Resolving, Fears, Phobias, and Anxieties: A Manual for Professionals
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Resolving Fears, Phobias, and Anxieties: An Errorless Differential Reinforcement Approach is a manual for behaviorologists and animal behavior technologists in applying errorless differential added reinforcement to resolve escape-functional behavior in dogs (or other species). It provides a foundational treatment of basic principles of behavior and outlines the rationale for utilizing errorless differential reinforcement, particularly with DRO in the initial phase of the intervention, transitioning to DRI or DRA in later phases. It provides detailed instructions for applying errorless differential added reinforcement to actual cases.
James O'Heare
James O'Heare is a Behaviorologist who has spent over 25 years researching animal behavior and animal rights. He lives in Ottawa, Canada.
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Resolving, Fears, Phobias, and Anxieties - James O'Heare
Resolving Fears, Phobias, and Anxieties:
An Errorless Differential Reinforcement
Approach
A Manual for Professionals
James O’Heare
BehaveTech Publishing
Ottawa, Canada
Copyright © 2018 by James O’Heare. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by an information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the author.
Title: Resolving Fears, Phobias, and Anxieties: An Errorless
Differential Reinforcement Approach
Publisher: BehaveTech Publishing, Ottawa, Canada,
www.BehaveTech.com
Author: James O’Heare
Cover art and book design: James O’Heare
Proof-reading: Kamrin MacKnight
Limits of Liability and Disclaimer of Warranty:
The author shall not be liable in the event of incidental or consequential damages or loss in connection with, or arising out of, the furnishing, performance, or use of the instructions or suggestions contained in this book. This book provides information of a general nature. Working with dogs IS risky.
ISBN 978-1-927744-17-8
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface
Introduction
Chapter 1. Introduction to the Basic Principles of Behavior
Introduction
Types of Behavior
Causes of Behavior
The Three-Term Contingency (aka the ABCs of Behaviorology)
Conditioning
The Three-Term Contingency in Detail
Antecedent Stimulus (A)
Behavior (B)
Consequence (C)
Operant Conditioning
How Conditioning Occurs
Types of Operant Conditioning Processes
Reinforcement
Added Reinforcement
Subtracted Reinforcement
Punishment
Added Punishment
Subtracted Punishment
Extinction—The Sixth Principle of Behavior
Extinction
Schedules of Added Reinforcement
Motivating Operations
Respondent Conditioning
Chapter 2. The Problem with Aversive Strategies and Procedures
What is Aversive Stimulation
Problematic Side-Effects of Aversive Stimulation
Respondent Side-Effects: Aversive Emotional Arousal and Conditioning
Operant Side-effects: Escape Behavior
Chapter 3. Functional Assessment
Introduction
Functional Assessment Interview
Direct Observation
Functional Analysis
Contingency Analysis
Functional Diagnostic Categories
Chapter 4. Constructing a Behavior Change Plan
Introduction
The Behavior Replacement Model
Errorless Training
Defining the Behavior Objective
Chapter 5. Differential Reinforcement of Other Behaviors (DRO)
Introduction
Differential Reinforcement of Other Behaviors
Definition and Procedural Considerations
Changing Emotional Reactions as a Byproduct of DRO
Why DRO for Fears, Phobias, and Anxieties?
Chapter 6. Adapting and Applying the Behavior Change Plan to Specific Cases
Introduction
Preclusion
Replacement Behaviors
Added Reinforcers
Devising the Errorless Approach
Carrying Out Exposures
Transitioning to DRI or DRA
Common Escape Contingency Scenarios
Cowering/Flight or Panic
Aggressive
Behaviors
Thunder/Fireworks Phobias
Stereotypies/Self-Mutilation
Separation Anxiety
Summary of Errorless Differential Added Reinforcement Beginning with DRO Steps
Planning Stage
Implementation Stage (Acquisition and Fluency Stages)
Maintenance Stage
References
Index
Preface
This small book elaborates a powerful intervention strategy used by behaviorologists and professional animal behavior technologists in resolving problematic behaviors associated with direct and socially mediated escape contingencies, the kinds of situations that might evoke the words fears,
phobias,
panic,
or anxieties,
by laypeople. This book is written for professionals, but care has been taken to keep it as accessible as possible. A separate companion book is available for animal guardians. Professionals may recommend it or provide it as a part of their consultation services when they anticipate applying the procedures described herein. This will help ensure a higher degree of fidelity with regard to client participation.
The emphasis will be placed on dogs in examples because this is the most common species for which people seek to resolve such problems, but the principles, tactics, strategies, and procedures outlined here are applicable to any species of animal, including humans.
There are other procedures available, some of which are also highly effective, but differential added reinforcement is the least aversive/intrusive because it does not rely on presenting the stimulus at an intensity that is aversive. It is also the safest set of procedures, primarily for the same reason.
The principles and procedures outlined here are based on solid behaviorological natural science and not fads or one-true-way systems. Controversial topics (e.g., respondent counterconditioning) will be identified as such to ensure clarity on that point and argumentation presented for peer scrutiny.
Behaviorologists have been utilizing differential added reinforcement for a great many years and it has emerged as the most effective and least aversive solution for many problems. Other types of differential reinforcement, namely differential reinforcement of incompatible behaviors (DRI) and differential reinforcement of alternative behaviors (DRA), have been particularly popular because they condition specific behaviors, but DRO allows for a high rate of added reinforcement, which more readily facilitates respondent counterconditioning and beneficial changes in the subject’s emotional reaction to aversive stimuli. Here, DRO will be the initial procedure relied upon, but a transition to DRI or DRA is common once these benefits have been realized.
Introduction
What are fears,
phobias,
and anxieties
? These are colloquial terms that rather imprecisely refer to certain emotional behaviors, the relevant after-effect feelings, and the operant behaviors influenced by them. These circumstances reflect escape contingencies—that is, behaviors maintain by subtracted reinforcement. In other words, we are talking about circumstances in which a behavior functions to forestall, reduce, or eliminate some aversive experience. In dogs, and indeed many species, there are two general tendencies in escaping aversive stimuli. One tendency is to cower, freeze, or to flee. The other tendency is to exhibit aggressive behaviors.
Aggressive behaviors can function to access added reinforcers or to escape subtracted reinforcers and the latter function is by far the most common. These aggressive behaviors might not always seem to function as escape because the behaviors look offensive
rather than defensive
and because the aggressor engages the target rather than disengaging. However, in escape-functional aggressive behaviors, the outcome of the blustery and aggressive display is to make the target of such behavior cease what they are doing or retreat in some way, and as such, it is also escape-functional. Along with such flight or fight operant behaviors, certain emotional behaviors and feelings commonly occur, making the experience unpleasant for the dog.
Errorless differential added reinforcement is a powerful set of procedures for resolving all such behavioral circumstances, regardless of whether the actual behaviors exhibited are freezing, fighting, or fleeing. The major benefit of errorless differential added reinforcement over some other popular procedures is that it does not require aversive stimulation in order to be effective, it is easy to carry out, and it is highly effective. Aside from resolving potentially harmful behaviors, errorless differential added reinforcement, particularly DRO, sets the conditioning occasion for changing aversive emotional reactions, making escape behavior irrelevant/moot/unnecessary, and providing the dog with a life composed of a greater number of pleasant experiences rather than unpleasant ones.
Chapter 1. Introduction to the Basic Principles of Behavior
Introduction
This very basic introduction to the foundational principles of behavior will help put errorless differential added reinforcement procedures in context and provide a review of concepts that professionals should already be familiar with and which arise in discussion of applying errorless differential added reinforcement to cases.
Types of Behavior
There are two fundamentally distinct kinds of behavior. Operant behaviors are behaviors maintained by the consequences they generate.