Exergy: Energy, Environment and Sustainable Development

Exergy

>Energy, Environment and Sustainable Development

Third Edition

Ibrahim Dincer

Ontario Tech. University, Oshawa, ON, Canada

Marc A. Rosen

Ontario Tech. University, Oshawa, ON, Canada

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Dedication

Preface

Acknowledgments

Chapter 1: Thermodynamic fundamentals

Abstract

1.1: Introduction

1.2: Energy

1.3: Entropy

1.4: Exergy

1.5: Illustrative examples

1.6: Closing remarks

1.7: Problems

Chapter 2: Exergy and energy analyses

Abstract

2.1: Introduction

2.2: Why energy and exergy analyses?

2.3: Glossary

2.4: Balances for mass, energy, and entropy

2.5: Exergy of systems and flows

2.6: Exergy consumption

2.7: Exergy balance

2.8: Reference environment

2.9: Efficiencies and other measures of merit

2.10: Procedure for energy and exergy analyses

2.11: Energy and exergy properties

2.12: Implications of results of exergy analyses

2.13: Closing remarks

2.14: Problems

Chapter 3: Chemical exergy

Abstract

3.1: Introduction

3.2: Chemical exergy definition

3.3: Chemical exergy for solid species

3.4: Chemical exergy of gas mixtures

3.5: Chemical exergy of nonenvironmental substances and fuels

3.6: Effect of atmospheric temperature and pressure and environment composition on chemical exergy

3.7: Case study: Combined cycle power plant with supplementary firing

3.8: Closing remarks

3.9: Problems

Chapter 4: Exergy, environment, and sustainable development

Abstract

4.1: Introduction

4.2: Exergy and environmental problems

4.3: Exergy and sustainable development

4.4: Illustrative example

4.5: Sustainability assessment model for energy systems

4.6: Closing remarks

4.7: Problems

Chapter 5: Applications of exergy in industry

Abstract

5.1: Introduction

5.2: Questions surrounding industry’s use of exergy

5.3: Advantages and benefits of using exergy

5.4: Understanding energy conservation through exergy

5.5: Disadvantages and drawbacks of using exergy

5.6: Possible measures to increase applications of exergy in industry

5.7: Closing remarks

5.8: Problems

Chapter 6: Exergy analyses of psychrometric processes

Abstract

6.1: Basic psychrometric concepts

6.2: Balanceand efficiency equations for air-conditioning processes

6.3: Case studies

6.4: Closing remarks

6.5: Problems

Chapter 7: Exergy analyses of refrigeration and heat pump systems

Abstract

7.1: Introduction

7.2: System description

7.3: General analysis

7.4: System exergy analysis

7.5: Results and discussion

7.6: Concluding remarks

7.7: Problems

Chapter 8: Exergy analyses of absorption cooling systems

Abstract

8.1: Introduction

8.2: Absorption cooling systems (ACSs)

8.3: Absorption cooling system descriptions

8.4: Energy and exergy analyses

8.5: Performance and efficiency

8.6: Concluding remarks

8.7: Problems

Chapter 9: Exergy analyses of thermal energy storage systems

Abstract

9.1: Introduction

9.2: Principal thermodynamic considerations in TES

9.3: Exergy evaluation of a closed TES system

9.4: Relations between temperature and efficiency for sensible TES

9.5: Exergy analysis of thermally stratified storages

9.6: Energy and exergy analyses of cold TES systems

9.7: Exergy analysis of aquifer TES systems

9.8: Examples and case studies

9.9: Concluding remarks

9.10: Problems

Chapter 10: Exergy analyses of drying processes and systems

Abstract

10.1: Introduction

10.2: Exergy losses associated with drying

10.3: Analysis

10.4: Importance of matching supply and end-use heat for drying

10.5: Illustrative example

10.6: Energy analysis of fluidized bed drying of moist particles

10.7: Exergy analysis of advanced drying system: Industrial wood chips drying

10.8: Concluding remarks

10.9: Problems

Chapter 11: Exergy analyses of renewable energy systems

Abstract

11.1: Introduction

11.2: Exergy analysis of solar photovoltaic systems

11.3: Exergy analysis of solar ponds

11.4: Solar exergy maps

11.5: Exergy analysis of wind energy systems

11.6: Exergy analysis of geothermal energy systems

11.7: Exergy analysis of biomass gasification systems

11.8: Exergy analysis of ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) systems

11.9: Closing remarks

11.10: Problems

Chapter 12: Exergy analyses of steam power plants

Abstract

12.1: Introduction

12.2: Analysis

12.3: Spreadsheet calculation approaches

12.4: Example: Analysis of a coal steam power plant

12.5: Example: Impact on regenerative Rankine plant efficiencies of varying boiler temperature and pressure

12.6: Case study: Energy and exergy analyses of coal-fired and nuclear steam power plants

12.7: Improving steam power plant efficiency

12.8: Closing remarks

12.9: Problems

Chapter 13: Exergy analyses of cogeneration and district energy systems

Abstract

13.1: Introduction

13.2: Cogeneration

13.3: District energy

13.4: Integrated systems for cogeneration and district energy

13.5: Simplified illustrations of the benefits of cogeneration

13.6: Case study for cogeneration-based district energy

13.7: Energy and exergy analysis of cogeneration Rankine cycle plant

13.8: Closing remarks

13.9: Problems

Chapter 14: Exergy analyses of cryogenic and liquefaction systems

Abstract

14.1: Introduction

14.2: Energy and exergy analyses of gas liquefaction systems

14.3: Exergy analysis of a multi-stage cascade refrigeration cycle for natural gas liquefaction

14.4: Exergy analysis of an integrated hydrogen liquefaction using geothermal energy

14.5: Energy and exergy analyses of a hydrogen liquefaction plant

14.6: Closing remarks

14.7: Problems

Chapter 15: Exergy analyses of integrated trigeneration and multigeneration systems

Abstract

15.1: Introduction

15.2: Trigeneration

15.3: Multigeneration

15.4: Integrated multigeneration systems

15.5: Case study 1: Energy and exergy analyses of a trigeneration system

15.6: Case study 2: Energy and exergy analyses of a multigeneration system for six outputs

15.7: Case study 3: Energy and exergy analyses of a multigeneration system for four outputs

15.8: Concluding remarks

15.9: Problems

Chapter 16: Exergy analyses of crude oil distillation systems

Abstract

16.1: Introduction

16.2: Analysis approach and assumptions

16.3: Description of crude oil distillation system analyzed

16.4: System simulation

16.5: Energy and exergy analyses

16.6: Results and discussion

16.7: Case study: Energy and exergy analyses of solar based preheating system for crude oil refineries

16.8: Closing remarks

16.9: Problems

Chapter 17: Exergy analyses of hydrogen production systems

Abstract

17.1: Introduction

17.2: Hydrogen production processes

17.3: Hydrogen production from fossil fuels

17.4: Hydrogen production from renewable energy

17.5: Case studies

17.6: Closing remarks

17.7: Problems

Chapter 18: Exergy analyses of fuel cell systems

Abstract

18.1: Introduction

18.2: Background

18.3: Exergy analysis of a PEM fuel cell power system

18.4: Energy and exergy analyses of combined SOFC-gas turbine systems

18.5: Exergy analysis of advanced fuel cell systems: Molten carbonate fuel cells

18.6: Energy and exergy analyses of ammonia fuel cell combined with internal combustion engine

18.7: Closing remarks

18.8: Problems

Chapter 19: Exergy analyses of aircraft flight systems

Abstract

19.1: Introduction

19.2: Exergy analysis of a turbojet

19.3: Flight characteristics

19.4: Cumulative rational efficiency

19.5: Cumulative exergy loss

19.6: Contribution of exhaust gas emission to cumulative exergy loss

19.7: Breakdown of exergy of exhaust gas emissions

19.8: Closing remarks

19.9: Problems

Chapter 20: Exergoeconomic analyses of thermal systems

Abstract

20.1: Introduction

20.2: Economic aspects of exergy

20.3: Modeling and analysis

20.4: Key difference between economic and thermodynamic balances

20.5: Example: Coal-fired electricity generation

20.6: Case study: Electricity generation from various sources

20.7: Exergoeconomics extended: EXCEM analysis

20.8: SPECO analysis

20.9: Closing remarks

20.10: Problems

Chapter 21: Sectoral exergy analysis

Abstract

21.1: Introduction

21.2: Background and objective

21.3: Applying exergy to macrosystems

21.4: Case study: Energy and exergy utilization in the United States

21.5: Closing remarks

21.6: Problems

Chapter 22: Exergetic life cycle assessment

Abstract

22.1: Introduction

22.2: Life cycle assessment

22.3: Exergetic life cycle assessment

22.4: Case study 1: Exergetic life cycle assessment of internal combustion engine and fuel cell vehicles

22.5: Case study 2: ExLCA of a nuclear-based hydrogen production process

22.6: Closing remarks

22.7: Problems

Chapter 23: Exergy and industrial ecology

Abstract

23.1: Introduction

23.2: Industrial ecology

23.3: Linkage between exergy and industrial ecology

23.4: Illustrative example

23.5: Closing remarks

23.6: Problems

Chapter 24: Exergy and multiobjective optimization

Abstract

24.1: Introduction

24.2: Optimization formulations

24.3: Optimization methods

24.4: Multiobjective optimization

24.5: Illustrative example: Air compressor optimization

24.6: Case study: Gas turbine power generation plant

24.7: Case study: Integrated photoelectrochemical hydrogen and electrochemical ammonia production system

24.8: Closing remarks

24.9: Problems

Chapter 25: Exergy in policy development and education

Abstract

25.1: Introduction

25.2: Exergy methods for analysis and design

25.3: The role and place for exergy in energy-related education and awareness policies

25.4: The role and place for exergy in education policies

25.5: Closing remarks

25.6: Problems

Chapter 26: Closing remarks and future expectations

Abstract

Appendix A: Glossary of selected terminology

General thermodynamic terms

Exergy quantities

Exergy consumption, energy degradation, and irreversibility

Environment and reference-environment

Efficiencies and other measures

Energy and exergy methods

Economics and exergy

Appendix B: Conversion factors

Appendix C: Thermophysical properties

Index

Copyright

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Dedication

"To my Mother, Fatma, whom I was attached very much and who raised me as an orphan to an accomplished academician with her unconditional love and endless support. I miss her a lot.

To my Father, Hasan, who was a man of dignity, decency, and principles and was a true volunteer and a dedicated community helper in assisting every needy people around him. He was a true altruist. He always disciplined me for good up until he passed away when I was 9. I struggled a lot without him and still miss him very much.

To my wife, Gulsen, my children, Meliha, Miray, Ibrahim Eren, Zeynep, and Ibrahim Emir for their true love, patience, motivation, and support."

Ibrahim Dincer

And

To my wife, Margot, my children, Allison and Cassandra, my siblings, Bryan and Rhona, and my parents, Sharon and Lou, for the love, support, and inspiration.

Marc A. Rosen

Preface

Ibrahim Dincer; Marc A. Rosen

Exergy analysis is truly recognized as a method that uses the conservation of mass and conservation of energy principles together with the second law of thermodynamics for the analysis, design, and improvement of energy and other systems. The exergy method is a useful tool for furthering the goal of more efficient energy-resource use, for it enables the locations, types and magnitudes of wastes and losses to be identified and meaningful efficiencies to be determined.

During the past few decades we have witnessed revolutionary changes in the way thermodynamics is taught, researched and practiced. The methods of exergy analysis, entropy generation minimization and thermoeconomics are the most visible and established forms of this change. Today there is a much stronger emphasis on exergy aspects of systems and processes. The emphasis is now on system analysis and thermodynamic optimization, not only in the mainstream of engineering but also in physics, biology, economics, and management. As a result of these recent changes and advances, exergy has gone beyond thermodynamics and become a new distinct discipline because of its interdisciplinary character as the confluence of energy, environment and sustainable development.

The third edition of this book, with more enhanced and improved chapters, is also a research-oriented textbook and therefore includes practical features in a usable format often not included in other, solely academic textbooks. This book is essentially intended for use by advanced undergraduate or graduate students in several engineering and nonengineering disciplines and as an essential tool for practitioners. Theory and analysis are emphasized throughout this comprehensive book, reflecting new techniques, models and applications, together with complementary materials and recent information. Coverage of the material is extensive, and the amount of information and data presented is sufficient for exergy related courses or as a supplement for energy, environment and sustainable development courses, if studied in detail. We believe that this book will be of interest to students and practitioners, as well as individuals and institutions, who are interested in exergy and its applications to various systems in diverse areas. This volume is also a valuable and readable reference for anyone who wishes to learn about exergy.

The introductory chapter addresses general concepts, fundamental principles and basic aspects of thermodynamics, energy, entropy, and exergy. These topics are covered in a broad manner, so as to furnish the reader with the background information necessary for subsequent chapters. Chapter 2 provides detailed information on energy and exergy and contrasts analysis approaches based on each, while Chapter 3 focuses on chemical exergy and its important role in exergy analysis for many systems and processes. In Chapter 4, extensive coverage is provided of environmental concerns, the impact of energy use on the environment and linkages between exergy and the environment. Throughout this chapter, emphasis is placed on the role of exergy in moving to sustainable development.

Chapter 5 delves into the use of exergy techniques by industry for various systems and processes and in activities such as design and optimization. This chapter lays the foundation for the many applications presented in Chapters 6–19, which represent the heart of the book. The applications covered range from psychrometric processes (Chapter 6), refrigeration and heat pumps (Chapter 7), absorption cooling (Chapter 8), thermal storage (Chapter 9), drying (Chapter 10), renewable energy systems (Chapter 11), steam power plants (Chapter 12), cogeneration and district energy (Chapter 13), cryogenics and liquefaction (Chapter 14), trigeneration and multigeneration (Chapter 15), crude oil distillation (Chapter 16), hydrogen production (Chapter 17), fuel cells (Chapter 18), and aircraft systems (Chapter 19).

Chapter 20 covers the relation between exergy and economics, and the exploitation of that link through analysis tools such as exergoecomics. Chapter 21 extends exergy applications to large-scale systems such as countries, regions and sectors of an economy, focusing on how efficiently energy resources are utilized in societies. Chapter 22 focuses the utilization of exergy within life cycle assessment and presents various applications. Chapter 23 discusses how exergy complements and can be used with industrial ecology. Multiobjective optimization, which draws on much of the earlier paper in the book, is described in Chapter 24. The book concludes by highlighting the potential of exergy as a tool in energy policy making and addressing the need for exergy education and awareness in Chapter 25. A closing section, including thoughts on future perspectives, is presented in Chapter 26.

Incorporated throughout are many illustrative examples and case studies, which provide the reader with a substantial learning experience, especially in areas of practical application.

The appendices contain unit conversion factors and tables and charts of thermophysical properties of various materials in the International System of units (SI).

Complete references are included to point the truly curious reader in the right direction. Information on topics not covered fully in the text can, therefore, be easily found.

We hope this volume allows exergy methods to be more widely applied and the benefits of such efforts more broadly derived, so that energy use can be made more efficient, clean, and sustainable.

Acknowledgments

Ibrahim Dincer; Marc A. Rosen

We have modified and enhanced some of the material presented in the previous editions of this book as derived from various research works and collaborations over the years. We greatly appreciate the efforts of all those with whom we have collaborated in the past.

In addition, the contributions and assistance from several past undergraduate and graduate students, as acknowledged in previous editions, are again highly appreciated.

In this third edition, we gratefully acknowledge the assistance provided by PhD student Mr. Ali Ismael for implementing revisions and reviewing several chapters, checking for consistency, and updating figures, tables and questions/problems; Ms. Merve Ozturk, Dr. Pouria Ahmadi, Dr. Ahmed Duran Sahin (and his graduate student Bihter Durna), and Dr. Tahir Ratlamwala (and his graduate student Uzair Suria) for updating specific chapters; Dr. Yusuf Bicer, Mr. Osamah Siddiqui, Mr. Haris Ishaq, Ms. Shaimaa Seyam and Mr. Khalid Altayib for supplying some case study materials/examples; and Dr. Muhammed Iberia Aydin for drawing such colorful lovely figures.

Last but not least, we warmly thank our families. They have been a great source of support and motivation, and their patience and understanding throughout this project have been most appreciated.

Chapter 1: Thermodynamic fundamentals

Abstract

This chapter provides a background for understanding energy, entropy, and exergy concepts. Also, basic thermodynamic principles and general definitions are explained, and various practical applications and implications of these thermodynamic quantities are discussed. The first and second laws of thermodynamics are described, as are energy audits and energy management. The chapter focuses on the portion of the field of thermodynamics at the intersection of energy, entropy, and exergy fields.

Keywords

Energy; Entropy; Exergy; First law of thermodynamics; Second law of thermodynamics; Energy audit; Energy management

Nomenclature

A area (m²)

d difference

e specific energy (kJ/kg)

ex specific exergy (kJ/kg)

E energy (kJ)

Ex exergy (kJ)

 exergy rate (kg/s)

g gravitational acceleration (m/s²)

h specific enthalpy (kJ/kg)

 specific total energy (kJ/kg)

H enthalpy (kJ)

ke specific kinetic energy (kJ/kg)

KE kinetic energy (kJ)

 mass flow rate (kg/s)

M molar mass (kg/mol)

pe specific potential energy (kJ/kg)

PE potential energy (kJ)

q specific heat transfer (kJ/kg)

Q heat transfer (kJ)

 heat transfer rate (kg/s)

R gas constant (kJ/kmol K)

s specific entropy (kJ/kg K)

S entropy (kJ/K)

T temperature (°C or K)

u specific internal energy (kJ/kg)

U internal energy (kJ)

V velocity (m/s); volume (m³)

w specific work (kJ/kg)

W work (kJ)

 work rate (kg/s)

Greek letters

δ difference

Δ difference

η energy efficiency

ψ exergy efficiency

Subscripts

1, 2 state points

cv control volume

e exit

gen generation

i inlet

si sink

so source

surr surroundings

sys system

Acronyms

FLT first law of thermodynamics

SLT second law of thermodynamics

1.1: Introduction

Energy, entropy, and exergy concepts stem from thermodynamics and apply to all fields of science and engineering. This chapter provides the necessary background for understanding these concepts, as well as basic principles, general definitions, and practical applications and implications. Illustrative examples are provided to highlight the important aspects of energy, entropy, and exergy.

The scope of this chapter is partly illustrated in Fig. 1.1, where the domains of energy, entropy, and exergy are shown. This chapter focuses on the portion of the field of thermodynamics at the intersection of energy, entropy, and exergy fields. Note that entropy and exergy are also used in other fields (such as statistics and information theory); therefore, they are not subsets of energy. Also, some forms of energy (such as shaft work) are entropy-free; thus, entropy subtends only a part of the energy field. Likewise, exergy subtends only a part of the energy field as some systems (such as air at atmospheric conditions) possess energy but no exergy. Most thermodynamic systems (such as steam in a power plant) possess energy, entropy, and exergy and, thus, appear at the intersection of these three fields.

Fig. 1.1 Interactions between the domains of energy, entropy, and exergy.