncountable hours have been spent in Australian libraries perusing entomological literature relevant to those insect and mite species known to injure turfgrass plants. Information was sought from a number of entomologists and scientists who specialise or have knowledge and expertise with insect and mite pests of turfgrass. Additional information was obtained from turfgrass managers in Australia and New Zealand.

This book has been specifically written to address the issues of professional turfgrass managers in wanting to identify and manage turfgrass insect and mite pests. Geographically, the intended audience of the book is Australia and New Zealand; however, turfgrass managers in other countries of the southern hemisphere including the south Pacific, South-East Asia, South Africa and South America may benefit from reading this book. Emphasis has been placed on understanding that insects and mites form part of all turfgrass ecosystems, and that accurate identification and knowledge of the basic biology and ecology is fundamental to their management.

Pest Management of Turfgrass for Sport and Recreation encompasses concepts of integrated pest management (IPM), which includes cultural, biological and chemical management of insect and mite pests.

About the authors

Gary W. Beehag

Gary began his employment in the Australian turfgrass industry in 1970, gaining certificate qualifications in greenkeeping and horticulture at Ryde College of TAFE in Sydney (1972–1975), a pest control certificate (1987) and a Diploma of Technical Teaching (1987) from Sydney Teachers College. In 1980, Gary was awarded a NSW Churchill Fellowship to investigate turfgrass teaching courses and research facilities at colleges and universities in the US. Gary was employed at the Australian Turfgrass Research Institute in Sydney as a Turfgrass Consultant from 1987 to 1998; his roles included advisory work and pesticide efficacy trials including insecticides. Gary pursued roles in technical sales and support. He has written numerous articles for industry magazines and journals and has spoken at state, national and international seminars and conferences in Australia, New Zealand, Scotland, Singapore and the US.

Jyri Kaapro

Jyri gained a Bachelor of Natural Resource Management from the University of New England (Armidale, NSW) in 1988 and a Graduate Diploma in Agriculture from Charles Sturt University (Wagga Wagga, NSW) in 1993. Jyri was employed at the Australian Turfgrass Research Institute in Sydney from 1990 to 1997 as Research Manager, responsible for research and product development programs. He completed a Master of Agriculture (Turf Management) in 1999 at the University of Sydney. Jyri is Research Manager at Bayer; his responsibilities include product development of new chemicals for the control of pests, diseases and weeds in the turfgrass industry.

Andrew Manners, PhD

Andrew completed a BSc (Hons) in entomology and ecology (2001) and a PhD in entomology (2010), all at the University of Queensland. In 2009 he began working in the management of pests of turfgrass, cut flower and production nursery industries at the Redlands Research Station (Cleveland, Qld). Since 2012, he has been based at the Ecosciences Precinct (Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Qld) working in pest and disease management, mainly in the nursery production industry. He also manages the pest and disease diagnostic laboratory, Grow Help Australia (a DAF service). Overall, he has worked in or studied various aspects of integrated pest management for about 15 years.

Acknowledgements

First and foremost we greatly thank Ted Hamilton (recently retired), Julia Stuthe and Lauren Webb from CSIRO Publishing: Ted for his enthusiastic support and ongoing patience and Julia and Lauren for guidance on how to achieve this final publication.

Researching and writing this book has taken a considerable length of time and we acknowledge the co-operation and comments provided by numerous individuals and organisations. Cynthia Carson (independent lifestyle horticulture consultant) provided constructive comments and editorial advice that were invaluable; we are extremely grateful for the time she spent improving much of the practical information in this book. Thanks also go to the Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, in particular to Pat Abbott and Zalee Bates, for assistance in finding many papers that were used to write this book.

We are also indebted to the many Australian and overseas entomologists and scientists who enthusiastically provided technical information and constructive criticism or advice on particular species or species groups. In Australia, we sincerely thank Dr David Britton (Australian Museum, Sydney), Dr Jamie Davies and Guy Westmore (Tasmanian Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and Environment, Hobart), Dr Paul Horne (IPM Technologies), Danuta Knihinicki (NSW Department of Primary Industries, Orange), Dr John Matthiessen (Peracto, WA), Graeme Goodyer and Peter McMaugh (Turfgrass Scientific Services Pty Ltd, Sydney), John Neylan (Neyturf Pty Ltd) and Ron McCartney and Terry Woodcock (Sportsturf Consultants Pty Ltd, Melbourne). Acknowledgement is also given to the technical sales personnel of Globe Australia, Nuturf and Syngenta (Sydney), Ken Johnston (Sports Turf Technology, Perth) for their assistance about background information on certain pests.

Overseas turfgrass entomologists and scientists also provided assistance: they include Dr Ruth Mann (Sports Turf Research Institute, Bingley, UK), Mark McNeill, Richard Townsend and Colin Ferguson (Agrisearch, Lincoln, New Zealand), Dr Andrew Mitchell, Brendan Hannan, David Howard and David Ormsby (NZSTI), Dr Daniel Potter (University of Kentucky, Lexington), Dr James A. Reinert (Texas A&M University, Dallas) and Dr A.S. Shoeman (University of Pretoria, South Africa).

The authors wish to express their gratitude to the following persons and organisations for their permission to reproduce the illustrative figures, tables and photographs contained in this book: Lawrie Greenup (Sydney), Paul Zborowski (Speewah, Qld), AgResearch (Lincoln, New Zealand), Bayer (Sydney), Cape Kidnappers Golf Club (North Island, New Zealand), Ecogrow Environment Pty Ltd (Westgate, NSW), Elsevier B.V. (Amsterdam, The Netherlands), NZSTI (Palmerston North, New Zealand), NSW Department of Primary Industries (Menangle, NSW), Sugar Research Australia (Indooroopilly, Qld) and Tasmanian Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and Environment (Hobart).

Sincere thanks goes to the Australian bowling greenkeepers, golf course superintendents and sportsground managers who provided information based on their personal experiences in managing turfgrass insects and mites. Finally, the authors sincerely thank the enthusiastic support, guidance and constructive comments provided by Associate Professor Peter Martin (University of Sydney, Camden, NSW).

Abbreviations

1

Dynamic world of turfgrass pests

Introduction

Turfgrass provides a wide range of aesthetic, recreational and environmental benefits. Appearing uniform at the surface, turfgrass swards form dynamic ecosystems with numerous plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms. Like all cultivated plants produced in a monoculture, turfgrass has long been associated with pests. Some pests may simply be a nuisance, others may cause serious harm or damage. Typical turfgrass pests include unwanted plants (weeds), disease-causing microorganisms (plant pathogens) and herbivorous insects and mites. This book focuses on the insect and mite fauna that inhabit and damage turfgrass in Australia and NZ (Fig. 1.1). In the context of this book, ‘pests’ refer to herbivorous insects and mites.

Perennial grasses are the most common plant species managed as turfgrass. However, non-grass plants or prostrate, flowering forbs are sometimes used in certain instances. Here, the term ‘turfgrass’ describes all grass (annual and perennial) and non-grass (flowering forb) plant species subject to a mowing regime. The botanical names of certain plants used throughout the book are provided in Appendix 1, if they are not provided in the text. Most notably, ‘couchgrass’ always refers to Cynodon dactylon.

There are numerous books and technical information concerning turfgrass insect and mite pest management in the northern hemisphere. However, the majority of northern hemisphere pests are either uncommon or absent in Australia and NZ. Conversely, numerous species of herbivorous insects and mites are unique to the southern hemisphere. Varieties of turfgrass present in Australia and NZ are often different from those of the rest of the world. Furthermore, many options for the management of herbivorous insects and mites in the northern hemisphere are not currently available in Australia or NZ.

Fig. 1.1:    Map of Australia and NZ showing states, territories and capital cities.

This book assists Australian and NZ turfgrass managers by aggregating relevant information, and information that is otherwise difficult to obtain. Unfortunately, relatively little research effort has been devoted to turfgrass pests and their management in Australia and NZ. As a consequence, there are some gaps in knowledge about certain details of the biology and ecology of many insects and mites that damage turfgrass. The book offers a compilation of known biology, ecology and successful management practices for Australian and NZ conditions and summarises practical advice on pest identification and management. This information will benefit bowling greenkeepers, golf course superintendents, racecourse managers, sportsground curators, turfgrass producers and lawn maintenance personnel.

Modern turfgrass pest management includes an expanding armoury of cultural, biological and chemical management technologies. It is hoped that this book will reduce errors in turfgrass pest management. Inappropriate measures can result in poor control of the target pest, resurgence of secondary pests, death of beneficial organisms and sometimes even death of the turfgrass itself.

Structure of this book

There are two main aims of this book. The first is to enable readers to identify insect and mite pests, natural enemies and benign organisms commonly found in turfgrass environments. Many turfgrass managers are able to recognise commonly observed insects; however, new organisms may cause some consternation as to whether they are beneficial or harmful insects. Understanding the basic morphology (appearance) of insects and mites can assist turfgrass managers to recognise and categorise the organisms encountered. For this reason, Chapter 2 provides a basic foundation on the physical attributes of insects and mites that are important for distinguishing different groups. Further information in the remainder of the book will help readers to identify and manage the organism.

The second aim of this book is to assist turfgrass managers to develop a personalised pest management plan within an integrated pest management (IPM) framework. While there are many views on what IPM entails, the perspective taken in this book is that IPM simply uses all available methods strategically to produce a sward in the most cost-effective way possible. In other words, IPM includes the use of cultural practices, pesticides and biological control.

The cornerstone of pest management is knowing what pests and beneficial organisms are present. The only way to achieve this is through regular monitoring. Hence, Chapter 3 is devoted to describing how to monitor insects and mites in turfgrass. Developing a pest management plan does not have to be complicated or difficult. At first, all known information is used to formulate a working plan that can then be modified over time. There are many strategies that can be used within such a plan, and Chapter 4 describes these concepts. Chapter 4 also provides guidelines on how to create a personalised pest management plan.

Available information on the biology and management of all turfgrass pests from Australia and NZ has been collated and organised by the part of the plant affected, i.e. roots, stems and leaves. Chapter 5 covers pests that damage roots, Chapter 6 discusses pests on stems and Chapter 7 focuses on pests on foliage. Some pests damage more than one part of the plant. In these cases, the pest is described in the chapter that covers the plant part that is most damaged, and a note in other relevant chapters refers the reader to the main description.

The most common approach for the control of turfgrass pests is the use of chemical pesticides. Active ingredients registered for each pest species are included in the management section for each species in Chapter 5–7. Pesticides (and biopesticides) will always be a component of an IPM program as they remain the only way to quickly reduce large populations. The strategic use of pesticides to manage insects and mites in a cost-effective manner is discussed in detail in Chapter 8. The inclusion of active ingredients and product names is not an endorsement by the authors. As a general rule, active ingredients are listed in preference to trade names. This has been done as there are many trade names for a single active ingredient, and trade names may change even if the active ingredient remains the same. In all cases, readers should refer to current label instructions before selecting and applying any product, to ensure that it is relevant for their exact situation.

While pesticides are important, many other methods can be employed to reduce population levels to the point where pesticides may not be required on a regular basis. Ultimately, it is hoped that turfgrass managers will benefit from strategies described in Chapter 4 and in the management section in each pest species in Chapters 5–7 such that pests are managed more cost-effectively and with reduced environmental impacts (including on human health).

Last, the biology of insects and mites involves many specific terms that may not be understood without formal training in biological and/or entomological sciences. In many cases, key concepts are described without using the specific terms used by entomologists. This was done to facilitate greater understanding of biological implications of the concepts for management of a pest, as opposed to teaching entomological terms. Where this was not possible, the meaning of the term is included in the glossary, located at the back of the book.

In the remainder of this chapter, underlying factors that influence the occurrence of damage by turfgrass pests are discussed. In addition, the effects of climate change on turfgrass pests are briefly outlined.

Pest triangle: climate, habitat/turfgrass and pest species

All species and cultivars of turfgrass can be damaged by pests. Three factors significantly influence whether any given turfgrass pest will cause economic loss or significant damage: (1) climatic conditions must be favourable for the survival of the pest, (2) cultural management practices of the turfgrass must be amenable to the survival of the pest, and (3) the pest must be primarily adapted to the turfgrass species/variety present. The distribution of all herbivorous insects and mites is largely determined by these three variables (Fig. 1.2).

Fig. 1.2:    Factors influencing the presence of insect and mite pests.

The climate factor

Like all organisms, insects and mites are adapted to a set of environmental conditions. If these conditions are not met, they cannot survive and populations will never reach damaging levels. Populations are strongly influenced by regional and seasonal weather patterns. The size of the pest population is directly related to how well climatic conditions meet the requirements of a species, assuming other conditions are also met. The principal climatic factors that determine geographical limits of insects and mites are temperature, moisture, wind and light (Fig. 1.3).

Ambient temperature, normally from solar radiation, is the principal driving force behind insect and mite growth, development and behaviour. Higher temperatures are generally associated with faster lifecycles. All insect and mite species thrive within a preferred temperature range; temperatures above or below this range result in inactivity, diapause or death. The exact temperature range is dependent on the species. Insects and mites cannot directly control their body temperature. Being cold-blooded, the behaviour of individuals plays an important role in their body temperature. For example, on hot days many insects will move into shaded areas or move further underground (if subterranean species). Insects can also modify their respiratory rates and/or their internal physiology in an effort to maintain their body temperature.

Fig. 1.3:    A golf course in an alpine location (Thredbo, NSW) will have a different suite of pests from that found on a golf course in north Qld. Photo: Gary Beehag.

Other than providing heat through solar radiation, light intensity and daylength have effects on the behaviour of insects and mites. For example, the Argentine stem weevil stops laying eggs when days have less than ~12 h of daylight. Daylength can also affect the timing of adults emerging, feeding, mating and other behaviours.

All forms of water (i.e. humidity, rainfall, dew and soil moisture) are vital for terrestrial insects and mites. Many terrestrial insects require a relative humidity of 70% or higher for optimal survival and population increase (Hill 1994). Keep in mind that the thatch layer may be much more humid than that 1–2 m above the ground. Plant-feeding insects and mites obtain fluid through feeding on plants and sometimes drink from early morning dew or other moisture present in the environment. Soil moisture, resulting from rainfall or irrigation, directly affects subterranean insects; very high or low soil moisture generally causes increased mortality.

Wind has a strong impact on the activity of flying (winged) insects, influencing flight and dispersal. Wind speed can either induce or prevent the flight of insect species. In addition, many insects and mites are wind-dispersed: seasonal wind patterns strongly influence the dispersal and population distribution of such insects, e.g. armyworms.

The point here is not to elaborate on all aspects of climate that influence the biology of turfgrass pests, but to indicate that each species is unique and prefers a different set of climatic conditions. In addition, some climatic conditions can have large impacts on pest populations. For specific details on how climatic conditions influence each species, refer to their biology in Chapters 5–7.

The host factor

There are many factors that influence the suitability of a host plant for any particular turfgrass pest. Of significance are both the plant species and the way in which it has been managed. The three primary turfgrass cultural management practices are mowing, irrigation and nutrition (Watschke & Schmidt 1992). Cultural practices can influence pest populations and the level of apparent damage by these populations (see Chapter 4).

Demand for ‘instant lawns’ by residential estate developers and homeowners, and the requirement for organised (active) sports and non-organised (passive) recreation, have fuelled the rapid increase in area under turfgrass, favouring numerous insect and mite pests. Cultural management intensity ranges from highly manicured playing surfaces to low-input suburban parks (Table 1.1).

Plants managed as closely mown turfgrass (e.g. Fig. 1.4) are typically more susceptible to insect and mite pests than less managed turfgrass. High-level intensity turfgrass such as bowling and golf greens demand the highest level of aesthetic and surface uniformity. These playing surfaces are primarily cultivated on artificially constructed profiles that are highly susceptible to pests. They require frequent implementation of pest control programs that include chemical pesticides.

Table 1.1.    Categories of turfgrass.

Modified from Shildrick (1990).

Medium-level intensity turfgrass requires mowing, irrigation and fertiliser regimes. Botanical uniformity is important, with control actions needed to manage pest outbreaks. Low-intensity use turfgrass is primarily managed by infrequent mowing. Two or more plant species (polycultures) are common and turfgrass is typically grown on natural soils. In these systems, sward uniformity is not the focus; cultural management and pest control actions are uncommon.

The global turfgrass industry adopts the terms ‘cool-season’ and ‘warm-season’ grass to categorise turfgrass according to their climatic adaptability (Aldous & Chivers 2002). Most cool-season (temperate) grasses are predominantly located in suitable areas of rainfall and temperature outside 30° north or south of the equator (see Fig. 1.1; Coffs Harbour, NSW, is at 30° South). Cool-season grasses have an optimum growth temperature range of 15–24°C (Moser & Hoveland 1996). Cool-season grasses are widely distributed throughout the southern and central latitudes and higher altitudes of Australia, and all of NZ.

The majority of warm-season (tropical) grass species have a worldwide distribution within 30° latitude of the equator, with winter temperature being the main limiting factor. Warm-season grasses have an optimum