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gl/E0mkt epynic ELECTRONICS BRANCH INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

1.What are the differences between voltage and current controlled devices? Ans-In any (electronic) device controlling parameter is current it is called current controlled device. eg bilpolar transistor- output current is a function of base current. In any (electronic) device controlling parameter is voltage it is called voltage controlled device. eg Field effect transistor- output current is a function of gate voltage. It depends on the inherent physical mechanism which defines the primary (independent) controlling parameter. 2- What is the difference between Power Amplifier and Voltage Amplifier? Ans-Power amplifiers basically amplify both current and voltage (p=v*i). Voltage amplifiers only amplify the voltage. In power amplifier feedback employed is current feedback and In voltage amplifier voltage feedback is employed. 3- why the bjt is known as current controlled device and fet is known as voltage controlled device ? Ans- 1. In BJT because of the current the output will vary. 2. Where as in FET by means of Voltage the output is varied. 4-What is the difference between DCS & PLC & SCADA ? Ans-PLC stands for Programmable Logic ControllerDCS for Data control SystemSCADA for Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition SCADA involves supervision by a user in most cases the plant controller.Whereas PLC is the means by which he performs the function of SCADA.DCS on the other hand stand only to control the system and not to log any datain the process of controlling.DCS controllers are faster than PLCs In DCS controller we can adjust the scan time DCS are costly more inputs and outputs are there for DCS and SCADA does not have a dedicated controller. In a DCS system there is SCADA ystem already in it but for PLC sydtem addition all SCADA software must be provided. 5-What is the difference between Silicon Controlled Switch (SCS) and Gate Turn-off Switch (GTO)? Ans-scs is nothing but it is the silicon controlled switch as an SCR but gate turn off is that in which one of the turnoff method of SCR 6-What is the difference between emulator and simulator? Ans-Simulator: A software program impersonating a Hardware. Thus SIMULATING the scenarios faced in the original hardware.

Emulator: A Hardware (with or without software) impersonating another Hardware. Thus ELIMINATING the need for the original. 7- What is the difference between Circuit Switching and Packet Switching?Ans-Circuit switching is the transmission technology that has been used since the first communication networks in the nineteenth century. In circuit switching, a caller must first establish a connection to a callee before any communication is possible. During the connection establishment, resources are allocated between the caller and the callee. packet switching is a more recent technology than circuit switching which addresses a disadvantage of circuit switching: the need to allocate resources for a circuit, thus incurring link capacity wastes when no data flows on a circuit. Packet switching introduces the idea of cutting data on a flow into packets which are transmitted over a network without any resource being allocated. 8- the number of columns in a state table for a sequential circuit with m flip-flops and n inputs is. Ans-Its 2m+2n because.. If there are m flip-flops there should be 2m nodes. If there are n inputs then each node will have 2n. Q-Design a digital circuit which has one input two output and one select line input should be 1000khz output should be 500khz and 250Khz select line either 0 or 1 if 0 select 250khz if 1 select 500khz Ans-demux is the circuit which satisfies the given requirement if 0 is given to the selectline 250khz o/p is provided else 500khz o/p is provided. 9- What are digital elctronic flip flops, State the different types of flip flop and their uses. Ans-Digital electronic flip flops are temporary single bit storage devices. Different types of flip flops are JK f/f RS f/f T F/F D f/f this flip flops are using as storage device delay purpose as counter for toggled as shift register etc 10- What is the difference between latches and flip flop ? Ans-Latche is a bistable circuit which responds to change of logic level as they occur. It has no external inputs. Flip flop is a basic element of memory. It stores a single bit. It has a multiple input. Latches are level sensitive devices where as Flipflops are edge sensitive device so it is said that latches are level triggered and flip flop is edge triggered. 11-What is the Tri State of a Signal? Ans-In digital ciruit the gate output can be only high or low. In highstate the output source current at a minimum voltage greater than ~2.8V if load(fan out ) is proper. In low state it will sink current at max output voltage less than ~0.8V. Some times it is desirable to have a state output both not high or low. with neither sinking or sourcing (with high output impedance). This is called tristate. Tristate output cannot change output condition of succeding logic gates unless tristate is disabled. 12- what is the main difference between 8085 and 8086 processors?

Ans-8085 is a 8 bit microprocessor,having 16-bit address bus.8086 is a 16-bit microprocessor having 20-bit address bus. Q- What is a sequential circuit and What is a combinational circuit? Is there any difference between them? If yes what is it? Ans-Combinational circuit are those whose output depends only upon the present inputs but in sequential circuit the output depends upon both present and past inputs. that is the difference Combinational circuit does not have any memory in the feedback path but the sequential circuit has memory in the feedback path. Ex of SEQ Circuit: Encoder Decoder etc Ex of Comb Circuit; Flipflop 13. What is the difference between masking and non-masking? Ans-In 8085 processor TRAP is a non maskable interrupt. Whereas RST 7.5 6.5 5.5 intr are maskable interrupts. Maskable means this interrupts can be left without considering during the execution of the program. Non maskable depicts that it has to be taken into account during the execution of the program 14. What is difference between Fixed-Bias Circuit & Self-Bias Circuit? Ans-Fixed bias circuits get their bias voltages from independently designed reference voltage sources (or even something as simple as a voltage divider). Often is the case that the bias may be left for the end-user to give some control over the operation point of the circuit. Self biased circuits get their bias voltages from the circuit itself often in the form of a negative feedback. This is very useful when a circuit is extremely sensitive to bias points and it becomes impractical to provide external biases that are correct to very high accuracies. This can happen in high gain amplifiers with very high impedance output nodes such as a common source amplifier with an active load. The operation of the circuit dependson the bias of the active load. It would therefore be desirable to sacrifice some of this gain by providing a negative feedback from the output to the gate of the active load. This way you wont have to bias the circuit yourself but will lose some of the gain of the circuit as a price. 15. What is meant by filter? What are the different types of filters? Ans-Filters are the components of a circuit which remove distortion or ripples.Types of filters : 1. High pass filters 2. Low pass filters 3. Band pass filters 16. what is meant by virtual ground in the op amp ? Ans-Ideally the output of op-amp should be zero. So for this to happen the 2 inputs must be same. Hence one of the input is considered to be low or at ground potential. But this input is not actually ground hence it is called as virtual ground. 17. What is meant by saying at what current is transistor biased? Ans-Bias current of a transistor is the preset DC current when no input voltage signal is applied to it.

18. What is Race Around Condition in a JK FlipFlop? Ans-IN J-K FF , The clock time is higher than the output toggling time then for J=1 & K=1 , the output will be changed irrelavent of our input. This condition is known as "RACE AROUND CONDITION".. 19. How to Convert Binary to Excess 3 Code and vice versa? Ans-A number i binary can be converted to excess-3 just by adding the binary equivalent of 3 to the binary number.similarly a number in excess-3 can be converted to binary just by subtracting the binary equivaent of 3 from the binary number. 20. How to convert Binary to Gray Code Ans-Take XOR of binary no. starting from right with the next bit. Add 0 as leftmost bit to get answer eg. 111=7 gray code 0 xor 1,1 xor 1, 1 xor 1 i.e. 100 ans.

21. What is the meaning of Tristate Signal in Electronics? Ans-Tristate device is 3 terminal device & it has three states. They are logic 0 logic 1 & high impedance state or tristate. This device can be used as switch. For ON logic 0 or logic 1 (depending on active low or active high appl) OFF as high independence state. 22. When a sample of germanium and silicon having same impurity density are kept at room temperature then Resistivity of silicon will be higher than that of germanium, Why? Ans-The answer is simple. Consider the PN diode for Ge 0.3eV is the breakdown voltage and in the case of Si its 0.7eV since the impurities are added in the same amount the bond due to the other atoms of the Si makes it resistive compared to the Ge.. thats all! 23. Why gold is added to the p-n junction? Ans-To reflect heat. To reduce the recombination time. 24. Why are the 2 input terminals of an op-amp are called as inverting & non-inverting terminals? Ans-Because if we give input to one input means that will produce the same phase output where as the other(Inverting) pin produce 180 degree phase shifted output. 25. What is the equivalent of negative logic AND gate? Ans-Negative logic of AND gate is NAND. 26. What are the main advantages of synchronous circuit? Ans-All the inputs are feed at the rising or falling end of the clock signal. This makes the circuit to perform task in sync. so that the functional integrity of the logic device is as expected. 27. How does a Signal differ from a Wave Ans-Signal means information. Wave is something that carries the information from source to destination. 28. Why do we use two ground pins in the pin diagram of 8086?

Ans-There are basically two reasons for doing so one is to remove GROUND BOUNCE one more reason is circuit complexity demands a large amount of current flowing through the circuits and multiple grounds help in dissipating the accumulated heat so that device will be safe. 29. What is the difference between Power Amplifier and Voltage Amplifier? Ans-Power amplifiers basically amplify both current and voltage (p=v*i). Voltage amplifiers only amplify the voltage. 30. How to manufacture the CMOS inverter? Ans-It can be made by using pmos and cmos in series. Both gate are connected together and act as input. Source of pmos is connected to supply. drain of pmos is connected to drain of nmosand it serves as output. source of nmos is grounded. 31. What are the advantages of using C band for satellite communication? Ans-Its frequency ranges from 12 to 18MHz 32. What is a BCD? What are its advantages and disadvantages? Why is an excess-3 code is called an unweighted code? Ans-BCD means Binary coded decimal its advantage is it can represent decimal numbers in the form of binary value says (0000-0 to 1001-9). Binary codes are divided into weighted binary code and non weighted binary code Excess 3 code is an example of non weighted codes since the position of each bits in excess 3 code does not have weights says like ones tens hundred in decimal and 2^0 2^1 2^2 in binary. 33. What is power electronics? Ans- Power electronics is the technology associated with high power which is more than 430v 3 phase supply.Generally it is consider in industries for the efficient conversion control and conditioning of electric power by static means from its available input form into the desired electrical output form. 34. What are the differences between microprocessor and micro controller. Ans-The microprocessor is the integration of a number of useful functions into a single IC package. These functions are: The ability to execute a stored set of instructions to carry out user defined tasks. The ability to be able to access external memory chips to both read and write data from and to the memory. Basically a microcontroller is a device which integrates a number of the components of a microprocessor system onto a single microchip. So a microcontroller combines onto the same microchip : The CPU core Memory (both ROM and RAM) Some parallel digital I/O Essentially a microcontroller is obtained by integrating the key components of microprocessor RAM ROM and Digital I/O onto the same chip die. Modern microcontrollers also contain a wealth of other modules such as Serial I/O Timers and Analogue to Digital Converters. 35. What is function of ALE in 8085 microprocessor? Ans-AlE stands for the address latch enableit 's working is that it differentiate the address and data bus in microprocessor.when it is high it select address bus .when it is low it select data bus.

36. Why we are using the bridge rectifier in most of the circuits instead of full wave rectifier eventhough the output of both are same? Ans-In bridge type (FWR) rectifiers center tapping transformer are not required so small transformers are used and we will get twice of the out put voltage that of the center tapped FWR. 37. What type of architecture is used in 8085 microprocessor? Ans- INTEL 8085 is a 8-bit microprocessor. It's based on Von-Neumann architecture in which the data and instructions are in the same memory space without any distinction between them. Data line: 8-bits--Can process 8-bits of data at a time. Address line: 16-bits--Can address upto 2^16(64KB) of address space. 38. What is Edison Effect? Ans-Edison Effect is also refferred as "Thermionic emission". Here the charge carriers flow from a charge-carrying surface due to vibrations caused by thermal energy. This phenomenon can be seen in the house-hold electrical bulb in which is a metal filament is heated by the thermal energy from electricity. 39. how to design a software IC using VHDL ? Ans-you can use software like altera write the required programme download to the chip here is your software ic 40. What are semiconductor devices ? Ans-Semiconductor Devices is nothing but a device which conduct semi /partially conducting ( semiconductor which conduction property lies between conductor and insulator)is termed as semiconductor device. 41. Why the input resistance of an ideal OP-AMP is infinite and output resistance is zero? secondly, how can we measure these resistances(input and output) in case of an ideal OPAMPand Real OP-AMP in the following conditions when 1- load is not connected. 2- load is connected. Ans- Ideal OP-AMP is a power ful concept. If one goes through the history of amplifying devices it becomes clear that less it loads the previous stage better the output signal. ie. it is a trend toward higher and higher input impedances. Also it is better to maintain the signal level irrespective of the LOAD connected at the ouput. Lesser the output impedance less the signal amplitude reduction when load is connected. ie. it is a trend toward lower and lower output impedances. As ideal opamp is a concept by virtue it has zero output impedance and infinite input impedance and they are not physically measurable but has to be taken for granted for the use in theoritical analysis. To measure input resistance of non ideal opamp connect a known source at the input and give a signal (within Specifications) through a current meter of sufficient precision. Input voltage by current gives the input impedance.

To measure input resistance of non ideal opamp connect a known source at the input and give a signal (within Specifications) through a current meter of sufficient precision. Input voltage by current gives the input impedance. To measure output resistance of non ideal opamp connect a known source at the input such that the output does not saturate and connect a load (within Specifications ) through a current meter of sufficient precision and meaure the output voltage. Output voltage by current gives the output impedance. Please refer application notes by device manufacturers freely available in internet for more precise and practical solutions. 42. What is Pulse Width Modulation? Ans-Pulse width modulation is a modulation technique in which the width of the pulse is varied in accordance with the message signal. Pulse width Modulation is abbreviated as PWM. PWM can be used to reduce the total amount of power delivered to a load without losses normally incurred when a power source is limited by resistive means. This is because the average power delivered is proportional to the modulation duty cycle. With a sufficiently high modulation rate, passive electronic filters can be used to smooth the pulse train and recover an average analog waveform. PWM is used in sound synthesis circuits. 43. How many type of resistor are there in diode? Ans-They are two types one is forward resistance 1.Forward resistance 2.Reverse resistance 1.Forward resistance-This is the resistance offered in forward bias condition of the diode. It is calculated by with the help of graph for voltage and current characteristic. 2.Reverse resistance-This resistance is offered in the reverse bias condition of the diode. It is also calculated by the same method. 44. Why the shape of OP-AMP is triangular not other shape? Ans-The Triangular shape symbolizes that it works for continous signals and hence forth it is an analog device. ex: Opamp If it is square then it is digital device. ex: Multiplexer If the shape is both triangular and square then it is mixed signal device. ex: ADC DAC 45 What is Interfacing? Ans-The peripheral (simple input/output devices ) connected with computer to perform tasks is known as interfacing. 46 How microprocessor works without internal memory? Ans-microprocessor works without internal memory because it consists of adreess data and control buses with some registers to process the task given to processor through the external memory. 47. What is a sequential circuit and What is a combinational circuit?Is there any difference between them? If yes what is it?

Ans-Combinational circuit are those whose output depends only upon the present inputs but in sequential circuit the output depends upon both present and past inputs. that is the difference. 48. What are digital elctronic flip flops, State the different types of flip flop and their uses. Ans-digital electronic flip flops are temporary single bit storage devices.different types of flip flops are JK f/f RS f/f T F/F D f/f this flip flops are using as storage device delay purpose as counter for toggled as shift register etc 49. What CMOS Transistor? Ans-CMOS-->>Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor Complementary metaloxidesemiconductor (CMOS) is a major class of integrated circuits. CMOS technology is used in chips such as microprocessors microcontrollers static RAM and other digital logic circuits. CMOS technology is also used for a wide variety of analog circuits such as image sensors data converters and highly integrated transceivers for many types of communication. CMOS is also sometimes explained as complementary-symmetry metaloxidesemiconductor. The words "complementary-symmetry" refer to the fact that the typical digital design style with CMOS uses complementary and symmetrical pairs of p-type and n-type MOSFETs for logic functions. Two important characteristics of CMOS devices are high noise immunity and low static power supply drain. Significant power is only drawn when its transistors are switching between on and off states; consequently CMOS devices do not produce as much heat as other forms of logic such as TTL (transistor-transistor logic). CMOS also allows a high density of logic functions on a chip. The triple compound "metaloxidesemiconductor" is a reference to the nature of the physical structure of early (and interestingly now the very latest) field-effect transistors having a metal gate electrode placed on top of an oxide insulator which in turn is on top of a semiconductor material. Instead of metal current gate electrodes (including those up to the 65 nanometer technology node) are almost always made from a different material polysilicon but the terms MOS and CMOS nevertheless continue to be used for the modern descendants of the original process. (See also MOSFET.) Metal gates have made a comeback with the advent of high-k dielectric materials in the CMOS transistor as announced by IBM and Intel for the 45 nanometer node and beyond 50 . What is Virtual Grounding? Ans-Virtual grounding is the shorting of the inverting and the non-inverting terminals of the op-amp. The i/p resistance of opamp is v high. thus the base currents are v less approx 0. thus no current flows thru i/p resistance. thus we can say that both the NI and INV terminals of opamp are virtually shorted. i.e the voltage across both terminals is same. thus if NOW one terminal is grounded due to virtual short other terminal also will be grounded. 51. Why the input impedance of OP-Amp is so high?

Ans-In OPAMP we have 4 stages 1st stage i.e the input stage is a dual i/p balanced o/p opamp whose i/p resistance is v high. and if we use FET in case of BJT for 1st stage diffamp then i/p resistance will be v high in M ohms. 52. what is meant by virtual ground in the op amp ? Ans-The op amp connected in a negative feedback configuration that is the o/p connected to the inverting terminal tried to produce the same voltage at the inverting node as we applied to the non-inverting terminal no matter whatever be the o/p. This happens because the opamp has a very high differential gain. so only way to not to clip or saturate the o/p in either positive or negative side is to make their both i/ps at the same potential. so when you apply the i/p to the inverting terminal and you connect the feedback to the inverting node and your non-inverting terminal is grounded then op amp tries to force the inverting node at the ground potential and whatever the difference between these two nodes are amplified. 53. Which one is faster between NAND-SR FF and NOR-SR FF? Ans-well both deals with same principle.but i think NAND-SR FF is faster than NOR-SR FF 54. Cost of storing a bit is minimum in 1. Cache 2. Register 3. RAM 4. Magnetic tape Ans-Magnetic Tape 56. How many characters per sec (7 bits + 1 parity ) can be transmitted over a 2400 bps line if the transfer is synchronous (1 start and 1 stop bit)? 1. 300 2. 240 3. 250 4. 275 Ans- 2400/(7+1+2) 240 57. What does CE mean..U will see it on almost every chip(IC).. Ans-The CE mark is a mandatory European marking for certain product groups to indicate conformity with the essential health and safety requirements set out in European Directives. The letters 'CE' are an abbreviation of Conformit Europenne, French for European conformity. The CE mark must be affixed to a product if it falls under the scope of the approx. 20 so called 'New Approach' Directives. Without the CE marking, and thus without complying with the provisions of the Directives, the product may not be placed in the market or put into service in the fifteen member states of the European Union and Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein. However, if the product meets the provisions of the applicable European Directives, and the CE mark is affixed to a product, these countries may not prohibit, restrict or impede the placing in the market or putting into service of the product. Thus, CE marking can be regarded as the products trade passport for Europe. The CE mark is not a quality-mark. First, it refers to the safety rather than to the quality of a product. Second, most quality markings are voluntary opposite to the CE marking, which is mandatory for the products it applies to. CE indicates conformity with mandatory European safety requirements. European conformity is certified by following clear and understandable procedures, the socalled conformity assessment procedures 58. What is the difference between PLC and DCS?

Ans-PLC means Programmable Logic Controller, which can be used to control one particluar control system such as a boiler or a injection system. but DCS is Distributed control syetem, which is used to monitor and control the total process plant. in DCS we have no of controllers connected to a single monitoring system. 59. why the feeding frequency to a microprocessor s twice the operating frequency. Ans-since 8085 microprocessor operating frequency 5 mega hz but operating frequency is 10 mega hz because crystal effect in processor 60. Do we have any negative frequency? Ans-no it can't be negative because freguency is simply the reciprocal of time and time can't be negative. We use negative frequencies in our calculations just for easieness but remember at last we neglect it also 61. what is angle and amplitude modulation? what is noise in modulation? Ans- modulation means change. to send a message of low frequency to a far distance we use a carrier of high frequency to carry the message. while transfering we change some parameters of carriers for faithful tranformation of message signal. if the amplitude of the carrier is varied in accordance with frequency of message signal then it is called amplitude modulation. if either phase or frequency is changed in accordance with the frequency of message signal then it is called angle modulation. noise is an unwanted signal which enter in signal while transfering a signal and makes the signal distorted. 62. what is selective flooding? Ans- Selective Flooding is a method to compute the Qos of the system 63. what is fixed bias with and without decoupling capacitor Ans- with ta decoupling capacitor u cannt get o/p bcz it blocks the DC and allows only AC ok.... is u dont us it it give the o/p but it's DC only so no use to hav a DC voltage in O/P 64. what is the main application of scr in electronic field as well as in software field? Ans- SCR is a rectifier we use this in power handling applications . By varying on time and off time of the scr i.e by giving the pulse to its gate we can vary the average output power from the main power supply to the required device . software part we can use microcontroller and write a programme so that to generate required pulses to control the SCR. 65. What is Biasing? Ans- Biasing is process of applying potential across any electronic equipment in order to make it operate as we require.

Some more questions

1. How do you make a memory card of mobile phone?

A memory chip stores bits and mounted in a card with electrical contacts so a computer or camera can send data to be stored. There is not much more to it than that. 2. Why do I not see the battery and capacitor combination for power backup? There are "super capacitors" that are used for power backup - they are efficient for short-term power take-over, but they are leaky and are not good for long term. Batteries tend to die slowly, more slowly than the leakage on a power backup capacitor, so the capacitor does not do any good. Regular capacitors store so little energy they cannot really be a power source. 3. When recording infrasound waves or microwaves how do they differ from one another? What is the best way to read them? By microwaves, do you mean radio signals, like in a microwave oven? These have nothing to do with sound. There is no way to "record" microwaves really. Sure, you can build a microwave transmitter with lots of power, enough to cook everyone in a building if you wanted to. The military has a microwave gun that heats up your skin painfully at a good distance (of course, all you do is wear aluminum foil and it does not affect you at all). 4. How can we prove that radio waves are sine waves? What makes them sine? Fourier says that only a sine wave has no harmonic content. The math works out that if you have any wave shape other than a sign wave, you can break it down into a group of sine waves of different harmonic frequency, phase, and amplitude. All those harmonics go to zero when the wave shape is a pure sine. We can tell that radio waves behave like a sine, you can run them through a narrowband filter, and no energy is lost. Maxwell's equations predict propagation and fields based on a sine wave, and anything other than that propagates as if it is multiple frequencies, which do not propagate energy as well. So mathematically, radio waves work as they measure to work only if you assume they are sine waves. 5. Is it possible to reverse the order of a Variable Frequency Drive? Ex: I want to be able to create 120v power from a variable speed engine, with at least 6kw of power. You say many alternators, but really, you need only one. The more I think about this, the more I think it is not so hard to do. If you have a 6KW alternator, it's possible that it has some kind of voltage regulation, maybe the rotor is not a permanent magnet, but an electromagnet with ring brushes, and there's a regulator circuit that drives this to keep the voltage constant regardless of frequency. If this is the case, what I would do (not many would try this) is rectify this to make 150 volts DC with a simple rectifier bridge and filter cap (total maybe $30). Then buy some 1KW inverters, and tap into them after the DC-DC converter (the part where it takes in 12VDC and steps it up to 150 VDC), drive the 150VDC in at that point, then let it switch this to AC for you. You could put 6 of these all running from the same alternator, so you could run 6 1KW loads. Now taking this idea a step further, I would realize that the DC-DC converter is most of what you are paying for in the inverter, and it is the source of inefficiency in the inverter. So you are wasting a lot of money and watts, and so I would copy the circuit out of it that does the switching (4 power FETs and a 60 cycle driver) and have my inverter done much cheaper.

6. Why does charging batteries take lengthy periods? What can be done to quicken the speed? Batteries work through a chemical process, some kind of ion exchange where the battery contains two elements that want to combine ions and give up an electron to cause current flow. They do this energy release all by themselves with no energy added, it wants this exchange to happen it is more stable after the reaction. Therefore, to charge the battery you are forcing things to go backwards, which the reaction does not like. By adding a current, you are making the reaction reverse. This is not an efficient process, and usually takes more energy than is given back, like more than twice as much takes (depends on the battery type). Where does the extra energy go? It is into heat mostly. Therefore, the problem with fast charging is you cannot put so much energy back that you get the battery too hot and melt it down. You can charge a battery at a much higher rate than you discharge it, so you can make the charge cycle take less time than the discharge (this depends on the discharge rate as well, of course). However, you are limited by the heat, so a 1minute charge of your electric car just is not possible. 7. What do mean by "flow of electron"? Flow of electrons is just what it says - electrons flow down a wire that is what current, is. Good conductors like copper and silver and aluminum have free electrons in their outer shells, and they jump from atom to atom down a wire. It is somewhat similar to water flowing down a pipe. It's kind of amazing that you can force this to happen with a battery or a magnet, and that you can transfer energy this way, but that's what it does. 8. What are encoder and the decoder? What are the uses of these two devices? Also, write about how it works with circuit diagram. There are zillions of things in electronics called encoders. You can look up LCDs and NAND gates as well and this is really basics. 9. Do you have any ideas how to make a ping-pong ball launcher that reloads automatic and shoots automatically? Air cannon is probably the simplest, PVC pipe from Home Depot and shoots things very far, can make any size you want, need a tire pump or air compressor to power it. It is also called Potato Cannons for obvious reasons. I shot a potato over 1000 feet with 60 psi and 2" pipe. 10. Is it possible to build an AC or DC variable-speed generator with a variable field current, controlled by a signal from a torque sensor connected to the shaft of the generator (i.e., net torque = 0)? You can control the field with anything, but why would you do it with torque? Why do you say net torque=0? What is the significance of variable speed? I am trying to think of why you would do this. If the torque were low, you could increase the field to generate more energy, which would make the torque go up. That is positive feedback,

but maybe it is constant power into a resistive load (voltage would go up). If you did negative feedback, that would mean the field would reduce as the torque went up, reducing the torque, so you would have a torque regulator. This would probably be good for a wind generator, as you want to control the torque to match the wind speed to get maximum energy out, but this would also vary the output of the generator a lot. Maybe if you were heating water this would work. 11. What is the significance of "4-20 mA" signal in hart protocol? The HART protocol is an old Frequency Shift Keying way of sending data, typically from highway sensors. This is a very old standard by today's standards there are so much better ways to send data. Of course, 4-20 ma loops are even older, dating back over 50 years, and still in common use. Must be something good about it - it is simple. 4-20 ma loops are a way to send an analog value, like temperature or position, over a pair of wires. It is simple on the surface, 4 mA is the minimum, and 20 mA is the maximum of the range. The cool thing about this is that it is constant current, not a voltage, so line resistance does not matter. Anything, constant current looks like an open circuit, so it is supposedly immune to noise (though in reality it still has noise pickup problems). However, why not 0 to 20 mA the cool thing is you can power the remote sensor. You are running a current through the remote you have a voltage at the driving end why not use some of that power to run the electronics in the sensor? Therefore, if the sensor pulls less than 4 ma and you make the range 4-20, you always have enough current to power the remote at the same time. 12. The current through a resistor of 50 in an AC circuit at t = 0.008 s is 65% of the peak value. The smallest possible frequency of the generator delivering the current is If it is then this is easy, you take the arcsine of 65% that gives you what angle you are at in the sine cycle, take the ratio of that to 360, and multiply that by 8mS to get the time of a full cycle, and then take one over that to get frequency. This will be the lowest frequency. Note that the 50 ohms has nothing to do with it, other than implying it is an RF circuit where 50 ohms is common. You say "smallest possible frequency" which also is not very clear I will assume you mean lowest frequency. There is no highest frequency you can meet this requirement with an arbitrarily high frequency. 13. What is the difference between Photodiode and Solar cell? A photodiode is made to detect light quickly a solar cell is made to collect energy from light. They are both typically silicon diodes, but modified to meet their different requirements. A photodiode has to be fast, which means low capacitance, which means small area of silicon. Therefore, it is not very sensitive, and cannot generate much power from light. A solar cell has as large an area as you can afford to buy, getting watts per square inch. There are other differences in the way they are made, and how the PN junction is grown, but they all relate to this difference in purpose. 14. Can you explain electricity at atom level and if possible show some diagrams please

If you look at the classic Bohr model of the atom (from 1913), you have electrons orbiting around a nucleus of protons and neutrons. Normally there are as many electrons (negative charge) as protons (positive charge), so the net charge of the atom is zero. The various shells or orbit radii of the model have different characteristics as to how many electrons they are happy having orbiting in them. The first shell likes 2 max, the 2, and 6, etc. If there is one less electron that what the outermost used shell considers full, it will happily take on another electron, even if this unbalances the charge. If it has just one electron in a shell, it would happily give it up even if it unbalances the charge. Copper, one of the best conductors of electricity, has 29 electrons, which means in its 4th orbit, it has one electron. It is easily taken away by something pulling on it. In fact, if you put a bunch of copper atoms together, there is a cloud of electron sharing with that one electron moving from atom to atom, and others taking its place. Electricity is current flow, and current flow is the movement of electrons. In a copper wire, if you push the electrons with some electro-motive force, they will flow and make a current. A battery has chemicals in it that push electrons with a chemical reaction. A generator pushes electrons with a magnetic field. A solar cell pushes electrons when photons hit a certain material and knock electrons off. If you push electrons through something that does not want to give up its electrons, it will resist and give off heat or light when electron flow is forced upon it. This all gets very complicated in the details, but it explains heaters, LEDs, and incandescent lights, etc. A moving electron flow creates a magnetic field, which explains motors and electromagnets. Energy is therefore passed by moving electrons through a wire, a very convenient effect for the world. 15. How can the electromagnetic can travel in air and not lose any information contained in them? There is a limit to how far you can get television signals. The power is spreading out the farther you are away from the source. At some distance, you reach a point where the noise in the atmosphere becomes greater than the signal, and you can no longer extract all the information from the signal. Digital television has much error correction, many bits are sent just so corrections can be made when there are errors. This helps on the fringe, but even this fails when the signal gets weak enough. However, error correction makes the signal perfect until you hit that exact point where the correction fails. Thus, digital TV has a sharp cutoff point you get a perfect picture, or it goes away completely. Therefore, electromagnetic waves do lose information. Think of someone aiming a flashlight at you. The person walks further and further away from you. At some point, you are just not going to be able to tell. What if there were fogs or lots of pollution in the air? Alternatively, 20 other flashlights and you had to pick out just the one. It is easy and 100% when they are close. 16. How is the transmission of a signal in a computer over x number of clock cycles translated into binary? All computer logic today uses FETs as switches. A FET is a switch with gain, meaning that a small signal change on its input (the Gate) causes a bigger signal in the Drain. Bigger does not mean bigger voltage, it usually means more current at the same voltage, so it can drive many other inputs after it. Two FETs can be connected together to make a logic gate, like an AND function. In addition, gates can be connected together to make flip-flops and counters and adders, etc.

Logic "1" is usually a higher voltage than logic "0", and logic 0 is usually zero volts. In newer processors, the high voltage is less than a volt, since the FETs are so small that 1.5V will blow them up. Therefore, it is not the presence of a signal or the lack of one; it is a high voltage and a low voltage. There is nothing that the computer translates, that voltage is it, throughout the computer. That is what binary means, one of two voltages. There is no clock involved to make something binary all signals in the computer are all binary logic with a voltage. Even a clock is just a logic signal that goes between 1 and 0 at a periodic rate. 17. Can we calculate the resistor if it is installed in circuit board? You can measure a resistor in a circuit but the circuit will most likely affect the value read (usually making it look lower in resistance). A simple example would be if there were two resistors in parallel in the circuit. If you measure one, you will get the resistance of the two in parallel, and maybe other effects of the rest of the circuit. Most resistors have markings on them, and they rarely fail unless they are cooked by too much power. That is the easy way. If they are not marked, you want to know the value, and it is in a circuit, then it is hard to figure out the value. It might be easier to unsolder one end of it and then measure it. Digital electronics 1. Flip flop and their working. What is metastable state in flip-flops? 2. Construct a d flip-flop from a t flip-flop.Differentiate b/w flip-flop and latches 3. What is totem pole? 4. Draw the state graphs for a given problem like sequence generator, flip flop etc 5. Implement Boolean expressions using MUX (2 to 4,3 to 8,etc) 6. Design a decade counter 7. Explain internal organization of memory chips 8. What is a bit? What is CMOS? Draw the circuit of an adder using NAND gate 9. What is a Karnaugh map? 10. What are the four methods to reduce a Boolean? 11. What is the difference b/w half adder and full adder? 12. What are the advantages of CMOS and TTL?What technology is used in CMOS logic?What are VLSI and ULSI? What is the number of components in both? 13. Explain synchronous and asynchronous counter 14. Minimize the function using Quine McClusky:f=xy+xy+yz+xyz 15. What is prime implicant? Which is the universal flip-flop? 16. What is SRAM and DRAM? Compare the two, relative cost of the two. 17. What will happen in the case of a power failure for the above? 18. What is tristate or high impedance state? 19. What are the difference between open collector output and totem pole out put? 20. Find the highest clocking frequency of a digital circuit give the rise time ,fall time and propagation delay? Electronic Devices & circuits 1. Obtain a square wave from sine wave from Zener diodes. 2. What is the difference between oscillator and multivibrator?

3. What is emitter follower? What is an opamp? 4. What is the ideal gain of an opamp? 5. How is amplification possible in a transistor? 6. Classify power amplifiers 7. How does a diode look(internally)? Explain the working using internal diagram 8. Explain processes taking place in the depletion junction of a forward biased diode 9. What is a buffer? What is the gain of a buffer? 10. What is an oscillator? 11. How do you forward bias a transistor? 12. What are the practical applications of a transistor? 13. What is reverse recovery time and how does it affect a diode? 14. Draw and explain the working of a monostable vibrator using op amp 15. State Thevenins theorem and Nortons theorem. What are their applications? 16. What is the virtual ground in an op amp? 17. Differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor Power Electronics 1. 2. 3. 4. What is a thyristor and differentiate between thyristor and a diode Switching action of an SCR and triggering. Draw the diagram of thyristor Draw an internal block diagram of a normal voltage stabilizer What is a reference variable?

Control Systems 1. Define control systems. Why are they so important? 2. What are the different types of control systems? 3. Explain open loop with block diagram examples 4. What are the advantages and drawbacks of closed loop? 5. How can you design a stable system? Explain different stability criteria 6. Explain Ruth-Hurwitz rule in one sentence. What are poles and their significance? 7. Is there any control system in this room(interview hall)? 8. Draw the block diagram of a control system and write its transfer function 9. What is ROC? Explain transformation between s and z planes 10. Differentiate between open and closed loop control systems 11. What is meant by adaptive control system? 12. Find the transfer function of a given RLC circuit Communication 1. What is packet switching and circuit switching? What is the protocol used in telephone network? 2. What is modulation? Why is needed? What are the various types?Compare AM,FM, PM.Which waves will travel a longer distance- FM or AM and why? 3. What is the mode of transmission of television signals? 4. Compare the bandwidth requirements of AM and FM 5. What do you know about antennae?

6. Why is linking up frequency greater than the down linking frequency? Modern trends and general questions What is a modem? Draw its internal diagram What is VoIP? What is the most important advantage of Bluetooth? What is wave studio? What is Bit rate? What is the difference between mp3 and WAV formats? What is sampling? What is a database? What is VHDL? What is a complier? What is FSF? Cite any current relevance Volume control in TV is logarithmic. Why? What is the mathematics used in DSP and from which domain to which domain is it converted? 10. Differentiate between macros and functions in C .Explain the booting process of a computer.What is round robin technique of interrupt arbitration 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.