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Cheese: Chemistry, Physics and Microbiology
Actions du livre
Commencer à lireLongueur: 4,250 pages135 heures
- Éditeur:
- Academic Press
- Sortie:
- May 10, 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780124170179
- Format:
- Livre
Description
Cheese: Chemistry, Physics and Microbiology, Fourth Edition, provides a comprehensive overview of the chemical, biochemical, microbiological, and physico-chemical aspects of cheese, taking the reader from rennet and acid coagulation of milk, to the role of cheese and related foods in addressing public health issues.
The work addresses the science from the basic definition of cheese, to the diverse factors that affect the quality of cheese. Understanding these fermented milk-based food products is vital to a global audience, with the market for cheese continuing to increase even as new nutritional options are explored.
Additional focus is provided on the specific aspects of the ten major variety cheese families as defined by the characteristic features of their ripening. The book provides over 1000 varieties of this globally popular food.
Features new chapters on Milk for Cheesemaking, Acceleration and Modification of Cheese Ripening, Cheesemaking Technology, Low-Fat and Low Sodium Cheesemaking, and Legislation Offers practical explanations and solutions to challenges Content presented is ideal for those learning and practicing the art of cheesemaking at all levels of research and productionInformations sur le livre
Cheese: Chemistry, Physics and Microbiology
Longueur: 4,250 pages135 heures
Description
Cheese: Chemistry, Physics and Microbiology, Fourth Edition, provides a comprehensive overview of the chemical, biochemical, microbiological, and physico-chemical aspects of cheese, taking the reader from rennet and acid coagulation of milk, to the role of cheese and related foods in addressing public health issues.
The work addresses the science from the basic definition of cheese, to the diverse factors that affect the quality of cheese. Understanding these fermented milk-based food products is vital to a global audience, with the market for cheese continuing to increase even as new nutritional options are explored.
Additional focus is provided on the specific aspects of the ten major variety cheese families as defined by the characteristic features of their ripening. The book provides over 1000 varieties of this globally popular food.
Features new chapters on Milk for Cheesemaking, Acceleration and Modification of Cheese Ripening, Cheesemaking Technology, Low-Fat and Low Sodium Cheesemaking, and Legislation Offers practical explanations and solutions to challenges Content presented is ideal for those learning and practicing the art of cheesemaking at all levels of research and production- Éditeur:
- Academic Press
- Sortie:
- May 10, 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780124170179
- Format:
- Livre
En rapport avec Cheese
Aperçu du livre
Cheese
Cheese
Chemistry, Physics & Microbiology
Fourth edition
Edited by
Paul L.H. McSweeney
Patrick F. Fox
Paul D. Cotter
David W. Everett
Table of Contents
Cover
Title page
Copyright
Contributors
Preface to the First Edition
Preface to the Second Edition
Preface to the Third Edition
Preface to the Fourth Edition
Volume 1: General Aspects
Section I: Introduction
Chapter 1: Cheese: An Overview
Abstract
Cheese science and technology
Outline of cheese manufacture
Selection and pretreatment of cheese milk
Acidification
Coagulation
Postcoagulation operations
Ripening
Cheese production and consumption
Chapter 2: Selection and Treatment of Milk for Cheesemaking
Abstract
Introduction
Bacteriological quality
Removal or inhibition of bacterial spores
Pharmaceutical residues
Influence of cold storage of cheese milk
Treatment of cheese milk with CO2
Effect of milk composition on cheesemaking
Factors that influence milk composition, rennet coagulation properties, and cheese composition
Protein standardization
Heat and pressure treatments of cheese milk
Enzymes added to cheese milk
Conclusions
Section II: Coagulation of Milk
Chapter 3: Rennets: Applied Aspects
Abstract
Introduction
Animal rennets
Animal rennet substitutes
Measurement of clotting activity and gelation properties
Coagulant performance in the cheesemaking process
Chapter 4: Chymosin, Pepsins and Other Aspartyl Proteinases: Structures, Functions, Catalytic Mechanism and Milk-Clotting Properties
Abstract
Classification of proteinases
Aspartyl proteinases
Gastric proteinases
Chymosin
Aspartyl proteinases and milk coagulation
Secondary phase of rennet-induced coagulation of milk
Hydrolysis of bovine αs1-, αs2- and β-casein by chymosin
Hydrolysis of caseins from milk of different species
Hydrolysis of caseins by rennets other than chymosin
Interspecies milk coagulation
Chymosin of other mammalian species
Aspartyl proteinases from other sources
Conclusions
Chapter 5: Rennet-Induced Coagulation of Milk
Abstract
Introduction
Conclusions
Chapter 6: The Syneresis of Rennet-Coagulated Curd
Abstract
Introduction
Gel formation and properties
Syneresis
Concluding remarks
Behavior of curd during processing
Chapter 7: Formation, Structural Properties, and Rheology of Acid-Coagulated Milk Gels
Abstract
Introduction
Casein micelles
Coagulation mechanisms
Theoretical models
Physical properties of acid-induced gels
Texture and sensory properties
Microstructure
Permeability
Appearance
Whey separation and syneresis
Effects of compositional and processing parameters on the textural properties of acid milk gels
Heat treatment
Rennet addition
Solids nonfat content
Fat content and homogenization
pH value and calcium content
Preacidification and prefermentation
Acknowledgments
Section III: Starters & Manufacture
Chapter 8: Starter Cultures: General Aspects
Abstract
Types of cultures
Taxonomy and Strain Identification
Genome sequence
Metabolism and growth of starter cultures
Preparation of starters
Chapter 9: Genetics of Lactic Acid Bacteria
Abstract
Introduction
Genomics of LAB
Genomics of mesophilic starters
Genomics of thermophilic LAB
Concluding remarks
Chapter 10: Bacteriophages Infecting Lactic Acid Bacteria
Abstract
Bacteriophages
Bacteriophages of lactic acid bacteria
Classification and genomic characteristics of dairy-associated bacteriophages
The bacteriophage life cycle
The lysogenic cycle
Phage-resistance systems
Phage adaptation to host-encoded resistance
Sources and control of phages in a dairy facility
Engineered phage-resistance systems
Future perspectives
Chapter 11: Secondary and Adjunct Cultures
Abstract
Introduction
Species found in cheeses
Characterization of secondary and adjunct cultures
Chapter 12: Microbiota of Raw Milk and Raw Milk Cheeses
Abstract
Introduction
Sources of raw milk for human consumption
Improving knowledge through advances in technology
Factors that influence the raw milk microbiota
Raw milk cheese
Pasteurization
Role of the microbiota in raw milk and raw milk cheeses
Human health
Conclusions
Chapter 13: Salt in Cheese: Physical, Chemical and Biological Aspects
Abstract
Introduction
Control of Microbial Growth
Influence of nacl on enzyme activity in cheese
Influence of NaCl on the water activity (aw) of cheese
Overall influence of NaCl on cheese ripening and quality
Effect of NaCl on casein hydration and the physical properties of cheese
Reduced-sodium cheese
Salt absorption and diffusion into cheese
Effect of salt on cheese composition
Conclusions
Section IV: Cheese Ripening
Chapter 14: Biochemistry of Cheese Ripening: Introduction and Overview
Introduction
Glycolysis of residual lactose, catabolism of lactate, and citrate metabolism
Lipolysis and metabolism of fatty acids
Proteolysis and catabolism of amino acids
Chapter 15: Microbiome Changes During Ripening
Abstract
Introduction
Sources of microorganisms in cheese
Factors that influence the growth of microorganisms in cheese
Starter bacteria
Nonstarter bacteria
Techniques used to study microorganisms in cheese
Cheese microbiota and population dynamics
Summary
Chapter 16: Metabolism of Residual Lactose and of Lactate and Citrate
Abstract
Metabolism of lactose in cheese
Changes to lactate during ripening
Citrate metabolism
Chapter 17: Lipolysis and Metabolism of Fatty Acids in Cheese
Abstract
Introduction
Lipolytic agents in cheese
Catabolism of fatty acids
Contribution of free fatty acids and their derived products to cheese flavor
Patterns of lipolysis in various cheese varieties
Measurement of lipolysis
Conclusions
Chapter 18: Biochemistry of Cheese Ripening: Proteolysis
Abstract
Introduction
Ripening enzymes from coagulants
Indigenous milk proteinases in cheese ripening
Microbial contribution to proteolysis and peptidolysis in cheese
Methods for evaluating proteolysis in cheese ripening
Proteolysis in cheese during ripening
Chapter 19: Amino Acid Catabolism and Its Relationship to Cheese Flavor Outcomes
Abstract
Introduction
Compounds associated with flavor of different cheeses
Bacteria associated with cheese flavor
Amino acid metabolism observed in cheese
Genomics of lactic acid bacteria and metabolism of amino acids
Summary of current status and pitfalls
The future of bacterial metabolism of amino acids in cheese: possibility of a quantum leap?
Chapter 20: Sensory Character of Cheese and Its Evaluation
Abstract
Introduction
A definition of sensory character
Sensory characteristics and cheese preferences
Cheesemaking and the variety of sensory character
The human senses and the sensory properties of cheese
Sensory methods used to evaluate cheese
Influence of cheesemaking variables on sensory character
Toward a universal cheese sensory language
Relating sensory characteristics to consumer preferences
Relating sensory perception to chemical components and instrumental measurements
Conclusions
Chapter 21: Cheese Microstructure
Abstract
Introduction
Instrumentation
Processing effects
Composition of Cheese
Structure and digestion
Future developments
Section V: Public Health Aspects
Chapter 22: Growth and Survival of Microbial Pathogens in Cheese
Abstract
Introduction
Factors influencing safety of cheeses
Previous reviews on the safety of raw milk cheeses
Challenge studies
Growth and survival of bacterial pathogens in soft and semisoft cheeses
Stress adaptation of pathogens and impact upon cheese safety
Improvements in cheese safety
Future research and conclusions
Chapter 23: Mycotoxins in Cheese
Abstract
Production of toxins in cheese
Mold growth and cheese spoilage
Mycotoxins in cheese resulting from fungal contamination
Sterigmatocystin
Citrinin
Ochratoxin A
Quantitative analysis of mycotoxins in cheese
Control of fungal contamination in cheese
Conclusions
Chapter 24: Nutritional Aspects of Cheese
Abstract
Introduction
Protein
Carbohydrate
Fat and cholesterol
Vitamins
Minerals
Cheese and dental caries
Volume 2: Cheese Technology and Major Cheese Groups
Section I: Cheese Technology
Chapter 25: Factors That Affect the Quality of Cheese
Abstract
Introduction
Production of rennet-coagulated cheese
Raw milk quality
Microbiological Quality
Desirable indigenous bacteria
Alternatives to pasteurization
Indigenous enzymes
Chemical composition
Standardization of milk composition
Coagulant (rennet)
Starter
Postcoagulation operations
Salting
Use of UF in cheese production
Ripening
Indigenous enzymes
Coagulant
Starter involvement in flavor formation
Nonstarter lactic acid bacteria
Lactobacillus species as adjunct cultures
Cheese composition
Ripening temperature
Conclusions
Chapter 26: General Aspects of Cheese Technology
Abstract
Introduction
Cheese manufacture in the vat
Postvat stages—dry-salt types
Postvat stages—hard/semihard brine–salted types
Postvat stages—brine salted, soft, mold ripened
Postvat stages—fresh cheeses
Postvat stages—pasta filata
Recent developments and future directions
Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Chapter 27: Application of Membrane Separation Technology to Cheese Production
Abstract
Introduction
Membrane design and configuration
Membrane applications in cheesemaking
Concluding remarks
Chapter 28: Low-Fat and Low-Sodium Cheeses
Abstract
Definitions—reduced-fat and low-fat Cheeses
Problems associated with low-fat Cheddar cheese
Water-to-protein ratio
Structure of rennet-curd cheese and the effect of fat reduction
Microstructure of rennet-curd cheese
Effect of structure on functionality of rennet-curd cheese
Effect of fat reduction on the structure–function relationships of rennet-curd cheeses
Structural attenuation to counteract the effects of fat reduction
Technologies to improve lower fat cheese yields and sensory attributes
Modifications of traditional and standard cheesemaking protocols
Standardization of milk for low-fat cheese manufacture
Acidification
Curd washing
Altering cooking temperature
Salting
Use of fat replacers and additives
Use of buttermilk and surfactants
Flavor improvement
Use of selected starters, adjunct starters, and starter stimulants
Proteolysis in low-fat Cheddar cheese
low-sodium cheeses
Use of salt substitutes in natural cheese
Conclusions
Chapter 29: Ingredient Cheese and Cheese-Based Ingredients
Abstract
Introduction
Functional requirements of cheese as an ingredient
Rheology-based functional properties of unheated cheese
Functional properties of heated cheese
Cheese ingredients
Conclusions
Chapter 30: Legislation in Relation to Cheese
Abstract
Background
International standards for cheese developed by the codex alimentarius commission
European legislation pertaining to cheese
Cheese legislation in a selection of member states of the European Union
US legislation on cheese
Canadian legislation and standards for cheese
Cheese legislation in Australia and New Zealand
Summary
Section II: Diversity of Cheese
Chapter 31: Diversity and Classification of Cheese Varieties: An Overview
Abstract
Introduction
Classification schemes for cheese
Brief descriptions of the principal categories of cheese
Chapter 32: Extra-Hard Varieties
Abstract
Introduction
Main Chemical and Technological Features
Ripening
Chapter 33: Cheddar Cheese and Related Dry-Salted Cheese Varieties
Abstract
Introduction
Manufacture of Cheddar cheese
Chemical composition and Cheddar cheese quality
Texture of Cheddar cheese
Flavor of Cheddar cheese
Grading and assessment of Cheddar cheese
Variants of Cheddar cheese
Acknowledgments
Chapter 34: Gouda and Related Cheeses
Abstract
Introduction
Cheesemaking
Texture of Gouda cheese
Ripening of Gouda-type cheese
Possible defects and challenges
Chapter 35: Cheeses With Propionic Acid Fermentation
Abstract
Introduction
Propionic acid fermentation and interactions
Technology
Ripening
Cheese defects
Hygienic safety of Swiss-type cheeses
Chapter 36: Surface Mold–Ripened Cheeses
Abstract
Introduction
Diversity of surface mold–ripened cheeses
Technology
Microbial flora
Glycolysis
Proteolysis
Lipolysis
Flavors
Catabolism of amino acid side chain
Miscellaneous compounds
Texture
Control of ripening
Conclusions
Chapter 37: Blue Cheese
Abstract
Introduction
Microenvironment in Blue cheese
Microorganisms that contribute to ripening of Blue cheese
Microbial interactions
Ripening of Blue cheese
Selection of cultures
Conclusions
Chapter 38: Smear-Ripened Cheeses
Abstract
Introduction
Factors that affect ripening of smear cheeses
Microbial diversity in the smear
Genomic features and functions of the cheese-surface microbiota
Sources of microorganisms composing the cheese-surface microbiota
Pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms of smear-ripened cheeses
Interactions between the cheese-surface microbiota
Control of pathogens in smear-ripened cheeses
Conclusions
Chapter 39: Cheese Varieties Ripened Under Brine
Abstract
Introduction
Definition
Why brine immersion method in cheese?
Cheesemaking technology in brine-ripened cheeses
Members of brined-cheese family
Chapter 40: Pasta-Filata Cheeses
Abstract
Introduction
Overview of manufacturing technology
Steps in cheese manufacture
Freezing
Cheese microbiology
Cheese chemistry
Cheese functionality
Chapter 41: Cheeses From Ewe and Goat Milk
Abstract
Ewe milk cheeses
Goat milk cheeses
Conclusions
Chapter 42: Buffalo Milk Cheese
Abstract
Introduction
Chemistry of buffalo milk
Buffalo milk cheeses
Buffalo milk Cheddar cheese
Technological interventions to enhance the quality of buffalo milk cheese
Conclusions
Chapter 43: Quark, Quark-like Products, and Concentrated Yogurts
Abstract
Introduction
Traditional quark manufacturing process
Heat treatment of milk
Acidification and gelation
Whey separation
Yield and composition of quark
Quark manufacture using the Centri-whey, thermo, and UF processes
Separator process
Thermoquark process
Membrane filtration
Mechanism of acid gelation of milk
Storage and shelf life
Addition of stabilizers
Buttermilk quark
Other quark-like products
Traditional process (cloth bag method)
Mechanical separators
Production of concentrated yogurt by ultrafiltration (UF)
Concentrated yogurt by recombined dairy ingredients
Composition of concentrated yogurts
Novel technologies
Shelf life
Chapter 44: Acid-Heat Coagulated Cheeses
Abstract
Introduction
Types of acid/heat-coagulated cheeses
Manufacture of Queso Blanco and Paneer
Paneer
Ricotta
Chapter 45: Brown Whey Cheese
Abstract
Introduction
Varieties
Characteristics of brown whey cheese
Consumption
Historic background
Production
Small-scale production
Industrial production
Browning
Crystallization of Lactose
Effect of milk and whey composition and quality on brown whey cheese
Fortification of the cheese with iron
Chapter 46: Pasteurized Processed and Imitation Cheese Products
Abstract
Introduction
Development of processed cheese products
Classification of processed cheese products
Manufacturing protocol for processed cheese products
Principles of manufacture of processed cheese products
Importance of emulsifying salts properties in cheese processing
Effect of Formulation Ingredients on the Consistency and Cooking Characteristics of Processed Cheese Products and Analog Cheese Products
Effect of Processing Conditions on the Characteristics of Processed Cheese Products and Analog Cheese Products
Compositional Parameters
Emulsifying Salt-Free or -Reduced Processed Cheese Products
Imitation and Substitute Cheese Products
Conclusions
Index
Copyright
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Contributors
Roger K. Abrahamsen, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
Ylva Ardö, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark
Sumit Arora, Dairy Chemistry, National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana, India
Mark A.E. Auty, Teagasc Food Research Centre, Moorepark, Fermoy, Co. Cork, Ireland
Rodney J. Bennett, Institute of Food, Nutrition and Human Health, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
Tom P. Beresford, Teagasc Food Research Centre, Moorepark, Fermoy, Co. Cork, Ireland
Walter Bisig, Agroscope, Bern, Switzerland
Pascal Bonnarme, INRA, UMR782 Génie et Microbiologie des Procédés Alimentaires, Thiverval-Grignon, France
Mette Dines Cantor, Chr. Hansen A/S, Hoersholm, Denmark
Alistair J. Carr, Institute of Food, Nutrition and Human Health, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
Felicia Ciocia, School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
Timothy M. Cogan, Teagasc Food Research Centre, Moorepark, Fermoy, Co. Cork, Ireland
Yvonne F. Collins, Teagasc Food Research Centre, Moorepark, Fermoy, Co. Cork, Ireland
Monika Coton, Université de Brest, EA 3882, Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, ESIAB, IBSAM, Technopôle Brest-Iroise, Plouzané, France
Paul D. Cotter
Teagasc Food Research Centre, Moorepark, Fermoy, Co. Cork
APC Microbiome Institute, University College Cork, Cork
Lawrence K. Creamer, Fonterra Research and Development Centre (Formerly known as New Zealand Dairy Research Institute), Palmerston North, New Zealand
Vaughan L. Crow¹, Fonterra Research and Development Centre (Formerly known as New Zealand Dairy Research Institute), Palmerston North, New Zealand
Eva-Maria Düsterhöft, NIZO food research, Ede, The Netherlands
Petr Dejmek, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
Conor M. Delahunty, Symrise Asia Pacific Pte. Ltd., Singapore, Singapore
Raffaella Di Cagno, Free University of Bolzano, Bolzano, Italy
Alan D.W. Dobson, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
Catherine W. Donnelly, The University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, United States
Mary A. Drake, Southeast Dairy Foods Research Center, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
Wim Engels, NIZO food research, Ede, The Netherlands
David W. Everett, Dairy Innovation Institute, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, CA, United States
Colette C. Fagan, University of Reading, Reading, United Kingdom
Nana Y. Farkye, Dairy Products Technology Center, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, CA, United States
Gerald F. Fitzgerald, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
Patrick F. Fox, School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
Marie-Therese Fröhlich-Wyder, Agroscope, Bern, Switzerland
Balasubramanian Ganesan, Western Dairy Center, Utah State University, Logan, UT, United States
John Gilles¹, Fonterra Research and Development Centre (Formerly known as New Zealand Dairy Research Institute), Palmerston North, New Zealand
Marco Gobbetti, Free University of Bolzano, Bolzano, Italy
Sally L. Gras
The ARC Dairy Innovation Hub, The University of Melbourne
Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Dominik Guggisberg, Agroscope, Bern, Switzerland
Timothy P. Guinee, Teagasc Food Research Centre, Moorepark, Fermoy, Co. Cork, Ireland
Tine Kronborg Hansen, Chr. Hansen A/S, Hoersholm, Denmark
A. Adnan Hayaloglu, Inonu University, Malatya, Turkey
Howard A. Heap, Fonterra Research and Development Centre (Formerly known as New Zealand Dairy Research Institute), Palmerston North, New Zealand
Sandra Helinck, Engineering and Microbiology of Food Processes, INRA, Agro-Paris Tech, University Paris-Saclay
Michael Hickey, Michael Hickey Associates, Derryreigh, Creggane, Charleville, Co. Cork, Ireland
Craig G. Honoré, Fonterra Research and Development Centre (Formerly known as New Zealand Dairy Research Institute), Palmerston North, New Zealand
David S. Horne, Wisconsin Center for Dairy Research, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, United States
Thom Huppertz, NIZO food research, Ede, The Netherlands
Françoise Irlinger
Engineering and Microbiology of Food Processes, INRA, Agro-Paris Tech, University Paris-Saclay
INRA, UMR782 Génie et Microbiologie des Procédés Alimentaires, Thiverval-Grignon, France
Dennis J. D’Amico, The University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, United States
Ernst Jakob, Agroscope, Bern, Switzerland
Jean Luc Jany, University of Brest, IFR148 SFR ScInBioS, ESIAB, Brest, France
Doris Jaros, Institute of Natural Materials Technology, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
Keith A. Johnston, Fonterra Research and Development Centre (Formerly known as New Zealand Dairy Research Institute), Palmerston North, New Zealand
Kieran N. Jordan, Teagasc Food Research Centre, Moorepark, Fermoy, Co. Cork, Ireland
Alan L. Kelly, School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
Yogesh Khetra, Dairy Technology, National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana, India
Kieran N. Kilcawley, Teagasc Food Research Centre, Moorepark, Fermoy, Co. Cork, Ireland
Sophie Landaud, INRA, UMR782 Génie et Microbiologie des Procédés Alimentaires, Thiverval-Grignon, France
Robert C. Lawrence, Fonterra Research and Development Centre (Formerly known as New Zealand Dairy Research Institute), Palmerston North, New Zealand
Andrew K. Legg, Fonterra Research and Development Centre (Formerly known as New Zealand Dairy Research Institute), Palmerston North, New Zealand
John A. Lucey, Wisconsin Center for Dairy Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
Abdallah A.A. Magboul, School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
Jennifer Mahony, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
Maria J. Mateo, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
Jean-Louis Maubois, National Institute for Agricultural Research (INRA), Rennes, France
Olivia McAuliffe, Teagasc Food Research Centre, Moorepark, Fermoy, Co. Cork, Ireland
Donald J. McMahon, Utah State University, Logan, UT, United States
Paul L.H. McSweeney, School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University College Cork, Ireland
M. Medina, National Institute for Agricultural and Food Research and Technology, Madrid, Spain
Vikram.V. Mistry, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, United States
Jérôme Mounier, Université de Brest, EA 3882, Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, ESIAB, IBSAM, Technopôle Brest-Iroise, Plouzané, France
M.C. Abeijón Mukdsi, Reference Center for Lactobacilli (CERELA-CONICET), San Tucumán, Argentina
James Murphy, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
M. Nuñez, National Institute for Agricultural and Food Research and Technology, Madrid, Spain
Nora M. O’Brien, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
Donal J. O’Callaghan, Teagasc Food Research Centre, Moorepark, Fermoy, Co. Cork, Ireland
Thomas P. O’Connor, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
Orla O’Sullivan
Teagasc Food Research Centre, Moorepark, Fermoy, Co. Cork
APC Microbiome Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
Craig J. Oberg, Weber State University, Ogden, UT, United States
Lydia Ong
The ARC Dairy Innovation Hub, The University of Melbourne
Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Giorgio Ottogalli, Sezione di Microbiologia Agraria, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
Ram R. Panthi, Teagasc Food Research Centre, Moorepark, Fermoy, Co. Cork, Ireland
Eugenio Parente, University of Basilicata, Potenza, Italy
Ian B. Powell, Dairy Innovation Australia Limited (DIAL), Werribee, VIC, Australia
Harald Rohm, Institute of Natural Materials Technology, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
Prabandha K. Samal, Fonterra Research and Development Centre (Formerly known as New Zealand Dairy Research Institute), Palmerston North, New Zealand
J.J. (Diarmuid) Sheehan, Teagasc Food Research Centre, Moorepark, Fermoy, Co. Cork, Ireland
Siv Skeie, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
Henri E. Spinnler, INRA, Agro-Paris Tech, Paris, France
Henry-Eric Spinnler, AgroParisTech, Thiverval Grignon, France
Anne Thierry, UMR1253 Science and Technology of Milk and Egg, INRA, Agrocampus Ouest, Rennes, France
Meral Turgay, Agroscope, Bern, Switzerland
Therese Uniacke-Lowe, School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
Vivek K. Upadhyay, School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
Tatjana van den Tempel, DSM Food Specialities, Delft, The Netherlands
Douwe van Sinderen, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
Daniel Wechsler, Agroscope, Bern, Switzerland
Bart C. Weimer, University of California, Davis, CA, United States
Martin G. Wilkinson, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland
¹ Deceased
Preface to the First Edition
Cheese manufacture is one of the classical examples of food preservation, dating from 6000–7000 BC. Preservation of the most important constituents of milk (i.e., fat and protein) as cheese exploits two of the classical principles of food preservation, that is, lactic acid fermentation, and reduction of water activity through removal of water and addition of NaCl. Establishment of a low redox potential and secretion of antibiotics by starter microorganisms contribute to the storage stability of cheese.
About 500 varieties of cheese are now produced throughout the worlds; present production is ∼10⁷ tonnes per annum and is increasing at a rate of ∼4% per annum. Cheese manufacture essentially involves gelation of the casein via isoelectric (acid) or enzymatic (rennet) coagulation; a few cheeses are produced by a combination of heat and acid and still fewer by thermal evaporation. Developments in ultrafiltration facilitate the production of a new family of cheese. Cheeses produced by acid or heat/acid coagulation are usually consumer fresh, and hence their production is relatively simple and they are not particularly interesting from the biochemical viewpoint although they may have interesting physic-chemical features. Rennet cheeses are almost always ripened (matured) before consumption through the action of a complex battery of enzymes. Consequently they are in a dynamic state and provide fascinating subjects for enzymologists and microbiologists, as well as physical chemists.
Researchers on cheese have created a very substantial literature, including several texts dealing mainly with the technological aspects of cheese production. Although certain chemical, physical, and microbiological aspects of cheese have been reviewed extensively, this is probably the first attempt to review comprehensively the scientific aspects of cheese manufacture and ripening. The topics applicable to most cheese varieties, that is, rennets, starters, primary and secondary phases of rennet coagulation, gel formation, gel syneresis, salting, proteolysis, rheology, and nutrition, are reviewed in Volume 1. Volume 2 is devoted to the more specific aspects of the nine major cheese families: Cheddar, Dutch, Swiss, Iberian, Italian, Balkan, Middle Eastern, Mould-ripened, and Smear-ripened. A chapter is devoted to non-European cheeses, many of which are ill-defined; it is hoped that the review will stimulate scientific interest in these minor, but locally important, varieties. The final chapter is devoted to processed cheeses.
It is hoped that the book will provide an up-to-date reference on the scientific aspects of this fascinating group of ancient, yet ultramodern, foods; each chapter is extensively referenced. It will be clear that a considerable body of scientific knowledge on the manufacture and ripening of cheese is currently available but it will be apparent also that many major gaps exist in our knowledge; it is hoped that this book will serve to stimulate scientists to fill these gaps.
I wish to thank sincerely the other 26 authors who contributed to the text and whose cooperation made my task as editor a pleasure.
Patrick F. Fox
Preface to the Second Edition
The first edition of this book was very well received by the various groups (lecturers, students, researchers, and industrialists) interested in the scientific and technological aspects of cheese. The initial printing was sold out faster than anticipated and created an opportunity to revise and extend the book.
The second edition retains all 21 subjects from the first edition, generally revised by the same authors and in some cases expanded considerably. In addition, 10 new chapters have been added: Cheese: Methods of chemical analysis; Biochemistry of cheese ripening; Water activity and the composition of cheese; Growth and survival of pathogenic and other undesirable microorganisms in cheese; Membrane processes in cheese technology, in Volume 1 and North-European varieties; Cheese of the former USSR; Mozzarella and Pizza cheese; Acid-coagulated cheeses and Cheeses from sheep’s and goat’s milk in Volume 2. These new chapters were included mainly to fill perceived deficiencies in the first edition.
The book provides an in-depth coverage of the principal scientific and technological aspects of cheese. While it is intended primarily for lecturers, senior students and researchers, production management, and quality control personnel should find it to be a very valuable reference book. Although cheese production has become increasingly scientific in recent years, the quality of the final product is still not totally predictable. It is not claimed that this book will provide all the answers for the cheese scientist/technologist but it does provide the most comprehensive compendium of scientific knowledge on cheese available.
Each of the 31 chapters is extensively referenced to facilitate further exploration of the extensive literature on cheese. It will be apparent that while cheese manufacture is now firmly based on sound scientific principles, many questions remain unanswered. It is hoped that this book will serve to stimulate further scientific study on the chemical, physical and biological aspects of cheese.
I wish to thank sincerely all the authors who contributed to the two volumes of this book and whose cooperation made my task as editor a pleasure.
Patrick F. Fox
Preface to the Third Edition
Very considerable progress has been made on the scientific aspects of cheese since the second edition of this book was published in 1993. This is especially true for the Microbiology of Cheese and the Biochemistry of Cheese Ripening; consequently those sections have been expanded very considerably. The general structure of the book is similar to that of the earlier editions, with the more general aspects being treated in Volume 1 and the more applied, variety-related aspects in Volume 2. The book contains 36 chapters. Reflecting the very extensive research on cheese starters in recent years, four chapters have been devoted to this topic in the third edition. Another new feature is the inclusion of two chapters on cheese flavor; one on sensory aspects, the other on instrumental methods.
In Volume 2 of the second edition, cheese varieties were treated mainly on a geographical basis. While some elements of the geographical distribution remain, cheese varieties are now treated mainly based on the characteristic features of their ripening. Obviously, it is not possible to treat all 1000 or so cheese varieties, but the 10 variety-related chapters in Volume 2 cover at least 90% of world cheese production and it is very likely that your favourite cheese is included in one of those 10 chapters.
Cheese is the quintessential convenience food and is widely used as an ingredient in other foods and in the USA approximately 70% of all cheese is used as a food ingredient. The use of cheese as a food ingredient is a major growth area; consequently, a chapter has been devoted to the important features of cheese as an ingredient, including a section on Enzyme-modified Cheese.
Each chapter is extensively reference to facilitate further exploration of the extensive literature on cheese. While the book is intended for primarily lecturers, senior students and researchers, production management and quality control personnel should find it to be a very useful reference book.
We wish to thank sincerely all authors who contributed to the two volumes of this book and whose cooperation made our task as editors a pleasure. Special thanks are due to Ms Anne Cahalane for very valuable assistance.
Patrick F. Fox
Paul L.H. McSweeney
Timothy M. Cogan
Timothy P. Guince
Preface to the Fourth Edition
Since its first publication in 1987, Cheese: Chemistry, Physics, and Microbiology has become established as the leading text in cheese science which gives the in-depth coverage needed by graduate students, researchers and industry personnel working in the subject.
Since the publication of the third edition of this book in 2004, research on cheese science continues to be active and investigators have developed a substantial corpus of literature, which is summarised in these volumes. In recent years, our understanding of the factors affecting texture, cheese microbiota and the science and technology of local varieties has expanded greatly.
The fourth edition of this book retains the two-volume layout of the earlier editions. The first volume, which covers basic aspects of cheese science, retains a number of chapters, which are considerably updated, often by new authors and also new chapters on milk for cheesemaking and cheese microbiota are included. Coverage of rennet coagulation and syneresis is completely revised by new authors while the chapters on cheese ripening have been updated.
The second volume (Major Cheese Groups) retains the structure of the previous editions but is expanded to 22 chapters with new chapters on cheese legislation and low-fat cheese while the revised and updated chapters on membrane technology and factors affecting cheese quality are moved to this volume.
We wish sincerely to thank the many authors who contributed to the 46 chapters in the two volumes of this book and whose cooperation made our task as editors a pleasure.
Paul L.H. McSweeney
Patrick F. Fox
Paul D. Cotter
David W. Everett
Volume 1
General Aspects
Section I: Introduction
Section II: Coagulation of Milk
Section III: Starters & Manufacture
Section IV: Cheese Ripening
Section V: Public Health Aspects
Section I
Introduction
Chapter 1: Cheese: An Overview
Chapter 2: Selection and Treatment of Milk for Cheesemaking
Chapter 1
Cheese: An Overview
Patrick F. Fox
Paul L.H. McSweeney School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
Abstract
Cheese is the generic name for a group of fermented milk-based food products, produced in a wide range of flavors and forms throughout the world. Although the primary objective of cheesemaking is to conserve the principal constituents of milk, cheese has evolved to become a food of haute cuisine with epicurean qualities, as well as being highly nutritious. Sandine and Elliker (1970) suggested that there are more than 1000 varieties of cheese. Walter and Hargrove (1972) described more than 400 varieties and listed the names of a further 400, while Burkhalter (1981) classified 510 varieties (although some are listed more than once). As discussed in detail in Chapter 31, a number of attempts have been made to classify cheese varieties into meaningful groups. The most common criterion for the classification is texture (very hard, hard, semihard, semisoft, soft), which is related mainly to the moisture content of the cheese. Various attempts have been made to improve on this basis of classification, for example, by including the milk-producing species, moisture to protein ratio, method of coagulation, cooking temperature, microbiota. These classification schemes are discussed in Chapter 26. However, no classification scheme developed to date is completely satisfactory; the inclusion of chemical indices of ripening would be useful.
Keywords
cheese
cheesemaking
milk-producing species
coagulation
microbiota
Cheese is the generic name for a group of fermented milk-based food products, produced in a wide range of flavors and forms throughout the world. Although the primary objective of cheesemaking is to conserve the principal constituents of milk, cheese has evolved to become a food of haute cuisine with epicurean qualities, as well as being highly nutritious. Sandine and Elliker (1970) suggested that there are more than 1000 varieties of cheese. Walter and Hargrove (1972) described more than 400 varieties and listed the names of a further 400, while Burkhalter (1981) classified 510 varieties (although some are listed more than once). As discussed in detail in Chapter 31, a number of attempts have been made to classify cheese varieties into meaningful groups. The most common criterion for the classification is texture (very hard, hard, semihard, semisoft, soft), which is related mainly to the moisture content of the cheese. Various attempts have been made to improve on this basis of classification, for example, by including the milk-producing species, moisture to protein ratio, method of coagulation, cooking temperature, microbiota. These classification schemes are discussed in Chapter 26. However, no classification scheme developed to date is completely satisfactory; the inclusion of chemical indices of ripening would be useful.
It is commonly believed that cheese evolved in a region known as the Fertile Crescent,
that is, starting from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, through what is now southern Turkey to the Mediterranean coast, some 8000 years ago. The so-called Agricultural Revolution
occurred in this region with the domestication of plants and animals. Presumably, humans soon recognized the nutritive value of milk produced by domesticated animals and contrived to share the mother’s milk with her offspring. Apparently, goats and sheep, which are gregarious and docile, were the first dairy animals domesticated, but cattle have become the dominant dairy species in most parts of the world (c. 85% of the total world supply of milk is obtained from cattle, mainly Bos taurus).
Milk is also a rich source of nutrients for bacteria, which contaminate the milk, some species of which utilize milk sugar, lactose, as a source of energy, producing lactic acid. Bacterial growth and acid production would have occurred during storage or during attempts to dry milk in the prevailing warm, dry climate to produce a more stable product—air-drying of meat, fruits, and vegetables appears to have been practiced as a primitive form of food preservation at this period. When sufficient acid has been produced, the principal proteins of milk, the caseins, coagulate, that is, at their isoelectric points—pH 4.6, to form a gel in which the fat is entrapped. The rate of acidification by the adventitious microbiota is usually slow, allowing the (unhomogenized) fat globules to form a cream layer. This layer of sour cream could be blended into the lower gelled layer or scooped off for the production of butter. Thus originated three of our classical fermented dairy products: fermented milks, sour cream, and lactic butter, all of which are still produced widely, sometimes depending on the adventitious microbiota for acidification, but now usually through the growth of cultures of lactic acid bacteria.
The first fermented dairy foods were produced by a fortuitous combination of events—the ability of a group of bacteria, the lactic acid bacteria (LAB), to grow in milk, and to produce enough acid to reduce the pH of milk to the isoelectric point of the caseins, at which these proteins coagulate. Neither LAB nor the caseins were designed for this outcome. The caseins were designed
to coagulate following limited proteolysis in the stomach of neonatal mammals, the gastric pH of which is around 6, that is, very much higher than the isoelectric point of the caseins. The ability of Lactococcus lactis to ferment lactose, a sugar specific to milk, is plasmid-encoded, suggesting that this characteristic was acquired relatively recently in the evolution of these bacteria. The natural habitats of LAB are vegetation and/or the intestine, from which they presumably colonized the teats of dairy animals, contaminated with lactose-containing milk; it is likely that through evolutionary pressure, these bacteria acquired the ability to ferment lactose.
When an acid-coagulated milk gel is broken, for example, accidentally by movement of the storage vessel or intentionally by breaking or cutting, it separates into curds and whey. It was probably soon realized that the acid whey is a pleasant, refreshing drink for immediate consumption while the curds could be consumed fresh or stored for future use. In fact, whey was long considered to have medicinal benefits (Hoffmann, 1761). It was probably soon realized that the shelf-life of the curds could be extended by dehydration and/or by adding salt; heavily salted cheese varieties are still widespread throughout the Middle-East and small quantities of a number of dehydrated cheeses are produced in North Africa and the Middle East, for example, Tikammart and Aoules (Algeria), Djamid (Jordan), Ekt (Saudi Arabia), and Madraffarah (Syria) (Phelan et al., 1993).
It is presumed that one of the principal families of cheese, the acid cheeses, modern members of which include Cottage cheese, Cream cheese, and Quarg, originated in this way. While lactic acid, produced in situ, is believed to have been the original milk coagulant, an alternative mechanism was also recognized from an early date. Many proteolytic enzymes can modify the casein system in milk, causing it to coagulate under certain circumstances. Enzymes capable of causing this transformation are widespread in nature, for example, bacteria, moulds, plant, and animal tissues, but an obvious source would have been animal stomachs. It was probably observed that the stomach of young mammals after its death contained curds, especially if the animals had suckled shortly before slaughter; curds would also have been observed in the vomitus of human infants. Before the development of pottery (5000 BC), storage of milk in bags made from animal skins was probably common (as it still is in many countries). Stomachs of slaughtered animals provided ready-made, easily sealed containers; under such circumstances, milk would extract enzymes (chymosin and some pepsin) from the stomach tissue, leading to its coagulation during storage. The properties of rennet-coagulated curds are very different from those produced by isoelectric (acid) precipitation, for example, they have better syneretic properties which makes it possible to produce low-moisture cheese curd without hardening. Rennet-coagulated curds can, therefore, be converted to a more stable product than acid curds and rennet coagulation has become predominant in cheese manufacture, being exploited for c. 75% of total world production.
Although animal rennets were used from early times, rennets produced from a range of plant species, for example, fig and thistle, also appear to have been common in ancient times. However, plant rennets are not suitable for the manufacture of long-ripened cheese varieties and gastric proteinases from young animals became the standard rennets until a shortage of supply made it necessary to introduce rennet substitutes.
While the coagulation of milk by the in situ production of lactic acid was, presumably, accidental, the use of rennets to coagulate milk was intentional. It was, in fact, quite an ingenious invention—if the conversion of milk to cheese by the use of rennets was discovered today, it would be hailed as a major biotechnological discovery!
The advantages accruing from the ability to convert the principal constituents of milk to cheese would have been apparent from the viewpoints of storage stability, ease of transport and, presumably, as a means of diversifying the human diet, and cheese manufacture became well established in the ancient civilizations of the Middle-East, Egypt, Greece, and Rome. There are numerous references to cheese and other foods in the Bible (MacAlister, 1904). Milk and dairy products formed an important part of the diet of peoples of the Near East during Biblical times; indeed Palestine was a land flowing with milk and honey
(Exodus, 3.8). Animals herded during Biblical times for milk production included goats (e.g., Proverbs 27.27), sheep (e.g., Deuteronomy 14.4), and possibly camels (Genesis 32.15). Bovine milk is rarely specified in the Old Testament, presumably because of the unsuitability of the terrain of the Holy Land for cow pasture; ancient cattle were larger and less docile than modern breeds. In addition to milk, other foods of dairy origin mentioned in the Bible include curds (perhaps fermented milk: Genesis 18.8; Isaiah 7.22) and butter (Psalms 55.21). There are several clear references in the Old Testament to cheese, for example, Job (1520 BC, where Job remarks to God did Thou not pour me out like milk and curdle me like cheese
; Job 10.10) and Samuel (1170–1017 BC; as a delicacy sent by Jesse to his sons (I Samuel 17.18) and as a gift presented to David (II Samuel 17.29)).
Cheese is represented in the tomb art of Ancient Egypt and in Greek literature. Vegetable rennets are mentioned by Homer (c. 8th century BC) who implies the use of fig rennet in the Iliad (... as when fig juice is added to white milk and rapidly coagulates, and the milk quickly curdles as it is stirred, so speedy was his healing of raging Ares.
Iliad 5) and describes the Cyclops, Polyphemus, making ewes’ milk cheese in the Odyssey (Book 9) using well-made dairy vessels
and pails swimming with whey.
Other Greek authors who mentioned cheese include the Father of History, Herodotus (484–408 BC), who referred to Scythian cheese
and the philosopher, Aristotle (384–322 BC), who noted that Phrygian
cheese was made from the milk of mares and asses. Apparently, cheese was prescribed in the diet for Spartan wrestlers in training.
Cheese manufacture was well established in the Roman Empire and was a standard item in the rations issued to Roman soldiers (28 g/day). Cheese must have been popular with Roman civilians also and demand exceeded supply, forcing an emperor, Diocletian (284–305 AD), to fix a maximum price for cheese. Many Roman writers, for example, Cato the Elder (234–149 BC), Varro (c 116–27 BC), Columella (AD 4–70), Pliny the Elder (AD 23–79) and Palladius (AD 400–470), described cheese manufacture and quality and the culinary uses of cheese. Pliny the Elder (23–79 AD) mentioned cheese in his encyclopedia, Historia Naturalis (Book 28) and described its uses in the diet and in medicinal applications. Varro (c. 116–27 BC; De Agricultura 2.3–2.6) distinguished between soft and new cheese
and that which is old and dry
and described the Roman cheesemaking season in the spring and summer. Varro briefly described cheese manufacture: to about 2 congii (c. 5.7 L) of milk was added a piece of rennet from the hare or kid (in preference to that from the lamb). Varro described the quantity of rennet to be added as the size of an olive,
implying that the rennet was solid, perhaps a piece of stomach tissue. Fig latex and vinegar were mentioned by Varro as alternative rennets and vinegar is also mentioned as a means for coagulating milk (as practiced today in the manufacture of some forms of Queso Blanco and Ricotta).
The most complete ancient description of cheesemaking is that of Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella, a Roman soldier and author from Gades (modern Cadiz), in his treatise on agriculture, De Re Rustica (c. AD 50). A manufacturing procedure for Roman cheese, based on the description of Columella, is given in Fig. 1.1, which includes many observations and practices recognizable by modern cheesemakers. He recommended that the (raw) milk be held at some degree of heat
but warns against over-heating by placing the pail on the flames of a fire. Columella distinguished between cheese with a thin consistency
(soft) which must be sold quickly while it is still fresh and retains its moisture
and that with a rich and thick consistency
(hard) which may be held for a long period. Since the concept of pH and the existence of bacteria were unknown in antiquity, no mention is made of starter; the cheese curd was acidified using the adventitious microbiota of the raw milk. However, Columella did discuss different types of rennet in some detail. He recommended coagulation using rennet from lamb or kid but states that milk can also be coagulated using flowers of certain thistles (perhaps Cynara cardunculus), seeds of the safflower (Carthamus tinctorius), or sap from the fig tree. Interestingly, Columella recommended that the smallest amount of rennet possible should be used to ensure high quality cheese. This may be related to the excessive proteolytic activity of plant proteinases used as rennets, which often produce bitter cheese. Whey drainage was through wicker baskets, perhaps analogous to the drainage of whey through moulds in the manufacture of certain soft cheeses (e.g., Camembert). No mention was made by Columella of cooking the curds/whey mixture prior to whey drainage; moisture control seems to have been by pressing the curds during whey drainage or pressing the cheese after salting. Salting was by means of the repeated application of dry salt to the cheese surface (which is still practiced, e.g., in the manufacture of Blue cheese), which encouraged further loss of moisture (acid liquid). However, Columella also mentioned brine salting as a method of hardening
cheese. The cheeses were washed with water, allowed to form a rind and placed on shelves in an enclosed place "so that the cheese may remain more tender." Interestingly, the comparative form of the adjective used in the Latin text (tenerior) can also be translated as more soft
; if this is the intended meaning, it is the first recorded mention of the changes which occur in cheese during ripening. Columella also discussed defects which may occur in cheese, including being full of holes
(mechanical openings, as the remedy recommended is increased pressing), too salty or too dry. According to Columella, cheeses were flavored with herbs and colored with smoke, practices which persist to a certain extent today. He also described briefly the manufacture of hand-pressed
(manu pressum) cheese in which the hot water is poured over the curds which are then shaped by hand, a practice perhaps related to the kneading and stretching steps for pasta filata varieties. Thus, cheesemaking practice appears to have changed little from the time of Columella until the 19th century!
Figure 1.1 Flow diagram for the manufacture of a type of Roman cheese based on the description of Columella (De Re Rustica, 7.8.1–7.8.7).
In his work, Opus Agriculturae, Palladius provided a brief description of cheesemaking, generally similar to, but less detailed, Columella, with whose work he was familiar.
Kindstedt (2012) traces the development and spread of cheese throughout the Middle East and into Europe: Mesopotamia (6000–4000 BC), Egypt (about 5000 BC), Indus valley (from 3000 BC), Hittite Empire in Anatolia (from 2000 BC), Minoan civilization, Crete (from 2000 BC), Mycenaean civilization, Greek mainland (from about 1500 BC) and into Europe. In many of these civilizations, cheese and butter were high-value products, given as gifts to the Gods, for example, the Goddess, Inana, the Goddess of fertility and erotic love in the Mesopotamian city-state of Uruk.
The great migrations of peoples throughout Europe immediately before and after the fall of the Western Roman Empire must have promoted the further spread of cheese manufacture, as did the Crusaders and other pilgrims of the Middle Ages. Probably, the most important agents contributing to the development of cheese technology
and to the evolution of cheese varieties were monasteries, the manor and feudal estates. The role of the manor farms and estates and their break-up, are described by Kindstedt (2012). In addition to their roles in the spread of Christianity and in the preservation and expansion of knowledge during the Dark Ages, the monasteries made considerable contributions to the advancement of agriculture in Europe and to the development and improvement of food commodities, notably wine, beer, and cheese. Many of our current well-known cheese varieties were developed in monasteries, for example, Wenslydale (Rievaulx Abbey, Yorkshire), Port du Salut or Saint Paulin (Monastery de Notre Dame du Port du Salut, Laval, France), Fromage de Tamie (Abbey of Tamie Lac d’Annecy, Geneva), Maroilles (Abbey Moroilles, Avesnes, France), and Trappist (Maria Stern Monastery, Banja Luka, Bosnia). The inter-monastery movement of monks would have contributed to the spread of cheese varieties and probably to the development of new hybrid varieties.
The great feudal estates of the Middle Ages were self-contained communities. The conservation of surplus food produced in summer for use during winter was a major activity on such estates and undoubtedly cheese represented one of the more important of these conserved products, along with cereals, dried and salted meats, dried fruits, dried and fermented vegetables, beer, and wine. Cheese probably represented an item of trade when amounts surplus to local requirements were available. Within these estates, individuals acquired special skills, which were passed on to succeeding generations. The feudal estates evolved into villages and some into larger communities. Because monasteries and feudal estates were essentially self-contained communities, it is apparent how several hundred distinct varieties of cheese evolved from essentially the same raw material, milk, or rennet-coagulated curds, especially under conditions of limited communication. Traditionally, many cheese varieties were produced in quite limited geographical regions, especially in mountainous areas, where communities are isolated. The localized production of certain varieties is still apparent and indeed is preserved for those varieties with protected designations of origin. Regionalization of certain cheese varieties is particularly marked in Spain, Portugal, and Italy, where the production of many varieties is restricted to a very limited region. Almost certainly, most cheese varieties evolved by accident because of a particular set of local circumstances, for example, a peculiarity of the local milk supply, either with respect to chemical composition or microbiota, an accident
during storage of the cheese, for example, growth of mould or other microorganisms. Presumably, those accidents that led to desirable changes in the quality of the cheese were incorporated into the manufacturing protocol; each variety thus underwent a series of evolutionary changes and refinements.
The final chapter in the spread of cheese throughout the world resulted from the colonization of North and South America, Oceania, and Africa by European settlers who carried their cheesemaking skills with them. Cheese has become an item of major economic importance in some of these new
countries, notably the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, but the varieties produced are mainly of European origin, modified in some cases to meet local requirements. Cheese was not manufactured in these regions before colonization by Europeans; in fact, there were no cattle, sheep, or goats in Australia, North or South America and there were no mammals in New Zealand before the arrival of the Europeans.
For further information on the history of cheese, the reader is referred to Cheke (1959), Davis (1965), Kindstedt (2012), Kosikowski (1977), Kosikowski and Mistry (1997), Robinson and Wilbey (1998), Scott (1986), and Squire (1937). For references on Roman agriculture, see White (1970).
Cheesemaking remained an art rather than a science until relatively recently. With the gradual acquisition of knowledge on the chemistry and microbiology of milk and cheese, it became possible to direct the changes involved in cheesemaking in a more controlled fashion. Although few new varieties have evolved as a result of this improved knowledge, the existing varieties have become better defined and their quality more consistent.
Considering the long history of cheesemaking, one might be inclined to the idea that what have come to be regarded, as standard varieties have been so for a long time. However, although the names of many current varieties were introduced several hundred years ago (Table 1.1), these cheeses were not standardized; for example, the first attempt to standardize the well-known English varieties, Cheddar and Cheshire, was made by Joseph Harding in the mid-nineteenth century. Prior to that, Cheddar cheese
was that produced in a particular area in England around the village of Cheddar, Somerset, and probably varied considerably depending on the manufacturer and other factors. Cheese manufacture was a farmstead enterprise until the mid-nineteenth century—the first cheese factory in the US was established near Rome, NY, in 1851 and the first in Britain at Langford, Derbyshire, in 1870. Thus, there were thousands of cheese manufacturers and there must have been great variation within any one general type. This situation persists in a modified form today in Switzerland and Italy where there are a large number of small cheese factories, often grouped together into consortia for the purposes of marketing and quality control. When one considers the very considerable inter-factory, and indeed intra-factory, variations in quality and characteristics which occur today in well-defined varieties, for example, Cheddar, in spite of the very considerable scientific and technological advances, one can readily appreciate the variations that must have existed in earlier times.
Table 1.1
First Recorded Date for Some Major Cheese Varieties
Source: From Scott, R., 1986. Cheesemaking Practice. Applied Science Publishers, London.
Some major new varieties, notably Jarlsberg and Maasdamer, have been developed recently as a consequence of scientific research. Many other varieties have evolved very considerably, even to the extent of becoming new varieties, as a consequence of scientific research and the development of new technology—notable examples are Pizza cheese (a modified Mozzarella with lower moisture made from partially skimmed milk), (US) Queso Blanco, various cheeses produced by ultrafiltration and various forms of Quarg. There has been a marked resurgence of farmhouse cheesemaking in recent years; many of the cheeses being produced on farms are not standard varieties and some of these may evolve to become new varieties.
A major cause of differences in the characteristics of cheese is the interspecies differences in the composition and physico-chemical characteristics of the milk used. Although milk from several species is used in cheese manufacture, the cow is by far the most important; sheep, goat, and buffalo are commercially important in certain areas. Approximately 85, 11, 2, and 2% of total milk is produced from cattle, buffalo, sheep and goats, respectively. However, most sheep’s and goats’ milk is used for cheese manufacture and therefore are disproportionately important; many famous cheese varieties are made from sheep’s milk, for example, Roquefort, Manchego, Feta, and all the various Pecorino and Canestrato varieties. There are very significant interspecies differences in the composition of milk which are reflected in the characteristics of the cheeses produced from them. Major interspecies differences of importance in cheesemaking are the concentration and types of caseins, concentration of fat and especially the fatty acid profile, concentration of salts, especially of calcium. There are also significant differences in milk composition between breeds of cattle and these also influence cheese quality, as do variations due to seasonal, lactational, and nutritional factors and of course the methods of milk production, storage, and collection.
The first major use of natural cheese as an industrial ingredient came with the development of processed (process) cheese in 1911. This product is made by comminuting, melting, and emulsifying natural cheese into a smooth mass using heat, mechanical shear, and emulsifying salts (Fox et al., 2000). Processed cheese has advantages including ease of control of functional properties, low costs, adaptability, and increased shelf life.
Cheese science and technology
Cheese is the most diverse group of dairy products and is, arguably, the most academically interesting and challenging. While many dairy products, if properly manufactured and stored, are biologically, biochemically, chemically, and physically very stable, cheeses are, in contrast, biologically and biochemically dynamic, and, consequently, are inherently unstable. Throughout manufacture and ripening, cheese production represents a finely orchestrated series of consecutive and concomitant biochemical events which, if synchronized and balanced, lead to products with highly desirable aromas and flavors but when unbalanced, result in off-flavors and odors. Considering that, in general terms, a basically similar raw material (milk from a few species) is subjected to a manufacturing protocol, the general principles of which are common to most cheese varieties, it is fascinating that such a diverse range of products can be produced. A further important aspect of cheese is the range of scientific disciplines involved: study of cheese manufacture and ripening involves the chemistry and biochemistry of milk constituents, fractionation, and chemical characterization of cheese constituents, microbiology, enzymology, molecular genetics, flavor chemistry, nutrition, toxicology, rheology, and chemical engineering. It is not surprising, therefore, that many scientists have become involved in the study of cheese manufacture and ripening. A voluminous scientific and technological literature has accumulated, including a range of books (e.g., Buch Kristensen, 1995; Davis, 1965; 1967; Davies and Law, 1984; Eck, 1984; Eck and Gilles, 2000; Fox, 1987; 1993; Fox et al., 2000, 2015; Kosikowski, 1977; Kosikowski and Mistry, 1997; Kosikowski and Mocquot, 1958; Law, 1997; 1999; Law and Tamime, 2010; Robinson and Wilbey, 1998; Sammis, 1948; Scott, 1986; Tamime, 2006; Van Slyke and Price, 1949) and chapters in many others.
In addition, there are numerous encyclopedias or pictorial books, with brief descriptions of cheese, for example, Cantin (1976), Christian (1984), Eekhof-Stork (1976), Harbutt (1999, 2002), Jenkins (1996), Robinson (1995), Layton (1973), Mair-Waldburg (1974), and Simon (1956). There are also a number of country-specific or variety-specific books, for example, Anifantakis (1991), Berger et al. (1989), Cheke (1959), Fraser (1960), Gonzalez and del Cerro (1988), Kammerlehner (2003), Masui and Yamada (1996), Meyer (1973), Montandon (1981), Ottogalli (2001), Rance (1982), Resmini et al. (1992), Robinson and Tamime (1991), Strawbridge and Strawbridge (2013), Squire (1937), Vizzardi and Maffeis (1999), Zehren and Nusbaum (1992).
Most of the above books deal mainly with cheese technology; the present book concentrates on the more scientific aspects of cheese. The book is in two volumes. The more general aspects of cheese manufacture, that is, molecular properties of rennets, coagulation mechanism, curd syneresis, starters, salting, rheology, the biochemistry of ripening, preconcentration by ultrafiltration and nutritional aspects, which apply, more or less, to most cheese varieties, are considered in volume 1. The second volume deals with specific aspects of the principal families of cheese. The principal objective of this introductory chapter is to provide an integrated overview of cheese manufacture and to provide some general background for the more detailed later chapters that follow.
Outline of cheese manufacture
Almost all acid-coagulated, acid-heat coagulated and a little rennet-coagulated cheese is consumed fresh, that is, the flavor, texture, and appearance of the cheese are in their final form at the end of curd production and the curds are not subjected to a period of maturation/ripening. The production of acid-coagulated cheeses can be summarized as:
The production of rennet-coagulated cheese varieties can be subdivided into two well-defined phases, manufacture, and ripening, both of which involve a number of processes:
The manufacturing phase might be defined as those operations performed during the first 24 h, although some of these operations, for example, salting and dehydration, may continue over a longer period. Although the manufacturing protocol for individual varieties differs in detail, the basic steps are common to most varieties; these are: acidification, coagulation, dehydration (cutting the coagulum, cooking, stirring, pressing, salting, and other operations that promote gel syneresis), separation of curds and whey, shaping (molding and pressing), and salting.
Cheese manufacture is essentially a dehydration process in which the fat and casein in milk are concentrated 6–12-fold, depending on the variety. The degree of dehydration is regulated by the extent and combination of the earlier mentioned five operations, in addition to the chemical composition of the milk. In turn, the levels of moisture and salt, the pH and the cheese microbiota regulate and control the biochemical changes that occur during ripening and hence determine the flavor, aroma, texture, and functionality of the finished product. Thus, the nature and quality of the finished cheese are determined largely by the manufacturing steps. However, it is during the ripening phase that the characteristic flavor and texture of the individual cheese varieties develop.
Selection and pretreatment of cheese milk
Cheese manufacture commences with the selection of milk of high microbiological and chemical quality. The adventitious microbiota of milk is normally heterogeneous (Chapter 12). Some of these microorganisms, especially the LAB, may be beneficial. Previously, and still for some minor artisanal cheeses, the indigenous LAB were responsible for acid production but selected starter LAB cultures are used for acidification in most cases. Nonstarter LAB (NSLAB) probably contribute positively to the ripening of raw milk cheese (see Chapters 1, 14, 16–19) but they are variable and uncontrolled and may be responsible for some of the variability in raw milk cheese. For large-scale cheesemaking operations, it is preferable to kill the NSLAB by pasteurization (although this is not the primary objective of pasteurization). There is increasing interest in inoculating pasteurized milk with selected lactobacilli as an adjunct culture (see Chapter 11).
Some members of the adventitious microbiota are undesirable. The most important are a number of pathogens, the killing of which is the primary objective of pasteurization (see Chapter 22). Raw milk may also contain several spoilage microorganisms, for example, coliforms, psychrotrophs (especially if the milk is cold-stored for
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