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CYTOLOGY HISTORICAL BACKGROUND Cytology is the study of cells, this dates from the year 1665when plant cells

were discovered for the first time by the Englishman Robert Hooke who frist studied the internal structure of a thin slice of cork using a microscope he improved by himself. The study of cell was improved with the development of the compound microscope by Jansen in 1590. Scleiden, a German botanist and Scwann, a German zoologist proved that both plant and animals are cellular in structure and therefore founded the cell theory. Von Mohl and Nagelli, working independently distinguished the two main parts of cell: the cell wall and the cell content. De bary and Max Schultz around 1861 established that cells consist of tiny masses of protoplasm each containing a nucleus, thus founding what is known as the protoplasm theory. STRUCTURE OF THE PLANT CELL. Cells are the fundamental structural and functional units of the plant and animal body. The plant cell is the independent tiny microscopic mass of protoplasm bounded by a cell wall and consisting of an oval body referred to as the nucleus. The cell called the protoplast therefore consists of the living protoplasmic potion made up of cytoplasm,nucleus and other smaller living bodies , enclosed within a non living, non protoplasmic portion referred to as the cell wall that offers protection to the delicate cell contents.

STRUCTURE OF THE PROTOPLASMIC PORTION OF PLANT CELL. The plant cell consist of the following : 1. CYTOPLASM: This the protoplasmic mass of a cell excluding the nucleus and the plastid, in young cells it fills the space between the cell wall and the nucleus. The surface of the cytoplasm consist of a thin membrane known as the plasma membrane (ectoplasm), while the inner granular mass is known as endoplasm.. the fluid portion of the cytoplasm is called hyaloplasm. The cytoplasm also consist of fluid filled bodies known as vacuoles which are sorounded by vacuole membrane (known as tonoplasm), the fluid being

reffered to as the cell sap. Embedded within the cytoplasm are minute granules reffered to as the microsomes which may be part of the endoplasmic reticulum. 2. NUCLEUS: This is an oval body embedded in the cytoplasm, however the shape may depend on the type of cell. Each nucleus is surrounded by a thin, transparent membrane called the nuclear membrane which separates the nucleus from the sorrounding cytoplasm. Within the nuclear membrane completely filling the space is a clear mass of fluid called nuclear sap also called the nucleoplasmor karyolymph. Suspended in the nucleoplasm are numerous , fine loosely connected crooked threads called the nuclear reticulum or chromatin network. This form what is known as the chromosomes which are masses of nucloprotein. spherical bodies denser than the nucleoplasm are called the nucleoli which may be several in a cell. The nucleus is the control center of the cell. The DNA sends message to the ribosomes through nucleotides and RNA for the synthesis of specific protein. 3. PLASTIDS: These are specialized spherical protoplasmic bodies of sizes 4-6. Each plastid is bound by a double membrane, within which the ground material called stroma and a large number of granules called grana each of which consists of a large number of discs. Plastids are cassified based on the presence of pigments and are three types namely chloroplasts, leucoplasts and chromoplasts. chloroplasts : These are the green plastids the colour being due to the presence of green pigment called chlorophyll. Chloroplasts are found in parts exposed to sunlight and occur abundantly in green leaves. They absorbs light and converts carbon dioxide and water to starch and liberates oxygen.there are two types of chlorophyll, chlorophylla and chlorophyllb. leucoplasts : These are colourless plastids which occur commonly in storage cells of roots and underground stems; normally in parts not exposed to sunlight. These plastids are specialized for storage and are spherical or rod like in shape. Larger leucoplasts specialized for storage of starch are known as amyloplasts while the smaller ones are reffered to as elaioplasts which may normally store lipids/proteins and commonly found in monocotyledons and liverworths. Chromoplast : these are the variously coloured plastids- yellow orange and red which are mostly present in petals of floersand in fruits. The colouring pigments found in these type of plastids are xanthophylls(yellow pigments) and carotenoids(orange red pigments)

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MITOCHONDRIA : These are small rod- or filament-like bodies present in large numbers

within the cytoplasm. The mitochondria consist of (a) an outer membrane (b) an inner membrane in the form of folds called cristae within the cavity of the mitochondria (c) a granular matrix filling up the cavity. Most oxidative enzymes of the respiration are stored within the mitochondria particularly for utilization in krebs cycle to produce energy from adenosine triphosphate (an energy rich phosphate compound), these process is normally called oxidative phosporylation. 5. GOLGI BODIES : These are tiny packets of elongated flattened sacs within the cytoplasm consisting of (a) stack of parallel, flattened sacs each with double membrane. (b) Some conspicuous vacuole between the two membranes (c) Clusters of very small vesicles representing pinched ends of the sacs. Together these structures are called the golgi complex. Golgi bodies are made up of phospolipids and protein and are commonly found in animal cells and very few plant cells. Function of golgi bodies in cells is obscure.

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ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM : These is an intricate network of tube like structures distributed throughout the cytoplasm which are extended to connect with the nuclear membrane. They are used for storage, formation of enzymes and transport of metabolic products, in cell division they contribute in the formation of cell plate and nuclear membrane around each daughter nuclei.

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RIBOSOMES : These are bodies associated with the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum and also free in the hyoplasm, they are composed of nucleoprotein particularly RNA(ribonucleic acid) and functions as seats in protein synthesis.

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LYSOSOMES : These are tiny spherical cytoplasmic particles with an outer membrane and dense contents. They contain several enzymes associated with intracellular digestion .

STRUCTURE OF THE NON PROTOPLASMIC PORTION OF THE CELL The plant cells are characterized by the presence of a non protoplasmic cell wall which is excluded from all metabolic activity. It is separated from the cytoplasm by the ectoplast , in mature cells the cytoplasm may be transversed by strand like structures called plasmodesmata which may join adjoining cells and associated

with transmission of stimuli. Functions Of The Cell Wall 1. 2. 3. The cell wall determines the shape of cells and texture of the plant tissues. it protects and supports the inner delicate cell constituents assist the aerial parts of plants to withstand gravitational force and protects them from dessication. The cell wall is a complex structure consisting of three layers of varying chemistry and pattern of development. These are middle lamella primary wall secondary wall 1. Middle lamella : This is an amorphous and optically inactive(anisotropic) substance. It is made up of pectic acid (pectic substance) principally calcium pectate, It may be lignified. The middle lamella forms the middle of the plant cell wall 2. Primary cell wall this is a thin elastic wall deposited on either side of the middle lamella and may be the only wall in developing cells. It is made of cellulose,hemicellulose and pectose(pectic substance) in varying proportions. Principally the primary wall is the only wall found in parenchyma, collenchyma, cambium and mesophyll. 3. Secondary cell wall this is found in mature cell wall which require additional thickness, it is composed of exclusively cellulose. The secondary wall is tough with high tensile strength, it is a supplementary wall whose function is principally mechanical. The secondary wall may be modified on either side by the deposition of lignin. The plant cell wall may be modified by other structures such as pits which are cavities for cellular transportation and excahange of which there two types simple and bodered pits plasmodesmata. These are strand like structures for support and transmission of cellular stimuli.

The cell wall therefore is important in absorbtion, transpiration, translocation and secreation in plants.

The chemistry of the plant cell wall

The plant wall is made of mostly carbohydrate and associated substances e.g cellulose, hemicelluose and pectic substances, fatty substances such as cutin and suberin, mineral substances and water. 1. cell wall carbohydrates CELLULOSE: This is a hydrophyllic polysaccharide compound with empherical formula (C6H15O5)n. it is a hexosan made of 1000 or more molecules of glucose linked by -1,4-glucosidic linkages. Cellulose is used commercially for the production of papers, cellophane, rayon etc. HEMICELLULOSE: This is a heterogenous polysaccharide consisting of xylans, mannans, galactans and glucans. PECTIC SUBSTANCES: These are related to hemicellulose, they are polyuronides(polymers of uronic acids), pectic substances includes pectin, pectic acid, calcium pectate, pectose etc. They are hydrophyllic substances usually found in association with cellulose in the primary cell wall. GUMS AND MUCILLAGES: these are related to the pectic substances, being polymers of uronic acids (nitrogen containing sugars), gums are produced as a result of injury to the cell wall by a process called gummosis, while mucillages are found in gelatinous cells as of those in aquatic and marine plants, they swell in water. LIGNIN: This is a high carbon polymer of phenyl propanoid. It is an end product of metabolism that functions as a structural component of the cell wall for incrustation and impregnation a process called lignification. Lignin is usually first deposited on the primary wall and middle lamella before spreading into the secondary wall. 2. cell wall fatty substances CUTIN AND SUBERIN:These are highly polymerized fatty acids, while suberin occurs with cellulose in cork cells of periderm, suberin forms a continous layer on the cuticle of the epidermis of aerial parts of plants. Impregnation of cell walls with cutin is called cutinisation while that with suberin is called suberisation , formation of cutin is called cuticularisation WAXES: These are appear on the surface cutin and suberin in many forms and may be responsible for the glaucous appearance(blooming) of fruits, leaves and stems. They prevent excessive transpiration and penetration of parasites into plant tissues and may protect cells against mechanical injuries. 3. Miscellaneous cell wall materials: These includes mineral substances like silica, calcium oxalate, silica, calcium carbonate etc, organic substances like tannins volatile oils, acids, pigments etc Microchemical test of the plant cell wall: colours of cell wall material in some reagents

NOREAGENTSCELLULOSELIGNINCUTIN/SUBERINGUMS/MUCILAGE1Iodine solutionPale yellowDeep yellowDeep yellow--2Chlor-zinc iodineBlue or violetYellowYellowish brown--3Iodine soluion + sulphuric acid or zinc chlorideBlueBrownDeep brownViolet4Acid aniline sulphate--Bright yellow----5Concentrated caustic potash solution----Yellow and Brown-6Phloroglucinol + concentrated hydrochloric acid--Violet red----7Potash + chlor-zinc iodine-Violet --8Chlorophyll solution----Green--9Sudan IV----Red --10Methylene blue------Deep blue

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