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    Emerging and Reemerging Viral Pathogens: Volume 2: Applied Virology Approaches Related to Human, Animal and Environmental Pathogens
    Emerging and Reemerging Viral Pathogens: Volume 2: Applied Virology Approaches Related to Human, Animal and Environmental Pathogens
    Emerging and Reemerging Viral Pathogens: Volume 2: Applied Virology Approaches Related to Human, Animal and Environmental Pathogens
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    Emerging and Reemerging Viral Pathogens: Volume 2: Applied Virology Approaches Related to Human, Animal and Environmental Pathogens

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    Emerging and Reemerging Viral Pathogens: Applied Virology Approaches Related to Human, Animal and Environmental Pathogens, Volume Two presents new research information on viruses and their impact on the scientific community. It provides a reference book on certain viruses in humans, animals and vegetal, along with a comprehensive discussion on interspecies interactions. The book then looks at the drug, vaccine and bioinformatical strategies that can be used against these viruses, giving the reader a clear understanding of transmission. The book's end goal is to create awareness that the appearance of newly transmissible pathogens is a global risk that requires shared/adoptable policies for prevention and control.

    • Covers most emerging viral disease in humans, animals and plants
    • Provides the most advanced tools and techniques in molecular virology and the modeling of viruses
    • Creates awareness that the appearance of new transmissible pathogens is a global risk
    • Highlights the need to adopt shared policies for the prevention and control of infectious diseases
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherAcademic Press
    Release dateSep 14, 2019
    ISBN9780128149676
    Emerging and Reemerging Viral Pathogens: Volume 2: Applied Virology Approaches Related to Human, Animal and Environmental Pathogens

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      Emerging and Reemerging Viral Pathogens - Moulay Mustapha Ennaji

      Chapter 1

      Phenomena of Emergences and Reemergences of the Diseases: Evolution of the Concepts, Risk Factors, and State of the Art

      Moulay Mustapha Ennaji,    Laboratory of Virology, Microbiology, Quality, Biotechnologies/Eco-Toxicology and Biodiversity, Faculty of Sciences and Techniques, Mohammedia, University Hassan II of Casablanca, Casablanca, Morocco

      Abstract

      According to scientific data, 60% of the pathogens affecting humans come from the animal kingdom. Also, among 75% of the agents are recognized as responsible of emerging animal diseases, can cross the interspecies interface and infect humans. This percentage reflects the health risk incurred when humans are in contact with domestic animals such as poultry, companion animals (dogs, cats, etc.), or wild animals (bats, wild boars, game, etc.).

      Keywords

      Animals; WHO; emergence; reemergence; OIE; One Health, One World

      According to scientific data, 60% of the pathogens affecting humans come from the animal kingdom. Also, among 75% of the agents are recognized as responsible of emerging animal diseases, can cross the interspecies interface and infect humans. This percentage reflects the health risk incurred when humans are in contact with domestic animals such as poultry, companion animals (dogs, cats, etc.), or wild animals (bats, wild boars, game, etc.) (World Health Organization (WHO), 1959; International Organization of Epizootics (OIE), 2007).

      The characterization of zoonoses has evolved over time. They were initially defined by the WHO (1959) experts as diseases or infections that are naturally transmitted from vertebrate animals to humans and vice versa. This definition was the subject of controversy between several authors (Ashford, 2003; Hubalek, 2003). Hubalek agreed to adopt a broader definition emphasizing the nature of transmissible pathogens from animals to humans and reciprocally. The current definition has now become broader: Zoonoses are diseases, infections or parasitic infestations caused by transmissible agents (bacteria, viruses, parasites, fungi or prions) that develop in at least two vertebrate species, including human (Savey and Dufour, 2004).

      The list of these zoonotic diseases is continually updated due to the emergence and reemergence of new pathogens, which presents a permanent challenge for both public and animal health.

      The word emergence, often used in the literature and the media, is defined as the sudden appearance of an unknown disease, while the reemergence reports a disease already known by the scientific community and reappearing again (Cohen, 1998). For example, HIV emerged in humans in 1982, according to specialist virologists; this virus circulated previously in nonhuman primates (chimpanzees and gorillas) and was transmitted to humans by pathogens of animal origin (Drevet, 2012). Also, the reemergence was seen in enteroviruses, especially poliomyelitis (Peigue-Lafeuille et al., 2014).

      As new diseases appear for humanity, the word emergence becomes more and more used. It is agreed, according to several authors, that at the beginning, the idea of the emergence of diseases was closely linked to the birth of the modern epidemiology of the 19th century. The idea was based on the work of two researchers Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch who put the basis of modern science through the microbial theory that attributed the pathogenic effect to a specific microorganism. The word emergence was particularly used during the outbreak of the cholera pandemic in 1832 that ravaged Paris and London and resulted in several thousand deaths (Belongia, 2002; Drotman, 1998; Fagherazzi-Pagel, 2008).

      Then the epidemic of typhus (salomiales) in 1848 in Germany was described by the German researcher Rudolf Virchow who has highlighted the role that environment can play on the disease spread and contamination (Cicolella, 2010).

      The idea of emergence is already reported since 1930, in a book published by researcher Charles Nicolle, who received Nobel Prize in medicine in 1939. In the 1960s, the scientific community focused on emerging diseases in the animal world and their transmission to humans, researchers were talking about the emerging pathogenic concept to describe newly isolated or observed pathogens, as is the case for poliovirus causing poliomyelitis manifested by nerve signs leaving paralytic limb squeal (Bodian, 1955).

      At the beginning of 1990, the American researcher Stephen S. Morse was one of the first scientists to defend the emergence of new highly pathogenic viruses (Chastel, 2000; Morse, 1995a,b). Lederberg et al. (1992) have brought new perspectives by focusing on aspects that promote and trigger emergence, such as the environment, the political, and social issues.

      In addition, several emergence and reemergence events have been reported: the major influenza pandemics were the Spanish in 1918 that caused 40 million deaths, Asian in 1957 that caused 4 million deaths, Hong Kong in 1968 with 2 million deaths, and most recently in 2009 the Mexican pandemic flu. Then, the recurrent emergence and reemergence of H5N1, the highly pathogenic avian influenza in 1997, H7N9 in 2013 and acute respiratory disease (SARS and MERS) in 2002 and 2012, respectively (Kilbourne, 2006; Choffnes and Mack, 2015).

      The instability of some regions and the nonrigorous application of vaccine programs have prevented the eradication of many diseases such as polio and influenza (Gonzalo, 2017).

      RNA viruses such as poliovirus, vesicular stomatitis virus, human immunodeficiency virus type 1, foot-and-mouth disease virus, highly pathogenic avian influenza, and vector-borne viral hemorrhagic fever diseases [that include serious viral diseases associated with bleeding as dengue, Ebola hemorrhagic fever, Marburg hemorrhagic fever, Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever, Rift Valley fever (RVF), and yellow fever] are the main issues of emergence and reemergence, due to their intrinsic capacity for genetic change. In fact, mutations, recombination, and rearrangement of the genomic segments, as well as the combination of these events, produce genetically and antigenetically diverse viral strains that result in considerable potential for viral emergence and reemergence (Domingo et al., 2002).

      Moreover, this phenomenon of emergence and reemergence also affects microorganisms like bacteria. Tuberculosis is a real example of this bacterial reemergence, and it often reappears following the anarchic use of antibiotics making it responsible bacterium refractory to the usual treatments. The precariousness of the sanitary system, the poverty associated with the increase of slums, and the environment pollution are all contributing factors. Also, cholera that is best known by its reemergence often correlated to the decrease of access to drinking water following the social precariousness or in case of natural disaster as is the case during an earthquake in Haiti (Stamm and Mudrak, 2013). In addition, the reemergence of Malaria in several illustrious continents is an eminent example of parasite reemergence (Sharma, 1996).

      Emerging diseases, depending on their nature, can be divided into two broad categories: new diseases and known diseases.

      Thus new diseases are unknown diseases caused by previously unknown pathogens in humans. This is the case of SARS, hantavirus, AIDS, and bovine spongiform encephalopathy, which was unknown before 1986.

      The known diseases correspond to diseases that circulate in animals but new to humans in this case, the pathogens have mutated and acquired the ability to cross the interspecies barrier, thus inducing changes in virulence and adaptation to new hosts such as human. In this case, three possibilities are evoked as follows:

      • Pathology without nosological or clinical identity such as Legionnaire’s disease.

      • Diseases that have occurred with a quantitative or qualitative increase related to the increase in virulence.

      • Change of the geographical territory: certain known disease in a region when it gains of the new territory becomes emerging for the new geographical areas.

      The conditions favoring the emergence of diseases, often called emergence factors, have become hot topics. They are multiple and intermingled factors that act together in synergy. We can distinguish them as follows:

      • Sociological and ecological factors produce diverse and changing environments in which certain pathogens, especially viruses, have wide possibilities of being selected. In this way, new human, animal, and plant viruses have appeared periodically and, obviously, will continue to emerge. Urbanization is now becoming a determining factor in the resurgence and emergence of viral diseases. Thus overcrowding promotes the spread of disease and creates unsanitary conditions (Smolinski et al., 2003; Howard and Fletcher, 2012).

      • Climatic factor: the creation of dams and the increase of the global temperature promote the multiplication of the vectors notably mosquitoes which gain new territories thus conveying diseases. As is the case for RVF disease, which is a viral zoonosis (mainly affecting ruminant domestic animals that can be transmitted to humans), which is manifested by a fever and sometimes (1%–3% of cases) hemorrhage (Morse, 1995a,b).

      • Intensive crops and industrial farms: those activities have often been the source of many zoonotic diseases; for example, maize fields in Argentina have favored the proliferation of rats responsible for hemorrhagic fever in humans (Maclachlan et al., 2016).

      • Drug-related factors: Anarchic and excessive use of antibiotics and antivirals make virulent agents resistant to treatments adopted in hospitals.

      • The reduction of wild areas and human–animal interface are factors often cited by experts as favoring the emergence of diseases. In fact, deforestation and fragmentation of forests have favored human contact. New pathogens such as HIV and Ebola, as well as the proliferation of insects near homes, have made the transmission of germs easier (Wolfe et al., 2005).

      • The destruction of predators unbalances the food chain in favor of certain vectors carrying certain pathogens, let us quote the example of Lyme disease carried by the rodents present in large numbers of cornfields in the United States. In the end, the massive deforestation directly affects biodiversity by promoting genetic mutations and diversity.

      • Factors related to pathogens: those factors include the ease of mutations acquisition, as is the case of RNA viruses.

      • Factors related to vectors: precarious installations and lack of hygiene favor the proliferation of mosquitoes and flies that carry pathogenic germs.

      • Host-related factors: certain host-related conditions predispose and contribute to the onset of the disease, for example, physiological or exogenous stress, immune depression, and so on (Morse, 1995a,b; Howard and Fletcher, 2012).

      Thus human behavior was the main cause of the diseases’ emergence, we mention some aspects: The sharing of habitat between humans and animals, displacement of populations, and the low rate of literacy were behind the nonapplication and nonassimilation of good hygienic practice associated with a deficient health policy.

      Natural disasters and wars are often accompanied by the destruction of infrastructure and are still factors triggering emerging and reemerging diseases.

      In the industrialized countries, other factors are added to the factors of emergence linked to the human activity which are different; we can quote the activities of leisure and the pets possession to the households. Also, the development of small farms around the cities, intensification of animal productions, and the centralization of food production chains using methods and techniques can promote the emergence of emerging and reemerging diseases (Morse, 1995a,b).

      To standardize the international procedures and manage the emerging and reemerging infectious diseases, the international community has created several bodies to monitor the health of both humans and animals. In effect, in response to emergence and reemergence phenomena, the international scientific community through the tripartite alliance [OIE, WHO, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)] promotes collaborations for the prevention and control of health risks at the human–animal–environment interface through the adoption of strategies, concepts, and intervention plans, all according to the central dogma "One Health, One

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