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259
THE INSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
statusofLithuania,settleditinanoffhandandsingular
fashionwhichatanyratebespoketheirgoodintentions .
Theprincipleofself-determination,orwhatwasface-
tiouslytermedtheBalkanizationofEurope,wasatfirst
appliedtothatterritoryandasemi-independentstate
created inpetto
whichwastocontaineightmillioninhabi-
tantsandbelinkedwithPoland
. Certainobstacles
weresoonafterwardencounteredwhichhadnotbeen
foreseen. OnewasthatalltheLithuaniansnumberonly
twomillions,orsayatthemosttwomillionsandone
hundredthousand . OutoftheseeventheSupreme
Councilcouldnotmakeeightmillions . InLithuania
therearetwoandahalfmillionPoles,oneandahalf
millionJews,andtheremainderareWhiteRussians . '
Itwasrecognizedthatacommunityconsistingofsuch
disparateelements,situatedwhereitnowis,couldhardly
liveandstriveasanindependentstate
. TheLithuanian
Jews,however,wereofadifferentwayofthinking,and
theyopposedthePolishclaimswithadegreeofstead-
fastnessandanimationwhichwoundedPoland'snational
prideandleftranklingsoresbehind .
ItisworthnotingthattherepresentativesofRussia,
whoaresupposedtoclutchconvulsivelyatallthestates
whichonceformedpartoftheTsardom,displayedade-
greeofpoliticaldetachmentinrespectofLithuaniawhich
cameasapleasantsurprisetomany . TheRussianAm-
bassadorinParis,M
. Maklakoff,inaremarkableaddress
beforealearnedassembly 2
intheFrenchcapital,an-
nouncedthatRussia washenceforward disinterestedin
thestatusofLithuania
.
1 AninterestingRussiantribe,dwellingchieflyintheprovincesofMinsk
andGrodno(exceptingtheextremesouth),asmallpartofSuvalki,Vilna
(exceptingthenorthwestcorner),theentireprovincesofVitebskand
Moghileff,thewestpartofSmolensk,andafewdistrictsofTshernigoff
.
2
LaSocietedesEtudesPolitiques
. Thediscourseinquestionwas
printedandpublished .
26o
1HL LESSK ~'1A1r:h
ThatthePolesweremindedtodealveryliberallywith
theLithuaniansbecameevidentduringtheConference .
GeneralPilsudski,onhisowninitiative,visitedVilnaand
issuedaproclamationtotheLithuaniansannouncingthat
electionswouldbeheld,andaskingthemtomakeknown
theirdesires,whichwouldberealizedbytheWarsaw
government
. Oneofthemanycuriousdocumentsofthe
ConferenceisanofficialmissivesignedbytheGeneral
Secretary,M. Dutasta,andaddressedtothefirstPolish
delegate,exhortinghimtoinducehisgovernmenttocome
totermswiththeLithuaniangovernment,asbehooves
twoneighboringstates . Unluckilyforthesoundnessof
thatcounseltherewasnorecognizedLithuanianstateor
Lithuaniangovernmenttocometotermswith .
Ashasbeenoftenenoughpointedout,theactionsand
utterancesofthetwoworld-mendersweresoinfelicitous
astolendcolortothebeliefsharedbytherepresenta-
tivesofanumberofhumiliatednations-thatgreedof
newmarketswasatthebottomofwhatpurportedtobe
apolicyofpurehumanitarianism . Someofthedelegates
werecurrentlysupposedtobetheunwittinginstruments
ofelusivecapitalisticinfluences . Possiblytheywould
havebeenastonishedweretheytoldthis :GreatBritain
wassuspectedofworkingforcompletecontroloftheBal-
ticanditsseaboardinordertoousttheGermansfromthe
marketsofthatterritoryandtohavepotentleversfor
actioninPoland,Germany,andRussia
. Theachieve-
mentofthatendwouldmeancommandoftheBaltic,
whichhadtheretoforebeenaGermanlake . 'Itwouldalso
entail,itwassaid,theseparationofDantzigfromPoland,
andtheattractionoftheFinns,Esthonians,Letts,and
Lithuanians fromGermany'sorbitintothatofGreat
' InGermanyandRussiathesameviewwasgenerallytakenofthe
motivesthatactuatedthepolicyoftheAnglo-Saxonpeoples . . Themost
elaborateattempttodemonstrateitscorrectnesswasmadebyCr . Bunke,
inTheDanisigerNeuesteNachrichten, alreadymentionedinthisbook .
261
THE INSIDE STORY OFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
Britain . In vainthefriendsofthedelegatesdeclaredthat
economicinterestswerenotthemainspringoftheirde-
liberateactionandthatnothingwasfurtherfromtheir
intentionthantoangleforamandateforthosecountries .
Theconvictionwasdeep-rootedinthemindsofmany
thateachoftheGreatPowerswasplayingforitsown
hand. Thattherewassomeapparentfoundationforthis
assumptioncannot,aswesaw,begainsaid . Widelyand
unfavorablycommentedwasthecircumstancethatinthe
heatofthosediscussionsattheConferenceamanofcon-
fidenceoftheAlliesputthissignificantandimpolitic
questiontooneoftheplenipotentiaries :
"Howwould
youtakeitifEnglandweretoreceiveamandatefor
Lithuania? "
"TheGreatPowers,"observedthemostoutspokenof
thedelegatesofthelesserstates,"arebandits,butas
theiroperationsareonalargescaletheyareentitledto
anotherandmorecourteousname . Theirgazeisfasci-
natedbymarkets,concessions,monopolies . Theyare
nowmakingpreparationsforagreathaul . Atthis
politicianscannotaffecttobescandalized . Forithas
neverbeenotherwisesincemencametogetherinordered
communities. Butwhatisirritatingandrepellentisthe
perfumeofaltruismandphilanthropywhichpermeates
thisdecomposition .
Wearetoldthatalreadytheyare
purchasingthewharvesofDantzig,makingreadyfor
'bigdeals'inLibau,Riga,andReval,foundingabankin
Klagenfurtandnegotiatingforoil-wellsinRumania . Al-
thoughdeeplyimmersedintheethicsofpolitics,theyhave
notlostsightoftheworldlygoodstobepickedupand
appropriatedonthewearisomejourneytowardidealgoals
.
Theatmospheretheyhavethusrenewedispeculiarly
favorabletothegrowthofcant,andtendstoaccelerate
theprocessofmoralandsocialdissolution .
Andthe
effectsofthismephiticairmayprovemoredurablethan
262
THE LESSER
STATES
thecontributionofitscreatorstothepoliticalreorganiza-
tionofEurope. Ifwecomparethehighfunctionswhich
theymighthavefulfilledinrelationtothevastneedsand
theunprecedentedtendenciesofthenewagewiththose
whichtheyhaveunwittinglyanddeliberatelyperformed
as sophistsofsentimentalmoralityanddestroyersofthe
wheattogetherwiththetares,weshallhavetodeplore
oneoftherarestopportunitiesmissedbeyondretrieve . "
Inthiscriticismthereisakerneloftruth . Theethico-
socialcurrentstowhichthewargaverisehadaprofoundly
moralaspect,andifrightlycanalizedmighthavefertilized
manylandsandhaveledtoanewandhealthystate-
system. Oneindispensablecondition,however,wasthat
thepeoplesoftheworldshouldthemselvesbedirectly
interestedintheprocess,thattheyshouldbeconsulted
andlistenedto,andhelpedorpropelledintonewgrooves
ofthoughtandaction . Insteadofthatthedelegatescon-
tentedthemselveswithgivingnewnamestooldinstitu-
tionsandtendencieswhichstoodcondemned,andwith
teachinglawlessdisrespectforeverycheckandrestraint
exceptsuch as theychosetoacknowledge . Theywere
powerfuladvocatesforrightandjustice,democracyand
publicity,buttheirdefinitionsoftheseabstractnouns
madeplain-speakingpeoplegasp . Self-interestandmate-
rialpowerweretheidolswhichtheysetthemselvestopull
down,butthedeitieswhichtheyputintheirplaceswore
thesamefamiliarlooksastheidols,onlytheywerediffer-
entlycolored.
VII
POLAND'S OUTLOOK IN THE FUTURE
C
ASTINGapartingglanceatPolandasshelooked
whenemergingfromtheConferenceintheleading-
stringsoftheGreatWesternPowers,afterhavinges-
capedfromtheBolshevistdangersthatcompassedher
round,webeholdherabouttobeginhernationalexistence
asasemi-independentnation,besetwithenemiesdomestic
andforeign. Foritwouldbeanabuseoftermstoaffirm
thatPoland,or,indeed,anyofthelesserstates,isfully
independentintheoldsenseoftheword . Thespecial
treatyimposedonherbytheGreatTwoobligesherto
accordfreetransittoAlliedgoodsandcertainprivileges
toherJewishandotherminorities ;toacceptthesuper-
visionandinterventionoftheLeagueofNations,which
thePolescontendmeansintheircaseanAnglo-Saxon-
Jewishassociation ;and,attheoutset,atanyrate,to
recognizetheFrenchgeneralissimusasthesupremecom-
manderofhertroops .
Poland'sfrontiersandgeneralstatusought, ifthe
schemeofherFrenchprotectorshadbeenexecuted,to
havebeenaccommodatedtothepeculiar
functions
whichtheydestinedhertofillinNewEurope . France's
planwastomakeofPolandawallbetweenGermany
andRussia . Themarkedtendencyoftheothertwo
Conferenceleaderswastotransformitintoabridge
betweenthosetwocountries . Andtheoutcomeofthe
compromisebetweenthemhasbeentoconstructsome-
thingwhich,withoutbeingeither,combinesallthedis-
264
POLAND'SOUTLOOK IN
THE
FUTURE
advantagesofboth . ItisabridgeforGermanyanda
wallforBolshevistRussia. Thatistheverdictofa
largenumberofPoles. AlthoughtheEuropeofthe
futureistobeapacificandethicallyconstitutedcom-
munity,whosememberswillhavetheirdisputesand
quarrelswithoneanothersettledbyarbitrationcourts
andotherconciliatorytribunals,warandefficientprepa-
rationforitwerenonethelessuppermostinthemindsof
thecircumspectlawgivers . HencetheAnglo-Saxon
agreementtodefendFranceagainstunprovokedaggres-
sion . Hence,too,thesolicitudedisplayedbytheFrench
tohavethePolishstate,whichistobetheirmainstayin
easternEurope,equippedwitheveryterritorialandother
guarantynecessarytoqualifyitfortheduties . But
whattheFrenchgovernmentcontrivedtoobtainfor
itselfitfailedtosecureforitsnewSlavally . Nay,
oddlyenoughitvotedwiththeAnglo-Saxondelegatesfor
keepingallthelesserstatesunderthetutelageofthe
League . TheDuumvirs,havingmadetherequisitecon-
cessionstoFrance,wereresolvedinPoland'scasetoavoid
afurtherrecoiltowardthecondemnedformsoftheold
systemofequilibrium . Hencethevariousplebiscites,
home-rulecharters,subdivisionsofterritory,andother
evidencesofastruggleforreformalongthelineofleast
resistance,asthoughintheunavoidablefutureconflict
betweentimidlypropoundedtheoriesandpolitico-social
forcestheformerhadanyseriouschanceofsurviving . In
politics,asincoinage,itisthedebasedmetalthatousts
thegoldfromcirculation .
Poland'ssituationisdifficult ;somepeoplewouldcall
itprecarious . Sheissurroundedbypotentialenemies
abroadandathome-Germans,Russians,Ukrainians,
Magyars,andJews . AconsiderablenumberofTeutons
areincorporatedinherrepublicto-day,andalsoalarge
numberofpeopleofRussianrace . Now. Russiaand
265
THE INSIDE
STORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
Germany,eveniftheyrenounce all designsofreconquering
theterritorywhichtheymisruledforsuchalongspanof
time,mayfeeltemptedonedaytorecovertheirown
kindred,andwhattheyconsidertobetheirownterritory .
Andirredentismisoneoftheworstpoliticalplaguesfor
allthethreepartieswhousuallysufferfromit . Ifthen
GermanyandRussiaweretocombineandattackPoland,
theconsequenceswouldbeserious
. ThatdemocraticGer-
manywouldrisksuchawild
. adventureinthenearfuture
isinconceivable.
Buthistoryoperateswithlongperiods
oftime,anditbehoovesstatesmanshiptodolikewise
.
APolishstatesmanwouldstartfromtheassumptionthat,
asRussiaandGermanyhaveforthetimebeingceased
tobeefficientmembersoftheEuropeanstate-system,
agoodunderstandingmaybecometowithbothofthem,
andacloseintimacycultivatedwithone . Resourceful-
nessandstatecraftwillberequisitetothisconsummation .
ForsomeRussiansarestilluncompromising,andwould
faintakebackapartofwhattherevolutionarywave
sweptoutoftheircountry'sgrasp,butcircumstance
bidsfairtosetfreeapotentmoderatingforceinthenear
future. Alreadyitisincarnatedinstatesmenofthenew
type . In thisconnectionitisinstructivetopassinreview
thesecretmaneuversbywhichtherecognitionofPoland's
independencewas,sotosay,extortedfromaRussian
Minister,whowasreputedatthetimetobeaDemocrat
oftheDemocrats
. Assomegovernmentshavenow
becomechampionsofpublicity,Iventuretohopethatthis
disclosurewillbeashelpfultothosewhomitconcerns
aswasthesystematicsuppressionofmyarticlesand
telegramsduringthespaceoffouryears . '
1
Mostofmyarticleswrittenduringthelasthalfofthewar,andsome
duringthearmistice,wereheldbackongroundswhichwerepresumably
patriotic . Isharewiththosewhowereinstrumentalinkeepingthem
fromthepublicthemoralportionoftherewardwhichconsistsinthe
assumptionthatsomehighpurposewasservedbythesuppression .
266
POLAND'SOUTLOOK IN THE FUTURE
OntheoutbreakoftheRussianrevolutionPoland's
representativesinBritain,whohadbeenceaselessly
workingfortherestorationoftheircountry,approached
theBritishgovernmentwitharequestthattheoppor-
tunityshouldbeutilizedatonce,andthenewdemocratic
CabinetinPetrogradrequestedtoissueaproclamation
recognizingtheindependenceofPoland . Thereasons
forthismovehavingbeenpropoundedindetail,orally
andinwriting,theForeignSecretarydespatchedatonce
atelegramtotheAmbassadorintheRussiancapital,
instructinghimtolaythematterbeforetheRussian
ForeignMinisterandurgehimtolosenotimeinestablish-
ingtheclaimofthePolishprovisionalgovernmenttothe
sympathiesoftheworld,andtheredressofitswrongs
byRussia . SirGeorgeBuchanancalledonProfessor
Milyukoff,thenMinisterofForeignAffairsandPresident
oftheConstitutionalDemocraticparty,andpropounded
tohimtheviewsoftheBritishgovernment,whichagreed
withthoseofFranceandItaly,andhopedhewouldsee
hiswaytoprofitbytheopportunity . Theanswerwas
promptanddefinite,andwithinforty-eighthoursofMr .
Balfour'sdespatchitreachedtheForeignOffice. The
gistofitwasthattheMinisterofForeignAffairsre-
grettedhisinabilitytodealwiththeproblematthat
conjuncture,owingtoitsgreatcomplexityandvarious
bearings,andalsobecauseofhisapprehensionthatthe
PoleswoulddemandtheincorporationofRussianlands
intheirreconstitutedstate . Fromthisanswermany
conclusionsmightfairlybedrawnrespectingpersons,
parties,andprinciplesonthesurfaceofrevolutionary
Russia
. Buttohiscredit,Mr . Balfourdidnotacceptit
asfinal. HeagaintelegraphedtotheBritishAmbassador,
instructinghimtoinsistupontherecognitionofPoland,
asthematterwasurgent,andtoexhorttheprovisional
governmenttogiveingoodtimethedesiredproofofthe
267
THE INSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
democraticfaiththatistosaveRussia . SirGeorge
Buchananaccomplishedthetaskexpeditiously . M. Milyu-
koffgaveway,draftedandissuedtheproclamation .
Mr . SonarLawwelcomeditinafelicitousspeechinthe
HouseofCommons,'andtheEntentepresslaudedtothe
skiesthegenerousspiritofthenewRussiangovernment .
TheRussianpeopleandtheirleadershavetraveledfar
sincethen,andhaveridthemselvesofmuchuseless
ballast
.
AsSlavsthePolesmighthavebeennaturallypre-
disposedtoliveinamitywiththeRussians,wereitnot
forthespecterofthepastthatstandsbetweenthem .
ButnowthatRussiaisademocracyinfactaswellasin
name,thisismuchmorefeasiblethaniteverwasbefore,
anditisalsoindispensabletotheRussians
.
Inthe
firstplace,itispossiblethatPolandmayhaveconsolidated
herforcesbeforehermightyneighborhasrecoveredthe
statuscorrespondingtohernumbersandresources . If
thepresentestimatesarecorrect,andthefrontiers,when
definitelytraced,leavePolandarepublicwithsomethirty-
fivemillionpeople,suchisherextraordinarybirth-rate
andtheterritorialscopeithasfordevelopment,that
inthenotfardistantfutureherpopulationmayexceed
thatofFrance . Assumingforthesakeofargumentthat
armiesandothernationaldefenseswillcountinpolitics
asmuchashitherto,Poland'sspecificweightwillthenbe
considerable .
Shewillhavebecomenotindeedaworld
power(to-daythereareonlytwosuch),butaEuropean
GreatPowerwhosefriendshipwillbewellworthacquiring .
InthemeanwhilePolishstatesmen-thePoleshave
oneinRomanDmowski-maystrikeupafriendlyaccord
withRussia,abandoningdefinitelyandformallyall
claimstoso-calledhistoricPoland,disinterestingthem-
selvesinalltheBalticproblemswhichconcernRussiaso
1 OnApril26,1917.
268
POLAND'S OUTLOOK IN THE FUTURE
closely,andenvisagingtheUkrainefromapointofview
thatharmonizeswithhers . Andifthetwopeoples
couldthusfindacommonbasisoffriendlyassociation,
PolandwouldhavesolvedatleastoneofherSphinx
questions .
Asfortheinternaldevelopmentofthenation,itis
seeminglyhamperedwithasmanyhindrancesasthe
international. Itmaybelikenedtotheworldafter
creation,bearingmarksofthechaosoftheeve . The
GermanPolesdifferconsiderablyfromtheAustrian,while
theRussianPolesaredifferentiatedfromboth . Thelast-
namedstillshowtracesofrecentservitudeintheirevery-
dayavocations . Theylackthepushandtheenergy
ofpurposesonecessarynowadaysinthestruggleforlife .
TheAustrianPolesingeneralarereputedtobelikewise
easy-going,lax,andmorebrilliantthansolid,whiletheir
administrativequalitiesaresaidtobeimpairedbya
leaningtowardOrientalmethodsoftransactingbusiness .
The Polish
inhabitantsoftheprovinceshithertounder
Germanyarepeopleofadifferenttemperament . They
haveassimilatedsomeofthebestqualitiesoftheTeuton
withoutsacrificingthosewhichareinherentinmenof
theirownrace . Athoroughgraspofdetailandagift
fororganizationcharacterizetheirconceptions,andpre-
cision,thoroughness,andconscientiousnessarepredicated
oftheirmethods . Ifitbetruethatthefirstreformper-
emptorilycalledforinthenewrepublicisanadministra-
tivepurge,itfollowsthatitcanbemostsuccessfully
accomplishedwiththewhole-heartedco-operationofthe
GermanPoles,whosesuperioreducationfitsthemtocon-
formtheirschemestothemosturgentneedsofthenation
andtheepoch.
Thenextmeasurewillbeinternalcolonization . There
areconsiderabletractsoflandinwhatoncewasRussian
Poland,thepopulationofwhich,owingtothehavocof
26 9
THE INSIDE STORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
war,isabnormallysparse . Somedistricts,likethatof
thePripetmarshes,whichevenatthebestoftimeshad
butfivepersonstothekilometer,arepracticallydeserts .
FortheRussianarmy,whenretreatingbeforetheGer-
mans,drovebeforeitahugepopulationcomputedat
eightmillions,whoinhabitedtheterritorytotheeastof
Brest-LitovskandnorthwardbetweenLidaandMinsk .
Oftheseeightmillionsmanyperishedontheway . A
largepercentageofthesurvivorsneverreturned . 'Roughly
speaking,acoupleofmillions(mostlyPolesandJews)
wentbacktotheirruinedhomes . NowthePoles,who
areoneofthemostprolificracesinEurope,mightbe
encouragedtosettleonthesethinlypopulatedlands,
whichtheycouldconvertintoethnographicallyPolish
districtswithinarelativelyshortspanoftime . These,
however,aremerelytheideasofafriendlyobserver,
whoseopinioncannotlayclaimtoanyweight .
To-dayPoland'shopeisnot,asithasbeenhitherto,the
nobleman,theprofessor,andthepublicist, butthe
peasant . Themembersofthisclassarethenucleusof
thenewnation . ItisfromtheirmidstthatPoland's
futurerepresentativesinpolitics,arts,andsciencewillbe
drawn . Alreadythepeasantsarehavingtheirsons
educatedinhigh-schoolsanduniversities,ofwhichthe
republichasafairnumberwellsuppliedwithqualified
teachers,
2
andtheyareresoluteadversariesofevery
movementtaintedwithBolshevism .
1 MainlyWhiteRussians .
2
ThePoleshaveuniversitiesinCracow,Warsaw,Lvoff(Lemberg),
Liublin,andwillshortlyopenoneinPosen . OnePolishstatesmanenter-
tainsanovelandusefulideawhichwillprobablybetestedintheUniversity
ofPosen . Noticingthatthegreatertheprogressoftechnicalknowledge
thelessistheadvancemadeintheknowledgeofmen,whichisperhaps
themostpressingneedofthenewage,thisstatesmanproposestocreate
anewtypeofuniversity,wheretherewouldbetwoprincipalsections,one
forthestudyofnaturalsciencesandmathematics,and . theotherforthe
studyofmen,whichwouldincludebiology,psychology,ethnography,
sociology,philology,history,etc .
270
POLAND'S OUTLOOK IN THE FUTURE
Thus
thedifficulties anddangers
with which new
Polandwillhavetocontendareredoubtable . Butshe
standsagoodchanceofovercomingthemandreaching
thegoalwhereliesheronehopeofplayinganoteworthy
partinreorganizedEurope. Theindispensablecondition
ofsuccessisthatthecurrentofopinionandsentimentin
thecountry shall buoy up reformingstatesmen. These
mustnotonlyunderstandtherequirementsofthenew
epochandbealivetothenecessityofpenetratingpublic
opinion,butalsopossessthecouragetoplacehighsocial
aimsattheheadoftheirlifeand . career . Statesmenof
thistemperarerareto-day,butPolandpossessesatleast
oneofthem.
Herresourceswarranttheconvictionwhich
herchiefsfirmlyentertainthatshemayinarelatively
nearfutureacquiretheeconomicleadershipofeastern
Europe,andinpopulation,militarystrength,andarea
equalFrance.
Parentheticallyitmaybeobservedthattheenthusiasm
ofthePoles'forBritishinstitutionsandforintimaterela-
tionswithGreatBritainhasperceptiblycooled .
Inthelimitationstowhichsheisnowsubjected,her
moreoptimisticleadersdiscernthetemporarilyunavoid-
ableconditionofabeneficentprocessofworkingforward
towardindefiniteamelioration . Theirpeople'sfaith,
thatmayonedayraisethecountryabovethehighest
summitofitspasthistoricaldevelopment,ifitdoesnot
reconcilethemtothepresent,maynervethemtothe
effortwhichshallrealizethathighconsummationinthe
future.
VIII
ITALY
O
FalltheproblemssubmittedtotheConference,
thoseraisedbyItaly'sdemandsmaytrulybesaid
tohavebeenamongtheeasiest.
Whetherplacedinthe
lightoftheFourteenPointsoroftheoldsystemofthe
rightsofthevictors,theywouldfallintotheirplaces
almostautomatically.
Butthepeacecriteriawereiden-
ticalwithneitherofthoseprinciples .
Theyconsistedof
severalheterogeneousmaximswhichwereinvokedalter-
nately,Mr
. Wilsondecidingwhichwasapplicabletothe
particularcaseunderdiscussion
. Andfromhisjudgment
therewasnoappeal .
Itisoftheessenceofstatesmanshiptobeabletoput
oneselfintheplacc
onemightalmostsayintheskin-
oftheforeignpeoplesandgovernmentswithwhichone
iscalledupontodeal .
Butthefeatisarduousandpre-
supposesavarietyofconditionswhichthePresidentwas
unabletofulfil .
HisconceptionofEurope,forexample,
wasmuchtoosimple.
Ithasbeenaptlylikenedtothat
oftheAmericaneconomistwhoonceremarkedtothe
managerofanEnglishrailway :
"YouBritishersare
handicappedbyhavingtobuildyourrailwaylinesthrough
citiesandtowns .
Wegotoworkdiligently
:wefirst
constructtheroadandcreatethecitiesafterward
. "
AndMr . Wilsonhappenedjustthentobeinquestof
afulcrumonwhichtoresthisidealisticlever
. Forhe
hadalreadybeendrivenbyegotisticgovernmentsfrom
272
ITALY
several of his commandingpositions, and people were
gibinglyaskingwhetherthenewpoliticalgospelwasbeing
preachedonlyasafoilforbackslidings. Thusheaban-
donedthefreedomoftheseas . . . onwhichhehadtaken
adeterminedstandbeforetheworld . Althoughhere-
fusedtheRhinefrontiertoFrance,hehadreluctantly
givenwaytoM. ClemenceauinthematteroftheSaar
Valley,assentingtoamonstrousarrangementbywhich
theGermaninhabitantsofthatregionweretobehanded
overtotheFrenchRepublicagainsttheirexpressedwill,
as aset-offforasumingoldwhichGermanywouldcer-
tainlybeunabletopay . ' Hedoubtlessforesawthathe
wouldalsoyieldonthemomentousissueofShantungand
theChino-Japanesesecrettreaty . Inaword,someofhis
moreimportantabstracttenetsprofessedinwordswere
beingbrushedasidewhenitcametoacts,andhisposition
wastrulyunenviable . Naturally,therefore,heseized
thefirstfavorableoccasiontoapplythemvigorouslyand
unswervingly . Thiswassuppliedbythedisputebetween
ItalyandJugoslavia,twonationswhichheheld,sotosay,
inthehollowofhishand .
Thelatterstate,stillinthemaking,dependedforits
frontiersentirelyonthefiatoftheAmericanPresident
backedbythePremiersofBritainandFrance
.
Andof
thisbackingMr . Wilsonwasassured . Italy,although
morepowerfulmilitarilythanJugoslavia,waslikewise
economicallydependentuponthegood-willofthetwo
English-speakingcommunities,whowereassuredinad-
vanceofthesupportoftheFrenchRepublic . If,there-
fore,shecouldnotbereasonedorcajoledintoobeying
theinjunctionsoftheSupremeCouncil,shecouldeasily
bemademalleablebyothermeans . Inhercase,there-
' Thisclause,whichfiguredinthedraftTreaty,aspresentedtothe
Germans,provokedsuchemphaticprotestsfromallsidesthatitwasstruck
outintherevisedversion .
2 7 3
THE INSIDE STORY OFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
fore,Mr
. Wilson'sethicalnotionsmightbefearlessly
applied . Thatthiswastheideawhichunderlaythe
President'spolicyistheobviousinferencefromthecalm,
unyieldingwayinwhichhetreatedtheItaliandelegation.
Inthisconnectionitshouldbeborneinmindthatthere
isnomoreimportantdistinctionbetweenallformerpeace
settlementsandthatoftheParisConferencethanthe
unavowedbutindubitablefactthatthelatterrestsupon
thehegemonyoftheEnglish-speakingcommunitiesofthe
world,whereastheformerwerebaseduponthebalance
ofpower . Soimmenseachangecouldnotbeeffected
withoutdiscreetlythrowingoutasuselessballastsomeof
thehighlyprizeddogmasoftheacceptedpoliticalcreeds,
evenatthecostofimpairingthesolidarityoftheLatin
races. Thiswaseffectedincidentally . Asamatterof
fact,theFrencharenot,properlyspeaking,aLatinrace,
norhastheirsolidaritywithItalyorSpaineverbeena
movingpoliticalforceinrecenttimes . Italy'srefusalto
fightsidebysidewithherTeutonalliesagainstFrance
andherbackersmayconceivablybetheresultofracial
affinities,butithashardlyeverbeenascribedtothat
sentimental . source . Sentimentinpoliticsisamyth . In
anycase,M. Clemenceaudiscernednopressingreason
formakingpainfuleffortstoperpetuatetheLatinunion,
whilesolicitudefornationalinterestshinderedhimfrom
makingcostlyconcessionstoit .
Naturallythecardinalinnovationofwhichthiswasa
corollarywasneverinvokedasthegroundforanyofthe
exceptionalmeasuresadoptedbytheConference
. And
yetitwasthemotiveforseveral,foralthoughnoallusion
wasmadetothehegemonyofAnglo-Saxondom,itwas
everoperativeinthesubconsciousnessofthetwopleni-
potentiaries
. Andinviewoftheomnipotenceofthese
twonations,theytemporarilysacrificedconsistencyto
tactics,probablywithoutconscientiousqualms,andcer-
27 4
ITALY
tainly without political misgivings
. That would seem
tobeapartialexplanationofthelengthstowhichthe
Conferencewentinthedirectionofconcessionstothe
GreatPowers'imperialistdemands . Franceaskedtobe
recognizedandtreatedasthepersonificationofthat
civilizationforwhichtheAlliedpeopleshadfought . And
formanyreasons,whichitwouldbesuperfluoustodiscuss
here,alargepartofherclaimwasallowed . Thiscon-
cessionwasattackedbymanyasconnotingadeparture
fromprinciple,butthedeviationwasmoreapparentthan
real,forunderallthewrappingsofidealisticcatchwords
laytheprimevaldoctrineofforce.
Theonlysubstantial
differencebetweentheoldsystemandthenewwastobe
foundinthewieldersoftheforceandtheendstowhich
theyintendedtoapplyit
. Forceremainsthegranite
foundationofthenewordering,asithadbeenoftheold .
Butitsemployment,itwasbelieved,wouldbedifferent
inthefuturefromwhatithadbeeninthepast .
Con-
centratedinthehandsoftheEnglish-speakingpeoples,
itwouldbecomesoformidableaweaponthatitneed
neverbeactuallywielded .
Possessionofoverwhelmingly
superiorstrengthwouldsufficetoenforceobedienceto
thedecreesofitspossessors,whichalwayswill,itis
assumed,beinspiredbyequity . Anactualtrialof
strengthwouldbeobviated,therefore,atleastsolong
as therelativemilitaryandeconomicconditionsofthe
worldstatesunderwentnosensiblechange . Tothis
extentthewarspecterwouldbeexorcisedandtrying
abusesabolished .
Thatthoseviewswereexpresslyformulatedandthrown
intotheclausesofasecretprogramisunlikely
. Butit
seemstobeafactthatthegeneraloutlinesofsuch
a
policywereconceivedandtacitlyadheredto . These
outlinesgovernedtheactionofthetwoworld-arbiters,
notonlyinthedictatorialdecreesissuedinthenameof
19
275
THE INSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
politicalidealismanditsFourteenPoints,whichwereso
bitterlyresentedasoppressivebyItaly,Rumania,Jugo-
slavia,Poland,andGreece,butlikewiseinthoseother
concessionswhichscandalizedthepoliticalpuritansand
gladdenedtheheartsoftheFrench,theJapanese,the
Jugoslavs,andtheJews . Thedictatorialdecreeswere
inspiredbythedelegates'fundamentalaims,thecon-
cessionsbytheirtacticalneeds-theformer,therefore,
weremeanttobepermanent,thelattertransient .
AllotherexplanationsoftheItaliancrisis,however
welltheymayfitcertainofitsphases,are,whenapplied
tothepithofthematter,besidethemark . Evenifit
weretrue,asthedramatist,SemBenelli,wrote,that
"PresidentWilsonevidentlyconsidersourpeopleasonthe
planeofanAfricancolony,dominatedbythewillofafew
ambitiousmen,"thatwouldnotaccountforthetenacious
determinationwithwhichthePresidentheldtohis
slightedtheory.
Italy'spositioninEuropewasinmanyrespectspecul-
iar . Menstilllivingrememberthetimewhenhername
wasscarcelymorethanageographicalexpressionwhich
gradually,duringthelastsixtyyears,cametoconnotea
hard-working,sober,patrioticnation . Onlylittleby
littledidsherecoverherfinestprovincesandhercapital,
andeventhenherunitywasnotfullyachieved . Austria
stillheldmanyofhersons,notonlyintheTrentino,but
alsoontheothershoreoftheAdriatic . Butforthirty
yearsherdesiretorecovertheselostchildrenwaspara-
lyzedbyinternationalconditions . Inherowninterests,
aswellasinthoseofpeace,shehadbecomethethird
memberofanalliancewhichconstrainedhertosuppress
herpatrioticfeelingsandallowedhertobendallherener-
giestothepreventionofaEuropeanconflict .
Whenhostilitiesbrokeout,theattitudeoftheItalian
governmentwasamatterofextrememomenttoFrance
27 6
ITALY
andtheEntente. Much,perhapsthefateofEurope,
dependedonwhethertheywouldremainneutralorthrow
intheirlotwiththeTeutons . Theychosetheformer
alternativeandliterallysavedthesituation . Theques-
tionofmotiveiswhollyirrelevant. Laterontheywere
urgedtomoveastepfartherandtakeanactivepart
againsttheirformerallies . Butapowerfulbodyof
opinionandsentimentinthecountrywasopposedto
militaryco-operation,onthegroundthatthesumtotal
oftheresultstobeobtainedbyquiescencewouldexceed
theguerdonofvictorywonbythesideoftheEntente .
Thecorrectnessofthisestimatedependeduponmany
incalculablefactors,amongwhichwasthedurationofthe
struggle . Theconsensusofopinionwasthatitwould
bebrief,inwhichcasethetermsdangledbeforeItaly's
eyesbytheEntentewould,itwasbelievedbytheCabinet,
greatlytranscendthosewhichtheCentralPowerswere
preparedtooffer . Anyhowtheywereacceptedandthe
compactwasnegotiated,signed,andratifiedbymen
whoseidealismmarredtheirpracticalsense,andwhose
policyofsacredegotism,resoluteinwordsandfeeble
inaction,merelyimpairedthegoodnameofthegovern-
mentwithoutbringinganycorrespondingcompensation
tothecountry .
Theworldstrugglelastedmuchlonger
thanthestatesmenhaddaredtoanticipate ; Italy's
obligationsweregreatlyaugmentedbyRussia'sdefection,
shehadtobearthebruntofall,insteadofapartof
Austria'sforces,wherebythesacrificesdemandedofher
becameproportionatelyheavier . Altogetheritisfair
tosaythatthedifficultiestobeovercomeandthehard-
shipstobeenduredbeforetheItalianpeoplereachedtheir
goalwereandstillarebutimperfectlyrealizedbytheir
allies.
Fortheobstaclesweregigantic,theeffortheroic
;
alonetheresultsshranktodisappointingdimensions.
Thewarover,Italianstatesmenconfidentlybelieved
2 7 7
THE INSIDE STORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
thatthosesupererogatoryexertionswouldbeappropri-
atelyrecognizedbytheAllies . Andthisexpectation
quicklycrystallizedintoterritorialdemands . Thepress
whichvoicedthemruffledthetemperofAnglo-Saxondom
byclamoringformorethanitwaseverlikelytoconcede,
andbuoyeduptheirownnationwithillusoryhopes,the
non-fulfilmentofwhichwascertaintoproducenational
discontent . Curiouslyenoagh,boththegovernmentand
thepresslaidthemainstressuponterritorialexpansion,
leavingeconomicadvantagesalmostwhollyoutof
account .
ItwasatthisconjuncturethatMr . Wilsonmadehis
appearanceandthrewallthepiecesonthepoliticalchess-
boardintoweirdconfusion . "You,"hevirtuallysaid,
"havebeenfightingforthedismembermentofyoursecu-
larenemy,Austria
. Well,sheisnowdismemberedand
youhavefullsatisfaction . Yourfrontiersshallbeex-
tendedatherexpense,butnotattheexpenseofthenew
stateswhichhavearisenonherruins . Onthecontrary,
theirrightswillcircumscribeyourclaimsandlimityour
territorialaggrandizement . Notonlycanyounothave
alltheadditionalterritoryyoucovet,butImustrefuse
toallotevenwhathasbeenguaranteedtoyoubyyour
secrettreaty. Irefusetorecognizethatbecausethe
UnitedStatesgovernmentwasnopartytoit,was,in
fact,whollyunawareofituntilrecently . Newcircum-
stanceshavetransformeditintoamerescrapofpaper. "
ThislanguagewasnotunderstoodbytheItalianpeople .
Forthemthesacrednessoftreatieswasadogmanotto
bequestioned,andleastofallbythechampionofright,
justice,andgoodfaith . Theyhadwelcomedthenew
orderpreachedbytheAmericanstatesman,butwere
unabletoreconcileitwiththetearingupofexistingcon-
ventions,therepudiationoflegalrights,thedissolution
ofalliances . - In particulartheirtreatywithFrance . Brit-
27 8
ITALY
ain,andRussiahadcontributedmateriallytothevictory
overthecommonenemy,hadinfactsavedtheAllies .
"ItwasItaly'sintervention,"saidthechiefoftheAus-
trianGeneralStaff,ConradvonHoetzendorff,"that
broughtaboutthedisaster. WithoutthattheCentral
Empireswouldinfalliblyhavewonthewar
. " 1
Andthere
isnoreasontodoubthisassertion
.
IntruthItalyhad
doneallshehadpromisedtotheAllies,andmore .
She
hadcontributedmateriallytosaveFrance-whollygra-
tuitously
. Itwasalsoherneutrality,whichshecouldhave
bartered,butdidnot, 2 thatturnedthescaleatBucharest
againstthemilitaryinterventionofRumaniaontheside
oftheTeutons
. 'Andwithouttheneutralityofboththese
countriesattheoutsetofhostilitiesthecourseofthe
struggleandofEuropeanhistorywouldhavebeenwidely
differentfromwhattheyhavebeen . Andnowthatthe
Allieshadachievedtheiraimtheyweretorefusetoper-
formtheirpartofthecompactinthename,too,ofamoral
principlefromtheoperationofwhichthreegreatPowers
weredispensed
. Thatwasthelightinwhichthematter
appearedtotheunsophisticatedmindoftheaverage
Italian,andnottohimalone . Othersaccustomedto
abstractreasoningaskedwhetherthebestpreparationfor
thefutureregimeofrightandjustice,andallthatthese
imply,istotransgressexistingrightsandviolateordinary
justice,andwhatdifferencethereisbetweenthedemoral-
izinginfluenceofthisprocedureandthatofprofessional
Bolshevists
. Therewasbutoneadequateanswertothis
1 InaninterviewgiventotheCorrespondenzBureauofViennabyCon-
radvonHoetzendorff. Cf. LeTemps,Julyi9,1919 .
2 ThePrimeMinister,Salandra,declaredthattohavemadeneutrality
amatterofbargainingwouldhavebeentodishonorItaly
.
2 KingCarolwasholdingacrowncouncilatthetime . Bratianohad
spokenagainsttheKing'sproposaltothrowinthecountry'slotwithGer-
many.
CarpwasstronglyforcarryingoutRumania'streatyobligations .
Someothershesitated,butbeforeitcouldbeputtothevote a telegram
wasbroughtinannouncingItaly'sresolvetomaintainneutrality . The
upshotwasRumania'srefusaltofollowherallies .
279
THE INSIDE STORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
objection,anditconsistedinthewhole-heartedandrigid
applicationoftheWilsoniantenetstoallnationswithout
exception
. Buteventhe,authorofthesetenetsdidnot
venturetomakeit .
Theessenceoftheterritorialquestionlayinthedisposal
oftheeasternshoreoftheAdriatic . ' TheJugoslavs
claimedall Istria andDalmatia,andbasedtheirclaim
partlyontheprincipleofnationalitiesandpartlyonthe
vitalnecessityofhavingoutletsonthatsea,andinpar-
ticularFiume,themostimportantofthemall,whichthey
describedasessentiallyCroatianandindispensableasa
port . TheItaliandelegates,joiningissuewiththeJugo-
slavs,andclaimingasectionoftheseaboardandFiume,
arguedthatthegreatestpartoftheEastAdriaticshore
wouldstillremainCroatian,togetherwithalltheports
oftheCroatiancoastandothersinsouthernDalmatia-
inaword,twelveports,includingSpalatoandRagusa,and
athousandkilometersofseaboard . TheJugoslavsmet
thisassertionwiththeobjectionthattheoutletsinques-
tionwereinaccessible,allexceptFiumeandMetkovitch .
AsforFiume, 2 theItaliandelegatescontendedthat
althoughnotpromisedtoItalybytheTreatyofLondon,
itwashistoricallyhers,because,havingbeenforcenturies
anautonomousentity . andhavingassuchreligiouslypre-
serveditsItaliancharacter,itsinhabitantshadexercised
theirrightstomanifestbyplebiscitetheirdesiretobe
unitedwiththemothercountry . Theyfurtherdenied
thatitwasindispensabletotheJugoslavsbecausethese
wouldreceiveadozenotherportsandalsobecausethe
trafficbetweenCroatiaandFiumewasrepresentedby
only7percent . ofthewhole,andeventhatofCroatia,
1 OntheeasternAdriatic,theTreatyofLondonallottedtoItalythe
peninsulaofIstria,withoutFiume,mostofDalmatia,exclusiveofSpalato,
thechiefDalmatianislandsandtheDodecannesus .
2 ThepresentpopulationofFiumeiscomputedat45,227souls,ofwhom
33. 000
areItalians,10,927Slavs,and 1,300 Magyars .
280
ITALY
Slavonia,
andDalmatiacombinedbyonly 13 percent .
Further,Italywouldundertaketogiveallrequisite
exportfacilitiesinFiumetotheJugoslavs .
Thelattertraversedmanyofthesestatements,andin
particularthatwhichdescribedFiumeasaseparate
autonomousentityand
asanessentiallyItaliancity.
Archiveswereransackedbybothparties,ancientdocu-
mentsproduced,analyzed,condemned
asforgeries,or
appealedtoasauthenticproofs,chancephraseswere
culledfromvariouswritersofbygonedaysandoffered
as
evidenceinsupportofeachcontention
. Thusthecon-
testgrewheated
.
Itwasfurtherinflamedbytheattitude
ofItaly'sallies,whoappearedtoheraseithercovertly
unfriendlyoratbestlukewarm .
M. Clemenceau,whomaintainedduringthepeace
negotiationstheepithet"Tiger"whichhehadearned
longbefore,wasallegedtohavesaidinthecourseofone
ofthoseconversationswhichweremisnamedprivate,
"ForItalytodemandFiumeistoaskforthemoon
. "
OfficiallyhetookthesideofMr
. Wilson,asdidalsothe
BritishPremier,andItaly'stwoalliessignifiedbutacold
assenttothoseotherclaimswhichwerecoveredbytheir
owntreaty
. Buttheymadenosecretoftheirdesireto
seethatinstrumentwhollysetaside
. Fiumetheywould
notbestowontheirally,atleastnotunlessshewas
preparedtoofferanequivalenttotheJugoslavsandto
satisfythePresidentoftheUnitedStates
.
ThisadvocacyoftheclaimsoftheJugoslavswasbit-
terlyresentedbytheItalians
. Forcenturiesthetwo
peopleshadbeenrivalsorenemies,andduringthewar
theJugoslavsfoughtwithfuryagainsttheItalians
. For
Italythearch-enemyhadeverbeenAustriaandAustria
"Anotherdelegateisreportedtohaveanswered
: "AsweneedItaly's
friendship,weshouldpaythemoderatepriceaskedandbackherclaimto
havethemoon
. "
281
THE INSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
was-largelySlav . "Austria,"theysay,"wastheofficial
namegiventothecruelenemyagainstwhomwefought,
butitwasgenerallytheCroatiansandotherSlavswhom
ourgallantsoldiersfoundfacingthem,anditwasthey
whowereguiltyofthemisdeedsfromwhichourarmies
suffered . "Officialdocumentsprovethis . 'Ordersof
thedayissuedbytheAustrianCommandeulogize"the
Serbo-CroatianbattalionswhoviedwiththeAustro-
GermanandHungariansoldiersinresistingthepitfalls
dugbytheenemytocausethemtoswervefromtheir
fidelityandtaketheroadtotreason
. 2
Inthelastbattle
whichendedtheexistenceoftheAustro-Hungarian
monarchyalargecontingentofexcellentCroatiantroops
foughtresolutelyagainsttheItalianarmies . "
InItalyanimpressivestoryistoldwhichshowshow
thistransformationoftheenemyofyesterdayintothe
allyofto-daysometimesworkedout . Thesonofan
Italiancitizenwhowasfightingasanaviatorwaskilled
towardtheendofthewar,inaduelfoughtintheair,
byanAustriancombatant . Soonafterthearmistice
wassignedthesorrowingfatherrepairedtotheplace
wherehissonhadfallen . Hetherefoundanex-Austrian
officer,theluckyvictorandslayerofhisson,wearingin
hisbuttonholetheJugoslav cocarde,
who,advancing
towardhimwithextendedhand,utteredthegreeting,
"YouandIarenowallies . "
a
Thehistorianmaysmile
atthenaiveteofthisanecdote,butthestatesmanwill
acknowledgethatitcharacterizedtherelationsbetween
theinhabitantsofthenewstateandtheItalians. One
candivinethefeelingsofthesewhentheywereexhorted
totreattheirex-enemiesasfriendsandallies .
1 AnumberofordersofthedayeulogizingindividualSlavofficersand
collectivemilitaryentitieswerequotedbytheadvocatesofItaly'scause
attheConference .
2 .
Official
communique
ofJune17,1918 .
JournaldeGeneve,April25,1919 .
28 2
ITALY
"Isitsurprising,then,"theItaliansasked,"that
we
cannotsuddenlyconceiveanardentaffectionfortheruth-
less`Austrians'ofwhosecrueltieswewerebitterlycom-
plainingafewmonthsback?Isitstrangethatwecannot
finditinourheartstocutoffasliceofItalianterritory
andmakeitovertothemasoneofthefruitsof-our
victoryoverthem?IfItalyhadnotfirstadopted
neutralityandthenjoinedtheAlliesinthewarthere
wouldbenoJugoslaviato-day
. Arewenowtopay
forouraltruismbysacrificingItaliansoilandItalian
soulstothesecularenemiesofourrace?"Inaword,the
armisticetransformedItaly'senemyintoafriendand
allyforwhosesakeshewassummonedtoabandonsome
ofthefruitsofahard-earnedvictoryandapartofher
secularaspirations .
What,askedtheItaliandelegates,
wouldFranceanswerifsheweretoldthatthePrussians
whomhermatchlessarmiesdefeatedmusthenceforthbe
lookeduponasfriendsandendowedwithsomenewcolo-
nieswhichwouldotherwisebehers?TheItaliandram-
atistSemBenelliputthemattertersely :
"Thecollapse
ofAustriatransformsitselfthereforeintoaplayofwords,
somuchsothatourpeople,whoaremuchmoreprecise
becausetheylanguishedundertheAustrianyokeandthe
Austrianscourge,never
call theAustriansbythisname ;
theycallthemalwaysCroatians,knowingwellthatthe
CroatiansandtheSlavswhoconstitutedAustriawereour
fiercesttaskmastersandmostcruelexecutioners .
Itis
naivetothinkthattheineradicablecharacteristicsand
tendenciesofpeoplescanbemodifiedbyachangeofname
andanewflag . "
Buttherewasanotherwayoflookingatthematter,
andtheAllies,togetherwiththeJugoslavs,madethe
mostofit
. TheSlavcharacterofthedisputedterritory
wasemphasized,theprincipleofnationalityinvoked,and
thedangerofincorporatinganunfriendlyforeignelement
2
8 3
THEINSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
whichcouldnotbeassimilatedwassolemnlypointedout .
Butwheresentimentactuates,reasonisgenerallyim-
potent . ThepolicyoftheItaliangovernment,like
thatofallothergovernments,wasfranklynationalistic ;
whetheritwasalsostatesman-likemaywellbequestioned
-indeedthequestionhasalreadybeenansweredbysome
ofItaly'sprincipalpressorgansinthenegative
. 'They
accusetheCabinetofhavingdeliberatelyletloosepopular
passionswhichitafterwardvainlysoughttoallay,and
thefactswhichtheyallegeinsupportofthechargehave
neverbeendenied .
ItwascertainlytoItaly'sbestintereststostrikeup
afriendlyagreementwiththenewstate,ifthatwere
feasible,andsomeofthemeninwhosehandsherdestinies
rested,feelingtheirresponsibility,madealaudableat-
tempttocometoanunderstanding . SignorOrlando,
whosesagacityisequaltohisresourcefulness,wasone
.
InLondonhehadtalkedthesubjectoverwiththe
Croatianleader,M. Trumbic,andfavoredthemovement
towardreconciliation 2 whichBaronSonnino,hiscol-
league,asresolutelydiscouraged . Acongresswasac-
cordinglyheldinRome 3 andanaccordprojected . The
reciprocalrelationsbecameamicable . TheJugoslav
committeeintheItaliancapitalcongratulatedSignor
OrlandoonthevictoryofthePiave. Butowingto
variouscauses,especiallytoBaronSonnino'sopposition,
theseinchoatesentimentsofneighborlinessquicklylost
theirwarmthandfinallyvanished . Notraceofthem
remainedattheParisConference,wherethedelegates
ofthetwostatesdidnotconversetogethernoreven
saluteoneanother .
PresidentWilson'svisittoRome,where,tousean
1 Cf . Il CorrieredellaSera and
Il Secolo ofMay 26, 1919 .
2
IntheSenatehedefendedthisattitudeonMarch4,19ig,andexpressed
adesiretodispelthemisunderstandingbetweenthetwopeoples
.
'InApril,1919 .
284
ITALY
Italianexpression,hewaswelcomedbyDelirium,seemed
tobrightenItaly'soutlookonthefuture . Muchwas
afterwardmadebythePresident'senemiesofthesub-
sequentchangetowardhiminthesentiments of the
Italianpeople . Thisiscommonlyascribedtohisfailure
to
fulfil theexpectationswhichhiswordsorattitude
arousedorwarranted . Nothingcouldwellbemoremis-
leading. Mr. Wilson'spositiononthesubjectofItaly's
claimsneverchanged,nordidhesayordoaughtthat
wouldjustifyadoubtastowhatitwas .
InRomehe
spoketotheMinistersinexactlythesametermsasin
ParisattheConference. HeapprizedtheminJanuary
ofwhatheproposedtodoinAprilandheevencon-
templatedissuingadeclarationofhisItalianpolicyat
once
. ButhewasearnestlyrequestedbytheMinisters
tokeephiscounseltohimselfandtomakenopublic
allusiontoitduringhissojourninItaly . 'Itwasnothis
fault,therefore,iftheItalianpeoplecherishedillusory
hopes . InParisSignorOrlandohadanimportant
encounterwithMr. Wilson, 2 whotoldhimplainlythat
theallotmentofthenorthernfrontierstracedforItaly
bytheLondonTreatywouldbeconfirmed,whilethatof
theterritoryontheeasternAdriaticwouldbequashed
.
ThedivisionofthespoilsofAustriatheremust,headded,
bemadecongruouslywithamapwhichhehandedtothe
ItalianPremier. Itwasprovedonexaminationtobe
identicalwithonealreadypublishedbythe
NewEurope. 3
SignorOrlandoglancedatthemapandincourteous
iThisfacthassincebeenmadepublicbyEnricoFerriinaremarkable
discoursepronouncedintheparliamentatRome(July9,
i9i9) . Itwas
BaronSonninowhodeprecatedthepublicationofanystatementonthe
subjectbyPresidentWilson . Cf. LaStam¢ a, July io,i9i9 .
2
OnJanuaryio,i9i9 .
3
ItgaveeasternFriulitoItaly,includingGorizia,splitIstriaintotwo
parts,andassignedTriesteandPolaalsotoItaly,butundersuchterri-
torialconditionsthattheywouldbeexposedtoenemyprojectilesincase
ofwar.
28 5
THE INSIDE STORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
phraseologyunfoldedthereasonswhyhecouldnotenter-
tainthesettlementproposed . HeaddedthatnoItalian
parliamentwouldratifyit . ThereuponthePresident
turnedthediscussiontopolitico-ethicallines,pointedout
theharmwhichtheannexationofanalienandunfriendly
elementcouldinflictuponItaly,thegreatadvantages
whichcordialrelationswithherSlavneighborwould
conferonher,andtheeasewithwhichshemightgainthe
marketsofthenewstate . Ayoungandsmall. nation
liketheJugoslavswouldbegratefulforanactofgener-
osityandwouldrepayitbylastingfriendship-areturn
worthfarmorethanthecontentiousterritories . "Ah,
youdon'tknowtheJugoslavs,Mr . President,"exclaimed
SignorOrlando . "IfItalyweretocedetothemDal-
matia,Fiume,andeasternIstriatheywouldforthwith
layclaimtoTriesteandPolaand,afterTriesteandPola,
toFriuliandGorizia
. "
AftersomefurtherdiscussionMr . Wilsonsaid :"Well,
Iamunabletoreconcilewithmyprinciplestherecogni-
tionofsecrettreaties,andasthetwoareincompatibleI
upholdtheprinciples . " "I,too,"rejoinedtheItalian
Premier,"condemnsecrettreatiesinthefuturewhenthe
newprincipleswillhavebeguntoregulateinternational
politics . Asforthosecompactswhichwereconcluded
duringthewartheywereallsecret,notexcludingthoseto
whichtheUnitedStateswasaparty . "ThePresident
demurredtothisreservation . Heconceivedandputhis
casebrieflyasfollows :Italy,likeherallies,hadhad
itinherpowertoaccepttheFourteenPoints,reject
them,ormakereserves . BritainandFrancehadtaken
exceptiontothoseclauseswhichtheyweredetermined
toreject,whereasItalysignifiedheradhesiontothemall .
Thereforeshewasboundbytheprinciplesunderlying
themandhadforfeitedtherighttoinvokeasecrettreaty .
ThesettlementoftheissuesturninguponDalmatia,
286
ITALY
Istria,Fiume,
and the islandsmust
consequently be
takeninhandwithoutreferencetotheclausesofthat
instrument
. Examinedontheirmeritsandinthelight
ofthenewarrangements,Italy'sclaimscouldnotbe
upheld. ItwouldbeunfairtotheJugoslavswhoinhabit
thewholecountrytocutthemofffromtheirownsea-
board. NorwouldsuchameasurebehelpfultoItaly
herself,whoseinterestitwastoformahomogeneous
whole,consolidateherdominions,andprepareforthe
comingeconomicstrugglefornationalwell-being. The
principleofnationalitymust,therefore,beallowedfull
play-
AsforFiume,evenifthecitywere,asalleged,an
independententityanddesirousofbeingincorporatedin
Italy,onewouldstillhavetosetagainstthesefactsJugo-
slavia'simperativeneedofanoutlettothesea
. Here
theprincipleofeconomicnecessityoutweighsthoseof
nationalityandfreedetermination
. Acountrymustlive,
andthereforebeendowedwiththewherewithaltosup-
portlife . Onthesegrounds,judgmentshouldbeentered
fortheJugoslavs .
TheItalianPremier'sanswerwasequallyclear,buthe
couldnotunburdenhismindofitall . Hisgovernment
had,itwastrue,adheredtotheFourteenPointswithout
reservation . Buttheassumptionsonwhichitgavethis
undertakingwerethatitwouldnotbeusedtoupsetpast
compacts,butwouldbereservedforfuturesettlements ;
thatevenhaditbeenotherwisethemaximsinquestion
shouldbedeemedrelevantinItaly'scaseonlyifapplied
impartiallyto all states,andthattheentireworkof
reorganizationshouldrestonthisethicalfoundation
. A
regimeofexceptions,withprivilegedandunprivileged
nations, wouldobviouslyrendertheschemefutileand
inacceptable .
Yetthiswasthesystemthatwasactually
beingintroduced
. Ifsecrettreatiesweretobeabrogated,
28 7
THE INSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
thenlettheconventionbetweenJapanandChinabealso
putoutofcourtandthedisputebetweenthemadjudi-
cateduponitsmerits . IftheFourteenPointsarebinding,
letthefreedomoftheseasbeproclaimed . Ifequalrights
aretobeconferreduponallstates,lettheMonroeDoc-
trineberepealed . Ifdisarmamentistobecomeareality,
letBritainandAmericaceasetobuildwarships . Sup-
poseforamomentthatto-morrowBrazilorChilewere
tocomplainoftheconductoftheUnitedStates,the
LeagueofNations,inwhosenameMr . Wilsonspeaks,
wouldbehinderedbytheMonroeDoctrinefrominter-
vening,whereasBritainandtheUnitedStatesinanalo-
gousconditionsmayintermeddleintheaffairsofanyof
thelesserstates . WhenIrelandorEgyptorIndiauplifts
itsvoiceagainstBritain,itisbutavoiceinthedesert
whichawakensnoecho . IfFiumewereinhabitedby
Americancitizenswho,withalikeclaimtobeconsidered
aseparateentity,askedtobeallowedtoliveunderthe
StarsandStripes,whatwouldPresidentWilson'sattitude
bethen?Wouldheturnadeafeartotheirprayer?
Surelynot . Why,inthecaseofItaly,doeshenotdo
ashewouldbedoneby?Whatitallcomestoisthat
theneworderingundertheflagofequalityistoconsist
ofsuperiorandinferiornations,ofwhichtheformer,who
speakEnglish,aretopossessunlimitedpoweroverthe
latter,todecidewhatisgoodforthemandwhatisbad,
whatislicitandwhatisforbidden . Andagainsttheir
fiatthereistobenoappeal . Inaword,itistobethe
hegemonyoftheAnglo-Saxonrace .
ItisworthnotingthatSignorOrlando'sarguments
wereallderivedfromthemeritsofthecase,notfrom
thetermsortheforceoftheLondonTreaty
. Fiume,
hesaid,hadbesoughtItalytoincorporateit,andhad
madethisrequestbeforethearmistice,atamoment
whenitwasriskytoproclaimattachmentstotheking-
288
ITALY
dom. l
TheinhabitantshadinvokedMr. Wilson'sown
words
:"Nationalaspirationsmustberespected . . .
. Self-
determinationisnotamerephrase. "
"Peoplesandprov-
incesarenottobebarteredaboutfromsovereigntyto
sovereigntyasiftheyweremerechattelsandpawnsina
game . Everyterritorialsettlementinvolvedinthiswar
mustbemadeintheinterestandforthebenefitofthe
populationsconcerned,andnotasapartofanyadjust-
mentforcompromiseofclaimsamongrivalstates
. "And
inhisaddressatMountVernonthePresidenthadadvo-
catedadoctrinewhichispeculiarlyapplicabletoFiume-
i. e. .
"Thesettlementofeveryquestion,whetherofterritory,
ofsovereignty,ofeconomicarrangement,orofpolitical
relationship,uponthebasisofthefreeacceptanceofthat
settlementbythepeopleimmediatelyconcerned,andnot
upon . thebasisofmaterialinterestoradvantageofany
othernationorpeoplewhichmaydesireadifferentsettle-
ment,forthesakeofitsownexteriorinfluenceormas-
tery. "
2
ThesemaximslaiddownbyMr
. Wilsonim-
plicitlyallotFiumetoItaly .
FinallyastotheobjectionthatItaly'sclaimswould
entailtheincorporationofanumberofSlavs,theanswer
wasthatthepercentagewasnegligible as comparedwith
thenumberofforeignelementsannexedbyotherstates
.
ThePoles,itwasestimated,wouldhavesome30per
cent
. ofaliens,theCzechsnotless,Rumania
17
per
cent . ,Jugoslaviaiipercent . ,France4percent . ,and
Italyonly3percent .
InFebruarytheJugoslavsmadeastrategicmove,
whichmanyadmiredasclever,andothersblamedas
unwise. Theyproposedthatalldifferencesbetweentheir
1 TheNationalCouncilofFiumeissueditsproclamationbeforeithad
becomeknownthatthebattleofVittorioVenetowasbegun-i
. e. ,October
30, 1918 .
2
SpeechdeliveredatMountVernonon July 4, 1918 .
289
THE INSIDE STORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
countryandItalyshouldbesubmittedtoMr . Wilson's
arbitration. ConsideringthatthePresident'smindwas
madeuponthesubjectfromthebeginning,andthathe
haddecidedagainstItaly,itwasnaturalthatthedelega-
tioninwhosefavorhisdecisionwasknowntoincline
shouldbeeagertogetitacceptedbytheirrivals . As
neithersidewasignorantofwhattheresultofthearbi-
trationwouldbe,onlyoneofthetwocouldbeexpected
toclosewiththeoffer,andthemostitcouldhopebydoing
thiswastoembarrasstheother
. TheItaliananswerwas
ingenious . Theirdispute,theysaid,wasnotwithSerbia,
whoalonewasrepresentedattheConference ;itconcerned
Croatia,whohadno,officialstandingthere,andwhose
frontierswerenotyetdetermined,butwouldinduetime
betracedbytheConference,ofwhichItalywasamember .
Thedecisionwouldbearrivedatafteranexhaustive
study,anditsprobableconsequencestoEurope'speace
wouldbedulyconsidered . Asextremecircumspection
wasimperativebeforeformulatingaverdict,fivepleni-
potentiarieswouldseembetterqualifiedthananyoneof
them,eventhoughhewerethewisestofthegroup
. To
removethequestionfromthecompetencyoftheCon-
ference,whichwasexpresslyconvokedtodealwithsuch
issues,andsubmitittoanindividual,wouldbefeltas
aslightontheSupremeCouncil .
Andsothematter
dropped .
SignorOrlandoknewthatifhehadadoptedthesug-
gestionandmadeMr . Wilsonarbiter,Italy'shopeswould
havebeenpromptlyextinguishedinthenameofthe
FourteenPoints,andherexampleheldupforallthelesser
statestoimitate . ThePresidentwas,however,con-
vincedthattheItalianpeoplewouldhaveratifiedthe
arrangementwithalacrity . Itisworthrecordingthathe
wassosureofhisownholdontheItalianmassesthat,
whenurgingSignorOrlandotorelinquishhisdemandfor
290
ITALY
FiumeandtheDalmatiancoast,hevolunteeredtopro-
videhimwithamessagewrittenbyhimselftoserveas
thePremier'sjustification .
SignorOrlandowastoread
outthisdocumentinParliamentinordertomakeitclear
tothenationthattherenunciationhadbeendemanded
byAmerica,thatitwouldmostefficaciouslypromote
Italy'sbestinterests,andshouldforthatreasonberatified
withalacrity . SignorOrlando,however,declinedthecer-
tificateandthingstooktheircourse .
InParistheItaliandelegationmadelittleheadway
.
Everyoneadmired,esteemed,andfeltdrawntowardthe
firstdelegate,who,lefttohimself,wouldprobablyhave
securedforhiscountryadvantageousconditions,even
thoughhemightbeunabletoaddFiumetothosesecured
bythesecrettreaty
. Buthewasnotlefttohimself . He
hadtoreckonwithhisMinisterofForeignAffairs,who
wasasmuteasanoysterandalmostasunsociable.
BaronSonninohadhisownpolicy,whichwasimmutable,
almostunutterable
. AttheConferenceheseemedun-
willingtopropound,muchlesstodiscussit,evenwith
thoseforeigncolleaguesonwhoseco-operationorapproval
itsrealizationdepended .
Heactuallyshunneddelegates
whowouldfainhavetalkedovertheircommoninterests
inafriendly,informalway,andwhosebusinessitwasto
strikeupanagreement
. Infact,resultswhichcouldbe
securedonlybypersuadingindifferentorhostilepeople
andcapturingtheirgood-willheexpectedtoattainby
holdingalooffromallandleadingthelifeofahermit,one
mightalmostsayofamisanthrope
. Onecanimagine
thefeelings,ifonemaynotreproducetheutterances,of
English-speakingofficials,whoselegitimatedesirefora
freeexchangeofviewswithItaly'sofficialspokesmanwas
thwartedbytheidiosyncrasiesofherownMinisterof
ForeignAffairs .
InAlliedcirclesBaronSonninowasdis-
tinctlyunpopular,andhisunpopularityproduced a
20
291
THE INSIDE STORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
markedeffectonthecausehehadatheart
. Hewas
whollydestituteoffriends . Hehad,itistrue,onlytwo
enemies,buttheywerehimselfandtheforeignelement
whohadtoworkwithhim . Italy'scausewastherefore
inadequatelyserved .
Severalmonths'trialshowedtheunwisdomofBaron
Sonnino'sattitude,whichtendedtodefeathisownpolicy .
Italywaspaidbackbyheralliesinherowncoin,aloof-
nessforaloofness . AftershehaddeclinedtheJugoslavs'
ingeniousproposaltorefertheirdisputetoMr
. Wilson
thethreedelegates'agreedamongthemselvestopostpone
herspecialproblemsuntilpeacewassignedwithGer-
many,butSignorOrlando,havinggotwindofthematter,
movedeverylevertohavethemputintotheforefront
oftheagenda. Hewentsofar
astosaythathewould
notsigntheTreatyunlesshiscountry'sclaimswerefirst
settled,becausethatdocumentwouldmaketheLeague
ofNations-andthereforeItalyasamemberofthe
League-theguarantorofothernations'territories,
whereassheherselfhadnodefinedterritoriesforothers
toguarantee. Shewouldnotundertaketodefendthe
integrityofstateswhichshehadhelpedtocreatewhile
herownfrontierswereindefinite . Butintheartofpro-
crastinationtheTriumviratewasunsurpassed,and,asthe
timedrewnearforpresentingtheTreatytoGermany,
neithertheAdriatic,thecolonial,thefinancial,northe
economicproblemsonwhichItaly'sfuturedependedwere
settledorevenbroached
. 'Inthemeanwhilethepleni-
potentiariesinsecretcouncil,ofwhomfourorfivewere
wonttodeliberateandtwototakedecisions,haddis-
agreedonthesubjectofFiume . Mr . Wilsonwasin-
exorableinhisrefusaltohandthecityovertoItaly,and
thevariouscompromisesdevisedbyingeniousweavers
ofconflictinginterestsfailedtorallytheItaliandelegates,
1
OftheUnitedStates,France,andGreatBritain .
292
ITALY
whose inspirer was the taciturnBaronSonnino . The
Italianpress,byinsistingonFiumeas a sinequanon of
Italy'sapprovalofthePeaceTreatyandbyannouncing
thatitwouldundoubtedlybeaccorded,hadmadeit
practicallyimpossibleforthedelegatestorecede . The
circumstancethatthepresswasinspiredbythegovern-
mentisimmaterialtotheissue. PresidentWilson,who
hadbeenfrequentlytoldthatawordfromhimtothe
peoplesofEuropewouldfiretheirenthusiasmandcarry
themwhithersoeverhewished,evenagainsttheirown
governments,nowpurposedwieldingthisuniquepower
againstItaly'splenipotentiaries . Aswesaw,hewould
havedonethisduringhissojourninRome,butwasdis-
suadedbyBaronSonnino . Hisintentionnowwasto
compelthedelegatestogohomeandascertainwhether
theirinflexibleattitudecorrespondedwiththatoftheir
peopleandtodrawthepeopleintothecampofthe
"idealists . "Hevirtuallyadmittedthisduringhiscon-
versationwithSignorOrlando . Whatheseemstohave
overlooked,however,isthattherearetimelimitstoevery
policy,andthatonlythesamecausescanbesetinmotion
toproducethesameresults .
InItalythePresident's
namehadaverydifferentsoundinAprilfromtheclarion-
liketonesitgaveforthinJanuary,andthesecretofhis
popularityeventhenwastheprevalentfaithinhisfirm
determinationtobringaboutapeaceofjustice,irrespec-
tiveofallseparateinterests,notmerelyapeacewith
indulgenceforthestrongandrigorfortheweak . The
timewhenMr . Wilsonmighthavesummonedthepeoples
ofEuropetofollowhimhadgonebyirrevocably
.
Itis
worthnotingthattheAmericanstatesman'sviewsabout
certainofItaly'sclaims,althoughoriginallylaiddown
withtheusualemphasisasimmutable,underwentcon-
siderablemodificationswhichdidnottendtoreinforce
hisauthority . Thusattheoutsethehadproclaimedthe
293
THE INSIDE STORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
necessityofdividingIstriabetweenthetwoclaimant
nations,but,onfurtherreflection,hegavewayinItaly's
favor,thusenablingSignorOrlandotomakethepoint
thateventhePresident'ssolutionsneededcorrections .
ItisalsoafactthatwhentheItalianPremierinsisted
onhavingtheAdriaticproblemsdefinitelysettledbefore
thepresentationoftheTreatytotheGermans'his
colleaguesofFranceandBritainassuredhimthatthis
reasonablerequestwouldbecompliedwith . Thecir-
cumstancethatthispromisewasdisregardeddidnot
tendtosmoothhmattersintheCouncilofFive .
ThedecisiveduelbetweenSignorOrlandoandMr .
WilsonwasfoughtoutinApril,andtheovertactswhich
subsequentlymarkedtheirtenserelationswerebutthe
practicalconsequencesofthat . Onthehistoricdayeach
onesetforthhisprogramwith a nevarietur attached,and
thePresidentoftheUnitedStatesgaveutterancetoan
estimateofItalianpublicopinionwhichastonishedand
painedtheItalianPremier,who,havingcontributedto
formit,deemedhimselfamorecompetentjudgeofits
trendthanhisdistinguishedinterlocutor . ButMr. Wil-
sonnotonlyrefusedtoalterhisjudgment,butannounced
hisintentiontoactuponitandissueanappealtothe
Italiannation . Thegistofthisdocumentwasknownto
M. ClemenceauandMr . LloydGeorge . Ithasbeen
alleged,andseemshighlyprobable,thattheBritish
Premierwasthroughoutmostanxioustobringabouta
workablecompromise. Proposalswerethereforeputfor-
wardrespectingFiumeandDalmatia,someofwhichwere
notinacceptabletotheItalians,wholodgedcounter-
proposalsabouttheothers . Onthefateofthesecounter-
proposalseverythingdepended .
OnApril23dIwasattheHotelEdouardVII,thehead-
quartersoftheItaliandelegation,discussing the outlook
1 Between April 5thand 12th .
294
ITALY
and expectingtolearnthatsomeagreementhadbeen
reached
.
Inanadjoiningroomthemembersofthe
delegationweresittinginconferenceontheburningsub-
ject,painfullyawarethattimepressed,thattheDamocles's
swordofMr. Wilson'sdeclarationhungbyathreadover
theirheads,andthataspiritoflargecompromisewas
indispensable . Atthreeo'clockMr. LloydGeorge's
secretarybroughtthereplyoftheCouncilofThreeto
Italy'smaximumofconcessions . Onlyonepointre-
mainedindispute,Iwastold,butthatpointhingedupon
Fiume,and,byastrangechance,itwasnotmentionedin
thereplywhichthesecretaryhadjusthandedin . The
ItaliandelegationatoncetelephonedtotheBritish
PremieraskinghimtoreceivetheMarquisImperiali,
who,callingshortlyafterward,learnedthatFiumewas
tobeafreecityandexemptfromcontrol . Itwaswhen
themarquishadjustreturnedthatItookleaveofmy
hostsandreceivedtheassurancethatIshouldbein-
formedoftheresult . Abouthalfanhourlater,on
receiptofanurgentmessage,Ihastenedbacktothe
Italianheadquarters,whereconsternationprevailed,and
Ilearnedthathardlyhadthedelegatesbeguntodiscuss
thecontentiousclausewhenacopyofthe Temps was
broughtin,containingMr . Wilson'sappealtotheItalian
people"overtheheadsoftheItaliangovernment . "
Thepublicationfelllikeapowerfulexplosive
. The
publicwereatalosstofitinMr . Wilson'sunprecedented
actionwiththatofhisBritishandFrenchcolleagues .
Forifinthemorninghesenthisappealtothenewspapers,
itwasasked,whydidheallowhisItaliancolleagues
togoonexaminingaproposalonwhichhemanifestly
assumedthattheywerenolongercompetenttotreat?
MoreoverarationaldesiretosettleItaly'sAdriatic
frontiers,itwasobserved,oughtnottohavelessenedhis
concernaboutthelargerissueswhichhisunwonted
29 5
THE INSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
procedurewasboundtoraise . Andoneofthesewas
respectforauthority,thelossofwhichwasthetaprootof
Bolshevism . SignorOrlandorepliedtotheappealina
trenchantletterwhichwasatbottomareasonedprotest
againsttheassumedinfallibilityofanyindividualand,
inparticular,ofonewhohadalreadycommittedseveral
radicalerrorsofjudgment . WhattheItalianPremier
failedtonotewastheconsciousnessofoverwhelming
powerandthewilltouseitwhichimparteditsspecific
marktothewholeproceeding . Hadherealizedthisele-
ment,hissubsequenttacticswouldperhapshaverun
ondifferentlines .
ThesuddennesswithwhichthePresidentcarriedout
hispurposewasafterwardexplainedastheoutcomeof
misinformation.
InvariousItaliancities,ithadbeen
reportedtohim,posterswereappearingonthewallsan-
nouncingthatFiumehadbeenannexed . Moreover,it
wasadded,therewereexcellentgroundsforbelievingthat
atRometheItalianCabinetwasabouttoissueadecree
incorporatingitofficially,wherebythingswouldbecome
moretangledthanever. SomeFrenchjournalsgave
credittotheseallegations,anditmaywellbethatMr .
Wilson,believingthem,too,andwantingtobebeforehand,
tookimmediateaction . This,however,isatmostan
explanation ;ithardlyjustifiestheprecipitancywith
whichtheItalianplenipotentiarieswerehelduptothe
worldasmenwhoweremisrepresentingtheirpeople .
Asamatteroffactcarefulinquiryshowedthatallthose
reportswhicharesaidtohavealarmedthePresidentwere
groundless . Mr. Wilson'ssourcesofinformationrespect-
ingthecountriesonwhichhewassittinginjudgmentwere
oftenaslittletobedependedon as presumablywerethe
decisionsofthespecialcommissionswhichheandMr .
LloydGeorgesounceremoniouslybrushedaside.
OnthefollowingmorningSignoriOrlandoandSonnino
296
ITALY
calledontheBritishPremierinresponsetohisurgent
invitation. TotheirsurprisetheyfoundMr . Wilsonand
M. Clemenceaualsoawaitingthem,ready,asitmight
seem,tobeginthediscussionanew,curiousinanycase
toobservetheeffectofthedeclaration . ButtheItalian
Premierburnedhisboatswithoutdelayorhesitation .
"YouhavechallengedtheauthorityoftheItaliangovern-
ment,"hesaid,"andappealedtotheItalianpeople . Be
itso . Itisnowbecomemydutytoseekouttherepre-
sentativesofmypeopleinParliamentandtocallupon
themtodecidebetweenMr
. Wilsonandme
. "ThePresi-
dentreturnedtheonlyanswerpossible,"Undoubtedly
thatisyourduty . " "IshallinformParliamentthenthat
wehavealliesincapableofagreeingamongthemselveson
mattersthatconcernusvitally . " Disquietedbythe
militanttoneoftheMinister,Mr. LloydGeorgeuttered
asuasiveappealformoderation,andexpressedthehope
that,inhisspeechtotheItalianChamber,SignorOrlando
wouldnotforgettosaythatasatisfactorysolutionmay
yetbefound
.
Hewouldsurelybeincapableofjeopardiz-
ingthechancesofsuchadesirableconsummation . "I
willmakethepeoplearbitersofthewholesituation,"the
Premierannounced,"andinordertoenablethemto
judgewithfullknowledgeofthedata,Iherewithaskyour
permissiontocommunicatemylastmemorandumtothe
CouncilofFour
. Itembodiesthepithofthefactswhich
itbehoovestheParliamenttohavebeforeit . Inthemean-
time,theItaliangovernmentwithdrawsfromthePeace
Conference . "Onthisthepainfulmeetingterminatedand
theprincipalItalianplenipotentiariesreturnedtoRome
.
InFranceasectionofthepresssympathizedwiththe
Italians,whilethegovernment, . andinparticularM.
Clemenceau,joinedMr . Wilson,whohadpromisedto
restore thesacrednessoftreaties 1 inexhortingSignor
1 InhisaddresstotherepresentativesoforganizedlaborinJanuary, 1918
.
2 97
THEINSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
OrlandotogiveuptheTreatyofLondon . Theclash
betweenMr
. WilsonandSignorOrlandoandthede-
partureoftheItalianplenipotentiariescoincidedwiththe
arrivaloftheGermansinVersailles,sothattheAllies
werefacedwiththealternativeofspeedinguptheirdes-
ultorytalksandimprovisingadefinitesolutionorgiving
upallpretenseatunanimityinthepresenceoftheenemy
.
OneimportantParisjournalfoundfaultwithMr
. Wilson
andhis"Encyclical,"andprotestedemphaticallyagainst
hiswayoffillingeverygapinhisarrangementsbywedg-
ingintoithisLeagueofNations . "Canweharborany
illusionastothenetworthoftheLeagueofNationswhen
therevisedtextoftheCovenantrevealsitshrunkento
themerestshadow,incapableofthought,will,action,or
justice? . . .
ToooftenhavewemadesacrificestotheWil-
soniandoctrine . " 1 . . .
Anotherpressorgancompared
FiumetotheSaarValleyandsympathizedwithItaly,
who,relyingonthesolidarityofherallies,expectedto
securethecity
. 2
Whilethosewearisomeword-battles-inwhichtheper-
sonalelementplayedanunduepart-werebeingwaged
in thetwilightofasecludedValhalla,theSupremeEco-
nomicCouncildecidedthattheseizedAustrianvessels
mustbepooledamongalltheAllies . Whentheuntoward
consequencesofthisdecisionwereflashedupontheItalians
andtheJugoslavs,therupturebetweenthemwasseento
beinjurioustobothandprofitabletothirdparties
. For
iftheAustrianvesselsweredistributedamongallthe
Alliedpeoples,thesharethatwouldfalltothosetwo
wouldbeofnoaccount
. Nowforthefirsttimethead-
versariesbestirredthemselves
. Butitwasnottheirdip-
lomatistswhotooktheinitiative.
Eagerfortheirre-
spectivecountries'shareofthespoilsofwar,certain
1 L'EchodeParis,April29,1919 .
sLeGaulois,April29,1919 .
298
ITALY
businessmenonbothsidesmet,'deliberated,andworked
outanequitableaccordwhichgavefour-fifthsoftheton-
nagetoItalyandtheremaindertotheJugoslavs,who
otherwisewouldnothaveobtainedasingleship . 2 They
nextsetaboutgettingtheresolutionoftheEconomic
Councilrepealed,andwentonwiththeirconversations . 3
TheAmericandelegationwasfriendly,promisedtoplead
fortherepeal,andaddedthat"iftheaccordcouldbe
extendedtotheAdriaticproblemMr
. Wilsonwouldbe
delightedandwouldtakeuponhimselftoratifyit even
withoutthesanctionoftheConference
. 4 Encouragedbythis
promise,thedelegatesmadetheattempt,butasthe
ItalianPremierhadforsomeunavowedreasonlimited
theintercourseofthenegotiatorstoasingleday,onthe
expiryofwhichheorderedtheconversationtocease, 3
theyfailed. Twoorthreedayslaterthedelegatesin
questionhadquittedParis .
Whatthisexchangeofviewsseemstohavedemon-
stratedtoopen-mindedItalianswasthattheJugoslavs,
whosereputationforobstinacywasadogmaamongall
theiradversariesandsomeoftheirfriends,havechinks
intheirpanoplythroughwhichreasonandsuasionmay
penetrate .
WhentheItalianwithdrewfromtheConferencehe
hadamplereasonforbelievingthatinhisabsencepeace
couldnotbesigned,andmanythoughtthat,bydeparting,
hewasgivingMr
. WilsonaRolandforhisOliver . But
thissupposedtacticaleffectformednopartofOrlando's
deliberateplan . Itwasacoincidencetobeutilized,
nothingmore . Mr. Wilsonhadlefthimnochoicebut
toquitFranceandsolicittheverdictofhiscountrymen
.
1 ThesemeetingswereheldfromMarch28tillApril
23,
1919 .
2
SeeMarcoBorsa'sarticlein Il Secolo, June 18, 1919 ;also Corriere
deltaSera, June19,1919 .
3
FromMay5to 16, 1919 .
4
IlSecolo, June19,1919 .
s
OnApril23,1919-
299
THEINSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
ButMr. Wilson'scolleagueswereaghastatthethought
thatthePactofLondon,bywhichnoneoftheAllies
mightconcludeaseparatepeace,rendereditindispensable
thatItaly'srecalcitrantplenipotentiariesshouldbeco-
signatories,oratanyrateconsentingparties . About
thisinterpretationofthePacttherewasnottheslightest
doubt . Henceeveryonefearedthatthesigningofthe
PeaceTreatywouldbepostponedindefinitelybecause
oftheabsenceoftheItalianplenipoteniariesfromthe
Conference. Thatcertainlywasthebeliefoftheremain-
ingdelegates . Therewasnodoubtanywherethatthe
presenceortheexpressassentoftheItalianswas a sine
quanon ofthelegalityoftheTreaty. Itcertainlywas
theconvictionoftheFrenchpress,andwasborneoutby
themosteminentjuriststhroughouttheworld . 'That
theItaliandelegatesmightrefusetosign,asSignor
Orlandohadthreatened,untilItaly'saffairswerearranged
satisfactorilywastakenforgranted,andtheremaining
membersoftheinnerCouncilsettoworktocheckmate
thispotentialmaneuveranddispensewithherco-opera-
tion
.
Thisaimwasattainedduringtheabsenceofthe
Italiandelegationbythedecreethatthesignatureofany
threeoftheAlliedandAssociatedgovernmentswouldbe
deemedadequate . Thelegalityandeventhemorality
ofthisprovisionwerechallengedbymany .
1 "Canandwillouralliestreatourabsenceasamatterofnomoment?
Canandwilltheyviolatetheformalundertakingwhichforbidsthebellig-
erentstoconcludeadiplomaticpeace? . . .
TheLondonDeclarationpro-
hibitscategoricallytheconclusionofanyseparatepeacewithanyenemy
state . FranceandEnglandcannotsignpeacewithGermanyifItalydoes
notsign it . . . . Thesituationisgraveandabnormal,forouralliesitis
alsograveandabnormal
. Italyisisolated,andnations,especiallythose
ofcontinentalEurope,whicharenotoverrich,fleesolitudeasnature
abhors a vacuum. "-Corrieredell¢ Sera,
April26,1919 . Again :"'The
TreatyofLondon'restrainsFranceandEnglandfromconcludingpeace
withoutItaly. AndItalyismindednottoconcludepeacewithGermany
beforesheherselfhasreceivedsatisfaction . "-Journal deGenIve, April25,
1919.
3 00
ITALY
Butitmaybemaintainedthattheimperativenature
ofthetaskwhichconfrontedtheConferencedemanded
achartofideasandprinciplesdifferentfromthatby
whichOldWorlddiplomacyhadbeenguidedandthatre-
spectfortheletterofacompactshouldnotbeallowedto
destroyitsspirit . Thereismuchtobesaidforthis
contention,whichwas,however,rejectedbyItalian
juristsasdestructiveofthesacrednessoftreaties . They
alsourgedthatevenifitwerepermissibletodashformal
obstaclesasideinordertoclearthepathforthefurther-
anceofagoodcause,itisalsoindispensablethatthe
resultshouldbecompassedwiththesmallestfeasible
sacrificeofprinciple . Hopeswereaccordinglyenter-
tainedbytheItaliandelegatesthat,ontheirreturnto
Paris,atleastaformaldeclarationmightbemadethat
Italy'ssignaturewasindispensabletothevalidityofthe
Treaty. Buttheywerenot,perhapscouldnot,beful-
filledatthatconjuncture .
Advantagewastakeninotherwaysofthewithdrawal
ofItaly'srepresentativesfromtheConference. For
example,aclauseoftheTreatywithGermanydealing
withreparationswasalteredtoItaly'sdetriment . An-
otherwhichturneduponAustro-Germanrelationswas
likewisemodified . BeforethedelegatesleftforRome
ithadbeensettledthatGermanyshouldbeboundover
torespectAustria'sindependence . Thisobligationwas
eithersuperfluous,everystatebeingobligedtorespect
theindependenceofeveryother,orelseithadacryptic
meaningwhichwouldonlyrevealitselfintheapplication
oftheclause . AssoonastheConferencewasfreedfrom
thepresenceoftheItalianstheformulawasmodified,
andGermanywasplainlyforbiddentounitewithAustria,
eventhoughAustriashouldexpresslydesireamalgama-
tion
. Asthisenactmentrunsdirectlycountertothe
principleofself-determination,theItalianMinisterCrespi
301
THEINSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
raisedhisvoiceinenergeticprotestagainstthisandthe
financialchanges,'whereupontheTriumvirs,givingway
onthelatterpoint,consentedtorestoretheprimitive
textofthefinancialcondition . 2
Germanyisobligedto
supplyFrancewithsevenmilliontonsofcoaleveryyear
bywayofrestitutionfordamagedoneduringthewar
.
Atthepriceoffiftyfrancsaton,themoneyvalueofthis
tributewouldbethreehundredandfiftymillionfrancs,
ofwhichItalywouldbeentitledtoreceive
30
percent
.
ButduringtheabsenceoftheItalianrepresentativesa
supplementaryclausewasinsertedintheTreaty
3 con-
ferringaspecialprivilegeonFrancewhichrendersItaly's
claimoflittleornovalue . ItprovidesthatGermany
shalldeliverannuallytoFranceanamountofcoalequal
tothedifferencebetweenthepre-warproductionofthe
minesofPasdeCalaisandtheNord,destroyedbythe
enemy,andtheproductionoftheminesofthesame
areaduringeachofthecomingyears,themaximumlimit
tobetwentymilliontons
. Asthiscontributiontakes
precedenceof all
others,andasGermany,owingto
insufficiencyoftransportsandothercauses,
will probably
beunabletofurnishitentirely,Italy'sclaimisconsidered
practicallyvalueless
.
ThereceptionofthedelegatesinRomewasatriumph,
theirreturntoParisahumiliation
. Forthingshadbeen
movingfastinthemeanwhile,andtheirtrend,aswesaid,
wasawayfromItaly'sgoal
. - Publicopinion in
theirown
countrylikewisebegantoveerround,andpeopleasked
whethertheyhadadoptedtherighttactics,whether,in
fine,theyweretherightmentorepresenttheircountry
atthatcrisisofitshistory
. Therewasnogainsaying
thefactthatItalywascompletelyisolatedattheCon-
' OnMay6,igig,atVersailles .
2 Cf. CorrieredellsSera, Mayio,i9i9 .
aAnnexWoftheRevisedTreaty .
3O2
ITALY
ference
. Shehadsacrificedmuchandhadgarneredin
relativelylittle
. TheJugoslavshadofferedheran
alliance-althoughthiskindofpartnershiphadoriginally
beenforbiddenbytheWilsoniandiscipline ;theoffer
wasrejectedandshewasnowcertainoftheirlasting
enmity
. VenizeloshadalsomadeoverturestoBaron
Sonninoforanunderstanding,buttheyelicitedno
response,andItaly'srelationswithGreecelostwhatever
cordialitytheymighthavehad
. BetweenFranceand
Italythethreadsoffriendshipwhichcompanionship
in
armsshouldhavedonemuchtostrengthenwerestrained
tothepointofsnapping. Andworst,perhaps,ofall,the
Italiandelegateshadapprovedtheclauseforbidding
GermanytounitewithAustria .
Thatthefaultdidnotliewhollyintheattitudeof
theAlliesisobvious . TheItaliandelegates'lackof
method,onemightsayofunity,wasunquestionablya
contributorycauseoftheirfailuretomakeperceptible
headwayattheConference
. Acuriousandcharacter-
isticincidentoftheslipshodwayinwhichthework
wassometimesdoneoccurredinconnectionwiththe
disposalofthePalaceVenezia,inRome,whichhad
belongedtoAustria,butwasexpropriatedbyetheItalian
governmentsoonaftertheopeningofhostilities . The
heirsoftheHapsburgCrownputforwardaclaimto
proprietaryrightswhichwastraversedbytheItalian
government.
Asthedisputewastobelaidbefore
theConference,theRomanCabinetinviteda juris
consult
versedinthesematterstoargueItaly'scase .
Hedulyappeared,unfoldedhisclaimcongruouslywith
theviewsofhisgovernment,butsuddenlystopped
shortonobservingthelooksofastonishmentonthe
facesofthedelegates
. Itappearsthatonthepreced-
ingdayanotherdelegateoftheEconomicConference,
alsoanItalian,hadunfoldedanddefendedthecontrary
3 03
THEINSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
thesis-namely,thatAustria'sheirshadinheritedher
righttothePalaceofVenezia . '
Passingtomoremomentousmatters,onemayper-
tinentlyaskwhethertoomuchstresswasnotlaidbythe
firstItaliandelegationuponthenationalandsentimental
sidesofItaly'sinterests,andtoolittleontheothers
.
AmongtheGreatPowersItalyismostinneedofraw
materials . Sheisdestituteofcoal,iron,cotton,and
naphtha . MostofthemaretobehadinAsiaMinor
.
Theyareindispensableconditionsofmodernlifeand
progress
. Todemandafairshareofthemasguerdon
forhavingsavedEurope,andtoputinherclaimata
momentwhenEuropewasbeingreconstituted,couldnot
havebeenconstruedasimperialism . TheotherAllies
hadpossessedmostofthosenecessariesinabundancelong
beforethewar
. Theywereaddingtothemnowasthe
fruitsofavictorywhichItaly'ssacrificeshadmade
possible
. Why,then,shouldshebeleftunsatisfied?
Bitterlythoughthenationwasdisappointedbyfailure
tohaveitsterritorialclaimsallowed,itbecamestill
moredeeplygrievedwhenitcametorealizethatmuch
moreimportantadvantagesmighthavebeensecuredif
thesehadbeenplacedintheforefrontofthenation's
demands
. EmigrationgroundforItaly'ssurpluspopula-
tion,whichisrapidlyincreasing,coalandironforher
industriesmightperhapshavebeenobtainedifthe
ItalianplanofcampaignattheConferencehadbeen
rightlyconceivedandskilfullyexecuted
. Butthisrealis-
ticaspectofItaly'sinterestswasalmostwhollylostsight
ofduringthewagingoftheheatedandunfruitfulcontests
forthepossessionoftownandports,which,althoughsacred
symbolsofItalianism,couldnotaddanythingtothe
' ThisincidentwasrevealedbyEnricoFern,inhisremarkablespeech
intheItalianParliamentonJuly9,I9I9
. Cf.
L
stamp-, July IQ,
1919,
page 2.
3 0
4
ITALY
economicresourceswhichwillplaysuchapredominant
partinthefuturestruggleformaterialwell-beingamong
thenewandoldstates
. Therewasamarkedpropensity
amongItaly'sleadersathomeandinParistoconsider
eachoftheissuesthatconcernedtheircountryasthough
itstoodalone,insteadofenvisagingItaly'seconomic,
financial,andmilitarypositionafterthewarasanin-
divisibleproblemandprovingthatitbehoovedtheAllies
intheinterestsofaEuropeanpeacetosolveitsatisfac-
torily,andtoprovidecompensationinonedirectionfor
inevitablegapsintheother
. This,tomythinking,was
thefundamentalerroroftheItalianandAlliedstatesmen
forwhichEuropemayhavetosuffer . ThatItaly'spol-
icycannotinthenearfuturereturntothelineson
whichitraneversincetheestablishmentofhernational
unity,whateverheralliesmaydoorsay,willhardlybe
gainsaid . Interestsaredecisivefactorsofforeignpolicy,
andtheactionoftheGreatPowershasdetermined
Italy'sorientation .
Italyundoubtedlygainedagreatdealbythewar,into
whichsheenteredmainlyforthepurposeofachievingher
unityandsecuringstrongfrontiers
. Butshesignedthe
PeaceTreatyconvincedthatshehadnotsucceededin
eitherpurpose,andthatherallieswereanswerablefor
herfailure.
Itwascertainlypartoftheirpolicytobuild
upastrongstateonherfrontieroutofaracewhichshe
regardsasheradversaryandtogiveitcommandofsome
ofherstrategicpositions .
. Andtheovertbearingmanner
inwhichthispolicywassometimescarriedoutleftas
muchbitternessbehind as theobjectitaimedat
. Itis
allegedthattheItaliandelegatesweretreatedwithan
economyofconsiderationwhichborderedonsomething
muchworse,whiletheargumentsofficiallyinvokedto
non-suitthemappearedtotheminthelightofbitter
sarcasms .
PresidentWilson,theycomplained,ignored
305
THEINSIDE
STORYOFTHE PEACECONFERENCE
hisfar-resonantprincipleofself-determination
when
JapanpresentedherclaimforShantung,butrefusedto
swervefromitwhenItalyreliedonhertreatyrightsin
Dalmatia .
AndwhentheinhabitantsofFiumevotedfor
unionwiththemothercountry,thePresidentabandoned
thatprincipleandgavejudgmentforJugoslaviaonother
grounds .
Hewasright,butdisappointing,theyob-
served,whenhetoldhisfellow-citizensthathispresence
inEuropewasindispensableinordertointerprethiscon-
ceptions,fornootherrationalbeingcouldhaveconstrued
themthus
.
ThewithdrawaloftheItaliandelegateswasconstrued
asanactofinsubordination,andpunishedassuch
. The
MarquisdeVitideVarchehassincedisclosedthefact
thattheAlliedgovernmentsforthwithreducedthecredits
accordedtoItalyduringhostilities,whereuponhardships
anddistresswereaggravatedandthepeasantryovera
largeareaofthecountrysufferedintensely
. 1 ForItaly
ismoredependentonheralliesthanever,owingtothe
sacrificeswhichsheofferedupduringthewar,andshe
wasmadetofeelherdependencepainfully . Themilitary
assistancewhichtheyhadreceivedfromherwasfraught
withfinancialandeconomicconsequenceswhichhavenot
yetbeenrealizedbytheunfortunatepeoplewhomust
endurethem . Italyatthecloseofhostilitieswasbur-
denedwithaforeigndebtoftwentymilliardsoflire,an
internaldebtoffiftymillards,andapapercirculationfour
timesmorethanwhatitwasinpre-wardays
. 2 Raw
materialswereexhausted,trafficandproductionwere
stagnant,
navigationhadalmostceased,andtheex-
1 Cf. The Morning Post,July9,1918 .
2
OnJulyloththeItalianFinanceMinister,inhisfinancialstatement,an-
nouncedthatthetotalcostofthewartoItalywouldamounttoonehun-
dredmilliardlire. Headded,however,thathershareoftheGermanin-
demnitywouldwipeoutherforeigndebt,whileaprogressivetaxonall
butsmallfortuneswouldmeetherinternalobligations . Cf . Corrieredells
Sera,July li and 12, 1919.
3 06
ITALY
penditure ofthestatehadrisento ;elevenmilliardsa
year-
1
AccordingtothefigurespublishedbytheStatistical
SocietyofBerne,thegeneralriseinpricesattributedto
thewarhitItalymuchharderthananyofherallies . 2
Theconsequencesofthisandotherperturbationswere
sinisterandimmediate . Thenation,bereftofwhatit
hadbeentaughttoregardasitsright,humiliatedinthe
personsofitschiefs,subjectedtoforeignguidance,in-
sufficientlyclad,underfed,andwithnotangiblegrounds
forexpectingspeedyimprovement,wasseethingwith
discontent
.
Frequentstrikesmerelyaggravatedthegen-
eralsuffering,whichfinallyledtoriots,risings,andthe
sheddingofblood
. Theeconomic,political,andmoral
crisiswasunprecedented . ThemenwhodrewItalyinto
thewarwerehelduptopublicopprobriumbecausein
theimaginationofthepeoplethevictoryhadcostthem
moreandbroughttheminlessthanneutralitywould
havedone . OneoftheprincipaloratorsoftheOpposi-
tion,inatrenchantdiscourseintheItalianParliament,
said,"TheSalandra-SonninoCabinetledItalyintothe
warblindfolded . " 3
AfterthereturnoftheItaliandelegationtoParis'vari-
ousfreshcombinationsweredevisedforthepurposeof
grapplingwiththeAdriaticproblem . Onecommended
itselftotheItalians as apossiblebasisfordiscussion . In
principleitwasaccepted . Adeclarationtothiseffect
wasmadebySignorOrlandoandtakencognizanceofby
M. Clemenceau,whoundertooktolaythematterbefore
Mr. Wilson,thesolearbitratorinItalianaffairs . He
playedthepartofFatethroughout . Dayswentbyafter
1 Cf . Avanti,
Julyi9,1919
.
2
Showninpercentages,theriseinthecostoflivingwas : UnitedStates,
220 percent. ;England,
240
percent . ; Switzerland,
257
percent . ; France,
368percent . ;Italy,481percent.
a
EnricoFerri,onJuly9,1919 . Cf.
LaStampa, Julyio,1919 .
21
307
THE
INSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
thiswithoutbringinganytokenthattheTriumvirate
wasinterestedintheAdriatic
. AtlasttheItalianPremier
remindedhisFrenchcolleaguethatthelatestproposal
hadbeenacceptedinprinciple,andtheItalianplenipo-
tentiarieswereawaitingMr
. Wilson'spleasureinthe
matter . Accordingly,M
. Clemenceauundertooktobroach
themattertotheAmericanstatesmanwithoutdelay .
The reply, whichwaspromptlygiven,dismayedtheItal-
ians .
Itwasintheformofoneofthoseinterpretations
which,becomingassociatedwithMr
. Wilson'sname,
shookpublicconfidenceincertainofthestatesman-like
qualitieswithwhichhehadatfirstbeencredited
. The
constructionwhichhenowputuponthemodeofvoting
tobeappliedtoFiume,includingthiscity-inalargedis-
trictinhabitedbyamajorityofJugoslavs-impartedto
theproject
as theItalianshadunderstooditawhollynew
aspect .
Theyaccordinglydeclareditinacceptable . As
afterthatthereseemedtobenothingmorefortheItalian
PremiertodoinParis,heleft,wassoonafterwardde-
featedintheChamber,andresignedtogetherwithhis
Cabinet
. ThevoteoftheItalianParliament,whichap-
pearedtothecontinentalpressinthelightofaprotest
ofthenationagainsttheaimsandthemethodsofthe
Conference,closedforthetimebeingthechapterofItaly's
endeavortocompleteherunity,securestrongfrontiers,
andperpetuateherpoliticalpartnershipwithFranceand
herintimaterelationswiththeEntente
. Thenceforward
theEnglish-speakingstatesmightinfluenceherovertacts,
compelsubmissiontotheirbehests,andgenerallyexercise
asortofguardianshipoverher,becausetheyarethedis-
pensersofeconomicboons,buttheunionofhearts,the
mutualtrust,thecementsuppliedbycommonaimsare
lacking.
OneofthemosttellingargumentsemployedbyPresi-
dentWilsontodissuadevariousstatesfromclaiming
308
ITALY
strategicpositions,andinparticularItalyfrominsisting
ontheannexationofFiumeandthe'Dalmatiancoast,
wastheeffectiveprotectionwhichtheLeagueofNations
wouldconferonthem
. 'Strategicalconsiderationswould,
itwasurged,losealltheirvalueinthenewera,andterri-
torialguarantiesbecomemeaninglessandcumbersome
survivalsofadeadepoch
. Thatwastheprincipal
weaponwithwhichhehadstriventoparrythethrusts
ofM
. Clemenceauandthetouchstonebywhichhetested
thesincerityofallprofessionsoffaithinhischerished
projectofcompactingthenationsoftheworldinavast
leagueofpeace-loving,law-abidingcommunities . But
thefaithofFrance'sleadersdifferedlittlefromunbelief .
GuarantiesfirstandtheprotectionoftheLeagueafter-
wardwastheFrenchformula,aroundwhichmanyfierce
battlesroyalwerefought . IntheendMr
. Wilson,hav-
ingobtainedthewithdrawalofthedemandfortheRhine'
frontier,gavein,andtheCovenantwasreinforcedbya
compactwhichinthelastanalysisisamilitaryunder-
taking,aunilateralTripleAlliance,GreatBritainandthe
UnitedStatesundertakingtohastentoFrance'sassist-
anceshouldherterritorybewantonlyinvadedbyGer-
many
. Thecasethusprovidedforisextremelyimprob-
able
. TheexpansionofGermany,whentheauspicious
hourstrikes,willpresumablybeinauguratedonwholly
newlines,againstwhicharmies,eveniftheycanbemo-
bilizedintime,willbeoflittleavail
. Butifforcewere
resortedto,itisalmostcertaintobeusedinthedirection
wheretheresistanceisleast-againstFrance'sally,Po-
land
. This,however,isby ' theway . Thepointmade
1 AtalaterdatethePresidentreiteratedthegroundsofhisdecision
. In
hisColumbusspeech(September4,1919)heassertedthat"Italydesired
Fiumeforstrategicmilitaryreasons,whichtheLeagueofNations would
makeunnecessary
. (TheNewYork Herald (Parisedition),September6,
1919 . ) ButtheLeaguedidnotrenderstrategicprecautionsunnecessary
toFrance
.
3 09
THE INSIDESTORY
OFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
bytheItalianswasthattheLeagueofNationsbeingthus
admittedlypowerlesstodischargethefunctionswhich
alonecouldrenderstrategicfrontiersunnecessary,can
consequentlynolongerberelieduponasanadequate
protectionagainstthedangerswhichthepossessionof
thestrongholdssheclaimedontheAdriaticwouldeffec-
tivelydisplace . EithertheLeague,itwasargued,can,
asasserted,protectthecountrieswhichgiveupcommand-
ingpositionstopotentialenemies,oritcannot
. Inthe
formerhypothesisFrance'sinsistenceonamilitarycon-
ventionismischievousandimmoral-inthelatterItaly
standsinasmuchneedoftheprecautionsdevisedasher
neighbor. Butherspokesmenwerestillpliedwiththe
threadbareargumentsandbereftofthecountervailing
corrective . AndfaithintheefficacyoftheLeaguewas
sappedbytheverymenwhowereprofessedlyseekingto
spreadit .
ThepressofRome,Turin,andMilanpointedtothe
loyaltyoftheItalianpeople,broughtout,theysaid,in
sharpreliefbythediscontentwhichtheexclusivechar-
acterofthattriplemilitaryaccordengenderedamong
them . AskinsmenoftheFrenchitwasnaturalfor
Italianstoexpectthattheywouldbeinvitedtobecome
apartytothisleaguewithintheLeague . Asloyal allies
ofBritainandFrancetheyfeltdesirousofbeingadmitted
tothealliance . Buttheywereexcluded . Norwastheir
exasperationallayedbytheassuranceoftheirpressthat
thiswasnoalliance,butastateoftutelage . Analliance,
itwasexplained,isacompactbywhichtwoormore
partiesagreetorenderoneanothercertainservicesunder
givenconditions,whereastheconventioninquestionisa
one-sidedundertakingonthepartofBritainandthe
UnitedStatestoprotectFranceifwantonlyattacked,
becausesheisunableefficaciouslytoprotectherself .
Itisabenefaction, Butthiscasuistryfellupondeaf
310
ITALY
ears . Whatthepeoplefeltwasthedisesteem-theterm
invoguewasstronger-inwhichtheywereheldbythe
Allies,whomtheyhadsavedperhapsfromruin .
ByslowdegreesthesentimentsoftheItaliannation
underwentadisquietingchange. Allpartiesandclasses
unitedinstigmatizingthebehavioroftheAlliesinterms
whicheventheliteraryeminenceofthepoetd'Annunzio
couldnotinducethecensorstoletpass. "ThePeace
Treaty,"wroteItaly'smostinfluentialjournal,"and
itscorrelateforbodeforthenearfuturetheContinental
hegemonyofFrancecountersignedbytheAnglo-Ameri-
canalliance . "'Anotherwidelycirculatedandrespected
organdescribedthepolicyoftheEntenteasasolventof
thesocialfabric,constructiveinwords,corrosiveinacts,
"mischievousifevertherewasamischievouspolicy .
Forwhileraisinghopesandwhettingappetites,itdoes
nothingtosatisfythem ;onthecontrary,itdoesmuchto
disappointthem . Inwords-astruggleforliberty,for
nations,fortheequalityofpeoplesandclasses,forthe
well-beingofall ;inacts-thesuppressionofthemost
elementaryandconstitutionalliberty,theoverlordship
ofcertainnationsbasedonthehumiliationofothers,the
divisionofpeoplesintoexploitersandexploited-the
sharpeningofsocialdifferences-thedestructionofcollec-
tivewealth,anditsaccumulationinafewblood-stained
hands,universalmisery,andhunger. " 2
AlthoughitiswellunderstoodthatItaly'sdefeatatthe
ConferencewaslargelythehandiworkofPresidentWil-
son,theresentmentoftheItaliannationchoseforits
immediateobjectstherepresentativesofFranceand
Britain
. TheAmerican"associates"werestrangers,here
to-dayandgoneto-morrow,buttheAlliesremain,and
iftheirattitudetowardItaly,itwasargued,hadbeen
1 CorrieredellaSera,May 11, 1919.
2
LaStampa,July16,1919
.
311
THEINSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
different,iftheirloyaltyhadbeenreal,shewouldhave
faredproportionatelyaswellas they,whateverthe
Americanstatesmenmighthavesaidordone .
TheItalianpressbreathedfierywrathagainstits
Frenchally,whosooftenattheConferencehadmet
Italy'ssolicitationswiththeodiousword"impossible
. "
Evenmoderateorgansofpublicopiniongavefreevent
toestimatesofFrance'spolicyandanticipationsofits
consequenceswhichdisturbedtheequanimityofEuropean
statesmen . "Itisimpossible,"oneofthesejournals
wrote,"forFrancetobecometheabsolutedespotof
EuropewithoutItaly,muchlessagainstItaly
. What
transcendedthepowersofRichelieu,whowasalionand
foxcombined,andwasbeyondthereachofBonaparte,
whowasbothaneagleandaserpent,cannotbeachieved
by"Tiger"Clemenceauincircumstancessomuchless
favorablethanthoseofyore . We,itistrue,areisolated,
butthenFranceisnotpreciselyembarrassedbythechoice
offriends . "Thepeacewasdescribed as "Franco-Slav
dominationwithitsheadquartersinPrague,anda
branchofficeinAgram . " M. Clemenceauwasopenly
chargedwithstrivingafterthehegemonyoftheContinent
forhiscountrybyseparatingGermanyfromAustriaand
surroundingherwitharingofSlavstates-Poland,
Jugoslavia,Czechoslovakia,andperhapsthenon-Slav
kingdomofRumania . Allthesestateswouldbeinthe
leading-stringsoftheFrenchRepublic,andAustriawould
belinkedtoitinadifferentguise . Andinorderto
effectthisresuscitationoftheHapsburgstateunderthe
nameof"Danubianfederation,"Mr . Wilson,itwas
asserted,hadauthorizedadeliberateviolationofhisown
principleofself-determination,andrefusedtoAustriathe
rightofadoptingtheregimewhichshepreferred . It
was,intruth,anoddcompromise,thesecriticscon-
tinued,foranidealistofthePresident'scaliber,onwhose
3
1 2
ITALY
everypoliticalactionthescrutinizinggaze . oftheworld
wasfixed . Onecouldnotaccountforit as asacrifice
madeforahighethicalaim-oneofthoseendswhich,
accordingtotheoldmaxim,hallowsthemeans
. It
seemedanopenresponsetoasecretinstigationorimpulse
whichwasunconnectedwithanyrecognizedoravowable
principle. EventheSocialistorgansswelledthechorus
oftheaccusers . Avanti wrote,"WeareSocialists,yet
wehaveneverbelievedthattheAmericanPresidentwith
hisFourteenPointsenteredintothewarforthehighest
aimsofhumanityandfortherightsofpeoples,anymore
thanwebelieveatpresentthathisoppositiontothe
aspirationsoftheItalianstateontheAdriaticarein-
spiredbymotivesofidealism . " 1
Thefate of thedisputedterritoriesontheAdriaticwas
tobetheoutcomeofself-determination . Poland'sclaims
weretobelefttotheself-determinationoftheSilesian
andRuthenianpopulations . Rumaniawastoldthather
suitmustremaininabeyanceuntilitcouldbetestedby
thesameprinciple,whichwouldbeappliedintheform
ofaplebiscite . Forself-determinationwasthecorner-
stoneoftheLeagueofNations,theholiestboonforwhich
theprogressivepeoplesoftheworldhadbeenpouring
outtheirlife-bloodandsubstancefornearlyfiveyears.
ButwhenItalyinvokedself-determination,shewas
promptlynon-suited . WhenAustriaappealedtoitshe
wasputoutofcourt
. Andtocrownall,theworldwas
assuredthattheFourteenPointshadbeentriumphantly
upheld. Thisdepravationofprinciplesbythetriumph
ofthelittleprudencesofthehourspurredsomeofthe
moreimpulsivecriticstoascribeittoinfluencesless
respectablethanthosetowhichitmayfairlybeattributed .
ThedirectingPowerswerehypersensitivetotheoft-
repeatedchargeofmeddlingintheinternalaffairs
1 Avanti,April27,1919. Cf. LeTemps,April 28, 1919.
3 1 3
THEINSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
ofothernations
. Theywerenevertiredofprotesting
theirabhorrenceofanythingthatsmackedofinterference
.
Amongthenumerousfacts,however,whichtheycould
neitherdenynorreconcilewiththeirprofessions,thefol-
lowingwasbroughtforwardbytheItalians,whohada
specialinteresttodrawpublicattentiontoit
.
Ithadto
dowiththeabortiveattempttorestoretheHapsburg
monarchyinHungaryasthefirststeptowardthefor-
mationofaDanubianfederation .
"Itiscertain,"wrote
theprincipalItalianjournal,"thattheArchdukeJoseph's
coupd'etat
didnottakeplace,indeed(giventheconditions
inBudapest)couldnottakeplace,withouttheEntente's
connivance
. Theofficial communiques
ofBudapestand
Vienna,-datedAugust9th,recountonthispointprecise
detailswhichnoonehashithertotroubledtodeny
. The
Peidlgovernmentwasscarcelythreedaysinpower,and,
therefore,wasnotinapositiontodeserveeithertrustor
distrust,whentheheadsofthe'order-lovingorganiza-
tions'putforward,tojustifytheneedofanewcrisis,the
complaintsoftheheadsoftheEntenteMissionsastothe
anarchyprevailinginHungaryandtheurgencyoffinding
`someone'whocouldsavethecountryfromtheabyss
.
ThenacommissionrepairedtoAlscuth,whereiteasily
persuadedtheArchduketocometoBudapest
.
Herehe
atoncevisitedalltheheadsofmissionsandspentthe
wholedayinnegotiations .
`Asaresultofnegotiations
withEntenterepresentatives,theArchdukeJosephundertook
asolutionofthecrisis . ' Hethencalledtogethertheold
statepoliceandavolunteerarmyofeightthousandmen
.
TheRumaniangarrisonwaskeptready . ThePeidlgov-
ernmentnaturallydidnotresistatall
. Atio P . M. on
August7thalltheEntenteMissionsheldameeting,
to
whichtheArchdukeJosephandthenewPremierwerein-
vited .
GeneralGortonpresided . TheConferencelasted
twohoursandreachedanagreementonallquestions
. All
3 1 4
ITALY
theheadsofMissionsassuredthenewgovernmentoftheir
warmestsupport. " 1
Anothercaseofunwarrantedinterferencewhichstirred
theItalianstobitterresentmentturnedupontheobliga-
tionimposedonAustriatorenounceherrighttounite
withGermany .
"Itisdifficulttodiscerninthepolicyof
theEntentetowardAustriaanythingmorerespectable
thanobstinacycoupledwithstupidity,"wrotethesame
journal .
"Butthereissomethingstillworse
. Itisim-
possiblenottofeelindignantwithacoalitionwhich,after
havingtriumphedinthenameoftheloftiestideas
. . .
treatsGerman-AustrianobetterthantheHolyAlliance
treatedthepettystatesofItaly
. ButtheCongressof
Viennaactedinharmonywiththeprincipleoflegitimism
whichitavowedandprofessed,whereastheParisConfer-
enceviolateswithoutscruplethecanonsbywhichit
claimstobeguided .
"Notawhitmoredecorousistheinterventionofthe
SupremeCouncilintheinternalaffairsofGermany-a
statewhich,accordingtothespiritandtheletterofthe
VersaillesTreaty,issovereignandnotaprotectorate
.
TheConferencewasqualifiedtodictatepeacetermsto
Germany,butitwandersbeyondtheboundsofitscom-
petencywhenitconstruesthosetermsandarrogatesto
itself-onthestrengthofforcedandequivocalinterpreta-
tions-therightofimposinguponanationwhichisneither
militarilynorjuridicallyanenemyaconstitutionalreform
.
WhetherGermanyviolatestheTreatybyherConstitution
isaquestionwhichonlyajudicialfindingoftheLeagueof
Nationscanfairlydetermine
. " 2'
Itwouldbeimpolitictooverlookandinsinceretobe-
littletheeffectsofthisincoherencyupontherelations
betweenFranceandItaly
. PublicopinioninthePenin-
'
CorrieredellaSera, August9,i9i9 .
2
CorrieredellaSera, September3,1919-
P5
THE
INSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
sulacharacterizedtheattitudeofFranceasdeliberately
hostile.
TheItaliansattheConferenceeagerlyscruti-
nizedeveryactandwordoftheirFrenchcolleagues,with
aviewtodiscoveringgroundsfordispellingthisview
.
Butthesearchisreportedtohavebeenworsethanvain
.
Itrevealeddatawhich,althoughsusceptibleofsatisfac-
toryexplanations,would,ifdisclosedatthatmoment,have
aggravatedthefeelingofbitternessagainstFrance,which
wasfastgathering .
SignorOrlandohadrecoursetothe
censortopreventindiscretions,buttheintuitionofthe
massestriumphedoverrepression,andtheexistingtense-
nessmergedintoresentment.
ThewayinwhichItalians
accountedforM
. Clemenceau'sattitudewasthis
. Al-
thoughItalyhasceasedtobetheimportantpolitical
factorsheoncewaswhentheTripleAlliancewasinbeing,
sheisstillastrongcontinentalPower,capableofplacing
amorenumerousarmyinthefieldthanherrepublican
sister,andherpopulationcontinuestoincreaseatahigh
rate .
Inafewyearsshewillhaveoutstrippedherrival
.
France,too,hasperhapslostthoseelementsofherpower
andprestigewhichshederivedfromheralliancewith
Russia . Again,theSlavex-ally,Russia,maybecomethe
enemyofto-morrow
. Inviewofthesecontingencies
FrancemustcreateasubstitutefortheRumanianand
Italianallies .
Andasthesehavebeenfoundinthenew
Slavstates,Poland,Czechoslovakia,andJugoslavia,she
canaffordtodispensewithmakingpainfulsacrificesto
keepItalyincountenance
.
Atrivialincidentwhichaffordsa glimpse
ofthespirit
prevailingbetweenthetwokindredpeoplesoccurred
atSt
. -Germain-en-Laye,wheretheAustriandelegates
werestaying.
TheyhadbeenmademuchofinVienna
bytheEnvoyoftheFrenchRepublicthere,M
. Allize,
whosemissionitwastohinderAustriafromuniting
withtheReich.
Italy'spolicywas,onthecontrary,to
316
ITALY
applyMr
. Wilson'sprincipleofself-determinationand
allowtheAustrianstodoastheypleasedinthatrespect
.
AferventadvocateoftheFrenchorthodoxdoctrine-a
publicist-repairedtotheAustrianheadquartersatSt
. -
Germainforthepurpose,itissupposed,ofdiscussing
thesubject .
Nowintercourseofanykindbetweenpri-
vateindividualsandtheenemydelegateswasstrictly
forbidden,andwhenM
. X
. presentedhimself,theItalian
officerondutyrefusedhimadmission
. Heinsisted .
Theofficerwasinexorable
. Thenheproducedawritten
permitsignedbytheSecretaryoftheConference,M
:
Dutasta
. Howandwhythisexceptionwasmadeinhis
favorwhentherulewassupposedtoadmitofnoexcep-
tionswasnotdisclosed
. ButtheItalianofficer,equal
totheoccasion,tookthegroundthatamilitaryprohibition
cannotbecanceledbyacivilian,andexcludedthe
would-bevisitor .
ThegeneraltrendofFrance'sEuropeanpolicywas
repugnanttoItaly
. Shelookedonitasawell-laid
schemetoassumeapredominantroleontheContinent
.
That,shebelieved,wastheultimatepurposeoftheveto
ontheunionofAustriaandGermany,ofthemilitary
arrangementswithBritainandtheUnitedStates,andof
muchelsethatwasobnoxioustoItaly
. Austriawasto
bereconstitutedaccordingtothefederativeplansofthe
lateArchdukeFranzFerdinand,tobemadestronger
thanbeforeasacounterpoisetoItaly,andtobeatthe
beckandcallofFrance
. Thusthefriend,ally,sisterof
yesterdaybecamethepotentialenemyofto-morrow
.
ThatwastherefrainofmostoftheItalianjournals,and
noneintoneditmoreferventlythanthosewhichhadbeen
foremostinbringingtheircountryintothewar
. One
ofthese,aConservativeorganofLombardy,wrote
: .
"Untilyesterday,wemighthaveconsideredthattwo
pathslayopenbeforeus,thatofanalliancewithFrance
3 1 7
THE INSIDE STORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
andthatofanindependentpolicy
. Butwecanthink
sonolonger. Toofferourfriendshipto-daytothepeo-
plewhohavealreadychosentheirownroadandestab-
lishedtheirsolidaritywithourenemiesofyesterdayand
to-morrowwouldnotbetostrikeoutapolicy,butto
decideonanunseemlysurrender
. Itwouldbetanta-
mounttoreproducinginanaggravatedformthesituation
weoccupiedinthealliancewithGermany . Onceagain
weshouldbeengagedinapartnershipofwhichoneofthe
partnerswasinrealityourenemy . Francetakingthe
placeofGermany,andJugoslaviathatofAustria,the
situationoftheoldTripleAlliancewouldbenotmerely
reproduced,butmadeworseinthereproduction,because
the,Triplice atleastguaranteedusagainstaconflictwhich
wehadgroundsforapprehending,whereasthenewalliance
wouldtieourhandsforthesakeofalittleBalkanstate
which,single-handed,wearewellabletokeepinitsplace .
"Wehavehadenoughofapolicywhichhashitherto
saddleduswith all theburdensofthealliancewithout
bestowingonusanyadvantage-whichhasconstrained
ustofavor all thepeopleswhoseexpansiondovetailed
withFrenchschemesandtocombatorneglectthose
otherswhoseconsolidationcorrespondedtoourinterests
-whichhasledustosupportagreatPolandandagreat
BohemiaandtocombattheUkraine,Hungary,Bulgaria,
Rumania,Spain,towhosedestiniestheFrench,butnot
we,wereindifferent . " 1 ApressorganofBolognade-
nouncedtheatrociousandignominioussacrifice"which
heralliesimposedonItalybymeansofeconomicblack-
mailingandviolencewithawhipinonehandanda
chunkofbreadintheother . " 2
Sharpcommentswereprovokedbytheheavytaxon
strangersinTunisiaimposedbytheFrenchgovernment, 3
1 QuotedinLaStampaof July 20, 1919.
2
Ibidem .
aCorriered'Italia, June29,1919 .
318
ITALY
onstrangers,mostlyItalians,whotheretoforehadenjoyed
thesamerightsastheFrenchandTunisians . "Sud-
denly,"writestheprincipalItalianjournal,"andjust
whenitwashopedthatthecommonsacrificestheyhad
madehadstrengthenedthetiesbetweenthetwonations,
thegovernorofTunisiaissuedcertainorderswhich
endangeredtheinterestsofforeignersandtheeffectsof
whichwillbefeltmainlybyItalians,ofwhomthereare
onehundredandtwentythousandinTunisia
. 'First
therecameanorderforbiddingtheuseofanylanguage
butFrenchintheschools .
Nowthetaxreferredtoin
theHouseofLordsgivestheTunisiangovernmentpower
tolevyanimpostonthebuyingandsellingofproperty
inTunisia
. Thenewtax,whichistobeleviedoverand
abovepre-existingtaxes,rangedfrom59percent . ofthe
valuewhenitisnotassessedatahighersumthanone
hundredthousandlireto8opercent . whenitsestimated
valueismorethanfivehundredthousandlire . "The
articleterminateswiththeremarkthatboycottingis
hardlyasuitableepiloguetoawarwagedforcommon
idealsandinterests .
ThesemanifestationsirritatedtheFrenchandwere
takentoindicateItaly'sdefection . Itwastonopurpose
thatafewlevel-headedmenpointedoutthattheFrench
governmentwaslargelyanswerableforthestateofmind
complainedof
. "Pertinax,"inthe EchodeParis, wrote
"thatthealliance,inordertosubsistandflourish,should
haveretaineditscharacterasanAnti-GermanLeague,
whereasitfellintotheerrorofmaskingitselfasaSociety
ofNationsandarrogatedtoitselftherightofbringing
beforeitstribunalallthequarrelsoftheplanet . " 2 Italy's
alliesundoubtedlydidmuchtoforfeithersympathies
andturnherfromthealliance . Itwaspointedoutthat
1 Cf
. ModernItaly,July 12, 1919(page298) .
'
EchodeParis,July7,1919 .
319
THE INSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
whentheFrenchtroopsarrivedinItalytheBulletinof
theItaliancommandeulogizedtheireffortsalmostdaily,
butwhentheItaliantroopswenttoFrance,the com-
muniques oftheFrenchcommandweremostcharyof
allusionstotheirexploits,yettheItalianarmycon-
tributedmoredeadtotheFrenchfrontthandidthe
FrencharmytotheItalianfront . 'AtthePeaceCon-
ference,aswesaw,whenthetermswithGermanywere
beingdrafted,Italy'sproblemsweresetasideonthe
groundsthattherewasnonexusbetweenthem
. The
Allies'interests,whichweredealtwithasawholeduring
thewar,weredividedafterthearmisticeintoessential
andsecondaryinterests,andthoseofItalywererelegated
tothelatterclass . SubsequentlyFrance,Britain,and
theUnitedStates,withouttheco-operationorfore-
knowledgeoftheirItalianfriends,struckupanalliance
fromwhichtheyexcludedItaly,therebyvitiatingthe
onlyargumentsthatcouldbeinvokedinfavorofsucha
coalition . Whenpeacewasabouttobesignedtheyone-
sidedlyrevokedthetreatywhichtheyhadconcludedin
London,renderingtheconsentofallAlliesnecessaryto
thevalidityofthedocument,anddecreedthatItaly's
abstentionwouldmakenodifference. Whentheinstru-
mentwasfinallysigned,Mr . Wilsonreturnedtothe
UnitedStates,Mr . LloydGeorgetoEngland,andthe
MarquisofSaionjitoJapan,withouthavingsettledany
ofItaly'sproblems . Italy,herneeds,herclaims,andher
policythusappearasmattersoflittleaccounttothe
GreatPowers . Naturally,theItalianpeopleweredis-
appointed,anddesirousofseekingnewfriends,theold
oneshavingforsakenthem .
Itwouldbedifficulttoexaggeratetheconsequences
whichthisattitudeoftheAlliestowardItalymayhave
on Europeanpoliticsgenerally . Hermosteminent
1 Cf . "AnItalianExpos€ ,"publishedby TheMorningPost,
July 5,i9i9 .
320
ITALY
statesman,SignorTittoni,whosucceededBaronSonnino,
transcendinghiscountry'smortifications,exertedhim-
selftactfullyandnotunsuccessfullytolubricatethe
mechanismofthealliance,toeasethedangerousfriction
andtorestorethetone
. Andheseemstohaveaccom-
plishedintheserespectseverythingwhichasagacious
statesmancoulddo . Buttoarresttheoperationof
psychologicallawsisbeyondthepowerofanyindividual .
InordertoappreciatetheItalianpointofview,itisno-
wisenecessarytoapprovetheexaggeratedclaimsput
forwardbyherpressinthespringofigig . Itisenough
toadmitthatinthelightoftheWilsoniandoctrinethey
werenotmoreincompatiblewiththatdoctrinethanthe
claimsmadebyotherPowersandaccordedbythe
SupremeCouncil .
Tosumup,Italyacquiredtheimpressionthatassocia-
tionwithherrecentalliesmeansforhernotonlysacrifices
intheirhourofneed,butalsofurthersacrificesintheir
houroftriumph . Shebecamereluctantlyconvinced
thattheyregardinterestswhichshedeemsvitaltoherself
asunconnectedwiththeirown . Andthatwasunfortu-
nate . Ifatsomefatefulconjunctureinthefutureher
alliesontheirpartshouldgathertheimpressionthat
shehasadjustedherpolicytothoseinterestswhichareso
farremovedfromtheirs,theywillhavethemselvesto
blame .
IX
JAPAN
MONGthesolutionsoftheburningquestionswhich
, exercisedtheingenuityandtestedthegoodfaithof
theleadingPowersatthePeaceConference,nonewas
morerapidlyreachedthere,ormorebitterlyassailedout-
side,thanthoseinwhichJapanwasspeciallyinterested .
ThestormthatbegantorageassoonastheSupreme
Council'sdecisionontheShantungissuebecameknown
didnotsoonsubside . Farfromthat,itthreatenedfor
atimetoswellintoaveritablehurricane
. Thisproblem,
likemostofthosewhichweresubmittedtotheforumof
theConference,maybeenvisagedfromeitheroftwo
oppositeanglesofsurvey ;fromthatofthefuturesociety
ofjustice-lovingnations,whosemembersaretoforswear
territorialaggrandizement,specialeconomicprivileges,
andpoliticalswayin,orattheexpenseof,othercountries ;
orfromthetraditionalpointofview,whichhasalways
prevailedininternationalpoliticsandwhichcannotbe
betterdescribedthanbySignorSalandra'swell-known
phrase"sacredegotism
. " Viewedintheformerlight,
Japan'sdemandforShantungwasundoubtedlyasmuch
astridebackwardaswerethoseoftheUnitedStatesand
FrancefortheMoiaroeDoctrineandtheSaarValleyre-
spectively.
ButasthethreeGreatPowershadsetthe
example,Japanwasresolvedfromtheoutsettorebel
againstanydecreerelegatinghertothesecond-orthird-
classnations.
Thepositionofequalityoccupiedbyher
3 22
JAPAN
government among the governments of other Great
PowersdidnotextendtotheJapanesenationamongthe
othernations
. Butherstatesmenrefusedtoadmitthis
artificialinferiorityasareasonfordescendinganother
stepintheinternationalhierarchyandtheyinvokedthe
principleofwhichBritain,France,andAmericahad
alreadytakenadvantage .
TheSupremeCouncil,likeJanusofold,possessedtwo
faces,onealtruisticandtheotheregotistic,and,alsolike
thatsonofApollo,heldakeyinitsrighthandandarod
initsleft . Itappliedtothevariousstates,accordingto
itsowninterestorconvenience,theprinciplesoftheold
orthenewCovenant,andwouldfainhavedispossessed
Japanofthefruitsofthecampaign,andallottedtoher
theroleofworkingwithoutrewardinthevineyardof
themillennium,wereitnotthatthispolicywasexcluded
byreasonsofpresentexpediencyandpreviouscommit-
ments . TheexpediencywasrepresentedbyPresident
Wilson'sdeterminationtoobtain,beforereturningto
Washington,somekindofacompactthatmightbede-
scribedastheconstitutionofthefuturesocietyofnations,
andbyhisbeliefthatthisinstrumentcouldnotbeob-
tainedwithoutJapan'sadherence,whichwasdependent
onherdemandforShantungbeingallowed . Andthepre-
viouscommitmentswerethesecretcompactsconcluded
byJapanwithBritain,France,Russia,andItalybefore
theUnitedStatesenteredthewar.
Nippon'sroleinthewarandthecircumstancesthat
shapeditarescarcelyrealizedbythegeneralpublic
. They
havebeenpurposelythrustinthebackground
. Andyet
aknowledgeofthemisessentialtothosewhowishto
understandthesignificanceofthedisputeaboutShan-
tung,whichatbottomwastheproblemofJapan'sinter-
nationalstatus . Beforeattemptingtoanalyzethem,
however,itmaynotbeamisstoremarkthatduringthe
22
323
THE INSIDE STORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
Frenchpresscampaignconductedintheyears1915-16,
withtheobjectofdeterminingtheTokioCabinettotake
partinthemilitaryoperationsinEurope,thequestion
ofmotivewasdiscussedwithadegreeoftactlessnesswhich
itisdifficulttoaccountfor . Itwasaffirmed,forexam-
ple,thattheMikado'speoplewouldbeoverjoyedifthe
Alliedgovernmentsvouchsafedthemthehonorofpar-
ticipatinginthegreatcivilizingcrusadeagainsttheCen-
tralEmpires . Thatwasproclaimedtobesuchanenvi-
ableprivilegethattopayforitnosacrificeofmenor
moneywouldbeexorbitant . Again,thedegreetowhich
GermanyisamenacetoJapanwasanotherofthetexts
onwhichEntentepublicistsreliedtoscareNipponinto
drasticaction, as thoughsheneededtobetoldbyEuro-
peanswherehervitalinterestslay,fromwhatquarters
theywerejeopardized,andhowtheymightbesafe-
guardedmostsuccessfully :Somuchforthequestionof
tactandform. Japanhasneveracceptedthedoctrine
ofaltruisminpoliticswhichherWesternallieshaveso
zealouslypreached . Untilmeanshavebeendevisedand
adoptedforsubstitutingmoralformilitaryforceinthe
relationsofstatewithstate,theonlyreconstructionof
theworldinwhichtheJapanesecanbelieveisthatwhich
isbasedupontreatiesandthepledgedword . Thatis
theprinciplewhichunderliesthegeneralpolicyandthe
presentstrivingsofourFarEasternally .
OneofthecharacteristictraitsofallNippon'sdealings
withherneighborsisloyaltyandtrustworthiness . Her
intercoursewithRussiabeforeandaftertheManchurian
campaignoffersashiningexampleofallthequalities
whichonewouldpostulateinatrue-heartedneighbor
andastanchandchivalrousally . Ihadanopportunity
ofwatchingthedevelopmentoftherelationsbetweenthe
twogovernmentsformanyyearsbeforetheyquarreled,
andsubsequentlydownto1914,andIcanstatethatthe
3 24
JAPAN
praiselavishedbytheTsar'sMinistersontheirJapanese
colleagueswaswelldeserved. Andforthatreasonit
maybetakenasanaxiomthatwhateverdevelopments
thepresentsituationmaybringforth,theEmpireofNip-
ponwillcarryout 0 itsengagementswithscrupulous
exactitude,inthespiritaswellastheletter .
Tobequitefrank,then,theJapanesearewhatweshould
termrealists . Consequentlytheirforeignpolicyisin-
spiredbythemaximswhichactuatedallnationsdown
totheyear1914,andstillmovenearlyallofthemto-day .
Infact,theonlyPowersthathavefullyandauthorita-
tivelyrepudiatedthemasyetareBolshevistRussia,and
toalargeextenttheUnitedStates. Holdingthustothe
olddispensation,Japanenteredthewarinresponsetoa
definitedemandmadebytheBritishgovernment . The
daybeforeBritaindeclaredwaragainstGermanythe
BritishAmbassadoratTokioofficiallyinquiredwhether
hisgovernmentcouldcountupontheactiveco-operation
oftheMikado'sforcesinthecampaignabouttobegin .
OnAugust4thBaronKato,havinginthemeanwhile
consultedhiscolleagues,answeredintheaffirmative .
ThreedayslateranothercommunicationreachedTokio
fromLondon,requestingthe immediate co-operationof
Japan,andonthefollowingdayitwaspromised . The
motiveforthishastewascrediblyassertedtobeBritain's
apprehensionlestGermanyshouldtransferKiaochowto
China,andreservetoherself,invirtueofArticleVof
theConventionof1888,therightofsecuringafterthe
war"amoresuitableterritory"intheMiddleEmpire
orRepublic . Thereupontheybeganoperationswhich
wereatfirstrestrictedtotheChinaseas,butwere
afterwardextendedtothePacificandIndianOceans,
andfinallytotheMediterranean
. Theonlytaskthat
felltotheirlotonlandwasthatofcapturingKiaochow .
Butwhatevertheysettheirhandstotheycarriedout
325
THE INSIDE
STORY OFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
thoroughly,andtothecompletesatisfactionoftheir
Europeanallies .
FormanyyearsthepeopleofNipponhavebeenwend-
ingslowly,butwithtirelessperseveranceandunerring
instinct,towardtheirfar-offgoal,whichtotheunbiased
historianwillseemnotmerelylegitimatebutpraise-
worthy .
TheirintercoursewithRussiawasthestoryof
onelonglaboriousendeavortofoundacommonconcern
whichshouldenableJapantomakeheadwayonhermis-
sion
. Russiawasjustthekindofpartnerwhoseco-
operationwasespeciallywelcome,seeingthatitcould
behadwithoutthehitchesandset-backsattachedto
thatofmostotherGreatPowers
. TheRussianswere
neverreallyintolerantinracialmatters,nordangerous
incommercialrivalry . Theyintermarriedfreelywithall
theso-calledinferiorracesandtribesintheTsardom,and
putallonanequalfootingbeforethelaw
. Twenty-three
yearsagoIpaidavisittomyfriendGeneralTomitch,
themilitarygovernorofKars,andIfoundmyselfsitting
athistablebesidethePrefectofthecity,whowasa
Mohammedan
. TheindividualRussianisgenerallyfree
fromracialprejudices
;hehasnosenseofthe"yellow
peril,"andnoobjectiontoreceivetheJapaneseasacom-
rade,acolleague,orason-in-law
.
AndtheadvancesmadebyItoandotherswouldhave
beenreciprocatedbyWitteandLamsdorffwereitnot
thattheTsar,interestedinBezobrazoff'sYaluventure,
subordinatedhispolicytothosevestedinterests,andcom-
pelledJapantofight
. Themaster-ideaofthepolicyof
Ito,withwhomIhadtwointerestingconversationson
thesubject,wastostrikeupaclosefriendshipwiththe
Tsardom,basedoncommunityofdurableinterests,and
tobespeakRussia'shelpforthehourofstormandstress
whichonedaymightstrike
. TheTsar'sgovernmentwas
inspiredbyanalogousmotives
. Beforethewarwaster-
326
JAPAN
minated I repairedtoLondononbehalfofRussia,in
ordertoproposetotheJapanesegovernment,inaddition
tothetreatyofpeacewhichwasabouttobediscussedat
Portsmouth,anoffensiveanddefensivealliance,andto
askthatPrinceItobesentasfirstplenipotentiary,in-
vestedwithfullpowerstoconcludesuchatreaty .
M
. Izvolsky'spolicytowardJapan,frankandstates-
manlike,hadanoffensiveandadefensivealliancefor
itsintendedculmination,andthetreatiesandconven-
tionswhichheactuallyconcludedwithViscountMotono,
indraftingwhichIplayedamodestpart,amounted
almosttothis . TheTsar'soppositiontotheconcessions
whichrepresentedRussia'sshareofthecompromise
wasatremendousobstacle,whichonlythethreatofthe
Minister'sresignationfinallyovercame . AndIzvolsky's
energyandinsistencehastenedtheconclusionofatreaty
betweenthemtomaintainandrespectthe statusquo
in
Manchuria,and,incaseitwasmenaced,toconcert
witheachotherthemeasurestheymightdeemnecessary
forthemaintenanceofthe statusquo . Anditwasno
longerstipulated,asithadbeenbefore,thatthesemeas-
uresmusthaveapacificcharacter . Theywerepre-
paredtogofarther . AndImaynowrevealthefact
thatthetreatyhadasecretclause,providingforthe
actionwhichRussiaafterwardtookinMongolia .
Thesetransactionsonemighttermthefirstactofthe
internationaldramawhichisstillproceeding . They
indicate,iftheydidnotshape,themoldinwhichthe
bronzeofJapan'spoliticalprogramwascast . Itneces-
sarilydifferedfromotherpolitics,althoughthemaxims
underlyingitwerethesame
. Japan,havingbecomea
GreatPowerafterherwarwithChina,wasslowlydevelop-
ingintoaworldPower,andhopedtoestablishherclaim
tothatpositiononeday. Itwasagainstthatdaythat
shewouldfainhaveacquiredapuissantandtrustworthy
3 2 7
THEINSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
ally,andsheleftnothingundonetodeservethewhole-
heartedsupportofRussia . Inthehistoricyearof1914,
manymonthsbeforethestorm-cloudbroke,theWar
MinisterSukhomlinofftransferrednearlyallthegarrisons
fromSiberiatoEurope,becausehehadhadassurances
fromJapanwhichwarrantedhiminthusdenudingthe
easternborderoftroops
.
Duringthecampaign,when
theRussianoffensivebrokedownandthearmiesofthe
enemyweredrivingtheTsar'stroopslikesheepbefore
them,Japanhastenedtotheassistanceofherneighbor,
towhomshethrewopenhermilitaryarsenals,andmany
privateestablishmentsaswell . AndwhenthePetrograd
Cabinetwasnolongerabletomeetthefinancialliabilities
incurred,theMikado'sadvisersdevisedagenerous
arrangementonlineswhichbroughtbothcountriesinto
stillcloserandmorefriendlyrelations .
ThemostinfluentialdailypressorganintheTsardom,
the Novoye Vremya, wrote :"ThewarwithGermany
hassuppliedourAsiatic'neighborwithanopportunity
ofprovingthesincerityofherfriendlyassurances . She
behavesnotmerelylikeagoodfriend,butlikeastanch
militaryally . . . . Intheinterestsofthefuturetranquil
developmentofJapanamoreactiveparticipationofthe
Japaneseisrequisiteinthewarofthenationsagainst
theworld-beastofprey . AnalliancewithRussiafor
theattainmentofthisobjectwouldbeanactofimmense
historicsignificance . " 1
Eversinceherentryintothecommunityofprogressive
nations,Japan'smainaspirationandstrivinghasbeento
playaleadingandacivilizingpartintheFarEast,and
inespecialtodetermineChinabyadviceandorganization
tomoveintolinewithherself,adoptWesternmethods
andapplythemtoFar-Easternaims . Andthismight
wellseemalegitimateaswellasaprofitablepolicy,
iNovoyeVremya,June13-26,1913 .
328
JAPAN
andataskasnobleasmostorthosetowhichtheworld
iswonttopayatributeofhighpraise . Itappearedall
themorelicitthatthePowersofEurope,withtheexcep-
tionofRussia,haddeniedfullpoliticalrightstothe
coloredalien . Hewasplacedinacategoryapart-
aninferiorclassmemberofhumanity .
"InJapan,andasyetinJapanalone,dowefindthe
AsiaticwelcomingEuropeanculture,inwhich,ifatree
mayfairlybejudgedbyitsfruit,istobefoundthebest
prospectforthehumanpersonalliberty,induecombina-
tionwithrestraintsoflawsufficientto,butnotinexcess
of,therequirementsofthegeneralwelfare . Inthispartic-
ulardistinctivenessofcharacteristic,whichhasthusdif-
ferentiatedthereceptivityoftheJapanesefromthatof
thecontinentalAsiatic,wemayperhapsseetheinfluence
oftheinsularenvironmentthathaspermittedandfavored
theevolutionofastrongnationalpersonality
;andinthe
sameconditionwemaynoterrinfindingapromiseof
powertopreserveandtopropagate,byexampleandby
influence,amongthoseakintoher,thenewpolicywhich
shehasadopted,andbywhichshehasprofited,affording
tothemtheexamplewhichsheherselfhasfoundinthe
developmentofEasternpeoples . "1
NowthatisexactlywhattheJapaneseaimedataccom-
plishing
. Theyweredesirousofcontributingtotheintel-
lectualandmoraladvanceoftheChineseandotherback-
wardpeoplesoftheFarEast,inthesamewayasFrance
islaudablydesirousofaidingtheSyrians,orGreatBritain
thePersians . Andwhatismore,Japanundertookto
upholdtheprincipleoftheopendoor,andgenerallyto
respectthelegitimateinterestsofEuropeanpeoplesin
theFarEast.
Butthewhiteraceshadeconomicdesignsoftheirown
onChina,andoneofthepreliminaryconditionsoftheir
1Cf
. TheProblemofAsia(Capt. A. T. Mahan),pp. 150-151
.
329
THE
INSIDE
STORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
executionwasthatJapan'saspirationsshouldbefoiled .
Witteopenedthecampaignbyinauguratingtheprocess
ofpeacefulpenetration,buthisremarkableeffortswere
neutralizedanddefeatedbyhisownsovereign .
The
Japanese,aftertheManchuriancampaign,whichthey
haddoneeverythingpossibletoavoid,contrivedwholly
toeliminateRussianaggressionfromtheFarEast . The
featwasarduousandthemasterlywayinwhichitwas
tackledandachievedshedsalusteronJapanesestates-
manshipaspersonifiedbyViscountMotono . TheTsar-
dom,inlieuofapotentialenemy,wastransformedintoa
stanchandpowerfulfriendandally,onwhomNippon
could,asshebelieved,relyagainstfutureaggressors .
Russiacametostandtowardherinthesamepolitical
relationshipastowardFrance . Japanesestatesmentook
thealliancewiththeTsardomasasolidanddurable
postulateoftheirforeignpolicy
AllatoncetheTsardomfelltopieceslikeahouseof
cards,andthefragmentsthatemergedfromtheruins
possessedneitherthewillnorthepowertostandbytheir
FarEasternneighbors .
Thefruitsoftwelveyears'
statesmanshipandheavysacrificesweresweptaway
bytheRussianrevolution,andJapan'sdiplomaticpo-
sitionwasthereforeworsebeyondcomparethanthat
oftheFrenchRepublicinJuly,1917,becausethelatter
wasforthwithsustainedbyGreatBritainandtheUnited
States,withsuchabundanceofmilitaryandeconomic
resourcesasmadeupinthelongrunforthatofRussia .
Japan,ontheotherhand,hasasyetnosubstitutefor
herprostrateally . SheisstillaloneamongPowerssome
ofwhomdeclinetorecognizeherequality,whileothers
arereadytothwartherpolicyanddisableherforthe
comingrace .
TheJapanesearefirmbelieversinthelawofcausality .
Wheretheydesiretoreap,theretheyfirstsow
. They
330
JAPAN
invariablystrivetodealwithasituationwhilethereis
stilltimetomodifyit,andtheytakepainstorenderthe
meansadequatetotheend . Unlikethepeoplesof
westernEuropeandtheUnitedStates,theJapanese
showaprofoundrespectfortheprinciplesofauthority
andinequality,andreservethehigherfunctionsinthe
communityformenofthegreatestabilityandattain-
ments. Itisafact,however,thatindividualliberty
hasmadeperceptibleprogressinthepopulation,andis
stillgrowing,owingtotheincrease . ofeconomicwell-
beingandthespreadofgeneralandtechnicaleducation .
Butalthoughsocialismislikewisespreadingfast,Ifeel
inclinedtothinkthatinJapanahighgradeofinstruction
andofsocialdevelopmentonlatter-daylineswillbe
foundcompatiblewiththatextraordinarycohesiveness
towhichtheraceowesthepositionwhichitoccupies
amongthecommunitiesoftheworld . Thesoulofthe
individualJapanesemaybesaidtofloatinanatmosphere
ofcollectivity,which,whileleavinghisintellectintact,
swayshissentimentsandmodifieshischaracterbyren-
deringhimimpressibletomotivesofanorderwhichhas
thewealoftheraceforitsobject .
Japanhasborrowedwhatseemedtoherleadersto
bethebestofeverythinginforeigncountries . They
analyzedthemilitary,political,andindustrialsuccesses
oftheirfriendsandenemies,satisfactorilyexplainedand
dulyfructifiedthem . Theyusetheschoolastheseed-
plotofthestate,andinculcateconceptionstherewhichthe
entirecommunityendeavorslaterontoembodyinacts
andinstitutions. Andwhattheelementaryschoolhas
begun,theintermediate,thetechnical,and thehigh
schoolsdevelopandperfect,aidedbythepress,whichis
encouragedbythestate .
Japan'sidealcannotbeoffhandedlycondemned as
immoral,pernicious,orillegitimate .
Itspartizansper-
33=
THE INSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
tinentlyinvokeeveryprinciplewhichtheirAlliesapplied
totheirownaimsandstrivings . Andmenofdeeper
insightthanthosewhopresideoverthefortunesofthe
Ententeto-dayrecognizethatEuropeansofhigh . prin-
ciplesanddiscerningminds,whoperceivethecentral
issues,would,weretheyinthepositionoftheJapanese
statesmen,likewisebendtheirenergiestotheachievement
ofthesameaims .
TheJapanesearguetheircasesomewhatasfollows :
"WearedeterminedtohelpChinatoputherselfin
linewithourselves,andtokeepherfromfallinginto
anarchy. Andnoonecanhonestlydenyourqualifica-
tions . Weandtheyhaveverymuchincommon,and
weunderstandthemasnoAnglo-Saxonorotherforeign
peoplecan . Ontheonehandourownpastexperience
resemblesthatoftheMiddleKingdom,andonthe
otherourmethodofadaptingourselvestothenewinter-
nationalconditionschallengedandreceivedtheungrudg-
ingadmirationofaworlddisposedtobecritical
. The
PekingtreatiesofMay,1915,betweenChinaandJapan,
andthepristinedraftsofthemwhichweremodified
beforesignature,enabletheoutsidertoformafairly
accurateopinionofJapan'seconomicandpoliticalpro-
gram,whichamountstotheapplicationofaFarEastern
MonroeDoctrine .
"WhatweseektoobtainintheFarEastiswhatthe
WesternPowershavesecuredthroughouttheremainder
oftheglobe : therighttocontributetothemoraland
intellectualprogressofourbackwardneighbors,andto
profitbyourexertions . Chinaneedsthehelpwhichwe
areadmittedlyabletobestow . Toourmissionno
cogentobjectionhaseverbeenoffered
. NoCabinetin
TokiohaseverlookedupontheMiddleRealmasa
possiblecolonyfortheJapanese . Thenotionispre-
posterous,seeingthatChinaisalreadyover-populated .
33 2
JAPAN
WhatJapansorelyneedsaresourceswhencetodraw
coalandironforindustrialenterprise . Shealsoneeds
cottonandleather . "
Intruth,the-ever-readycommandoftheserawma-
terialsattheirsources,whichmustbeneitherremotenor
subjecttopotentialenemies,isindispensable
tothe
successofJapan'sdevelopment
.
Butforthemomentthe
English-speakingnationshave
a
vetouponthem,invirtue
ofpossession,andtheembargoputbytheUnitedStates
governmentupontheexportofsteelduringthewar
causedaprofoundemotioninNippon . Fortheship-
buildingworkstherehadincreasedinnumberfromnine
beforetheWartotwelvein 1917, andtotwenty-eightat
thebeginningof 1918, withonehundredslipscapable
ofproducingsixhundredthousandtonsofnetregister .
Theeffectofthatembargowastoshutdownbetween
7o and 8o percent. oftheshipbuildingworks of the
country,andtomenacewithextinctionanindustrywhich
wasbringinginimmenseprofits
.
ItwaswiththeseantecedentsandaimsthatJapan
appearedbeforetheConferenceinParisandasked,not
forsomethingwhichshelackedbefore,butmerelyfor
theconfirmationofwhatshealreadypossessedbytreaty .
Itmustbeadmittedthatshehaddamagedhercauseby
themannerinwhichthattreatyhadbeenobtained. To
saythatshehadintimidatedtheChinese,insteadof
coaxingthemorbargainingwiththem,wouldbea
truism. ThefallofTsingtaogaveherafavorableoppor-
tunity,andsheusedandmisuseditunjustifiably . The
demandsinthemselveswereopentodiscussionand,if
oneweighsallthecircumstances,wouldnotdeservea
classificationdifferentfromsomeofthose-theprotection
ofminoritiesorthetransitproviso,forexample-imposed
bythegreateronthelessernationsattheConference
.
Butthemodeinwhichtheywerepressedirritatedthe
333
THEINSIDE
STORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
susceptibleChineseandbeliedtheprofessions
made
bytheMikado'sMinisters.
Thesecrecy,too,withwhich
theTokioCabinetendeavoredtosurroundthemwar-
rantedtheworstconstruction.
YuanShiKai 1 regarded
theprocedureasadeadlyinsulttohimselfandhiscountry
.
AndthecircumstancethattheJapanesegovernment
failedeithertoforeseeortoavoidthisamazingpsycho-
logicalblunderlentcolortotheobjectionsofthosewho
questionedJapan'squalificationsforthemissionshehad
setherself
. ThewoundinflictedonChinabythatex-
hibitionofinsolencewillnotsoonheal .
Howitreacted
maybeinferredfromthestrenuousandwell-calculated
oppositionoftheChinesedelegationattheConference
Norwasthat all .
Inthesummerof1916afreefight
occurredbetweenChineseandJapanesesoldiersinCheng-
cha-tun,therightsandwrongsofwhichwere,
asis
usualinsuchcases,obscure. ButtheOkumaCabinet,
assumingthattheChineseweretoblame,pouncedupon
theincidentandmadeitthebaseoffreshdemandsto
China, 2
twoofwhichweremanifestlyexcessive .
That
Chinawouldbebetteroffthansheisorisotherwise
likelytobecomeunderJapaneseguidanceisinthehighest
degreeprobable .
Butinorderthatthatguidanceshould
beeffectiveitmustbeaccepted,andthiscanonlybethe
consequenceofsuchapolicyofcordiality,patience,and
magnanimityaswasoutlinedbymyfriend,thelate
ViscountMotono . 3
AttheConferencethepolicyoftheJapanesedelegates
wasclear-rutandcoherent . Itmaybesummarizedas
follows :theJapanesedelegationdecidedtogiveits
1
ThelatePresidentoftheChineseRepublic .
2
Thesedemandswere(i)anapologyfromtheChineseauthorities ; (2)
anindemnityforthekilledandwounded
;(3)thepolicingofcertaindis-
trictsofManchuriabytheJapanese
;and(4)theemploymentofJapanese
officerstotrainChinesetroopsinManchuria .
a
MinisterofForeignAffairs . Herepudiatedhispredecessor'spolicy
.
334
JAPAN
entiresupporttotheAlliesinallmattersconcerningthe
futurerelationsofGermanyandRussia,westernEurope,
theBalkans,theAfricancolonies,aswellasfinancial
indemnitiesandreparations . ThefateoftheSamoan
ArchipelagomustbedeterminedinaccordwithBritain
andtheUnitedStates . NewGuineashouldbeallottedto
Australia . AstheMarshall,Caroline,andLadrone
Islands,althoughofnointrinsicvalue,wouldconstitutea
dangerinGermany'shands,theyshouldbetakenoverby
Japan . TsingtaoandtheportofKiaochowshouldbelong
toJapan,aswellastheTainanrailway . Japanwould
co-operatewiththeAlliesinmaintainingorderinSiberia,
butnoPowershouldarrogatetoitselfapreponderant
voiceinthematterofobtainingconcessionsorother
intereststhere
. Lastly,theprincipleoftheopendoorwas
tobeupheldinChina,JapanbeingadmittedlythePower
whichisthemostinterestedintheestablishmentand
maintenanceofpeaceintheFarEast .
AttheConference,whentheKiaochowdisputecame
upfordiscussion,theJapaneseattitude,accordingtotheir
Anglo-SaxonandFrenchcolleagues,wascalmanddig-
nified,theirlanguagecourteous,theirargumentswereput
withstudiedmoderation,andtheirresolvetohavetheir
treatyrightsrecognizedwasinflexible
.
Theircasewas
simpleenough,andundertheoldorderingunanswerable
.
Theonlyquestionwaswhetheritwouldbeinvalidatedby
thenewdispensation . ButastheUnitedStateshad
obtainedrecognitionforitsMonroeDoctrine,Britain
forthesupremacyofthesea,andFrancefortheoccupa-
tionoftheSaarValleyandthesuspensionoftheright
ofself-determinationinthecaseofAustria,itwasobvious
thatJapanhadabundantandcogentargumentsforher
demands,whichwerethattheChineseterritoryonce
heldbyGermany,andsincewrestedfromthatPower
byJapan,beformallyretrocededtoJapan,whoseclaim
335
THE INSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
toitrestedupontherightofconquestandalsouponthe
faithoftreatieswhichshehadconcludedwithChina .
Atthesametimesheexpresslyandspontaneouslydis-
claimedtheintentionofkeepingthatterritoryforherself .
BaronMakinosaidatthePeaceTable :
"Theacquisitionofterritorybelongingtoonenation
whichitistheintentionofthecountryacquiringitto
exploittoitssoleadvantageisnotconducivetoamity
orgood-will . "Japan,althoughbythefortuneofwar
Germany'sheirtoKiaochow,didnotpurposeretainingit
fortheremainingtermofthelease ;shehad,infact,
alreadypromisedtorestoreittoChina . Shemaintained,
however,thattheconditionsofretrocessionshouldform
thesubjectofageneralsettlementbetweenTokioand
Peking.
s
TheChinesedelegation,whichworkedvigorouslyand
indefatigablyandwonoveraconsiderablenumberof
backers,arguedthatKiaochowhadceasedtobelongto
GermanyonthedaywhenChinadeclaredwaronthat
state,inasmuchasalltheirtreaties,includingthelease
ofKiaochow,wereabrogatedbythatdeclaration,and
theownershipofeveryroodofChineseterritoryheld
byGermanyrevertedinlawtoChina,andshouldthere-
forebehandedovertoher,andnottoJapan
. Tothis
pleaBaronMakinoreturnedtheanswerthatwiththe
urrenderofTsingtaotoJapanin1914 1 thewholeim-
perialGermanprotectoratesofShantunghadpassedto
thatPower,Chinabeingstillaneutral . Consequentlythe
entryofChinaintothewarin1917couldnotaffectthe
statusoftheprovincewhichalreadybelongedtoNippon
byrightofconquest
. Asamatterofallegedfact,this
captureoftheprotectoratesbytheJapanesehadbeen
speciallydesiredbytheBritishgovernment,inorderto
preventGermanyfromcedingittoChina . Ifthatmove
1 November8th .
336
JAPAN
meantanything,therefore,itmeantthatneitherChina
norGermanyhadorcouldhaveanyholdontheterritory
onceitwascapturedbyJapan . Further,thisconquest
waseffectedatthecostofvastsumsofmoneyandtwo
thousandJapaneselives.
Norwasthatall . Intheyear1915 1 Chinasignedan
agreementwithJapan,undertaking"torecognizeallmat-
tersthatmaybeagreeduponbetweentheJapanesegov-
ernmentandtheGermangovernmentrespectingthedis-
positionofalltherights,interests,andconcessionswhich,
invirtueoftreatiesorotherwise,Germanypossesses
vis-d-vis China,inrelationtotheprovinceofShantung . "
Thistreaty,theChinesedelegatesanswered,wasextorted
byforce . Japan,havingvainlysoughttoobtainitby
negotiationsthatlastednearlyfourmonths,finallypre-
sentedanultimatum, 2 givingChinaforty-eighthoursin
whichtoacceptit . Shehadnoalternative . Butatleast
shemadeitknowntotheworldthatshewasbeing
coerced . Itwasonthedayonwhichthatdocument
wassignedthattheJapaneserepresentativeinPeking
sentaspontaneousdeclarationtotheChineseMinisterof
ForeignAffairs,promisingtoreturntheleasedterritory
toChinaonconditionthatallKiaochowbeopenedasa
commercialport,thataJapanesesettlementbeestab-
lished,andalsoaninternationalsettlement,ifthePowers
desiredit,andthatanarrangementbemadebeforehand
betweentheChineseandJapanesegovernmentswith
regardto"thedisposalofGermanpublicestablishments
andpopulations,andwithregardtootherconditionsand
procedures . "
TheJapanesefurtherinvokedanotherandlateragree-
ment,whichwas,theyalleged,signedbytheChinese
withoutdemur. $
Thisaccord,comingaftertheentryof
'May25,1915.
z
OnMay6,igi5 .
aOnSeptember 24,1918 .
337
THE INSIDE
STORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
Chinaintothewar,wastantamounttotherenunciation
ofanyrightswhichChinamighthavebelievedshepos-
sessedasacorollaryofherbelligerency .
Italsodisposed,
theJapaneseargued,ofhercontentionthattheterritory
inquestionisindispensableandvitaltoher-acontention
whichJapanmetwiththepromisetodeliveritup-and
whichwasinvalidatedbyChina'srefusaltofightforit
intheyear 1914 .
Thislatterargumentwascontroverted
bytheChineseassertionthattheywerereadyandwilling
todeclarewaragainstGermanyattheoutset,butthat
theirco-operationwasrefusedbytheEntente,andsub-
sequentlybyJapan
. Thisallegationiscredible,ifwe
remembertheeagernessexhibitedbytheBritishgovern-
mentthatJapanshouldlosenotimeinco-operatingwith
herallies,therepresentationsmadebytheBritishAm-
bassadortoBaronKatoonthesubject,'andthealleged
motivetopreventtheretrocessionofShantungtoChina
bytheGermangovernment .
TheargumentsofChinaandJapanweresummarily
putinthefollowingquestionsbyadelegateofeachcoun-
try :
"Yesorno,doesKiaochow,whosepopulationis
exclusivelyChinese,formanintegralpartoftheChinese
state?Yesorno,wasKiaochowbrutallyoccupiedby
theKaiserintheteethofrightandjusticeandtothe
detrimentofthepeaceoftheFarEast,anditmaybeof
theworld?Yesorno,didJapanenterthewaragainst
theaggressiveimperialismoftheGermanEmpire,and
forthe
. purposeofarrangingalastingpeaceintheFar
East?Yesorno,wasKiaochowcapturedbytheEnglish
andJapanesetroopsin 1914
withthesoleobjectofde-
stroyingadangerousnavalbase?Yesorno,wasChina's
co-operationagainstGermany,whichwasadvocatedand
offeredbyPresidentYuanShiKaiinAugust,
1914,
re-
fusedattheinstigationofJapan? "
2
1 OnAugust7,1954.
2
Cf . LeMalin,April25,5919 .
338
JAPAN
TheJapanesecatechismranthus : "Yesorno,was
KiaochowaGermanpossessionin theyear
1914?
Yes
orno,wastheworld,includingtheUnitedStates,acon-
sentingpartytotheoccupationofthatprovincebythe
Germans?
WhydidChina,whoto-dayinsiststhatthat
portisindispensabletoher,cedeittoGermany? Why
in1914didshemakenoefforttorecoverit,butleavethis
tasktotheJapanesearmy? Further,whocanmaintain
thatjuridicallythelastwarabolished ipsofacto allthe
cessionsofterritorypreviouslyeffected? Turkeyfor-
merlycededCyprustoGreatBritain . Willitbeargued
thatthiscessionisabrogatedandthatCyprusmustre-
turntoTurkeydirectlyandunconditionally? TheCon-
ferenceannouncedrepeatedlythatittookitsstandon
justiceandthewelfareofthepeoples . Itisinthename
ofthewelfareofthepeoples,aswellasinthenameof
justice,thatweassertourrighttotakeoverKiaochow.
Theharvesttohimwhosehandssoweththeseed . " 1
Ifweaddtoalltheseconflictingdatathecircumstance
thatGreatBritain,France,andRussiahadundertaken 2
tosupportJapan'sdemandsattheConference,andthat
Italyhadpromisedtoraisenoobjection,weshallhavea
tolerablenotionofthevariousfactorsoftheChino-
Japanesedispute,andofitsbearingsonthePeaceTreaty
andontheprinciplesoftheCovenant .
Itwasoneofthe
manyillustrationsoftheincompatibilityoftheTreaty
andtheCovenant,therespectivescopesofwhichwere
1 LeMalin, April
23,1919-
2
"HisMajesty'sGovernmentaccedewithpleasuretotherequestsofthe
JapaneseGovernmentforassurancesthattheywillsupportJapan'sclaims
inregardtothedisposalofGermany'srightsinShantung,andpossessions
inislandsnorthoftheEquator,ontheoccasionofaPeaceConference,it
beingunderstoodthattheJapaneseGovernmentwill,intheeventofa
peacesettlement,treatinthesamespiritGreatBritain'sclaimstoGerman
islandssouthoftheEquator. "(Signed)ConynghamGreene,British
Ambassador, Tokio,February 16,1917 . Francegaveasimilarassurance
inwritingonMarch 1,1917, andtheRussiangovernmenthadmadealike
declarationonFebruary 20,1917 .
23
339
THEINSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
radicallyandirreconcilablydifferent . TheSupreme
Councilhadtoadjudicateuponthematterfromthe
pointofvieweitheroftheTreatyoroftheCovenant ;
aspartofavulgarbargainoftheold,unregeneratedays,
orasanexampleoftheself-renunciationofthenewethical
system . ThemajorityoftheCouncilwaspledgedtothe
formerwayofcontemplatingit,and,havingalreadypro-
mulgatedanumberofdecreesrunningcountertothe
Covenantdoctrineinfavoroftheirownpeoples,could
notlogicallynorpoliticallymakeanexceptiontothe
detrimentofJapan .
WhatactuallyhappenedatthePeaceTableisstilla
secret,andPresidentWilson,whoknowsitsnature,holds
thatitisinthebestinterestsofhumanitythatitshould
soremain ! Thelittlethathasasyetbeendisclosedcomes
mainlyfromState-SecretaryLansing'sanswerstothe
questionsputbytheSenateForeignRelationsCommit-
tee . America'sseconddelegate,inanswertotheques-
tionswithwhichhewasthereplied,affirmedthat"Presi-
dentWilsonaloneapprovedtheShantungdecision,that
theothermembersoftheAmericandelegationmadeno
protestagainstit,andthatPresidentWilsonaloneknows
whetherJapanhasguaranteedtoreturnShantungto
China. " 1 AnothereminentAmerican,whoclaimstohave
beenpresentwhenPresidentWilson'sactwasofficially
explainedtotheChinesedelegates,statesthatthePresi-
dent,disclosingtothemhismotives,pleadedthatpolitical
exigencies,themenacethatJapanwouldabandonthe
Conference,andtherumorthatEnglandherselfmight
withdraw,hadconstrainedhimtoaccept the Shantung
1 As a matteroffact,theentireworldknewandknowsthatshehadguar-
anteedtheretrocession . BaronMakino der1-red itattheConference .
Cf. The (London) Times, February 13, 1919 ;. alsoonMay5,1919 ;and
ViscountUchidaconfirmeditonMay17,1919 . Ithadalsobeenstated
intheJapaneseultimatumtoGermany,August15,1914,andrepeatedby
ViscountUchidaatthebeginningofAugust,1819 .
340
JAPAN
settlementinordertosavetheLeague . ' Rumorsappear
tohaveplayedanunduepartintheConference,influenc-
ingthejudgmentorthedecisionsoftheSupremeCouncil .
Thereaderwillrememberthatitwasarumortotheeffect
thattheItaliangovernmenthadalreadypublisheda
decreeannexingFiumethatisallegedtohaveprecipitated
thequarrelbetweenMr . WilsonandthefirstItaliandele-
gation . Itisworthnotingthattheallegedmenacethat
JapanwouldquittheConferenceifherdemandswere
rejectedwasnotregardedbySecretaryLansingasserious .
"CouldJapan'ssignaturetotheLeaguehavebeenob-
tainedwithouttheShantungdecision? " hewasasked .
"Ithinkso,"heanswered .
Thedecisioncausedtremendousexcitementamongthe
Chineseandtheirnumerousfriends . Atfirsttheypro-
fessedskepticismandmaintainedthattheremustbesome
misunderstanding,andfinallytheyprotestedandrefused
tosigntheTreaty . OneoftheAmericanjournalspub-
lishedinPariswrote :"Shantungwasatleastamoral
explosion .
Itblewdownthefrontofthetemple,andnow
everybodycanseethatbehindthefronttherewasavery
busymarket . Themoralswerethemoralsofahorse
trade. Ifthemuezzinwereloudandconstantinhiscalls
toprayer,itprobablywastodrownthesoundofthe
dickeringinthemarket . Thereisnolongeranyobliga-
tionuponthisnationtoaccepttheCovenantasamoral
document . Itisnot . " 2
Allthatmaybeperfectlytrue,butitsoundsoddthat
thediscoveryshouldnothavebeenmadeuntilJapan's
claimwasadmittedformallytotakeoverShantung,after
shehadsolemnlypromisedtorestoreittoChina . The
Covenantwascertainlytransgressedlongbeforethis,
1 Mr. Thomas Millard, someofwhoseletterswerepublishedby
TheNew
YorkTimes . Cf. LeTemps, July29,1919 .
2
TheChicago Tribune (Parisedition),August 20, 1919.
3 4 1
THE INSIDE STORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
andmuchmoreflagrantlythanbyPresidentWilson's
indorsementofJapan'sdemandfortheformalretroces-
sionofShantung. Butbythoseinfractionsnobody
seemedscandalized . Quod licetJovinonlicet bovi . Debts
ofgratitudehadtobepaidattheexpenseoftheCovenant,
andpeopleclosedtheireyesortheirlips . Itwasnot
untiltheJapaneseaskedforsomethingwhichallher
Europeanalliesconsideredtobeherrightthatanoutcry
wasraisedandmoralprincipleswereinvoked .
TheJapanesepresswasnowisejubilantoverthefinding
oftheSupremeCouncil . Thejournals . ofallparties
arguedthattheircountrywasreceivingnomorethanhad
alreadybeenguaranteedtoitbyChina,andratifiedby
theAlliesbeforethePeaceConferencemet,andtohave
obtainedwhatwasalreadyhersbyrightsofconquestand
oftreatieswasanythingbutatriumph . WhatJapan
desiredwastohaveherselfrecognizedpractically,not
merelyintheory,asthenationwhichisthemostnearly
interestedinChina,andthereforedeservingofaspecial
statusthere . Inotherwords,sheaimedattheproclama-
tionofsomethinginthenatureofaFarEasterndoctrine
analogoustothatofMonroe
. Aspriorityofinteresthad
beenconcededtoherbytheIshii-LansingAgreementwith
theUnitedStates,itwasinthissensethatherpress
wasfaintoconstruetheclauserespectingnon-inter-
ferencewith"regionalunderstandings . "
Thatpolicyisopen . Theprinciplesunderlyingit, al-
waystenable,werenevermoresothansincethePeace
ConferencesettheGreatPowerstodirectthelesser
states . Moreover,Japan,itisargued,knowsbyexpe-
riencethatChinahasalwaysbeenatemptationtothe
Westernpeoples. Theysentexpeditionstofightherand
dividedherterritoryintozonesofinfluence,although
Chinawasneverguiltyofanaggressiveattitudetoward
them,asshewastowardJapan . They
were
actuatedby
342
JAPAN
landgreedandallthatthatimplies,andifChinawere
abandonedtoherownresourcesto-morrowshewould
surelyfallapreytoherWesternprotectors . Inthiscon-
nectiontheypointtoanincidentwhichtookplaceduring
theConference,whenSignorTittonidemandedthat
ItalyshouldreceivetheAustrianconcessioninTientsin,
whichadjoinstheItalianconcession .
ButViscount
Chindaprotestedandthedemandwasruledout .
To
sumup,thebroadmaximunderlyingJapan'spolicyas
definedbyherownrepresentativesisthatintheresettle-
mentoftheworldtheprincipleadopted,whetherthe
oldorthenew,shallbeappliedfairlyandimpartially
atleasttoalltheGreatPowers .
Everyworldconflicthasmarkedthecloseofoneepoch
andtheopeningofanother
.
Intothemelting-poton
thefirekindledbythewarmanymomentousproblems
havebeenflung,anyoneofwhichwouldhavesufficed
tobringaboutanewpolitical,economic,andsocialcon-
stellation.
Japan'sadvancealongtheroadofprogress
isoneofthesefar-ranginginnovations .
Shebecamea
GreatPowerinthewarsagainstChinaandRussia,andis
qualifying forthepartofaWorldPowerto-day . And
herstatesmenaffirmthatinordertoachieveherpurpose
shewillrecoilfromnosacrificeexceptthoseofhonorand
oftruth .
ATTITUDE TOWARD
RUSSIA
I
NtheirdealingswithRussiatheprincipalplenipotenti-
ariesconsistentlydisplayedthequalitiesandemployed
thestandards,maxims,andmethodswhichhadstood
themingoodsteadasparliamentarypoliticians . The
bettermentoftheworldwasanideawhichtookaseparate
positionintheirminds,quiteapartfromtheotherpolitical
ideaswithwhichtheyusuallyoperated . Overflowing
withverbalaltruism,theyfirstmadesureofthepolitical
andeconomicinterestsoftheirowncountries,safeguard-
ingorextendingthesesourcesofpower,afterwhichthey
proceededtotrytheirnovelexperimentoncommunities
whichtheycouldcoerceintoobedience .
Hencethe
aversionandoppositionwhichtheyencounteredamong
allthenationswhichhadtosubmittotheyoke,andmore
especiallyamongtheRussians .
Russia'sopposition,widespreadanddeep-rooted, is
natural,andhistorywillprobablyaddthatitwasjustified
.
Itstartsfromtheassumption,whichthereisnogainsaying,
thattheConferencewasconvokedtomakepeacebetween
thebelligerentsandthatwhateverterritorialchanges
itmightintroducemustberestrictedtothecountries
ofthedefeatedpeoples . Fromall"disannexations"not
onlytheAllies'territories,butthoseofneutrals,wereto
beexempted. Repudiatethisprincipleandthedemands
ofIreland,Egypt,Indiatothebenefitsofself-determina-
tionbecameunanswerable . Belgium'sclaimtoDutch
344
ATTITUDE TOWARD RUSSIA
Limburg and
other territorial
oddments must likewise
be
allowed
.
Indeed, the plea actually
put forward
againstthesewasthattheConferencewasincompetent
totouchanyterritoryactuallypossessedbyeitherneu-
tralorAlliedstates . Ireland,Egypt,andDutchLimburg
werealldomesticmatterswithwhichtheConference
hadnoconcern .
DespitethisfundamentalprincipleRussia,thewhilom
Ally,withoutwhosesuperhumaneffortsandheroicsacri-
ficesherpartnerswouldhavebeenpulverized,wastacitly
relegatedtothecategoryofhostileanddefeatedpeoples,
andmanyofherprovincesloppedoffarbitrarilyand
withoutappeal . Noneofherrepresentativeswascon-
vokedorconsultedonthesubject,althoughallofthem,
Bolshevistandanti-Bolshevist,wereatoneintheirre-
sistancetoforeigndictation .
TheConferencerepeatedlydisclaimedanyintention
ofmeddlingintheinternalaffairsofanyotherstate,
andtheIrish,theEgyptian,andseveralotheranalogous
problemswereforthepurposesoftheConferenceincluded
inthiscategory . Onwhatintelligiblegrounds,then,
weretheFinnish,theLettish,theEsthonian,theGeorgian,
theUkrainianproblemsexcludedfromit?Onecannot
conceiveamoreflagrantviolationofthesovereigntyofa
statethantheseveranceanddisposalofitsterritorial
possessionsagainstitswill . Itisafranklyhostileact,
andassuchwasrightlylimitedbytheConferenceto
enemycountries . Why,then,wasitextendedtothe
ex-Ally?IsitnotclearthatifreconstitutedRussiashould
regardtheAlliedstatesasenemiesandchoosethepoten-
tialenemiesoftheseasitsfriends,itwillbelegitimately
applyingtheprincipleslaiddownbytheAlliesthemselves?
Noexpertininternationallawandnopersonofaverage
commonsensewillseriouslymaintainthatanyofthe
decisionsreachedinParisarebindingontheRussiaofthe
345
THE INSIDE STORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
future . Noproblemwhichconcernstwoequalparties
canberightfullydecidedbyonlyoneofthem
. The
Conferencewhichdeclareditselfincompetenttoimpose
onHollandthecessiontoBelgiumevenofasmallstrip
ofterritoryononeofthebanksoftheBelgianriver
Scheldtcannotbedeemedauthorizedtosignawayvast
provincesthatbelongedtoRussia . Herethepleaof
theself-determinationofpeoplespossessesjustasmuch
oraslittlecogencyasinthecaseofIrelandandEgypt .
PresidentWilsonandMr . LloydGeorgehadinaugu-
ratedtheirEastEuropeanpolicybypubliclyproclaiming
thatRussiawasthekeytotheworldsituation,andthat
thepeacewouldbenopeacesolongasherhundredand
fiftymillioninhabitantswereleftflounderinginchaotic
confusion,undertheupasshadeofBolshevism
. They
hadalsoheldouthopestotheirgreatex-allyofefficient
helpandpracticalcounsel . Andthereendedwhatmay
betermedtheconstructivesideoftheirconceptions .
Itwasfollowedbynocoherentaction . Discourses,
promises,maneuvers,andcounter-maneuverswerecon-
tinuousandbewildering,butofsystematicpolicythere
wasnone. Statesmanshipinthehighersenseoftheword
wasabsentfromeverydecisionthedelegatestookand
fromeverysuggestiontheyproffered . Norwasitonly
byomissionthattheysinned . Theirinvincibleturn
forcircuitousmethods,towhichseverercriticsgivea
lesssonorousname,wasmanifested adnauseam. They
workedoutcunninglittleschemeswhichitwashardto
distinguishfromintrigues,andwhich,iftheyhadnot
beenfoiledintime,wouldhavemademattersevenworse
thantheyare . FromtheoutsettheBritishgovernment
wasforsummoningBolshevistdelegatestotheConference .
AnotetothiseffectwassentbytheLondonForeign
OfficetotheAlliedgovernmentsaboutafortnightbefore
thedelegatesbegantheirworkofmakingpeace . But
346
ATTITUDE TOWARD RUSSIA
the
suggestion was withdrawn atthe instance of the
French,whodoubtedwhethertheservicesofsystematic
lawbreakerswouldmateriallyconducetotheestablish-
mentofanewsocietyoflaw-abidingstates . Soonafter-
wardanotherschemecroppedup,thistimefortheappoint-
mentofanInter-AlliedcommitteetowatchoverRussia's
destiniesandserveasasortofboardofProvidence .
Therepresentativesoftheanti-Bolshevistgovernments
resentedthisnotionbitterly
. Theyremarkedthatthey
couldnotbefairlyaskedtorespectdecisionsimposedon
themexactlyasthoughtheywerevanquishedenemies
liketheGermans
. TheBritishandAmericandelegates
wereswayedintheirviewsmainlybytheassumptions
thatallcentralRussiawasinthepowerofLenin ;that
hisarmywaswelldisciplinedandpowerful ;thathe
mightcontrivetoholdthereinsofgovernmentandmain-
tainanarchismindefinitely,andthattheso-calledcon-
structiveelementswereinclinedtowardreaction .
Inotherwords,thedelegatesacceptedtwosetsofprem-
ises,fromwhichtheydrewtwowhollydifferentsetsof
conclusions. Nowtheyfeltimpelledtoactontheone,
nowontheother,buttheycouldnevermakeuptheir
mindstocarryouteither
. TheyagreedthatBolshevism
isapotentsolventofsociety,fraughtwithperiltoall
organizedcommunities,yettheycouldnotresolvetouse
jointactiontoextirpateit . 'Theyrecognizedthatso
longasitlastedtherewasnohopeofestablishingacom-
munityofnations,buttheydiscardedmilitaryinterven-
tionongroundsoftheirowninternalpolicy,andbecause
itrancountertotheprincipleofself-determination . Over
againstthatprinciple,however,onehadtosetthecir-
cumstancethattheywerealreadyinteimeddlinginRus-
' "FromwhateveranglethisRussianbusinessisviewed,thepolicyofthe
Allies,ifitcanbedignifiedwiththatname,seemstobeacompoundof
weakness,ineptitude,andshilly-shally
. "-Cf . The Westminster Gazette,
July
5,1919-
347
THE INSIDE STORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
sianaffairsinArchangel,Murmansk,Odessa,andelse-
where,andthattheyendedbycreatinganewstateand
governmentinnorthwesternRussia,againstwhichKol-
chakandDenikinvehementlyprotested .
Inmitigationofjudgmentitisonlyfairtotakeinto
accountthetremendousdifficultiesthatfacedthem ;their
unfamiliaritywiththeRussianproblem ;thewantofa
touchstonebywhichtotesttheoverwhelmingmassof
conflictinginformationwhichpouredinuponthem ;their
constitutionallackofmoralcourage,andthecircum-
stancethattheywerestrivingtoreconcilecontradictories .
Withoutchartorcompasstheydriftedintostrangeand
sterilecourses,beginningwiththePrinkipoincidentand
endingwiththewrittenexaminationtowhichthey
naivelysubjectedKolchakinordertolegalizeinter-
nationalrelations,whichcouldnottrulybedescribedas
eitherwarorpeace . NeitherthecausesofBolshevism
initsmorbidmanifestationsnortheunformulatedideas
underlyingwhateverpositiveaspectitmaybesupposed
topossess,northeconditionsgoverningitsslowbutper-
ceptibleevolution,weresomuchasglancedat,muchless
studied,bythestatesmenwhoblithelysetaboutdealing
withitnowbymilitaryforce,nowbyeconomicpressure,
andfitfullybytentativeforbearanceandhintstoits
leadersofforthcomingrecognition .
Onecannotthusplayfastandloosewiththedestinies
ofacommunitycomposedofonehundredandfiftymillion
peoplewhosemembersarebutslacklylinkedtogetherby
afewtenuoussocialbonds,withoutforfeitingtherightto
offerthemrealguidance . Andablindmanisapoor
guidetothosewhocansee. AlonetheAmericanswere
equippedwithcarefullytabulatedstatisticsandhuge
massesoffactswhichtheypouredoutaslavishlyascoal-
heavershurlthecontentsoftheirsacksintothecellar .
Buttheyputthemtonopracticaluse . Losingthemselves
348
ATTITUDE TOWARD RUSSIA
inalabyrinthofdetails,theyfailedtogetacomprehen-
siveviewofthewhole.
Theotherdelegationslacked
bothdataandgeneralideas .
AndalltheAllieswere
destituteofapowerfularmyintheEast,andtherefore
ofthemeansofassertingtheauthoritywhichthey
assumed .
Theyoneandalldealtinvaguetheoriesanddeceptive
analogies,payinglittleheedtotheever-shiftingnecessi-
tiesoftime,place,andpeoples,andindeedtotheonly
conditionsunderwhichanynewmaximscouldbefruitfully
applied. Andevensuchrulesastheylaiddownwere
restrictedandmodifiedinaccordancewiththeirown
countrigs'interestsortheirunavowedaims,withoutspe-
cificwarrantorexplanation . Noaccountwastakenof
thehistoricalneedsoraspirationsofthepeopleforwhom
theywerelegislating,asthoughallnationswereofthe
sameage,capableofthesamedegreeofculture,andim-
pressibletoidenticalmotives . Itneverseemedtohave
crossedtheirmindsthatracesandpeoples,likeindivid-
uals,haveasoul,orthatwhatismeattoonemaybe
poisontoanother .
OneofthemostEntentophilandmoderatepressorgans
inFranceputthematterforciblyandplainlyasfollows :
"ThegovernmentsofWashingtonandofLondonare
awarethatweareimmutablyattachedtothealliance
withthem . Butweowethemthetruth. Fartoooften
theymakeabadchoiceoftheagentswhosebusinessit
istokeeptheminformed,andtheyaffecttoomuchdis-
dainforfriendlysuggestionswhichemanatefromany
othersource . Americanagents,inparticular,civilas
wellasmilitary,exploreEuropemuch as theirforebears
`prospected'theFarWest,andtheylookuponthemost
ancientnationsofEuropeasIroquois,Comanches,or
Aztecs. Theyareastoundedatnotfindingeverything
ontheoldContinentasinNewYorkorChicago,andthey
349
THE INSIDE STORY
OFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
settoworktoreformEuropeaccordingtotherulesin
forceinOklahomaorColorado
. Nowweventurere-
spectfullytopointouttothemthatmethodsdifferwith
countries. IntheUnitedStatestheColonistswerewont
toset firetotheforestsinordertoclearandfertilizethe
land .
CertainAmericanagentsrecommendtheemploy-
mentinEuropeofananalogousprocedureinpolitical
matters .
TheyrejoicetobeholdtheRussianandHun-
garianforestsburstintoflame
. InLenin,Trotzky,Bela
Kuhn,theyappreciateusefulpioneersofthenewciviliza-
tion . Wecravetheirpermissiontoviewthesethings
fromanotherside . InoldEuropeonecannotsetfireto
theforestswithoutatthesametimeburningvillagesand
cities. " 1
BeforeandduringthearmisticeIwasinalmostcon-
stanttouchwithallRussianpartieswithinthecountry
andwithout,andreceiveddetailedaccountsofthechang-
ingconditionsofthepeople,which,althoughconflicting
inmanydetails,enabledmetoformatolerablycorrect
pictureofthetrendofthingsandtoforecastwhatwas
coming.
AmongothercommunicationsIreceivedproposalsfrom
MoscowwiththerequestthatIshouldpresentthemto
oneoftheBritishdelegates,whowassupposedtobethen
takinganactiveinterest,oratanyrateplayingapromi-
nentpart,inthereconstructionofRussia,lessforher
ownsakethanforthatofthegeneralpeace
. Butasit
chanced,theeminentstatesmanlackedtheleisuretotake
cognizanceoftheproposal,theobjectofwhichwastohit
uponsuch amodus vivendi withRussiaaswouldenable
herunitedpeoplestoenteruponanormalcourseof
nationalexistencewithoutfurtherdelay .
Incidentally
itwouldhaveputanendtocertainconversationsthen
3 Cf. Journaldes Debats, Augustz3,igig . ArticlebyM. AugusteGau-
vain
.
350
ATTITUDE TOWARD RUSSIA
goingforwardwithaviewtoafriendlyunderstanding
betweenRussiaandGermany . Itwouldalso,Ihad
reasontobelieve,havedividedthespeculativeBolshevist
groupfromtheextremebloodthirstyfaction,produceda
completeschismintheparty,andsecuredanarmistice
whichwouldhavepreventedtheAllies'subsequentde-
featsatMurmansk,Archangel, andOdessa .
Truth
promptsmetoaddthatthesedesirableby-results,
al-
thoughheldoutasinducementsandcharacterizedas
readilyattainable,wereguaranteedonlybytheunofficial
pledgeofmenwhosegoodfaithwasnotoriouslydoubtful .
Thedocumentsubmittedtomeisworthsummarizing.
Itcontainedalucid,many-sided,andplausibleaccountof
theRussiansituation . Amongotherthings,itwasa
confessionoftheenormityofthecrimesperpetrated,on
bothsides,itsaid,whichitascribedlargelytothe brutaliz-
ing effectsoftheWorldWar,wagedunderdisastrouscon-
ditionsunknowninotherlands . Myriadsofpractically
unarmedmenhadbeenexposedduringthecampaignto
wholesaleslaughter,orlefttodieinslowagonieswhere
theyfell,orwerekilledoffbyfamineanddisease,forthe
triumphofacausewhichtheyneverunderstood,buthad
recentlybeentoldwasthatofforeigncapitalists .
Inthe
demoralizationthatensued all restraintsfellaway
.
The
entiresocialfabric,fromgroundworktosummit,wasrent,
andsociety,convulsedwithbestialpassions,toreitsown
memberstopieces . Russiaranamuckamongthenations
.
Thatwastheheightofwarfrenzy . Sincethen,the
documentwenton,passionhadabatedsensiblyanda
numberofwell-intentionedmenwhohadbeenswept
onwardbythecurrentwerefastcomingtotheirsenses,
whileotherswerealreadysane,eagertostemitand
anxiousformoralsympathyfromoutside
.
Fromoutoftherevolutionarywelter,the expose con-
tinued,certainhopefulphenomenahademergedsympto-
35I
THEINSIDE STORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
maticofanewspirit
.
Conditionsconducivetoequality
existed,althoughrealequalitywasstillasomewhatre-
moteideal
. Butthetendenciesoverthewholesphere
ofRussiansocial,moral,andpoliticallifehadundergone
remarkableandinvigoratingchangesinthedirectionof
"reasonabledemocracy . " Manywholesomereformshad
beenattempted,andsomewerepartiallyrealized,es-
peciallyinelementaryinstruction,whichwasbeingspread
clumsily,nodoubt,asyet,butextensivelyandequally,
beingabsolutelygratuitous . '
Variousotherso-calledameliorationswereenumerated
inthisobviouslypartial
expose,
whichwasfollowedbyan
apologyforcertainprominentindividuals,who,having
beensweptofftheirfeetbytherevolutionaryfloods,
wouldgladlygetbacktofirmlandandhelptoextricatethe
nationfromtheSerbonianboginwhichitwassinking .
Theyadmittedashareoftheresponsibilityforhaving
setinmotionavastjuggernautchariot,which,however,
theyhadarrested,buthopedtoexpiatepasterrorsby
futurezeal . Atthesametimetheyurgedthatitwasnot
theywhohaddemoralizedthearmyorabolishedthe
deathpenaltyorthrownopenthesluice-gatestoanarchist
floods . Onthecontrary,theyclaimedtohavereorganized
thenationalforces,reintroducedtheseverestdiscipline
everknown,appointedexperiencedofficers,andrestored
capitalpunishment . Norwasitthey,buttheirpred-
ecessors,theyadded,whohadruinedthetransportser-
viceofthecountryandcausedthefoodscarcity .
Theseindividualswould,itwassaid,welcomepeace
andfriendshipwiththeEntente,andgiveparticularly
favorableconsiderationtoanyproposalcomingfromthe
iTherecanbenodoubtthattheBolshevistgovernmentunderLuna-
tcharskyhasmadeapointoffurtheringthearts,sciences,andelementary
instruction
. AllreportsfromforeigntravelersandfromeminentRussians
-oneofthesemyuniversityfellow-student,nowperpetualsecretaryof
theAcademy-agreeaboutthissilverliningtoadarkcloud .
352
ATTITUDE TOWARD RUSSIA
English-speakingpeoples, inwhomtheyweredisposed
toplaceconfidenceundercertainsimpleconditions
.
The
needfortheseconditionswouldnotbegainsaidbythe
BritishandAmericangovernmentsiftheyrecalledto
mindthetreatmentwhichtheyhadtheretoforemeted
outtotheRussianpeople. AtthatmomentnoRussian
ofanypartyregardedorcouldregardtheAllieswithout
groundedsuspicions,forwhilerepudiatinginterference
indomesticaffairs,theFrench,Americans,andBritish
werestrivinghardtoinfluenceeverypartyinRussia,
andwereevenbelievedtoharbordesignsoncertain
provinces,suchastheCaucasusandSiberia . Colorwas
impartedtothesemisgivingsbythecircumstancethatthe
Alliedgovernmentswereopenlycountenancingthedis-
membermentofthecountrybydetachingnon-Russian
andevenRussianelementsfromthemainbody . It
behoovedtheAlliestodissipatethismistrustbyissuing
astatementoftheirpolicyinunmistakableterms,re-
pudiatingschemesforterritorialgains,renouncinginter-
ferenceindomesticaffairsandcomplicityintheworkof
disintegratingthecountry . Russiaandheraffairsmust
belefttoRussians,whowouldnotgrudgeeconomiccon-
cessionsasareasonable quidproquo .
Theproposalfurtherinsistedthatthedeclarationof
policyshouldbeatoncefollowedbythedespatchoftwo
orthreewell-knownpersonsacquaintedwith-Russiaand
Russianaffairs,andenjoyingtheconfidenceofEuropean
peoples,toinquireintotheconditionsofthecountryand
makeanexhaustivereport. Thismission,itwasadded,
neednotbeofficial,itmightbeintrustedtoindividuals
unattachedtoanygovernment .
Ifasatisfactoryanswertothisproposalwerereturned
withinafortnight,anarmisticeandsuspensionofthe
secret pourparlers withGermanywould,Iwastold,have
followed . Thatthiscompactwouldhaveledtoa
353
THEINSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
settlementoftheRussianproblemsismorethanany
one,howeverwellinformed,couldvouchfor,butIhad
somegroundsforbelievingthemovetobegenuineand
thepromisesoverdone . Noreasonablemotivesuggested
itselfforavulgarhoax . Moreover,theoverturedis-
closedtwoimportantfacts,oneofwhichwasknownatthe
timeonlytotheBolshevistgovernment-namely,that
secret pourparlers
weregoingforwardbetweenBerlinand
Moscowforthepurposeofarrivingataworkableunder-
standingbetweenthetwogovernments,andthatthe
Alliedtroops'atOdessa,Archangel,andMurmanskwere
inawretchedplightandindirerneedofanarmisticethan
theBolsheviki . 1
Imentionedthemattersummarilytooneofthedel-
egates,whoevincedacertaininterestinitandprom-
isedtodiscussitatlengthlateronwithaviewtoaction
.
AnothertowhomIunfoldeditlaterthoughtitwouldbe
wellifImyselfstarted,togetherwithtwoorthreeothers,
forMoscow,Petrograd,Ekaterinodar,andotherplaces,
andreportedonthesituation
. Butweekswentbyand
nothingwasdone. 2
Ihadinterestingtalkswithsomeinfluentialdelegates
ontheeveoftheinvitationissuedtoall
defacto govern-
mentsofRussiatoforgatheratPrinkipoforasymposium
.
Theyadmittedfranklyatthetimethattheyhadnopolicy
andweregropinginthedark,andoneofthemheldtothe
dogmathatnolightfromoutsidewastobeexpected
.
Theygavemetheimpressionthatunderlyingtheimpend-
ingsummonswastheconvictionthatBolshevism,divest-
edofitsfrenziedmanifestations,was a roughand
ready
governmentcalumniouslyblackenedbyunscrupulousen-
emies,criminalperhapsinitsoutbursts,butsuitedinits
' Thislatterfactwasdoubtless
known totheBritishgovernment,which
decidedasearlyasMarchtorecalltheBritishtroopsfromnorthernRussia
.
2
Ipublishedthefactsin TheDailyTelegraph, April 21, and
ThePublic
Ledgerof
Philadelphia,Aprilio,1919 .
354
ATTITUDE TOWARD RUSSIA
feasibleaimstothepeculiarneedsofapeculiarpeople,
andthereforeasworthyofbeingrecognizedasanyofthe
others . Itwasurgedthatithadalreadylastedacon-
siderabletimewithoutprovokingacounter-movement
worthyofthename ;thatthestoriescirculatingaboutthe
horrorsofwhichitwasguiltyweredemonstrablyexag-
gerated ;thatmanyofthebloodyatrocitiesweretobe
ascribedtocrazyindividualsonbothsides ;thatthe
witnessesagainstLeninwerepartialanduntrustworthy ;
thatsomethingshouldbedonewithoutdelaytosolvea
pressingproblem,andthattheConferencecould . think
ofnothingbetter,nor,infact,ofanyalternative .
Tometheprincipalschemeseemedasinistermistake,
bothinformandinsubstance . Inform,becauseitnullified
themotiveswhichdeterminedthehelpgiventothe
Greeks,Poles,andSerbs,whowerebeingurgedtocrush
theBolshevists,andlefttheAllieswithoutgoodgrounds
forkeepingtheirowntroopsinArchangel,Odessa,and
northernRussiatostoptheonwardmarchofBolshevism .
SomegovernmentshadpubliclystigmatizedtheBol-
shevistsascutthroats ;onehadpledgeditselfneverto
haverelationswiththem,butthePrinkipoinvitation
bespokearesolvetocancelthesejudgmentsanddeclara-
tionsandchangetheirtackasanimprovementondoing
nothingatall . Theschemewasalsoanerrorinsub-
stance,becausethesolemotivethatcouldwarrantit
wasthehopeofreconcilingthewarringparties . And
thathopewasdoomedtodisappointmentfromtheoutset .
AccordingtothePrinkipoproject,whichwasattributed
toPresidentWilson,'aninvitationwastobeissuedtoall
organizedgroupsexercisingorattemptingtoexercise
politicalauthorityormilitarycontrolinSiberiaand
northernRussia,tosendrepresentativestoconferwith
' ColonelHouseissaidtohavedissociatedhimselffromthePresidenton
thisoccasion .
24
355
THE INSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
thedelegatesoftheAlliedandAssociatedPowerson
Prince'sIslands
. Itisdifficulttodiscusstheexpedient
seriously. Onefeelslikeamemberofthelittlepeople
ofyore,whoarereportedtohaveconsultedanoracle
toascertainwhattheymustdotokeepfromlaughing
duringcertaindebatesonpublicaffairs
. Itexposedits
ingenuousauthorstotheridiculeoftheworldandmade
itcleartothedullestapprehensionthatfromthatquarter,
atanyrate,theRussianpeople,asawhole,mustexpect
neitherlightnorleading,norintelligentappreciation
oftheirterribleplight . Thereisasphereofinfluence
inthehumanintellectbetweenthereasonandtheimag-
ination,theboundarylineofwhichisshadowy. That
spherewouldseemtobethesourcewhencesomeofthe
mostextraordinarynotionscreepintothemindsofmen
whohavesuddenlycomeintoapositionofpowerwhich
theyarenotqualifiedtowield-the nouveauxpuissants
oftheworldofpolitics .
TothecreditoftheSupremeCouncilitneverlet
offendeddignitystandbetweenitselfandthetriumph
ofanyofthevariouscauseswhichitsuccessivelytookin
hand
. Timeandagainithadbeenaddressedbythe
RussianBolshevistgovernmentinthemostopprobrious
terms,andaccusednotmerelyofclothingpoliticalexpedi-
encyinthegarbofspuriousidealism,butofgivingthe
foreplaceinpoliticallifetosordidinterests,overwhich
acloakofhumanitarianismhadbeendeftlythrown .
OneofficialmissivefromtheBolshevistgovernmentto
PresidentWilsonisworthquotingfrom :
1
"Weshould
liketolearnwithmoreprecisionhowyouconceivethe
SocietyofNations?Whenyouinsistontheindependence
ofBelgium,ofSerbia,ofPoland,yousurelymeanthat
themassesofthepeopleareeverywheretotakeoverthe
1
ItwassentattheendofOctober,1918,andtomyknowledgewasnot
publishedinfull .
,356
ATTITUDE
TOWARD
RUSSIA
administrationofthecountry . Butitisoddthatyou
didnotalsorequiretheemancipationofIreland,of
Egypt,ofIndia,andofthePhilippines. . . .
"AsweconcludedpeacewiththeGermanKaiser,for
whomyouhavenomoreconsiderationthanwehavefor
you,sowearemindedtomakepeacewithyou
. We
propose,therefore,thediscussion,inconcertwithour
allies,ofthefollowingquestions :(z)AretheFrenchand
Englishgovernmentsreadytogiveupexactingtheblood
oftheRussianpeopleifthispeopleconsenttopaythem
ransomandtocompensatetheminthatway? (2) If
theanswerisintheaffirmative,whatransomwouldthe
Allieswant(railwayconcessions,goldmines,orterritories) ?
"Wealsolookforwardtoyourtellingusexactly
whetherthefutureSocietyofNationswillbeajoint
stockenterprisefortheexploitationofRussia,andin
particular-asyourFrenchalliesrequire-forforcing
Russiatorefundthemilliardswhichtheirbankersfur-
nishedtotheTsaristgovernment,orwhethertheSociety
ofNationswillbesomethingdifferent . . . . "
AssoonasthePrinkipomotionwaspassedbythe
delegatesIwasinformedbytelephone,andIlostnotime
incommunicatingthetidingstoRussia'sofficialrepre-
sentativesinParis . Theplanastoundedthem . They
couldhardlybelievethat,whilehopefullynegotiating
withtheanti-Bolshevists,theConferencewasdesirous
atthesametimeofopening pourparlers withtheLeninists,
betweenwhomandthemantagonismwasnotmerely
political,butpersonalandvindictive,likethatoftwo
Albaniansinabloodfeud . Isuggestedthatthescheme
shouldbethwartedatitsinception,andthatforthispur-
poseIshouldbeauthorizedbytherepresentativesofthe
four 1 constructivegovernmentsinRussiatomakeknown
1 Omsk,Ekaterinodar,Archangel,andtheCrimea . Thelast-nameddis-
appearedsoonafterward .
357
THE INSIDE
STORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
theirdecision . Iwasaccordinglyempoweredtoannounce
totheworldthattheywouldcategoricallyrefusetosend
anyrepresentativestoconferwiththeassassinsoftheir
kinsmenandthedestroyersoftheircountry,andthat
undernocircumstanceswouldtheyswervefromthat
attitude .
Havingreceivedtheauthorization,Icabled
totheUnitedStatesandBritainthattheprojectedmeet-
ingwouldcometonaught,owingtotherefusalofall
constructiveelementstoagreetoanycompromisewith
theBolsheviki ;thatintheopinionofRussia'srepresenta-
tivesinParistheadvancemadebytheplenipotentiaries
wouldstrengthentheBolshevistmovement,renderthe
civilwarmoremercilessthanbefore,andraiseupformid-
abledifficultiestotheestablishmentoftheLeagueof
Nations.
Buttheplenipotentiariesdidnotyetgiveuptheircause
aslost . Bywayof"savingtheirface,"theyunofficially
approachedtheRussianMinistersinParis,whomthey
hadnotdeignedtoconsultonthesubjectbeforemaking
theplunge,andexhortedthemtogiveatleastaformal
assenttotheproposal,whichwouldcommitthemtonoth-
ingandwouldenablethemtowithdrawwithoutlossof
dignity . They,ontheirpart,undertooktosmooththe
roadtothebestoftheirability . Thusitwouldbeun-
necessary,theyexplained,fortheMinistersofthecon-
structivegovernmentsortheirsubstitutestocomeinto
contactwiththeslayersoftheirkindred ; theywould
occupydifferentwingsofthehotelatPrinkipo,andnever
meettheiradversaries . Thedelegateswouldseetothat .
"Thenwhyshouldwegothereatallifdiscussionbe
superfluous?"askedtheRussians . "BecausetheAllied
governmentsdesiretoascertaintheconditionofRussia
andyourconceptionofthemeasuresthatwouldcon-
tributetoameliorateit,"wasthereply . "Prince'sIslands
isnottherightplace
to
studytheRussiansituation,nor
35$
ATTITUDE TOWARD RUSSIA
isitreasonabletoexpectustojourneythitherinorderto
tellsubordinates,whohavenoknowledgeofourcountry,
whatwecantellthemandtheirprincipalsinParisin
greaterdetailandwithconfirmatorydocuments . More-
over,thedelegatesyouhaveappointedhavenoqualifica-
tiontojudgeofRussia'splightandpotentialities . They
knowneitherthecountrynoritslanguagenoritspeople
noritspolitics,yetyouwantustotravelallthewayto
Turkeytotellthemwhatwethink,inorderthatthey
shouldreturnfromTurkeytoParisandreporttoyour
Ministerswhatwesaidandwhatwecouldhaveunfolded
directlytotheMinistersthemselveslongagoandare
readytopropoundtothemto-dayorto-morrow .
"Theprojectispuerileandyourtacticsarebaleful .
YourMinistersbrandedtheBoishevists as criminals,and
theFrenchgovernmentpubliclyannouncedthatitwould
enterintonorelationswiththem . Inspiteofthat,all
theAlliedgovernmentshavenowofferedtoenterinto
relationswiththem . Nowyouadmitthatyoumadea
slip,andyoupromisetocorrectitifonlyweconsentto
saveyourfaceandgoonawild-goosechasetoPrinkipo .
Butforusthatjourneywouldbearecantationofour
principles . Thatiswhyweareunabletomakeit . "
ThePrinkipoincident,whichbeganintheregionofhigh
politics,endedincomedy . Anumberofmoreorless
wittyepigramswerecoinedattheexpenseofthepleni-
potentiaries,thescheme,setinastrongerlightthanitwas
meanttoendure,assumedagrotesqueshape,anditspro-
motersstrovetoconsignit as besttheycouldtooblivion .
ButtheSphinxquestionofRussia'sfutureremained,and
thepenaltiesforfailuretosolveitarightwaxedmoreand
moredeterrent . Thesupremearbitershadcognizanceof
them,had,infact,enumeratedthemwhenproclaimingthe
impossibilityofestablishingadurablepeaceorasolid
LeagueofNationsaslong asRussiacontinuedtobea
359
THE INSIDE STORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
preytoanarchy.
Butevenwiththeprizesandpenalties
beforetheireyestoenticeandspurthem,theyproved
unequaltothetaskofdevisinganintelligentpolicy . Fit-
ful"andincoherent,theireffortswereeitherincapableof
beingrealizedor,whenfeasible,weremischievous . Thus,
bydegrees,theyhardenedthegreatSlavnationagainst
theEntente .
Thereaderwillbepreparedtolearnthattheovertures
madetotheBoishevikikindledtheangerofthepatriotic
Russiansathome,whohadbeenlookingtotheWestern
nationsforsalvationandmakingveritableholocaustsin
ordertomeritit . Everyobservercouldperceivethere-
percussionofthissentimentinParis,andIreceivedample
proofsofitfromSiberia . Theretheleadersandthepopu-
lationunhesitatinglyturnedforassistancetoJapan . For
thistherewereexcellentreasons . Theonlygovernment
whichthroughoutthewarknewitsownmindandpur-
suedaconsistentandanintelligiblepolicytowardRussia
wasthatofTokio . This'pointisworthmakingatatime
whenJapanisregardedasaLaodiceanconverttothe
invigoratingideasoftheWesternpeoples,atheartaback-
sliderandapotentialschismatic . Sheischargedwith
makinginterestthemainspringofheractioninherinter-
coursewithothernations . Thechargeistrue . Onlya
Candidewouldexpecttoseehermovedbyaltruismand
self-denial,inacompanywhichpenalizesthesevirtues
.
CommunityofinterestsisthelinkthatbindsJapanto
Britain. Alikebondhadsubsistedbetweenherand
TsaristRussia . Ihelpedtocreateit . Herstatesmen,
whohavenotasteforsonorousphraseology,didnotthink
itnecessarytogiveitamorefashionablename . Thisdid
notpreventtheJapanesefrombeingchivalrously loyal to
theiralliesunderthestrainofpowerfultemptations,true
tothe
spirit
andtheletteroftheirengagements. But
althoughtheymadenopretensetoloftypurpose,their
360
ATTITUDE TOWARD
RUSSIA
politicalmaximsdiffernowisefromthoseofthegreat
Europeanstates,whoseterritorial,economic,andmilitary
interestshavebeenreligiouslysafeguardedbytheTreaty
ofVersailles
. True,thestatesmenofTokioshrinkfrom
thehybridcombinationoftwocontradictionslinkedto-
getherbyasentimentalfallacy
. Theirunpopularity
amongAnglo-Saxonsistheresultofspeculationsabout
theirfutureintentions
;inotherwords,theyarebeing
punished,ascertainofthedelegatesattheConference
havebeeneulogized,notforwhattheyactuallydid,but
forwhatitisassumedtheyaredesirousofachieving .
TowardRussiatheyplayedthesamegamethattheirallies
wereplayingthereandinEurope,onlymorefranklyand
systematically
. Theyappliedthetwoprincipalmaxims
whichlieattherootofinternationalpoliticsto-day-do
ut des,
andthenationthatiscapableofleadingothers
hastherightandthedutytoleadthem. Andtheyestab-
lishedavaluablereputationforfulfillingtheircompacts
conscientiously. Nippon,then,wouldhavehelpedher
Russianneighbors,andsheexpectedtobehelpedbythem
inreturn
. HavenottheAllies,sheasked,compelled
Poland,Czechoslovakia,andJugoslaviatopaythemin
cashfortheiremancipation?
Russians,whohavenocolorprejudices,hititoffwith
theJapanese,bywhomtheyarelikedinreturn . That
thetwopeoplesshouldfeeldrawntoeachotherpolitically
is,therefore,natural,andthattheywillstrikeupeconomic
agreementsinthefutureseemstomanyinevitableand
legitimate
. Onesuchagreementwasonthepointof
beingsignedbetweenthemandtheanti-Bolshevistsof
Omskimmediatelyafter,andinconsequenceof,the
Allies'ill-consideredinvitationtoLeninandTrotzkyto
delegaterepresentativestoPrinkipo
. Thisconvention,
Ihavereasontobelieve,wasactuallydrafted,andwas
abouttobesigned
. Andtheadverseinfluencethatsud
361
THE
INSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
denlymadeitselffeltandhinderedthecompactcame
notfromRussia,butfromwesternEurope . Itwouldbe
unfruitfultodwellfurtheronthismatterhere,beyond
recordingthebeliefofmanyRussiansthatthezealofthe
English-speakingpeoplesfortheWell-beingofSiberia,
wheretheyintendtomaintaintroopsafterhavingwith-
drawnthemfromEurope,isthecounter-movetoJapan's
capacityandwishtoco-operatewiththepopulationof
thatrichcountry . Thisassumptionmaybegroundless,
butitwillsurpriseonlythosewhofailtonotehowoften
theflagofprincipleisunfurledovereconomicinterests
.
Thedelegateswerenotalldiscouragedbytheirdis-
comfitureoverthePrinkipoproject
. Someofthemstill
hankeredafteranagreementwiththeBolshevistswhich
wouldwarranttheminincludingtheRussianproblem
amongthetasksprovisionallyachieved . PresidentWil-
sondespatchedsecretenvoystoMoscowtostrikeupan
accordwithLenin,'butalthoughthetermswhichMr .
Bullittobtainedwerethosewhichhadinadvancebeen
declaredsatisfactory,hedrewbackassoonastheywere
agreedto . Andheassignednoreasonforthischangeof
attitude. WhetherthebrighteningoftheprospectsofKol-
chakandDenikinhadmodifiedhisjudgmentontheques-
tionofexpediencymustremainamatterofconjecture .
Itishardlynecessary,however,topointoutoncemore
thatthissuddenimprovisationofschemeswhichwere
abandonedagainatthelastmomenttendedtolowerthe
notparticularlyhighestimatesetbytheethnicwardsof
theAnglo-Saxonpeoplesonthemoralguidanceoftheir
self-constitutedguardians .
AnardentchampionoftheAlliednationsinFrance
wrote :"WehaveneverhadaRussianpolicywhichwas
all ofonepiece . Wehaveneversynthetizedanybut
contradictory conceptions . Thisissotruethatonemay
1 SeeChapterIV"CensorshipandSecrecy," p . 132 .
362
ATTITUDE TOWARD RUSSIA
safelyaffirmthatifRussianpatriotismhasbeensustained
byourvelleitiesofaction,Russiandestructivenesshas
beenencouragedbyourvelleitiesofdesertion . We
joined,sotosay,bothcamps,andourvelleitiesofde-
sertionoccasionallygettingtheupperhandofourvelleities
ofaction . . . wecarryoutnothing. "
1
TowardKolchakandDenikintheattitudeoftheSu-
premeCouncilvariedconsiderably
.
Itwascurrentlyre-
portedinParisthattheAdmiralhadhadthemisfortune
toarousethedispleasureofthetwoConferencechiefs
bysomecasualmanifestationofaframeofmindwhich
wasresented,perhapsamovementofindependence,to
whichdistanceorthemediumoftransmissionimparteda
flavorofdisrespect . Anyhow,theRussianleaderwasfor
sometimeunderacloud,whichdarkenedtheprospectsof
hiscause. AndasforDenikin,heappearedtotheother
greatdelegateasaself-advertisingbraggart .
Thesementalportraitswereretouchedasthefortuneof
warfavoredthepair . Andtheircausebenefitedcorre-
spondingly
. Tothisimprovementinfluencesatworkin
Londoncontributedmaterially . Fortheanti-Bolshevist
currentswhichmadethemselvesfeltincertainstatede-
partmentsinthatcapital,wheretherewereseveralir-
reconcilablepolicies,werepowerfulandconstant . By
themonthofMaytheConferencehadturnedhalf-
heartedlyfromLeninandTrotzkytoKolchakand
Denikin,butitsmodeofnegotiatingborethemarkpecul-
iartothediplomacyoftheneweraof"opencovenants
openlyarrivedat . "ThedelegatesinPariscommunicated
withthetwoleadersinRussia"overtheheads"and
withouttheknowledgeoftheirauthorizedrepresentatives
inParis,justastheyhadissuedperemptoryordersto
"theRumaniangovernmentatBucharest"overtheheads
ofitschiefs,whowereactuallyintheFrenchcapital .
I Pertinaxin L' EchodeParis,July5,1919
.
3 63
THEINSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
The
proximate motivesthat determined
several im-
portantdecisionsoftheSecretCouncil,althoughofno
politicalmoment,areofsufficientpsychologicalinterestto
warrantmention
. Theyshedalightontheconcreteness,
directness,andsimplicityoftheworkingsofthestates-
men'smindswhenengagedintransactinginternational
business
. Forexample,theparticularmomentforthe
recognitionofnewcommunitiesasstateswasfixedby
whollyextrinsicalcircumstances . Afood-distributer,for
instance,ortheSecretaryofaTreasury,wantedareceipt
forexpenditureabroadfromthepeoplethatbenefitedby
it . Asadocumentofthischaracterpresupposesthe ex-
istenceofastateandagovernment,theofficialdispenser
offoodormoneywasloathtogototheaidofanynation
whichwasnotastateorwhichlackedaproperlycon-
stitutedgovernment .
Hence,insomecasestheCon-
ferencehadtocreatebothonthespurofthemoment
.
ThusthereasonwhyFinland'sindependencereceived
thehall-markofthePowerswhenitdidwasbecause
theUnitedStatesgovernmentwasgenerouslypreparing
togiveaidtotheFinnsandhadtogetinreturnproper
receiptssignedbycompetentauthoritiesrepresentingthe
state . 'Haditnotbeenforthisimmediateneedofvalid
receipts,theactofrecognitionmighthavebeenpost-
ponedinthesamewayaswasthemarkingoffofthe
frontiers . Andlikeconsiderationsledtolikeresultsin
othercases . Czechoslovakia'sindependencewasformally
recognizedforthesamereason,asoneofitsleadingmen
franklyadmitted .
OneoftheseriousworriesoftheConferencechiefsin
theirdealingswithRussiawasthelackofarecognized
governmentthere,qualifiedtosignreceiptsforadvances
ofmoneyandmunitions .
Andastheycouldnotresolve
1 ThisadmissionwasmadetoadistinguishedmemberoftheDiplomatic
Corps .
364
ATTITUDE TOWARD RUSSIA
toaccordrecognitiontoanyoftheexistingadministra-
tions,theyhituponthemiddlecourse,thatofpromoting
theanti-Bolsheviststotherankofacommunity,not,
indeed,sovereignorindependent,butdeservingofevery
kindofassistanceexceptthedespatchofAlliedtroops .
Assistancewasalreadybeinggivenliberally,butthe
necessitywasfeltforjustifyingitformally
. Andthetwo
delegateswenttoworkasthoughtheywerehatching
somedarkandcriminalplot . Secretlydespatchinga
messagetoAdmiralKolchak,theyputanumberof
questionstohimwhichhewasnotqualifiedtoanswer
withoutfirstconsultinghisofficialadvisersinParis .
YettheseadviserswerenotapprisedbytheSecretCoun-
cilof,whatwasbeingdone . Nay,more,theFrench
ForeignOfficewasnotnotified . BythemerestchanceI
gotwindofthematterandpublishedtheofficialmes-
sage. 'ItsummonedtheAdmiraltobindhimselfto
conveneaConstituentAssemblyassoonashearrivedin
Moscow ;toholdfreeelections ;torepudiatedefinitely
theoldregimeandallthatitimplied ;torecognizethe
independenceofPolandandFinland,whosefrontiers
wouldbedeterminedbytheLeagueofNations ;to
availhimselfoftheadviceandco-operationofthe
Leagueincomingtoanunderstandingwiththeborder
states,andtoacquiesceinthedecisionofthePeace
ConferencerespectingthefuturestatusofBessarabia .
Kolchak'sanswerwasdescribedasclearwhen"de-
cipherable,"andtohiscredit,hefranklydeclinedto
forestallthewilloftheConstituentAssemblyrespect-
ingthoseborderstateswhichowedtheirseparateex-
istencetotheinitiativeofthevictoriousgovernments .
ButtheSecretCounciloftheConferenceacceptedhis
answer,andrelieduponitasanadequatereasonfor
'
In TheDaily Telegraph,
Junei9,i9tg,and inThePublicLedgerof
Philadelphia .
3 6
5
THE INSIDE
STORY OFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
continuingtheassistancewhichtheyhadbeengiving
himtheretofore .
AboutthepersonofKolchakitoughttobesuperfluous
tosaymorethanthatheisanuprightcitizenofenergy
andresolution,aspatrioticasFabricius,asdisinterested
andunambitiousasCincinnatus. Tohiscreditaccount,
whichisconsiderable,standshiswonder-workingfaith
intherecuperativeforcesofhiscountrywhenitsfortunes
wereattheirlowestebb . Withbuoyancyandconfidence
hesethimselfthetaskofrescuinghisfellow-countrymen
whenitlookedashopelessasthatofXenophonat
Cunaxa . Hecreatedanarmyoutofnothing,induced
hismenbyargument,suasion,andexampletoshakeoff
thevirusofindisciplineandsacrificetheirindividual
judgmentandwilltothewell-beingoftheirfellows . He
enjoinednothinguponothersthathehimselfwasnot
readytoundertake,andheexposedhimselftimeand
againtorisksgreaterfarthananygeneralshouldde-
liberatelyincur. Whetherhesucceedsorfailsinhis
arduousenterprise,Kolchak,byhispreterhumanpatience
andsustainedenergyandcourage,hasdeservedexcep-
tionallywellofhiscountry,andcouldaffordtoignorethe
currentlegendsthatdepicthiminthecryingcolorsofa
reactionary,eventhoughtheywereacceptedforthetime
bythemostexaltedamongtheGreatUnversedinRussian
affairs . Onemaydissentfromhispolicyandobjectto
someofhislieutenantsandtomanyofhispartizans,but
fromthesingle-minded,patrioticsoldieronecannotwith-
holdalargemeedofpraise
.
Kolchak'sdefectsaremostly
exaggerationsofhisqualities. Hisremarkableversatility
ispurchasedatthepriceoffitfulness,hisenergydisplays
itselfinspurts,andhisimpulsivenessimpairsattimesthe
successfulexecutionofaplanwhichrequiresunflagging
constancy. Hisjudgmentofmenissometimesatfault,
buthewouldneverhesitatetoconferahighpostupon
366
ATTITUDE TOWARD RUSSIA
anymanwhodeservedit . Heisdemocraticinthecurrent
senseoftheword,butneitheradoctrinairenorafaddist .
A dis ciplinarianandamagneticpersonalitywithal,he
charmsaseffectuallyashecommandshissoldiers . Heis
enlightenedenough,likethegreatWesternworld-
mendersintheirmomentsoftheorizing,todiscountenance
secrecyandhole-and-corneragreements,and,whatisstill
morepraiseworthy,heiscourageousenoughtopractise
thedoctrine .
WhentherevolutionbrokeoutKolchakwasat
Sebastopol. Thetelegramconveyingthesensational
tidingsoftheoutbreakwaskeptsecretbyallmilitary
commanders-excepthimself . Heunhesitatinglysum-
monedthesoldiersandsailors,apprisedthemofwhat
hadtakenplace,gavethemaninsightintothetrue
meaningoftheviolentupheaval,andaskedthemto,join
withhiminaheroicendeavortoinfluencethecourseof
things,inthedirectionoforderandconsolidation . He
gagedarightthesignificanceoftherevolutionandthe
impossibilityofconfiningitwithinanybounds,political,
moral,orgeographical . Buthereasonedthatabandof
resolutepatriotsmightcontrivetowrestsomethingfor
thecountryfromthehandsofFate . Itwaswiththis
faithandhopethathesettowork,andsoonhisvaliant
army,thereclaimedprovinces,andtheimprovedRussian
outlookwereeloquentwitnessestohisworth,whose
testimonynolegendaryreports,howeverwellreceivedin
theWest,couldweaken .
Howingrainedintheplenipotentiarieswastheirprone-
nessforwhat,forwantofabetterword,maybetermed
conspirativeandcircuitousactionmaybeinferredfrom
therecordoftheirofficialandunofficialconversationsand
acts .
WhenholdingconversewithKolchak'sauthorized
agentsinParistheywouldlaydownhardconditions,
whichweredescribedasimmutable ;
andyetwhencorn-
36 7
THE INSIDESTORY a
THEPEACECONFERENCE
municatingwiththeAdmiraldirecttheywouldsubmit
tohimtermsconsiderablylessirksome,unknowntohis
Parisadvisers,thusmystifyingbothandoccasioning
frictionbetweenthem . Inmanycasesthecontrastbe-
tweenthetwosetsofdemandswasdisconcerting,andin
allittendedtocausemisunderstandingsandcomplicate
therelationsbetweenKolchakandhisParisagents
. But
hecontinuedtogivehisconfidencetohisrepresentatives,
althoughtheyweredeniedthatofthedelegates
. It
would,ofcourse,begrosslyunfairtoimputeanything
likedisingenuousnesstoplenipotentiariesengagedupon
issuesofthismagnitude,butitwasanunfortunateco-
incidencethattheywereknowntoregardsomeofthe
membersoftheRussianCouncilinPariswithdisfavor,
andwouldhavebeengladtoseethemsuperseded
. When
Nansen'sprojecttofeedthestarvingpopulationofRussia
wasfirstmooted,Kolchak'sMinistersinPariswereap-
proachedonthesubject,andtheAllies'planwaspro-
poundedtothemsodefectivelyorvaguelyastogivethem
theimpressionthattheco-operationoftheBolshevist
governmentwaspartoftheprogram
. Theywerealso
allowedtothinkthatduringtheworkoffeedingthe
peoplethedespatchofmunitionsandothermilitary
necessariestoKolchakandhisarmywouldbediscon-
tinued .
Naturally,thescheme,weightedwiththesetwo
accompaniments,wasunacceptabletoKolchak'srepre-
sentativesinParis
. But,strangetosay,intheofficial
notificationwhichtheplenipotentiariestelegraphedatthe
sametimetotheAdmiraldirect,neitheroftheseob-
noxiousriderswasincluded,sothattheproposalassumed
adifferentaspect .
Anotherexampleofthesesingulartacticsissuppliedby
their pourparlers withtheAdmiral'sdelegatesaboutthe
futureinternationalstatusofFinland,whosehelpwas
thenbeingsolicitedtofreePetrogradfromtheBolshevist
368
ATTITUDETOWARD
RUSSIA
yoke. The Finnsinsistedonthepreliminaryrecognition
oftheircompleteindependencebytheRussians . Kol-
chak'srepresentativesshrankfrombarteringanyterri-
torieswhichhadbelongedtothestateontheirownsole
responsibility . Nonetheless,asthesubjectwasbeing
theoreticallythreshedoutinallitsbearings,themembers
oftheRussianCouncilinParisinquiredoftheAllies
whethertheFinnshadatleastrenouncedtheirpreten-
sionstotheprovinceofKarelia . Butthespokesmenof
theConferencerepliedelusively,givingthemnoassurance
thattheclaimhadbeenrelinquished . Thereuponthey
naturallyconcludedthattheFinnseitherstillmaintained
theirdemandorelsehadnotyetmodifiedtheirformer
decisiononthematter,andtheydeemedittheirdutyto
reportinthissensetotheirchief . Yetthe-plenipoten-
tiaries,intheirmessage on thesubjecttoKolchak,which
wassentaboutthesametime,assuredhimthatthean-
nexationofKareliawasnolongerinsistedupon,andthat
theFinnswouldnotagainputforwardtheclaimlOne
hardlyknowswhattothinkoftacticslikethese . Intheir
talkswiththespokesmenofcertainborderstatesofRus-
siatheofficialrepresentativesofthethreeEuropean
PowersattheConferenceemployedlanguagethatgave
risetomisunderstandingswhichmayhaveuntowardcon-
sequencesinthefuture . Onewouldliketobelievethat
thesemisunderstandingswerecausedbymereslipsofthe
tongue,whichshouldnothavebeentakenliterallyby
thosetowhomtheywereaddressed
;butinthemean-
whiletheyhavebecomenotonlythesourceofhigh,pos-
siblydelusive,hopes,butthebasisofelaborate,policies .
Forexample,EsthonianandLettishMinistersweregiven
tounderstandthattheywouldbepermittedtosenddip-
lomaticlegationstoPetrogradassoonasRussiawasre-
constituted,amodeofintercoursewhichpresupposesthe
fullindependenceofallthecountriesconcerned . Ac *n-
3 69
THE INSIDE
STORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
stitutionwasalsodrawnupforEsthoniabyoneofthe
GreatPowers,whichstartedwiththepostulatethateach
peoplewastobeitsownmaster
. . Consequently,thetwo
nationsinquestionwerewarrantedinlookingforwardto
receivingthatcompleteindependence
. Andifsuchwas,
indeed,theintentionoftheGreatPowers,thereisnothing
furthertobesaidonthescoreofstraightforwardnessor
precision
. ButneitherinthetermssubmittedtoKolchak
norinthosetowhichhisParisagentswereaskedtogive
theirassentwastheindependenceofeithercountry
as
muchashintedat . '
Thesemayperhapsseemtrivialdetails,buttheyenable
ustoestimatethemethodsandtheorganizingartsofthe
statesmenuponwhoseskillinresourceandtactindealing
withtheirfellowsdependedthenewsynthesisofinter-
nationallifeandethicswhichtheywereengagedinreal-
izing
. Itwouldbesuperfluoustoinvestigatetheeffect
upontheRussians,or,indeed,uponanyofthepeoples
representedinParis,oftheSecretCouncil'sconspirative
deliberationsandcircuitousprocedure,whichwerein
suchstrongcontrasttothe"opencovenantsopenly
arrivedat"towhichintheirpublicspeechestheypaid
suchhightribute
.
Themaindanger,whichtheAlliesredoubtedfromfail-
uretorestoretranquillityinRussia,wasthatGermany
mightaccomplishitand,owingtohermanyadvantages,
mightsecureaprivilegedpositioninthecountryanduse
it asastepping-stonetomaterialprosperity,military
strength,andpoliticalascendancy
. Thisfeatshecould
accomplishagainstconsiderableodds
. Shewouldachieve
iteasilyiftheAlliesunwittinglyhelpedher,astheywere
doing .
1 InJulyM
. PichontoldtheEsthoniandelegatesthatFrancerecognized
theindependenceoftheircountryinprinciple
. Butthisdeclarationwas
nottakenseriously,eitherbytheRussiansorbytheFrench
.
3 7 0
ATTITUDE TOWARD RUSSIA
UnfortunatelytheAlliedgovernmentshadnotmuch
hopeofsucceeding . Iftheyhadbeencapableofelaborat-
ingacomprehensiveplan,theynolongerpossessedthe
meansofexecutingit
. Buttheydevisednone . "The
factis,"oneoftheConferenceleadersexclaimed,"we
havenopolicytowardRussia. Neitherdowepossess
adequatedataforone . "
Theystrovetomakegoodthiscapitalomissionby
erectingapaperwallbetweenGermanyandhergreat
Slavneighbor. Theplanwassimple . TheTeutonswere
tobecompelledtodisinterestthemselvesintheaffairsof
Russia,withwhosedestiniestheirownaresocloselybound
up . Buttheysoonrealizedthatsuchapartitionisuse-
lessasabreakwateragainstthetidalwaveofTeutondom,
andGermanyisstilldestinedtoplaythepartofRussia's
stewardandmajordomo .
Howcoulditbeotherwise?GermanyandRussiaare
nearneighbors . Theireconomicrelationshavebeencon-
tinuousforages,andtheAllieshavemadethemindispen-
sableinthefuture ;Russiaisear-marked as Germany's
bestcolony . Thetwopeoplesarebecomeinterdependent .
TheTeutonwillrecognizetheSlavasanallyineconomics,
andwillpayhimselfpolitically
. Whowillnowthwartor
checkthisprocess?Russiamustlive,andthereforebuy
andsell,barterandnegotiate . Canaparchmenttreaty
hinderorinvalidateherdealings?Canitpreventan
admixtureofpoliticsincommercialarrangements,seeing
thattheyarebuttwoaspectsofoneandthesametrans-
action?Itisworthyofnotethataquestionwhichgoes
tothequickofthematterwasnevermooted
. Itisthis
Isitanessentialelementofthefutureorderingoftheworld
thatGermanyshallplaynopartwhateverinitsprogress?
Isittobeassumedthatshewillalwayscontentherself
withbeingtreated as theincorrigibleenemyofcivilization?
And,ifnot,whatdoallthesechecksandbarriersamountto?
25
37 1
THE INSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
InRussiatherearemillionsofGermansconversant
withthelanguage,laws,andcustomsofthepeople. Many
ofthemhavebeensettledthereforgenerations . They
arepassionatelyattachedtotheirrace,andneitherun-
friendlynoruselesstothecountryoftheiradoption . The
trade,commerce,andindustryoftheEuropeanprovinces
arelargelyintheirhandsandinthoseoftheirforerunners
andhelpers,theJews. TheRusso-GermanandJewish
middlemeninthecountryhavetheirfaceseverturned
towardtheFatherland . Theyarewonttobuyandsell
there
. TheyalwaysobtainedtheircreditinBerlin,Dres-
den,orFrankfurt . Theyactedascommercialtravelers,
agents,brokers,bankers,forRussiansandGermans
. They
areconstantlygoingandcomingbetweenthetwocoun-
tries
. Howarethesemyriadstobefetteredpermanently
andkeptfromekingoutalivelihoodinthefutureonthe
linestracedbynecessityorinterestinthepast?The
Russians,ontheirside,mustlive,andthereforebuyand
sell . HastheConferenceortheLeaguetherightorpower
todictatetothemthepersonsorthepeoplewithwhom
alonetheymayhavedealings?Canitnarrowthefield
ofRussia'spoliticalactivities?Somepeopleflatterthem-
selvesthatitcan . InthiscasetheLeagueofNations
musttransformitselfintoanallianceforthesuppression
oftheGermanrace .
Burningindignationandmoralreprobationwerethe
sentimentsarousedamongthehigh-mindedAlliesbythe
infamousTreatyofBrest-Litovsk . Forthatmockeryofa
peace,evencomingfromanenemy,transcendedthe
boundsofhumanvengeance . Itwasjustlyanathematized
byallEntentepeoplesastheloathsomecreationofa
frenziedpeople. But . shortlyafterwardtheEntente
governmentsthemselves,theirturnhavingcome,wrought
whatRussiansofallpartiesregardasapoliticalpatch-
workofvariegatedinjusticemoreodiousfar,because
372
ATTITUDE TOWARD RUSSIA
itsauthorsclaimedtobeconsideredasthedevotedfriends
oftheirvictimsandthechampionsofright . Whereas
theBrest-LitovskTreatyprovidedforafederativeSlav
state,withprovincialdietsandafederalparliament,the
systemsubstitutedbytheAlliesconsistedincarvingup
Russiaintoanever-increasingnumberofseparatestates,
someofwhichcannotlivebythemselves,indebarring
theinhabitantsfromavoiceinthematter,increatinga
permanentagencyforforeignintervention,andignoring
Russia'srighttoreparationfromthecommonenemy.
TheRussianswerenotaskedeveninformallytosay
whattheythoughtorfeltaboutwhatwasbeingdone .
Thisprovinceandthatweresuccessivelyloppedoffina
lordlywaybystatesmenwhoaimedatbeingclassedas
impartialdispensersofjusticeandsowersoftheseeds
ofpeace,butwereunacquaintedwiththeconditionsand
eschewedinvestigation . Here,atallevents,theusual
symptomsofhesitancyandprocrastinationwereabsent
.
Swiftresolveandthoroughnessmarkedthedisintegrating
actionbywhichtheyunwittinglypreparedthebattle-
fieldsofthefuture .
NobodyacquaintedwithRussianpsychologyimagines
thatthefeelingsofahigh-souledpeoplecanbetransformed
bygiftsoffood,money,ormunitionsmadetosomeof
theirfellow-countrymen . HowlittlelikelyRussiansare
tobarteridealboonsformaterialadvantagesmaybe
gatheredfromanincidentworthnotingthatoccurredin
themonthsofAprilandMay,whenthefallofthecapital
intothehandsoftheanti-Bolshevistwasconfidently
expected .
Atthattime,
as
itchanced,theonethingnecessary
fortheirsuccessagainstBolshevismwasthecaptureof
Petrograd. Ifthatcity,which,despiteitscosmopolitan
character,stillretaineditsimportanceasthecenterof
politicalRussia,couldbewrestedfromthetenacious
3. 73
THE INSIDE STORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
graspofLeninandTrotzky,thefalloftheanarchist
dictatorswas,peopleheld,aforegoneconclusion .
The
friendsofKolchakaccordinglypressedeverylevertoset
themachineryinmotionforthemarchagainstPeter's
city . Andas,ofallhelpers,theFinnsandEsthonians
wereadmittedlythe mostefficacious,conversations
werebegunwiththeirleaders . Theywerereadyto
drive a bargain,butitmustbeahardandlucrativeone .
TheywouldmarchonPetrogradforaprice . Theprin-
cipalconditionwhichtheylaiddownwastheexpress
anddefiniterecognitionoftheircompleteindependence
withinfrontierswhichitwouldbeunfruitfulheretodis-
cuss . TheKolchakgovernmentwasreadytotreat
withtheFinnishCabinet,asthe de facto government,
andtorecognizeFinland'spresentstatusforwhatitis
ininternational law ; butastheycouldnotgivewhat
theydidnotpossess,theirrecognitionmust,theyex-
plained,beliketheirownauthority,provisional . A
similarreplywasmadetotheEsthonians
;tothisthose
peoplesdemurred . TheRussiansstoodfirmandthe
negotiationsfellthrough . Itistobesupposedthatwhen
theyhaverecoveredtheirformerstatustheywillprove
moreamenabletotheblandishmentsoftheAlliesthan
theyweretothepowerfulbribedangledbeforetheireyes
bytheEsthoniansandtheFinns?
Butiftheimprovisedarrangementsentailingdismem-
bermentwhichtheGreatPowersimposedonRussia
duringhercataleptictrancearerevised,astheymaybe,
wheneversherecoversconsciousnessandstrength,what
coursewilleventsthenfollow? Ifsheseekstoregather
underherwingsomeofthepeopleswhosecomplete
independencetheLeagueofNationswassoeagerto
guarantee,willthatbodyrespondtotheappealofthese
andflytotheirassistance?
Russia,whohasnotbeen
consulted,willnotbeas
boundby
thecanonsofthe
374
ATTITUDE
TOWARD RUSSIA
League, andoneneednotbeaprophettoforetellthe
reluctanceofWesternarmiestowageanotherwarin
ordertopreventterritories,ofwhichsomeofthepleni-
potentiariesmayhaveheardaslittleasofTeschen,
becomingagainintegralpartsoftheSlavstate
. Europe
maythenseeitspoliticalaxisoncemoreshiftedandits
outlookobscured . Thusthesystemofequilibrium,
whichwastheoreticallyabolishedbytheFourteenPoints,
maybere-establishedbythehundredandoneeconomico-
politicalchangeswhichRussia'srecoverywillcontribute
tobringabout
.
Adecadeisbutatwinklinginthehistoryofanation
.
WithinafewyearsRussiamayoncemorebeunited.
Thearmythatwillhaveachievedthisfeatwillcon-
stituteaformidableweaponinthehandsofthestate
thatwieldsit. Aseverything,evenmilitarystrength,
isrelative,andasthearmiesoftherestofEuropewillnot
beimpatienttofightintheEast,andwillthereforecount
forconsiderablylessthantheirnumbers,therewillbeno
realdangerofaninvasion . Russiaisacountryeasytoget
into,buthardtogetoutof,andmilitarysuccessagainst
itsarmiestherewouldinveritybeavictorywithoutglory,
annexation,indemnities,orotherappreciablegains .
Itishardtobelievethatthedistinguishedstatesmen
oftheConferencetooktheseeventualitiesfullyinto
accountbeforeattemptingtoreshapeamorphousRussia
aftertheirownvagueideal . Butwhetherweassesstheir
workbythestandardsofpoliticalscienceorofinterna-
tionalethics,orexplainitasaseriesofwell-meant
expedientsbegottenbythepracticallogicofmomentary
convenience,wemustconfessthatitsgiftedauthors
lackedadirecteyeforthewaywardtidesofnational
andinternationalmovements
;were,infact,smittenby
politicalblindness,anddidthebesttheycouldinthese
distressingcircumstances
.
375
XI
BOLSHEVISM
W
HATisBolshevism?
Agenerictermthatstands
foranumberofthingswhichhavelittleincommon
.
Itvarieswiththecountrieswhereitappears
. InRussia
itisthedespotismofanorganizedandunscrupulous
groupofmeninadisorganizedcommunity .
Itmightalso
betermedthefrenzyofafewepilepticsrunningamuck
amongamultitudeofparalytics .
Itisnotsomucha
politicaldoctrineorasocialisttheoryasapsychicdisease
ofasectionofthecommunitywhichcannotbecured
withoutleavingpermanenttracesandperhapsmodifying
certainorganicfunctionsofthesocietyaffected . For
somestudentsatadistancewhomakeabstractionfrom
itsmethods-asacriticappreciatingtheperformanceof
"Hamlet"mightmakeabstractionfromthepartofthe
PrinceofDenmark-itisamodificationofthetheoryof
KarlMarx,thenewestcontributiontolatter-daysocial
science
. InRussia,atanyrate,thegeneralconditionof
societyfromwhichitsprangwascharacterizednotby
theadvanceofsocialscience,butby a
psychicdisorderthe
germsofwhich,afteracenturyofincubation,werebrought
tothefinalphase of developmentby
. thewar . Inits
originsitisapathologicalphenomenon .
Fourandahalfyearsofanunprecedentedcampaign
whichdrainedtoexhaustionthefinancialandeconomic
resourcesoftheEuropeanbelligerentsupsetthepsychical
equilibriumoflargesectionsoftheirpopulations . Goaded
37 6
BOLSHEVISM
byhungeranddiseasetolawlessaction,andnolonger
heldbackbylegaldeterrentsormoralchecks,theyfol-
lowedtheinstinctofself-preservationtotheextentof
criminallawlessness . Familiaritywithdeathandsuf-
feringdispelledthefearofhumanpunishment,while
numbnessofthemoralsensemadetheminsensibletothe
lessimmediaterestraintsofareligiouscharacter . These
phenomenaarenotunusualconcomitantsofprotracted
wars . Historyrecordsnumerousexamplesofthehome-
comingsoldieryturningtheweaponsdestinedforthe
foreignfoeagainstpoliticalpartiesorsocialclassesintheir
owncountry. InotherEuropeancommunitiesforsome
timepreviouslyatendencytowardroot-reachingand
violentchangewasperceptible,butasthestateretained
itsholdonthearmyitremainedatendency . Inthe
caseofRussia-thecountrywherethestate,morethan
ordinarilyartificialandill-balanced,wascorrespondingly
weak-Fatehadinterpolatedablood-stainedpage of
redandwhiteterrorintheyears19o6-o8 . Although
fitful,unorganized,andabortive,thatwildsplutterwas
oneoftheforetokensoftheimpendingcataclysm,and
wasrecognizedassuchbythewriterofthesepages .
Duringtheforegoingquarterofacenturyhehadwatched
withinterestthesowingofthedragon'steethfromwhich
wasonedaytospringuparaceofarmedandfrenzied
men. Fewobservers,however,evenintheTsardom,
gagedthestrengthorforesawtheeffectsoftheanarchist
propagandawhichwasbeingcarriedonsuasivelyand
perseveringly,oftentimesunwittingly,inthenursery,the
school,thechurch,theuniversity,andwitheminent
successinthearmyandthenavy . Hencethewidespread
errorthattheRussianrevolutionwasprecededbyno
sucheraofpreparationasthatoftheencylopedistsin
France .
Recently,however,publicistshavegonetotheother
377
THE INSIDE
STORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
extremeandassertedthatDostoyevsky,Tolstoy,Gorky,
andahostofotherRussianwriterswereapostlesofthe
tenetswhichhavesincereceivedthenameofBolshevism,
andthatitwastheywhopreparedtheRussianupheaval
justasitwastheauthorsofthe"Encyclopedia"who
preparedtheFrenchRevolution
. Inthissweepingform
thestatementismisleading
. Russianliteratureduring
thereignsofthelastthreeTsars-withfewexceptions,
likethewritingsofLeskoff-wasunquestionablya
vehicleforthespreadofrevolutionaryideas
. Butit
wouldbeagrossexaggerationtoassertthattheend
deliberatelypursuedwasthatformofanarchywhichis
knownto-dayasBolshevism,or,indeed,genuineanarchy
inanyform
. TolstoyandGorkymaybecountedamong
theforerunnersofBolshevism,butDostoyevsky,whomI
wasprivilegedtoknow,wasoneofitskeenestantagonists .
Norwasitonlyanarchismthathecombated
. Like
Leskoff,hewasaninveterateenemyofpoliticalradicalism,
andweuniversitystudentsborehimagrudgeincon-
sequence . Inhismasterlydelineation
1 ofagroupof
"reformers,"inparticularofVerkhovensky-whom
psychictendency,intellectualanarchy,andpolitical
crimebringunderthecategoryofBolshevists-hefore-
shadowedthelogicalconclusion,andlikewisethepolitical
consummation,ofthecorrosivedoctrineswhichinthose
dayswereassociatedwiththenameofBakunin
. Inthe
year
1905-o6,
whentheupshotoftheconflictbetween
Tsarismandtherevolutionwasstilldoubtful,Count
WitteandIoftenadmiredthemarvelousintuitionofthe
greatnovelist,whosegalleryofportraitsinthe"Devils"
seemedtohavebecomesuddenlyendowedwithlife,and
tobeconspiring,shooting,andbomb-throwinginthe
streetsofMoscow,Petersburg,Odessa,andTiflis
. The
seed
sofsocialrevolutionsownbythenovelists,essayists,
1
Inthe Biessy (Devils) .
378
BOLSHEVISM
andprofessionalguidesofthenationwereforcedbythe
warsof 1904 and
1914
intorapidgermination .
Asfarbackastheyear 1892, inaworkpublishedover
apseudonym,thepresentwriterdescribedtherotten
conditionoftheTsardom,andventuredtoforetellits
speedycollapse . 'TheFrenchhistorianMicheletwrote
withintuitionmarredbyexaggerationandacerbity
"Abarbarousforce,alaw-hatingworld,Russiasucks
andabsorbsallthepoisonofEuropeandthengivesit
offingreaterquantityanddeadlierintensity . When
weadmitRussia,weadmit - thecholera,dissolution,
death . ThatisthemeaningofRussianpropaganda .
Yesterdayshesaidtous, ' IamChristianity . 'To-
morrowshewillsay,`Iamsocialism. ' Itistherevolting
ideaofademagogywithoutanidea,aprinciple,asenti-
ment,ofapeoplewhichwouldmarchtowardthewest
withthegaitofablindman,havinglostitssoulandits
willandkillingatrandom,ofaterribleautomatonlikea
deadbodywhichcanstillreachandslay .
. "ItmightcommoveEuropeandbespatteritwithblood,
butthatwouldnothinderitfromplungingitselfinto
nothingnessintheabysmaloozeofdefinitedissolution . "
Russia,then,ledbydomiciledalienswithoutafather-
land,maybetrulysaidtohavebeenwendingsteadily
towardtherevolutionaryvortexlongbeforetheoutbreak
ofhostilities. Herprogresswascontinuousandpercep-
tible . Asfarbackastheyear19o6thelateCountWitte
andmyselfmadeaguessatthetime-distancewhichthe
nationstillhadtotraverse,assumingtherateofprogress
tobeconstant,beforereachingtheabyss
. This,however,
wasmereguesswork,whichoneofthemanypossibilities
-andinespecialchangeinthespeed-rate-mightbelie
.
Ineffect,eventsmovedsomewhatmorequicklythanwe
' RussianCharacteristics,by E. B . Lanin(Eblanin . a Russianword
whichmeansnativeofDublin,Eblana) .
379
THE
INSIDE STORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
anticipated,anditwastheWorldWaranditsappalling
concomitantsthatprecipitatedthecatastrophe .
Ascircumstanceswilledit,certainlayersofthepeople
ofcentralEuropewerealsopossessedbytherevolutionary
spiritatthecloseoftheWorldWar . Intheircasehunger,
hardship,disease,andmoralshockweretheavenuesalong
whichitmovedandreachedthem
. Thiscoincidencewas
fraughtwithresultsmoreimpressivethanserious . The
governmentsofboththesegreatpeopleshadlongbeen
themainstaysofmonarchictradition,militarydiscipline,
andtheprincipleofauthority . TheTeutons,steadily
pursuinganidealwhichlayattheoppositepoletoanar-
chy,hadriskedeveryworldlyandwell-nigheveryspirit-
ualpossessiontorealizeit . Itwasthehegemonyofthe
world . Thisaspirationtransfigured,possessed,fanati=
cizedthem . TeutondombecametothemwhatIslamis
toMohammedansofeveryrace,evenwhentheyshake
offreligion . Theyeschewednomeans,howeveriniqui-
tous,thatseemedtoleadtothegoal . Theyceasedtobe
humaninordertoforceEuropetobecomeGerman .
Offeringuptheelementaryprinciplesofmoralityonthe
altarofpatriotism,theystakedtheiralluponthesingle
ventureofthewar . Itwasasthethrowofagambler
playingforhissoulwiththeEvilOne .
Yetthefaithof
thesematerialistswaxedheroicwithal,liketheirself-
sacrifice . Andinthefieryardoroftheirenthusiasm,hard
concretefactsweredissolvedandsetfloatingasillusions
intheambientmist . Theirwishesbecamethoughtsand
theirfearsweredispelledasfancies . Theybeheldonly
whattheyyearnedfor,andwhenatlasttheydropped
fromthedizzyheightoftheircastlesincloudlandtheir
wholeworld,era,andidealwasshattered . Unavailing
remorse,impotentrage,spiritualandintensephysicalex-
haustioncompletedtheirdemoralization . Themorehar-
riedandrecklessamongthembecamefrenzied . Turning
380
BOLSHEVISM
firstagainsttheirrulers,thenagainstoneanother,they
finallystarteduponaworkofwantondestructionrelieved
bynocreativeidea .
Itwasatthistime-pointthatthey
endeavoredtojoinhandswiththeirtumultuousEastern
neighbors,andthattheoneword"Bolshevism"connoted
therevolutionarywavethatsweptoversomeoftheSlav
andGermanlands .
Butonlyforamoment. Onemay
safelyassert,asageneralproposition,thatthesame
undertaking,iftheGermansandtheRussianssettheir
handstoit,becomesforthwithtwoseparateenterprises,
sodifferentaretheconceptionsandmethodsofthesetwo
peoples . Bolshevismwasalmostemptiedofitscontents
bytheGermans,andlittleleftofitbuttheemptyshell
.
Comparisonsbetweentheorgasmsofcollectivemadness
whichaccompaniedtheRussianwelter,ontheonehand,
andtheFrenchRevolution,ontheother,areunfruitful
andoftenmisleading .
Itistruethatattheoutsetthose
spasmsofdeliriumwereinbothcasesviolentreactions
againstabusesgrownwell-nighunbearable . Itisalsoa
factthattherevolutionistsderivedtheirpreterhuman
forcefromhistoriceventswhichhadeitherdenudedthose
abusesoftheirsecularprotectionorinspiredtheirvictims
withwonder-workingfaithintheirpowertosweepthem
away. Butafterthisinitialstagethelikenessvanishes
.
TheFrenchRevolution,whichextinguishedfeudalismas
asystemandthenobilityasaprivilegedclass,speedily
ceasedtobeameredissolvent . Initslatterphasesit
assumedaconstructivecharacter .
Incidentallyitcreated
muchthatwashelpfulinsubstanceifnotbeautifulin
form,andfromthebeginningitadoptedapositivedoc-
trineasoldasChristianity,butnewinitsapplicationto
thepoliticalsphere . Thus,althoughituprootedquanti-
tiesofwheattogetherwiththetares,itsgeneraleffectwas
topreparethegroundforanewharvest .
Ithadadis-
tinctlysocialpurpose,whichitpartiallyrealized
. Nor
38I
THE INSIDE STORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
shoulditbeforgottenthatinthepsychologicalsphereit
kindledatransientoutburstofquasi-religiousenthusiasm
amongitspartizans,imbuedthemwithapostoliczeal,in-
spiredthemwithamarvelousspiritofself-abnegation,
andnervedtheirarmstofar-resonantexploits. Andthe
forceswhichtherevolutionthussetfreechangedmanyof
theformsoftheEuropeanworld,butwithoutreshaping
itaftertheimageoftheideal .
HasthewitheringblightknownasBolshevismanysuch
redeemingtraitstoitscreditaccount? Theconsensusof
opiniondowntothepresentmomentgivesanemphatic,
ifsummary,answerinthenegative . Everyregionover
whichitsweptisblockedwithheapsofunsightlyruins
.
Ithasdepreciatedallmoralvalues . Itpassedlikeator-
nado,spendingitsenergiesindemolition . Ofconstruc-
tionhardlyatracehasbeendiscerned,evenbyindulgent
explorers . ' Onemightlikenittoaso-calledpossession
bythespiritofevil,wontofyoretousethehumanorgans
ashisownforwordsoffollyanddeedsofiniquity . Bol-
shevismhasoperateduniformlyasaquicksolventofthe
socialorganism . DoubtlessEuropeansocietyin1917
sorelyneededpurgingbydrasticmeans,butonlyafanatic
wouldsaythatitdeservedannihilation .
Ithasbeenvariouslyaffirmedthatthepoliticalleaven
ofthesedestructivefermentsineasternandcentralEu-
ropewaswholesome . SlavsandGermans,itisargued,
stungbythebankruptcyoftheirpoliticalsystems,re-
solvedtoalterthemonthelinesofuniversalsuffrageand
itscorollaries,butwerecarriedfartherthantheymeant
togo . Thismildjudgmentisbasedonaverypartial
I Eaucationalreformshavebeenmentionedamongitsachievementsand
attributedtoLunatcharsky . Thatheexertedhimselftospreadelementary
instructionmustbeadmitted . Butthisprogressandtheeffectiveprotec-
tionandencouragementwhichhehasundoubtedlyextendedtoartsand
scienceswouldseemtoexhaustthelistofitemsinthecreditaccountofthe
Bolshevistregime .
3
8
2
BOLSHEVISM
surveyofthephenomena
.
Theimprovementinquestion
wasthework,notoftheBolshevists,butoftheiradver-
saries,themoderatereformers . Andthepoliticalstriv-
ingsofthesehadnoorganicnexuswiththedoctrinewhich
emanatedfromthenethermostdepthsinwhichvengeful
pariahs,outlaws,andbenightednihilistswerefloundering
beforesuffocatingintheoozeofanarchism . Neithercan
onediscernanydegreeofkinshipbetweenSpartacistslike
EichhornorLeninandmoderatereformersasrepresented,
say,byTheodorWolffandBorisSavinkoff . Thetwo
pairsaresunderedfromeachotherbythedistancethat
separatesthesocialandtheanti-socialinstinct . Those
arevulgariconoclasts,thesearewould-beworld-builders .
ThattheRussian,or,indeed,theGerman
constitu-
tionalreformersshouldhavehuggedthedelusionthat
whilethroneswerebeinghurledtotheground,andan
epochwaspassingawayinviolentconvulsions,afew
alterationsintheelectorallawwouldrestoreorderand
bringbacknormalconditionstotheagonizingnations,is
aninstructiveillustrationoftheblurredvisionwhichchar-
acterizescontemporarystatesmen . TheAnglo-Saxondel-
egatesattheConferencewereunderasimilardelusion
whentheyundertooktoregeneratetheworldbyaseries
of . merelypoliticalchanges .
Noonewhohasfollowedattentivelytheworkofthe
constitution-makersinWeimarcanhave
overlooked
theirreadinesstoadoptandassimilatethepositiveele-
mentsofamovementwhichwasessentiallydestructive .
Inthisrespecttheydisplayedaremarkabledegreeofopen-
mindednessandreceptivity .
Theyshowedthemselves
avidofeverycontributionwhichtheycouldgleanfrom
anysourcetotheworkofnationalreorganization,and
eveninTeutonizedBolshevismtheyapparentlyfound
helpfulhintsoftimelyinnovations
. Onemaysafely
hazardthepredictionthattheseadaptations,however
3 8 3
THE INSIDE
STORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
littletheymayberelished,arecertaintospreadto
theWesternpeoples,whowillbeconstrainedtoaccept
theminthelongrun,andGermanymayendbybecoming
theeconomicleaderofdemocraticEurope
. Thelawof
politico-socialinterchangeandassimilationunderlying
thisphenomenon,haditbeenunderstoodbythestates-
menoftheEntente,mighthaverenderedthemless
desirousofseeingtheGermanorganismtaintedwiththe
germsofdissolution . ForwhatGermanyborrowsfrom
Bolshevismto-daywesternEuropewillborrowfrom
Germanyto-morrow . Andforemostamongthenew
institutionswhichtherevolution
willimposeupon
EuropeisthatoftheSoviets,considerablymodifiedin
formandlimitedinfunctions
.
"IntheconceptionoftheSovietsystem,"writesthe
mostinfluentialJewish-GermanorganinEurope,"there
isassuredlysomethingserviceable,anditbehoovesusto
familiarizeourselvestherewith .
Psychologically,itrests
upontheneedfeltbytheworking-mantobesomething
morethanamerecogintheindustrialmechanism
. The
firststepwouldconsistinconferringuponlaborcom-
mitteesjuridicalfunctionsconsonantwith latter-day
requirements. Thesefunctionswouldextendbeyond
thoseexercisedbythelaborcommitteeshitherto
. How
fartheycouldgowithoutrenderingtheindustrialenter-
priseimpossibleisamatterforinvestigation . . . . This
isnotmerelyawishoftheextremists ;itisapsychologi-
calrequirement,andthereforeitnecessitatestheestab-
lishmentofaclosernexusbetweenlegislationandpracti-
callifewhichunhappilyisbecomesocomplicated . And
thisneedisnotconfinedtothelaboringclass . Itis
universal . Therefore,what is goodfortheoneismeet
fortheother . " 1
The
Sovietsystemadaptedtomodernexistenceisone
1 FrankfurterZ eitung, February 28, 1919 .
3 84
BOLSHEVISM
-andprobablythesole-legacyofBolshevismtothe
newage
.
DuringthePeaceConferenceBolshevismplayeda
largepartintheworld'saffairs . Bysomeoftheeminent
lawgiversthereitwasfearedasascourge ;byothersit
waswieldedasaweapon,andbyathirdsetitwasem-
ployedasathreat . Wheneveradelegateofoneofthe
lesserstatesfeltthathewaslosinggroundatthePeace
Table,andthathiscountry'sdemandswereabouttobe
whittleddownasextravagant,hewouldpointsignificantly
tocertain"foretokens"ofanoutbreakofBolshevism
inhiscountryandclassthemasaninevitableconsequence
ofthenation'sdisappointment . Thustherepresentative
ofnearlyeverystatewhichhadaterritorialprogram
declaredthatthatprogrammustbecarriedoutifBol-
shevismwastobeavertedthere . "ThisorelseBol-
shevism"wastheperorationofmanyadelegate's expose .
Moreredoubtablethanpoliticaldiscontentwastheprose-
lytizingactivityoftheleadersofthemovementinRussia .
OfthetwopillarsofBolshevismoneisaRussian,the
otheraJew,theformer,Ulianoff(betterknownasLenin),
thebrain ;theother,Braunstein(calledTrotzky),the
armofthesect
. Trotzkyisanunscrupulousdespot,in
whoseveinsflowsthepoisonofmalignity . Hiselement
iscruelty,hisspecialgiftisorganizingcapacity. Lenin
isaUtopian,whosefanaticism,althoughextensive,has
well-definedlimits
. Incertainthingshedisagreespro-
foundlywithTrotzky . Heresemblesareligiouspreacher
inthis,thathecreatedabodyofveritabledisciplesaround
himself. Hemightbelikenedtoapopewith a college
ofinternationalcardinals
. ThushehasFrench,British,
German,Austrian,Czech,Italian,Danish,Swedish,
Japanese,Hindu,Chinese,Buryat,andmanyotherfol-
lowers,whoarechiefsofproselytizingsectionscharged
withtheworkofspreadingtheBolshevikevangelthrough-
3 8 5
THE INSIDE STORY OFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
outtheglobe,andareworkinghardtodischargetheir
duties . Lenin,however,dissatisfiedwiththemeasures
ofsuccessalreadyattained,isconstantlystimulating
hisdisciplestomorestrenuousexertions . Heshares
withothersectarianchiefswhohaveplayedaprominent
partintheworld'shistorythatindefinablequalitywhich
stirsemotionalsusceptibilityandrendersthosewho
approachhimmoreeasilyaccessibletoideastoward
whichtheybeganbymanifestingrepugnance . Lenin
iscrediblyreportedtohavemadeseveralconvertsamong
hisWesternopponents .
Theplenipotentiaries,duringthefirstfourmonths,
approachedBolshevismfromasingledirection,unvaried
bytheeventswhichitgeneratedorthemodifications
whichitunderwent .
Theytesteditsolelybyitsacci-
dentalbearingsontheoneaimwhichtheywereintenton
securing-aformalandprovisionalresettlementofEurope
capableofbeingpresentedtotheirrespectiveparliaments
asafairachievement . Withitsrealcharacter,itsmani-
foldcorollaries,itsinnovatingtendenciesoverthesocial,
political,andethnicaldomain,theywereforthetime
beingunconcerned . Withouttheslightestreferenceto
anyoftheseconsiderationstheywerereadytofinda
placeforitinthenewstatesystemwithwhichthey
hopedtoendowtheworld
. Morethanoncetheywereon
thepointofgivingitofficialrecognition . Therewasno
preliminarytesting,sifting,orexaminingbytheseempiri-
cists,who,findingBolshevismontheirway,anddis-
cerningnofacilemeansofdislodgingortransformingit,
signifiedtheirwillingnessundereasyconditionstohall-
markandincorporateitasoneoftheelementsofthenew
ordering . Fromthecrimeslaidtoitschargetheywere
preparedtomakeabstraction . Thebarbarousmethods
towhichitoweditsveryexistencetheywerewillingto
consigntooblivion . Anditwasonlyafreakofcircum-
386
BOLSHEVISM
stancethathinderedthisembodimentofdespotismfrom
beginningoneoftheiracceptedmeansofrenderingthe
worldsafefordemocracy .
PoliticalstudentsoutsidetheConference,goingfarther
intothematter,inquiredwhethertherewasanykernel
oftruthinthedoctrinesofLenin,anysocialorpolitical
advantageinthepracticesofBraunstein(Trotzky),and
theconclusionswhichtheyreachedwerenegative
. 'But
inquiriesofthistheoreticalnatureawakenednointerest
amongtheempiricistsoftheSupremeCouncil
. For
themBolshevismmeantnothingmorethanagroupof
politicians,whodirected,ormisdirected,butcertainly
representedthebulkoftheRussianpeople,andwho,if
wonoverandgatheredunderthecloakoftheConference,
wouldfacilitateitstaskandbearwitnesstoitstriumph .
This
. inference,drawnbykeenobserversfrommany
countriesandparties,isborneoutbythecuriousadmis-
sionsandabortiveactsoftheprincipalplenipotentiaries
themselves.
InitsmildermanifestationsonthesocialsideRussian
Bolshevismresemblescommunism,andmaybedescribed
asasocialrevolutioneffectedbydeprivingonesetof
people-therulingandintelligentclass-ofpower,prop-
erty,andcivilrights,puttinganotherandlessqualified
sectionintheirplace,andmaintainingthetop-heavy
structurebyforceruthlesslyemployed
. Far-reaching
thoughthischangeundoubtedlyis,ithasnonexuswith
Marxismorkindredtheories
. Itsproximatecauseswere
many :
such,forexample,asthebreakdownofatyran-
nicalsystemofgovernment,stateindebtednesssovast
thatitswallowedupprivatecapital,thedepreciationof
money,andthecorrespondingappreciationoflabor
. It
iA"succinctbutinterestingstudyofthisquestionappearedinthe
Han-
dels-Z eitun of the
BerlinerTageblatt, over
thesignatureofDr . Felix
Pinner,July 20, 1918 .
26
387
THEINSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
isfair,therefore,tosaythatariseinthecostofproduc-
tionandthetemporarysubstitutionofoneclassfor
anothermarktheextenttowhichpoliticalforcesrevolu-
tionizedthesocialfabric . Beyondtheselimitstheydid
notgo . Thenotionhadbeenwidespreadinmostcoun-
tries,anddeep-rootedinRussia,thatapoliticalupheaval
wouldeffectaroot-reachingandlastingalterationinthe
forcesofsocialdevelopment . ItwasadoptedbyLenin,
afanaticoftheRobespierretype,butfarsuperiorto
Robespierreinwill-power,insight,resourcefulness,and
sincerity,who,havingseizedthereinsofpower,madethe
experiment .
ItisnoeasymattertoanalyzeLenin'seconomicpolicy,
becauseoftheveilofmistthatconcealssomuchofRus-
siancontemporaryhistory
. Oursourcesareconfinedto
theuntrustworthystatementsofacensoredpressand
travelers'tales .
ButitiscommonknowledgethattheBolshevistdic-
tatorrequisitionedand"nation
aliz
ed"`thebanks,took
factories,workshops,andplantsfromtheirownersand
handedthemovertotheworkmen,deprivedlandedpro-
prietorsoftheirestates,andallowedpeasantstoappro-
priatethem
. Itisinthematterofindustry,however,
thathisexperimentismostinterestingasshowingthe
practicalvalueofMarxismasapolicyandtheability
oftheBolshevikstodealwithdelicatesocialproblems
.
ThehistoricdecreeissuedbytheMoscowgovernmenton
thenationalizationofindustryaftertheopeningexperi-
menthadbrokendowncontainsdataenoughtoenable
onetoaffirmthatLeninhimselfjudgedMarxisminap-
plicableeventoRussia,andleftitwherehehadfoundit
-amongtheidealsofamillennialfuture
. Thatukase
orderedthegradualnationaliz
ationofallprivateindus-
trieswithacapitalofnotlessthanonemillionrubles,
butallowedtheownerstoenjoythegratuitoususufruct
388
BOLSHEVISM
oftheconcern,providedthattheyfinancedandcarried
itonasbefore . Consequently,although
in theorythe
businesswastransferredtothestate,inrealitythe
capitalistretainedhisplaceandhisprofitsasunderthe
oldsystem
. Consequently,theprincipalaimsofso-
cialism,whicharethedistributionoftheproceedsof
industryamongthecommunityandtheretentionofa
certainsurplusbythestate,weremissed . IntheBolshe-
vistprocedurethestateiswhollyeliminatedexceptfor
thepurposeofupholdingafiction . Itreceivesnothing
fromthecapitalist,notevenaroyalty .
TheSlavisadreamerwhosesenseoftherealis
oftendefective . Heloseshimselfinvaguegeneral-
itiesandpithlessabstractions . Thus,beforeopening
aschoolhewillspinoutatheoryofuniversaledu-
cation,andthenbemoanhislackofresourcestoreal-
izeit .
True,manyofthechiefsofthesect-forit
isundoubtedlyasectwhenitisnotacriminalcon-
spiracy,andveryoftenitisboth-werenotSlavs,
butJews,who,forthebehoofoftheirkindred,dropped
theirSemiticnamesandadoptedsonorousSlavsubsti-
tutes.
Buttheyweremostunscrupulouspeculators,in-
capableoftakinganinterestinthescientificaspectof
suchmatters,andhypnotizedbythedreamsoflucrewhich
theopportunityevoked . Onehasonlytocalltomind
someoftheshabbytransactionsinwhichtheSemitic
DictatorofHungary,Kuhn,orCohen,andBraunstein
(Trotzky)ofPetrograd,tookanactivepart . Theformer
issaidtohaveofferedforsalethehistoriccrownof
St . StephenofHungarywhichtohimwasbutaplain
goldheadgearadornedwithpreciousstonesandajeweled
cross-toanoldcuriositydealerofMunich,'andwhen
solemnlyprotestingthathewaslivingonlyfortheSoviet
' Of. Bonsoir,July 29,i9i9 . Thepricewasnotfixed,buttheminimum
wasspecified . Itwasonehundredthousandkronen.
389
THEINSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
Republicandwasreadytodieforit,hewasactivelyen-
gagedinsmugglingoutofHungaryintoSwitzerlandfifty
millionkronenbonds,thirty-fivekilogramsofgold,and
thirtychestsfilledwithobjectsofvalue . 'Hiscolleague
Szamuelly'splunderisamatterofhistory .
Tosuchadventurersasthosescienceisadrug . They
areprimitivebeingsimpressiblemainlytoconcretemo-
tivesofthebarestkind . ThedupesofLeninwerepeople
ofadifferenttype . Manyofthemfanciedthatthegreat
politicalclashmustinevitablyresultinanequallygreat
andsalutarysocialupheaval . Thisassumptionhasnot
beenborneoutbyevents .
Thosefanaticsfellintoanothererror ;theywereina
hurry,andwouldfainhaveeffectedtheirgreattransforma-
tionasbythewavingofamagician'swand
. Impatient
ofgradation,theyscornedtotraversethedistancebe-
tweenthepointofdepartureandthatofthegoal,andby
wayofsettingupthe . newsocialstructurewithoutdelay,
theyrolledawayallhindrancesregardlessofconsequences .
Inthisspiritofabsolutismtheyabolishedtheservices
ofthenationaldebt,struckouttheclaimsofRussia's
creditorstotheircapitalorinterest,andturnedtheshops
andfactoriesovertolaborboards. Thatwastheinitial
blunderwhichtheukasealludedtowassubsequently
issuedtorectify. Butitwastoolate . Theequilibrium
oftheforcesofproductionhadbeendefinitelyupsetand
couldnolongerberighted .
Oneofthebasicpostulatesofprofitableproductionis
theequilibriumofallitsessentialfactors-suchasthe
laborer'swages,thecostofthemachineryandthemate-
rial,theadministration. Bringdiscordintotheharmony
andtheentiremechanismisoutofgear .
TheRussianworkman,whoisatbottomanilliterate
peasantwiththeoldrootsofserfdomstillclingingtohim,
I Cf
. P
er Tag ,
Vienna,Augusti3,i9i9 .
L'EchodeParis,August15,1919
.
390
BOLSHEVISM
hasseldomanybowelsforhisneighborandnoneatallfor
hisemployer.
"GodHimselfcommandsustodespoil
suchgentry,"isoneofhissayings
. Heisinahurryto
enrichhimself,andhecaresaboutnothingelse
. Norcan
herealizethattobeggarhisneighborsistoimpoverish
himself. Hencehealwaystakesandnevergives
;asa
peasanthedestroystheforests,hewingtreesandplanting
none,androbsthesoilofitsfertility
. Onanalogouslines
hewouldfaindealwiththefactories,exactingexorbitant
wagesthateatupallprofit,andnaivelyexpectingthe
ownertogoonpayingthemasthoughhewerethetrustee
ofafundforenrichingthegreedy. Theonlypeopleto
profitbythesystem,andeventheyonlytransiently,were
themanuallaborers . Thebulkofthe skilled, intelligent,
andeducatedartisanswerehelduptocontemptandostra-
cized,orkilled
asanodiousaristocracy. That,ithas
beenaptlypointedout,'isfarremovedfromMarxism
.
TheMarxist
. doctrinepostulatestheadhesionofintelli-
gentworkerstothesocialrevolution,whereastheRussian
experimentersplacedtheminthesamecategoryasthe
capitalists,thearistocrats,andtreatedthemaccordingly
.
AnotherMarxistpostulatenotrealizedinRussiawasthat
beforethestatecouldprofitablyproceedtonationaliza-
tionthecountrymusthavebeeninpossessionofawell-
organized,smooth-runningindustrialmechanism . And
thiswaspossibleonlyinthoselandsinwhichcapitalism
hadhadalongandsuccessfulinnings,notinthegreat
Slavcountryofhusbandmen
.
BywayofglozingovertheseincongruitiesLenin'sukase
proclaimedthatthemeasuresenactedwereonlyprovi-
sional,andaimedatenablingRussiatorealizethegreat
transformationbydegrees
. Buttheimpressionconveyed
bythehistoryofthesocialsideof . Lenin'sactivityisthat
Marxism,whether as understoodbyitsauthororasinter-
1 ByDr. F . Pinner,H. Vorst,andothers.
391
THEINSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
pretedandtwistedby its Russianadherents,hasbeen
triedandfoundimpracticable. Oneisfurtherwarranted
insayingthatneitherthevisionaryworkerswhoaremoved
bymisdirectedzealforsocialimprovementnorthetheo-
ristswhoareconstantlyonthelookoutfornewand
stimulatingideasarelikelytodiscoverinRussianBolshe-
vismanyaspectbuttheonealludedtoaboveworthy
•
theirseriousconsideration .
Amuchdeepermarkwasmadeonthehistoryofthe
centurybyitsmethods .
Comparedwiththesoul-searinghorrorsletlooseduring
theBolshevistfitoffrenzy,theworstatrocitiesrecorded
• DeputyCarrierandhis noyades
duringtheFrench
Revolutionwerebutthefreaksofcompassionatehuman
beings. InBolshevistRussiabrutalityassumedforms
somonstrousthatthemodernmanoftheWestshrinks
fromconjuringupafaintpictureoftheminimagination .
Tens,perhapshundreds,ofthousandsweredonetodeath
inhellishwaysbytheordersofmenandofwomen
.
Eyesweregougedout,earshackedoff,armsandlegstorn
fromthebodyinpresenceofthevictims'childrenorwives,
whoseagonywasthusbegunbeforetheirownturncame
.
Menandwomenandinfantswereburnedalive
. Chinese
executionerswerespeciallyhiredtoinflicttheawfultort-
ureofthe"thousandslices
. " 1 Officershadtheirlimbs
brokenandwereleftforhoursinagonies
. Manyvictims
arecrediblyreportedtohavebeenburiedalive
. History,
fromitsearliestdawndowntothepresentday,hasre-
cordednothingsoprofoundlyrevoltingasthenameless
1
Thecondemnedmanistiedtoapostoracross,hismouthgagged,and
theexecutionismadetolastseveralhours
. Itusuallybeginswithaslit
• theforeheadandthepullingdownoftheskintowardthechin
. After
thelapseofacertaintimethenoseisseveredfromtheface
. Aninterval
follows,thenanearisloppedoff,andsothedevilishworkgoesonwith
longpauses
. Theskilloftheexecutionerisdisplayed
in thelengthoftime
duringwhichthevictimremainsconscious .
392
BOLSHEVISM
crueltiesin whichthesehumanfiendsreveled . Onegrue-
somepictureofthelessloathsomescenesenactedwilllive
inhistoryonalevelwiththe noyades ofNantes . Ihave
seenseveralmovingdescriptionsofitinRussianjournals .
ThefollowingaccountisfromthepenofaFrenchmarine
officer
"WehavetwoarmedcruisersoutsideOdessa. Afew
weeksagooneofthem,havinganinvestigationtomake,
sentadiverclowntothebottom . Afewminutespassed
andthealarmsignalwasheard . Hewashauledupand
quicklyrelievedofhisaccoutrements
. Hehadfainted
away . Whenhecameto,histeethwerechatteringand
theonlyarticulatesoundsthatcouldbegotfromhimwere
thewords
:`Itishorrible!Itisawful!'Aseconddiver
wasthenlowered,withthesameprocedureandalikere-
sult
. Finallyathirdwaschosen,thistimeasturdylad
ofironnerves,andsentdowntothebottomofthesea .
Afterthelapseofafewminutesthesamethinghappened
asbefore,andthemanwasbroughtup . Thistime,how-
ever,therewasnofaintingfittorecord . Onthecontrary,
althoughpalewithterror,hewasabletostatethathe
hadbeheldthesea-bedpeopledwithhumanbodiesstand-
ingupright,whichtheswayingofthewater,stillsensible
atthisshallowdepth,softlyrockedasthoughtheywere
monstrousalgae,theirhaironendbristlingvertically,and
theirarmsraisedtowardthesurface . . .
. Allthesecorpses,
anchoredtothebottombytheweightofstones,tookon
anappearanceofeerieliferesembling,onemightsay,a
forestoftreesmovedfromsidetosidebythewindand
eagertowelcomethedivercomedownamongthem . . . .
Therewere,headded,oldmen,childrennumerousbe-
yondcount,sothatonecould but comparethem to the
treesofaforest . " 1
FrompublishedrecordsitisknownthattheBolshevist
' Cf . LeFigaro, Februaryi8,x919
.
393
THE INSIDE STORY OFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
thugs,whentiredofusingtherifle,themachine-gun,the
cord,andthebayonet,expeditedmattersbydrowning
theirvictimsbyhundredsintheBlackSea,intheGulfof
Finland,andinthegreatrivers . Submarinecemeteries
wasthenamegiventotheselastresting-placesofsomeof
Russia'smosthigh-mindedsonsanddaughters . ' Itis
notintheFrenchRevolutionthatthosedeedsofwanton
destructionandrevoltingcrueltywhichareindissolubly
associatedwithBolshevismfindaparallel,butinChinese
history,whichoffersastrikingandcuriousprefiguration
oftheLeniniststructure
.
2 Towardthemiddleofthe
tenthcentury,whentheempirewasplungedindirecon-
fusion,amysticalsectwasformedthereforthepurpose
ofdestroyingbyforceeveryvestigeofthetraditional
socialfabric,andestablishingasystemofcomplete
equalitywithoutanystateorganizationwhatever,after
themanneradvocatedbyLeoTolstoy . Someofthedicta
ofthesesectarianshaveadecidedlyBolshevistflavor .
This,forexample :"Societyrestsuponlaw,property,
religion,andforce . Butlawisinjusticeandchicane ;
propertyisrobberyandextortion
;religionisuntruth,
andforceisiniquity . " InthosedaysChinesepolitical
partieswereatstrifewitheachother,andnoneofthem
scornedanymeans,howeverbrutal,toworstitsadver-
saries,butforalongwhiletheyweredividedamongthem-
selvesandwithoutacapablechief.
AtlasttheSocialistpartyunexpectedlyproduceda
leader,WangNganShen,amanofparts,whopossessed
thegiftofdrawingandswayingthemultitude
Ofagree-
1 IdonotsuggestthatthesecrimeswereorderedbyLenin . Butitwill
notbegainsaidthatneitherhenorhiscolleaguespunishedthemassmur-
derersorevenprotestedagainsttheircrimes . Neithercanitbemain-
tainedthatmassacreswereconfinedtoanyoneparty .
1
Thispre-Bolshevistmovementisdescribedinaninterestingstudyon
thesocialistmovementandsystems,downtotheyear1848,byEl
. Luzatto .
Cf
. DerBund, Augustx6,19x8 .
3 9 4
BOLSHEVISM
ablepresence,hewasresourcefulandunscrupulous,soon
becamepopular,andevencaptivated theEmperor,
ShenTsung,whoappointedhimMinister . Hethenset
aboutapplyinghistenetsandrealizinghis dreams,
WangNganShenbeganbymakingcommerceandtrade
astatemonopoly,just as
Leninhaddone,"inorder,"
heexplained,"tokeepthepoorfrombeingdevouredby
therich . " Thestatewasproclaimedthesoleownerof
allthewealthofthesoil ; agriculturaloverseerswere
despatchedtoeachdistricttodistributethelandamong
thepeasants,eachofthesereceivingasmuchasheand
hisfamilycouldcultivate . Thepeasantobtainedalso
theseed,butthishewasobligedtoreturntothestate
aftertheingatheringoftheharvest . Thepowerofthe
overseerwentfarther ;itwashewhodeterminedwhat
cropsthehusbandmanmightsowandwhofixeddayby
daythepriceofeverysalablecommodityinthedistrict .
Asthestatereservedtoitselftherighttobuyallagri-
culturalproduce,itwasboundinreturntosaveupa
partoftheprofitstobeusedforthebenefitofthepeople
inyearsofscarcity,andalsoatothertimestobeemployed
inworksneededbythecommunity . WangNganShen
alsoordainedthatonlythewealthyshouldpaytaxes,
theproceedsofwhichweretobeemployedinrelieving
thewantsofthepoor,theold,andtheunemployed.
Thetheorywassmoothandattractive .
Foroverthirtyyearsthoselawsaresaidtohave
remainedinforce,atanyrateonpaper. Towhatextent
theywerecarriedoutisproblematical
.
Probablyabe-
ginningwasactuallymade,forduringWang'stenureof
officeconfusionwasworseconfoundedthanbefore,and
miserymoreintenseandwidespread . Theopposition
tohisregimeincreased,spread,andfinallygottheupper
hand . WangNganShenwasbanished,togetherwith
thoseofhispartizanswhorefusedtoacceptthereturnto
395
THE INSIDESTORY OFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
theoldsystem. Suchwouldappeartohavebeenthe
firstappearanceofBolshevismrecordedinhistory.
Anotherlesscompleteparallel,nottotheBolshevist
theory,buttotheplightofthecountrywhichitruined,
maybefoundintheChineserebellionorganizedintheyear
185obyapeasant 1 who, havingbecomeaChristian,
fanciedhimselfcalledbyGodtoregeneratehispeople .
Heaccordinglygottogetherabandofstout-hearted
fellowswhomhefanaticized,disciplined,andtransformed
intothenucleusofastrongarmytowhichbrigands,
outlaws,andmalcontentsofeverysociallayerafterward
flocked. TheyoverrantheYangtseValley,invaded
twelveoftherichestprovinces,seizedsixhundredcities
andtowns,andputanendtotwentymillionpeoplein
thespaceoftwelveyearsbyfire,sword,andfamine . 2
TothisbloodyexpeditionHungSewTseuen,amaster
ofmoderneuphemism,gavethenameofCrusadeofthe
GreatPeace. Fortwelveyearsthis"Crusade"lasted,
anditmighthaveenduredmuchlongerhaditnotbeen
forthehelpgivenbyoutsiders . Itwastherethat
"Chinese"Gordonwonhislaurelsandaccomplisheda
beneficentwork .
TherewerepoliticiansattheConferencewhoargued
thatRussia,beinginapositionanalogoustothatof
Chinain1854,ought,likeher,tobehelpedbytheGreat
Powers
.
Itwas,theyheld,quiteasmuchintheinterests
ofEurope asinhers
. Buthoweverforcibletheirargu-
ments,theyencounteredaninsurmountableobstaclein
thefearentertainedbythechiefsoftheleadinggovern-
mentslesttheextremeoppositionalpartiesintheir
respectivecountriesshouldmakecapitaloutofthemove
andturnthemoutofoffice
. Theyinvokedtheinterests
iHungSewTseuen. Therebellionlastedfrom185otor864 .
9
ThesuperbcityofNankin,withitstemplesandporcelaintowers, was
destroyed .
3
9 6
BOLSHEVISM
ofthecauseofwhichtheywerethechampionsfordeclin-
ingtoexposethemselvestoanysuch risk . Ithasbeen
contendedwithwarmth,andpossiblywithtruth,thatif
attheoutsettheGreatPowershadintervenedtheymight
withacomparativelysmallarmyhavecrushedBolshevism
andre-establishedorderinRussia . Ontheotherhand,
itwasobjectedthatevenheavygunswillnotdestroy
ideas,andthatthemainideaswhichsuppliedtherevo-
lutionarymovementwithvitalforceweretoodeeply
rootedtohavebeenextirpatedbythemostformidable
foreignarmy . Thatistrue . Buttheseideaswerenot
especiallycharacteristicofBolshevism . Farfromthat,
theywereincompatiblewithit :thebestowalofland
onthepeasants,anequitablereformoftherelations
betweenworkmenandemployers,andtheabolitionof
thehereditaryprincipleinthedistributionofeverything
thatconfersanunfairadvantageontheindividualor
the
class
arecertainlynotpostulatesofLenin'sparty.
Itisatenablepropositionthattimelymilitaryassistance
wouldhaveenabledtheconstructiveelementsofRussia
torestoreconditionsofnormallife,buttheworthof
timelinesswasneverrealizedbytheheadsofthegovern-
mentswhoundertooktomakelawsfortheworld . They
ignoredthemaximthatastatesman,whenapplying
measures,mustkeephiseyeontheclock,inasmuchasthe
remedywhichwouldsaveanationatonemomentmay
hastenitsruinatanother .
Theexpedientsandcounter-expedientstowhichthe
Conferencehadrecourseintheirfitfulstruggleswith
Bolshevismweresomanysurprisestoeveryonecon-
cerned,andwereattimesredolentofcomedy . But
whatwaslevityandignoranceonthepartofthedelegates
meantdeath,andworsethandeath,totensofthousandsof
theirproteg€ es. InRussiatheiragentszealouslyegged
ontheorder-lovingpopulationtoriseupagainstthe
397
THE INSIDE STORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
Bolshevikiandattacktheirstrongpositions,promising
themimmediatemilitaryhelpiftheysucceeded . But
when,theseexploitshavingbeendulyachieved,theagents
wereaskedhowsoontheforeignreinforcementsmight
beexpected,theyreplied,callingforpatience . After
atimetheBolshevikiassailedthetemporaryvictors,
generallydefeatedthem,andthenputamultitudeof
defenselesspeopletothesword . Deplorableincidents
ofthisnature,whicharesaidtohaveoccurredseveral
timesduringthespringofigrg,shookthecreditofthe
Allies,andkindledafeelingofjustresentmentamong
allclassesofRussians .
XII
HOWBOLSHEVISM`WASFOSTERED
T
HEAllies,then,mighthavesolvedtheBolshevist
problembymakinguptheirmindswhichofthetwo
alternativepolitics-waragainst,ortoleranceof,Bolshe-
vism-theypreferred,andbytakingsuitableactionin
goodtime. IftheyhadhandledtheRussiantanglewith
skillandrepaidagreatsacrificewithasmallonebefore
itwasyettoolate,theymighthavehopedtoharvestin
abundantfruitsinthefullnessoftime . Buttheybelonged
totheclassoftheundecided,whosememberscontinually
sufferfromtheabsenceofamiddlewordbetweenyesand
no,connotingwhatisneitherpositivenornegative .
Theylettheopportunityslip . Notonlydidtheywith-
holdtimelysuccortoeitherside,buttheyvisitedsomeof
themostloyalRussiansinwesternEuropewiththeutmost
rigorofcoercionlaws . Theyhoundedthemdownas
enemies. Theycoopedthemupincagesasthoughthey
wereTeutonenemies. Theyencircledthemwithbarbed
wire. Theykeptmanyofthemhungryandthirsty,
deprived,themoflife'snecessariesfordays,andinsome
casesreducedthediscontented-andwhointheirplace
wouldnotbediscontented?-topicktheirfoodindust-
binsamonggarbageandrefuse . Ihaveseenofficersand
meninFrancewhohadshedtheirbloodjoyfullyforthe
EntentecausegraduallyconvertedtoBolshevismbythe
misdeedsoftheAlliedauthorities
. Inwhoseinterests?
Withwhathelpfulresults?
399
THE
INSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
Iwatchedthedevelopmentofanti-Ententismamong
thoseRussianswithpainfulinterest,and
in
favorable
conditionsforobservation,andIsaywithouthesitation
thatrancoragainsttheAlliesburnsasvehementlyand
intenselyamongtheanti-Bolshevistsasamongtheirad-
versaries .
"Mycountryasawholeisbitterlyhostile
toherformerallies,"exclaimedaneminentRussian,
"forassoonasshehadrenderedtheminestimableser-
vices,atthecostofherpoliticalexistence,theyturned
theirbacksuponherasthoughheragonywerenoaffair
oftheirs
. To-daythenationisdividedonmanyissues
.
Dissensionsandquarrelshaverivenandshattereditinto
shreds.
ButinonerespectRussiaisstillunited-inthe
vehemenceofhersentimenttowardtheAllies,whofirst
drainedherlife-bloodandthenabandonedherprostrate
bodytobeastsofprey .
Somepartofthehatredengen-
deredmighthavebeenmitigatedifrepresentativesofthe
provisionalRussiangovernmenthadbeenadmittedto
theConference
. Astatesmanwouldhaveinsistedupon
openingatleastthislittlesafety-valve .
Itwouldhave
helpedandcouldnothaveharmedtheAllies
. Itwould
haveboundtheRussianstothem
. ForRussia'sdele-
gates,themensentorempoweredbyKolchakandhis
colleaguestorepresentthem,wouldhavebeentheex-
ponentsofahelplesscommunityhoveringbetweenlite
anddeath
. Theycouldandwouldhavegonefartoward
conciliatingtheworld-dictators,towhoseleastpalatable
decisionstheymighthavehesitatedtoofferunbending
opposition
. Andthisacquiescence,howeverprovisional,
wouldhavetendedtorelievetheAlliesofasensiblepart
oftheirloadofresponsibility
. Itwouldalsohavelinked
theRussians,loosely,perhaps,butperceptibly,tothe
WesternPowers. -
Itwouldhaveimpartedasettled
EntentophildirectiontoKolchak'spolicy,andcom-
municatedittothenation.
Inshort,itmighthavedis-
400
HOW BOLSHEVISMWAS FOSTERED
pelledsomeofthestorm-cloudsthataregatheringinthe
eastofEurope . "
ButtheAllies,truetotheirwontofdrifting,putoff
alldecisiveaction,andletthingsslipandslide,forthe
Germanstoputinorder. TherewerenoRussians,
therefore,attheConference,andthereliesnoobligation
onanypoliticalgrouporpartyintheanarchistSlavstate
toholdtotheAllies . Butitwouldbeanerrortoimagine
thattheyhaveawhitesheetofpaperonwhichtotrace
theirlineofactionandwritethenamesofFranceand
Britainastheirfuturefriends . Theyarefilledwith
angrydisgustagainstthesetwoex-Allies,andofthetwo
thefeelingagainstFranceisespeciallyintense . '
Itisatruismtorepeatina
different formwhatMessrs
.
LloydGeorgeandWilsonrepeatedlyaffirmed,butap-
parentlywithoutrealizingwhattheysaid
:thatthepeace
whichtheyregardasthecrowningworkoftheirlives
deservessuchvalueasitmaypossessfromtheassumption
thatRussia,whensherecoversfromhercatalepticfit,
willbetheallyofthePowersthathavedismemberedher
.
Ifthispostulateshouldproveerroneous,Germanymay
formananti-Alliedleagueofalargenumberofnations
whichitwouldbeinvidioustoenumeratehere . Butitis
manifestthatthisconsummationwouldimperilPoland,
Czechoslovakia,andJugoslavia,andsweepawaythelast
vestigesofthepeacesettlement . Andalthoughitwould
berashtomakeaforecastofthepolicywhichnewRussia
willstrikeout,itwouldbeimpolitictoblinktheconclu-
sionstowardwhichrecenteventssignificantlypoint .
InAprilaRussianstatesmansaidtome
:"TheAllied
delegatesareunconsciouslythrustingfromthemtheonly
means bywhichtheycanstillrenderpeacedurableanda
cItisrighttosaythatduringthesummermonthsaconsiderablesection
oftheanti-BolshevistsmodifiedtheirviewofBritain'spolicy,andexpressed
gratitudefortheaidbestowedonKolchak,Denikin,andYudenitch,with-
outwhichtheirarmieswouldhavecollapsed .
401
THEINSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
fellowshipofthenationspossible . Unwittinglytheyare
augmentingtheforcesofBolshevismandraisingpolitical
enemiesagainstthemselves. Considerhowtheyarebe-
havingtowardus . RecentlyanumberofRussian pris-
onersescapedfrom'GermanytoHolland,whereuponthe
Alliedrepresentativespackedthemoffbyforceandagainst
theirwilltoDantzig,tobeconveyedthencetoLibau,
wheretheyhavebecomerecruitsoftheBolshevistRed
Guards . Thosemenmighthavebeenusefullyemployed
intheAlliedcountries,towhosecausetheyweredevoted,
butsoexasperatedweretheyattheirforcibleremovalto
Libauthatmanyofthemdeclaredthattheywouldjoin
theBofshevistforces .
"Evenourofficialrepresentativesareseeminglyin-
cludedinthecategoryofsuspects
. OurMinisterin
Pekingwasrefusedtherightofsendingcipheredtelegrams
andourcharged'affairesinaEuropeancapitalsuffered
thesamedeprivation,whiletheBolshevistenvoyenjoyed
thisdiplomaticprivilege . Acouncilorofembassyinone
Alliedcountrywasrefusedapassportvisaforanother
untilhedeclaredthatiftherefusalwereupheldhewould
returnahighorderwhich . forextraordinaryservices
hehadreceivedfromthegovernmentwhoseembassy
wasvetoinghisvisa . Onthenationalfestivalofacertain
Alliedcountrythecharged'affairesofRussiawasthe
onlymemberofthediplomaticcorpswhoreceivedno
officialinvitation . "
OnedayinJanuary,whenacrowdhadgatheredonthe
Quaid'Orsay,watchingthedelegatesfromthevarious
countries-British,American,Italian,Japanese,Ru-
manian,etc. -enterthestatelypalacetosafeguardthe
interestsoftheirrespectivecountriesandlegislatefor
thehumanrace,aRussianofficerpassed,accompanied
byanilliteratesoldierwhohadseenhardservicefirst
undertheGrandDukeNicholas,andthen in aRussian
402
HOW BOLSHEVISMWAS FOSTERED
brigadeinFrance . Thesoldiergazedwistfully at the
palace,then,turningtotheofficer,asked,"Arethey
lettinganyofourpeopleinthere?"The-officeranswered,
evasively :"Theyarethinkingitover
. Perhapsthey
will
. "Whereuponhisattendantblurtedout :"Thinking
it
over!Whatthinkingiswanted?Didwenotfight
forthemtillweweremoweddownlikegrass? Didnot
millionsofRussianbodiescoverthefields,theroads,and
thecamps?DidwenotfacetheGermangreatgunswith
onlybayonetsandsticks?Havewedonetoolittlefor
them?Whatmorecouldwehavedonetobeallowedin
therewiththeothers?Ifoughtsincethewarbegan,and
wastwicewounded
. Myfivebrotherswerecalledupat
thesametimeasmyself,and all fivehavebeenkilled,and
nowtheRussiansarenotwanted !Thedoorisshut
in
ourfaces . . . . "
SoonerorlaterRussiananarchy,likethatofChina,
willcometoanend,andtheleaderschargedwith,the
reconstitutionofthecountry,ifmenofknowledge,pa-
triotism,andcharacter,willadoptaprogramconducive
tothewell-beingofthenation
. Towhatextent,one
mayask,isitswelfarecompatiblewiththe
statusquo
ineasternEurope,whichtheAllies,distractedbycon-
flictingprinciplesandfitfulimpulse,leftorcreated
andhopetoperpetuatebymeansofaparchmentin-
strument?
ThezealwithwhichtheFrenchauthoritieswentto
worktopreventthegrowthofBolshevismintheircoun-
try,especiallyamongtheRussiansthere,isbeyonddis-
pute
. Unhappilyitprovedinefficacious . Indeed,itis
noexaggerationtosaythatitdefeateditsobjectand
producedthecontraryeffect
. Forattentionwassocom-
pletelyabsorbedbytheaimthatnoconsiderationre-
mainedoverforthemeansofattainingit
. Afewcon-
creteexampleswillbringthishometothereader
. The
27
403
THE INSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
followingnarrativesemanatefromaneminentRussian,
whoisdevotedtotheAllies .
TherewerescoresofthousandsofRussiantroopsin
France .
Mostofthemfoughtvaliantly,othershalf-
heartedly,andafewrefusedtofightatall. Butinstead
ofmakingdistinctionstheFrenchauthorities,moved
bytheinstinctof
. self-preservation,andpreferringpre-
ventiontocure,tarredthemallwiththesamebrush.
"Giveadogabadnameandhanghim,"saystheproverb,
anditwasexemplifiedinthecaseof-theRussians,who
sooncametoberegardedasa tertiumquid betweenenemies
ofpublicorderandsuspiciousneutrals . Theywerepro-
foundlymistrusted . Theirofficersweredeprivedoftheir
authorityovertheirownmenandplacedunderthecom-
mandofexcellentFrenchofficers,whocannotbeblamed
fornotunderstandingthetemperoftheSlavsnorfor
rubbingthemagainstthegrain . Theprivates,seeing
theirsuperiorsvirtuallydegraded,concludedthatthey
hadforfeitedtheirclaimtorespect,andtreated . them
accordingly
. Thatgavethedeath-blowtodiscipline
.
Theofficers,mostofwhomweredevotedheartandsoul
tothecauseoftheAllies,withwhichtheyhadfondly
identifiedtheirown,lostheart . Aftervariousattempts
togetthemselvesreinstated,theirfeelingstowardthe
nation,whichwasnowisetoblamefortheexcessivezeal
ofitspublicservants,underwentaradicalchange .
Blazingindignationconsumedwhateveraffectionthey
hadoriginallynurturedfortheFrench,andinmany
casesalsofortheotherAllies,andtheywenthometocom-
municatetheiranimustotheircountrymen . Thesoldiers,
whonowbegantobetauntedandvilipendedasBoches,
threwalldisciplinetothewindsand,feelingeveryhand
raisedagainstthem,resolvedtoraisetheirhandsagainst
everyman . Thesewerethebeginningsoftheprocessof
"bolshevization
. "
404
HOW BOLSHEVISMWAS FOSTERED
Thisanti-Russianspiritgrewintenserastimelapsed.
ThousandsofRussiansoldiersweresentouttoworkfor
privateemployers,notbytheWarMinistry,butby
theMinistryofAgriculture,underwhomtheywere
placed . Theywerefedandpaidawagewhichunder
normalcircumstancesshouldhavecontentedthem,for
itwasmorethantheyusedtoreceiveinpre-wardaysin
theirowncountry. Butthecircumstanceswerenot
normal
. SidebysidewiththemworkedFrenchmen,
manyofwhomwereunablephysicallytocompetewith
thesturdypeasantsfromPermandVyatka . Andwhen
propagandistspointedouttothemthattheFrenchworker
waspaidzoopercent. more,theybroodedoverthe
inequalityandlabeleditastheyweretold . Forover-
work,too,therateofpaywasstillmoreunequal . One
resultofthisdifferentialtreatmentwastheestrangement
ofthetworacesasrepresentedbythetwoclassesofwork-
men,andthegrowthofmutualdislike . Buttherewas
another. Whentheylearned,astheydidintime,that
theemployerwassellingtheproduceoftheirlaborata
profitof 40o and5oo,percent. ,theyhadnohesitation
aboutrepeatingtheformulassuggestedtothemby
socialistpropagandists :"Weareworkingforblood-
suckers . Thebourgeoismustbeexterminated . " In
thiswaybitternessagainsttheAlliesandhatredofthe
capitalistswereinculcatedintensofthousandsofRus-
sianswhoafewmor_thsbeforewerehonest,simple-
mindedpeasantsandwell-disciplinedsoldiers
.
Manyof
thesemen,whentheyreturnedtotheircountry,joined
theRedGuardsofBolshevismwithspontaneousardor .
Theyneedednopressing.
TherewasoneyoungofficeroftheGuards,inparticular,
namedG-,whobelongedtoaverygoodfamilyand
wasanexceptionallyculturedgentleman . Musicwashis
recreation,andhewasavirtuosoontheviolin . Inthe
405
THE INSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
warhehaddistinguishedhimselffirstontheRussian
frontandthenontheFrench . Hehadgivenofhisbest,
forhewasgrievouslywounded,hadhislefthandpara-
lyzed,andlosthispowerofplayingtheviolinforever
.
HereceivedahighdecorationfromtheFrenchgovern-
ment . FortheEnglishnationheprofessedanddisplayed
greataffection,andinparticularhereveredKingGeorge,
perhapsbecauseofhisphysicalresemblancetotheTsar.
AndwhenKingGeorge,wastovisitParisherejoiced
exceedinglyattheprospectofseeinghim . Orderswere
issuedforthetroopstocomeoutandlinetheprincipal
routesalongwhichthemonarchwouldpass . TheFrench
naturallyhadthebestplaces,butthePlacede1'Etoile
wasreservedfortheAlliedforces . G-,delighted,
wenttohissuperiorofficerandinquiredwheretheRus-
siansweretostand . Thegeneraldidnotknow,but
promisedtoascertain . Accordinglyheputthequestion
totheFrenchcommander,whoreplied :"Russiantroops?
ThereisnoplaceforanyRussiantroops
. "Withtears
inhiseyesG--recountedthisepisode,adding :"We,
whofoughtandbled,andlostourlivesorwerecrippled,
hadtoswallowthishumiliation,whilePolesandCzecho-
slovaks,whohadonlyjustarrivedfromAmericaintheir
brand-newuniforms,andhadneverbeenunderfire,had
placesallottedtotheminthepageant .
Isthatfairto
thetroopswithoutwhoseexploitstherewouldhavebeen
noPolishorCzechoslovakofficers,noFrenchvictory,no
triumphalentryofKingGeorgeVintoParis?"
XIII
SIDELIGHTS
ON THE TREATY
F
ROMthe opening of
the Conference fundamental
differencessprangupwhichsplitthedelegatesinto
twomainparties,ofwhichonewassolicitousmainly
abouttheresettlementoftheworldanditsfuturemain-
stay,theLeagueofNations,andtheotheraboutthe
furtheranceofnationalinterests,which,itmaintained,
wasequallyindispensabletoanenduringpeace . The
latterwerereadytowelcometheLeagueoncondition
thatitwasutilizedintheserviceoftheirnationalpur-
poses,butnotifitcounteredthem .
Tobridgethechasm
betweenthetwowasthetasktowhichPresidentWilson
courageouslysethishand
. Unluckily,bywayofqualify-
ingfortheexperiment,herecededfromhisownstrong
position,andhavingcuthismooringsfromoneshove,
failedtoreachtheother
. Hispristineideawasworthy
ofaworld-leader
;had,infact,beenentertainedandad-
vocatedbysomeoftheforemostspiritsofmoderntimes .
Hepurposedbringingaboutconditionsunderwhichthe
pacificprogressoftheworldmightbesafeguardedina
verylargemeasureandforanindefinitetime . Butbeing
veryimperfectlyacquaintedwiththeconcreteconditions
ofEuropeanandAsiaticpeoples-hehadneverbefore
feltthepulsationofinternationallife-hisideasaboutthe
waysandmeanswerehazy,andhiscalculationsboreno
realreferencetotheelementsoftheproblem
. Conse-
quently,withwhatseemedawidehorizonandagenerous
407
THE INSIDE
STORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
ambition,hisgraspwasneitherfirmnorcomprehensive
enoughforsucharevolutionaryundertaking .
Innocase
couldhemakeheadwaywithoutthevoluntaryco-opera-
tionofthenationsthemselves,whointheirownbest
interestsmighthavesubmittedtoheavysacrifices,to
whichtheirleaders,whomhetreatedastrueexponents
oftheirwill,refusedtheirconsent
. Buthescoutedthe
notionofaworld-parliament
. Whenever,therefore,con-
templatingaparticularissue,notasanindependentques-
tioninitself,butasanintegralpartofalargerproblem,
hemadeasuggestionseeminglytendingtowardtheulti-
mategoal,hismotionencounteredresoluteoppositionin
thefaceofwhichhefrequentlyretreated
.
Attheoutset,onwhichsomuchdepended,thepeoples
as
distinguishedfromthegovernmentsappearedtobe
ingeneralsympathywithhisprincipalaim,anditseemed
atthetimethatifappealedtoonaclearissuetheywould
havegivenhimtheirwhole-heartedsupport,provided
alwaysthat,truetohisownprinciples,hepressedthese
tothefullestextentandadmittednosuchinvidiousdis-
tinctionsas
privilegedandunprivilegednations
. This
beliefwasconfirmedbywhatIheardfrommenofmark,
leadersofthelaborpeople,andthreePrimeMinisters
.
Theyassuredmethatsuchanappealwouldhaveevoked
anenthusiasticresponseintheirrespectivecountries
.
ConvincedthattheprincipleslaiddownbythePresident
duringthelastphasesofthewarwouldgofartomeetthe
exigenciesoftheconjuncture,Iventuredtowriteonone
oftheoccasions,whenneitherpartywouldyieldtothe
other :"TheveryleastthatMr
. Wilsonmightnowdo,
ifthedeadlockcontinues,istopublishtotheworldthe
desirableobjectswhichtheUnitedStatesaredisinter-
estedly,ifnotalwayswisely,strivingfor,and
leavethe
judgment tothepeoplesconcerned
. " 3
1 TheDailyTelegraph, March 28,igiq .
408
SIDELIGHTSONTHETREATY
Butherecoiledfromtheventure . Perhapsit - was
alreadytoolate
. Inthejudgmentofmany,hisassentto
thesuppressionoftheproblemofthefreedomoftheseas,
howeverunavoidableasatacticalexpedient,knelledthe
politicalworldbacktotheunregeneratedaysofstrategical
frontiers,secretalliances,militarypreparations,financial
burdens,andthebalanceofpower
. Onthatday,his
grasponthebannerrelaxing,itfell,toberaised,itmaybe,
atsomefuturetimebythepeopleswhomhehadaspired
tolead
. Thecontestswhichhewagedafterthatfirst
defeathadlittleprospectofsuccess,andsoonthepith
andmarrowoftheissuecompletelydisappeared
. The
utmosthecouldstillhopeforwasapapercovenant-
whichisadifferentthingfromagenuineaccord-totake
homewithhimtoWashington
. Andthishiscolleagues
didnotgrudgehim
. Theywereoperatingwithadifferent
castofminduponawhollydifferentsetofideas
. Their
aims,whichtheypursuedwithnolessenergyandwith
greaterperseverancethanMr
. Wilsondisplayed,were
national
. Someofthemimplicitlytookthegroundthat
Germany,,havingplungedtheworldinwar,wouldpersist
indefinitelyinhernefariousmachinations,andmust,
therefore,intheinterestsofgeneralpeace,becrippled
militarily,financially,economically,andpolitically,for
aslongatimeaspossible,whileherpotentialenemies
mustforthesamereasonbestrengthenedtotheutmost
atherexpense,andthatthisconditionofthingsmustbe
upheldthroughthebeneficentinstrumentalityofthe
LeagueofNations .
Ontheseconflictingissuesceaselesscontentionwent
onfromthestart,yetforlackofastrongpersonalityof
sound,over-rulingjudgmentthecontestdraggedon
withoutresult
. Formonthsthedemonofprocrastina-
tionseemedtohavepossessedthesoulsoftheprincipal
delegates,andfrustratedtheirprofessedintentionsto .
409
THE INSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
getthroughtheworkexpeditiously . Evenunforeseen
incidentsledtodangerousdelay . Everypassingepisode
becameagroundforpostponingthevitalissue,although
each
daylostincreasedthedifficultiesofachievingthe
principalobject,whichwastheconclusionofpeace
.
For
example,thecommitteedealingwiththequestionof
reparationswouldreachadecision,say,thatGermany
mustpayacertainsum,whichwouldentailacenturyof
strenuouseffort,accompaniedwithstringentthriftand
self-denial ;whiletheEconomicCommitteedecidedthat
hersupplyofrawmaterialshouldberestrictedwithin
suchnarrowlimits as toputsuchpaymentwhollyout
ofherpower. Andthisdifferenceofviewnecessitateda
postponementofthewholeissue . Mr. Hughes,the
PremierofAustralia,commentingonthisshilly-shallying,
saidwithtruth-. '"Themindsofthepeoplearegrievously
perturbed .
Thelongdelay,coupledwith . fearslestthat
thePeaceTreaty,whenitdoescome,shouldprovetobea
peaceunworthy,unsatisfactory,unenduring,hasmade
theheartsofthepeoplesick .
Weweretoldthatthe
PeaceTreatywouldbereadyinthecomingweek,but
welookroundandseehalfaworldengagedinwar,or
preparationforwar.
Bolshevismisspreadingwiththe
rapidityofaprairiefire. TheAllieshavebeenforced
toretreatfromsomeofthemostfertilepartsofsouthern
Russia,andAlliedtroops,mostlyBritish,atMurmansk
andArchangelareingravedangerofdestruction
. Yet
weweretoldthatpeacewasathand,andthattheworld
wassafeforlibertyanddemocracy
. Itisnotfinephrases
aboutpeace,liberty,andmakingtheworldsafefor
democracythattheworldwants,butdeeds . Thepeo-
plesoftheAlliedcountriesjustifiablydesiretobereas-
suredbyplain,comprehensiblestatements,insteadof
' InaspeechdeliveredatadinnergiveninParisonApril i9, i9i9,by
theCommonwealthofAustraliatoAustraliansoldiers .
4 1 0
SIDELIGHTS ON
THE TREATY
long-drawn-outnegotiationsandthethickveilofsecrecy
inwhichthesewereshrouded . "
Itrequiresanefforttobelievethatprocrastination
wasraisedtothelevelofatheorybymenwhoseexperience
ofpoliticalaffairswasregardedasaguaranteeofthe
soundnessoftheirjudgment
. Yetitisanincontro-
vertiblefactthatdilatorytacticswereseriouslysuggested
asapolicyattheConference
. Itwasmaintainedthat,
farfromrunningrisksbypostponingasettlement,the
Ententenationswere,onthecontrary,certaintofind
thegroundbetterpreparedthelongerthedayofreckon-
ingwasputoff .
Germany,theycontended,hadrecov-
eredtemporarilyfromtheBolshevikfever,buttheim-
provementwasfleeting
. Theprocessofdecomposition
wasbecomingintenserdaybyday,althoughthesymp-
tomswerenotalwaysmanifest . Lackofindustrialpro-
duction,offoreigntradeandsoundfinances,wasgnawing
atthevitalsoftheTeutonRepublic . Theaxmyof
unemployedanddiscontentedwasswelling . Soonthe
sinisterconsequencesofthisstagnationwouldtakethe
formofrebellionsandrevolts,followedbydisintegration
.
Andthisconjunctionwouldbetheopportunityofthe
EntentePowers,whocouldthenstepin,presenttheir
bills,imposetheirrestrictions,andkneadtheTeuton
doughintoanyshapetheyrelished
. Thenitwould
befeasibletoprohibittheAustrian-Germansfromever
enteringtheRepublicas afederatedstate
. Inaword,
theAlliedgovernmentsneedonlycommand,andthe
Teutonswouldhastentoobey
. Itishardlycredible
thatmenofexperienceinforeignpoliticsshouldbuild
uponsuchinsecurefoundationsasthese
. Itisbutfair
tosaytheConferencerejectedthissingularprogram
intheorywhileunintentionallycarryingitout .
Althougheverybodyadmittedthattheliquidation
411
THE INSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
oftheworldconflictfollowedbyareturntonormal
conditionswastheonethingthatpressedforsettlement,
sointentweretheplenipotentiariesonpreventingwars
amongunborngenerationsthattheycontinuedtoover-
lookthepressingneedsoftheircontemporaries . Itis
atthebeginningandendofanenterprisethatthedanger
offailureisgreatest,anditwastheopeningmovesof
theAlliesthatprovedbalefultotheirsubsequentunder-
takings. Germany,onewouldthink,mighthavebeen
deprivedsummarilyofeverythingwhichwasto be
ultimatelyandjustlytakenfromher,irrespectiveofits
finaldestination. Thefirstandmostimportantopera-
tionbeingtheseveranceoftheprovincesallottedto
otherpeoples,theirredistributionmightsafelyhavebeen
leftuntilafterward . Andhardlylessimportantwasthe
despatchofanarmytoeasternEurope . ThenGermany,
brokeninspirit,withAlliedtroopsonbothherfronts,
betweenthetwojawsofavise,couldnothavesaidnay
totheconditions . Butthismethodpresupposedaplan
whichunluckilydidnotexist
. Itassumedthatthepeace
termshadbeencarefullyconsideredinadvance,whereas
theAlliespreparedforwarduringhostilities,andfor
peaceduringthenegotiations . Andtheywentaboutthis
inaleisurely,lackadaisicalway,whereasexpedition
wasthekeytosuccess
.
Asforadurablepeace,involvinggeneraldisarmament,
itshouldhavebeenoutlinedinacomprehensiveprogram,
whichthedelegateshadnotdrawnup,anditwouldhave
becomefeasibleonlyifthewilltopursueitproceeded
fromprinciple,notfromcircumstances . Innocase
coulditbeaccomplishedwithouttheknowledgeand
co-operationofthepeoplesthemselves,norwithinthe
time-limitsfixedfortheworkoftheConference . For
theabolitionofwarandthecreationofanewordering,
likehumanprogress,isalongprocess . Itadmitsofa
4 12
SIDELIGHTS ON
THE TREATY
varietyofbeginnings,butonecanneverbesureofthe
end,seeingthatitpresupposesaradicalchangeinthe
temperofthepeoples,onemightalmostsayaremodeling
ofhumannature .
Itcanonlybetheeffectofavariety
ofcauses,mainlymoral,operatingoveralongperiodof
time
. PeacewithGermanywasamatterforthegovern-
mentsconcerned
;theeliminationofwarcouldonlybe
accomplishedbythepeoples
. Theonewasinthemain
apoliticalproblem,theothersocial,economical,and
ethical .
Mr
. Balfourassertedoptimistically'thatthework
ofconcludingpeacewithGermanywasaverysimple
matter .
NonethelessittooktheConferenceoverfive
monthstoarrangeit
. Sodesperatelyslowwasthe
progressoftheSupremeCouncilthatonthe213thday
ofthePeaceConference, 2 twomonthsaftertheGermans
hadsignedtheconditions,notoneadditionaltreatyhad
beenconcluded,nay,nonewasevenreadyforsignature
.
TheItalianplenipotentiary,SignorTittoni,thereupon
addressedhiscolleaguesfranklyonthesubjectandasked
themwhethertheywerenotneglectingtheirprimary
duty,whichwastoconcludetreatieswiththevarious
enemieswhohadceasedtofightinNovemberofthe
previousyearandwerealreadywaitingforovernine
monthstoresumenormallife,andwhetherthedelegates
werejustifiedinseekingtodischargethefunctionsofa
supremeboardforthegovernmentofallEurope
. He
pointedoutthatnobodycouldhopetoprofitbythestate
ofdisorderandparalysisforwhichthisprocrastination
wasanswerable,theeconomiceffectsmakingthemselves
feltsoonerorlaterineverycountry
. Headdedthatthe
cost
ofthewarhadbeencalculatedforeverymonth,
everyweek,everyday,andthatthetotalimpressedevery
oneprofoundly
;butthatnobodyhadthoughtitworth
'InMarch,i9i9.
2
August19,igi9 .
4 1
3
THE INSIDE STORY OFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
hiswhiletocountuptheatrociouscostofthisincredibly
slowpeaceandofthewasteofwealthcausedeveryweek
andmonththatitdraggedon . Italy,helamented,felt
thislossmorekeenlythanherpartnersbecauseherpeace
hadnotyetbeenconcluded. Hefeltmoved,therefore,
hesaid,totellthemthatthebusinessofgoverning
EuropetowhichtheConferencehadbeenattendingall
thosemonthswasnotpreciselytheworkforwhichitwas
convoked . '
Thissharpandtimelyadmonitionwasthepreambleofa
motion. TheConferencewasjustthenabouttoseparate
fora"well-earnedholiday,"duringwhichitsmembers
mightrenewtheirspentenergiesandreturninOctober
toresumetheirlabors,thepeoplesinthemeanwhile
bearingthecostinbloodandsubstance
. TheItalian
delegateobjectedtoanysuchbreakandadjuredthemto
remainattheirposts . Why,heasked,,shouldill-starred
Italy,whichhadalreadysustainedsomanyandsuchpain-
fullosses,becondemnedtosacrificefurtherenormous
sumsinorderthatthedelegateswhohadbeenfrittering
awaytheirtimetacklingirrelevantissues,andendeavor-
ingtoruleallEurope,mighthavearest? Whyshould
theyinterruptthesessionsbeforemakingpeacewith
Austria,withHungary,withBulgaria,withTurkey,and
enablingItalytoreturntonormallife? Whyshould
timeandopportunitybegiventotheTurksandKurds
forthemassacreeofArmenianmen,women,andchildren?
Thiscandidreminderissaidtohavehadasobering
effectontheversatiledelegatesyearningforaholiday .
Thesituationthatevokeditwillarousethepassingwon-
deroflevel-headedmen
.
Itisworthrecordingthatsuchwastheatmosphereof
suspicionamongthedelegatesthatthemotivesforthis
holiday werebelievedbysometobelesstheneedof
1 Cf . CorrieredeltaSera,August 20, 1919 .
414
SIDELIGHTS
ON
THE TREATY
reposethananunavowabledesiretogivetimetothe
HapsburgstorecovertheCrownofSt
. Stephenasthe
firststeptowardseizingthatofAustria
. 'TheAustrians
desiredexemptionfromtheobligationtomakerepara_
tionsandpaycrushingtaxes,andoneofthedelegates,
withaleaningforthatcountry,wasnotaversetotheidea .
AsthestatesthataroseontheruinsoftheHapsburg
monarchywerenotconsideredenemiesbytheConference,
itwassuggestedthatAustriaherselfshouldenjoythe
samedistinction . ButtheItalianplenipotentiariesob-
jectedandSignorTittoniasked,"Willitperhapsbe
assertedthattherewasnoenemyagainstwhomwe
Italiansfoughtforthreeyearsandahalf,losinghalfa
millionslainandincurringadebtofeightythousand
millions?"
AFrenchjournal,touchingonthisAustrianproblem,
wrote :ti "Austria-HungaryhasbeenkilledandnowFrance
isstrivingtoraiseittolifeagain
. ButItalyisfuriously
opposedtoeverythingthatmightleadtoanunderstand-
ingamongthenewstatesformedoutoftheoldpossessions
oftheHapsburgs
. That,infact,iswhyourtransalpine
alliesweresofavorabletotheunionofAustriawith
Germany
. Franceonherside,whoseoneoverruling
thoughtistoreducehervanquishedenemytothemost
completeimpotence,Francewhoisafraidofbeing
afraid,willnottolerateanAustriajoinedtotheGerman
Federation
. "Heretheprincipleofself-determination
wentfornothing
.
BeforetheConferencehadsatforamonthitwas
angrilyassailedbythepeopleswhohadhopedsomuch
fromitsloveofjustice-Egyptians,Koreans,Irishmen
fromIrelandandfromAmerica,Albanians,Frenchmen
fromMauritiusand
Syria, MoslemsfromAderbeidjan,
1
Ibidem(CorrieredellaSera,August
20, 1919) .
L'Humanite,May 21, 1919 .
4 1
5
THEINSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
Persians,Tartars,Kirghizes,andahostofothers,who
havebeenaptlylikenedtothehaltandmaimedamong
thenationswaitingroundthediplomaticPoolofSiloam
forthemiracleofthemovingofthewatersthatnever
came . 1
Thesepeopleshadheardthatagreatandpotentworld-
reformerhadarisenwhosemissionitwastoredress
seculargrievancesandconferlibertyuponoppressed
nations,tribes,andtongues,andtheysenttheirenvoys
topleadbeforehim . Andthesewanderedaboutthe
streetsofParisseekingtheintercessionofdelegates,
Ministers,andjournalistswhomightobtainforthem
admissiontothepresenceofthenewMessiahorhis
apostles . Butalldoorswereclosedto`them . Oneof
thepetitionerswhoselanguagewasvernacularEnglish,
ashewasabouttoshakethedustofParisfromhisboots,
quotingSydneySmith,remarked : "They,too,are
Pharisees . TheywoulddotheGoodSamaritan,butwith-
outtheoilandtwopence
. Howhasitcometopassthat
theJewswithoutanofficialdelegatecommandedthe
support-themilitantsupport-oftheSupremeCouncil,
whichdidnothesitatetotyrannizeeasternEuropefor
theirsake?"
Involuntarilythestudentofpoliticscalledtomindthe
reportwrittentoBaronHager
2 byoneofhissecret
agentsduringtheCongressofVienna
:"Publicopinion
continuestobeunfavorabletotheCongress
. Onall
sidesonehearsitsaidthatthereisnoharmony,thatthey
arenolongersolicitousaboutthere-establishmentof
orderandjustice,butarebentonlyonforcingone
another'shands,eachonegrabbingasmuchashecan
.
. . . ItissaidthattheCongresswillendbecauseitmust,
butthatitwillleavethingsmoreentangledthanit
1 TheNation, August23,19
1 9-
2
ChiefoftheAustrianpoliceatViennaCongressintheyears
181q-15.
4iG
SIDELIGHTS ON THE
TREATY
foundthem . . .
. Thepeoples,whoinconsequenceof
thesuccess,thesincerity,andthenoble-mindednessofthis
superbcoalitionhadconceivedsuchesteemfortheir
leadersandsuchattachmenttothem,andnowperceive
howtheyhaveforgottenwhattheysolemnlypromised-
justice,order,peacefoundedontheequilibriumand
.
legitimacyoftheirpossessions
:willendbylosingtheir
affectionandwithdrawingtheirconfidenceintheir
principlesandtheirpromises . "
Thosewords,writtenahundredandfiveyearsago,
mighthavebeenpennedanydaysincethemonthof
February,1919 .
Theleadingmotiveofthepolicypursuedbythe
SupremeCouncilandembodiedintheTreatywasaptly
describedatthetimeasthesystematicprotectionof
FranceagainstGermany .
Hencethecreationofthe
powerfulbarrierstates,Poland,Czechoslovakia,Jugo-
slavia,GreaterRumania,andGreaterGreece
. French
nationalistspleadedforfurtherprecautionsmorecom-
prehensivestill
. TheircontentionwasthatFrance's
economic,strategic,financial,andterritorialwelfare
beingthecornerstoneofthefutureEuropeanedifice,
everymeasureproposedattheConference,whether
nationalorgeneral,shouldbeconsideredandshapedin
accordancewiththat,andconsequentlythatnopossi-
bilityshouldbeaccordedtoGermanyofrisingagainto
acommandingpositionbecause,ifsheoncerecoveredher
ascendancyinanydomainwhatsoever,Europewould
inevitablybethrustanewintothehorrorsofwar
. Ter-
ritorially,therefore,thedismembermentofGermanywas
obligatory
;theannexationoftheSaarValley,together
withitssixhundredthousandTeutoninhabitants,was
necessarytoFrance,andeithertheannexationoftheleft
bankoftheRhineoritstransformationintoadetached
stateto be
occupiedandadministeredbytheFrenchuntil
4 1 7
THEINSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
Germanypaysthelastfarthingoftheindemnity
. Further,
Austriamustbedeprivedoftherightofdeterminingher
ownmodeofexistenceandconstrainedtoabandonthe
ideaofbecomingoneofthefederatedstatesoftheGer-
manRepublic,and,ifpossible,northernGermanyshould
bekeptentirelyseparatefromsouthern . TheAllies
shoulddividetheTeutonsinordertoswaythem . All
Germany'sotherfrontiersshouldbedelimitatedinalike
spirit .
Andatthesametimetheworkofknittingto-
getherthepeoplesandnationsofEuropeandforming
themintoafriendlysodalitywastogoforwardwithout
interruption
.
"HowtopromoteourinterestsintheRhineland,"
wroteM
. MauriceBarrts, 1 "isalife-and-deathquestion
for
us.
WearegoingtocarrytotheRhineourmilitary
and,Ihope,oureconomicfrontier . Therestwillfollow
initsowngoodtime . Thefuturewillnotfailtosecure
forustheacquiescenceofthepopulationoftheRhine-
land,whowilllivefreelyundertheprotectionofourarms,
theirfacesturnedtowardParis . "
FinanciallyitwasproposedthattheTeutonsshouldbe
forcedtoindemnifyFrance,Belgium,andtheothercoun-
triesforallthedamagetheyhadinflicteduponthem ;
topaytheentirecostofthewar,aswellasthepensions
towidows,orphans,andthemutilated
. Andthemilitary
occupationoftheircountryshouldbemaintaineduntil
thishugedebtiswhollywipedout .
ANationalistorgan, 2 inaleadingarticle,statedwith
brevityandclearnesstheprevailingviewofGermany's
obligations . Hereisacharacteristicpassage :"Sheis
rich,hasreservesderivedfrommanyyearsofformer
prosperity ;shecanworktoproduceandrepairallthe
evilshehasdone,rebuildalltheruinsshehasaccumu-
1 InL'EchodeParis, March 2,1919. Cf. TheDailyTelegraph, March'4th.
2
LeGaulois, March8, i9i9 . Cf. TheDailyTelegraph, Marchloth.
4
1 8
SIDELIGHTS ON THE TREATY
lated,andrestoreallthefortunesshehasdestroyed,how-
everirksometheburden . " AfteranalyzingDoctor
Helfferich'sreportpublishedsixyearsago,thearticle
concluded,"Germanymustpay ; shedisposesofthe
meansbecausesheisrich ;ifsherefuseswemustcom-
pelherwithouthesitationandwithoutruth . "
AsFrance,whosecitiesandtownsandverysoilwere
ruined,couldnotbeaskedtorestoretheseplacesather
ownexpenseandtaxherselfdrasticallylikeherallies,
theAmericansandBritish,thepriorandprivilegedright
toreceivepaymentonhershareoftheindemnityshould
manifestlyappertaintoher . Heralliesandassociates
should,itwasargued,accordinglywaivetheirmoney
claimsuntilhersweresatisfiedinfull . Moreover,as
France'sfutureexpenditureonherarmyofoccupation,
ontheadministrationofhercoloniesandoftheannexed
territories,mustnecessarilyabsorbhugesumsforyears
tocome,whichhercitizensfeeltheyoughtnottobeasked
tocontribute,andasherinternaldebtwasalreadyover-
whelming,itisonlymeetandjustthatherwealthier
partnersshouldpooltheirwardebtswithhersandshare
theirfinancialresourceswithherandalltheirotherallies
.
This,itwasargued,wasanobviouscorollaryofthewar
alliance .
Economically,too,theGermans,whileper-
mittedtoresumetheirindustrialoccupationsonasuffi-
cientlylargescaletoenablethemtoearnthewherewithal
toliveanddischargetheirfinancialobligations,shouldbe
deniedfreescopetooutstripFrance,whosematerialpros-
perityisadmittedlyessentialtothemaintenanceofgen-
eralpeaceandthepermanenceofthenewordering . In
thiscondition,itisfurthercontended,ourchivalrousally
wasentitledtospecialconsiderationbecauseofherlow
birth-rate,whichisoneofthemainspringsofherdifficul-
ties . Thismaypermanentlykeepherpopulationfrom
risingabovetheleveloffortymillion,whereasGermany,
28
419
THE INSIDE
STORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
bythemiddleofthecentury,willhavereachedthefor-
midabletotalofeightymillion,sothatcompetitionbe-
tweenthemwouldnotbeonafootingofequality
. Hence
thechancesshouldbeevenlybalancedbytheactionof
theConference,tobecontinuedbytheLeague
. Dis-
criminatingtreatmentwasthereforeanecessity
. And
itshouldbesointroducedthatFranceshouldbefreeto
maintainaprotectivetariff,ofwhichshehadsoreneed
forherforeigntrade,withoutcausingumbragetoher
allies
.
Fortheycouldnotgainsaythatherpositionde-
servedspecialtreatment
.
SomeoftheAnglo-Saxondelegatestookotherground,
feelingunabletocountenancethepostulateunderlying
thosedemands,namely,thattheTeutonracewastobe
foreveranathema
. Theylookedfarenoughaheadto
makedueallowanceforafuturewhenconditionsinEurope
willbeverydifferentfromwhattheyareto-day . The
Germanrace,theyfelt, being
numerousandvirile,will
notdieoutandcannotbesuppressed
. Andasitisalso
enterprisingandresourcefulitwouldbeamistaketo
renderitpermanentlyhostilebytheAlliesoverstepping
theboundsofjustice,becauseinthiscaseneithernational
norgeneralinterestswouldbefurthered
. Youmayhin-
derGermany,theyargued,fromacquiringthehegemony
oftheworld,butnotfrombecomingtheprincipalfactor
inEuropeanevolution . IfthirtyyearshencetheGer-
manpopulationtotalseightymillionormore,willnot
theirattitudeandtheirsentimenttowardtheirneighbors
constituteanall-importantelementofEuropeantran-
quillityandwillnotthetrendofthesebetoalargeextent
theoutcomeoftheAllies'policyofto-day?Thepresent,
therefore,isthetimeforthedelegatestodeprivethat
sentimentofitsvenomous,anti-Alliedsting,notbyre-
nouncinganyoftheircountries'rights,butbyrespecting
thoseofothers.
4 20
SIDELIGHTS ON THE TREATY
That
was the reasoning of those
who believed that
nationalstrivingshouldbesubordinatedtothegeneral
good,andthatthepresenttimeanditsaspirationsshould
beconsideredinstrictrelationtothefutureofthewhole
communityofnations.
Theyfurthercontendedthat
whileGermanydeservedtosuffercondignlyforthe
heinouscrimesofunchainingthewarandwagingit
ruthlessly, as
manyofherownpeopleconfessed,she
shouldnotbewhollycrippledorenthralledinthehope
thatshewouldberenderedtherebyimpotentforever
.
Such
hopewasvain
. Withherwaxingstrengthherdesire
ofvengeancewouldgrow,andtogetherwithitthemeans
ofwreakingit .
ShemightyetkneadRussiaintosuch
ashape as
wouldmakethatSlavpeopleaserviceable
instrumentofrevenge,andherendeavorsmightcon-
ceivablyextendfartherthanRussia
. Theone-sidedre-
settlementofEuropechargedwithexplosivesofsuchin-
calculableforcewouldfrustratethemostelaborateat-
temptstocreatenotonlyarealleagueofnations,but
evensucharoughapproximationtowardoneasmight
in,timeandunderfavorablecircumstancesdevelopinto
atrustworthywarpreventive
. Theyconcludedthata
leagueofnationswouldbeworsethanuselessiftrans-
formedintoaweapontobewieldedbyonegroupof
nationsagainstanother,orasanartificial_makeshiftfor
dispensingpeoplesfromtheobservanceofnaturallaws
.
AtthesametimeallthegovernmentsoftheAllies
weresincereandunanimousintheirdesiretodoevery-
thingpossibletoshowtheirappreciationofFrance's
heroism,torecognizethevastnessofhersacrifices,and
topaytheirdebtofgratitudeforherservicestohumanity
.
Allwereactuatedbyaresolvetocontributeinthemeasure
ofthepossibletocompensateherforsuchlossesaswere
stillreparableandtosafeguardheragainsttherecurrence
oftheordealfromwhichshehadescapedterriblyscathed .
421
THE INSIDE STORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
Theonlylimitstheyadmittedtothisworkofreparation .
were
furnishedbytheaimitselfandbythemeansof
attainingit . ThusMessrs
. WilsonandLloydGeorge
heldthattoincorporate in
renovatedFrancemillionsor
evenhundredsofthousandsofGermanswouldbeto
introduceintothepoliticalorganismthegermsoffell
disease,andonthisgroundtheyfirmlyrefusedtosanction
theRhinefrontier,whichtheFrenchwerethusobliged
torelinquish . TheFrenchdelegatesthemselvesadmitted
thatifgranteditcouldnotbeheldwithoutapowerful
bodyofinternationaltroopseveratthebeckandcallof
theRepublic,vigilantlykeepingwatchandwardonthe
banksoftheRhineand
. withnoreasonableprospectof
atermtothisservitude.
Fortherealgroundofthisde-
pendenceuponforeignforcesisthedisproportionbetween
thepopulationsofGermanyandFranceandbetween
theresourcesofthetwonations . Theratiooftheformer
is atpresentabout
six tofouranditisgrowingperceptibly
towardseventofour
. Theorganizingcapacityincom-
merceandindustryissaidtobeevengreater . If,there-
fore,Francecannotstandaloneto-day,stilllesscould
shestandaloneintenorfifteenyears,andthenecessity
ofprotectingheragainstaggression,assumingthatthe
Germanpeopledoesnotbecomereconciledtoitsstatus
offorcedinferiority,wouldbemoreurgentandlessprac-
ticablewiththelapseoftime . For,
as wesaw,itislargely
aquestionofthebirth-rate . And as
neithertheBritish
northeAmericanpeople,deeplythoughtheyareattached
totheirgallantcomradesinarms,wouldconsenttothis
arrangement,whichtothemwouldbeaburdenandto
theGermansastandingprovocation,theirrepresentatives
wereforcedtotheconclusionthatitwouldbetheheight
offollytodoaughtthatwouldgivetheTeutonsacon-
venienthandleforawarofrevenge
. Lettherebeno
annexationofterritory,theysaid,noincorporationof
4 22
SIDELIGHTSONTHETREATY
unwillingGermancitizens . TheAmericansfurtherargued
thatanindefiniteoccupationofGermanterritorybya
largebodyofinternationaltroopswouldbeadirecten-
couragementtomilitarism .
TheindemnitiesforwhichtheFrenchyearned,andon
_whichtheirresponsiblefinancierscounted,werelarge .
Thefiguresemployedwereastronomical . Hundredsof
milliardsoffrancswereoperatedwithbyeminentpub-
licistsinanoffhandmannerthatastonishedthesurvivor
oftheexpiringbudgetaryepochandrejoicedthehearts
oftheWesterntaxpayers . Foritwasnotonlyjournalists
whowroteasthoughastreamofwealthweretobe
turnedintothesecountriestofertilizeindustryandcom-
mercethereandenablethemtokeepwellaheadoftheir
pushingcompetitors . ResponsibleMinisterslikewisehall-
markedtheseforecastswiththeirapproval . Beforethe
fortuneofwarhaddecidedfortheAllies,thefinancesof
FrancehadsorelyembarrassedtheMinister,M. Klotz,of
whomhischief,M
. Clemenceau,isreportedtohavesaid :
"HeistheonlyIsraeliteIhaveeverknownwhoisoutof
hiselementwhendealingwithmoneymatters. " Beforethe
armistice,M
. Klotz,whentalkingofthecomplexproblem
andsketchingtheoutlook,exclaimed :"Ifwewinthewar,
Iundertaketomakebothendsmeet,farthoughtheynow
seemapart . ForIwillmaketheGermanspaytheentire
costofthewar. "Afterthearmisticeherepeatedhis
promiseandundertooknottolevyfreshtaxation .
Thus,despitefitfulgleamsofidealism,theatmosphereof
theParisConclavegrewheavywithinterests,passions,
andambitions . Onlypeopleinblinkerscouldmissthe
factthattheelasticformulaslaunchedandinterpreted
byPresidentWilsonwerebeingstretchedtothesnapping-
pointsoastocovertwomutuallyincompatiblepolicies .
Thechasmbetweenhisoriginalprospectsandthoseof
hisforeignassociatestheybothconscientiouslyendeavored
423
THE
INSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
toignore,andafteratimetheyhitupon
atertiumquid
betweenterritorialequilibriumandasterilizedreague
temperedbytheMonroeDoctrineandamilitarycompact
.
Thiscompositeresultantcarriedwithittheconcentrated
evilsofoneofthesesystemsandwasdeprivedofitsre-
deemingfeaturesbytheother . Ataconjunctureinthe
world'saffairswhichpostulatedinternationalismofthe
loftiestkind,thedelegatesincreasedandmultipliedna-
tionsandstateswhichtheydeprivedofsovereigntyand
yokedtothefirst-classraces . Nationalambitionstook
precedenceoflargerinterests ;racialhatredwasraised
toitshighestpower. Inaword,theworld'sstatesystem
wassooddlypiecedtogetherthatonlyeconomicexhaus-
tionfollowedbyaspeedyreturntomilitarismcouldinsure
foritamoderateduration .
Territorialself-sufficiency,militarystrength,andad-
vantageous alliances wereaccordinglylookedtoas the
mainstaysofthenewordering,evenbythosewhopaid
liptributetotheWilsonianideal . Theidealitselfunder-
wentadisfiguringchangeintheprocessofincarnation .
TheItaliansaskedhowtheMonroeDoctrinecouldbe
reconciledwiththecharteroftheLeagueofNations,
seeingthattheLeaguewouldbeauthorizedtointervene
inthedomesticaffairsofothermember-states,andif
necessarytodespatchtroopstokeepGermany,Italy,
andPolandinorder
;whereasiftheUnitedStateswere
guiltyoftyrannicalaggressionagainstBrazil,theArgen-
tineRepublic,orMexico,theLeague,paralyzedbythat
Doctrine,mustlookoninactive . TheGermans,alleging
capitaldefectsintheWilsonianCovenant,whichwas
adjustedprimarilytotheAllies'designs,wenttoParis
preparedwithasubstitutewhich,itmustinfairnessbe
admitted,wasconsiderablysuperiortothatoftheir
adversaries,andincidentallyfraughtwithgreaterpromise
tothemselves .
424
SIDELIGHTS ON
THE TREATY
Itissuperfluoustoaddthatthecontinentalviewpre-
vailed,butMr
. Wilsonimaginedthat,whileabandoning
hisprinciplesinfavorofBritain,France,andBulgaria,
hecouldreadjustthebalancebyapplyingthemwith
rigortoItalyandexaggeratingthemwhendealingwith
Greece
. Heafterwardcommunicatedhisreasonsforthis
beliefinamessagepublishedinWashington
. ' The
alliance-hewasunderstoodtohavebeenopposedtoall
partialalliancesonprinciple-whichguaranteesmilitary
succortoFrance,hehadsigned,hesaid,ingratitudeto
thatcountry,forheseriouslydoubtedwhetherthe
AmericanRepubliccouldhavewonitsfreedomagainst
Britain'soppositionwithoutthegallantandfriendly
aidofFrance
. "Werecentlyhadtheprivilegeofassist-
ingindrivingenemies,whoalsowereenemiesofthe
world,fromhersoil,butthatdoesnotpayourdebtto
her
. Nothingcanpaysuchadebt . "Hiscriticsretorted
thatthatisasentimentalreasonwhichmightwithequal
forcehavebeenurgedbyFranceandBritaininjustifica-
tionoftheirpromisestoItalyandRumania,yetwas
rejectedasirrelevantbyMr . Wilsoninthenameofa
higherprinciple.
ThePresidentoftheUnitedStates,itwasfurtherurged,
isahistorian,andhistorytellshimthatthehelpgiven
tohiscountryagainstEnglandneithercamefromthe
Frenchpeoplenorwasactuatedbysympathyforthe
Americancause. Itwasthevindictiveactofoneof
thosekingswhosefunctionsMr
. Wilsonisendeavoring
toabolish
. ThemonarchwhohelpedtheAmericans
wasmerelyutilizinga favorableopportunityfordepriv-
ingwithaminimumofefforthisadversaryoflucrative
possessions
. Moreover,thedebtwhichnothingcanpay
wasalreadyduewhenintheyears
1914-
16 France
wasinimminentdangerofbeingcrushedbyaruthless
' Cf
. TheChicagoTribune (Parisedition),August 21, i9tg.
425
THE INSIDE
STORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
enemy. ButatthattimeMr
. Wilsonowedhisre-election
largelytohisrefusaltoextricateherfromthatperil
.
Insteadofcallingtomindthedebtthatcanneverbe
repaidhemerelyannouncedthathecouldnotunderstand
whatthebelligerentswerefightingforandthatinany
caseFrance'sgratefuldebtor ,
wastooproudtofight .
ThemotivewhichfinallybroughttheUnitedStatesinto
theWorldWarmaybethenoblestthateveryetactuated
anystate,butnostudentofhistorywillallowthatMr
.
Wilsonhascorrectlydescribedit
.
ThefactisthattheFrenchdelegatesandtheirsupport-
erswereconsistentand,exceptintheirdemandforthe
Rhinefrontier,unbending
. Theydrewupaprogramand
sawthatitwassubstantiallycarriedout
. Theydeclared
themselvesquitereadytoacceptMr
. Wilson'sproject,
butonlyonconditionthattheirownwasalsorealized,
heedlessoftheincompatibilityofthetwo .
AndMr.
Wilsonfeltconstrainedtomaketheirpositionhisown,
otherwisehecouldnothaveobtainedtheCovenanthe
yearnedfor.
Andyethemusthaveknownthatac-
quiescenceinthedemandsputforwardbyM
. Clemenceau
wouldlowerthepracticalvalueofhisCovenanttothat
ofasheetofpaper .
AbluntAmericanjournal,commentingonthehandi-
workoftheConference,gaveutterancetoviewswhich
whilemakingnopretensetocourtlyphraseologyare
symptomaticofthewayinwhichtheaveragemanthought
andspokeoftheCovenantwhichemanatedfromthe
SupremeCouncil
. "Weareconvinced,"itsaid,"that
theelderstatesmenofEurope,typifiedbyClemenceau,
consideritahoax,Clemenceauneverbeforewasso
extremelyboredbyanythinginhislifeashewasbythe
necessityofmaking
a piouspretenseintheCovenant
whenwhathewantedwastheassuranceoftheTriple
Alliance
. Hegotthatassurance,which,alongwiththe
426
SIDELIGHTS ON THE TREATY
French watch on the
Rhine, the French in
the Saar
ValleyandinAfrica,withGermanmoneygoinginto
Frenchcoffers,makeshimtolerablyindulgentofthe
altruisticrhetoricians .
"TheEnglish,theintelligentEnglish,weknowhave
theirtonguesintheircheeks . TheItaliansarepetulant
imperialists,andJapandoesn'tcarewhathappenstothe
Leaguesolong as JapansayswhatshallhappeninAsia . " 1
Peacewasatlastsigned,notonthebasisoftheFourteen
Pointsnoryetentirelyonthelinesofterritorialequilib-
rium,butonthoseofacompromisewhich,missingthe
advantagesofeach,combinedmanyoftheevilsofboth
andofotherswhichweregeneratedbytheirconjunction,
andlaidthefoundationsofthenewstatefabriconquick-
sands. ThatwasatbottomtheviewtowhichItaly,
Rumania,andGreecegaveutterancewhencomplaining
thattheirclaimswerebeingdealtwithontheprinciple
ofself-denial,whereasthoseofFrancehadbeensettled
onthetraditionalbasisofterritorialguarantiesand
militaryalliances . Further,theTreatyfailedtolayan
axtotherootsofwar,did,infact,increasetheirnumber
whilepurportingtodestroythem . Farfromthat : germs
offutureconflictsnotonlybetweenthelatebelligerents,
butalsobetweentherecentAllies,wereplentifullyscat-
teredandmaysproutupinthefullnessoftime .
TheParispressexpresseditssatisfactionwithFrance's
shareofthefruitsofvictory . Fortheprovisionsofthe
Treatywent as far as anymerelypoliticalarrangement
couldgotocheckthenaturalinequality,numerical,
economical, industrial,andfinancial, between the
TeutonandFrenchpeoples . Tomanythisproblem
seemedwhollyinsoluble,becauseitssolutioninvolved
asuspensionoracorrectiveofalawofnature
. Take
the birth-rateinFrance,forexample . Beforethewarit
1 Cf. TheChicagoTribune (Parisedition),August23,1919
.
427
THE INSIDE STORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
hadlongbeendecliningataratewhichalarmedthought-
fulFrenchpatriots . And,accordingtoofficialstatistics,
itisfallingoffstillmorerapidlyto-day,whereasthein-
creaseinothercountriesisgreaterthaneverbefore . '
Thus,whereasintheyearig i1 therewere
73,599
births
intheSeineDepartment,therewereonly47,480inx918 .
Wetnurses,too,aredisappearing . Ofthese,intheyear
1911, inthesameterritorytherewere1,363,butin1918
only65. Themortalityamongfoundlingsrosefrom 5
percent . beforethewarto 40 percent,intheyear1918 . 2
M. BertilloncalculatesthatforFrancetoincreasemerely
atthesamerateasothernations--nottorecoverthe
placeamongthemwhichshehasalreadylost,butonly
tokeepherpresentone-sheneedsfivehundredthou-
sandmorebirthsthanareregisteredatpresent . Astatis-
ticaltablewhichhedrewupofthebirth-rateoffour
Europeannationsduringfivedecades,beginningwiththe
year1861,isunpleasantreading I forthefriendsofthat
heroicandartisticpeople . France,containinginround
numbers 40,000,000 inhabitants,oughttoincreasean-
nuallyby 500,000. Beforethewarthetotalnumberof
birthsinGermany . wascomputedatonemillionnine
hundredandfiftythousand,buthardlymorethanone
millionofthechildrenbornwereviable
. 4
Thegen-
eralconclusiontobedrawnfromthesefiguresand
fromthecircumstancesthatthefallingoffintheFrench
population stillgoesonunchecked,isdisquietingfor
1 ReportofDr . JacquesBertillon . Cf. L'Information, January 20, x919.
2 Cf . LeMatin,August13,1919
.
'
Excessofbirthsoverdeaths(yearlyaverage) . -Cf .
L'Information,
January 20,1919-
Germany
GreatBritain Italy France
4 ProfessorL
. Marchand. Cf. La DemocratieNouvelle,April26,1919
.
428
I86I-70 408,333
365,499
183196
93,515
1871-80 511,03
431436 191538 64,063
2882-go 551,30 442,112 307,082
66,982
1891-I9oo
730265 430,E 339,409 23,96 1
1901-10
866,338
484$ 22 3
69
. 959 46 ,524
SIDELIGHTS ON THE TREATY
those who desiretoseetheFrenchracecontinuetoplay
theleadingpartincontinentalEurope . Oneofthe
-shrewdestobserversincontemporaryGermany--him-
selfadistinguishedSemite-commentedonthisdecisive
factasfollows : I "WithintenyearsGermanywillcon-
tainseventymillioninhabitants,andinthetorrentof
herfecunditywilldrownanemicandexhaustedFrance .
. . . TheFrenchnationisdyingofexhaustion . Thereis
noreason,however,fortheworldtogetalarmed . . .
forbeforetheFrenchwillhavevanishedfromtheearth,
otherraces,virileandhealthy,willhavecometotheir
count -. ytotaketheirplace
. "Thatiswhatisactually
happening,anditisimpressivelyborneinuponthevisitor
tovariousFrenchcitiesbythevastnumberof- exotic
namesoverhousesofbusinessandinotherways .
Withthisformidableobstacle,then,thethreemembers
oftheSupremeCouncilstrenuouslycopedbyexercising
tothefullestextentthepowerconferredonthevictors
overthevanquished . Andtheresultoftheircombina-
tionschallengedandreceivedtheunstintedapprovalof
allthosenumerousenemiesofTeutondomwhobelieve
theGermanstobeincapableofcontributingmaterially
tohumanprogress,unlesstheyarekeptinleading-
stringsbyoneofthesuperiorraces . TheTreatyrepre-
sentsthepotentialrealizationofFrance'sdream,achieved
semi-miraculouslybytheverystatesmenonwhomthe
Teutonswererelyingtodispelit . Defeated,disarmed,
incapableofmilitaryresistance,anddevoidoffriends,
Germanythoughtshecoulddiscernhersheet-anchorof
salvationintheWilsoniangospel,anditwasthepreacher
ofthisgospelhimself who
implicitlycharacterizedher
salvationasmoredifficultthanthepassageof a camel
' Dr
. WalterRathenau,inabookentitled The DeathofFrance . I, have
notbeenabletoprocureacopyofthisbook . Theextractsgivenabove
aretakenfromastatementpublishedbyM. Brudenneinthe Matinof
Februaryi6, igtg.
429
THE INSIDE STORY OFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
throughtheeyeofaneedle. Thecrimesperpetratedby
theTeutonswereunquestionablyheinousbeyondwords,
andnopunishmentpermittedbythehumanconscience
istoodrastictoatoneforthem
.
Howlongthispunish-
mentshouldendure,whetheritshouldbeinflictedon
theentirepeopleaswellasontheirleaders,andwhat
formshouldbegiventoit,wereamong . thequestions
confrontingtheSecretCouncil,andtheyimplicitlyan-
sweredtheminthewaywehaveseen .
Peoplewhoconsidertheansweradequateandjustified
giveastheirreasonthatitpresupposesandattainsa
singleobject-theefficaciousprotectionofFranceasthe
sentinelofcivilizationagainst anincorrigiblearch-
enemy . Andinthistheymayberight. Butifyouen-
largetheproblemtillitcoversthemoralfellowshipof
nations,andifyoupostulatethat as asafeguardoffuture
peaceandneighborlinessintheworld,thentheoutcome
oftheTreatytakesonadifferentcoloring. Between
FranceandGermanyitcreatesaseaofbitternesswhich
norapturousexultationoverthenewethicalordering
cansweeten . Thelatternationisassumedtobesmitten
withafellmoraldisease,towhich,however,thephysi-
ciansoftheConferencehaveappliednomoralremedy,
butonlymeasuresofcoercion,mostlypowerfulirritants .
ThereformedstateofEuropeisconsequentlyastateof
latentwarbetweentwogroupsofnations,ofwhichone
istemporarilyprostrateandbotharenaivelyexhorted
to joinhandsandplayahelpfulpartinanidyllicsociety
ofnations. Thisexpectationisthedelightofcynics
andthedespairofthoseseriousreformerswhoarenot
interestedpoliticians. Heretoforethemostinveterate
optimistsinpoliticsweretherevolutionaries .
Butthey
havesincebeenoutdonebytheParisworld-reformers,
whotemptProvidencebycallingonittoaccomplish
byamiracleanobjectwhichtheyhavestrivenhardand
430
SIDELIGHTS
ON
THE
TREATY
successfullytorenderimpossiblebytheordinaryopera-
tionofcauseandeffect . ThustheCovenantmarsthe
Treaty,andtheTreatytheCovenant .
InWeimarandBerlintheTreatywastermedthedeath-
sentenceofGermany,notonlyasanempire,butasan
independentpoliticalcommunity
. Henceforwardher
economicefforts,beyondacertainlimit,willbestruckwith
barrenness,herindustrywillbehinderedfromoutstrip-
pingorovertakingthatoftheneighboringcountries,
andherpopulationwillbeindirectlykeptwithindefinite
bounds. For,insteadofexportingmanufactures,she
willbeobligedtoexporthumanbeings,whoseintellect
andskillwillbeutilizedbysuchrivalsofherownrace
asvouchsafetoadmitthem. AlreadybeforetheConfer-
encewasovertheybegantoemigrateeastward . And
thosewhoremainathomewillnotbemastersintheirown
house,forthedoorswillbeopentovariousforeign
commissions
.
TheassumptionuponwhichtheTreaty-framerspro-
ceededisthattheabominationscommittedbytheGer-
manmilitaryandcivilauthoritieswereconstructively
theworkoftheentirenation,forwhosereformation
withinameasurableperiodhopeisvain . Thisviewpre-
dominatedamongtherulingclassesoftheEntente
peopleswithfewexceptions . Ifitbecorrect,itseems
superfluoustoconstraintheenemytoentertheleagueof
law-abidingnations,whichistobecementedonlyby
voluntaryadherenceandbygenuineattachmenttolib-
erty,right,andjustice . HencetheCovenant,bybeing
insertedinthePeaceTreaty,necessarilylostitsvalue
asan eirenicon,andbecamesubsequenttothatinstru-
ment,andseemslikelytobeusedasananti-German
safeguard. Buteventhenitsefficacyisdoubtful,and
manifestlyso ;otherwisethereformers,whoatthestart
setouttoabolishalliancesasrecognizedcausesofwar,
431
THEINSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
wouldnothaveendedbysettingupanewTripleAlliance,
whichinvolves military,
naval,andaerialestablishments,
andthecorrespondingfinancialburdensinseparablefrom
these
. Anallianceofthischaracter,whateveronemay
thinkofitseconomicandfinancialaspects,runscounter
tothespiritoftheCovenant,butwasanobviouscorol-
laryoftheAllies'attitudeasmirroredintheTreaty .
AndthespiritoftheTreatydestroystheletterofthe
Covenant. Fortheworldisthereimplicitlydivided
intotwocamps-thefriendsandtheenemiesofliberty,
right,andjustice ;andthemainfunctionsoftheLeague
asnarrowedbytheTreatywillbetohinderordefeatthe
machinationsoftheenemies . Moreover,thedeliberate
concessionsmadebytheConferencetosuchagenciesof
theoldorderingasthegroupingoftwoorthreePowers
intodefensivealliancesbidsfairtobeextendedintime.
Forthestressofcircumstanceisstrongerthanthewillof
man
. Atthisratethelaststatemaybeworsethanthefirst .
Theworldsituation,thusformallymodified,remained
essentiallyunchanged,andwillsoendureuntilotherforces
arereleased. TheLeagueofNationsforfeiteditsideal
characterunderthepressureofnationalinterests,and
becameacoalitionofvictorsagainstthevanquished .
BytheinsertionoftheCovenantintheTreatytheformer
becameameansfortheexecutionofthelatter . Foreven
Mr. Wilson,facedwithrealitiesandcalledtopractical
counsel,affectionatelydismissedthehigh-souledspecula-
tiveprojectsinwhichhedelightedduringhishoursof
contemplation. AlthoughtheGermandelegatessigned
theTreaty,noonecanhonestlysaythatheexpectsthem
toobserveitlongerthanconstraintpresses,however
solemntheobligationsimposed .
Inthepressorganofthemostnumerousandpowerful
politicalpartyinGermanyonemightreadinanarticle
ontheGermansinBohemiaannexedbyCzechoslovakia :
432
SIDELIGHTS ON THE TREATY
"Assuredlytheirdestinywillnotbedeterminedforall
timebytheVersaillespeaceofviolence . Itbehooves
theGermannationtocherishitsaffectionforitsop-
pressedbrethren,eventhoughitbepowerlesstosuccor
themimmediately. Whatthencanitdo?Italyhasgiven
itamarvelouslessoninthepolicyofirredentism,which
shepursuedinrespectoftheTrentinoandTrieste . " 1
WiththeTreatyasitstands,nationalistFranceofthis
generationhasreasontobesatisfied . Oneofitsframers,
himselfashrewdbusinessmanandpolitician,publicly
setforththegroundsforthissatisfaction . 2 Alsaceand
Lorrainereunitedtothemetropolis,heexplained,will
assistFrancemateriallywithanindustriouspopulation
andenormousresourcesintheshapeofmineralwealth
andafruitfulsoil .
Germany'sformercolonies,Kamerun
andTogoland,arebecomeFrench,andwilldoubtless
offeravastandattractivefieldfortheexpansionand
prosperityoftheFrenchpopulation . Morocco,freed
fromGermanenterprise,canhenceforthbedeveloped
bytheFrenchpopulationaloneandwithoutletorhin-
drance,forthebenefitofthenativesandinthetruesense
ofMr . Wilson'shumanitarianordinances . Thepotash
deposits,towhichGermanagriculturelargelyowedits
prosperity,willhenceforwardbeutilizedintheservice
ofFrenchagriculture . "InironorethewealthofFrance
isdoubled,andherproductivecapacityasregardspig-
ironandsteelimmenselyincreased
. Herproductionof
textilesisgreaterthanbeforethewarbyaboutathird . " 3
Inaword,avastareaoftheplanetinhabitedbyvarious
peopleswilllooktotheFrenchpeopleforeverything
thatmakestheircollectivelifeworthliving .
1 Germania, Augustit,1919 .
Cf. LeTemps, September9,1919 .
=M. AndreTardieuinaspeechdeliveredonAugust
17,1919-
Cf. Paris
newspapersoffollowingtwodays,and in particular NewYorkHerald,
August19th.
aCf. speechdeliveredbyM. AndreTardieuonAugust17,1919-
433
THE INSIDE STORY OFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
Thesolearrangementwhichforatimecausedheart-
burningsinFrancewasthatrespectingthesumsofmoney
whichGermanyshouldhavebeenmadetopaytoher
victoriousenemies . Fortheopinionsonthatsubject
heldbytheaverageman,andconnivedatorapproved
bytheauthorities,werewhollyfantastic,justaswere
someoftheexpectationsofotherAlliedstates .
The
Frenchpeopledifferfromtheirneighborsinmanyrespects
-andinamarkedwayinmoneymatters . Theywill
sacrificetheirlivesratherthantheirsubstance . They
willleaveanationaldebtfortheirchildrenandtheir
children'schildren,insteadofmakingaresoluteeffort
towipeitoutorlessenitbyamortization . Inthisrespect
theBritish,theAmericans,andalsotheGermansdiffer
fromthem . Thesepeoplestaxthemselvesfreely,create
sinkingfunds,andmakeheavysacrificestopayofftheir
moneyobligations . Thishabitisingrained
. Thecon-
trarysystemisbecomesecondnaturetotheFrench,
andonecannotchangeanation'shabitsovernight . The
educationofthepeoplemight,however, havebeen
undertakenduringthewarwithconsiderablechances
ofsatisfactoryresults . Thegovernmentmighthave
preachedthenecessityofrelinquishingapercentageof
thewargainstothestate . ItwasdoneinBritainand
Germany. Theamountofmoneyearnedbyindividuals
duringthehostilitieswasenormous . Aconsiderableper-
centageofitshouldhavebeenrequisitionedbythe
state,inviewofthepeacerequirementsandofthehuge
indebtednesswhichvictoryordefeatmustinevitably
bringinitstrain . ButnoMinisterhadthecouragenec-
essarytobravethemultitudeand risk hisshareofpopu-
larityortolerance. Andsothingswereallowedtoslide .
Thepeoplewereassuredthatvictorywouldrecompense
theirefforts,notonlybypositiveterritorialgains,but
byrelievingthemoftheirnewfinancialobligations .
434
SIDELIGHTSONTHETREATY
Thatwasasinistermistake . Thetruthisthatthe
Frenchnation,ifdefeated,wouldhavepaidanysum
demanded . Thatwasalmostanaxiom
. Itwouldand
couldhaveexpectednoruth
. But,victorious,itlooked
totheenemyforthemeansofrefundingthecostofthe
war . TheFinanceMinister-M
. Klotz-oftendeclared
toprivateindividualsthatiftheAllieswerevictorious
hewouldhaveallthenewnationaldebtwipedoutby
theenemy,andheassuredthenationthatmilliards
enoughwouldbeextractedfromGermanytobalance
thecreditanddebitaccountsoftheRepublic
. Andthe
peoplenaturallybelieveditsprofessionalexpert
. Thus
itbecameadogmathattheTeutonstatewastoprovide
allthecostofthewar . Inthatillusionthenationlived
andworkedandspentmoneyfreely,nay,wasteditwoe-
fully .
AndyetM. Klotzshouldhaveknownbetter
. Forhe
wassuppliedwithdefinitedatatogoupon
. InOctober,
1918,theFrenchgovernment,indoubtaboutthefull
significanceofthatoneofMr
. Wilson'sFourteenPoints
whichdealtwithreparations,askedofficiallyforexplana-
tions,andreceivedfromMr. Lansingtheanswerby
telegraphthatitinvolvedthemakinggoodbytheenemy
ofalllossesinflicteddirectlyandlawlesslyuponcivilians,
butnoneother . Thatsurelywasaplainansweranda
justprinciple
. But,inaccordancewiththepracticeof
secrecyinvogueamongAlliedEuropeangovernments,
thenationwasnotinformedoftheserestrictivecondi-
tions,butwasallowedtohugdangerousdelusions
.
ButtheMinistersknewthem,andM
. Klotzwasa
Minister . Notonly,however,didhenotrevealwhathe
knew,buthebehavedasthoughhisinformationwasof
adirectlycontrarytenor,andhealsostatedthatGermany
mustalsorefundthewarindemnitiesof1870,capitalized
downtoNovember,i9i8,andhesetdownthesumat
29
435
THEINSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
fiftymilliardsoffrancs
. Thisprocedurewasnotwhat
reasonablymighthavebeenexpectedfromtheleaderof
aheroicnationstout-heartedenoughtofaceunpleasant
facts. Someoftheleadingspiritsinthecountry,despite
theintensityoftheirfeelingstowardGermany,disap-
provedthiskindofbookkeeping,butM
. Klotzdidnot
relinquishhismethodofkeepingaccounts
. Hedrewup
abillagainsttheTeutonsforonethousandandeighty-six
milliardsoffrancs .
TheGermansattheConferencemaintainedthatifthe
wealthoftheirnationwererealizedandliquid,itwould
amountatmosttofourhundredmilliards,butthatto
realizeitwouldinvolvethestrippingofthepopulationof
everything-ofitsforests,itsmines,itsrailways,itsfac-
tories,itscattle,itshouses,itsfurniture,anditsready
money
. Theyfurtherpleadedthattheterritorialclauses
oftheTreatydeprivedthemofimportantresources,
whichwouldreducetheirsolvencytoagreaterdegree
thantheAlliesrealized
. Theseclausesdispossessedthe
nationofaipercent . ofthetotalcropsofcerealsand
potatoes . Afurtherfallingoffinthequantitiesoffood
producedwouldresultfromtherestrictionsontheim-
portationofrawmaterialsforthemanufactureoffertil-
izers
. Ofhercoal,Germanywasforfeitingaboutone-
third
;three-fourthsofherironorewasalsobeing taken
awayfromher
;hertotalzincproductionwouldbecut
downbyoverthree-fifths
. Addtothistheenormous
shortageoftonnage,machinery,andman-power,thetotal
lossofhercolonies,theshrinkageofavailablerawstuffs,
andthedepreciationofthemark
.
AttheConferencetheAmericansmaintainedtheir
ground
. InvokingtheprinciplelaiddownbyMr
. Wil-
sonandclearlyformulatedbyMr
. Lansing,theyinsisted
thatreparationsshouldbeclaimedonlyfordamagedone
tociviliansdirectlyandlawlessly
. Afteragooddealof
436
SIDELIGHTS ON THE TREATY
fencing,rendered necessary
by
the
pledges
given
by
European statesmen to their electors, it was decided
thatthecriteriaprovidedbythatprincipleshouldbe
applied . Butevenwiththatlimitationthesumsclaimed
werehuge. Itwas-allegedbytheGermansthatsomeof
thedemandswereforamountsthatexceededthetotal
nationalwealthofthecountryfilingtheclaim . Andas
noformulacouldbedevisedthatwouldsatisfyallthe
claimants,itwasresolvedinprinciplethat,although
Germanyshouldbeobligedtomakegoodonlycertain
classesoflosses,theConference'wouldsetnolimitsto
thesumsforwhichshewouldthusbeliable.
AtthisjunctureM. Loucheursuggestedthataminimum
sumshouldbedemandedoftheenemy,leavingthede-
tailstobesettledbyacommission . Andthiswastheso-
lutionwhichwasfinallyadopted . 'Itwasreceivedwith
protestsandlamentations,which,however,soonmade
placeforself-congratulations,officialandprivate .
TheFrenchMinisterofFinances,forexample,drewa
brightpicture in theChamberofthefinancialsideofthe
Treaty,sofarasitaffectedhiscountry :"Withintwo
years,"heannounced,"independentlyoftherailway
rollingstock,ofagriculturalmaterialsandrestitutions,
wereceiveapart,stilltobefixed,ofthepaymentof
twentymilliardsofmarksingold ;anothershare,alsoto
bedetermined,ofanemissionofbondsamountingto
fortymilliardgoldmarks,bearinginterestattherateof
2 percent . ; athirdpart,tobefixed,ofGermanshipping
anddyes
;sevenmilliontonsofcoalannuallyforaperiod
oftenyears,followedbydiminishingquantitiesduring
thefollowingyears ;therepaymentoftheexpensesof
occupation ;therightoftakingoverapartofGermany's
interestsinRussia,inparticularthatofobtainingthe
' Onthissubjectofreparationsthe JournaldeGenive publishedseveral
interestingarticlesatvarioustimes,as,forexample,onMay15,19 1
9 .
4 3 7
THE INSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
paymentofpre-wardebtsatthepre-warrateofexchange,
likewisethemaintenanceofsuchcontractsaswemay
desiretomaintaininforceandthereturnofAlsace-
Lorrainefreefromallincumbrances . Noristhatall .
InMoroccowehavetherighttoliquidateGermanprop-
erty,totransferthesharesthatrepresentGermany's
interestsintheBankofMorocco,andfinallytheallot-
mentunderaFrenchmandateofaportionoftheGerman
coloniesfreefromincumbrancesofanykind . . . . Weshall
receivefourhundredandsixty-threemilliardfrancs,
payableinthirty-sixyears,withoutcountingtheresti-
tutionswhichwillhavebeeneffected . Norshoulditbe
forgottenthatalreadywehavereceivedeightmilliards'
worthofsecuritiesstolenfromFrenchbearers . Sodonot
considertheTreatyasamisfortuneforFrance . " 1
Soonaftertheoutburstofjoywithwhichtheingather-
ingofthefruitsofFrance'svictorywascelebrated,clouds
unexpectedlydriftedathwarttheceruleanblueofthe
politicalhorizon,anddarkshadowswereflungacrossthe
Alliedcountries . Thesecond-andthird-classnationsfell
outwiththefirst-classPowers . Italy,forexample,whose
populationisalmostequaltothatofherFrenchsister,
demandedcompensationforthevastadditionsthatwere
beingmadetoFrance'sextensivepossessions . The
groundsallegedweremany. Compensationhadbeen
promisedbythesecrettreaty . Theneedforitwasre-
inforcedbytherejectionofItaly'sclaimsintheAdriatic .
TheItalianpeoplerequired,desired,anddeservedafair
andfittingfieldforlegitimateexpansion
. Theyareas
numerousastheFrench,andhavealargeannualsurplus
population,whichhastohewwoodanddrawwaterfor
foreignpeoples . Theyareenterprising,industrious,
thrifty,andhardworkers . Theircountrylackssomeof
1 SpeechofM. KlotzintheChamberonSeptember5, ig1g . Cf . L'Echo
deParis, September6, 1919 .
4
3 8
SIDELIGHTS ON THE TREATY
thenecessariesofmaterialprosperity,suchascoal,iron,
andcotton . Whyshoulditnotreceiveaterritoryrich
insomeoftheseproducts?Whyshouldalargecontingent
ofItaly'spopulationhavetogotothecoloniesofSpain,
France,andBritainortoSouthAmericanrepublicsfor
alivelihood?TheItalianpressaskedwhethertheSu-
premeCouncilwasbentonfulfillingtheGospeldictum,
"Whosoeverhath,tohimshallbegiven . . . . "
OneofthefirstdemandsmadebyItalywasforthe
portandtownofDjibouti,whichisunderFrenchsway .
Itwasrejected,curtlyandemphatically. Otherrequests
elicitedplausibleexplanationswhytheycouldnotbe
compliedwith . Inaword,Italywastreatedasapoor
andimportunaterelation,andwasaskedtoconsoleher-
selfwiththereflectionthatshewasworkinginthevine-
yardofidealism . InvaineminentpublicistsinRome,
Turin,andMilanpleadedtheircountry'scause . Adopting
theprinciplewhichMr . WilsonhadappliedtoFrance
andBritain,theyaffirmedthatevenbeforethewar
France,withalargerpopulationandfewerpossessions,
hadshownthatshewasincapableofdischargingthe
functionswhichshehadvoluntarilytakenuponherself .
Tunis,theyalleged,oweditsgrowthandthrivingcon-
ditiontoItalianemigrants
.
Withallthefreshadditions
toherterritories,thepopulationoftheRepublicwouldbe
utterlyinadequatetothetask . TotheSupremeCouncil
thislineofreasoningwasdistinctlyunpalatable . Nor
didtheItaliansfurthertheircausewhen,bywayof
givingemphaticpointtotheirreasoning,theirpress
quotedthateminentFrenchman,M. d'Estournellesde
Constant,whowroteatthatverymoment :"France
hastoomanycoloniesalready-farmoreinAsia,in
Africa,inAmerica,inOceaniathanshecanfructify .
Inthiswaysheisimmobilizingterritories,continents,
peoples,whichnominallyshetakesover . Anditis
439
THE INSIDE
STORY OFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
childishandimprudenttotakebarrenpossessionofthem,
whenotherstatesallegetheirpowertoutilizethemin
thegeneralinterest . Byactinginthismanner,France,
dowhatshemay,isplacingherselfinoppositiontothe
world'sinterests,andtothoseoftheLeagueofNations .
Inthelongrunitisaseriousbusiness . Spain,Portugal,
andHollandknowthistotheircost
. Dowhatshe
would,Francewasnotablebeforethewartoutilizeall
herimmensecolonialdomain .
. . forlackofpopulation .
Shewillbestilllessableafterthewar . . . . " 1
Thediscussiongrewdangerouslyanimated .
Epigrams
werecoinedandsentfloatingintheheavilychargedair .
AtactlesscomparisonwasmadebetweentheFrench
nationand a
bonvivant ofsixty-fivewhoflattershimself
thathecanenjoylife'spleasuresonthesamescale as
whenhewasonlythirty .
Littlearrowsthusbarbed
withbitingacidoftenmakemoreenduringmischief
thansledge-hammerblows .
Soontheestrangement
betweenthetwosisternationsunhappilybecamewider
andledtomarkeddivergencesintheirrespectivepolicies,
whichseemfraughtwithgraveconsequences
in the
future.
TheItalyofto-dayisnottheItalyofMay,igrg .
Shenowknowsexactlywhereshestands . Whenshe
unsheathedherswordtofightagainstthealliesofthe
statethatdeclaredatreatytobebutascrapofpaper,
shewasheartenedbyasolemnpromisegivenin
. writing
byhercomradesinarms . Butwhenshehadaccom-
plishedherpartofthecontract,thatdocumentturned
outtobelittlemorethananotherscrapofpaper . Thus
itwasoneofthepiquantironiesofFate,Italianpublicists
said,thatthepeoplewhohadmostlyclamoredagainst
thatdoctrinewereindirectlyhelpingittotriumph
. Mr.
1
D'Estournelles de Constant . BulletindesDroitsdel'IIomme,May15,
1919.
440
SIDELIGHTS
ON
THE TREATY
Wilson,` unwittingly sapping public faith inwritten
treaties,washeldupasoneofthemanypicturesinwhich
theConferenceaboundedofthedelegatesrefutingtheir
wordsbyacts . Theunbiasedhistorianwillreadily
admitthatthesecrettreatieswereprofoundlyimmoral
fromtheWilsonianangleofvision,butthattheonly
wayofcancelingthemwasbyageneralprinciplerigidly
upheldandimpartiallyapplied . AndthistheSupreme
Councilwouldnotentertain .
WithherBritishally,too,Francehadanunpleasant
fallingoutaboutEasternaffairs,andinespecialabout
SyriaandPersia . Therewasalsoademandforthe
retrocessionbyBritainoftheislandofMauritius,but
itwasnotmadeofficially,norisitasubjectfortwo
suchnationstoquarrelover. Thefirstriftinthelute
wascausedbythedepositionofEmirFaisalrespecting
thedesiresoftheArabpopulation . Thispicturesque
chief,theFrenchpresscomplained,hadbeentooreadily
admittedtotheConferenceandtoorespectfullylistened
tothere,whereasthePersiandelegationtrampedfor
monthsovertheParisstreetswithoutonceobtaininga
hearing . TheHedjaz,whichhadbeenindependent
fromtimeimmemorial,wasformallyrecognized asa
separatekingdomduringthewar,andtheGrandSheriff
ofMeccawassuddenlyraisedtothethroneintheEuro-
peansensebyFranceandBritain . Sincethenhewas
formallyrecognizedbythefivePowers . Hisrepresenta-
tivesinParisdemandedtheannexationofallthecountries
ofArabicspeechwhichwereunderTurkishdomination .
TheseincludednotonlyMesopotamia,butalsoSyria,
onwhichFrancehadlonglookedwithlovingeyesand
respectingwhichthereexistedanaccordbetweenherand
Britain . Theprojectcommunitywouldrepresenta
Pan-Arabfederationofaboutelevenmillionsouls,over
whichFrancewouldhavenoguardianship . Andyetthe
441
THE INSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
writtenaccordhadneverbeenannulled
. Palestinewas
excludedfromthisPan-Arabianfederation,andSyria
wastobeconsulted,andinsteadofbeinghandedoverto
France,asM. Clemenceaudemanded,wastobeallowed
todeclareitsownwisheswithoutanyinjunctionsfrom
theConference. Mesopotamiawouldbeautonomous
undertheLeagueofNations,butasinglemandatorywas
askedforbythekingoftheHedjazfortheentireeleven
millioninhabitants .
ThecommentsoftheFrenchpressonBritain'sattitude,
despitetheirstudiedreserveandconventionalphraseology,
borderedonrecriminationandhintedatapossiblecooling
offriendshipbetweenthetwonations,andinthecourse
ofthecontroversytheevil-omenedword"Fashoda"
waspronounced
. TheFrench Temps's argumentswere
brieflythese
:Thepopulationsclaimedoccupysucha
vaststretchofterritorythatthesovereigntyofthe
Hedjazcouldhardlybemorethannominalandsymboli-
cal .
Infact,theycoveranareaofone-halfoftheOtto-
manEmpire . Thesedifferentprovinces
would,in
reality,beunderthedominationoftheGreatPower
whichwastherealcreatorofthisnewkingdom,andthe
monarchoftheHedjazwouldbeamerestalking-horse
ofBritain . This,itwasurged,wouldnotbeindependence,
butamaskedprotectorate,andinthenameofthehigher
principlesmustbeprevented . Syriamustbehanded
overtoFrancewithoutconsultingthepopulation . The
financialresourcesoftheHedjazareutterlyinadequate
fortheadministrationofsuchavaststateaswasbeing
compacted .
Who,then,itwasasked,wouldsupplythe
indispensablefunds?
ObviouslyBritain,whohadbeen
providingtheEmirFaisalwithfundseversincehisfather
donnedthecrown
. Ifthispoliticalentitycameinto
existence,itwouldgeneratecontinuousfrictionbetween
FranceandBritain,separatecomradesinarms,delight
442
SIDELIGHTS
ON THE TREATY
avigilantenemy,andviolateawrittencompactwhich
shouldbesacred .
Forthesereasonsitshouldberejected
andSyriaplacedundertheguardianshipofFrance .
TheAmericanstookthepositionthatcongruouslywith
thehighethicalprincipleswhichhadguidedthelabors
oftheConferencethroughout,itwasincumbentonits
members,insteadofbarteringcivilizedpeopleslikechat-
tels,toconsultthemastotheirownaspirations .
Ifit
weretruethattheSyrianswereyearningtobecomethe
wardsofFrance,therecouldbenoreasonableobjection
onthepartoftheFrenchdelegatestoagreetoaplebiscite
.
ButtheFrenchdelegatesdeclinedtoentertainthesug-
gestiononthegroundthatSyria'slongingforFrench
guidancewasanotoriousfact .
Aftermuchdiscussionandvehementoppositiononthe
partoftheFrenchdelegatesanInter-Alliedcommission
underMr
. CharlesCranewassenttovisitthecountries
indisputeandtoreportontheleaningsoftheirpopu-
lations
. Afterhavingvisitedfortycitiesandtownsand
morethanthreehundredvillages,andreceivedover
fifteenhundreddelegationsofnatives,,thecommission
reportedthatthemajorityofthepeople"prefertomain-
taintheirindependence,"butdonotobjecttoliveunder
themandatorysystemforfiftyyears
providedtheUnited
Statesaccepts
themandate .
"Syriadesirestobecomea
sovereignkingdom,andmostofthepopulationsupports
theEmirFaisalasking
. " 1 Thecommissionfurtherascer-
tainedthattheSyrians,"whoaresingularlyenlightened
astothepoliciesoftheUnitedStates,"invokedandrelied
uponaFranco-Britishstatementofpolicy
2 whichhad
beendistributedbroadcastthroughouttheircountry,
"promisingcompleteliberationfromtheTurksandthe
establishmentoffreegovernmentsamongthenativepopu-
1 TheChicagoTribune
(Parisedition),August24,1919 .
2
IssuedonNovember9,x918 .
4 43
THE INSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
lationandrecognitionofthesegovernmentsbyFrance
.
andBritain . " 1
TheresultoftheinvestigationbytheInter-Allied
commissionremindsoneofthestoryofthetwoanglers
whowerediscussingthemeritsoftwodifferentsauces
forthetroutwhichoneofthemhadcaught
. Asthey
wereunabletoagreetheydecidedtoreferthematterto
thetrout,whoanswered
:"Gentlemen,Idonotwishto
beeatenwithanysauce
. Idesiretoliveandbefreeinmy
ownelement . "
"Ah,nowyouarewanderingfromthe
question,"exclaimedthetwo,whothereuponstruckup
acompromiseonthesubjectofthesauce
.
Thetoneofthislong-drawn-outcontroversy,especially
inthepress,wasdistinctlyacrimonious
. Itbecame
dangerouslybitterwhentheFrenchpoliticalworldwas
apprisedonedayoftheconclusionofatreatybetween
BritainandPersiaastheoutcomeofsecretnegotiations
betweenLondonandTeheran . Andexcitementgrew
intenserwhenshortlyafterwardtheauthentictextof
thisagreementwasdisclosed
. InFrance,Italy,Germany,
Russia,andtheUnitedStatesthepressunanimouslyde-
claredthatPersia'sinternationalstatusasdeterminedby
thenewdiplomaticinstrumentcouldbestbedescribedby
theevil-soundingwords"protectorate"andtheviolation
ofthemandatorysystemadoptedbytheConference
.
Thisstartlingdevelopmentshedastronglightuponthe
neworderingoftheworldanditsrelationtotheWilsonian
gospel,complicatedwithsecretnegotiations,protectorates
without .
mandates,andtheone-sidedabrogationof
compacts .
PersiaisoneoftheoriginalmembersoftheLeague
of Nations, 2
andassuchwasentitled,theFrenchargued,
iSee The ChicagoTribune
(Parisedition),August 30,
1919-
2
AnAmericanSenatoruncharitablyconjecturedthatshereceived this
honorabledistinctioninordertocontributeanadditional
votetothe
British .
4
44
SIDELIGHTS ON THE
TREATY
toahearingattheConference
. Shehadgrievancesthat
calledforredress :herneutralityhadbeenviolated,
manyofhersubjectshadbeenputtodeath,andhertitles
toreparationwereundeniable .
PresidentWilson,the
comforterofsmallstatesandoppressednationalities,
havingproclaimedthattheweakestcommunitieswould
commandthesamefriendlytreatmentasthegreatest,
thePersiandelegatesrepairedtoParisinthebeliefthat
thistreatmentwouldbeaccordedthem
. Buttherethey
weredisillusioned
. Forthemtherewasnoadmission .
Whether,iftheyhadbeenheardandhelpedbythe
SupremeCouncil,theywouldhavecontrivedtoexistasan
independentstateisaquestionwhichcannotbediscussed
here
. ThepointmadebytheFrenchwasthatonitsown
showingtheConferencewasmorallyboundtoreceivethe
Persiandelegation . .
Theutmostitobtainedwasthatthe
PersianMinisterofForeignAffairs,Monalek,whowas
headofthedelegation,hadaprivatetalkwithPresident
Wilson,ColonelHouse,andMr . Lansing
. Thesestates-
menunhesitatinglypromisedtohelpPersiatosecurefull
sovereignrights,oratanyratetoenableherdelegates
tounfoldtheircountry'scaseandfiletheirprotests
beforetheConference
. Thedelegateswerecomforted
andfeltsureofthesuccessoftheirmission
. Theytoldthe
AmericanplenipotentiariesthattheUnitedStateswould
bePersia'screditorforthishelpandthatshewouldinvite
Americanfinancierstoputhermoneymattersinorder,
Americanengineerstodevelopherminingindustries,and
theAmericanoilfirmstoexamineandexploitherpetrol
deposits
. 'Inaword,PersiawouldbeAmericanized
.
ThisnaiveannouncementoftherolereservedforAmerican
benefactorsinthelandoftheShahmighthaveimpressed
certaincommercialandfinancialinterestsintheUnited
1 Cf
. interviewwithaPersianofficial,publishedinthePariseditionof
TheCkicagoTribune,
Augusti9,i9I9
.
44 5
THEINSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
States,butwaswhollyalientotheonlyorderofmotives
thatcouldproperlymovetheAmericanplenipotentiaries
tointerposeinfavoroftheirwould-bewards .
ThepromisesmadebyMessrs. Wilson,House,and
Lansingcametonothing. FormonthsthePersianenvoys
livedinhopewhichwasstrengthenedbytheassurancesof
variousmembersoftheConferencethattheintervention
ofMr. Wilsonwouldinfalliblyprovesuccessful . But
eventsbeliedthisforecast,whereupontheheadofthe
Persiandelegation,afterseveralmonthsofhopesde-
ferred,quittedFranceforConstantinople,andhis
country'spositionamongthenationswassettledin
detailbythenewagreement .
Thatpositiondoesundoubtedlyresembleveryclosely
Egypt'sstatusbeforetheoutbreakoftheWorldWar .
AndEgypt'sstatuscouldhardlybetermedindependence .
HenceforwardGreatBritainhasastrongholdonthe
Persiancustoms,thecontrolofthewaterwaysandcar-
riageroutes,therightsofrailwayconstruction,theoil-
fields-thesewereoursbefore-therighttoorganizethe
armyanddirecttheforeignpolicyofthekingdom . And
itmayfairlybearguedthatthisarrangementmayprove
agreaterblessingtothePersiansthantherealizationof
theirownambitions . That,atanyrate,ismyown
personalbelief,whichformanyyearsIhaveheldand
expressed . Nonethelessitrunsdiametricallycounter
totheletterandthespiritofWilsonianism,whichisnow
seentobeawallhighenoughtokeepoutthedwarf
states,butwhichthegiantscaneasilyclearatabound .
Againstthisviolationofthenewhumanitariandoctrine
Frenchpublicistsflaredup . Theglaringcharacterofthe
transgressionrevoltedthem,theplightofthePersians
touchedthem,andtherightofself-determinationstrongly
appealedtothem. Wasitnotlargelyfortheassertion
ofthatrightthatalltheAlliedpeopleshadforfiveyears
446
SIDELIGHTS
ON
THE TREATY
beenmakingunheard-ofsacrifices? Whatwouldbecome
oftheLeagueofNationsifsuchsecretandselfishdoings
wereconnivedat?
Inaword,Frenchsympathyforthe
victimsofBritishhegemonywaxedasstrong as theBrit-
ishfellow-feelingfortheSyrians,whoobjectedtobe
drawnintotheorbitoftheFrench . Thosesharpprotests
andearnestappeals,itmaybenoted,weretheprincipal,
perhapstheonly,symptomsoftendernessforunpro-
tectedpeopleswhichwereevokedbythegreatethical
movementheadedbytheConference .
TheFrenchfurtherpointedoutthatthesystemof
Mandateshadbeenspeciallycreatedforcountriesas
backwardandhelplessasPersiawasassumedtobe,and
thattheonlyagencyqualifiedtoapplyitwaseitherthe
SupremeCouncilortheLeagueofNations . TheBritish
pressansweredthatnosuchhumiliatingassumptionabout
theShah'speoplewasbeingmade,thattheForeignOffice
haddistinctlydisclaimedtheintentionofestablishinga
protectorateoverPersia,whois,andwillremain,asov-
ereignandindependentstate . Buttheseexplanations
failedtoconvinceourindignantAllies . Theyargued,
fromexperience,thatnotrustwastobeplacedinthose
officialassurancesandeuphemisticphraseswhichare
generallybeliedbysubsequentacts . ' Theyfurther
lamentedthatthelongandsecretnegotiationswhichwere
goingforwardinTeheranwhilethePersiandelegation
waswearilyandvainlywaitinginParistobeallowedto
pleaditscountry'scausebeforethegreatworld-dictators
wasnotagoodexampleofloyaltytothenewcosmiclegis-
lation . 'HadnotMr. Wilsonproclaimedthatpeoples
werenolongertobebarteredandswappedaschattels?
'" Unfortunately,Mr . LloydGeorge,whohasstrippedtheForeignOffice
ofrealpower,hasfrequentlygivenassurancesofthisnature, andhisacts
havealwayscontradictedthem .
Asaproof,hislastinterviewwithM.
Clemenceauwillserve. " Cf . L'EchodeParis,August15,
igig,articleby
Pertinax .
447
THEINSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
HeretheItaliansandRumanianschimedin,reminding
theirkinsmenthatitwasthesameAmericanstatesmen
who inthepeaceconditionsfirstpresentedtoCount
Brockdorff-RantzaumadeovertheGermanpopulationof
theSaarValleytoFranceattheendoffifteenyearsas
thefairequivalentofasumofmoneypayableingold,
andthatFrance at
anyratehadraisednoobjectiontothe
barternortotheprincipleattherootofit
. Theyrea-
sonedthatiftheprinciplemightbeappliedtoonecase
itshouldbedeemedequallyapplicabletotheother,and
thattheonlypersonsorstatesthatcouldwithpropriety
demurtotheAnglo-Persianarrangementswerethose
who
themselveswerenotbenefitingbysimilartransactions
.
AtlasttheParispress,layingdueweightonthealliance
withBritain,struck
a newnote. "Itseemsthatthese
lastPersianbargainingsofferathemeforconversations
betweenourgovernmentandthatoftheAllies,"one
influentialjournalwrote
. 'Atoncetheamicablesugges-
tionwastakenupbytheBritishpress
. Theideawasto
jointheSyrianwiththePersiantransactionsandmake
Frenchconcessionsontheother
. Thiscompromisewould
composeanuglyquarrelandsettleeverythingforthe
best . ForFrance's - intentionstowardthepeopleof
Syria
were,itwascrediblyasserted,tothefullasdisinterested
andgenerous as thoseofBritaintowardPersia,andifthe
SyriansdesiredanEnglish-speakingnationratherthan
theFrenchtobetheirmentor,itwasequallytruethatthe
PersianswantedAmericansratherthanBritishtosuper-
intendandacceleratetheirprogressincivilization .
But
insteadofharkeningtothewishesofonlyoneitwould
bebettertoignorethoseofboth
. Bythisprudentcom-
promiseallthedemandsofrightandjustice,forwhich
bothgovernmentswereearneststicklers,wouldthusbe
amply satisfied.
1 LeJournaldesDebuts,August15,1919 .
4 4 8
SIDELIGHTS
ON THE TREATY
OurAmericanassociateswerelesseasilyappeased
. In
sooththerewasnothingleftwherewithtoappeasethem
.
Theirpresscondemnedthe"protectorate" as
abreach
oftheCovenant
. SecretaryLansingletitbeknown'
thattheUnitedStatesdelegationhadstriventoobtaina
hearingforthePersiansattheConference,buthad"lost
itsfight
. "APersian,whenapprizedofthisutterance,
said
:"WhentheUnitedStatesdelegationstrovetohin-
derItalyfromannexingFiumeandobtainingtheterri-
toriespromisedherbyasecrettreaty,theyaccomplished
theiraimbecausetheyrefusedtogiveway
. Thenthey
tookcarenottolosetheirfight
. Whentheyaccepteda
brieffortheJewsandimposedaJewishsemi-stateon
RumaniaandPoland,theywerefirmasthegraniterock,
andnoamountofopposition,nofuturedeterrents,made
anyimpressionontheirwill
. Accordingly,theyhadtheir
way. But
inthecauseofPersiatheylostthefight,
althoughlogic,humanity,justice,andtheordinances
solemnlyacceptedbytheGreatPowerswereallontheir
side . " . .
. OneAmericanpressorgantermedtheAnglo-
Persianaccord"acoupwhichisagreaterviolationofthe
WilsonianFourteenPointsthantheShantungawardto
Japan,asitmakesthewholeofPersiaamereprotectorate
forBritain . "
2
Generallyspeaking,illustrationsofthemeaningofnon-
interventioninthehomeaffairsofothernationswere
numerousandsomewhatperplexing
. Wereitnotthat
Mr
. WilsonhadcometoEuropefortheexpresspurpose
ofinterpreting
as
wellasenforcinghisowndoctrine,one
wouldhavebeenwarrantedinassumingthattheSupreme
Councilwasfrequentlytravestyingit .
But asthePresi-
dentwashimselfoneoftheleadingmembersofthat
Council,whosedecisionswereunanimous,theutmost
'
InWashingtononAugustz6,19ig
.
'
TheChicagoTribune(Paris
edition),Augustz9,z9zg .
449
THEINSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
thatonecantakeforgrantedisthathestrovetoimpose
histenetsonhisintractablecolleaguesand"lostthe
fight. "
Hereisastrikinginstanceofwhatwouldlooktothe
averagemanverylikeinterventioninthedomesticpoli-
ticsofanothernation-well-meantand,itmaybe,benefi-
centintervention-wereitnotthatweareassuredonthe
highestauthoritythatitisnothingofthesort . Itwas
devisedasanexpedientforgettingoutsidehelpforthe
captureofPetrogradbytheanti-Bolshevists . Theend,
therefore,wasgood,andthemeansseemedeffectualto
thosewhoemployedthem . TheKolchak-Denikinparty
could,itwasbelieved,havetakenpossessionofthat
capitallongbefore,byobtainingthemilitaryco-operation
oftheEsthonians . Butthepriceaskedbythesewasthe
recognitionoftheircompleteindependencebythenon-
BolshevistgovernmentinthenameofallRussia . Kol-
chak,tohiscredit,refusedtopaythisprice,seeingthat
hehadnopowerstodoso,andonlyadictatorwouldsign
awaytheterritorybyusurpingtherequisiteauthority .
ConsequentlythecombinedattackonPetrogradwasnot
undertaken . TheAdmiral'srefusalwasjustifiedbythe
circumstancesthathewasthespokesmanonlyofalarge
sectionoftheRussianpeople,andthatathoroughly
representativeassemblymustbeconsultedonthesubject
previoustoactionbeingtaken . Themilitarystagnation
thatensuedlastedformonths . Thenonedaythepress
broughtthetidingsthatthedifficultywasingeniously
overcome
. Thisistheshapeinwhichtheintelligence
wascommunicatedtotheworld :"ColonelMarsh,ofthe
Britisharmy,whoisrepresentingGeneralGough,organ-
izedarepublicinnorthwestRussiaatReval,August12th,
withinforty-fiveminutes, GeneralYudenitchbeingnom-
inallytheheadofthenewgovernment,whichisaffiliated
withtheKolchakgovernment . NorthwestRussiaop-
450
SIDELIGHTS ON THE TREATY
posestheEsthoniangovernmentonlymprinciplebecause
itwantsguarantiesthattheEsthonianswillnotbethe
stepping-stoneforsomebigPowerlikeGermanytocon-
troltheRussianoutletthroughtheBaltic .
IftheEstho-
niansgivesuchguaranties,thenorthwesternRussiansare
perfectlywillingtoletthembecomeanindependentstate
. " 1
Herethenwasa"Britishcolonel"who,inadditionto
hismilitaryduties,was,accordingtothisaccount,willing
andabletocreateanindependentrepublicwithoutany
SupremeCounciltoassisthim,whereasprofessionaldi-
plomatistsandmilitarymenofothernationshadbeen
tryingformonthstofoundaRhinerepublicunderDor-
tenandhadfailed .
Nordidhe,ifthenewspaperreport
becorrect,wastemuchtimeatthebusiness
. Fromthe
momentofitsinceptionuntilnorthwesternRussiastood
forthanindependentstate,promulgatingandexecuting
gravedecisionsinthesphereofinternationalpolitics,only
forty-fiveminutesaresaidtohaveelapsed .
Forty-five
minutesbytheclock
. Itwasalmostasquickafeatas
thedraftingoftheCovenantofNations . Further,the
resourcefulstatemakerforgedarepublicwhichwasquali-
fiedtotransfersovereignlyRussianterritorytounrecog-
nizedstateswithoutconsultingthenationorobtaining
authorityfromanyone .
Moremarvelousthananyother
detail,however,isthecircumstancethathedidhiswork
sowellthatitneveramountedtointervention
. 2
Onecannotaffectsurpriseifthedistinctionbetween
thisamazingexploitofdiplomatico-militaryprestidigita-
tionandintermeddlingintheinternalaffairsofanother
nationprovetoosubtleforthementalgraspoftheaver-
ageunpoliticalindividual .
1 TheChicagoTribune(Paris
edition),August24,1919 .
2
Aftertheabovewaswritten,aFrenchjournal,the
EchodeParisof
September 1g,
1919,announcedthatGeneralMarshdeclaresthathis
agentsactedwithouthisinstructions,butnonethelessitholdshimre-
sponsibleforthisBalticpolicy .
30
451
THE INSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
Itispracticeslikethesewhichultimatelydetermine
theworthofthetreatiesandtheCovenantwhichMr
.
WilsonwascontenttotakebackwithhimtoWashington
as
thefinaloutcomeofwhatwastohavebeenthemost
superbachievementofhistoricman . Ofthenewethical
principles,ofthegenerousrenunciationofprivileges,of
therightingofsecularwrongs,oftherespectthatwasto
beshownfortheweak,whichweretohavecementedthe
unionofpeoplesintoonepacificifnotblissfulfamily,
thereremainedbutthememory
. Nosuchbitterdraught
ofdisappointmentwasswallowedbythenationssince
theworldfirsthadapoliticalhistory
. Manyofthere-
soundingphrasesthatonceforetokenedaneweraofpeace,
right,andequitywerenotmerelyemptiedoftheircon-
tents,butmadetoconnotetheiropposites . Freedomof
theseasbecamesupremacyoftheseas,whichmaypos-
siblyturnouttobeablessedconsummationforallcon-
cerned,butshouldnothavebeensmuggledinundera
grossmisnomer . Theabolitionofwarmeans,asBritish
andAmericanandFrenchgeneralsandadmiralshave
sincetoldtheirrespectivefellow-citizens,thoroughprep-
arationsforthenextwar,whicharenottobeconfined,
asheretofore,tothe so-called
militarystates,butare
toextendoverallAnglo-Saxondon
. l "Opencovenants
openlyarrivedat"signifysecretconclavesandcon-
spirativedeliberationscarriedoninimpenetrable se-
crecywhichcannotbedispensedwithevenafterthe
wholebusinesshaspassedintohistory
. 2 Theself-
' Marshal DouglasHaig, LordFrench,the Americanpacifist,
Sydney
Baker,SenatorChamberlain,RepresentativeKahn,andahostofothers
havebeenpreachinguniversalmilitarytraining
. Thepress,too,withcon-
siderableexceptions,favorsthemovement
. "Wewantademocratized
army,whichrepresentsallthenation,anditcanbefoundonly in universal
service
. . .
. Universalserviceisourbestguarantyofpeace . " Cf. The
ChicagoTribune
(Parisedition),August 22, 1919
, sPresidentWilson,whenatthecloseofhisconferencewiththeSenate
CommitteeonForeignRelations-attheWhiteHouse-asked-howthe
4 5 2
SIDELIGHTSON
THE TREATY
determinationofpeoplesfindsitslimitIri'therights
ofeveryGreatPowertoholditssubjectnationalities
inthrallonthegroundthattheirreciprocalrelations
appertaintothedomesticpolicyofthestate
. Itmeans,
further,theprivilegeofthosewhowieldsuperiorforce
toputirresistiblepressureuponthosewho
areweak,
andtheleverwhichitplacesintheirhandsforthepur-
poseistobeknownundertheattractivenameofthepro-
tectionofminorities
. Abstentionfrominterference
in
the
homeaffairsofaneighboringcommunity'ismadetocover
intermeddlingofthemostirksomeandhumiliatingchar-
acterinmatterswhichhavenonexuswithinternational
law,foriftheyhad,therulewouldbeapplicabletoall
nations
. Thelesserpeoplesmustharkentoinjunctions
ofthegreaterstatesrespectingtheirmodeoftreating
alienimmigrantsandmustsubmittothecontrolofforeign
bodieswhichareignorantofthesituationanditsrequire-
ments
. Norisitenoughthatthosestatesshouldaccord
tothemembersoftheJewishandotherracesalltherights
whichtheirowncitizensenjoy-theymustgofartherand
investthemwithspecialprivileges,andforthispurpose
renounceaportionoftheirsovereignty
. Theymustlike-
wiseallowtheirmorepowerfulalliestodictatetothem
theirlegislationonmattersoftransitandforeigncom-
merce
. 'FortheGreatPowers,however,thislawof
minoritieswasnotwritten
. Theyareabovethelaw .
Theirwarrantisforce
. Inaword,forceisthetrump
cardinthepoliticalgameofthefutureasitwasinthat
ofthepast . AndM
. Clemenceau'sremindertothepetty
statesattheopeningoftheConferencethatthewielders
UnitedStateshadvotedontheJapaneseresolutioninfavorofraceequality,
replied
:"Iamnotsureofbeingfreetoanswerthequestion,becauseit
affectsalargenumberofpointsthatwerediscussedinParis,andinthe
interestofinternationalharmonyIthinkIhadbetternotreply . "-The
DailyMail
(Parisedition),August 22, 1919.
1
InvirtueofArticleLXoftheTreatywithAustria .
453
THE INSIDE STORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
oftwelvemilliontroopsarethemastersofthesituation
wasappropriate
. Thusthewarwhichwasprovokedby
thetransformationofasolemntreatyintoascrapof
paperwasconcludedbythepresentationoftwoscraps
ofpaperasatreatyandacovenantforthemoralrenova-
tionoftheworld.
XIV
THE TREATYWITHGERMANY
discussindetailthepeacetermswhichaftermany
months'desultorytalkwerefinallypresentedto
CountBrockdorff-Rantzauwouldtranscendthescope
ofthesepages.
LikeeveryotheractoftheSupreme
Council,theymaybeviewedfromoneoftwowidely
sunderedanglesofsurvey-eitherastheexercisebya
victoriousstateofthepowerderivedfromvictoryover
thevanquishedenemy,orasoneofthemeasuresbywhich
thepeaceoftheworldistobeenforcedinthepresentand
consolidatedinthefuture
. Andfromneitherpointof
viewcanitcommandtheapprovalofunbiasedpolitical
students
. AtfirsttheGermans,andnottheyalone,
expectedthattheconditionswouldbebasedonthe
FourteenPoints,whilemanyoftheAlliestookitfor
grantedthattheywouldbeinspiredbytheresolveto
crippleTeutondomforalltime
. Andforeachofthese
anticipationsthereweregoodformalgrounds
.
Theonlylegitimatemotiveforinterweavingthe
CovenantwiththeTreatywastomakeofthelatter a sort
ofcorollaryoftheformerandtomoderatetheinstincts
ofvengeancebythepromptingsofhigherinterests . On
thisground,andonlyonthis,didthefriendsoffar-
rangingreformsupportMr
. Wilsoninhiscontention
thatthetwodocumentsshouldberenderedmutually
interdependent .
Reparationforthedamagedonein
violationofinternationallawandsoundguaranties
455
THE
INSIDE STORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
againstitsrecurrenceareoftheessenceofeverypeace
treatythatfollowsadecisivevictory
. Butreparationis
seldomthisandnothingmore
. Thelowerinstinctsof
humannature,whendominantastheyareduringa
bloodywarandinthehourofvictory,generallyout-
weighconsiderationsnotonlyofright,butalsoofen-
lightenedegotism,leavingjusticetomergeintoven-
geance
. Andthefruitsaretreasuredwrathandasecret
resolveonthepartofthevanquishedtopayouthis
victoratthefirstopportunity
. Thewar-loserofto-day
aimsatbecomingthewar-winnerofto-morrow
. And
thisframeofmindisincompatiblewiththetemperneeded
foraneraofmoralfellowshipsuchasMr
. Wilsonwas
supposedtobeintentonestablishing
. Consequently,a
peacetreatyunmodifiedbytheprinciplesunderlyingthe
Covenantisnecessarilyanegationofthemainpossibilities
ofasocietyofnationsbaseduponrightandadecisive
argumentagainstjoiningtogetherthetwoinstruments
.
TheotherkindofpeacewhichMr
. Wilsonwasbelieved
tohavehadatheartconsistednotmerelyintheliquida-
tionofthewar,butintheuprootingofitspermanent
causes,intherenunciationbythevariousnationsof
sanguinaryconflictsasameansofdeterminingrival
claims,andinsuchanamicablerearrangementofinter-
nationalrelationsaswouldkeepsuchdisputesfrom
growingintodangerousquarrels . Right,orasnearan
approximationtoitasisattainable,wouldthentakethe
placeofviolence,wherebymilitaryguarantieswould
becomenotonlysuperfluous,butindicativeofaspirit
irreconcilablewiththemainpurposeoftheLeague
.
Eachnationwouldbeentitledtoequalopportunitywithin
thelimitsassignedtoitbynatureandwidenedbyits
ownmentalandmoralcapacities
. Thuspermanentlyto
forbidanumerous,growing,andterritoriallycramped
nationtopossessoverseascoloniesforitssuperfluous
456
THE
TREATY WITH
GERMANY
populationwhileoverburdeningotherswithpossessions
whichtheyareunabletoutilize,wouldconstitutea
negationofoneofthebasicprinciplesofthenewordering
.
Thosewerethegroundswhichseemedtowarrantthe
beliefthattheTreatywouldbenotonlyformally,but
substantiallyandinitsspiritanintegral,partofthe
generalsettlementbasedontheFourteenPoints
.
Thisanticipationturnedouttobeadelusion
. Wil-
sonianismprovedtobeaverydifferentsystemfromthat
oftheFourteenPoints,anditsauthorplayedthepartnot
onlyofaninterpreterofhistenets,butalsoofasort
ofpoliticalpopealonecompetenttoannultheforceof
lawsbindingonallthosewhomheshouldrefusetodispense
fromtheirobservance
. Hehadtodowithpatriotic
politicianspermeatedwiththeoldideas,desirousofpro-
vidinginthepeacetermsforthenextwarandstriving
tosecurethemaximumofadvantageoverthefoepre-
sumptive,bydismemberinghisterritory,deprivinghim
ofcolonies,makinghimdependentonothersforhis
suppliesofrawstuffs,andartificiallycheckinghisnatural
growth
. Nearlyallofthemhadprinciplestoinvoke
in
favoroftheirclaimsandsomehadnothingelse
. And
itwasthesetendencieswhichMr
. Wilsonsoughtto
combinewiththeethicalidealstobeincarnatedinthe
SocietyofNations .
Nowthiswasanimpossiblesyn-
thesis
. Thespiritofvindictiveness
forthatwaswell
representedattheConference-wastomergeandlose
itselfinanoutflowofmagnanimity
;precautionsagainsta
hatedenemyweretobeinterwovenwithimplicitcon-
fidenceinhisgenerosity ;amilitaryoccupationwould
provideagainstasuddenonslaught,whileanapproach
todisarmamentwouldbearwitnesstotheabsenceof
suspicion . ThusPolandwoulddischargethefunctionof
France'sallyagainsttheTeutonsintheeast,buther
frontiersweretoleaveherinefficientlyprotectedagainst
457
THE INSIDE STORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
theirfutureattacksfromthewest
. Germanywasdis-
membered,yetshewascreditedwithself-disciplineand
generosityenoughtosteelheragainstthetemptationto
profitbytheopportunityofjoiningtogetheragainwhat
Francehaddissevered . TheLeagueofNationswasto
bebaseduponmutualconfidenceandgoodfellowship,
yetoneofitsmostpowerfulfuturememberswassodis-
trustedastobedeclaredpermanentlyunworthytopossess
anyoverseascolonies . Germany'sterritoryintheSaar
ValleyisadmittedlyinhabitedbyGermans,yetfor
fifteenyearsthereistobeaforeignadministrationthere,
andattheendofitthepeoplearetobeaskedwhether
theywouldliketocutthebondsthatlinkthemwiththeir
ownstateandplacethemselvesunderFrenchsway,so
thatapremiumisofferedforFrenchimmigrationinto
theSaarValley.
Thoseareafewoftheconsequencesofthemixture
ofthetwoirreconcilableprinciples .
ThatGermanyrichlydeservedherpunishmentcannot
begainsaid . Hercrimewaswithoutprecedent . Some
ofitsmostsinisterconsequencesareirremediable . Whole
sectionsofherpeoplearestillunconsciousnotonlyof
themagnitude,butofthecriminalcharacter,oftheirmis-
deeds . Nonethelessthereisafuturetobeprovided
for,andoneofthesafestprovisionsistoinfluencethe
potentialenemy'swillforevilifhispowercannotbe
paralyzed .
AndthistheTreatyfailedtodo
.
TheGermans,whentheylearnedtheconditions,dis-
cussedthemangrily,andthekeynotewasrefusalto
sign
thedocument. Thefinancialclauseswerestigmatized
as maskedslavery. Thepressurgedthatduringthe
warlessthanone-tenthofFrance'sterritoryhadbeen
occupiedbytheircountrymenandthatevenofthisonly
afragmentwasinthezoneofcombat . Theentirewealth
ofFrance,theyalleged,hadbeenestimatedbeforethewar
458
THE TREATY WITH GERMANY
atfromthreehundredandfiftymilliardtofourhundred
milliardfrancs,consequentlyforthedevastatedprovinces
hardlymorethanone-twentiethofthatsumcouldfairly
bedemandedasreparation,whereastheclaimsetforth
wasincomparablymore . Theyobjectedtothelossof
theircoloniesbecausethejustificationalleged-thatthey
weredisqualifiedtoadministerthembecauseoftheir
formercrueltiestowardthenatives-wasgroundless,
astheAlliesthemselveshadadmittedimplicitlyby
offeringthemtherightofpre-emptioninthecase
of
the
Portugueseandotheroverseaspossessionson-thevery
eveofthewar.
Butthemosttellingobjectionsturnedupontheclauses
thatdealtwiththeSaarValley . Itspopulationisentirely
German,yetthetreaty-makersprovidedforitsoccupa-
tionbytheFrenchforatermoffifteenyearsandits
transferencetothemif,afterthatterm,theGerman
governmentwasunabletopayacertainsumingold
forthecoalminesitcontained . Ifthatsumwerenot
forthcomingthepopulationandthedistrictweretobe
handedovertoFranceforalltime,eventhoughthe
formershouldvoteunanimouslyforreunionwithGer-
many. CountBrockdorff-Rantzauremarkedin . hisnote
ontheTreaty"thatinthehistoryofmoderntimesthere
isnootherexampleofacivilizedPowerobliging a state
toabandonitspeopletoforeigndominationasanequiv-
alentforacashpayment . "Oneofthemostinfluential
pressorganscomplainedthattheTreaty"bartered
Germanmen,women,andchildrenforcoal ;subjected
somedistrictswithathoroughlyGermanpopulation
toanobligatoryplebiscite 1 underinterestedsupervision ;
' OneofthethreedistrictsofSchleswig. Acuriousphenomenonwas
thiszealoftheSupremeCouncilforDenmark'sinterests,ascomparedwith
Denmark'srefusaltoprofitbyit,thechampionsofself-determination
urgingtheDanestodemandadistrict,asDanish,whichtheDanesknew
tobeGerman!
459
THE INSIDE STORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
severedotherswithoutanyconsultationfromtheFather-
land ;deliveredovertheproceedsofGermanindustry
tothegreedofforeigncapitalistsforanindefiniteperiod
;
. . .
spreadoverthewholecountryanetworkofalien
commissionstobepaidbytheGermannation
;withdrew
streams,rivers,railways,theairservice,numerous
industrialestablishments,theentireeconomicsystem,
fromthesovereigntyoftheGermanstatebymeanseither
ofinternationalizationorfinancialcontrol
;conferredon
foreigninspectorsrightssuchasonlythesatrapsof
absolutemonarchsinformerageswereempoweredto
exercise ;in a
word,theyputanendtotheexistence
oftheGermannationassuch .
Germanywouldbecome
acolonyofwhiteslaves . . . . " 1
FortunatelyfortheAllies,thereproachofexchanging
humanbeingsforcoalwasseenbytheirleaderstobeso
damagingthattheymodifiedtheodiousclausethat
warrantedit . Eventhecommentsofthefriendlyneutral
presswereextremelypungent .
Theyfoundfaultwith
theTreatyongroundswhich,unhappily,cannotberea-
sonedaway. "Whydissimulateit?"writestheforemost
ofthesejournals ;"thispeaceisnotwhatwewereledto
expect
. Itdislodgestheolddangers,butcreatesnew
ones .
AlsaceandLorraineare,itistrue,nolongerin
Germanhands,but .
. . irredentismhasonlychanged
itscamp .
In1914Germanyputherfaithinforcebecause
sheherselfwieldedit
. Butcrusheddownunderapeace
whichappearstoviolatethepromisesmadetoher,a
peacewhichinherheartofheartsshewillneveraccept,
shewillturntowardforceanew
. Itwillstandoutasthe
greatmisfortuneofthisTreatythatithastaintedthe
victorywithamoralblightandcausedthecourseofthe
Germanrevolutiontoswerve
. . . . Thefundamental
erroroftheinstrumentliesinthecircumstancethatit
1 DasBerlinerTageblatt, June4,1919-
46o
THE TREATY
WITH GERMANY.
is a compromise between two incompatible frames of
mind . It was feasible to restore peace to Europe by
pulling down Germanydefinitely. But
in
order to
accomplishthisitwouldhavebeennecessarytocrush
apeopleofseventymillionsandtoincapacitatethem
fromrisingtotheirfeetagain . Peacecouldalsohave
beensecuredbythesoleforceofright . Butinthiscase
Germanywouldhavehadtobetreatedsoconsiderately
astoleavehernogrievancetobroodover . M. Clemen-
ceauhinderedMr . Wilsonfromdisplayingsufficient
generositytogetthemoralpeace,andMr . Wilsononhis
sidepreventedM. Clemenceaufromexercisingseverity
enoughtosecurethematerialpeace . Andsotheresult,
whichitwaseasytoforesee,isaregimedevoidofthe
realguarantiesofdurability
. " 1
ThejudgeoftheFrenchsyndicalistswasstillmore
severe
.
"TheVersaillespeace,"exclaimedM. Verfeuil,
"isworsethanthepeaceofBrest-Litovsk
. . .
annexa-
tions,economicservitudes,overwhelmingindemnities,
andacaricatureoftheSocietyofNations-thesecon-
stitutethebalanceofthenewpolicy . "
2
TheDeputy
MarcelCachinsaid :"TheAlliedarmiesfoughttomake
thiswarthelast . Theyfoughtforajustandlasting
peace,butnoneoftheseboonshasbeenbestowedonus .
Weareconfrontedwiththefailureofthepolicyofthe
onemaninwhomourpartyhadputitsconfidence-
PresidentWilson . Thepeaceconditions . . . areinac-
ceptablefromvariouspointsofview,financial,territorial,
economic,social,andhuman . "a
ItisinthisTreatyfarmorethanintheCovenantthat
theprinciplestowhichMr. Wilsonatfirstcommitted
himselfareindecisiveissue . True,hewaswontafter
everysurrenderhemadeduringtheConferencetoinvoke
1 LeJournaldeGenbve,June 24, 1919.
sCf. L'EchodeParis,May 12, 1919.
s
Ibidem .
461
THE INSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
theCovenantanditsconcreterealization-theLeague
ofNations-asthecorrectivewhichwouldseteverything
rightinthefuture . Butthefactcanhardlybeblinked
thatitistheTreatyanditseffectsthatimpresstheir
characterontheCovenantandnottheotherwayround
.
AsaneminentSwissprofessorobserved
:"Noleague
ofnationswouldhavehinderedtheBelgianpeoplein
1830fromseparatingfromHolland. Canthefuture
LeagueofNationshinderGermanyfromreconstituting
itsgeographicalunity?CanithindertheGermansof
BohemiafromsmitingtheCzech?Canitpreventthe
Magyars,whoatpresentarescattered,fromworking
fortheirreunion? " I
Thesepotentialdisturbancesaresomanydangersto
France. ForifwarshouldbreakoutineasternEurope,
isittobesupposedthattheUnitedStates,theBritish
colonies,orevenBritainherselfwillsendtroopstotake
partinit?Hardly . Suppose,forinstance,thatthe
Austrians,whoardentlydesiretobemergedinGermany,
proclaimtheirunionwithher,asIamconvincedthey
willoneday,doesanystatesmanbelievethatdemocratic
Americawilldespatchtroopstocoercethemback?Ifthe
GermansofBohemiasecedefromtheCzechoslovaks
ortheCroatsfromtheSerbs,willBritisharmiescross
theseatoupholdtheunionwhichthosepeoplesrepudiate?
AndinthenameofwhichoftheFourteenPointswould
theyundertakethetask?Thatofself-determination?
France'sinterests,andhersalone,wouldbeaffectedby
suchchanges. AndFrancewouldbelefttofightsingle-
handed
. Forwhat?
Itisinterestingtonotehowtheconditionsimposed
uponGermanywereappreciatedbyaninfluentialbody
ofMr . Wilson'sAmericanpartizanswhohadpinnedtheir
1
Inamonographentitled PlusJamais.
462
THE TREATY WITH GERMANY
faith tohisFourteenPoints
. Theirviewisexpressed
bytheirpressorganasfollows : I
"FranceremainsthestrongestPowerontheContinent
.
WithhermilitaryestablishmentintactshefacesaGer-
manywithoutageneralstaff,withoutconscription,with-
outuniversalmilitarytraining,withastrictlylimited
amountoflightartillery,withnoairservice,nofleet,
withnodomesticbasisinrawmaterialsforarmament
manufacture,withherwholewesternborderfiftykilo-
meterseastoftheRhinedemilitarized . Ontopofthis
Francehasasystemofmilitaryallianceswiththenew
statesthattouchGermany.
Ontopofthisshesecured
permanentrepresentationintheCounciloftheLeague,
fromwhichGermanyisexcluded
. Ontopofthateco-
nomictermswhich,whiletheycannotbefulfilled,do
crippletheindustriallifeofherneighbor . Withsucha
balanceofforcesFrancedemandsforherselfaformof
protectionwhichneitherBelgium,norPoland,nor
Czechoslovakia,norItalyisgranted . "
1 Cf . TheNewRepublic,August13,1919,P
. 43 .
XV
THE TREATY
WITH
BULGARIA
A
MONGallthestrangeproductsofthemany-sided
outburstsoftheleadingdelegates'reconstructive
activity,theTreatywithBulgariastandsoutinbold
relief. Itrevealsthehigh-watermarkreachedbythose
secret,elusive,anddecisiveinfluenceswhichswayedso
manyofthemysteriousdecisionsadoptedbytheCon-
ference . AsBulgariadisposedofanabundantsource
ofthoseinfluences,herchastisementpartakesofsome
ofthecharacteristicsofareward . Notonlydidshenot
fareasthetreacherousenemythatsheshowedherself,
butsheemergedfromtheordealmuchbetteroffthan
severalofthevictoriousstates . UnlikeSerbia,Rumania,
France,andBelgium,sheescapedthehorrorsofaforeign
invasionandshepossessedandfructifiedallherresources
downtothedaywhenthearmisticewasconcluded .
Herpeasantpopulationmadehugeprofitsduringthe
campaignandherarmiesdespoiledSerbia,Rumania,
andGreekMacedoniaandsenthomeenormousbooty .
Inaword,sheisricherandmoreprosperousthanbefore
sheenteredthearenaagainstherprotectorsandformer
allies.
For,owingtotheintercessionofherpowerfulfriends,
shewastreatedwithadegreeofindulgencewhich,
althoughexpectedbyallwhowereinitiatedintothe
secretsof"opendiplomacy,"
scandalized
thosewhowere
anxiousthatatleastsomesimulacrumofjusticeshould
464
THE TREATY WITH BULGARIA
be maintained. Germany was forced to sign a blank
checkwhichherenemieswillonedayfillin . Austriawas
reducedtothestatusofaparasitelivingonthebountyof
theGreatPowersanddeniedtherightofself-determina-
tion . EvenFrance,exhaustedbyfiveyears'superhuman
efforts,beholdswithalarmherfinancialfutureentirely
dependentupontheabilityorinabilityofGermanyto
paythedamagestowhichshewascondemned .
ButthePrussiaoftheBalkans,owingtotheintercession
ofinfluentialanonymousfriends,hadnosuchconse-
quencestodeplore . Althoughshecontractedheavydebts
towardGermany,shewasrelievedoftheefforttopay
them. Herfinancialobligationswerefirsttransferred 1
totheAlliesandthenmagnanimouslywipedoutbythese,
whothenlimitedallherliabilitiesforreparationstotwo
andaquartermilliardfrancs . AnInter-Alliedcommission
inSofiaistofindandreturntheloottoitslawfulowners,
butitistochargenoindemnityforthedamagedone .
Norwillitcontainrepresentativesofthestateswhose
propertytheBulgarsabstracted . Serbiaisallowed
neitherindemnitynorreparation . Sheistoreceivea
sharewhichtheTreatyneglectedtofixofthetwoanda
quartermilliardfrancsonadatewhichhasalsobeen
leftundetermined . Sheisnoteventogetbackthe
herdsofcattleofwhichtheBul ggarsrobbedher . The
lawgiversinParisconsideredthatjusticewouldbemet
byobligingtheBulgarstorestore 28,ooo headofcattle
inlieuofthe 3,200,000 drivenoff,sothateveniftheill-
starredSerbsshouldidentify,say,onemillionmore,they
wouldhavenorighttoenforcetheirclaim .
NoristhattheonlydisconcertingdetailintheTreaty .
TheSupremeCouncil,whichsanctionedthemilitaryoc-
' InJune,1919
.
2 Thecommentsontheseterms,publishedbyM. Gauvaininthe Journal
desD6bats (September 20, i9i9),arewellworthreading .
465
THE INSIDE
STORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
cupationofapartofGermanyasaguarantyfortheful-
filmentofthepeaceconditions,dispensesBulgariafrom
anysuchirksomeconditions .
Bulgaria'sgoodfaithap-
pearedsufficienttothepoliticianswhodraftedtheinstru-
ment
. "Forreasonswhichonehardlydarestouch
upon,"writesaneminentFrenchpublicist,'"severalof
thePowersthatconstitutethefamousworldareopagus
countonthefutureco-operationofBulgaria
. Weshrink
indismayfromtheperspectivethusopenedtoourgaze . " 2
Theterritorialchangeswhichthe
Prussiaofthe
Balkanswascondemnedtoundergoareneithervery
considerable_norunjust .
RumaniareceivesnoBul-
garianterritory,thefrontiersof1913remainingunal-
tered
. Serbianetssomeongroundswhichcannotbe
calledinquestion,andalargepartofThracewhichis
in-
habited,notbyBulgars,butmainlybyGreeksandTurks,
wastakenfromBulgaria,butallottedtonostateinpar-
ticular . TheupshotoftheTreaty,asitappearedto
mostoftheleadingpublicistsontheContinentofEurope,
wastoleaveBulgaria,whosecrueltyanddestructiveness
aredescribedbyofficialandunofficialreportsasunpar-
alleled,inapositionofeconomicsuperioritytoSerbia,
Greece,andRumania
. AndintheInter-Alliedcommis-
sionBulgariaistohavearepresentative,whileSerbia,
Greece,andRumania,apartofwhosestolenproperty
thecommissionhastorecover,willhavenone .
Acomparisonbetweentheindulgencelavishedupon
BulgariaandtheseveritydisplayedtowardRumaniais
calculatedtodisconcertthestanchestfriendsofthe
SupremeCouncil .
TheRumaniangovernment,inadig-
nifiednotetotheConference,explaineditsrefusaltosign'
theTreatywithAustriabyenumeratingaseriesoffacts
whichamounttoascathingcondemnationofthework
' M. AugusteGauvain .
2
LeJournaldesDebcts, September20,1919
.
466
THE TREATY WITH
BULGARIA
oftheSupremeCouncil. OntheonehandtheCouncil
pleadedtheengagementsenteredintobetweenJapanand
herEuropeanalliesasacogentmotiveforhandingover
ShantungtoJapan . Fortreatiesmustberespected .
Andtheargumentissound . Ontheotherhand,they
wereboundbyasimilartreaty 1 togiveRumaniathe
wholeBanat,theRumaniandistrictsofHungaryandthe
BukovinaasfarastheriverPruth . ButattheCon-
ferencetheyrepudiatedthisengagement . In1916they
stipulatedthatifRumaniaenteredthewartheywould
co-operatewithamplemilitaryforces. Theyfailedto
redeemtheirpromise. Andtheyfurtherundertookthat
"RumaniashallhavethesamerightsastheAlliesinthe
peacepreliminariesandnegotiationsandalsoindiscussing
theissueswhichshallbelaidbeforethePeaceConference
foritsdecisions . " Yet,aswesaw,shewasdeniedthese
rights,andherdelegateswerenotinformedofthesub-
jectsunderdiscussionnorallowedtoseethetermsof
peace,whichwereinthehandsoftheenemies,andwere
onlytwiceadmittedtothepresenceoftheSupreme
Council .
Ithasbeenobservedinvariouscountriesandbythe
AlliedandtheneutralpressthatbetweentheGerman
viewaboutthesacrednessoftreatiesandthatofthe
SupremeCouncilthereisnosubstantial difference . 2
Commentsofthisnatureareallthemoredistressingthat
theycannotbethrustasideascalumnious . Againitwill
notbedeniedthatRumaniarenderedinestimableser-
vicestotheAllies . Shesacrificedthreehundredthousand
ofhersons to theircause. Hersoilwasinvadedandher
propertystolenorruined . Yetshehasbeendeprived
ofpartofhersovereigntybytheAlliestowhomshegave
thishelp . TheSupremeCouncil,not
, contentwithher
1 Concludedintheyearx916 .
2
Cf . TheDailyMail(Paris edition),September 21, 1919 .
31
467
THEINSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
lawconferringequalrightsonallhercitizens,towhat-
everraceorreligiontheymaybelong,orderedherto
submittothedirectionofaforeignboardineverything
concerningherminoritiesanddemandedfromhera
promiseofobedienceinadvancetotheirfuturedecrees
respectingherpolicyinmattersofinternationaltrade
andtransit
. Thesestipulationsconstituteanoteworthy
curtailmentofhersovereignty
.
Thatanysetofpublicmenshouldbecarriedbyex-
trinsicalmotivesthusfarawayfromjustice,fairplay,
andgoodfaithwouldbeamisfortuneunderanycir-
cumstances,butthatataconjuncturelikethepresentit
shouldbefallthemenwhosetupasthemoralguidesof
mankindandwieldthepowertoloosenthefabricof
societyisindeedadiredisaster .
xv'
THE COVENANTANDMINORITIES
I
N Mr. Wilson's scheme for the establishment ofa
societyofnationstherewasnothingnewbuthis
pledgetohaveitrealized . Andthatpledgehasstillto
beredeemedunderconditionswhichhehimselfhasmade
muchmoreunfavorablethantheywere . Theideaitself
-floatinginthepoliticalatmosphereforages-hascome
toseemlessvagueandunattainablesincethedaysof
Kant. Theonlyheadsofstateswhohadsetthemselves
toembodyitininstitutionsbeforePresidentWilsontook
itupnotonlydisappointedthepeopleswhobelievedin
them,butdiscreditedtheideaitself .
Thatamerelymechanicalorganizationsuchasthe
Americanstatesmanseemstohavehadinmind,formed
byparliamentarypoliticiansdeliberatinginsecret,could
bindnationsandpeoplestogetherinmoralfellowship,is
conceivableintheabstract . Butifweturntothereality,
weshallfindthatinthatdirectionnothingdurablecan
beeffectedwithoutaradicalchangeintheideas,aspira-
tions,andtemperoftheleaderswhospeakforthenations
to-day,and,indeed,inthoseoflargesectionsofthe
nationsthemselves . Fortoorganizesocietyonthose
unfamiliarlinesistomodifysomeofthedeepest-rooted
instinctsofhumannature. Andthatcannotbeachieved
overnight,certainlynot in thespanofthirtyminutes,
whichsufficedforthedraftingofthe''Covenant . The
bulkofmankindmightnotneedtobeconverted,but
469
THE INSIDE
STORY OFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
wholeclassesmustfirstbeeducated,anainsomecoun-
triesre-educated,whichisperhapsstillmoredifficult .
Mentalandmoraltrainingmustcomplementandrein-
forceeachother,andeachpoliticalunitbebroughtto
realizethattheinterestsofthevastercommunitytake
precedenceoverthoseofanypartofit . Andtoimpress
thesenovelviewsuponthepeoplesoftheworldtakes
time .
Anindispensableconditionofsuccessisthatthecom-
pactbindingthememberstogethermustbeenteredinto
bythepeoples,notmerelybytheirgovernments. For
itisuponthemassesthattheburdenofthewarlies
heaviest . Itisthebulkofthepopulationthatsupplies
thesoldiers,themoney,andtheworkforthebelligerent
states,andenduresthehardshipsandmakesthesacrifices
requisitetosustainit . Therefore,thepeoplesarepri-
marilyinterestedintheabolitionoftheoldorderingand
theforgingofthenew . Moreover,aslatter-daycam-
paignsarewagedwithalltheresourcesofthewarring
peoples,andasthepossessionofcertainoftheseresources
isoftenboththecauseoftheconflictandtheobjective
oftheaggressor,itfollowsthatnomerepoliticalenact-
mentswillmeetcontemporaryrequirements
. Anasso-
ciationofnationsrenouncingtheswordasameansof
settlingdisputesmustalsoreduceasfaraspossiblethe
surfaceoverwhichfrictionwithitsneighborsislikelyto
takeplace
. Andnowadaysmostofthatsurfaceiseco-
nomic . Thepossessionofrawmaterialsisamorepotent
attractionthanterritorialaggrandizement . Indeed,the
latteriscovetedmainlyasameansofsecuringorsafe-
guardingtheformer . Ontheseandothergrounds,in
drawingupacharterforasocietyofnations,thepolitical
aspectshouldplaybutasubsidiarypart
. InParisit
wastheonlyaspectthatcountedforanything .
Aparliamentofpeoples,then,istheonlyorganthatcan
470
THE COVENANT AND MINORITIES
impartviabilitytoasocietyofnationsworthyofthe
name. ByjoiningtheCovenantwiththePeaceTreaty,
andturningtheformerintoaninstrumentfortheexecu-
tionofthelatter,thussubordinatingtheidealtotheego-
tistical,Mr. Wilsondeprivedhisplanofitssolejustifica-
tion,andforthetimebeingburiedit . Thephilosopher
Lichtenberg 1 wrote,"Onemanbringsforthathought,
anotherholdsitoverthebaptismalfont,thethirdbegets
offspringwithit,thefourthstandsatitsdeathbed,and
thefifthburiesit . "Mr. Wilsonhasdischargedthefunc-
tionsofgravediggertotheideaofapacificsocietyof
nations,justasLeninhasdonetothesystemofMarxism,
theonlydifferencebeingthatMarxismisasdeadasa
door-nail,whereasthesocietyofnationsmayriseagain .
Itwasopen,then,tothethreeprincipaldelegatesto
insurethepeaceoftheworldbymoralmeansorbyforce .
Havingeschewedtheformerbyadoptingthedoctrinesof
Monroe,abandoningthefreedomoftheseas,andby
accordingtoFrancestrategicfrontiersandotherprivi-
legesofthemilitaristorder,theymighthaveenlarged
andsystematizedtheseconcessionstoexpediencyand
forgedanallianceofthethreestatesoroftwo,andunder-
takentokeeppeaceontheplanetagainstallmarplots .
Iwroteatthetime : "Thedelegatesarebecomingcon-
sciousoftheexistenceofaready-madeleagueofnations
intheshapeoftheAnglo-Saxonstates,which,together
withFrance,mighthinderwars,promotegood-fellowship,
remoldhumandestinies ;andtheyaredelightedthusto
possesssolidfoundationsonwhichanobleedificecanbe
raisedinthefullnessoftime . Tribunalswillbecreated,
withfullpowerstoadjudgedisputes ;facilitieswillbe
accordedtolitigiousstates,andevenanobligation will
beimposedtoinvoketheir"arbitration . Andthesum
1 AcontemporaryofGoethe . HisworkswererepublishedbyHerzog in
theyear1907 .
471
THEINSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
totalofthesereformswillbeknowntocontemporary
annalsasaninchoateLeagueofNations
. Thedelegates
arealreadymodestlydisavowingtheintentionofrealiz-
ingtheidealinallitsparts
. Thatmustbelefttocoming
generations
;butwhatwiththeexhaustionofthepeoples,
theiraversionfromwarfare,andthematerialobstacles
totherenewalofhostilitiesinthenearfuture,itiscalcu-
latedthatthepeacewillnotsoonbeviolated
. Whether
moresalientresultswillbeattainedorattemptedbythe
Conferencenobodycanforetell
. " 1
Thisexpedient,evenhaditbeendeliberatelyconceived
andskilfullywroughtout,wouldnothavebeenan
adequatesolutionoftheworld'sdifficulties,norwouldit
havecommendeditselftoallthestatesconcerned
. But
itwouldatleasthavebeenatemporarymakeshift
capableofbeingtransmutedunderfavorablecircum-
stancesintosomethinglessmaterialandmoredurable
.
Buttheamateurworld-reformerscouldnotmakeup
theirmindstochooseeitheralternative
. Andtheresult
isoneofthemostlamentablefailuresrecordedinhuman
history .
Iplacedmyownopiniononrecordatthetimeas
franklyasthecensorshipwhichstillexistedformewould
permit. Iwrote
:"Whateverydelegatewithsound
politicalinstinctwillaskhimselfis,whethertheLeague
ofNationswilleliminatewarsinfuture,and,ifnot,he
willfeelconscientiouslyboundtoadoptotherrelatively
suremeansofprovidingagainstthem,andtheseconsist
ofalliances,strategicfrontiers,andthepermanentdis-
ablementofthepotentialenemy
. Ononeorotherof
thesealternativelinestheresettlementmustbedevised
.
Tocombinethemwouldberuinous . Nowofwhatprac-
ticaluseisaleagueofnationsdevoidofsupernational
forcesandfacedbyanumerous,virile,andunitedrace,
1
TheDailyTelegraph,January28,1919 .
472
THE COVENANT AND MINORITIES
smartingunderasenseofinjustice,thirstingfortheop-
portunitiesfordevelopmentdeniedtoit,butgrantedto
nationswhichitdespisesasinferior? Wouldaleague
ofnationscombinemilitarilyagainstthegradualen-
croachmentsorsuddenaggressionofthatPoweragainst
itsweakerneighbors? Nobodyisauthorizedtoanswer
thisquestionaffirmatively . To-daythePowerscannot
agreetointerveneagainstBolshevism,whichthey
deemascourgeoftheworld,norcantheyagreeto
tolerateit .
"Inthesecircumstances,whatcompellingmotivescan
belaidbeforethosedelegateswhoareaskedtodispense
withstrategicfrontiersandrelyuponaleagueofnations
fortheirdefense?TakeFrance'soutlook
. Peaceoncecon-
cluded,shewillbeconfrontedwithasecularenemywho
numberssomeseventymillionstoherforty-fivemillions .
Intenyearsthedisproportionwillbestillgreater . Discon-
tentedRussiaisalmostcertaintobetakeninhandby
Germany,befriended,reorganized,exploited,andenlisted
asan ally. " 1
Consciousofthesereefsandshoals,theFrenchgovern-
ment,whichwasatfirstcontemptuousoftheWilsonian
scheme,discernedtheuseitmightbeputtoasamilitary
safeguard,andsoughttoconvertitintothat
. " The
French,"wroteaFrancophilEnglishjournalpublishedin
Paris,"wouldliketheLeaguetomaintainwhatmaybe
calledapermanentmilitarygeneralstaff . Theduties
ofthisorganizationwouldbetokeepahawklikeeyeon
themisdemeanors,actualorthreatened,ofanystateor
groupofstates,andtobeempoweredwithauthorityto
callintoinstantactionagreatinternationalmilitaryforce
forthefrustrationorsuppressionofsuchaggression .
TheFrenchhavefranklyinmindthepossibilitythatan
unrepentantandunregenerateGermanyisthe
most
' TheDailyTelegraph,January 31,
1 9 1 9-
473
THE INSIDESTORYOF
THEPEACECONFERENCE
likelymenacenotonlytothesecurityofFrance,butto
thepeaceoftheworldingeneral
. " 1
Andotherstatescherishedanalogoushopes
. The
spiritofrightandjusticewastobeevokedlikethe
spiritthatservedAladdin,andtobecompelledtoenterthe
serviceofnationalismandmilitarism,andaccomplish
thetaskofarmies .
TheparamountPowersprescribedthesacrificesofsov-
ereigntywhichmembershipoftheLeaguenecessitated,
andforthwithdispensedthemselvesfrommakingthem
.
TheUnitedStatesgovernmentmaintaineditsMonroe
DoctrineforAmerica-nay,itwentfartherandidentified
itsinterestswiththeHaydoctrinefortheFarEast
. 2
Itdecidedtoconstructapowerfulnavyforthedefense
ofthesepoliticalassets,andtogivetheyouthofthe
countryasemi-militarytraining
. 3 Defensepresupposes
attack
. War,therefore,isnotexcluded-nay,itisad-
mittedbytheworld-reformers,andpreparationsforitare
indispensable
. Equallysoaretheburdensoftaxation .
Butiflibertyofdefensebeoneoftherightsoftwoorthree
Powers,bywhatlawisitconfinedtothemanddenied
totheothers?Whyshouldtheothercommunitiesbe
constrainedtoremainopentoattack?Sarelythey,too,
deservetoliveandthrive,andmakethemostoftheir
opportunities.
NowifinlieuofamisnamedLeagueof
NationswehadanAnglo-Saxonboardforthebetter
governmentoftheworld,theseunequalweightsand
measureswouldbeintelligibleontheprinciplethatspecial
1
TheDailyMail(Paris edition),February13,1919 .
iState-SecretaryHayaddressedanotetothePowersinSeptember,1899,
settingforthAmerica'sattitudetowardChina . Itisknownasthedoctrine
ofthe"opendoor
. "Inasubsequentnote(July3, 1900) heenlargedits
scopeandpromulgatedtheintegrityofChina
. ButRussiaignoreditand
flewher,flagovertheChinesecustomsinNewchwang
. ItwasJapanwho,
onthatoccasion,assertedandenforcedthedoctrinewithoutoutsidehelp .
I GeneralMarchintimated,whentestifyingbeforetheHouseMilitary
Committee,thatPresidentWilsonapprovedofuniversaltraining,indorsing
theWarDepartment'sarmyprogram .
NewYorkHerald(Paris edition) .
474
THE COVENANT AND
MINORITIES
obligationsandresponsibilitieswarrantexceptionalrights
.
Butnosuchpleacanbeadvancedunderanarrangement
professingtobeasocietyoffreenations
. Allthatcan
withtruthbesaidiswhatM
. Clemenceautoldthedele-
gatesofthelesserstatesattheopeningoftheConference-
thatthethreegreatbelligerentsrepresenttwelvemillion
soldiersandthattheirsupremeauthorityderivesfrom
that
. Theroleoftheotherpeoplesistolistentothe
behestsoftheirguardians,andtoacceptandexecutethem
withoutmurmur .
Mightisstillasourceofright .
Itisfairtosaythatthedisclosureofthetruebaseof
thenewordering,asblurtedoutbyM
. Clemenceauat
thathistoricmeeting,causedlittlesurpriseamongthe
initiated .
Fortherewasnoreasontoassumethathe,or,
indeed,thebulkofthecontinentalstatesmen,werecon-
vertstoadoctrineofwhichitsownapostleacceptedonly
thosefragmentswhichcommendedthemselvestohis
countryorhisparty
. HadnottheFrenchPremier
scoffedattheLeagueinpublicasinprivate?Hadhe
notsaidintheChamber
:"Idonotbelievethatthe
SocietyofNationsconstitutesthenecessaryconclusion
ofthepresentwar
. Iwillgiveyouoneofmyreasons .
Itisthis :
ifto-morrowyouweretoproposetomethat
GermanyshouldenterintothissocietyIwouldnot
consent . " 1
"Iamcertain,"wroteoneoftheablestandmostardent
championsoftheLeagueinFrance,Senatord'Estournelles
deConstant-"Iamcertainthathe[M
. Clemenceaulmade
aneffortagainsthimself,againsthisentirepast,against
hiswholelife,againstallhisconvictions,toservethe
SocietyofNations
. AndhisMinisterofForeignAffairs
followedhim. "2Exactly
. AndaswithM. Clemenceau,
soitwaswiththemajorityofEuropeanstatesmen
;most
1 BulletindesDroitsdel'Homme,No
. zo,May15,1919 .
Y
JournalOfficiel,
November 21, 1917 .
475
THE
INSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
ofthemmadestrenuousand,onemayadd,successful
effortsagainsttheirconvictions
. Andtheresultwas
inevitable
.
`,`Thegovernments,"wereadintheorganofsyndical-
ists,whohadsupportedMr
. Wilsonaslongastheybe-
lievedhimdeterminedtoredeemhispromises-"the
governmentshave,acquiescedintheFourteenPoints
. . . .
Hypocrisy.
Eachonecherishedmentalreservations
.
Virtuewasexaltedandvicepractised
. Thepoltroon
eulogizedheroism
;theimperialistlaudedthespiritof
justice. Forthepastmonthwehavebeenpickingup
ideasabouttheworthoftheadhesionstotheFourteen
Points,andneverbeforehasamoresinisteroramore
odiouscomedybeenplayed
. Territorialdemandshave
beenheavedoneupontheother
;contemptoftherights
ofpeoples-theonlyrightthatwecanrecognize-has
beenexpressedinstrikingterms
;thelastrestraintshave
vanished ;themaskshavefallen . "i
FromeverycountryinEuropethesamejudgment
camepitchedinvaryingkeys
. The'Italianpresscon-
demnedtheproceedingsoftheConferenceinlanguage
tothefullasstrongasthatoftheGermanorAustrian
journals . The Stampa
affirmedthatthosewho,like
Bissolati,wereinthebeginningforplacingtheirtrustin
oneofthetwocoteriesattheConferencewereguiltyofa
fatalmistake .
"Themistakelayintheirbeliefinthe
idealstrivingsofoneoftheparties,andinthehorror
withwhichthecupidityoftheotherswascontemplated,
whereasbothofthemwerefightingfor
. . . theirinter-
ests . . . . InverityFrancewasnolessmilitaristor
absolutistthanGermany,norwasEnglandlessavidthan
either
. Andtheproofisenshrinedinthepeacetreaties
whichhavemaskedtheresultsoftheirrespectivevic-
tories .
VersaillesisaBrest-Litovsk,
aggravatedinthe
' LePopulaire,Februaryio,i9i9
.
476
THE
COVENANTANDMINORITIES
sameproportionasthevictoryoftheEntenteoverGer-
many,ismorecompletethanwasthatofGermanyover
Russia . Cupiditydoesnotalteritscharacter,evenwhen
itseekstoconcealitselfunderaPhrugiancapratherthan
wearahelmet . " 1
M
. Clemenceau'sopeningutteranceaboutthetwelve
millionmen,andtheunlimitedrightwhichsuchformi-
dablearmiesconferontheirpossessorstositinjudgment
onthetribesandpeoplesoftheplanet,wasthetrue
keynotetotheConference . Afterthattheleadingstates-
mentrimmedtheirship,touchedtherudder,andsailed
towarddownrightabsolutism.
Theeffectofsuchutterancesandactsonthemindsof
thepeoplesaredistinctlymischievous
. Fortheytend
toobliteratethesenseofpublicright,whichisthemain
foundationofinternationalintercourseamongprogressive
nations .
Andalreadyithadbeenshakenandweakenedbythe
campaignsofthepastfiftyyears,andinparticularbythe
lastwar
. Intherelationsofnationtonationtherewere
certainprinciples-derivativesofethicsdilutedwith
maximsofexpediency-whichkeptthevariousgovern-
mentsfromtooflagrantbreachesoffaith. Thesechecks
weretheonlysubstituteformoralityinpolitics. Their
highestpowerwasconnotedbythewordEuropeanism,
whichstoodforasupposedfeelingofsolidarityamong all
thepeoplesoftheoldContinent,andforacertainrespect
forthetreatiesonwhichthestate-systemreposed . But
itexistedmainlyamongdefeatednationswhenappre-
hensiveofbeingisolatedorchastisedbytheirvictors
.
Nonetheless,theideamarkedacertainadvancetoward
anethicalbondofunion .
Nowthisembryonicsense,togetherwithrespectfor
thebindingforceofanation'splightedtroth,werenum-
'LaStampa, June 11, 1919. Cf. L'Humanit6, June 13, 1919.
477
THE
INSIDE STORY OFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
beredbythedemoralizinginfluenceofthewarsofthelast
fiftyyears .
Andoneofthefirstandperemptoryneeds
oftheworldwastheirrestoration . Thiscouldbeef-
fectedonlybybringingthepeoples,notmerelyofEu-
rope,butoftheworld,morecloselytogether,byen-
graftingonthemafeelingofclosesolidarity,andimpress-
ingthemwiththenecessityofmakingcommoncausein
theonestruggleworththeirwhilewaging-resistanceto
theforcesthatmilitateagainsthumanwelfare and
progress . Thefeelingwaswidespreadthatthewayto
effectthiswasbysomeformofinternationalism,bythe
broadening,deepening,andquickeningallthatwasim-
pliedbyEuropeanism,byco-ordinatingthecollective
energiesofallprogressivepeoples,andcausingthemto
convergetowardacommonandworthygoal . Forthe
workingclassesthisconceptioninarestrictedformhad
longpossessedacommandingattraction. Whatthey
aimedat,however,wasnomorethanthecatholicityof
labor . Theyfanciedthatafterthepassageofthetidal
waveofdestructivenessthegroundwasclearedofmost
oftheobstacleswhichhadencumberedit,andthatthe
forwardadvancemightbeginforthwith
.
Whattheyfailedtotakesufficientlyintoaccountwas
the vis inertice, thesurvivaloftheoldspirit among the
rulingorderswhosememberscontinuedtoliveandmove
intheatmosphereofuseandwont,andthespiritofhate
andbitternessinfusedintoallthepoliticalclasses,to
dispelwhichwasahercul . eantask . Itwasexclusively
totheleadersofthoseclassesthatMr
. Wilsonconfided
therealizationoftheabstractideaofasocietyofnations,
whichhemayatfirsthavepicturedtohimselfasavast
familyconsciousofcommoninterests,bentonmoraland
materialself-betterment,andwillingtoeschewsuch
partialadvantagesasmighthinderorretardthegeneral
progress . But,judgingbyhisattitudeandhisaction,
478
THE COVENANT AND
MINORITIES
hehadnorealacquaintancewiththematerialsoutof
whichitmustbefashioned,nonotionofthedifficulties
tobemet,andnostayingpowertoencounterandsur-
mountthem
. Andhisfirstmoveentailedthefailureof
thescheme .
Asamatteroffact,Mr . WilsoncametotheConference
withahome-madecharterfortheSocietyofNations,
which,accordingtotheevidenceofMr . Lansing,"was
neverpressed . "TheStateSecretaryaddedthat"the
presentleagueCovenantissuperiortotheAmerican
plan . "AndasfortheFourteenPoints,"Theywerenot
evendiscussedattheConference . " '
Suspectingasmuch,
Iwroteatthetime :
s
"ThePresidenthaspinnedhimself
downtonoconcreteschemewhatever
. Hismethodis
electic,choosingwhatishelpfulandbeneficentinthe
projectsofothers,andendeavoringtoobtainfromthe
dissentientsarenunciationofideasbelongingtotheold
nationalcurrentsandadherencetothedoctrineshedeems
salutary.
Itis,however,alreadyclearthatthehighest
idealnowattainableisnotaleagueofnationsasthe
massesunderstandit,whichwillabolishwarsandlike-
wiseputanendtothecostlypreparationsforthem,but
onlyacoalitionofvictoriousnations,whichmayhope,
bydintofeconomicinducementsanddeterrents,todraw
theenemypeoplesintoitscampinthenottoodistant
future . Thisresultwouldfallveryshortoftheexpecta-
tionsarousedbythefar-resonantpromisesmadeatthe
outset ;butevenit
will beunattainablewithoutan
internationalcompactbindingallthemembersofthe
coalitiontomakewarsimultaneouslyuponthenation
orgroupofnationswhichventurestobreakthepeace
.
Iamdisposedtobelievethatnothinglessthansuchan
expresscovenantwillberegardedbythecontinental
1 Cf
. TheChicagoTribune(Paris edition),August27,1919
.
sInTheDailyTelegraph, February8,i9i9 .
4 7 9
THE INSIDE
STORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
PowersoftheEntenteasanadequatesubstitutefor
certainterritorialreadjustmentswhichtheyotherwise
consideressentialtosecurethem
. fromsuddenattack .
"Whethersuchaconditionwouldprevent
. future
warsisaquestionthatonlyexperiencecananswer
.
Personally,Iamprofoundlyconvinced,withMr
. Taft,
thatagenuineleagueofnationsmusthaveteethinthe
guiseofsupernational,notinternational,
forces.
In
theseremarksImakeabstractionfromthelargerquestion
whichwhollyabsorbsthis-namely,whetherthemasses
forwhosebehoofthelavishexpenditureoftime,energy,
andingenuityisundertaken,willacceptacoalitionof
victoriousgovernmentsagainstunregeneratepeoplesasa
substitutefortheSocietyofNationsasatfirstconceived
. "
ThesupposedobjectoftheLeaguewasthesubstitution
ofrightforforce,bydebarringeachindividualstatefrom
employingviolenceagainstanyoftheothers,andbythe
useofarbitrationasameansofsettlingdisputes
. This
entailsthesuppressionoftherighttodeclarewarandto
prepareforit,and,asacorollary,asystemofdeterrents
tohinder,andofpenaltiestopunishrebelliononthepart
ofacommunity .
Thatinthosecaseswherethelawis
setatnaughtefficaciousmeansshouldbeavailableto
enforceitwillhardlybedenied
;butwhethereconomic
pressurewouldsufficeinallcasesisdoubtful
. Tomeit
seemsthatwithoutasupernationalarmy,underthe
directordersoftheLeague,itmightunderconceivable
circumstancesbecomeimpossibletoupholdthedecisions
ofthetribunal,andthat,ontheotherhand,thecoexist-
enceofsuchamilitaryforcewithnationalarmaments
wouldcondemntheundertakingtofailure
.
AnanalysisoftheCovenantliesbeyondthelimitsof
my
task,butitmaynotbeamisstopointoutafewofits
inherentdefects .
Oneoftheprincipalorgansofthe
LeaguewillbetheAssemblyandtheCouncil
. The
480
THECOVENANT
AND MINORITIES
former,averynumerousandmainlypoliticalbody,will
necessarilybeoutoftouchwiththepeoples,theirneeds
andtheiraspirations
. Itwillmeetatmostthreeor
fourtimesayear
. Anditsmembersalonewillbeinvested
withallthepower,whichtheywillbecharyofdelegating
.
Ontheotherhand,theCouncil,consistingatfirstofnine
members,willmeetatleastonceayear
. Themembers
ofbothbodieswillpresumablybeappointedbythe
governments,'whowillcertainlynotrenouncetheir
sovereigntyinamatterthatconcernsthemsoclosely
.
Suchasystemmaybewiseandconducivetothehighest
aims,butitcanhardlybetermeddemocratic
. The
militaryPowerswhocommandtwelvemillionsoldierswill
possessamajorityintheCouncil . 2
TheSecretariatalone
willbepermanent,andwillnaturallybeappointedby
theGreatPowers .
Insteadofabolishingwar,theConferencedescribed
itsabolitionasbeyondthepowerofmantocompass
.
Disarmament,whichwastohavebeenoneofitsmain
achievements,iseliminatedfromtheCovenant
. Asthe
warthatwastohavebeenthelastwilladmittedlybe
followedbyothers,thedelegatesoftheGreatPowers
workedconscientiously,asbehoovedpatrioticstatesmen,
toobtaininadvanceallpossibleadvantagesfortheir
respectivecountriesbywayofpreparingforit
. The
neworder,whichintheoryreposesuponright,justice,
andmoralfellowship,inrealitydependsuponpowerful
armiesandnavies
. Francemustremainunderarms,
seeingthatshehastokeepwatchontheRhine
. Britain
andtheUnitedStatesaretogoonbuildingwarshipsand
aircraft,besidestrainingtheiryouthforthecoming
Armageddon . ThearticleoftheCovenantwhichlays
itdownthat"themembersoftheLeaguerecognizethat
1
TheCovenantleavesthemodeofrecruitingthemundetermined
.
=ArticleIV.
48 1
THE INSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
themaintenanceofpeacerequiresthereductionof
nationalarmamentstothelowestpointconsistentwith
nationalsafety,
i
is,touseaRussiansimile,written
onwaterwithafork. Britain,France,andtheUnited
Statesarealreadyagreedthattheywillcombinetorepel
unprovokedaggression
on thepartofGermany . That
evidentlysignifiesthattheywillholdthemselvesinreadi-
nesstofight,andwillthereforemakeduepreparation .
Thisarrangementisasubstituteforasupernationalarmy,
asthoughpreventionwerenotbetterthancure ;that
itwillproveefficaciousinthelongrunveryfewbelieve .
Oneclear-visionedFrenchmanwrites : "Theinefficacy
oftheorganizationaimedatbytheConferenceconstrains
Francetoliveincontinualandincreasinginsecurity,
owingtothefallingoffofherpopulation . "
2
Headds :
"Itfollowsfromthisabortiveexpedient-ifitisto
remaindefinitive-thateachmember-statemustprotect
itself,-orcometotermswiththemorepowerfulones,as
inthepast. Consequentlyweareinpresenceofthe
maintenanceofmilitarismandtheregimeofarmaments . " 1
Thiswritergoesfartherandaccuses Mr . Wilsonofhaving
playedintothehandsofBritain . "PresidentWilson,"
heaffirms,"hasmoreorlesssacrificedtotheEnglish
governmentthesocietyofnationsandthequestion
ofarmaments,thatofthecoloniesandthatofthefree-
domofthe seas . . . . " 4 This,however,isanover-state-
ment
. ItwasnotforthesakeofBritainthattheAmeri-
canstatesmangaveupsomuch ;itwasforthesakeof
savingsomethingoftheCovenant . Itwasinthespirit
ofSirBoyleRoche,whoseattachmenttotheBritish
Constitutionwassuchthat,tosaveapartofit,hewas
willing tosacrificethewhole.
iArticleVIII.
2M. d'EstournellesdeConstant, BulletindesDroiisdel'Homme,May
15,
1919,
P• 450
.
4 Ibid. ,P
• 457 .
48 2
THE COVENANT
AND MINORITIES
Thearbitrationofdisputesisprovidedforby
one of the
articlesoftheCovenant
;'butthepartiesmaygotowar
threemonthslaterwithaclearconscienceandanappeal
toright,justice,self-determination,andtheusualab-
stractnouns .
Inaword,thedirectorsoftheConferencedisciplined
theirpoliticalintelligenceonlinesofself-hypnotization,
alongwhichcommonsensefindsitimpossibletofollow
them
. Therewerealsoamongthedelegatesmenwho
thoughtandspokeintermsofreasonandlogic,buttheir
voicesevokednoecho
. Oneofthemsummed
up his
criticismsomewhatasfollows
"Duringthewarourprofessionsofdemocraticprin-
cipleswerefarresonantandemphatic
. Wewerefighting
forthenationsoftheworld,especiallyforthosewhocould
notsuccessfullyfightforthemselves
. Allthepeoples,
greatandsmall,wereexhortedtomakethemostpainful
sacrificestoenabletheirrespectivegovernmentstocon-
quertheenemy
. Victoryunexpectedlysmiledonus,
andthepeoplesaskedthatthosepromisesshouldbemade
good
. Naturally,expectationsranhigh . Whathashap-
pened
?Thegovernmentsnowanswerineffect
:`Wewill
promoteyourinterests,butwithout,yourco-operationor
assent
. Wewillmakethenecessaryarrangementsin
secretbehindcloseddoors . Themachinerywearede-
visingwillbeastatemachinery,notapopularone
. All
thatweaskofyouisimplicittrust
. Youcomplainofour
actioninthepast . Youhavegoodcause
. Yousaythat
thesamemenareabouttodetermineyourfuture. Again
youareright
. Butwhenyouaffirmthatwearesureto
makethelikemistakes,youarewrong,andweaskyouto
takeourwordforit
. Youcomplainthatwearepoliti-
cianswhofeeltheweightofcertaincommitmentsandthe
fetters ofobsoletetraditionsfromwhichwecannotfree
1 ArticleXII.
s•z
483
THE INSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
ourselves ; that we aremainlyconcernedtoprotectand
furthertheinterestsofourrespectivecountries,andthat
itisinconceivableweshoulddeviseanorganizationwhich
looksaboveandbeyondthoseinterests . Weask you,
are youwilling,then,toabandontheheritageofour
fatherstotheforeigner?'
"ThatthedowntroddenpeoplesinAustriaandGer-
manyhavebeenemancipatedisamoraltriumph . But
whyhasthebeneficentprinciplethatissaidtohavein-
spiredthedeedbeenrestrictedinitsapplication?Why
has
theexperimentbeentriedonlyintheenemies'coun-
tries?Orarethingsquiteinordereverywhereelse?Is
there
no injusticeinotherquartersoftheglobe?Are
therenocomplaints?Iftherebe,whyaretheyignored?
Isitbecauseallactsofoppressionaretobeperpetuated
whichdonottakeplaceintheenemy'sland?What
aboutIrelandandaboutadozenothercountriesand
peoples?Aretheyskeletonsnottobetouched?
"Bydebarringthemassesfromparticipationina
grandiosescheme,thesuccessofwhichdependsupon
theirassent,thegovernmentsareindirectlybutsurely
encouragingsecretcombinedopposition,andinsome
easesBolshevism . Themassesresentbeingtreatedas
childrenafterhavingbeenappealedtoasarbitersand
rescuers . Forfourandahalfyearsitwastheywhobore
thebruntofthewar,theywhosacrificedtheirsonsand
theirsubstance . Inthefutureitistheytowhomthestates
willlook forthefurthersacrificesinbloodandtreasure
whichwillbenecessaryinthestruggleswhichtheyevi-
dentlyanticipate . Well,someofthemrefusethesesac-
rificesinadvance . Theychallengetherightofthegov-
ernmentstoretainthepowerofmakingwarandpeace .
Thatpowertheyareworkingtogetintotheirownhands
andtowieldintheirownway,oratanyratetohavea
sayinitsexercise . Andinordertosecureit,somesec-
484
THECOVENANT AND MINORITIES
tionsofthepeoplesaremakingcommoncausewiththe
socialistrevolutionaries,whileothershavegonethelength
ofBolshevism . Andthatisaseriousdanger . The
agi-
tationnowgoingonamongthepeople,therefore,starts
withagrievance. Themasseshavemanyothergriev-
ancesbesidestheonejustsketched-thesurvivalsofthe
feudalage,theprivilegesofclass,theinequalityofoppor-
tunity. Andthekernelformedbytheseistheelementof
truthandequitywhichimpartsforcetoallthoseunder-
groundmovements,andenablesthemtosubsistand ex-
tend . Errorisneverdangerousbyitself ;itisonlywhen
ithasanadmixtureoftruththatitbecomespowerfulfor
evil . Anditseemsathousandpitiesthatthegovern-
ments,whoseowninterestsareatstake,aswellasthose
ofthecommunitiestheygovern,shouldgooutoftheir
waytoprovideanexplosiveelementforBolshevismand
itsless
sinister variants. "
TheLeaguewastreatedasalivingorganismbeforeit
existed
. AlltheproblemswhichtheSupremeCouncilors
foundinsolublewerereservedforitsjudgment . Arduous
functionswereallottedtoitbeforeithadorganstodis-
chargethem . Formidabletaskswereimposeduponit
beforethemeansofachievingthemweredevised . Itis
aninstitutionsoelusiveandelasticthattheFrenchregard
itascapableofbeingusedasahandyinstrumentfor
coercingtheTeutons,who,inturn,lookuponitasa
meansofrecoveringtheirplaceintheworld ;theJap-
anesehopeitmaybecomeabridgeleadingtoracial
equality,andthegovernmentswhichdeviseditarebent
onemployingitasaleverfortheirownpolitico-economic
aims,whichtheyidentifywiththeprogressofthehuman
race
. Howthepeopleslookuponitthefuture will show.
OntheMonroeDoctrineinconnectionwiththeLeague
ofNationsthelesssaidthesoonestmended . Butone
cannotwellsaylessthanthis :thatanyrealsocietyof
485
THE INSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
peoples suchasMr . Wilsonfirstconceivedandadvocated
isas incompatiblewith"regionalunderstandingslikethe
Monroe Doctrine"asarethemaintenanceofnational
armamentsandthebarteringofpopulations . Itisim-
materialwhetheroneconcludesthat a SocietyofNations
isthereforeimpossibleinthepresentconjunctureorthat
all,thosesurvivalsoftheoldstatesystemareobsolescent
andshould beabolished. Thetwoareunquestionably
irreconcilable .
It would beamistaketoinferfromtheunanimitywith
which
Mr. Wilson'sCovenantwasfinallyacceptedthat
itexpressedthedelegates'genuineconceptionsorsenti-
ments . Mr . Bullitt,oneoftheexpertadviserstothe
AmericanPeaceDelegation,testifiedbeforetheSenate
committeeinWashingtonthatState-SecretaryLansing
remarkedtohim :"IconsidertheLeagueofNationsat
presentasentirelyuseless . TheGreatPowershavesim-
plygoneaheadandarrangedtheworldtosuitthemselves .
EnglandandFrance, in particular,havegottenoutof
thetreatyeverythingtheywanted . TheLeagueof
Nationscandonothingtoalteranyunjustclausesofthe
TreatyexceptbytheunanimousconsentoftheLeague
members . TheGreatPowerswillneverconsentto
changesintheinterestsofweakerpeoples . " 1
ThisopinionwhichMr . BullittascribedtoMr. Lansing
was, tomyknowledge,thatofalargenumberoftherepre-
sentativesofthenationsattheConference. Amongthem
allIhavemetveryfewwhohadagoodwordtosayof
thescheme,andofthefewonehadhelpedtoformulateit,
anotherhadassistedhim . Andtheunfavorablejudg-
mentsoftheremainderweredeliveredaftertheCovenant
wassigned .
Oneofthoseleaders,inconversationwithseveralother
delegatesandmyself,exclaimedoneday :"TheLeague
3 Cf . TheNewYorkHerald(Paris
editiQn),September14,1919,
480
THE COVENANT AND MINORITIES
of Nations indeed! Itis
an absurdity
.
Who among
thinkingmenbelievesinitsreality?"
"Ido,"answered
his neighbor
;"but,likethedevils,Ibelieveandtremble .
Iholdthatitisacorrosivepoisonwhichdestroysmuch
thatisgoodandwillfurthermuchthatisbad . "A
statesmanwhowasnotadelegatedemurred . "Inmy
opinion,"hesaid,"itisaresponsetoademandput for-
wardbythepeoplesoftheglobe,andbecauseofthis
originsomethinggoodwillultimatelycomeofit . Un-
questionablyitisverydefective,butintimeitmay be-
nay,mustbe changedforthebetter . "Thefirstspeaker
replied :"IfyouimaginethattheLeaguewillhelp
continentalpeoples,youare,I am convinced,mistaken
.
IttooktheUnitedStatesthreeyearstogotothehelpof
BritainandFrance
. Howlongdoyousupposeit will
takeherto
mobilize anddespatchtroopstosuccorPoland,
Rumania,orCzechoslovakia?Iamacquainted . with
Britishcolonialpublicopinionandsentiment-toooften
misunderstoodbyforeigners-andIcantellyouthatthey
aremisconstruedbythosewhofancythatthey would
determineactionofthatkind . IfEnglandtells the
coloniesthatsheneedstheirhelp,they will come,because
theirpeoplearefleshofherfleshandbloodofherblood,
andalsobecausetheydependfortheirdefense upon her
navy,andifsheweretogoundertheywould go under,
too . Butthecontinentalnationshavenosuchclaims
upontheBritishcolonies,whichwouldnotbeina
hurry
tomakesacrificesinordertosatisfytheirappetites or
theirpassions . "
Thesecondspeakerthensaid :"Itis possible,but
nowisecertain,thatthefutureLeaguemayhelptosettle
thesedisputeswhichprofessionaldiplomatists would have
arranged,andintheoldway,butitwillnotaffect,those
otherswhicharetherealcausesofwars . Ifanationbe-
lievesitcanfurtheritsvitalinterestbybre akingthepeace,
487
THEINSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
theLeaguecannotstopit . Howcouldit?Itlacksthe
means . Therewillbenoarmyready. Itwouldhaveto
createone . Evennow,whensuchanarmy,powerfuland
victorious,isinthefield,theLeague-fortheSupreme
Councilisthatandmore-cannotgetitsordersobeyed .
Howthenwillitsbehestbetreatedwhenithasnotroops
at its beckandcall?Itisredrawingthemapofcentral
andeasternEurope,andisverysatisfiedwithitswork .
But,asweknow,thepeoplesofthosecountrieslookupon
itsmapasasheetofpapercoveredwithlinesandblotches
ofcolortowhichnorealitycorresponds . "
TheconstitutionoftheLeaguewastermedbyMr .
WilsonaCovenant,awordredolentofbiblicalandpuri-
tanicaltimes,whichaccordedwellwiththemotivesthat
decidedhimtopreferGenevatoBrusselsastheseatof
theLeague,andtoadoptothermeasuresofasupposed
politicalcharacter . Thefirstdraftofthisdocumentwas,
as wesaw,completedintheincrediblyshortspaceofsome
thirtyhours,soastoenablethePresidenttotakeitwith
him toWashington
. AstheEntentophil
EchodeParis
remarked,"Byafixeddatethemerchandisehastobe
consignedonboardthe
GeorgeWashington . " 1
ThediscussionsthattookplaceafterthePresident's
returnfromtheUnitedStateswereanimated,interesting,
andsymptomatic. InAprilthecommissionhadseveral
sittings,atwhichvariousamendmentsandalterations
wereproposed,someofwhichwouldcutdeepintointer-
nationalrelations,whileotherswereofslightmoment
andgaverisetoamusingsallies . Onedaytheproposal
wasmootedthateachmember-stateshouldbefreeto
secedeongivingtwoyears'notice . M. Larnaude,who
viewedmembershipassomethingsacramentallyinalien-
able,seemed
shcx'ked, asthoughthesuggestionbordered
onsacrilege,andwonderedhowanygovernmentshould
' L'EchodeParis,February17,1919 .
4$ 8
THE COVENANT AND MINORITIES`
feeltemptedtotakesuchastep . SignorOrlandowasof
adifferentopinion . "Howeverprecioustheprivilegeof
membershipmaybe,"hesaid,"itwouldbeacomfort
alwaystoknowthatyoucoulddivestyourselfofitatwill .
Iamshutupinmyroomalldayworking . Idonotgo
intotheopenairanyoftenerthanaprisonermight . But
IconsolemyselfwiththethoughtthatIcangooutwhen-
everItakeitintomyhead . AndIamsurea similar
reflectiononmembershipoftheLeaguewouldbeequally
soothing. Iaminfavorofthemotion
. "
ThecenterofinterestduringthedraftingoftheCove-
nantlayintheclauseproclaimingtheequalityofreligions,
whichMr
. Wilsonwasbentonhavingpassedatallcosts,
ifnotinoneform,theninanother . Thisisoneexample
oftheoccasionalvisibilityofthereligiousthreadwhich
ranthroughagooddeal of hispersonalworkattheCon-
ference . For itisafactnotyetrealizedevenbythe
delegatesthemselves-thatdistinctlyreligiousmotives
inspiredmuchthatwasdonebytheConferenceonwhat
seemedpoliticalorsocialgrounds . Thestrategyadopted
bytheeminentAmericanstatesmantohavehisstipula-
tionacceptedproceededinthiscaseonthelinesofa
humanitarianresolvetoputanendtosanguinarywars
ratherthanonthosewhichtheaveragereformer,benton
culturalprogress,wouldhavetraced . Actualitywasim-
partedtothissimpleandyetthornytopicbyaconcrete
proposalwhichthePresidentmadeoneday . Whatheis
reportedtohavesaidisbrieflythis :"Asthetreatmentof
religiousconfessionshasbeeninthepast,andmayagain
inthefuture,be,acauseofsanguinarywars,itseems-de-
sirablethataclauseshouldbeintroducedintotheCove-
nantestablishingabsolutelibertyforcreedsandcon-
fessions . " "Onwhat,Mr . President,"askedthefirst
Polishdelegate,"doyoufoundyourassertionthatwars
arestillbroughtaboutbythe differential treatment
489
THE INSIDE STORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
metedouttoreligions? Doescontemporaryhistorybear
outthisstatement? And,ifnot,whatlikelihoodisthere
thatreligiousinequalitywillprecipitatesanguinarycon-
flictsinthefuture?" TothispointedquestionMr. Wil-
sonissaidtohavemadethecharacteristicreplythathe
considereditexpedienttoassumethisnexusbetween
religiousinequalityandwarasthesafestwayofbringing
thematterforward . Ifheweretoproceedonanyother
lines,headded,therewouldbetruthandforceinthe
objectionwhichwoulddoubtlessberaised,thattheCon-
ferencewasintrudinguponthedomesticaffairsofsover-
eignstates . Asthatchargewoulddamagethecause,it
mustberebuttedinadvance . Andforthispurposehe
deemeditprudenttoapproachthesubjectfromtheside
hehadchosen .
Thisreplywaslistenedtoinsilenceandunfavorably
commenteduponlater . Theallegedrelationbetween
suchreligiousinequalityashassurvivedintothetwentieth
centuryandsuchwarsasarewagednowadaysissoob-
viouslyfictitiousthatonecanhardlyunderstandtheline
ofreasoningthat'ledtoitsassumption,ortheeffectwhich
thefictioncouldbesupposedtohaveonthemindsof
thoselegislatorswhomightbeopposedtothemeasure
onthegroundthatitinvolvedundueinterferenceinthe
internalaffairsofsovereignstates . Themotionwasre-
ferredto a commission,which
in
duetimepresenteda
report . Mr
. Wilson was absentwhenthereportcameup
fordiscussion,hisplacebeingtakenbyColonelHouse .
Theatmospherewaschilly,onlyacoupleofthedelegates
beingdisposedtosupporttheclause-Rumania'srepre-
sentative,M. Diamandi,wasone,andanotherwas
BaronMakino,whosehelpColonelHousewouldgladly
havedispensedwith,soinacceptablewastheconditionit
carriedwithit .
BaronMakinosaidthatheentirelyagreedwithColonel
490
THE COVENANT AND MINORITIES
House and the American delegates . The equality of
religiousconfessionswasnotmerelydesirable,butneces-
sarytothesmoothworkingof a Societyof Nationssuch
astheywereengagedinestablishing
. Heheld,however,
thatitshouldbeextendedtoraces,thatextensionbeing
alsoacorollaryoftheprincipleunderlyingthenewinter-
nationalordering .
Hewouldthereforemovetheinser-
tionofaclauseproclaimingtheequalityofracesand
religions . AtthisColonelHouselookedpensive
. Nearly
all theotheropinionswerehostiletoColonelHouse's
motion .
Thereasonsallegedbyeachofthedissentinglawgivers
wereinteresting
.
LordRobertCecilsurprisedmanyof
hiscolleaguesbyinformingthemthatinEnglandthe
Catholics,whoarefairlytreatedasthingsare,couldnot
possiblybesetonafootingofperfectequalitywiththeir
Protestantfellow-citizens,becausetheConstitutionfor-
bidsit . NorcouldtheBritishpeoplebeaskedtoalter
theirConstitution . Hegaveasinstancesoftheslight
inequalityatpresentenforcedthecircumstancethatno
Catholiccanascendthethroneasmonarch,norsit
onthe
woolsackasLordChancellorintheUpperHouse
.
M. Larnaude,speakinginthenameofFrance,stated
thathiscountryhadpassedthroughasequenceofem-
barrassmentscausedbylegislationontherelations
be-
tweentheCatholicsandthestate,andthattheintroduc-
tionofaclauseenactingperfectequalitymightrevive
controversieswhichwerehappilylosingtheirsharpness
.
Heconsideredit,therefore,inadvisabletosettlethis
delicatematterbyinsertingtheproposeddeclaration in
theCovenant . Belgium'sfirstdelegate,M
. Hymans,
pointedoutthattheobjectiontakenbyhisgovernment
wasofadifferentbutequallycogentcharacter
. There
wasreasontoapprehendthattheFlemingsmightavail
themselvesoftheequalityclausetoraiseawkwardissues
491
THE INSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
andtosowseedsofdissension . Onthosegroundshe
wouldliketoseetheproposalwaived . SignorOrlando
halfseriously,halfjokingly,remindedhiscolleaguesthat
noneoftheircountrieshad,likehis,apopeintheir
capital . TheItaliangovernmentmust,therefore,pro-
ceedinreligiousmatterswiththegreatestcircumspection,
andcouldnotlightlyassenttoanymeasurecapableof
beingmanipulatedtothedetrimentofthepublicinterest
.
Hencehewasunabletogivethemotionhissupport
. It
wasfinallysuggestedthatbothproposalsbewithdrawn .
TothisColonelHousedemurred,onthegroundthat
PresidentWilson,whowasunavoidablyabsent,attached
verygreatweighttothedeclaration,to . whichhehoped
thedelegateswouldgivetheirmostfavorableconsidera-
tion . Oneofthemembersthenroseandsaid,"Inthat
casewehadbetterpostponethevotinguntilMr . Wilson
canattend . "Thissuggestionwasadopted . Whenthe
mattercame up fordiscussionatasubsequentsitting,the
Japanesesubstituted"nations"for"races . "
Inthemeantimetheusualartsofparliamentaryemer-
gencywerepractisedoutsidetheConferencetoinduce
theJapanesetowithdrawtheirproposalaltogether . They
weretoldthattoacceptorrefuseitwouldbetodamage
thecauseofthefutureLeaguewithoutfurtheringtheir
own . ButtheMarquis-SaionjiandBaronMakinore-
fusedtoyieldaninchoftheirground
. Aconversation
thentookplacebetweenthePremierofAustralia,onthe
oneside,andBaronMakinoandViscountChinda,onthe
other,withaviewtotheirreachingacompromise
. For
Mr . Hugheswasunderstoodtobetheleaderofthose
whoopposedanydeclarationofracialequality . The
Japanesestatesmenshowedhimtheiramendment,and
askedhimwhetherhecouldsuggestamodificationthat
wouldsatisfyhimselfandthem . Theanswerwasinthe
negative
. TotheargumentsoftheJapanesedelegates
492
THE
COVENANT AND MINORITIES
the Australian Premier is understood tohavereplied :
"IamwillingtoadmittheequalityoftheJapaneseasa
nation,andalsoofindividualsmantoman . ButIdo
notadmittheconsequencethatweshouldthrowopenour
countrytothem . Itisnotthatweholdthemtobein-
feriortoourselves,butsimplythatwedonotwant . them .
Economicallytheyareaperturbingfactor,becausethey
acceptwagesmuchbelowtheminimumforwhichour
peoplearewillingtowork . Neitherdotheyblendwell
withourpeople . Hencewedonotwantthemtomarry
ourwomen . Thosearemyreasons . Wemeannoof-
fense . Ourrestrictivelegislationisnotaimedspecially
attheJapanese . BritishsubjectsinIndiaareaffected
byitinexactlythesameway . Itisimpossiblethatwe
shouldformulateanymodificationsofyouramendment,
becausethereisnomodificationconceivablethatwould
satisfyusboth . "
TheJapanesedelegateswereunderstoodtosaythat
theywouldmaintaintheirmotion,andthatunlessit
passedtheywouldnotsignthedocument. Mr . Hughes
retortedthatifitshouldpasshewouldrefusetosign .
FinallytheAustralianPremieraskedBaronMakino
whetherhewouldbesatisfiedwiththefollowingqualify-
ingproviso :"Thisaffirmationoftheprincipleofequal-
ityisnottobeappliedtoimmigrationornationalization . "
BaronMakinoandViscountChindabothansweredin
thenegativeandwithdrew .
Thefinalact'isdescribedbyeye-witnessesasfol-
lows
. Congruouslywiththeorderoftheday,Presi-
dentWilsonhavingmovedthatthecityofGeneva
beselectedasthecapitalofthefutureLeague,ob-
tainedamajority,whereuponheannouncedthatthe
motionhadpassed .
Thencametheburningquestionoftheequalityof
2
0nAprilii,I9I9 .
4
93
THEINSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
nations
. 'ThePolishdelegatearoseandopposediton
theformalgroundthatnothingoughttobeinsertedin
thepreamblewhichwasnotdealtwithalsointhebody
oftheCovenant, as
otherwiseitwouldbenomorethan
anisolatedtheorydevoidoforganicconnectionwiththe
whole . TheJapanesedelegatesdeliveredspeechesof
cogentargumentandimpressivedebatingpower
. Baron
Makinomadeoutaverystrongcasefortheequalityof
nations . ViscountChindafollowedinatrenchantdis-
course,whichwashighlyappreciatedbyhishearers,
nearlyallofwhomrecognizedthejusticeoftheJapanese
claim
. TheJapanesedelegatesrefusedtobedazzled
bythecircumstancesthatJapanwastoberepresented
ontheExecutiveCouncilasoneofthefiveGreatPowers,
andthattherejectionoftheproposedamendmentcould
notthereforebeconstrued
as adiminutionofherprestige.
Thisconsideration,theyretorted,waswhollyirrelevant
tothequestionwhetherornothenationsweretobe
recognized as equal .
Theyendedbyrefusingtowith-
drawtheirmodifiedamendmentandcallingforavote .
Theresultwasamajorityfortheamendment
. Mr.
Wilsonthereuponannouncedthatamajoritywasinsuffi-
cienttojustifyitsadoption,andthatnothinglessthan
absoluteunanimitycouldberegarded
as
adequate . At
thisadelegateobjected
:"Mr. Wilson,youhave,just
acceptedamajorityforyourownmotionrespecting
Geneva ;onwhatgrounds,mayIask,doyourefuseto
abidebyamajorityvoteontheamendmentofthe
Japanesedelegation?"
"Thetwocasesaredifferent,"
wasthereply.
"OnthesubjectoftheseatoftheLeague
unanimityisunattainable
. "Thisclosedtheofficial
discussion.
1
ThewordingofthefinalJapaneseamendmentwas :"Bytheendorse-
mentoftheprincipleofequalityofnationsandjusttreatmentoftheir
nationals . "
494
THE COVENANT AND MINORITIES
Sometimelater,itisasserted,theRumanians,who
hadsupportedMr. Wilson'smotiononreligiousequality,
wereapproachedonthesubject,andinformedthatit
wouldbeagreeabletotheAmericandelegatestohave
theoriginalproposalbroughtuponcemore
. Sucha
motion,itwasadded,wouldcomewithespecialpropriety
fromtheRumanians,who,inthepersonofM
. Diamandi,
hadadvocateditfromtheoutset
. ButtheRumanian
delegateshesitated,pleadingtheinvincibleopposition
oftheJapanese
. Theywereassured,however,that
theJapanesewouldnolongerdiscountenanceit
. There-
upontheybroachedthemattertoLordRobertCecil,
buthe,withhiswontedcaution,repliedthatitwasa
delicatesubjecttohandle,especiallyaftertheexperience
theyhadalreadyhad . Asforhimself,hewouldrather
leavetheinitiativetoothers .
CouldtheRumanian
delegatesnotopentheirmindstoColonelHouse,who
tooktheamendmentsomuchtoheart?Theyactedon
thissuggestionandcalledonColonelHouse .
He,too,
however,declaredthatitwasamomentousas
well asa
thornytopic,andforthatreasonhadbestbereferred
totheheadoftheAmericandelegation . PresidentWil-
son,havingoriginatedtheamendment,wastheperson
mostqualifiedtotakedirectaction . Itisfurtheraffirmed
thattheysoundedthePresidentastotheadvisabilityof
mootingthequestionanew,butthathedeclinedtoface
anothervote,andthematterwasdroppedforgood-
inthatform.
ItwaspubliclyassertedlateronthattheJapanese
decidedtoabidebytherejectionoftheiramendment
andtosigntheCovenant as theresultofabargainon
theShantungdispute
. Thisreport,however,waspul-
verizedbytheJapanesedelegation,whichpointedout
thattheintroductionoftheracialclausewasdecided
uponbeforethedelegatesleftJapan,andwhennoditli°
495
THEINSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
cultieswereanticipatedrespectingJapan'sclaimtohave
thatprovincecededtoherbyGermany,andthatthe
discussionontheamendmentterminatedonApriliith,
consequentlybeforetheKiaochowissuecameupfordis-
cussion
. Asamatteroffact,theJapanesepublicly
announcedtheirintentiontoadheretotheLeagueof
Nationstwodays'beforeadecisionwasreachedrespecting
theirclaimstoKiaochow.
ThisadversenoteonMr . Wilson'spetschemetohave
religiousequalityproclaimedasameansofhindering,
sanguinarywarsbroughttoitsclimaxthereactionofthe
Conferenceagainstwhatitregardedasasystematic
endeavortoestablishtheoverlordshipoftheAnglo-
Saxonpeoplesintheworld
. Thepleathatwarsmaybe
provokedbysuchreligiousinequalityasstillsurvives
wassounrealthatitawakenedatwofoldsuspicioninthe
.
mindsofmanyofMr
. Wilson'scolleagues . Mostofthem
believedthatapretextwasbeingsoughttoenablethe
leadingPowerstointerveneinthedomesticconcerns
ofalltheotherstates,soastokeepthemfirmlyinhand,
andusethem as
meanstotheirownends . Andthese
endswerelookeduponasanythingbutdisinterested .
Unhappilythisconvictionwassubsequentlystrengthened
bycertainofthemeasuresdecreedbytheSupremeCoun-
cilbetweenAprilandthecloseoftheConference . The
misgivingsofotherdelegatesturneduponamatterwhich
atfirstsightmayappearsofarremovedfromanyofthe
pressingissuesofthetwentiethcenturyastoseemwholly
imaginary.
They fearedthatareligious-somewould
callitracial
biaslayattherootofMr . Wilson'spolicy
.
Itmayseemamazingtosomereaders,butitis
nonethe
lessafactthataconsiderablenumberofdelegatesbelieved
thattherealinfluencesbehindtheAnglo-Saxonpeoples
wereSemitic
.
'
OnApril28,i9i9 .
494
THE COVENANT AND MINORITIES
TheyconfrontedthePresident'sproposalonthesub-
jectofreligiousinequality,and,inparticular,theodd
motiveallegedforit,withthemeasuresfortheprotec-
tionofminoritieswhichhesubsequentlyimposedonthe
lesserstates,andwhichhadfortheirkeynotetosatisfy
theJewishelementsineasternEurope . Andtheycon-
cludedthatthesequence
.
ofexpedientsframedand
enforcedinthisdirectionwereinspiredbytheJews,as-
sembledinParisforthepurposeofrealizingtheircare-
fullythought-outprogram,whichtheysucceededinhav-
ingsubstantiallyexecuted . Howeverrightorwrongthese
delegatesmayhavebeen,itwouldbeadangerousmistake
toignoretheirviews,seeingthattheyhavesincebecome
oneofthepermanentelementsofthesituation . The
formulaintowhichthispolicywasthrownbythemembers
oftheConference,whosecountriesitaffected,andwho
regardeditasfataltothepeaceofeasternEurope,was
this :"Henceforththeworldwillbegovernedbythe
Anglo-Saxonpeoples,who,inturn,areswayedbytheir
Jewishelements . "
Itisdifficulttoconveyanadequatenotionofthe
warmth of feeling-onemightalmostcallittheheatof
passion-whichthissupposeddiscoverygenerated
. The
applicationsofthetheorytomanyofthepuzzlesofthe
pastwerecountlessandingenious . Theillustrationsof
themannerinwhichthepolicywaspursued,andthe
cajoleryandthreats-Vhich,weresaidtohavebeenem-
ployedinordertoinsureitssuccess,coveredthewhole
historyoftheConference,andpresenteditthroughanew
andpossiblydistortedmedium . Themorbidsuspicions
currentmayhavebeenthenaturalveinofmenwhohad
passed
a greatpartoftheirlivesinpettyracialstruggles ;
butaccordingtocommonaccount,itwasabundantly
nurturedattheConferencebythelackofreserveand
moderationdisplayedbysomeofthepromoters
of the
497
THEINSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
minorityclauseswhoweredeficientinthesenseofmeas-
ure .
WhattheEasterndelegatessaidwasbrieflythis
:
"Thetideinourcountrieswasflowingrapidlyinfavorof
theJews. AlltheeastEuropeangovernmentswhichhad
theretoforewrongedthemwereutteringtheir
meaculpa,
andhadsolemnlypromisedtoturnoveranewleaf
.
Nay,theyhadalreadyturnedit
. • We,forexample,
alteredourlegislationinordertomeetbyanticipation
thelegitimatewishesoftheConferenceandthepressing
demandsoftheJews
. Wedidquiteenoughtoobviate'
decreeswhichmightimpairoursovereigntyorlessenour
prestige.
PolandandRumaniaissuedlawsestablishing
absoluteequalitybetweentheJewsandtheirownna-
tionals . Alldiscriminationhadceased .
ImmigrantHe-
brewsfromRussiareceivedthefullrightsofcitizenship
andbecameentitledtofillanyofficeinthestate
. Ina
word,alltheolddisabilitieswereabolishedandthe
ferventprayerofeastEuropeangovernmentswasthat
theJewishmembersoftheirrespectivecommunities
shouldbegraduallyassimilatedtothenativesandbecome
patrioticcitizenslikethem
. Itwasanewideal . It
accordedtotheJewseverythingtheyhadaskedfor
. It
wouldenablethemtoshowthemselvesastheFrench,
Italian,andBelgianJewshadshownthemselves,efficient
citizensoftheiradoptedcountries
.
"Butintheflushoftheirtriumph,theJews,orrather
theirspokesmenattheConference,werenotsatisfied
withequality
. Whattheydemandedwasinequalityto
thedetrimentoftheraceswhosehospitalitytheywere
enjoyingandtotheirownsupposedadvantage
. They
weretohavethesamerightsastheRumanians,the
Poles,andtheotherpeoplesamongwhomtheylived,
buttheywerealsotohaveagooddealmore
. Their,
religiousautonomywasplacedundertheprotectionof an
alienbody,theLeague,whichisbutanothernamefor
498
THE COVENANT AND MINORITIES
the
Powers which have reserved to themselves the
governanceoftheworld . Themethodistoobligeeach
ofthelesserstatestobestowoneachminoritythesame
rightsas . themajorityenjoys,andalsocertainprivileges
overandabove
. Theinstrumentimposingthisobliga-
tionis
aformaltreatywiththeGreatPowerswhichthe
Poles,Rumanians,andothersmallstatesweresum-
monedtosign
. Itcontainstwenty-onearticles . The
firstpartofthe-documentdealswithminoritiesgenerally,
thelatterwiththeJewishelements . Thesecondclause
ofthePolishtreatyenactsthateveryindividualwho
habituallyresidedinPolandonAugust 1, 1914,becomesa
citizenforthwith. Thisissimple . Isitalsosatisfactory?
ManyFrenchmenandPolesdoubtit,aswedoourselves .
OnAugust1stnumerousGermanandAustrianagentsand
spies,manyofthemHebrews,residedhabituallyin
Poland
. Moreover,theforeignJewishelementsthere,
whichhaveimmigratedfromRussia,havinglost-like
everybodyelsebeforethewar-theexpectationofseeing
Polishindependenceeverrestored,haddefinitelythrown
intheirlotwiththeenemiesofPoland . Nowtoput
intothehandsofsuchenemiesconstitutionalweaponsis
alreadyasacrificeandarisk . TheJewsinVilnare-
centlyvotedsolidlyagainsttheincorporationofthat
cityinPoland . 'AretheytobetreatedasloyalPolish
citizens?Wehaveconcededthepointunreservedly .
Buttogivethemautonomyoverandabove,tocreatea
statewithinthestate,andenableitssubjectstocallin
foreignPowersateveryhand'sturn,againstthelawfully
constitutedauthoritiesthatisanexpedientwhichdoes
notcommenditselftothenewlyemancipatedpeoples . "
TheRumanianPremierBratiano,whoseconspicuous
TheJewish coalitioninVilnainscribedonitsprogramtheunionof
Vilna,withRussia . . . . Therewasanoverwhelmingmajorityinfavorofits
retentionbyPoland . -Le Temps, September14,1919. Theelectiontook
placeonSeptember7th.
33
499
THEINSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
servicestotheAlliedcauseentitledhimtoarespectful
hearing,deliveredapowerfulspeech'beforethedele-
gatesassembledinplenarysessiononthisquestionof
protectingethnicandreligiousminorities .
Hecovered
groundunsurveyedbytheframersofthespecialtreaties,
andhissinceretonelentweighttohisarguments
. Start-
ingfromthepostulatethatthestrengthoflatter-day
statesdependsuponthewidestparticipationofallthe
elementsofthepopulationinthegovernmentofthe
country,headmittedtheperemptorynecessityofabolish-
inginvidiousdistinctionsbetweenthevariouselementsof
thepopulationthere,ethnicorreligious
. Sofar,hewas
atonewiththespokesmenoftheGreatPowers
. Ru-
mania,however,hadalreadyaccomplishedthisbythe
decreeenablingherJewstoacquirefullcitizenshipby
expressingthemeredesireaccordingtoasimpleformula
.
ThisactconfersthefullrightsofRumaniancitizensupon
eighthundredthousandJews . TheJewishpressof
Bucharesthadalreadygivenutterancetoitsentiresatis-
faction .
If,however,theJewsarenowtobeplacedina
specialcategory,differentiatedandkeptapartfromtheir
fellow-citizensbyhavingautonomousinstitutions,bythe
maintenanceoftheGerman-Yiddishdialect,whichkeeps
alivetheTeutonanti-Rumanianspirit,andbybeing
authorizedtoregardtheRumanianstateasaninferior
tribunal,fromwhichanappealalwaysliestoaforeign
body-thegovernmentoftheGreatPowers-thiswould
bethemostinvidiousofalldistinctions,andcalculated
torendertheassimilationoftheGerman-Yiddish-speaking
JewstotheirRumanianfellow-citizensasheerimpos-
sibility
. Themajorityandtheminoritywouldthenbe
systematicallyanddefinitelyestrangedfromeachother ;
and,seeingthis,theelementalinstinctsofthemasses
might
suddenlyassumeuntowardforms,whichthetreaty,
"OnSaturday,May31,1919
.
500
THE
COVENANT AND
MINORITIES
ifratified,wouldbeunavailingtoprevent .
But,however
banefulforthepopulation,foreignprotectionisincompa-
rablyworseforthestate,becauseittendstodestroythe
cementthatholdsthegovernmentandpeopletogether,
andultimatelytobringaboutdisintegration
. Aclassic
exampleofthisprocessofdisruptionisRussia'swell-meant
protectionofthepersecutedChristiansinTurkey
. Inthis
casethemotivewasadmirable,thenecessityimperative,
buttheresultwasthedismembermentofTurkeyandother
changes,someofwhichonewouldliketoforget
. .
ThedelegationofCzechoslovakia,Jugoslavia,andPo-
landupheldM
. Bratiano'scontentionsinbrief,pithy
speeches.
PresidentWilson'slengthyrejoinder,deliv-
eredwithmorethanordinarysweetness,deprecatedM
.
Bratiano'scomparisonoftheAllies'proposedinterven-
tionwithRussia'sprotectionoftheChristiansofTurkey,
andrepresentedthemeasureasemanatingfromthe
purestkindness .
HesaidthattheGreatPowerswere
nowbestowingnationalexistenceorextensiveterritories
upontheinterestedstates,actuallyguaranteeingtheir
frontiers,andthereforemakingthemselvesresponsible
forpermanenttranquillitythere
. Butthetreatmentof
theminorities,headded,unlessfairandconsiderate,might
producethegravesttroublesandevenprecipitatewars
.
ThereforeitbehoovedthePowersintheinterestsofall
Europe,asofeachofitsindividualmembers,tosecure
harmoniousrelations,and,atanyrate,toremoveall
manifestobstaclestotheirestablishment
. "Weguaran-
teeyourfrontiersandyourterritories
. Thatmeansthat
wewillsendoverarms,ships,andmen,incaseofneces-
sity
. Thereforewepossesstherightandrecognizethe
dutytohinderthesurvivalofasetofdeplorablecondi-
tionswhichwouldrenderthisinterventionunavoidable
. "
TothislineofreasoningM
. Bratianomadeanswerthat
allthehelpfulmaximsofgoodgovernmentareofuniver-
5oi
THE INSIDE STORY OFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
satapplication,and,therefore,ifthisprotectionofminori-
tieswere,indeed,indispensableordesirable,itshouldnot
berestrictedtothecountriesofeasternEurope,butshould
beextendedtoallwithoutexception . Foritisinadmis-
siblethattwocategoriesofstatesshouldbeartificially
created,oneendowedwithfullsovereigntyandtheother
withhalf-sovereignty .
Suchanarrangementwouldde-
stroytheequalitywhichshouldlieatthebaseofagenuine
LeagueofNations .
ButthePowershadmadeuptheirminds,andthespe-
cialtreatieswereimposedontheunwillinggovernments .
ThereupontheRumanianPremierwithdrewfromthe
Conference,andneitherhisCabinetnorthatoftheJugo-
slavssignedthetreatywithAustriaatSt . -Germain .
Whathappenedafterthatisamatterofhistory .
Fewpoliticiansareconsciousofthemagnitudeofthe
issueconcealedbytheinvolveddiplomaticphraseology
oftheobnoxioustreaties,orofthedangerstowhichtheir
enactmentwillexposetheminoritieswhichtheywere
framedtoprotect,thecountrieswhosehospitalitythose
minoritiesenjoy,andpossiblyotherlands,whichforthe
timebeingareseeminglyimmunefromallsuchperilous
raceproblems .
Thecalculable,tosaynothingoftheun-
ascertained,elementsofthequestionmight . wellcause
responsiblestatesmentobesatisfiedwiththefeasible .
TheJewishelementsinEurope,forcenturiesabominably
oppressed,werejustifiedinutilizingtothefullesttheop-
portunitypresentedbytheresettlementoftheworldin
ordertosecureequalityoftreatment . Anditmustbe
admittedthattheirorganizationismarvelous . Foryears
IchampionedtheircauseinRussia,andpaidthepenalty
underthegovernmentsofAlexanderIIandIII . ' The
I Ipublishedseveralseriesofarticlesin TheDailyTelegraph,TheFort-
nightlyReview,
andotherEnglishaswellasAmericanperiodicals,anda
longchapterinmybookentitled
RussianCharacteristics .
502
THE COVENANT AND MINORITIES
sympathyofeveryunbiasedman,towhateverraceor
religionhemaybelong,willnaturallygoouttoaraceor
anationwhichistroddenunderfoot,asweretheill-
starredJewsofRussiaeversincethepartitionofPoland .
Butequalityonewouldhavethoughtsufficienttomeet
thegrievance . Fullequalitywithoutreservation . That
wastheviewtakenbynumerousJewsinPolandand
Rumania,severalofwhomcalledonmeinParisand
urgedmetogivepublicutterancetotheirhopesthatthe
Conferencewouldrestsatisfiedwithequalityandtotheir
fearoftheconsequencesofanattempttoestablisha
privilegedstatus . Whythispositionshouldexistonly
ineasternEuropeandnotelsewhere,whyitshouldnot
beextendedtootherraceswithlargerminoritiesinother
countries,arequestionstowhichasatisfactoryresponse
couldbegivenonlybyfarther-reachingandfateful
changesinthelegislationoftheworld.
OneofthestatesmenofeasternEuropemadeaforcible
appealtohavetheminorityclauseswithdrawn . Hetook
thegroundthattheprincipalaimpursuedinconferring
fullrightsontheJewswhodwellamongusistoremove
theobstaclesthatpreventthemfrombecomingtrueand
loyalcitizensofthestate,astheirkindredareinFrance,
Italy,Britain,andelsewhere . "Ifitisreasonable,"he
said,"thattheyshoulddemandalltherightspossessed
bytheirRumanianandPolishfellow-subjects,itisequally
fairthattheyshouldtakeoverandfulfilthecorrelate
duties,asdoestheremainderofthepopulation .
Forthe
gradualassimilationofalltheethnicelementsofthecom-
munityisourideal,asitistheidealoftheFrench,Eng-
lish,Italian,andotherstates .
"Isolationandparticularismarethenegativeofthat
ideal,andoperatelikeapieceofironorwoodinthehuman
bodywhichproducesulcerationandgangrene
.
Allour
institutionsshouldthereforebecalculatedtoencourage
50
3
THE INSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
assimilation .
Ifweadopttheoppositepolicy,weinevi-
tablyalienatetheprivilegedfromtheunprivilegedsec-
tionsofthecommunity,generateenmitybetweenthem,
causeendlessworriestotheadministrationandparalyze
inadvanceourbest-intentionedendeavorstofusethe
variousethnicingredientsofthenationintoa -
homogene-
ouswhole.
"Thisargumentappliesasfullytotheothernational
fragmentsinourmidstastotheJews .
Itismanifest,
therefore,thattheonecertainresultoftheminority
clausewillbetoimposedomesticenemiesoneachofthe
statesthatsubmitstoit,andthatitcancommenditself
onlytothosewhoapprovethemaxim, Divideetimpera .
"Italsoentailsthenoteworthydiminutionofthe
sovereigntyofthestate. Wearetobeliabletobehaled
beforeaforeigntribunalwheneveroneofourminorities
formulatesacomplaintagainstus . 'Howeasily,nay,
howwickedlysuchcomplaintswerefiledoflatemaybe
inferredfromtheheartrendingaccountsofpogroms
inPoland,whichhavesincebeenshownbytheAllies'
ownconfidentialenvoystobeutterlyfictitious . Again,
withwhomarewetomaketheobnoxiousstipulations?
WiththeLeagueofNations?No . Wearetobindour-
selvestowardtheGreatPowers,whothemselveshave
theirminoritieswhichcomplaininvainofbeingcon-
tinuallycoerced . Ireland,Egypt,andthenegroesare
threestrikingexamples . Noneoftheirdelegateswere
admittedtotheConference
. Iftheprinciplewhich
thoseGreatPowersseektoenforcebeworthanything,it
shouldbeappliedindiscriminatelytoallminorities,not
1 "PolandagreesthatanymemberoftheCounciloftheLeagueofNations
shallhavetherighttobringtotheattentionoftheCouncilanyinfraction,
oranydangerofinfraction,of any of theseobligations,andthattheCouncil
maythereupontakesuchactionandgivesuchdirectionasitmaydeem
properandeffectiveinthecirc
ums
tances. "-Article XIIof
theSpecial
Treaty with Poland.
504
THE COVENANT AND MINORITIES
restricted to
those of the smaller states, whoalready
havedifficultiesenoughtocontendagainst . "
Thetrendofcontinentalopinionwasdecidedlyopposed
tothispolicy6ofcontinuouscontrolandperiodicinter-
vention. Itwouldbeunfruitfultoquotethesharp
criticismsofthestatusofthenegroesintheUnitedStates . '
Butitwillnotbeamisstocitetheviewsoftwomoderate
Frenchpublicistswhohaveeverbeenamongthemost
ferventadvocatesoftheAlliedcause . Theircomments
dealwithoneofthearticleszofthespecialMinorityTreaty
whichPolandhashadtosign . Itrunsthus :"Jewsshall
notbecompelledtoperformanyactwhichconstitutesa
violationoftheirSabbath,norshalltheybeplacedunder
anydisabilitybyreasonoftheirrefusal"toattendcourts
oflawortoperformanylegalbusinessontheirSabbath .
Thisprovision,however,shallnotexemptJewsfromsuch
obligationsasshallbeimposeduponallotherPolish
citizensforthenecessarypurposesofmilitaryservice,
nationaldefense,orthepreservationofpublicorder .
"Polanddeclaresherintentiontorefrainfromordering
orpermittingelections,whethergeneralorlocal,tobeheld
onaSaturday,norwillregistrationforelectoralorother
purposesbecompelledtobeperformedonaSaturday . "
M. Gauvainwrites :"Onemayputthequestion,why
respectfortheSabbathissoperemptorilyimposedwhen
SundayisignoredamongseveraloftheAlliedPowers .
InFranceChristiansarenotdispensedfromappearing
onSundaysbeforetheassizecourts
.
Besides,Poland
isfurtherobligednottoorderorauthorizeelectionsona
Saturday. Whatprecautionstheseareinfavorofthe
Jewishreligion as comparedwiththelegislationofmany
Alliedstateswhichhavenosuchordinancesinfavor
ofCatholicism !Isthesameproceduretobeadopted
1 Cf. LaGazettedeLausanne,April24,1919
.
' ArticleXIoftheSpecialTreaty, L'EtoileBelge, August17, 1919.
50
5
THE INSIDESTORY OFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
towardtheMoslems? ShallwebeholdthefamousMus-
sulmansofIndia,soopportunelydrawnfromtheshade
byMr . Montagu,demandingtheinsertionofclausesto -
protectIslam? WilltheZ ionistsimposetheirdogmas
inPalestine? Isthelifeofanationtobesuspendedtwo,
three,orfourdaysaweekinorderthatreligiouslaws
maybeobserved? Catholicismhasadapteditselfin
practicetolaiclegislationandtotheexigenciesofmodern
life
. ItmaywellseemthatJudaisminPolandcoulddo
likewise . InRumania,theJewsmetwithnoobstacle
totheexerciseoftheirreligion .
Indeed,theyhadcon-
trivedinthelocalitiestothenorthofMoldavia,where
theyformedamajority,toimposetheirowncustoms
ontherestofthepopulation . Jewishguardiansoftoll-
bridgesareknowntohavebarredthepassageofthese
bridgesonSaturdays,because,ontheonehand,their
religionforbadethemtoacceptmoneyonthatday,and,
ontheotherhand,theycouldallownoonetopasswithout
paying. TheBigFourmighthavegiventheirattention
tomattersmoreusefulormorepressingthanenforcing
respectfortheSabbath .
"ItiscomprehensiblethatM. Bratianoshouldhave
refusedtoacceptinadvancetheconditionswhichthe
FourortheFivemaydictateinfavorofethnicand
religiousminorities . Rumaniabeforethewarwasa
freecountrygovernedcongruouslywiththemostmodern
principles . Therestrictionswhichshehad enacted
respectingforeignersingeneral,andwhichwereonthe
pointofbeingrepealed,didnotexceedthosewhichthe
UnitedStatesandtheDominionofAustraliastillapply
withremarkabletenacity . WhyshouldtheCabinetsof
LondonandWashingtontakesomuchtoheartthelot
ofethnicandreligiousminoritiesincertainEuropean
countrieswhiletheythemselvesrefusetoadmitinthe
CovenantoftheSocietyofNationstheprincipleofthe
506
THE
COVENANT AND MINORITIES
equalityofraces?Theirconductisawakeningamong
thestates`whoseinterestsarelimited'thebeliefthat
theyarethevictimsofanarbitrarypolicy
. Andthatis
notwithoutdanger . " 1
AnothereminentFrenchman,M
. DenisCochin,who
untilquiterecentlywasaCabinetMinister,wrote
:"The
Conference,byimposinglawsinfavorofminorities,has
uselesslyandunjustlyoffendedourallies . Theselaws
obligethemtorespecttheusagesoftheJews,tomain-
tainschoolsforthem
. . . . Ihavespentalargepartofmy
careerindemandingforFrenchCatholicsexactlythat
whichtheConferenceimposeselsewhere . TheCatholics
paytaxesinmoneyandtaxesinblood . Andyetthereis
nobudgetforthoseschoolsinwhichtheirreligionis
taught
;nolibertyforthoseschoolmasterswhowearthe
ecclesiasticalhabit
. Ihaveseenadoctorinletters,fel-
lowoftheuniversity,drivenfromhisclassbecausehe
wasaMaristbrotheranddidnotchoosetorepudiatethe
vocationofhisyouth
. Hediedofgrief. Ihaveseen
youngpriests,afterthelong,laboriouspreparationneces-
sarybeforetheycouldtakepartinthecompetitionfora
universityfellowship,thrustasideatthelastmoment
anddebarredfromthecompetitionbecausetheyworethe
garbofpriests
. Yetayearlatertheyweresoldiers.
I
haveseenFatherSchellpresentedunanimouslybythe
InstituteandtheProfessionalCorpsasworthytoreceive
achairattheCollegedeFrance,andrefusedbythe
Minister
. YetIherebyaffirmthatifforeigners,even
thoughtheywereallies,evenfriends,weretomeddlewith
imposingonustheabrogationoftheseiniquitouslaws,
myprotestwouldbeupliftedagainstthem,togetherwith
thatofM
. Combes . 2 Iwouldexclaim,likeSganarelle's
1 LeJournaldesDebats,July7,1919-
3 M
. EmileCombeswastheauthorofthelawswhichbanishedreligious
ooarregati©nsfromFrance . .
507
THE INSIDE STORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
wife,`AndwhatifIwishtobebeaten?' Iholdtyranny
inhorror,butIholdforeigninterventioningreaterhorror
still .
Letuscombatbadlawswithallourstrength,but
amongourselves . "i
Theminoritytreatiestendtotransformeachofthe
statesonwhichitisimposedintoaminiatureBalkans,to
keepEurope in continuousturmoilandhinderthegrowth
ofthenewandcreativeideasfromwhichaloneonecould
expectthatunionofcollectiveenergywithindividual
freedomwhichisessentialtopeaceandprogress . Mod-
ernhistoryaffordsnomorestrikingexampleoftheforce
ofabstractbiasovertheteachingsofexperiencethan
thisamateurlegislationwhichisscatteringseedsofmis-
chiefandconflictthroughoutEurope .
CastingafinalglanceattheresultsoftheConference,
itwouldbeungraciousnottowelcomeasapreciousboon
thedestructionofPrussianmilitarism,aconsummation
whichweowetotheheroismofthearmiesratherthanto
thesagacityofthelawgiversinParis . Therestoration
ofaPolishstateandthecreationorextensionoftheother
freecommunitiesattheexpenseoftheCentralEmpires
arealsomostwelcomechanges,which,however,ought
nevertohavebeenmarredbythedisruptivewedgeofthe
minoritylegislation . Again,althoughtheLeagueisa
millwhosesailsuselesslyrevolve,becauseithasnocorn
togrind,themerefactthatthenecessityofinternational-
ismwassolemnlyproclaimedasthecentralideaof . the
newordering,andthataneffort,howeverfeeble,wasput
forthtorealizeitintheshapeofacovenantofsocialand
moralfellowship,marksanadvancefromwhichtherecan
benoretrogression.
Actualitywastherebyimpartedtotheidea,whichis
destinedtoremainintheforefrontofcontemporarypoli-
1 LeFigaro,August 21, i9i9
. L'EchodeParis,August 22, 1919.
5o8
THE
COVENANT AND MINORITIES
tics until the peoples themselves embodyitinviable
institutions . Whatthedelegatesfailedtorealizeisthe
truththataprogramofaleagueisnotaleague .
Onthedebitsidemuchmightbeaddedtowhathas
alreadybeensaid .
Theimportantfacttobearinmind-
whichinitselfcallsforneitherpraisenorblame-isthat
theworld-parliamentwasatbottomanAnglo-Saxonas-
semblywhoselanguage,politicalconceptions,self-esteem,
anddisregardofeverythingforeignwereessentiallyEng-
lish . Whenspeaking,thefacesoftheprincipaldelegates
wereturnedtowardthefuture,andwhenactingthey
lookedtowardthepast . AsathoroughlyEnglishpress
organ,whenalludingtotheLeagueofNations,putsit
"Wehavedonehomagetothatentrancingidealby
spatchcockingtheConventionintotheTreaty . Thereit
remainsasafinger-posttopointthewaytoanewheaven
onearth
.
ButweobservethattheTreatyitselfisa
goodoldeighteenth-centurypiece,drawingitsinspiration
frommundaneandpracticalconsiderations,andpaying
agooddealmorethanlipservicetotheprincipleofthe
balance'ofpower . " 1
Thatisafairestimateoftheworkachievedbythe
delegates . Buttheysinnedintheirwayofdoingit . If
theyhaddeliberatelyandprofessedlyaimedatthese
results,andhadledtheworldtolookfornoneother,most
ofthecriticismstowhichtheyhaverenderedthemselves
openwouldbepointless . Buttheyraisedhopeswhich
theyrefused , torealize,theyweakenediftheydidnotde-
stroyfaithinpublictreaties,theyintensifieddistrustand
racehatredthroughouttheworld,theypouredstrongdis-
solventsuponeverystateontheEuropeanContinent,
andtheystirredupfiercepassionsinRussia,andthenleft
thatill-starrednationapreytounprecedentedanarchy .
Inaword,theygatheredupallthewidelyscatteredex-
1 TheMorning
Post,July
21,
1919
.
509
THEINSIDESTORYOFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
plosivesofimperialism,nationalism,andinternationalism,
and,havingaddedtotheirdestructiveness,passedthem
ontothepeoplesoftheworldasrepresentedbythe
LeagueofNations . Someofthemdeploredthemessin
whichtheywereleavingthenations,without,however,
admittingthecausalnexusbetweenitandtheirown
achievements
.
GeneralSmuts,beforequittingParisforSouthAfrica,
franklyadmittedthatthePeaceTreatywillnotgiveus
therealpeacewhichthepeopleshopedfor,andthatpeace-
makingwouldnotbeginuntilafterthesigningofthe
Treaty . TheEchodePariswrote :"Asforus,wenever
believedintheSocietyofNations . "1Andagain :"The
SocietyofNationsisnowbutabladder,andnobody
wouldventuretodescribeitasalantern . "2TheBol-
shevistdictatorLenintermedit"anorganizationtoloot
theworld
. "a
TheAlliesthemselvesareatsixesandsevens . The
FrencharesuspiciousoftheBritish . Alargesectionof
theAmericanpeopleisprofoundlydissatisfiedwiththe
partplayedbytheEnglishandtheFrenchattheCon-
ference
;Italyisstungtothequickbythetreatment
shereceivedfromFrance,Britain,andtheUnitedStates
;
Rumanialoathestheverynamesofthoseforwhomshe
stakedherallandsacrificedsomuch
;inPolandand
BelgiumtheEnglishhavelosttheconsiderationwhich
theyenjoyedbeforetheConference
;theGreeksare
wrothwiththeAmericandelegates
;themajorityof
Russiansliterallyexecratetheirex-Alliesandturntothe
GermansandtheJapanese.
"TheresettlementofcentralEurope,"writesan
Americanjournal,4"isnotbeingmadeforthetranquillity
1L'EchodeParis,April29,1919
.
2Ibid
. ,April14,1919
.
sTheChicagoTribune(Parisedition),September17,1919
.
TheNewRepublic,August6,1919 .
510
THE COVENANT AND MINORITIES
oftheliberatedprinciples,butforthepurposesofthe
GreatPowers,amongwhomFranceistheactive,and
AmericaandBritainthepassive,partners . InGermany
itspurposeisthepermanenteliminationoftheGerman
nationasafactorinEuropeanpolitics . . . . Wecannot
saveEuropebyplayingthesinistergamenowbeing
played . Thereisnopeace,noorder,nosecurityinit .
. . . Whatitcandoistoaggravatethemischiefand
intensifytheschisms . "
AdistinguishedAmerican,whoisaconsistentfriend
ofEngland,'inareviewarticleaffirmedthatthepro-
posedLeagueofNationsisslowlyunderminingtheAnglo-
AmericanEntente . "ThereisinAmericaagrowing
senseofirritationthatsheshouldbeforeverentangled
inthespider-webofEuropeanpolitics . " . . . Andifthe
Senateinthesupposedinterestsofpeaceshouldratify
theLeague,headds,"Inmyjudgmentnogreaterharm
couldresulttoAnglo-Americanunitythansuchreluctant
consent . '
12
SomeofMr. Wilson'sfellow-countrymenwhogave
himtheirwhole-heartedsupportwhenheundertookto
establisharegimeofrightandjusticesumuptheresult
ofhislaborsinParisasfollows :
s
"Hissolemnwarningagainstspecialalliancesemerged
asaspecialalliancewithBritainandFrance . Hisre-
peatedcondemnationsofsecrettreatiesemergesasa
recognitionthat`theycouldnothonorablybebrushed
aside,'eventhoughtheyconflictedwithequallybinding
publicengagementsenteredintoaftertheyhadbeen
written . Openlyarrivedatcovenantswerenotopenly
arrivedat . Theremoval,sofaraspossible,ofalleconomic
barrierswasappliedtoGermanbarriers,and . accom-
1 Mr. JamesB . Beck .
2 TheNorthAmericanReview, June,1919.
sCf. TheNewRepublic,August6,i9i9,pp
. 5,6
.
5''
THE INSIDESTORY OFTHEPEACECONFERENCE
paniedbytheblockadeofapeoplewithwhomwehave
neverbeenatwar . Theadequateguarantiestobegiven
andtakenasrespectsarmamentsweretakenfromGer-
manyandgiventonoone . The`unhamperedandun-
embarrassedopportunityfortheindependentdetermina-
tionofherownpoliticaldevelopment'promisedtoRus-
sia,anddefinedasthe`acidtest,'hasbeenworkedout
byMr . Wilsonandotherstoapointwheresocautious
amanasMr. Asquithsaysheregardsitwith`bewilder-
mentandapprehension
. ' Therightingofthewrongdone
in1871emergesasaconcealedannexationoftheboundary
of1814 . The`clearlyrecognizablelinesofnationality'
whichItalywastoobtainhasbeenwheedledintoan-
nexationswhichhavemovedViscountBrycetodenounce
them . `Thefreestopportunityofautonomousdevelop-
ment'promisedthepeoplesofAustria-Hungaryfailed
todefinetheAustriansaspeoples . . . . "
Whateverthetestsoneappliestotheworkofthe
Conference
ethical,social,orpolitical-theyrevealit
asafactoreminentlycalculatedtosaphighinterests,to
weakenthemoralnerveofthepresentgeneration,tofan
theflamesofnationalandracialhatred,todiganabyss
betweentheclassesandthemasses,andtothrowopenthe
sluice-gatestotheinrushofthewavesofanarchistinter-
nationalities .
Truth,justice,equity,andlibertyhave
beentwistedandpressedintotheserviceofeconomico-
politicalboards . IntheUnitedStatesthepeoplewho
pridedthemselvesontheiraloofnessarealreadyfighting
overEuropeaninterests . InEuropeeverynation'shand
israisedagainstitsneighbors,andeverypeople'shand
againstitsrulingclass .
Everygovernmentismaking
itspolicysubservienttotheneedsofthefuturewarwhich
isuniversallylookeduponasanunavoidableoutcomeof
theVersaillespeace . Imperialismandmilitarismare
strikingrootsinsoilwheretheywerehithertounknown
.
512
THE COVENANT AND MINORITIES
Inaword,Prussianism,insteadofbeingdestroyed,has
beenopenlyadoptedbyitsostensibleenemies,andthe
hugesacrificesofferedupbytheheroicarmiesofthefore-
mostnationsarebeingmisusedtogiveonehalfofthe
worldjustcausetoriseupagainsttheotherhalf
.
THE END