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Industrial Applications of Renewable Plastics: Environmental, Technological, and Economic Advances
De Michel Biron
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Note : 5 sur 5 étoiles5/5 (1 évaluation)
Longueur: 1,572 pages
- Éditeur:
- Elsevier Science
- Sortie:
- Nov 10, 2016
- ISBN:
- 9780323480666
- Format:
- Livre
Description
Industrial Applications of Renewable Plastics: Environmental, Technological, and Economic Advances provides practical information to help engineers and materials scientists deploy renewable plastics in the plastics market. It explores the uses, possibilities, and problems of renewable plastics and composites to assist in material selection and rejection. The designer’s main problems are examined, along with basic reminders that deal with structures and processing methods that can help those who are generally familiar with metals understand the unique properties of plastic materials.
The book offers a candid overview of main issues, including conservation of fossil resources, geopolitical considerations, greenhouse effects, competition with food crops, deforestation, pollution, and disposal of renewable plastics. In addition, an overview of some tools related to sustainability (Life cycle assessments, CO2 emissions, carbon footprint, and more) is provided.
The book is an essential resource for engineers and materials scientists involved in material selection, design, manufacturing, molding, fabrication, and other links in the supply chain of plastics. The material contained is of great relevance to many major industries, including automotive and transport, packaging, aeronautics, shipbuilding, industrial and military equipment, electrical and electronics, energy, and more.
Provides key, enabling information for engineers and materials scientists looking to increase the use of renewable plastic materials in their work Presents practical guidance to assist in materials selection, processing methods, and applications development, particularly for designers more familiar with other materials, such as metals Includes a candid discussion of the pros and cons of using renewable plastics, considering the technical, economic, legal, and environmental aspectsInformations sur le livre
Industrial Applications of Renewable Plastics: Environmental, Technological, and Economic Advances
De Michel Biron
Notes:
Note : 5 sur 5 étoiles5/5 (1 évaluation)
Longueur: 1,572 pages
Description
Industrial Applications of Renewable Plastics: Environmental, Technological, and Economic Advances provides practical information to help engineers and materials scientists deploy renewable plastics in the plastics market. It explores the uses, possibilities, and problems of renewable plastics and composites to assist in material selection and rejection. The designer’s main problems are examined, along with basic reminders that deal with structures and processing methods that can help those who are generally familiar with metals understand the unique properties of plastic materials.
The book offers a candid overview of main issues, including conservation of fossil resources, geopolitical considerations, greenhouse effects, competition with food crops, deforestation, pollution, and disposal of renewable plastics. In addition, an overview of some tools related to sustainability (Life cycle assessments, CO2 emissions, carbon footprint, and more) is provided.
The book is an essential resource for engineers and materials scientists involved in material selection, design, manufacturing, molding, fabrication, and other links in the supply chain of plastics. The material contained is of great relevance to many major industries, including automotive and transport, packaging, aeronautics, shipbuilding, industrial and military equipment, electrical and electronics, energy, and more.
Provides key, enabling information for engineers and materials scientists looking to increase the use of renewable plastic materials in their work Presents practical guidance to assist in materials selection, processing methods, and applications development, particularly for designers more familiar with other materials, such as metals Includes a candid discussion of the pros and cons of using renewable plastics, considering the technical, economic, legal, and environmental aspects- Éditeur:
- Elsevier Science
- Sortie:
- Nov 10, 2016
- ISBN:
- 9780323480666
- Format:
- Livre
À propos de l'auteur
Michel Biron is a plastics consultant based in Les Ulis, France, and is a Graduate Chemist Engineer from the Institut National Supérieur de Chimie Industrielle
de Rouen and Polymer Specialist from the Institut Français du Caoutchouc. He has authored numerous technical papers and books on plastics.
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Industrial Applications of Renewable Plastics - Michel Biron
Industrial Applications of Renewable Plastics
Environmental, Technological, and Economic Advances
Michel Biron
Table of Contents
Cover image
Title page
Series Page
Copyright
Disclaimer
Preface
Acronyms and Abbreviations
1. Outline of the Actual Situation of Plastics Compared to Conventional Materials
1.1. Polymers: The Industrial and Economic Reality Compared to Traditional Materials
1.2. What Are Thermoplastics, Thermoplastic Elastomer, Thermosets, Composites, and Hybrids?
1.3. Plastics: An Answer to the Designer’s Main Problems
1.4. Outline of the Technical and Economic Possibilities of Processing
1.5. The Final Material/Process/Cost Compromise
1.6. Useful Source Examples for Initiation of In-Depth Studies
Further Reading
2. Genesis of Renewable Plastics and Integration in the Plastics Stream
2.1. Inescapable Strengthening of Environmental Concerns
2.2. Development of Bioplastics From Renewable Sources
2.3. Pros and Cons of Renewable and Oil-Sourced Plastics
2.4. Brief Remarks on Processing and Recycling of Renewable Plastics
2.5. Pay Close Attention to Carbon Biobased Content, Testing and Certification
2.6. List of Commercial Offer Examples
2.7. Examples of Useful Sources for Initiation of In-Depth Studies
Further Reading
3. Recycling: The First Source of Renewable Plastics
3.1. Outline
3.2. Recycling Methods
3.3. Sectorial Routes for Recycling
3.4. CO2 Emission, Greenhouse Effect, and Carbon Footprint
3.5. Recyclate Property Examples
3.6. Recycled Materials Often Bring Also Cost and Pollution Savings
3.7. Some Limitations to Recycled Material Use
Further Reading
4. Renewable Plastics Derived From Natural Polymers
4.1. Brief Inventory of Renewable Polymers
4.2. Ready-to-Use Thermoplastic Blends and Derivatives of Starch
4.3. Polylactic Acid
4.4. Cellulose Derivatives
4.5. Various Aliphatic Polyesters
4.6. Liquid Wood Based on Lignin—Arboform by Tecnaro
4.7. Self-Reinforced Composite Produced From Cereals: VEGEMAT® by Vegeplast
Further Reading
Websites
5. Biobricks: The Breakthrough of Drop-In Solutions
5.1. A Broad Panel of Biomonomers and Bioblocks Similar
to Fossil Molecules
5.2. Brief Inventory of Renewable Polymers
5.3. Polyethylene
5.4. Renewable Thermoplastic Polyesters: Polyethylene Terephthalate, Polybutylene Terephthalate, Polyethylene Furanoate
5.5. Renewable Polyamides
5.6. Renewable Polyurethanes
5.7. Renewable Unsaturated Polyesters
5.8. Renewable Acrylics
5.9. Renewable Phenol Formaldehyde Resins
5.10. Renewable Epoxy Resins
5.11. Renewable Polycarbonate
5.12. Renewable Polypropylene: A Promising Way
5.13. Renewable Polyvinyl Chloride
5.14. Thermosetting Cyanate Ester Resins
5.15. Thermosetting Furan Resins
5.16. Drying Vegetable Oils
Further Reading
6. Renewable Alloys, Compounds, Composites, and Additives
6.1. Miscellaneous Proprietary Alloys and Compounds Primarily Based on Renewable Polymers
6.2. Hybrid Solutions: Proprietary Alloys and Compounds Based on Renewable and Fossil Polymers
6.3. Natural Fibers for Renewable Reinforcements
6.4. Renewable Composites Combining Natural Fibers and Renewable Matrices
6.5. Hybrid Composites Combining Renewable and Fossil Materials
6.6. Renewable Plasticizers
6.7. Other Additives From Renewable Resources
Further Reading
7. Environmental Impact of Renewable Plastics: Pros and Cons, Indicators
7.1. Pros and Cons Overview
7.2. Overview of Some Tools Related to Sustainability: Environmental Indicators and Benchmarks
7.3. Comparison of Environmental Impact of Renewable and Fossil Polymer Production
7.4. Environmental Impact of Fibers
7.5. Environmental Impact of Processing
7.6. Environmental Impact of End Product Type
7.7. Environmental Impact of Disposal
Further Reading
8. Application Examples
8.1. Packaging
8.2. Automotive and Transportation
8.3. Building and Construction: The Major Sector for Wood Plastic Composite
8.4. Application Examples Concerning Agriculture, Horticulture, Gardening
8.5. Application Examples Concerning Consumer Goods
8.6. Other Application Examples
8.7. Examples of Solutions Getting Closer to Closed Loops and Circular Economy
Further Reading
9. Renewable Plastics and Ingredients: Economic Overview
9.1. Renewable Plastics Consumption and Capacity Forecasts
9.2. Bioadditives Consumption
9.3. Wood Plastic Composite and Natural Fiber Composite Market
9.4. Biomaterial Costs
9.5. Bioplastics Applications: Survey of Six Top Markets
Further Reading
10. Future Prospects
10.1. Price Expectations
10.2. Strengthening of Laws and Regulations: Repressive, Dissuasive, or Incentive Effect
10.3. Improvement of Recycling
10.4. Diversification of Renewable Plastic Resources
10.5. The Recent Past and Immediate Future Seen Through Patents
10.6. The Recent Past and Immediate Future Seen Through Funded Research
10.7. The Immediate Future Seen Through Recent Awards
Further Reading
Conclusion
Glossary
Index
Series Page
PLASTICS DESIGN LIBRARY (PDL)
PDL HANDBOOK SERIES
Series Editor: Sina Ebnesajjad, PhD (sina@FluoroConsultants.com)
President, FluoroConsultants Group, LLC
Chadds Ford, PA, USA
www.FluoroConsultants.com
The PDL Handbook Series is aimed at a wide range of engineers and other professionals working in the plastics industry, and related sectors using plastics and adhesives.
PDL is a series of data books, reference works and practical guides covering plastics engineering, applications, processing, and manufacturing, and applied aspects of polymer science, elastomers and adhesives.
Recent titles in the series
Biopolymers: Processing and Products, Michael Niaounakis (ISBN: 9780323266987)
Biopolymers: Reuse, Recycling, and Disposal, Michael Niaounakis (ISBN: 9781455731459)
Carbon Nanotube Reinforced Composites, Marcio Loos (ISBN: 9781455731954)
Extrusion, 2e, John Wagner & Eldridge Mount (ISBN: 9781437734812)
Fluoroplastics, Volume 1, 2e, Sina Ebnesajjad (ISBN: 9781455731992)
Handbook of Biopolymers and Biodegradable Plastics, Sina Ebnesajjad (ISBN: 9781455728343)
Handbook of Molded Part Shrinkage and Warpage, Jerry Fischer (ISBN: 9781455725977)
Handbook of Polymer Applications in Medicine and Medical Devices, Kayvon Modjarrad & Sina Ebnesajjad (ISBN: 9780323228053)
Handbook of Thermoplastic Elastomers, Jiri G Drobny (ISBN: 9780323221368)
Handbook of Thermoset Plastics, 2e, Hanna Dodiuk & Sidney Goodman (ISBN: 9781455731077)
High Performance Polymers, 2e, Johannes Karl Fink (ISBN: 9780323312226)
Introduction to Fluoropolymers, Sina Ebnesajjad (ISBN: 9781455774425)
Ionizing Radiation and Polymers, Jiri G Drobny (ISBN: 9781455778812)
Manufacturing Flexible Packaging, Thomas Dunn (ISBN: 9780323264365)
Plastic Films in Food Packaging, Sina Ebnesajjad (ISBN: 9781455731121)
Plastics in Medical Devices, 2e, Vinny Sastri (ISBN: 9781455732012)
Polylactic Acid, Rahmat et al. (ISBN: 9781437744590)
Polyvinyl Fluoride, Sina Ebnesajjad (ISBN: 9781455778850)
Reactive Polymers, 2e, Johannes Karl Fink (ISBN: 9781455731497)
The Effect of Creep and Other Time Related Factors on Plastics and Elastomers, 3e, Laurence McKeen (ISBN: 9780323353137)
The Effect of Long Term Thermal Exposure on Plastics and Elastomers, Laurence McKeen (ISBN: 9780323221085)
The Effect of Sterilization on Plastics and Elastomers, 3e, Laurence McKeen (ISBN: 9781455725984)
The Effect of Temperature and Other Factors on Plastics and Elastomers, 3e, Laurence McKeen (ISBN: 9780323310161)
The Effect of UV Light and Weather on Plastics and Elastomers, 3e, Laurence McKeen (ISBN: 9781455728510)
Thermoforming of Single and Multilayer Laminates, Ali Ashter (ISBN: 9781455731725)
Thermoplastics and Thermoplastic Composites, 2e, Michel Biron (ISBN: 9781455778980)
Thermosets and Composites, 2e, Michel Biron (ISBN: 9781455731244)
To submit a new book proposal for the series, or place an order, please contact
David Jackson, Acquisitions Editor
david.jackson@elsevier.com
Copyright
William Andrew is an imprint of Elsevier
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 978-0-323-48065-9
For information on all William Andrew publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/
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Disclaimer
This book is not an encyclopedia for a definitive selection of renewable plastics but gathers some examples of commercialized or emerging renewable plastics. Property data claimed by producers or researchers are measured under specific conditions and must be checked under real conditions before use for design of renewable plastics parts. Obviously the book cannot cover all cases and it is the responsibility of the reader to select information relating to his/her own case and to search elsewhere complementary and corroborating information. This book is only one of the tools aiming to help the preselection of renewable plastics. The reader is the only responsible for his/her selection and, of course, he/she must absolutely cooperate with polymer specialists for the selection of the definitive solution system.
All the information contained in this book, collected from reliable documentation and verified as far as possible, is aimed at experienced professional readers. We cannot accept responsibility for the accuracy, availability, timeliness, content, or completeness of data, processing methods, machinery, information, and ideas.
The characteristic data, economic figures, general assessments, and indications concerning all the properties are not guaranteed and cannot be used for calculations, computations, or other operations to determine design, cost-effectiveness, or profitability. The quoted company names, trademarks, and websites are provided as they are
and do not constitute any legal or professional advice. The author is not responsible for possible technical, economic, typographical, or other errors. This book gives no warranties either expressed or implied.
Design, processing, and application of plastics and composites are professional activities needing specific skills and involving industrial and financial risks, health hazards, toxicity, fire hazards, regulation conformity, etc. Readers must verify the technical data and information, the economic figures, the possible suitability for the targeted application with their own suppliers of raw materials or parts, the machinery makers, and the other current technical and economic sources. Prototypes and tests under operating conditions are essential. The reader is the sole responsible for the chosen solutions.
Industrial replacement of fossil plastics by renewable polymers is a long way needing for example up to some decades for beverage bottles and cannot be superficially approached.
It is the responsibility of the reader to determine the appropriate use of each product, processing method, machinery, and ideas, and the compliance with processing rules, safety precautions, health hazards, existing national laws and regulations required by countries of processing, commercialization, use, and application. The safety data, facts, and figures herein are provided for information only and are no substitute for the content of material, safety data sheet, and other information from producers, compounders, converters, and other suppliers.
Preface
Plastics are often disparaged although their consumption steadily grows for many reasons including in a jumble the infinite design opportunities, cost-effective solutions, value-added solutions, and the possibility to make possible unsolvable problems. In a few words, plastics solve a lot of problems at the least cost for the most benefit for the designer, manufacturer, device integrator as well as the end customer.
On the one hand, users love affordable plastic pipes, safe electric cables, dielectric films, household appliances, smartphones, computers, home electronics, cars, packaging, aircraft, and other stacks of plastics parts. On the other hand, the ordinary mortal perceives plastics as pollutants for land and marine, sources of toxic and polluting leakages during hundreds of years.
Objectively, environmentally friendly methods exist for production and disposal of end use waste but nobody really agree to pay for their use.
Renewable plastics are part of solutions. Recycled plastics avoid use of crude oil, decrease pollution by wastes, and provide employment. Natural-sourced plastics also avoid use of crude oil and provide agricultural employment.
Engineers designing with materials are more and more often facing environmental requirements and hypotheses on crude oil shortage. Renewable plastics are well positioned to satisfy those criteria when replacing fossil plastics, metals, and other traditional materials.
Solutions must be considered very early on, as far as the question is complex and requires hard upstream research and the implementation of important logistical measures. Some examples give a rough idea of the downtimes:
• Novamont is generally recognized as a pioneer in the sector of starch-based biodegradable materials. It started its research activity in 1989. After 26 years, its production capacity for Mater-Bi® is around 120,000 tonnes p.a.
• Cargill started its polylactic acid (PLA) project in 1989. After 25 years, production is significant but remains in the area of specialties and a lot of research is necessary to expand the application field.
• In the 1980s, Imperial Chemical Industries developed poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) obtained via fermentation that was named Biopol.
It was sold under the name Biopol
and distributed in the United States by Monsanto and later Metabolix.
• Coca-Cola introduced PlantBottle Technology in 2009 as the first recyclable polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic bottle made partially from plants. Since then, more than 18 billion PlantBottle packages have reached the market in 28 countries. The company plans to convert all of its PET plastic bottles to PlantBottle packaging by 2020 that is 11 years after the introduction of the PlantBottle Technology.
• PepsiCo begins to incorporate postconsumer recycled content into its PET plastic in 2004. On average, up to 10% postconsumer recycled PET is incorporated in its primary soft-drink containers in the United States. In Canada, 7UP bottles were the first 100% postconsumer content bottles for a carbonated soft drink. PepsiCo targets to increase the US beverage container recycling rate to 50% by 2018.
• In 1950, total production of plastics was about 1.7 MT that is the magnitude order for today renewable plastics. After 60 years, total production of plastics is about 300 MT that is to say about 175 times more.
• According to C. Musso, PhD (McKinsey), new polymers have averaged 11 years to reach 300 MMlb/yr sales from when commercial plant was operational.
In conclusion, time frames for industrial development are in the order of decades from 10 up to more than 60 years according to the magnitude of the problem. Today, researchers are working for 2050 and beyond.
Today more than 95% of plastics are from fossil origin but renewable polymers and ingredients can be a major way toward a better sustainability.
This book provides practical information helping designers to situate renewable plastics in the plastics market. It is one of the tools aiming to quickly clarify the uses, possibilities, and problems of renewable plastics and composites allowing to make first raw selections and rejections. The designer’s main problems are examined and some basic reminders dealing with structures and processing methods can help designers, generally familiar to metals, to be more sensitive to plastics features.
This work considers as renewable materials: recycled plastics, bioplastics derived from natural polymers, bioplastics derived from biobricks (drop-in solutions), and biocompounds containing renewable reinforcements and/or bioadditives. Often, level of renewable material is limited for technical or economic reasons, or legal requirements. Renewable carbon content can be as low as a few tens of percent. However, the decision to use a new renewable material has technical, economic, and environmental consequences.
The selected subfamilies cannot be directly used and the reader must work deeper on the subject to choose the suitable grade in the selected subfamilies and use the actual data measured on the selected grade processed with the actual processing method for final computing, designing, economic study, etc. The advice of plastics specialists is irreplaceable, and obviously, prototypes and tests under operating conditions are essential.
This book is only one of the tools aiming to help the preselection of renewable materials for the manufacture of plastics parts. It proposes an overview of the situation and provides property data allowing to lead to a first preselection. Obviously, it cannot cover all cases but it gives some starting points for innovative thinking of the reader to select information relating to his/her own case and to search elsewhere complementary and corroborating information.
Chapter 1
First and foremost, renewable plastics must obey to the requirements of the plastics market. The goal of this chapter is to situate the whole of plastics helping to clarify quickly the use, possibilities, and problems of those materials. Consumptions, properties, and costs of plastics and composites are compared with those of their direct competitors, metals, and some other conventional materials.
After some basic reminders concerning thermoplastics, thermosets, composites, and related processing methods, the designer’s main problems are examined, considering the economic, technical, marketing, sustainability, and environmental requirements. Recycling, plastics of renewable sources, and some weaknesses of polymer materials end this chapter.
The final choice of the design team will result from much iterations concerning the functional properties, the environmental constraints, the possibilities to produce the part in the required quantities, and the price.
Producers, market study specialists, associations, and institutes are quoted to ease in-depth studies by the reader.
Chapter 2
Predictions (up to 2100) of global population growth and gross domestic product per capita should lead to higher industrial activity, depletion of resources, consumption of energy, and pollution. Our earth being an isolated system, except for sun energy, it is essential to preserve the indispensable needs of future generations during a maximum time. That has led to genesis and growth of renewable plastics. Pros and cons of oil-sourced plastics and renewable ones coming from recycling, natural polymers and natural monomers or oligomers are reviewed. Special tests and certification are examined. An extended list of commercial players allows to feel the reality of the commercial offer related to renewable plastics [PLA, starch, cellulose, lignin, polyurethane (PUR), polyamide (PA), polyethylene (PE), polyesters, engineering plastic (EP)…], composites, recyclers and recycling enhancers, special additives, biomonomers and biobricks for drop-in solutions, and renewable additives (plasticizers, processing aids, and others). A list of market study specialists, associations, and institutes dealing with renewable materials supplement the list of Chapter 1 relating to general plastics.
Chapter 3
Recycling is the first source of renewable plastics ahead natural-sourced polymers. After a brief outline relating to environmental benefits, involvements in economy, legislation, reliability and performances concerns, the various methods of recycling are examined from mechanical to thermal recycling through chemical and solvent technologies.
Rheology, mechanical performances, aging resistance, flammability, and color can be improved thanks to traditional or special additives.
The most-used sectorial routes concerning the recycling—PET and PE bottles, E&E products, automotive and building devices—are discussed.
A special attention on environmental advantages of recycling is paid to CO2 emission, greenhouse effects, and carbon footprints.
Several examples of industrially recycled plastic performances include PAs, polystyrene, ABS (acrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene), polypropylene (PP), polycarbonate (PC) and its alloys PC/ABS and PC/PBT, and polyetherimide.
Cost and pollution savings are also pointed out before an examination of some limitations.
Chapter 4
After a brief inventory of the various families of renewable plastics derived from natural polymers, this chapter deals with properties, processing and uses of thermoplastic starch, PLA, cellulosics, aliphatic polyesters, liquid wood, and self-reinforced composites produced from cereals.
Ready-to-use thermoplastic blends and derivatives of starch include Mater-Bi® (Novamont), Bioplast, Solanyl (Rodenburg), BIOPAR® (Biop), Plantic, Cornpole (Japan Corn Starch), PSM (Wuhan Huali), GAÏALENE® (Roquette), and Biolice (Limagrain).
For neat or reinforced polylactic acid derivatives (PLA, PLLA, PDLA, NeoPLA, stereocomplex), specific information put emphasis on formulation with additives and alloying with other plastics. Specific additives include melt strength enhancers, stabilizers, impact modifiers, plasticizers, colorants, nucleating agents, antifog and antistatic agents, barrier property enhancers,…
Properties of cellulose esters (acetobutyrate—CAB; acetate—CA; propionate—CP) are detailed before an overview of a proprietary grade, Biograde by FKuR.
Aliphatic polyesters include polyhydroxyalkanoate; polyhydroxybutyrate, polyhydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyvalerate; and others such as Mirel, MVera, and other commercial grades.
Liquid wood based on lignin (Arboform by Tecnaro) and self-reinforced composite produced from cereals (VEGEMAT®) conclude this chapter.
Chapter 5
A broad panel of biomonomers and bioblocks similar
to those used for fossil resins leads to special advantages but also possible limitations allowing to synthetize various plastics using traditional polymerization equipment. The most common ways are alcohol and acid routes among others.
Physical, mechanical, and chemical properties; aging; processing; applications; and producers are examined for renewable polyethylene, thermoplastic polyesters, polyamides with long and/or short hydrocarbon segments (PA11, PA1010, PA1012, PA610, PA510, PA512, PA514, PA410, PA56), polyurethanes (foams, sprays, coatings and adhesives, thermoplastic polyurethanes), unsaturated polyesters, acrylics, phenolic resins, epoxies, PCs, PP, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), furanics, and cyanate esters. Renewable plastics are new materials making that published properties are limited. Consequently to contribute helping the reader, for the most used plastics, monographs of fossil counterparts are reminded but the reader must be careful for the true properties of renewable grades that can be somewhat different even if they are claimed similar.
Chapter 6
This chapter deals with various ways used to increase the renewable carbon content of compounds by the following:
• alloying or mixing several renewable polymers
• using renewable fillers, natural fibers (NFs), plasticizers, and other renewable additives
• developing new forms of products
• expanding use of renewable plastics thanks to glass fibers and other additives.
Two main ways are investigated for alloying: on the one hand, use of several natural-sourced polymers (starch, PLA…) and on the other hand, alloying of renewable polymers (starch, PLA, algae…) and fossil products, which leads to hybrids. There are a multitude of grades with more or less defined composition leading to various properties and application fields.
Reinforcement with natural or fossil fibers and formulation with renewable additives lead to a lot of solutions evolving from renewable NFs, plasticizers, processing aids, etc., up to virgin or recycled glass or carbon fibers.
So, fossil PVC may reach renewable carbon contents of 25% and more thanks to an extensive use of renewable plasticizers.
More than 60 tables display compound properties of many examples and help readers to find producers and trade names of useful sources.
Chapter 7
This chapter aims helping readers to broach life cycle assessment (LCA), environment, pollution, renewability requirements, and other analogous new concerns requiring innovative thinking. Geopolitics involvements; competition with food crops; deforestation; pollution of air, water, and land; some pros and cons; certain preconceived ideas; and some often disregarded parameters are reviewed.
Complex concepts related to LCA—also known as ecobalance, or cradle-to-grave analysis—are examined and the emphasis is placed on greenhouse gas emission and energy consumption (statistical analysis and detailed data of numerous examples). Comparison of renewable PE and fossil PE, a textbook case, helps to clarify some ideas.
Environmental impacts of renewable and fossil polymers are examined according to different phases of the life cycle. Main environmental indicators and benchmarks relating to LCA are reviewed in relation with the diverse impacts of polymer production, fiber production, polymer processing, and end product manufacturing and recycling.
Environmental impact of disposal is detailed and diverse methods are compared. The debate on the integration of renewable plastics waste into general plastics waste streams is opened and some elements of answers are proposed.
Environmental impact of burning is detailed concerning soot emissions.
Chapter 8
This chapter reviews some applications of renewable plastics among a countless actual and potential uses. Recycled materials are not generally included in the quoted examples because they are usable in nearly all applications if there is no limitation concerning the considered article to be manufactured in the countries of production, commercialization, and use. For example, food contact or UL requirements limit the recycled material use.
Sectors under consideration are packaging; automotive and transportation; building and construction; agriculture, horticulture, and gardening; automotive, consumer goods; electricity and electronics (E&E); mechanical engineering; medical and care; sports and leisure; and furniture and bedding.
Examined points depend on the application sectors setting the focus on standards, certification, compostability, etc., according to the application. Of course, applications are very diverse ranging from commodity (bags and films) up to technical parts such as computer casings. More than 350 examples are quoted, linked to actual, industrial, experimental, or potential applications.
Wood plastic composites are more in-depth reviewed in the framework of building uses.
Chapter 9
The goal of this chapter is to help clarify quickly the consumption or production capacities of recycled and renewable materials by family, countries (United States, EU, Asia), and application markets.
After an overview of the global recycled and renewable plastics industry (up to 2020 and even beyond 2050 for long term forecast), are examined the market shares of the various renewable plastics families and the main application sectors. Renewable additives, NFs, NF composites, and WPC are also included.
Renewable plastic and NF costs are studied through raw material, additive, and reinforcement prices.
The 10 main markets (packaging; automotive and transportation; consumer goods; agriculture; building and civil engineering; electrical and electronics equipment including household, entertainment and office appliances; furniture and bedding; mechanical engineering; sports and leisure; and medical) are examined according to specific applications and used plastics families and trademarks (seven tables reviewing more than 1000 examples).
Chapter 10
This chapter provides information on the adaptability of renewable plastics and composites to environmental, economic, and technical market requirements and the capacity for innovation. Costs, laws and regulations, lack of competition with food, recycling, sustainability are the main trends.
Considering the actual low volume of renewable plastics, their high AGR, the strong environmental wave, the risks concerning crude oil availability at moderate costs, and the price of emerging renewable plastics should catch levels of fossil plastics in a first step and then drop down to lower levels. Scenarios for price modeling of polymers come out of historical prices and crude oil price hypotheses.
Of course, a plausible strengthening of laws and regulations should contribute to a positive effect.
Progress in recycling should be induced by stream treatments increasing the volume of recovery, a better sorting improving the reliability, and high-performance material recovery.
New ways toward renewable polymers mainly include innovative molecules and use of wastes as feedstock: agricultural wastes, lignin, cellulose, CO2 and other GHG, etc., for drop-in solutions.
Recent funded studies, patents, and awards give some examples of new and promising renewable plastic applications.
Once again, note this book is not an encyclopedia for a definitive selection of renewable plastics but is only one of the tools aiming to help the preselection or rejection of renewable plastics. Generally speaking, a single book cannot cover all situations and cannot replace the intelligence of a team of designers and specialists of plastics, which is the ultimate decision-maker and is solely responsible for the final selection.
Acronyms and Abbreviations
1
Outline of the Actual Situation of Plastics Compared to Conventional Materials
Abstract
First and foremost, renewable plastics must obey the requirements of the plastics market. The goal of this chapter is to situate the whole of plastics helping to clarify quickly the use, possibilities, and problems of those materials. Consumptions, properties, costs of plastics, and composites are compared with those of their direct competitors, metals, and some other conventional materials.
After some basic reminders concerning thermoplastics, thermosets, composites, and related processing methods, the designer's main problems are examined, considering the economic, technical, marketing, sustainability, and environmental requirements. Recycling, plastics of renewable sources, and some weaknesses of polymer materials end this chapter.
The final choice of the design team will result from much iterations concerning the functional properties, the environmental constraints, the possibilities to produce the part in the required quantities, and the price.
Producers, market study specialists, associations, and institutes are quoted to ease in-depth studies by the reader.
Keywords
Composite; Consumption; Environment; Market; Metals; Plastics; Price; Processing; Properties; Sustainability; Thermoset
Outline
1.1 Polymers: The Industrial and Economic Reality Compared to Traditional Materials
1.1.1 Plastic and Metal Consumption
1.1.2 Mechanical Properties
1.1.2.1 Intrinsic Mechanical Properties
1.1.2.2 Specific Mechanical Properties
1.1.3 Thermal and Electrical properties
1.1.4 Durability
1.1.5 Material Costs
1.1.5.1 Cost per Weight of Various Materials
1.1.5.2 Cost per Volume of Various Materials
1.1.5.3 Performance/Cost per Liter Ratios of Various Materials
1.2 What Are Thermoplastics, Thermoplastic Elastomer, Thermosets, Composites, and Hybrids?
1.2.1 Thermoplastics
1.2.2 Thermoplastic Elastomers
1.2.3 Thermosets
1.2.4 Polymer Composites
1.2.5 Hybrid Materials
1.3 Plastics: An Answer to the Designer’s Main Problems
1.3.1 Economic Requirements
1.3.2 Technical Requirements
1.3.3 Marketing Requirements
1.3.4 Sustainability and Environmental Requirements
1.3.5 Some Weaknesses of Polymer Materials
1.3.6 Waste Disposal: Recycling
1.3.7 Beware: Health and Safety Concerns, Regulation Compliance
1.4 Outline of the Technical and Economic Possibilities of Processing
1.4.1 Thermoplastic Processing
1.4.1.1 Molding Solid Thermoplastics
1.4.1.2 Extrusion and Connected Processes
1.4.1.3 Calendering
1.4.1.4 Blow Molding
1.4.1.5 Molding Liquid Thermoplastics
1.4.1.6 Secondary Processing
1.4.1.7 Brief Economic Comparison of Some Processing Costs
1.4.1.8 Repair Possibilities: A Significant Thermoplastic Advantage for Large Parts
1.4.2 Thermoset Processing
1.4.2.1 Molding Solid Thermosets
1.4.2.2 Molding the Liquid Thermosets
1.4.2.3 Secondary Processing
1.4.3 Composite Processing
1.4.3.1 Primary Processes
1.4.3.2 Secondary Processing
1.4.3.3 Repair Possibilities: A Significant Composite Advantage
1.4.4 Hybrid Processing
1.4.5 Additive Manufacturing Techniques for Prototyping and e-Manufacturing
1.5 The Final Material/Process/Cost Compromise
1.6 Useful Source Examples for Initiation of In-Depth Studies
Further Reading
No engineer or designer can be an ignorant of ecological trends and must consider plastics opportunities offering alternatives to metal solutions. The decision to use a new material is difficult and important. Apart from ecological consequences, there are both technical and economical consequences. It is essential to consider the following:
• The actual penetration of the material category in the industrial area
• The abundance or scarcity of the material and the process targeted
• The functionalities of the device to be designed
• The characteristics of the competing materials
• The cost
• The processing possibilities
• The environmental constraints.
The goal of the facts and figures that follow is to help clarify quickly the real applications for thermoplastics, thermosets, and composites and the relative importance of the various material families and processes involved.
The ecological constraints, which vary from country to country, are of four main types:
• Pollution: Energy consumed for production and processing of metals and polymers emits CO2 and other greenhouse gases, which contributes to global warming pollution.
• Preservation of nonrenewable resources. Development of recycling and biopolymers from renewable sources ensures the conservation of fossil resources and promotes geopolitics advantage for developing countries, the consumption of CO2 instead of its emission for the growing phase of plants.
• Recycling: Polymer recycling presents technical and economic difficulties and is less advanced, industrially, than that of steel. In the automobile sector, for example, the rate of metal recycling is higher than 95%. For polymers, recycling is not so high but Volvo, for example, uses recycled polyurethane (PUR), polypropylene, polyethylene terephthalate (PET), glass mat thermoplastic, ABS…
• Toxicity: It is the responsibility of the reader to determine the appropriate use of each product, processing method, and the compliance with processing rules, safety precautions, health hazards, existing national laws and regulations emitted by countries relevant of processing, commercialization, use, application, and waste. Without entering into details, let us recall some examples. These are far from representing the whole extent of the problem.
• The obligation to respect limits of residual monomer rates. For example, after application of the urea–formaldehyde (UF) resin, the residual rate of formaldehyde is limited according to national regulations.
• The use of heavy metals and halogens is more and more disputed.
• Solvents, for example, styrene, are subject to increasingly severe legal requirements.
1.1. Polymers: The Industrial and Economic Reality Compared to Traditional Materials
1.1.1. Plastic and Metal Consumption
Usually, material consumption is considered in terms of weight (Table 1.1), but it is also interesting to examine the following:
• The consumption or production in terms of volume (Table 1.2), which is the most important for fixed part sizes.
• The consumption or production linked to the rigidity of the engineering materials. Table 1.3 compares the rigidity-modified data for consumption expressed as volume (million m³) × Young’s modulus (GPa). The elastic tensile modulus is arbitrarily fixed at 2 for plastics, 200 for steel, and 75 for aluminum.
In the case of material replacement, if the material to be replaced, of unitary section area and unitary length, is M0 (volume V0 = 1) with Young’s modulus E0, it can be replaced with material M1 with unitary length, section area S1, and Young’s modulus E1. For the same tensile stress:
S1 × E1 = 1 × E0
Table 1.1
World Consumption or Production by Weight (million tonnes)
1970–2010, according to worldsteel.org and IAI.org.
so: S1 = E0/E1
The volume of M1 with the same rigidity as M0 is:
V1 = S1 × 1 = V0 × E0/E1
therefore: V1 × E1 = V0 × E0
For example: If the material to be replaced is steel as defined previously with 1 mm² section area, length of 1000 mm, density of 7.7, mass of 7.7 g, and Young’s modulus of 200 GPa, for a similar tensile behavior, it is necessary to use:
• A plastic part of section area is about 100 mm² for a Young’s modulus of 2 GPa. Therefore, the weight is about 100 g, which is not intellectually and economically satisfying.
Table 1.2
World Consumption or Production in Terms of Volume (million m³)
• Composite of section area is about 2.7 mm² for a Young’s modulus of 75 GPa. Therefore the weight is 3.58 g that is to say 50% of weight saving versus steel.
These examples are theoretical and in real cases, the context is completely different, low mechanical performance of plastic being compensated for thanks to design freedom, function integration, etc. When efficient, replacement of metals with plastics leads to weight savings of 10 up to 95 with an average of 45%.
The annual consumption of plastics is as follows:
• Intermediate between those of steel and aluminum in terms of weight, that is, roughly one-fifth of the consumption of steel and six times the consumption of aluminum for recent years.
Table 1.3
World Consumption in Terms of Volume (million m³) × Young’s Modulus
• Higher than those of steel and aluminum in terms of volume in recent years: roughly 1.4 times the consumption of steel and 17 times that of aluminum.
• Lower than those of steel and aluminum if we reason in terms of rigidity: plastic consumption is equivalent to roughly 1% of the steel consumption and 45% of the aluminum.
• Affected by the global economic crisis in 2008 and 2009.
The average annual growth rate over the past 40 years is as follows:
• 5.3% for plastics
• 2.5% for steel
• 3.7% for aluminum.
Over the 15 years from 2000 to 2014, the average annual growth rates are confirmed for plastics and steel (Table 1.4). For the period 2005/2010, plastics slightly slowdown and steel accelerates but the gap between average annual growth rates is not significantly affected.
Table 1.4
Growth in World Consumption Normalized on 100 for Mean of Reference Period 1985/1995
Fig. 1.1 displays these normalized changes in world consumption.
1.1.2. Mechanical Properties
1.1.2.1. Intrinsic Mechanical Properties
Expressed as Vickers hardness, the hardnesses of the engineering materials cover a vast range, broader than 1–100. The handful of example figures in Table 1.5 does not cover the hardnesses of rubbers, alveolar polymers, and flexible thermoplastics…
Fig. 1.2 visualizes the hardnesses of a broad range of materials.
Table 1.6 indicates the tensile characteristics of some traditional materials (metals, glass, wood) and polymers in various forms:
• Unidirectional composites, highly anisotropic.
• Sheet molding compound (SMC), 2-D quasi-isotropic.
• Long fiber reinforced thermoplastic, more or less quasi-isotropic.
Figure 1.1 World consumption evolutions—base 100 in 1985.
Table 1.5
Examples of Material Hardnesses
PMMA, poly methyl methacrylate.
Figure 1.2 Hardness of some materials.
• Short fiber-reinforced plastics, three-dimensional (3-D) isotropic.
• Neat polymers, 3-D isotropic.
• Alveolar polymers.
The indicated figures are examples and do not constitute exhaustive ranges.
Figs. 1.3 and 1.4 show that
• Unidirectional composites in the fiber direction can compete with existing metals and alloys. However, it is necessary to moderate this good classification by considering the high anisotropy of these composites, with low resistance and modulus in the direction perpendicular to the fibers.
• The highest performance engineering plastics compete with magnesium and aluminum alloys.
1.1.2.2. Specific Mechanical Properties
The specific mechanical properties take account of the density and consider the performance to density ratio: performance/density.
Due to the high densities of metals, the resulting classification (Table 1.7 and Figs. 1.5 and 1.6) is different from that for the mechanical properties alone.
The graphs in Figs. 1.5 and 1.6 show that
• Unidirectional composites in the fiber direction can compete with existing metals and alloys and some have the highest performances. However, it is necessary to moderate this good classification by considering their high anisotropy with low resistance and modulus in the direction perpendicular to the fibers.
Table 1.6
Examples of Tensile Properties of Various Materials
ArF, aramid fiber; CF, carbon fiber; GF, glass fiber; LGF, long glass fiber; PEEK, polyetheretherketone; SMC, sheet molding compound; UD, unidirectional.
• The best of the other engineering plastics cannot match the high performance of the magnesium and aluminum alloys in terms of rigidity.
1.1.3. Thermal and Electrical Properties
Metals are characterized by their low coefficients of thermal expansion and their strong thermal and electric conductivities, whereas wood (except where there is excessive moisture), glass, and polymers have high coefficients of thermal expansion and are electrical and thermal insulators.
Figure 1.3 Tensile strength (MPa) of various materials.
Figure 1.4 Tensile modulus (GPa) of various materials.
Table 1.7
Examples of Specific Tensile Properties of Various Materials
ArF, aramid fiber; CF, carbon fiber; GF, glass fiber; LGF, long glass fiber; PEEK, polyetheretherketone; SMC, sheet molding compound; UD, unidirectional.
Figure 1.5 Specific tensile strength (MPa) of various materials.
Figure 1.6 Specific tensile modulus (GPa) of various materials.
Table 1.8
Examples of Physical and Electrical Properties of Various Materials
ArF, aramid fiber; CF, carbon fiber; GF, glass fiber; LGF, long glass fiber; PEEK, polyetheretherketone; SMC, sheet molding compound; UD, unidirectional.
The loading or reinforcement of the polymers changes these characteristics:
• The coefficients of thermal expansion decrease.
• Carbon fibers (CFs), steel fibers, and carbon blacks lead to more or less conducting polymer grades.
Table 1.8 displays some thermal and electrical characteristics of polymers and conventional materials.
1.1.4. Durability
Metals and glass generally support higher temperatures than polymers, which present a more or less plastic behavior under stresses, leading to
• an instant reduction of the modulus and ultimate strength
• a long-term creep or relaxation.
Polymers are sensitive to thermooxidation and, for some, to moisture degradation. Provided they are not subjected to moisture degradation, polymers, unlike current steels, are not sensitive to corrosion.
Table 1.9 displays some thermal characteristics of polymer and conventional materials.
Engineering metals have minimum melting points higher than 400°C and often higher than 1000°C, whereas
• Thermosets because of the cross-linking cannot melt but decompose without melting as the temperature increases.
• Thermoplastics melt in the range of 120°C for polyethylene to 350°C for high-performance thermoplastics.
The thermal behavior of polymers can be characterized as follows:
• Immediately, by the heat deflection temperature under a 1.8 MPa load. For the chosen examples, the values vary between 150 and 320°C.
• In the long term, by the continuous use temperature in an unstressed state. For the examples chosen, the values vary from 130 to 250°C.
Polymers are sensitive to a greater or lesser degree to photodegradation, which can limit their exterior uses.
Table 1.9
Examples of Thermal properties of Various Materials
PEEK, polyetheretherketone; SMC, sheet molding compound.
On the other hand, many polymers, including the commodities, are resistant to the chemicals usually met in industry or at home and displace the metals previously used for these applications: galvanized iron for domestic implements, gas and water pipes, factory chimneys, containers for acids and other chemicals…
Polymers, like other materials, are sensitive to fatigue. Fig. 1.7 plots some examples of fatigue test results according to the logarithm of the number of cycles leading to failure.
To compensate for their handicaps in terms of properties compared to the traditional materials, polymers have effective weapons:
• Manufacturing in small quantities or large series of parts of all shapes and sizes, integrating multiple functions, which is unfeasible with metals or wood.
• Possibility of selective reinforcement in the direction of the stresses.
• Weight savings, lightening of the structures, miniaturization.
• Reduction of the costs of finishing, construction, assembling, and handling.
• Aesthetics, the possibilities of bulk coloring or in-mold decoration to take the aspect of wood, metal, or stone, which removes or reduces the finishing operations.
• Durability, absence of rust and corrosion (but beware of aging), reduction of the maintenance operations.
• Transparency, insulation, and other properties inaccessible for the metals.
1.1.5. Material Costs
Obtaining information on the prices is difficult and the costs are continuously fluctuating. The figures in the following tables and graphs are only orders of magnitude used simply to give some idea of the costs. They cannot be retained for final choices of solutions or estimated calculations of cost price.
Usually, the material costs are considered versus weight but it is also interesting to examine the following:
• The cost per volume, which is the most important for a fixed part size.
• The cost linked to the rigidity for the engineering materials.
1.1.5.1. Cost per Weight of Various Materials
Table 1.10 and the graph in Fig. 1.8 demonstrate that plastics and polymer composites are much more expensive than metals, even more specialized ones such as nickel.
1.1.5.2. Cost per Volume of Various Materials
As for the specific mechanical properties, the high densities of metals modify the classification (Table 1.11 and Fig. 1.9) of the various materials.
Figure 1.7 Examples of fatigue failure.
Table 1.10
Expected Order of Magnitude of Some Material Costs: €/kg ($/kg)
ArF, aramid fiber; CF, carbon fiber; GF, glass fiber; LGF, long glass fiber; SMC, sheet molding compound; TP, thermoplastic; TS, thermoset; UD, unidirectional.
According to the cost per volume,
• Plastics are often competitive. Only the very high performance plastics or composites are more expensive than metals.
• Wood is the cheapest material.
1.1.5.3. Performance/Cost per Liter Ratios of Various Materials
Table 1.12 and Figs. 1.10 and 1.11 confirm that the composites are more expensive than metals for the same mechanical performances. It is necessary to exploit their other properties to justify their use.
1.2. What Are Thermoplastics, Thermoplastic Elastomer, Thermosets, Composites, and Hybrids?
Plastics include diverse subfamilies of organic materials, mainly thermoplastics, thermosets, and thermoplastic elastomers (TPEs). Plastics can also be combined with reinforcements leading to composites or with very different materials, which leads to hybrids. Most plastics come from petroleum but plastics from renewable sources are developing.
1.2.1. Thermoplastics
Thermoplastics have the simplest molecular structure with chemically independent macromolecules (Fig. 1.12). By heating, they are softened or melted, then shaped, formed, welded, and solidified when cooled. Multiple cycles of heating and cooling can be repeated without severe damage, allowing reprocessing and recycling.
Often some additives or fillers are added to the thermoplastic to improve specific properties such as thermal or chemical stability, UV resistance, etc.
Composites are obtained by using short, long, or continuous fibers.
Thermoplastic consumption is roughly 80% or more of the total plastic consumption.
Alloys of compatible thermoplastics allow applications to benefit from the attractive properties of each polymer while masking their defects.
Some thermoplastics are cross-linkable and are used industrially in their two forms, thermoplastic and thermoset; for example, the polyethylenes or the vinyl acetate–ethylene copolymers (VAEs) (the links created between the chains limit their mobility and possibilities of relative displacement).
Figure 1.8 Examples of material costs €/kg.
Table 1.11
Expected Order of Magnitude of Some Material Costs: €/L ($/L)
ArF, aramid fiber; CF, carbon fiber; DCPD, poly(dicyclopentadiene); GF, glass fiber; SMC, sheet molding compound.
Figure 1.9 Examples of material costs €/L.
Table 1.12
Examples of Tensile Properties/Cost per Liter Ratios of Various Materials
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