Biopolymers for Food Design

Biopolymers for Food Design

Handbook of Food Bioengineering, Volume 20

Edited by

Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu

Alina Maria Holban

Table of Contents

Cover

Title page

Table of Contents

Copyright

List of Contributors

Foreword

Series Preface

Preface for Volume 20: Biopolymers for Food Design

Chapter 1: Biopolymers for Food Design: Consumer-Friendly Natural Ingredients

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Polysaccharides as Biopolymers

3. Proteins as Biopolymers

4. Hydrolytically Degradable Polymers

5. Role of Biopolymer in Food Processing

6. Role of Biopolymer in Texture Properties and Gel Formation

7. Applications of Biopolymers in Freeze-Drying of Fruits and Pulps

8. Usage of Biopolymers in Films and Coatings

9. Principles Underlying in Design of Functional Biopolymers

10. Current Opportunities and Future Challenges

Conclusions

Chapter 2: Nanostructuring Biopolymers for Improved Food Quality and Safety

Abstract

1. Biopolymer-Based Nano- and Microencapsulation Matrices for Bioactive Protection

2. Nanostructured Biopolymer Layers for Food Packaging

3. Conclusions and Outlook

Acknowledgments

Chapter 3: Biopolymers for Fat-Replaced Food Design

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Hydrocolloids

3. Function of Hydrocolloids as a Fat Replacer

4. Fat-Replaced Foods With Hydrocolloids

5. Conclusion and Future Perspectives

Chapter 4: Microbial Polysaccharides in Food Industry

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Extraction and Purification of Microbial Polysaccharides

3. Microbial Polysaccharide Production Processes

4. Isolation of Microbial Polysaccharides and Identification of Monomeric Units

5. Structural Organization of Polysaccharides

6. Examples of Microbial Polysaccharides

7. Applications of Microbial Exopolysaccharides in the Food Industry

8. Microbial Polysaccharides Structure–Function Relationships

9. Summary

Chapter 5: Dietary Fibers in Modern Food Production: A Special Perspective With β-Glucans

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Definition of Dietary Fiber

3. Dietary Fiber Classification

4. Sources of Dietary Fiber and β-Glucan

5. β-Glucan as Dietary Fiber

6. Analytical Procedures for Dietary Fiber

7. Health Benefits

8. Application in Foods

9. Chemistry and Extraction Procedure

10. Conclusions

Chapter 6: Functional Biopolymers in Food Manufacturing

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Hydrocolloids in Quality Improvement

3. Hydrocolloids in Healthy Food Product Formulations

4. Hydrocolloids in Advanced Food Processing

Chapter 7: Application of Biopolymers in Microencapsulation Processes

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Microencapsulation

3. Microencapsulation Methods

4. Encapsulating Agents—Biopolymers

5. Controlled Release

6. Microencapsulation in the Food Industry

7. Conclusions

Acknowledgments

Chapter 8: Biopolymer Packaging Materials for Food Shelf-Life Prolongation

Abstract

1. Biopolymers for Food Packaging

2. Biopolymers Extracted From Biomass

3. Biopolymer Application for Fruits and Vegetables-Packaging

4. Biopolymer Application for Dairy Products Packaging

5. Biopolymer Application for Meat, Poultry, Fish, and Their Products-Packaging

6. Conclusions

Chapter 9: Functionality of Starch Derivatives in Bakery and Confectionery Products

Abstract

1. Native Starches and Their Derivatives

2. Starch Derivatives as Bread Improvers in Gluten-Containing and Gluten-Free Dough and Bread

3. Starch Derivatives in Cakes, Muffins, and Cookies

4. Starch Derivatives as Fat or Sugar Replacers in Bakery and Confectionary Products

5. Starch Derivatives in Confectionary Products

6. Starch Derivatives for Health and Well-being

7. Conclusions

Acknowledgment

Chapter 10: Dynamic High Pressure Effects on Biopolymers: Polysaccharides and Proteins

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Dynamic High Pressure Technique

3. Effects of Dynamic High Pressure on Polysaccharides

4. Proteins

5. Challenges and Future Perspectives

6. Conclusion

Chapter 11: β-Glucan as a Food Ingredient

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. β-Glucan From Different Sources

3. Structure and Composition of β-Glucan

4. Defining Dietary Fiber and Recognition of β-Glucan as Dietary Fiber

5. β-Glucan Extraction and Purification

6. β-Glucan Characterization and Gelation

7. Rheology of β-Glucan

8. Utilization of β-Glucan in Food Products

Conclusions

Chapter 12: Guar Gum: A Versatile Polymer for the Food Industry

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Uses of Guar Gum in the Food Industry

3. Conclusion

Chapter 13: Applications of Alginate as a Functional Food Ingredient

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. General Requirements of Food Additives

3. Applications of Alginate in the Food industry

4. Applications of Propylene Glycol Alginate in the Food and Drink Industry

5. Summary

Chapter 14: Present and Future of Biodegradable Polymers for Food Packaging Applications

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Natural Polymers

3. Synthetic/Artificial Biopolymers

4. Non-Natural (Man-Made) Polymers

5. Future of Biodegradable Polymers—Final Conclusions

Chapter 15: Chitosan Applications in Food Industry

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Natural Polymers

3. Chemical Extraction of Chitosan

4. Importance of Nanotechnology in Food Industry

5. Stages of Chitosan Nanobiofilm Production

6. Microbes Causing Spoilage in Food Industry

7. Application of Chitosan in the Food Industry

8. Patent Literature on Chitosan

9. Conclusions

Index

Copyright

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List of Contributors

Asif Ahmad,     Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan

Fataneh Behrouzian,     Food Hydrocolloids Research Centre, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad (FUM), Mashhad, Iran

Sandra N. Bulut,     University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia

Jinneth L. Castro-Mayorga,     Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Technology (IATA-CSIC), Valencia, Spain

Marcelo Cristianini,     University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil

Ljubica Dokić,     Faculty of Technology, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia

Berta N. Estevinho,     Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal

Maria J. Fabra,     Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Technology (IATA-CSIC), Valencia, Spain

Laura G. Gómez-Mascaraque,     Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Technology (IATA-CSIC), Valencia, Spain

Sumit Gupta,     Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, India

Miroslav Hadnađev,     Institute of Food Technology, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia

Tamara Dapčević Hadnađev,     Institute of Food Technology, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia

Nevena M. Hromiš,     University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia

Jinju Jiang,     State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Seaweed Substances, Qingdao, China

Namita Jindal,     Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India

Muhammad Kaleem,     Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan

Ramachandran Karthik,     Chettinad Academy of Research and Education, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

Nauman Khalid

University of Management and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan

Deakin University, Waurn Ponds, VIC, Australia

Algae Biomass and Energy System R&D Centre, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan

Jasvirinder Singh Khattar,     Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India

Chinthala Ramakrishna,     Ghandi Institute of Technology and Management (GITAM University), Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India

Amparo López-Rubio,     Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Technology (IATA-CSIC), Valencia, Spain

Vera L. Lazić,     University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia

Seyda Bucak,     Yeditepe University, Istanbul, Turkey

Venkatesan Manigandan,     Chettinad Academy of Research and Education, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

Marta Martínez-Sanz,     Bragg Institute, Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation (ANSTO), Kirrawee DC, NSW, Australia

Challa Murali Mohan,     Ghandi Institute of Technology and Management (GITAM University), Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India

Marta Musioł,     Centre of Polymer and Carbon Materials, Polish Academy of Sciences, Zabrze, Poland

Sibel Ozilgen,     Yeditepe University, Istanbul, Turkey

Senka Z. Popović,     University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia

Bruna C. Porto,     University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil

Kandra Prameela,     Ghandi Institute of Technology and Management (GITAM University), Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India

Yimin Qin,     State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Seaweed Substances, Qingdao, China

Senthilkumar Rajagopal,     Rayalaseema University, Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh, India

Saravanan Ramachandran,     Chettinad Academy of Research and Education, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

Seyed M.A. Razavi,     Food Hydrocolloids Research Centre, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad (FUM), Mashhad, Iran

Fernando Rocha,     Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal

Joanna Rydz,     Centre of Polymer and Carbon Materials, Polish Academy of Sciences, Zabrze, Poland

Gloria Sánchez

Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Technology (IATA-CSIC)

University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain

Wanda Sikorska,     Centre of Polymer and Carbon Materials, Polish Academy of Sciences, Zabrze, Poland

Danijela Z. Šuput,     University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia

Alline A.L. Tribst,     University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil

Prasad S. Variyar,     Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, India

Fahe Wang,     State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Seaweed Substances, Qingdao, China

Barbara Zawidlak-Węgrzyńska,     Prof. Zbigniew Religa Foundation of Cardiac Surgery Development, Heart Prostheses Institute, Artificial Heart Laboratory, Zabrze, Poland

Jian Zhang,     State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Seaweed Substances, Qingdao, China

Lili Zhao,     State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Seaweed Substances, Qingdao, China

Foreword

In the last 50 years an increasing number of modified and alternative foods have been developed using various tools of science, engineering, and biotechnology. The result is that today most of the available commercial food is somehow modified and improved, and made to look better, taste different, and be commercially attractive. These food products have entered in the domestic first and then the international markets, currently representing a great industry in most countries. Sometimes these products are considered as life-supporting alternatives, neither good nor bad, and sometimes they are just seen as luxury foods. In the context of a permanently growing population, changing climate, and strong anthropological influence, food resources became limited in large parts of the Earth. Obtaining a better and more resistant crop quickly and with improved nutritional value would represent the Holy Grail for the food industry. However, such a crop could pose negative effects on the environment and consumer health, as most of the current approaches involve the use of powerful and broad-spectrum pesticides, genetic engineered plants and animals, or bioelements with unknown and difficult-to-predict effects. Numerous questions have emerged with the introduction of engineered foods, many of them pertaining to their safe use for human consumption and ecosystems, long-term expectations, benefits, challenges associated with their use, and most important, their economic impact.

The progress made in the food industry by the development of applicative engineering and biotechnologies is impressive and many of the advances are oriented to solve the world food crisis in a constantly increasing population: from genetic engineering to improved preservatives and advanced materials for innovative food quality control and packaging. In the present era, innovative technologies and state-of-the-art research progress has allowed the development of a new and rapidly changing food industry, able to bottom-up all known and accepted facts in the traditional food management. The huge amount of available information, many times is difficult to validate, and the variety of approaches, which could seem overwhelming and lead to misunderstandings, is yet a valuable resource of manipulation for the population as a whole.

The series entitled Handbook of Food Bioengineering brings together a comprehensive collection of volumes to reveal the most current progress and perspectives in the field of food engineering. The editors have selected the most interesting and intriguing topics, and have dissected them in 20 thematic volumes, allowing readers to find the description of basic processes and also the up-to-date innovations in the field. Although the series is mainly dedicated to the engineering, research, and biotechnological sectors, a wide audience could benefit from this impressive and updated information on the food industry. This is because of the overall style of the book, outstanding authors of the chapters, numerous illustrations, images, and well-structured chapters, which are easy to understand. Nonetheless, the most novel approaches and technologies could be of a great relevance for researchers and engineers working in the field of bioengineering.

Current approaches, regulations, safety issues, and the perspective of innovative applications are highlighted and thoroughly dissected in this series. This work comes as a useful tool to understand where we are and where we are heading to in the food industry, while being amazed by the great variety of approaches and innovations, which constantly changes the idea of the food of the future.

Anton Ficai, PhD (Eng)

Department Science and Engineering of Oxide Materials and Nanomaterials, Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, Politehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

Series Preface

The food sector represents one of the most important industries in terms of extent, investment, and diversity. In a permanently changing society, dietary needs and preferences are widely variable. Along with offering a great technological support for innovative and appreciated products, the current food industry should also cover the basic needs of an ever-increasing population. In this context, engineering, research, and technology have been combined to offer sustainable solutions in the food industry for a healthy and satisfied population.

Massive progress is constantly being made in this dynamic field, but most of the recent information remains poorly revealed to the large population. This series emerged out of our need, and that of many others, to bring together the most relevant and innovative available approaches in the intriguing field of food bioengineering. In this work we present relevant aspects in a pertinent and easy-to-understand sequence, beginning with the basic aspects of food production and concluding with the most novel technologies and approaches for processing, preservation, and packaging. Hot topics, such as genetically modified foods, food additives, and foodborne diseases, are thoroughly dissected in dedicated volumes, which reveal the newest trends, current products, and applicable regulations.

While health and well-being are key drivers of the food industry, market forces strive for innovation throughout the complete food chain, including raw material/ingredient sourcing, food processing, quality control of finished products, and packaging. Scientists and industry stakeholders have already identified potential uses of new and highly investigated concepts, such as nanotechnology, in virtually every segment of the food industry, from agriculture (i.e., pesticide production and processing, fertilizer or vaccine delivery, animal and plant pathogen detection, and targeted genetic engineering) to food production and processing (i.e., encapsulation of flavor or odor enhancers, food textural or quality improvement, and new gelation- or viscosity-enhancing agents), food packaging (i.e., pathogen, physicochemical, and mechanical agents sensors; anticounterfeiting devices; UV protection; and the design of stronger, more impermeable polymer films), and nutrient supplements (i.e., nutraceuticals, higher stability and bioavailability of food bioactives, etc.).

The series entitled Handbook of Food Bioengineering comprises 20 thematic volumes; each volume presenting focused information on a particular topic discussed in 15 chapters each. The volumes and approached topics of this multivolume series are:

Volume 1: Food Biosynthesis

Volume 2: Food Bioconversion

Volume 3: Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation

Volume 4: Ingredient Extraction by Physicochemical Methods in Food

Volume 5: Microbial Production of Food Ingredients and Additives

Volume 6: Genetically Engineered Foods

Volume 7: Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Food Dyes

Volume 8: Therapeutic Foods

Volume 9: Food Packaging and Preservation

Volume 10: Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation

Volume 11: Diet, Microbiome and Health

Volume 12: Impact of Nanoscience in the Food Industry

Volume 13: Food Quality: Balancing Health and Disease

Volume 14: Advances in Biotechnology for Food Industry

Volume 15: Foodborne Diseases

Volume 16: Food Control and Biosecurity

Volume 17: Alternative and Replacement Foods

Volume 18: Food Processing for Increased Quality and Consumption

Volume 19: Role of Materials Science in Food Bioengineering

Volume 20: Biopolymers for Food Design

The series begins with a volume on Food Biosynthesis, which reveals the concept of food production through biological processes and also the main bioelements that could be involved in food production and processing. The second volume, Food Bioconversion, highlights aspects related to food modification in a biological manner. A key aspect of this volume is represented by waste bioconversion as a supportive approach in the current waste crisis and massive pollution of the planet Earth. In the third volume, Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation, we aim to discuss several aspects regarding not only to the varieties and impacts of fermentative processes, but also the range of chemical processes that mimic some biological processes in the context of the current and future biofood industry. Volume 4, Ingredient Extraction by Physicochemical Methods in Food, brings the readers into the world of ingredients and the methods that can be applied for their extraction and purification. Both traditional and most of the modern techniques can be found in dedicated chapters of this volume. On the other hand, in volume 5, Microbial Production of Food Ingredients and Additives, biological methods of ingredient production, emphasizing microbial processes, are revealed and discussed. In volume 6, Genetically Engineered Foods, the delicate subject of genetically engineered plants and animals to develop modified foods is thoroughly dissected. Further, in volume 7, Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Food Dyes, another hot topic in food industry—flavoring and dyes—is scientifically commented and valuable examples of natural and artificial compounds are generously offered. Volume 8, Therapeutic Foods, reveals the most utilized and investigated foods with therapeutic values. Moreover, basic and future approaches for traditional and alternative medicine, utilizing medicinal foods, are presented here. In volume 9, Food Packaging and Preservation, the most recent, innovative, and interesting technologies and advances in food packaging, novel preservatives, and preservation methods are presented. On the other hand, important aspects in the field of Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation are shown in volume 10. Highly debated topics in modern society: Diet, Microbiome and Health are significantly discussed in volume 11. Volume 12 highlights the Impact of Nanoscience in the Food Industry, presenting the most recent advances in the field of applicative nanotechnology with great impacts on the food industry. Additionally, volume 13 entitled Food Quality: Balancing Health and Disease reveals the current knowledge and concerns regarding the influence of food quality on the overall health of population and potential food-related diseases. In volume 14, Advances in Biotechnology for Food Industry, up-to-date information regarding the progress of biotechnology in the construction of the future food industry is revealed. Improved technologies, new concepts, and perspectives are highlighted in this work. The topic of Foodborne Diseases is also well documented within this series in volume 15. Moreover, Food Control and Biosecurity aspects, as well as current regulations and food safety concerns are discussed in the volume 16. In volume 17, Alternative and Replacement Foods, another broad-interest concept is reviewed. The use and research of traditional food alternatives currently gain increasing terrain and this quick emerging trend has a significant impact on the food industry. Another related hot topic, Food Processing for Increased Quality and Consumption, is considered in volume 18. The final two volumes rely on the massive progress made in material science and the great applicative impacts of this progress on the food industry. Volume 19, Role of Materials Science in Food Bioengineering, offers a perspective and a scientific introduction in the science of engineered materials, with important applications in food research and technology. Finally, in volume 20, Biopolymers for Food Design, we discuss the advantages and challenges related to the development of improved and smart biopolymers for the food industry.

All 20 volumes of this comprehensive collection were carefully composed not only to offer basic knowledge for facilitating understanding of nonspecialist readers, but also to offer valuable information regarding the newest trends and advances in food engineering, which is useful for researchers and specialized readers. Each volume could be treated individually as a useful source of knowledge for a particular topic in the extensive field of food engineering or as a dedicated and explicit part of the whole series.

This series is primarily dedicated to scientists, academicians, engineers, industrial representatives, innovative technology representatives, medical doctors, and also to any nonspecialist reader willing to learn about the recent innovations and future perspectives in the dynamic field of food bioengineering.

Alexandru M. Grumezescu

Politehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

Alina M. Holban

University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

Preface for Volume 20: Biopolymers for Food Design

Biopolymers have multiple applications. Although the biomedical field has benefited the most from the progress made in the field of biopolymer research, recent studies demonstrate that food research is strongly impacted by new development in biopolymers. These materials are currently being investigated for innovative food products with new and very particular properties, such as smart detection potential, improved nutritional properties, bioresponsive capacities, and various biodegradable potential. Their use is currently revolutionizing food design, production, and packaging by promoting an environmentally safe strategy for food engineering. In this book, most relevant biopolymers and their recent applications in food design are dissected.

The volume contains 15 chapters prepared by outstanding authors from India, Spain, Australia, Iran, Japan, Pakistan, Turkey, Portugal, Serbia, Italy, China, and Poland.

The selected manuscripts are clearly illustrated and contain accessible information for a wide audience, especially food scientists, engineers, biotechnologists, biochemists, and industrial companies, and also for any reader interested in learning more about the impact of biopolymers for food design.

Chapter 1, Biopolymers for Food Design: Consumer-Friendly Natural Ingredients, written by Prameela et al., begins with an introduction to biopolymers for food design, followed by a description of the main concepts of some important biopolymer families. It gives comprehensive scientific and technical information on the role of biopolymers in food processing, texture properties of food gels, usage of biopolymer coatings, and the application of biopolymers in the freezing of fruit juices and pulp. This chapter also reviews the principles underlying the design of biopolymers. New challenges and opportunities will be readily available to engineers and relative professionals involved with the food industry.

In Chapter 2, Nanostructuring Biopolymers for Improved Food Quality and Safety, Gómez-Mascaraque et al. discuss the potential of different food-grade biopolymers (mainly proteins and carbohydrates but also some biopolyesters) to serve as encapsulating matrices for the protection of sensitive bioactives or as nanostructured packaging layers to improve transport properties and control the growth of pathogenic bacteria and viruses.

Chapter 3, Biopolymers for Fat-Replaced Food Design, by Razavi and Behrouzian, gives an overview on how biopolymers, concentrating on novel food hydrocolloids, can be used to design fat-replacement systems. Also, some of the biopolymer applications as fat replacers within foods, such as cheese, ice cream, sauce, and yogurt are highlighted. This chapter points out that healthful products should be methodically designed to encourage consumers to choose a fat-replaced product.

In Chapter 4, Microbial Polysaccharides in Food Industry, Jindal and Khattar reveal that the superior properties of microbial polysaccharides should be considered as good alternatives to replace synthetic and other natural water-soluble gums. They may also prove important in the food industry for thickening, suspending, and gelling applications. Employing genetically modified microorganisms under controlled fermentation conditions may result in the production of new exopolysaccharides, having novel superior properties, which may open up new areas of industrial application.

Chapter 5, Dietary Fibers in Modern Food Production: A Special Perspective With Beta-Glucans, by Ahmada and Khalid, focuses on various types of dietary fiber that can be extracted from microbial, as well as other sources and how they differ from conventional cereal-source dietary fibers. Details on chemistry and extraction procedures are highly useful for food processors and researchers and may lead to new nutraceutical product development. Food product applications of microbial dietary fiber in relation to health are also part of the discussion in this chapter.

In Chapter 6, Functional Biopolymers in Food Manufacturing, Ozilgen and Bucak focus on food hydrocolloids, highlighting the fundamental discussion of the research findings and their significance. The main areas of interest are the chemical and physicochemical characterization of hydrocolloids; their rheological properties, including viscosity, viscoelastic properties, and gelation behavior; their interfacial properties including stabilization of food colloids, their influence on sensory properties of food products, their film forming properties with application to edible films and active packaging, and their encapsulation properties; and their applications in the food industry as food additives and health promoters.

In Chapter 7, Application of Biopolymers in Microencapsulation Processes, Estevinho and Rocha dissect the applicability of microencapsulation in different systems with food and technological interest, using biopolymers as encapsulating agents. The main microencapsulation methods, the most used biopolymers, the controlled release mechanisms, and models to evaluate the release are presented. Finally, some of the potential applications of biopolymer particles in food are discussed.

Chapter 8, Biopolymer Packaging Materials for Food Shelf-Life Prolongation, written by Popović et al., reviews the possibility of biopolymer packaging material application for packing dairy, meat, fruits, and vegetables products. Numerous studies have been conducted with the aim of widening successful implementation of biopolymer packaging for a range of food products. It is very important to be familiar with the properties of biopolymer packaging materials prior to application, as well as to produce biobased materials in terms of specificity of the product intended to be packed.

In Chapter 9, Functionality of Starch Derivatives in Bakery and Confectionery Products, Hadnađev et al. give an overview of bakery and confectionery products designed using starch derivatives. The effect of starch derivatives on product quality and processing performance is reviewed and related to their influence on system colloidal structure.

Chapter 10, Dynamic High Pressure Effects on Biopolymers: Polysaccharides and Proteins, by Porto et al., describes the impact of dynamic high pressure (DHP) in proteins and polysaccharides, as well as the benefits of the modifications induced by the process in the final application of these biopolymers as ingredients.

In Chapter 11, β-Glucan as a Food Ingredient, Ahmad and Kaleem focus on the role of β-glucan as dietary fiber and its potential in developing food products. Current research on health implications, physiological effects in animal and human studies, and potential application of β-glucan in food products is also presented.

Chapter 12, Guar Gum: A Versatile Polymer for the Food Industry, by Gupta and Variyar, discusses the cultivation, manufacture, and physical and chemical properties of guar gum. Its various uses and advantages in the food industry are described. Use of guar gum as a soluble type of dietary fiber and its various physiological effects are detailed. Some newer and recent applications of guar gum for flavor encapsulation and development of biodegradable films, as well as potential future areas of research for guar gum are also discussed.

In Chapter 13, Applications of Alginate as a Functional Food Ingredient, Qin et al. introduce the main physical, chemical, and biological properties of alginate as a functional food ingredient and summarize the historical and recent developments of various types of food and drink products containing alginate. The unique gelling abilities at low temperature, alongside good heat stability, make alginate ideal for use as a thickener, stabilizer, and restructuring agent. In addition, alginate is increasingly used in a myriad of newer applications, from encapsulating active enzymes and live bacteria to acting as the carrier for protective coating of prepacked, cut, or prepared fruits and vegetables.

Chapter 14, Present and Future of Biodegradable Polymers for Food Packaging Applications, by Rydz et al., focuses on (bio)degradable polymer materials with approved or potential applications in food packaging. The major groups of (bio)degradable natural, microbial, and synthetic polymers are briefly discussed with regard to properties required for packaging materials: permeability, physical and mechanical properties, antioxidative and antimicrobial additives, plasticization, and (bio)degradability based on studies reported in the literature, as well as future trends.

In Chapter 15, Chitosan Applications in Food Industry, Manigandan et al. reveal the main analytical techniques used for the development of chitosan nanofilm. Moreover, an overview of the major applications of chitosan-based active food packaging systems is also given.

Alexandru M. Grumezescu

Politehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

Alina M. Holban

University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

Chapter 1

Biopolymers for Food Design: Consumer-Friendly Natural Ingredients

Kandra Prameela

Challa Murali Mohan

Chinthala Ramakrishna    Ghandi Institute of Technology and Management (GITAM University), Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India

Abstract

Since ancient times biopolymers have been used by mankind as food. Many different kinds of biopolymers are natural ingredients, varying in their molecular characteristics and functional properties. In addition, biodegradability of biopolymers makes them a specific advance for the human and environment concern. The chapter begins with an introduction, which is followed by descriptions of main concepts of some important biopolymer families. It is intended to offer comprehensive scientific and technical information on the role of biopolymers in food processing, texture properties of food gels, usage of biopolymer coatings, and application of biopolymers in freezing of fruit juices and pulps. It also reviews principles underlying the design of biopolymer. New challenges and opportunities would be readily available to engineers and relative professionals involved with the food industry. Moreover, this information should enhance the introduction and alteration of healthy biopolymer-based foods in respect to consumer expectations and market demand in the near future.

Keywords

biopolymer

chitin

pectin

polylactic acid

food gel

bio-films

freezing of fruits and pulps

1. Introduction

Biopolymers are natural macromolecules produced by living organisms and traditionally playing a major role in food industry. Polymers from renewable sources are a growing sector with the tendency to use more natural compounds (Mensitieri et al., 2011; Sabiha-Hanim and Siti-Norsafurah, 2012). Since ancient times biopolymers have been used by mankind as food, clothing, and furniture depending on biomaterials like wool, leather, silk, and cellulose. But today, such polymers can be custom-made to meet specific needs. As humankind living in both natural and manmade environments, biopolymers from natural and modern industrial economies play a central role in both environments. The growing reliance on synthetic polymers has raised a number of issues regarding environmental and human health. Due to increasing environmental concerns development of materials from natural polymers is an emerging issue (Laine et al., 2013). There is increasing consumer demand for products that are useful in reducing waste disposal and are good replacements of diminishing nonrenewable resources (Souza et al., 2010). However, biopolymers are diverse and versatile materials that have potential applications in virtually all sectors of the economy.

The term biopolymer is defined as a polymer of monomeric residues derived from either biological systems or living organisms. Generally they are repeating units of sugars or amino acids or fermentative products (aliphatic polyesters) from agricultural wastes, and sometimes they are of different side groups, which contributes to their functionality. Polysaccharides and proteins are two major classes of food biopolymers. Proteins are polymers of amino acids present in plant and animal tissues. In foods much of the structural integrity of proteins is changed by shear, heat, and pH. In nature polysaccharides serve as a chief energy resource and are linear or branched polymers of sugars linked together by glycosidic linkages. Polysaccharides are also present as hydrated complex in exo and endo central matrices of plant and marine organisms. As a part of specific structures with properties, nowadays biopolymers are playing an extensive part in the processing of foods due to ability to interact with other food components to improve the stability and physico-chemical properties. Most biopolymers vary in their molecular characteristics and functional properties. However, the properties are dependent on source, extraction, purification, and processing treatments. Nowadays in the food industry biopolymers are playing a vital role in the processing of foods and ability to interact with other food components to improve the stability and physicochemical properties of foods. Many new technologies bring a tremendous potentiality for the production of biopolymers for industrial use. Biopolymers have to compete with polymers derived from fossil fuels in terms of functional properties and cost.

2. Polysaccharides as Biopolymers

Polysaccharides are built with monosaccharides of the same or different residues. They are an appealing platform for food packaging. Most of the polysaccharide biopolymers are used in active packaging to protect foods against pathogenic and spoilage microbes. Many polysaccharides are found to have applications in the food industry because they are nontoxic, biodegradable, ecofriendly, biocompatible, edible molecules. Polysaccharide-based biopolymers are diverse and complex because the bonds linking the sugar residues can be formed at different positions. Many polysaccharides contain branched structures and are chemically modified by the addition of other molecules. Here are some of polysaccharides used as biopolymers that play a critical role in food industry.

2.1. Starch

Starch is the biopolymer of α-d-glucose residues present in tubers, potatoes, grains, seeds, fruits, rhizomes, and pith of plants as in the form of granules of various sizes and shapes (spherical, oval, lens, or irregular) depending upon the source. In the cereal starch granules are concentric layers and in potato starch they may be eccentric layers. The structure becomes amorphous and hydrated starch molecules are arranged in a crystalline lattice. Starch is associated with 0.01%–0.05% nitrogen and 0.6% fatty acids like oleic, palmitic, and linoleic acids. When starch is dissolved in boiling water 10%–20% of the soluble (amylose) portion passes into the solution but insoluble (80%–90%) portion called amylopectin absorbs water and swells to form an elastic sphere. Haworth, Freudenberg, Meyer, and Hess have contributed much in structure of starch made up of α-(1→4) and α-(1→6) glycosidic linkages (Castillejo et  al.,  2012; Fredriksson et  al.,  1998; Haworth,  1929). Chemical modification of starch by addition of butan-1-ol was demonstrated over 60 years ago (Schoch, 1942). An interesting theme about starch is inclusion of different guest molecules even to hydrocarbons to form complex structures for specific application in food industry. Not only chemical modification of starch but also specific functions in the food industry may well be dependent on morphology and size of the granules (Tomasik and Schilling, 1998). The unique structure (Fig. 1.1) of starch has many applications in food industry. Basically it is widely used as thickener, stabilizer, gelling agent, bulking agent, and water retention agent (Singh et al., 2007). A partially degraded starch by enzymes has been used as bulking agent (low calories) in food industries (Escarpa and Gonzalez, 1997). Intake of sugars with low calorie content is of great concern in the management of diabetes (Kelley, 2003).

Figure 1.1   Polysaccharide-Based Biopolymers and Their Structural Representation.

2.2. Cellulose

Cellulose is the most abundant biopolymer in nature and is a chief constituent of fibrous parts of plants and some bacteria belong to the genera Gluconacetobacter, Sarcina, or Agrobacterium (Carreira et  al.,  2011; Pandey et  al.,  2012) Depending upon the sources the availability of celluloses varies. For example the cellulose content of ramie, flax, and cotton is 97%–99% and the amount in woods varies from 41%-53% and cereal straw contains 30%–43%. It is also found in certain marine animals, such as Polycarpa vorions, Tunicata, Phallusia mammillata). Cellulose is a polymer of β-d glucose residues linked together by β-(1→4) glycosidic linkages (Fig. 1.1). The high-density hydroxyl groups of cellulose, which makes special structural properties (Fu et al., 2013). Structure of cellulose fibers indicates bundles of parallel cellulose chains held together by horizontally by hydrogen bonds between alcoholic groups, which helps packaging and textile production. Cellulose is the major component of thickeners and stabilizers in foods (Kalia et al., 2011). Derivatives of cellulose used as filters, adsorbents and in antimicrobial packaging systems as a carrier material for bacteriocins. For example: Nisin is a bacteriocin has been added to cellulose film to control the growth of Listeria monocytogenes genes in processed meat products. A cellulose derivative called hydroxyl propyl methyl cellulose (HMPC) along with nisin was used to make films and serves as a plasticizer. To improve material mechanical property, glycerol cellulose emulsion with pediocin has shown antimicrobial activity against L. innoccea and Salmonella sp. Dissolution of cellulose in different solvents regenerates the cellulose products, such as fibers, films, tobacco filters, and others. The human body does not have a cellulose enzyme that digests cellulose, but nanosize celluloses can cross the cell membrane and enter the bloodstream. Intravenous injection of nanocarboxy-methyl-cellulose does not shown any harmful effects. The sources of nanocellulose particles are produced during nanocellulose production, delivery by direct consumption of food products, resulting from undesirable food packaging materials and from composites. Till now there is no evidence of inflammatory effect or cytotoxicity of cellulose on mouse or human macrophages (Pitkanen and Kangas,  2011; Syverud et  al.,  2011).

2.3. Chitin

Chitin is the second most abundant biopolymer after cellulose. Chitin is a structural polysaccharide of outer skeleton of crustacean animals like crabs, shrimps, lobsters, insects, and cell wall of certain fungi and algae (Prameela and Hemalatha, 2015). It is an important molecule of lenses of the eyes, tendons, and lining of respiratory, digestive, and excretory tracks of crustaceans. Chitin is a polymer of repeating units of chitosan, a disaccharide of β-d-glucose amine linked together by β-(1→4) glycosidic linkage (Fig. 1.1). Generally chitin is distributed in nature in combination with proteins. Hence it maintains a relationship to invertebrates that is similar to the one of cellulose to plants. Chitin is considered as hydrophobic but chitosan can be considered as a member of a family of reactive amphiphilic polymers with different physical, chemical, and biological properties.

The structure of chitosan with functional properties, such as solubility, viscosity, stability, film bonding, and antimicrobial properties helps in food applications. Both chitin and chitosan are biodegradable and biocompatible, hence most of the materials in food products with chitin are recognized as safe (Prameela et  al.,  2012; Stagg,  1973), such as unpeeled shrimp, Aspergillus niger, Agaricus campestris, and Schizophyllum commune. Traditional foods like Norwegian old cheese (gamalost) are rich with yeast used in the fermentation process, which contains chitosan. Most Asian foods with chitosan are recognized as safe but in the West are in the process to obtain GRAS (generally recognized as safe) status from the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Chitosan is used as flocuulant, food additives, for weight loss, in cholesterol-lowering therapy, randomized placebo controlled double blind, for production of single cell proteins, as antigastric agent, for recovery of metals, in pesticides, in phenols, in removal of dyes, for enzyme immobilization and encapsulation of nutraceuticals (Shahidi et  al.,  1998; Stephen and Phillips,  2016). Due to remarkable properties, chitosan appears as a substance to help with missing or damaged tissues and organs and allows cell attachment and proliferation provided that 3D scaffolds. Such development relies on robust processing methods for chitosan, making possible to adjust the scaffold properties at best to the diseased tissue requirements (Dutta et al., 2011).

2.4. Pectin

Pectin is the term used to represent the substance in the presence of sugar, and proper acid concentration leads to the formation of jellies. Pectin is a natural biopolymer present in the cell wall of plants. It is present in most fruits, in the pulp of citrus fruits, apples, beets and carrots. Pectin is associated with cellular in the cell wall from which it may be released and forms into soluble pectin. On mild acid hydrolysis the soluble pectin hydrolyses to pectic acid and methyl alcohol. Pectic acid is a chain of at least 200 (1→4) linked α-d galacto pyranose uronic acid residues (Fig. 1.1). Dilute alkali at room temperature quickly decomposes pectin into alkali pectate and methyl alcohol. To form a gel from pectin it must contain 65%–70% sugars and pH must be 3.2–3.5. Large amounts of pectin are used in the fruit conservation industry. Pectin has high molecular weight compound due to high branching in its structure. Depending upon the source and condition for extraction the molecular weight, esterification, and acetyl-esterification varies, which may be more or less suitable for biomedical applications. Due to easily changeable physical properties, high water content, and ability to immobilize cells, genes, drugs, growth factors, and proteins, most pectin gels are used for biomedical applications (Munarin et al., 2010a,b, 2011).

Most of the natural biopolymers are inert and are biocompatible carriers (Tan and Marra, 2010). The promising aspect of pectin gel is in tissue engineering, delivery of genes, drugs, and healing of wounds. However, pectin has interesting characteristics for drug delivery applications due to having themuco-adhesiveness, the ease of dissolution in basic environment and ability to form gels in acid conditions. Further, pectin has been found to recognize galectin molecule in chemotherapeutic treatments (Munarin et al., 2012a).

2.5. Alginic acid

Alginic acids are interesting structural components isolated from brown algae Laminaria Macrocysteri and Ascophyllum (De Lima et  al.,  2009; Tapia et  al.,  2008). Alginate is a polymer of β-d-mannuronic acid and α-l-glucuronic acid through α-(1→4) glycosidc linkages (George and Abraham, 2006). The annual industrial production is 30,000 metric tons. Alginic acid was first described by the British chemist Stanford (1881). Alginic acid has 300 times more water-absorbing capacity and forms a gum-like material. The potential use of alginate is in biotechnological applications. It is used as a solid support media for plant propagation in plant tissue culture techniques and encapsulation of living cells for in vivo use. It is used as a driving force for research aimed at understanding structure–function relationships in food products. Alginate present in brown algae gives mechanical strength flexibility to the plants due to lower G content. It plays a major role in cyst formation in bacteria Azotobacter vinelandii (Moresi et al., 2004). Solutions of alginate easily react with divalent ions to form gels. Calcium has found as the divalent ion because calcium salts are cheap, readily available, and nontoxic. However, the strength of the gel depends on the source of alginate, degree of polymerization, and concentration of calcium salts. When calcium is used as the divalent ion, alginate solutions will also form gels and these gels are generally softer than calcium gels, giving the feel of melting in the mouth, hence, they find many applications in the food industry as thickening agent, gelling agent, and colloidal stabilizer (Sriamornsak and Kennedy, 2008). Alginic acid is used as food additives to improve the texture of foods. In addition to food uses, the other technical uses as print paste in the textile industry.

2.6. Carrageenan

Carrageenans are present in the red seaweed Kappaphycus alvarezii. It is a linear anioinic sulfate polysaccharide made up of alternative residues of d-galactopyranose linked together by α-(1→3) and β-(1→4) glycosidic linkages (Karbowiak et  al.,  2008; Martins et  al.,  2012). It is a polymer of disaccharide β-d-galactopyranose-(1→3)-α-galactopyranose. Carrabiose and neocarrabiose are trivial names of carrageenan (Hamzah et al., 2013). The prominent feature of carrageenan is their diversity, depending on source and extraction methods. The most highly sulfatic type is γ-carrageenan, which does not form gels. Gelling carrageenan contains one or more helix-forming residues (β, k, or l units). From ancient times, the Chinese, Bretons, and Irish have used carrageenan for the gelling of milk. It is used as a stabilizer and emulsifier in ice creams, instant puddings, chocolate milk, coffee creamer substitute, whipped toppings, dessert gel, low-energy gels, low-fat meats, sausages, and canned pet foods in food industries, which shows the versatility of carrageenan as food additive (Norton et al., 1983a,b). The anionic character of the I-carrageenan is greater in water due to strong interaction (Gluck and Thier,  1980; Yabe et  al.,  1991). The carrageenan gels have high-melting point and maintain their consistency in a wide range of temperatures. Meat products with carrageenan and galactomannan are used for both fish and poultry, which benefit from recovery and properties (Montero and Perez-Mateos, 2002). Today, more than 100 products containing carrageenans are available and the global production exceeds that of agar (De Ruiter and Rudolph,  1997; Indergaard and Ostgaard,  1991). Most food companies hold numerous patents on governing its preparation and application.