Dynamics and Control of Nuclear Reactors

Dynamics and Control of Nuclear Reactors

First Edition

Thomas W. Kerlin

Belle R. Upadhyaya

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Dedication

Preface

Communication with authors

Acknowledgments

Chapter 1: Introduction

Abstract

1.1 Introduction

1.2 System dynamics and control design

Chapter 2: Nuclear reactor designs

Abstract

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Generation I reactors

2.3 Generation II reactors

2.4 Generation III reactors

2.5 Generation III + reactors

2.6 Generation IV reactors

2.7 Advanced reactors

2.8 Early twenty-first century construction

Chapter 3: The point reactor kinetics equations

Abstract

3.1 Neutronics

3.2 Delayed neutrons

3.3 Development of the point reactor kinetics equations

3.4 Alternate choices for the neutronic variable

3.5 Perturbation form of the point kinetics equations

3.6 Transfer functions

3.7 Frequency response function

3.8 Stability

3.9 Fluid-fuel reactors

Chapter 4: Solutions of the point reactor kinetics equations and interpretation

Abstract

4.1 Evolution of simulation methods

4.2 Numerical analysis

4.3 Maneuvers in a zero power reactor

4.4 Analytical solutions

4.5 Solutions for small perturbations

4.6 Sinusoidal reactivity and frequency response

4.7 Fluid fuel reactor response

4.8 The inhour equation

Chapter 5: Subcritical operation

Abstract

5.1 The neutron source

5.2 Relation between neutron flux and reactivity in a subcritical reactor

5.3 The inverse multiplication factor

5.4 Responses during startup

5.5 Power ascension

Chapter 6: Fission product poisoning

Abstract

6.1 The problem

6.2 Dynamics of xenon-135

6.3 Samarium-149 poisoning

6.4 Summary

Chapter 7: Reactivity feedbacks

Abstract

7.1 Basics

7.2 Fuel temperature feedback in thermal reactors

7.3 Moderator temperature feedback in thermal reactors

7.4 Pressure and void coefficients in thermal reactors

7.5 Fission product feedback

7.6 Combined reactivity feedback

7.7 Power coefficient of reactivity and the power defect

7.8 Reactivity feedback effect on the frequency response

7.9 Destabilizing negative feedback: A physical explanation

7.10 Explanation of stability using state-space representation

Chapter 8: Reactor control

Abstract

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Open-loop and closed-loop control systems

8.3 Basic control theory

8.4 Control of a zero-power reactor

8.5 Control options in power reactors

8.6 Effect of inherent feedbacks on control options

8.7 Load following operation

8.8 The role of stored energy

8.9 Steady-state power distribution control

8.10 Important reactivity feedbacks and control strategies for various reactor types

Chapter 9: Space-time kinetics

Abstract

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Diffusion theory

9.3 Multi-group diffusion theory

9.4 Calculation requirements

9.5 Computer software

9.6 Models and computational methods

Chapter 10: Reactor thermal-hydraulics

Abstract

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Heat conduction in fuel elements

10.3 Heat transfer to liquid coolant

10.4 Boiling coolant

10.5 Plenum and piping models

10.6 Pressurizer

10.7 Heat exchanger model

10.8 Steam generator model

10.9 Balance-of-Plant (BOP) system models

10.10 Reactor system models

Chapter 11: Nuclear reactor safety

Abstract

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Reactor safety principles

11.3 Early accidents with fuel damage

11.4 Analysis of potential reactor accidents

11.5 Accidents in Generation-II power reactors

11.6 Consequences and lessons learned

Chapter 12: Pressurized water reactors

Abstract

12.1 Introduction

12.2 PWR characteristics [1–3]

12.3 The reactor core

12.4 The pressurizer

12.5 Steam generators

12.6 Reactivity feedbacks

12.7 Power maneuvering

12.8 Steady-state programs for PWRs

12.9 Control rod operating band and control rod operation

12.10 Feedwater control for PWR with U-tube steam generators [2, 4, 5]

12.11 Control of a PWR with once-through steam generators [3]

12.12 Turbine control

12.13 Summary of main PWR controllers

12.14 PWR safety systems

12.15 Example of a PWR simulation

Chapter 13: Boiling water reactors

Abstract

13.1 Introduction

13.2 History of BWR design evolution

13.3 Characteristics of BWRs

13.4 Reactivity feedbacks in BWRs

13.5 Reactivity and recirculation flow

13.6 Total reactivity balance

13.7 BWR dynamic models

13.8 BWR stability problem and impact on control

13.9 The power flow map and startup

13.10 On-line stability monitoring

13.11 Power maneuvering

13.12 BWR control strategy

13.13 BWR safety

13.14 Advantages and disadvantages

Chapter 14: Pressurized heavy water reactors

Abstract

14.1 Introduction

14.2 PHWR characteristics

14.3 Neutronic features [3]

14.4 Temperature feedback in heavy water reactors

14.5 The void coefficient

14.6 Reactivity control mechanisms

14.7 Control systems

14.8 Maneuvering

14.9 Reactor dynamics

Chapter 15: Nuclear plant simulators

Abstract

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Types of simulators and their purpose

15.3 Desk-top simulators

15.4 Control room simulators

Game simulators

Education and Training Simulators

General

Chapter 16: Nuclear plant instrumentation

Abstract

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Sensor characteristics

16.3 PWR instrumentation

16.4 BWR instrumentation

16.5 CANDU (PHWR) reactor instrumentation

16.6 High temperature reactor instrumentation

Appendix A: Generation II reactor parameters

Abstract

A.1 Pressurized water reactor (PWR)

A.2 Boiling water reactor (BWR)

A.3 Pressurized heavy water reactor (PHWR): CANDU reactor

Appendix B: Advanced reactors

Abstract

B.1 Introduction

B.2 Design possibilities

B.3 A note about reactors that use thorium

B.4 Advanced reactor marketplace

B.5 Large evolutionary reactors

B.6 Large developmental reactors

B.7 Small reactors

B.8 Dynamics of advanced reactors

Appendix C: Basic reactor physics

Abstract

C.1 Introduction

C.2 Neutron interactions

C.3 Reaction rates and nuclear power generation

C.4 Nuclear fission

C.5 Fast and thermal neutrons

C.6 Relation between specific power and neutron flux

C.7 Neutron lifetime and generation time

C.8 Multiplication factor and reactivity

C.9 Computing effective multiplication factor

C.10 Neutron transport and diffusion

Appendix D: Laplace transforms and transfer functions

Abstract

D.1 Introduction

D.2 Defining the Laplace transform

D.3 Calculating Laplace transforms

D.4 The inverse Laplace transform

D.5 Transfer functions

D.6 Feedback transfer functions

D.7 The convolution integral

D.8 Laplace transforms and partial differential equations

Appendix E: Frequency response analysis of linear systems

Abstract

E.1 Frequency response theory

E.2 Computing frequency response function

E.3 Systems with oscillatory behavior

E.4 Systems with time delay dynamics

E.5 Frequency response of distributed systems

E.6 Frequency response measurements

Appendix F: State variable models and transient analysis

Abstract

F.1 Introduction

F.2 State variable models

F.3 General solution of the multiple-input multiple-output (MISO) linear

F.4 The matrix exponential solution

F.5 Sensitivity analysis

F.6 Numerical solutions of ordinary differential equations

F.7 Solutions for partial differential equations

Appendix G: Matlab and Simulink: A brief tutorial

Abstract

G.1 Introduction

G.2 Getting started with simulink

G.3 Simulation of a single-input single-output (SISO) system

G.4 Simulation of a closed-loop system with P-I controller

G.5 Solving linear differential equations using state-space models

G.6 Computing step response using a transfer function

G.7 Computing eigenvalues and eigenvectors

Appendix H: Analytical solution of the point reactor kinetics equations and the prompt jump approximation

Abstract

H.1 Introduction

H.2 Analytical solution of the point kinetics equations

H.3 The prompt jump

H.4 An example

Appendix I: A moving boundary model

Abstract

I.1 Introduction

I.2 Development of a moving boundary model

Appendix J: Modeling and simulation of a pressurized water reactor

Abstract

J.1 Introduction

J.2 Linearized isolated core neutronic model

J.3 Numerical values of coefficients in the isolated core neutronic model

J.4 Fuel-to-coolant heat transfer

J.5 Numerical values of coefficients in the isolated core thermal-hydraulic model

J.6 State space representation of dynamic equations

J.7 Simulation of PWR isolated core dynamics response

J.8 Frequency response characteristics of reactor core dynamics

J.9 PWR NSSS dynamics

J.10 Plant system parameters used in the models

J.11 NSSS simulated response to a steam valve perturbation

Appendix K: Modeling and simulation of a molten salt reactor

K.1 Introduction

K.2 Molten salt reactor experiment (MSRE)

K.3 Lumped parameter model of the MSRE

K.4 Results of simulation of MSR dynamics

Index

Copyright

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Dedication

A good teacher is like a candle –

it consumes itself to light the way for others.

Dedicated to

Nancy Kerlin

and

Nimmi Upadhyaya

Preface

Thomas W. Kerlin tomkerlin@netscape.com

Belle R. Upadhyaya bupadhya@utk.edu

The transient behavior of nuclear power reactors depends on the inherent characteristics of the system and the performance of control systems. These issues must be analyzed to predict and understand the performance of a power reactor. This book deals with the methods needed for this analysis.

The book is designed to be useful as an introductory text and as a text for advanced study. Customizing the presentation by an instructor to match the level of the student is accomplished by selection of appropriate chapters and appendices. Analysis of reactor dynamics is presented both in the time domain and in the frequency domain. The basics of frequency response analysis of linear systems are described in the appendix.

It is assumed that the student has introductory knowledge of nuclear reactor physics. Appendices that deal with basic material may be used as needed for introduction or review. Advanced students with appropriate prior knowledge can omit these Appendices. The authors strongly recommend that the student review the Appendices; these are an important supplement to the book chapters.

Appendices that deal with advanced topics are suitable for advanced readers. These appendices are probably too detailed for use by introductory readers. Placing advanced material in appendices avoids inclusion of topics in the body of the book that would be confusing to introductory readers.

The book contains numerous problems and exercises. Some are designed to familiarize readers with application of techniques presented in the book. They are appropriate for readers of all levels. Some exercises and problems are more involved and are intended for advanced readers. These include assignments that require reporting on topics covered in the literature.

It is hoped that the approach used in this book will provide instructors with the flexibility needed to adapt to the prior knowledge of the students in his/her class.

One might ask why a new book on nuclear power is needed. Many people think that nuclear power is unsafe, too expensive or unnecessary because of other environment-friendly options for producing power, mainly solar or wind power. The reader deserves to know the opinion of the authors on the need for nuclear power. It is as follows:

➢Wind and solar power are intermittent due to dependence on nature. The authors support the use of wind and solar to its maximum capability.

➢Even though locally-produced power will increase, there will always be a need for large power plants.

➢Power generation from plants that burn fossil fuels will decrease because of pollution and climate change concerns.

➢Nuclear power plants are safe because of lessons learned, emphasis on safety in reactor design and operation, and a strong safety culture. But, operators must fully understand the reactor and its operational features in order to avoid mistakes.

Communication with authors

The authors wish to encourage the users of Dynamics and Control of Nuclear Reactors, to provide feedback on the contents of the book and suggestions for improvement in the on-line editions. This would assist us in updating the technical content as the nuclear reactor designs evolve, especially with the development of advanced reactors.

Acknowledgments

We wish to acknowledge the role of scores of students who helped refine the development of an understandable and comprehensive treatment of course material on reactor dynamics and control.

Graduate students provided innovative research results that contributed to the book’s content.

The University of Tennessee Nuclear Engineering Department provided a supportive environment that facilitated work on the book. We are thankful to Professor Wes Hines, Head, Department of Nuclear Engineering, University of Tennessee, for his assistance and thoughtful suggestions.

Several colleagues helped through discussing various technical issues. Most noteworthy were the following individuals: Syd Ball, retired scientist, Oak Ridge National Laboratory; Larry Miller, Professor Emeritus, University of Tennessee; Jamie Coble, Associate Professor, University of Tennessee; Ondrej Chvala, Research Professor, University of Tennessee; Lubomir Sklenka, Professor, Department of Nuclear Reactors, Czech Technical University, Prague.

A special thanks to Vik Singh, MS graduate in Nuclear Engineering, University of Tennessee, for his diligence in checking the technical contents of the book and in assisting in the development of graphics and simulation plots used in the book.

Finally, the preparation of this book would not have been possible without the patience and support of our wives, Nancy Kerlin and Nimmi Upadhyaya. We deeply appreciate their encouragement and sacrifice while we poured over a large amount of technical material.

We are grateful to numerous organizations, including reactor suppliers, scientific societies, government agencies, and technical publishers for providing permission to use copyrighted material in the book. The following is a list of organizations to whom we are deeply indebted:

•American Association of Arts and Sciences, Boston, MA: Nuclear Reactors: Generation to Generation, by Stephen M. Goldberg and Robert Rosner, published by the American Association of Arts and Sciences, 2011.

•Analysis and Measurement Services Corporation, Knoxville, TN.

•AREVA NP, France.

•The Babcock and Wilcox Company, Barberton, OH: Steam, its generation and use, Edition 42, 2015.

•Elsevier Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, U.K.: Handbook of Small Modular Reactors, edited by M.D. Carelli and D.T. Ingersoll, 2015.

•GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy Americas LLC, Wilmington, NC.

•Micro-Simulation Technology, Montville, NJ: Dr. Li-Chi Cliff Po, President.

•Rosatom Overseas, The VVER today: Evolution, Design, Safety,www.rosatom.ru.

•Vik Singh: Study of the Dynamic Behavior of Molten Salt Reactors, MS Thesis, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, May 2019.

•Taylor and Francis, Boca Raton, FL: Nuclear Technology, Vol. 165, No. 2, February 2009.

•Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA).

•University Network of Excellence in Nuclear Engineering (UNENE), McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada: The Essential CANDU, A Textbook on the CANDU Nuclear Power Plant Technology, Editor-in-Chief Wm. J. Garland.

•U.S. Department of Energy.

•U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission.

•Western Simulation Corporation, Frederick, MD.

•Westinghouse Electric Company LLC, 1000 Westinghouse Drive, Cranberry Township, PA: Copyright 1984 Westinghouse Electric Corporation; reprinted with permission of Westinghouse Electric Company LLC.

We are grateful to Ms. Lindsay Lawrence, Elsevier Editorial Project Manager, for her continued and valuable assistance during the preparation of the manuscript. We appreciate the supervision provided by the Elsevier Publishing personnel during the production of this book.

Chapter 1

Introduction

Abstract

This book addresses the approaches for the analysis of dynamic systems and control design. In addition to the discussion of current reactor systems, an overview of next generation nuclear plants (NGNP), small modular reactors (SMR), and instrumentation systems are presented. Treatments of individual topics progress from introductory to advanced levels. For use in undergraduate engineering courses, the coverage may be limited to the simpler and less rigorous portions that appear in the first part of pertinent chapters. Several chapters are totally devoted to introductory topics and some to advanced topics. Appendices are included to provide details of subjects whose inclusion in the text would interrupt the flow of information needed for a student's learning. The appendices are an integral part of the book.

Sample problems are solved in the text and many exercises are provided for students to solve. Some problems require computer solutions, including student-prepared computer codes.

Keywords

Nuclear reactor dynamics; Reactor control; Plant dynamics simulation; Next generation nuclear plant (NGNP); Small modular reactor (SMR); International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)

1.1 Introduction

The power level of a nuclear reactor at any time is expected to be as desired by the plant operator. These plants undergo transients that are induced by operator actions, by actions initiated by an automatic control system, or by a component failure. Designers and operators must understand the transient behavior in order to achieve desired operation and safety.

The first step is to understand the transient operation of a reactor that operates at a low power level, so low that there are negligible increases in temperature because of fission heating. Such a reactor is usually called a zero-power reactor. The power is not actually zero, but is so low that significant heating does not occur, and temperature related feedback effects are negligible. Many research reactors are zero-power reactors.

A power reactor, on the other hand, operates at power levels high enough to cause major temperature increases. The temperatures of reactor components change along with reactor power during transients and these temperature changes, in turn, affect reactor power (a feedback loop). Also, power reactors that contain a compressible fluid undergo pressure changes during a transient. These pressure changes also affect reactor power (another feedback loop).

Transients are usually accompanied by control actions. Control systems monitor selected plant parameters (such as power, temperature, pressure, flow rate) and change appropriate controllable actions (such as control rods and valve positions).

Creating a set of mathematical equations and parameters (coefficients) in those equations to be used to analyze reactor transients is called modeling. Creating a solution to those equations is called system simulation.

Nuclear reactor simulations generally have one of three purposes: obtaining a basic understanding of reactor behavior during transients, analysis of transients during normal maneuvering and response during accident conditions, and operator training. Each of these functions has different requirements for the level of detail in the model.

Reactor simulation efforts started in the early days of reactor operation. Early simulation involved hand calculations and rudimentary calculators. Shortly thereafter, reactor simulation turned to computers for implementation, and simulation technology matured as the capabilities of computer technology evolved. Analog computers were used extensively in early simulations. These computers used electrical circuits to mimic reactor operation. Next came hybrid computers. They used digital computations along with analog components. The digital components handled computations that were not possible or practical with analog components. As digital computers became more powerful and faster, they came to dominate reactor simulation activities.

Computer simulations may be performed on personal computers for some applications. Some solve model equations and provide numerical and/or graphical results. Other, more sophisticated personal computer simulations provide screen displays that mimic actual reactor control room displays.

Simulators for operator training include full-scope simulators that duplicate the control room for the reactor being simulated. The displays provide computed results for all of the variables monitored in the actual plant and include capability for simulating all operator actions.

Reactor accident analyses involve very detailed models that are implemented on large, high-performance computers. Simulations deal with large disturbances with potentially large consequences. Analyses include major accident scenarios such as loss of coolant and control rod ejection.

This book addresses modeling and simulation of nuclear reactors, both zero-power reactors and power reactors. Modeling options include a wide range of possibilities, each with very different levels of complexity. Modeling and simulation is not a do it and be finished activity. Reactor constituents change continuously during operation and immediately at restart after refueling. These changes cause changes in the quantities that determine the reactor's dynamic behavior. So, there is no such thing as model or simulation that defines the reactor at all times. Furthermore, even trying to evaluate the parameters needed in a model is complicated by the need to know neutronic and heat transfer properties that depend on position in the core and the burnup history of the fuel and are difficult to evaluate. The importance of simulation is to provide a way to understand what goes on in a reactor and why it happens rather than a precise determination of reactor dynamic response behavior for a specific disturbance on a specific day.

There is very little in the book that requires detailed knowledge of reactor physics, but familiarity with reactor physics at least at the introductory level is helpful.

1.2 System dynamics and control design

Power generating units (such as a nuclear power plants, fossil-fueled power plants, etc.) and large industrial facilities are complex systems. The design of these systems requires extensive analysis that uses dynamic models and simulation of their operation under various conditions. Because of mathematical methods developed over the past two centuries and computer capability developed since the 1950s, powerful techniques exist for analysis of dynamic systems and for design of control systems. It is now possible to predict the way a system will respond to external disturbances and to develop a control strategy that will cause the system to perform as desired. The ability to describe the system dynamics using a variety of models is crucial to achieve a good engineering design. The control or regulation of a power plant requires critical measurements of process parameters (and neutron power measurements in a nuclear power plant). As a result, a typical large nuclear plant employs a few thousand measurements. These are used by control systems, plant safety (protection) systems, and by monitoring systems. Thus, instrumentation and control play a critical role in safe and reliable operation of commercial nuclear power plants.

Dynamic performance is an important issue in many industrial systems. The key issues in dynamic system performance are the following:

•Can the system be moved from one desired value (set point) to another in an acceptable manner? That is, without deviating from limits of variation and within an acceptable time interval.

•Can the system respond in a stable manner without exceeding safety limits when subjected to unplanned disturbances (possibly due to an accident, an external disturbance, failure of a component, or human error)?

The latest development to enhance the power and usefulness of digital simulation is modular modeling software. Modular modeling software provides a menu of models of commonly encountered systems (reactor kinetics, fuel-to-coolant heat transfer, hot and cold leg volumes, steam generators, feed water heaters, pressurizers, steam turbine, condenser, moisture separators, steam reheaters, pumps, valves, etc., including their control modules) and an automated means for linking them together and running simulations. Because the model for each component is used in many different analyses, great effort by highly qualified experts to develop and check the software is warranted.

Several vendors market new simulation and control design software systems. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) also provides simulators for most types of power reactors to qualified organizations in member countries. These are used quite extensively for training in industry and universities. Ref. [1] provides the procedure for requesting IAEA simulation software. Recommendation by the IAEA representative for the country of the requester is required.

In this book, we emphasize the use of the software system MATLAB and its Toolboxes. A companion system called Simulink is used for the simulation of large processes, such as a nuclear power plant. These software systems are designed for implementation in personal computers (PCs) and (larger) mainframe computers. The MATLAB, Simulink, and the toolboxes are comprehensive collections of functions (software modules) and are developed and marketed by The MathWorks, Inc.

We recommend strongly that the students familiarize themselves with MATLAB, Simulink and the associated Toolboxes [2, 3]. ‘MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment. The name, MATLAB, stands for matrix laboratory’[4]. An open source simulation platform based on the Modelica modeling language is a popular resource for system modeling and simulation [5].

This book addresses the approaches for the analysis of dynamic systems and control system design. In addition to the discussion of current reactor systems, an overview of next generation nuclear plants (NGNP), small modular reactors (SMR), and instrumentation systems are presented. Treatments of individual topics progress from introductory to advanced levels. For use in undergraduate engineering courses, the coverage may be limited to the simpler and less rigorous portions that appear in pertinent chapters. Several chapters are totally devoted to introductory topics and some to advanced topics. Appendices are included to provide details of subjects whose inclusion in the text would interrupt the flow of information needed for a student's learning. The appendices are an integral part of the book and the reader is encouraged to review the material.

Sample problems are solved in the text and exercises are provided for students to solve. Some problems require computer solutions, including student-prepared computer codes.

Exercises

1.1.Go to the IAEA web site (see Ref. [1]), determine all of the reactors for which simulation software is available, and document your review

References

[1] International Atomic Energy Agency: Website: https://www.iaea.org/topics/nuclear-power-reactors/nuclear-reactor-simulators-for-education-and-training/, Email: Simulators.Contact-Point@iaea.org.

[2] Klee H. Simulation of Dynamic Systems with MATLAB and Simulink. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 2007.

[3] MATLAB and Simulink User Guides, The MathWorks, Inc., Natick, MA.

[4] Moler C. The Origins of MATLAB. MathWorks Technical Articles 2004.

[5] OpenModelica. Open Source Modelica Consortium.www.openmodelica.org.

Chapter 2

Nuclear reactor designs

Abstract

Familiarity with the features of reactors that affect dynamic characteristics and control strategies is necessary for the purpose of this book. It is assumed that the reader knows about general reactor characteristics, but this chapter reviews reactor features that are pertinent for the study of reactor dynamics and control. The evolution of commercial nuclear power is often described in terms of different generations characterized by the dominant reactor designs for each generation. Designs being built in some parts of the world in the early twentieth century are Generation III designs. Later improved designs constitute Generation III + and Generation IV. Generation V systems are radically new, highly speculative designs that are being investigated for possible later use. A summary of basic reactor designs is given in this chapter.

Keywords

Pressurized water reactor (PWR); Boiling water reactor (BWR); CANDU reactor; Gas cooled reactor (GCR); Sodium fast reactor (SFR); Lead-cooled fast reactor (LFR); Molten salt reactor (MSR)

2.1 Introduction

Familiarity with the features of reactors that affect dynamic characteristics and control strategies is necessary for the purpose of this book. It is assumed that the reader knows about general reactor characteristics, but this chapter reviews reactor features that are pertinent for the study of reactor dynamics and control.

The evolution of commercial nuclear power is often described in terms of different generations characterized by the dominant reactor designs for each generation. Designs being built in some parts of the world in the early twenty-first century are Generation III designs. Later improved designs constitute Generation III + and Generation IV. Generation V systems are radically new, highly speculative designs that are being investigated for possible later use.

Goldberg and Rosner [1] identify six major factors that influence the development and deployment of nuclear power reactors. These are: cost effectiveness, safety, security and non-proliferation, grid appropriateness, commercialization roadmap, and the fuel cycle.

2.2 Generation I reactors

The first nuclear reactor, designed by Enrico Fermi and built at The University of Chicago in 1942, served to demonstrate the feasibility of operating a system based on Uranium