Electrical Machines, Drives, and Power Systems Fifth Edition a Theodore WildiELECTRICAL MACHINES, DRIVES, AND POWER SYSTEMS FIFTH EDITION THEODORE WILD! PROFESSOR EMERITUS, LAVAL UNIVERSITY Prentice eMLibrary of Congress Ca¢aloging-in-Publication Data, Wilt, Theodore, ectrical_ machines, drives, and power systems / ‘Theowlove Willi Sih ed pcm, Incluvies bibliographical refereneessind index. ISBN 0-15-0991085.0 (alk. paper) 1 3, Elevtvie driving. 1. ile Electric stachinery. 2. trie power systems. “Tense. w582002 6210 Oded 2002051388 Editor in Chief: Stephen Helba Assistant Vice President and Publisher: Charles B, Stewart, Jn Production Editor: Alexandrina Benedicto Wolf Design Coordinator: Diane Ernsberger Cover Designer: Thomas Boral Cover Art: Corbis Stock Market Production Manager: Matthew Ottenweller This book was set in Times Roman and Helvetica by Carlisle Communications, Ld. It was printed and bound by RR. Donnelley & Sons Company: The cover Was printed by Phoenix Color Comp. 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Printed in the his publication is protected by Copyright and permuission should be obtained from the publisher of America ied States. prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. For information regarding permission(s), write to: Rights and Perm Pat ouaesy Hall ssions Department 9876543 ISBN 0-13-09083-0~ PREFACE This fifth edition was prompted in part by the great in- crease of computers in industrial controls and au- tomation, which has produced computer programs that can simulate relays and relay contacts. These onfof? discrete controls have eliminated the wiring and installation of hardware components in favor of virtual relays and contacts that can be programmed on ‘keyboard, The devices that perform these operations ane called Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCS). ‘oF simply programmable controllers. These devices were initially stand-alone computers that controlled a specific robot or manufacturing operation. However with the advent of the Internet, they have now been integrated with the overall manufacturing process, leading seamlessly t0 integration with management, sales, procurement, and consumer satisfaction, ‘The relay control of machines covered in Chapter 20s now supplemented by coverage of PLC controls tn Chapter $1. Chapter 31 covers the baste principles of PLCSand shows, by way of example, how they are used in running the activities of a large service enter- prise. This new chapter illustrates how these trend- ing computer-based activities involving controls integrated with other busi- and automation are bei ness activities, including As [ mentioned in the last edition, similar heavals have occurred in power technology. Ibis sim ply amazing to witness the entrance of power ele: tronics into every facet of industrial drives, Thus. it is no longer pertinent to discuss de and ac machines in isolation because wherever they are being in- stalled, an electronic control forms part of the pack- age. Consequently, the term drive now involyes not the motor alone but the entire unit that directs the torque and speed of the machine. This is having a direct influence on the way electrical machinery courses are being taught How has this dramatic change come about? It is mainly due to the high-power solid state switching devices, such as insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTS), which can operate at frequencies of up to 20 kHz. The change has also been driven by thyris- tors and gate turn-off thyristors (GTOs) that can handle currents of several thousand amperes at volt ages of up to 5 KV, Another key element is the com- Puting power of microprocessors that «: signal data in real time with incredible speed. The high switching frequencies of IGBTs permit the use of pulse-width-modulation techniques in power converters, This, in turn, enables torque and speed control of induction motors down to zero process speed. This was not feasible in rectangular-wave converters that were employed only a few years ago, Mov industrial drives are in the fractional horse- power to the 500 hp range. That is precisely the range lable for control by IGBTS. The result has been un explosion in the retrofitting of existing drives. Lower maintenance costs. higher efficiency. andiv PREFACE ater productivity have meade such chaatgeovers economically attractive, Thus. de drives are being re placed by induction motor drives. which requi equtal and often superior mnintenance while offerin dynamic performance. Every sector of industrial and commercial is therefore being affected by this revolutionary con- verter technology. Electric elevators, electric lacomo- tives, electric transit vehicles, servomechanisms, heat- ing. ventilating and air conditioning systems, fans. compressors. and innumerable industrial production linesare being modified to uiliz this new technology. ‘The change is also affecting the transmission anki istribution of electric power—an industry that has been relatively stable for over 50 years, Here, we are seeing large rotating machines, such as synchronous condensers and frequency changers. being replaced by solid-state converters that have no moving parts at all. Important development work. carried out by the Electric Power Research Jnsticute (EPRI) in Palo Alto, California. in collaboration with several elee- trical manufacturers, has also resulted in the ere- ation of high-power static switches, thyristor-con- trolled series capacitors. and converters that can fill the role of phase-shilt transformers, These new methods of power flow control. known by the acionym FACTS (Flesible AC Transmission Systems) will permit existing transmission and distri- bution lines to cary more power to meet the eversin- demand for electricity, On account of their ly fast response, the converters ean also sta bilize a network that may suddenly be menaced by an unexpected distarbancs Tis remarkable that these innovations all rest on a common base. In other words. the converter tech- nology used in electric motor drives is similar to that employed to control the flow of power in elec ic utilities. As a result, everything fais neatly and ty into place, The teaching and learning of machines, drives, and power systems are thereby made much e: The following changes have been made in the fourth and fitth editions: creasi + Every page of the original work was examined for clarity of expression and reviewed as to its pedagogical quality. Asa result, more than 20 percent of the pages were altered The end-of-chapier problems and their solutions revised and double-checked, Chapter 7 on Active, Reactive, and Apparent Pacer was completely revised to make this, portant topic easier to understand, + Most importantly. [ have added a new chapter con harmonics. Chapter 30 reveals how harmon- ies are generated and how they affect the hetay- ior of capacitors, inducters, cables, transformers, and the quality of eleetrie power. Talso devised a simple method that enables students (0 calculate the harmonic content in a distorted wave. Once they know how to unravel wave into ity harmonic components, their interest in harmonies quickly sises. All the important changes first introduced in previous editions have been kept in this fifth edi- tion. Thus. the writing of circuit equations. the discussion of higher frequency transformers, the equivalent circuit diagram of the single-phase nduction motor have all been retained. + Anew section covering the writing of circuit equations was added to Chapter 2. Most students, know how to solve such equations. but many ex- perience difficulty in formulating them. I dis- close an acide circuit-solving methodology that is particularly easy to follow, Readers will be lad to refer to this section as a convenient re- minder of the circuit-solving procedure. Chapter [1 on Special Transformers was ex- panded to include higher frequency transform= ery. The reader is guided through the reasoning behind the design of such transformers. and why they become smaller as the frequency increases. sh-frequency transformers are dir to the higher frequencies encountered in switeh- converters, ~ Chapter 16 07 Stncfronous Generators has been expanded to show why an increase in size in- evitably leads to higher efficiencies and greater outputs per kilogram. This fundamental aspect of machine design will interest many readers. ly related+ Anew section was added to Chapter 18 to de: am of a sing! velop the equivalent circuit phase induction motor, It presents a rigorous, yet Slinple approach, hased on the 3-phase induction motor. Hand-held computers can he programmed to solve the circuit. which permits a better unde standing of this uhiquitous single-phase machine. + Chapter 21, Fundamental Elements of Power Electronics, was revived and expanded to in clude switching converters and pulse width modulation (PWM) techniques. It illustrates the extracrdinary versatility of IGBT converters and ade to generate almost any how they ean be waveshape and frequency + Chapter 23. Elecironie Control of Alternating “Curren Motors, was greatly expanded to cover the properties of induction motors operating variable speeds. A special section explains the hasics of PWM drives and flux vector control + Chapter 29, Transmission anu Distribution, epee sents a major addition to Part LV dealing with Electric Utility Power Systems. It explains the that are being developed to control the flow of electric power eleetronically, Italo uliscusses the quality of electrie power as regards sigs. swells, harmonies, and brownouts. As d Uukution of electric power becomes a reality. these electronic methods of controlling the quality of lectrivity will become increasingly important. The subject matter covered in this book requires oily « background in basic circuit theory. algebra, and some trigonometry. Owing (0 its user-friendly treatment of even complex topics, this book will meet the needs of a broad range of readers. First, it is appropriate for students following a «wo-year electrical program in community colleges. technical institutes, and uni- versities. Owing to its very broad coverage. the text can also be incorporated in a 4-year technology program, Many universities have adopted the book for their electric power service courses, Instructors responsible for industrial uaining will find a wealth of practical information that ean be di- rectly applied to that greatest kiboratory of all—the cleetrival industry itsel: PREFACE Finally, at a time when much effort is being de- voted 10 continuing education, this hook. with its many worked-out probl for self-study. ns. is particularly suitable The exercises at the end of each chapter are di vided into three levels of learning—practical, inter mediate, and advanced, Furthermore, t encour: the reader to solve the problems. answers are given at the end of the book. A Solutions Manual is also avail- He for instructors. The Industrial Application prob- lems that appear at the end of most chapters will also appeal to hands-on users, The reader is invited to con= sult the list of books, technical articles. and Websites in the Reference section toward the end of the book, A quick glance through the book shows the impor- lance given (© photographs. All equipment and sys- tems are illustrated by diagramsand pictures, showing them in various stages of construction or in actual use Some students may not have had the opportunity. to visit an industrial plant or to see at close hand the equipment used in the transmission and distribution of electrical ener 1¥. The photographs helpy convey the magnificent size of these devices and machines, Throw; made to establish coherence, so that the reader ean see yout the 31 chapters, a conscious effort was, how the various concepts it together. For example, the terminology and power equations for synchronous machines are similar 10 those founel in transmission Jines. Transmission lines. in turn, bring up the question of reactive power. And rexetive power isan important aspect in electronic converters, Therefore, knowledge ained in-one sector is strengthened and broadened \when it is applied in another. As a result the learning ‘of electrical machines. drives. and gower systems be- Comes challenging. thought-provélifg experience In order to convey the real-wéfld aspects af mit chinery and power systems. parteula- attention has been paid to the inertia of revdlyfng masses. the physical limitations of materials. aml shé:problems created by heat. This appreaa injbing-wigh Oe multidiseiplinary programs‘O any gglleges and technical institutes. ate In summary. [employ a tHBkBAdST PRE A AL multidisciplinary approach to give a broad und standing of modern electric power. Clearly. itis no longer the staid subject it was considered to beVi PREFACE some years :igo. There is good reason to believe that this dynamic, expanding field will open career op- portunities for everyone I would like to make a final remark conceming the Use of this book, As mentioned previously. power technology hay made a quantum jump in the past eight years. mainly on account of the availability of fast-acting semiconductors, In the field of electrical machines, drives, and power systems, there will now be a long period of consolidation during which exise ing machines and devices will he repfaced by newer models, But che basic technology covered herein will not change significantly in the foreseeable future. this book can Consequently. the reader will find th also be used as a valuable long-term re! Acknowledgments In preparing this edition and previous editions of my book, | would like to acknowledge the impor- {ant contribution of the following persons Professors and reviewers: Robert TH. Aiden MeMaster University: Ramon E. Ariza, Delgado Conuiunity College: Fred E, Bberlin, Educational Consultant; David Krispinsky, Rochester Institute of ‘Technology: Athula Kulatunga, Southeast Missouri State University: Rick Miller, Ferris State University: M. H. Nebir, Montana State University: Martin M Peros, Seneca College: James E, Roach, Bob Jones University: Chandra Sekhar, Purdue University; Gerald Sevigny, Southern Maine Technical College; Philippe Viarouge. Laval University: Stacy Wilson, Westem Kentucky University; Thomas Young, Rochester Institute of Technology; Dr. P. Enjeti, Texas A& M University: Ted James, Pasadena City College: and Sri R. Kolla, Bowling Green State University Commercial, industrial and institutional contrib ors: André Dupont. Raj Kapila, G. Linhofer, Katherine Sahapoglu of ABB: Roger Bullock, Gerry Goyette, Jim MeCosmick, James Nanney, Darryl J Yaz Son, and Roddy Yates of Baldor Blectric Company: Jacques Bédard, Guy Goupil. and Michel Lessard of Lab-Volt Lid Richard B. Dubé of General Electric Company: Abdel-Aty Edie and Ashock Sundaram of Electric Power Research Institute: Nei H. Woodley of Westinghouse Electric Corporation: Maurice Larabie, Jean-Louis Marin, and Besnard Oegema of Schneider Canada; Carl Tobie of Edison Blectric Institute: Damiano Esposito and Vance E, Gulliksen of Carnival Cruise Lines; Scott Lindsay of Daiya Control Systems: Louis Bélisle, and Jean Lamontagne of Lumen: Benoit Arsenault and Les Halmos of Allen Bradley. T extend a special note of thanks to Professor ‘Thomay Young of the Rochester fnstitute of Technology, to Dr. Robert T. H. Alden of McMaster University. to Professor Martin Peros of Seneca College, and to Jean Anderson of Lab-Volt Ltd. for having extensively reviewed and commented in depth oon various aspects of this book and for having offered their valued viewpoints, also want to acknowledge the contribution of Professor Stéphane Montreuil of the CEGEP Lévis-Lauzon for having gone over all the cend-of-chapter problems and the solutions manual T want to express my appreciation to Jean-Serge Lamirande of Omron, Pierre Juteau of Schneider Electric, and Giles Campagna of St. Lawrence ‘Stevedoring for their help in providing industrial © perience and know-how in the application of pro- ‘gtammable controllers, and to photographer Hughes Chicoine for his work, The important contribution of Reng Poulin of the Centre de Robotique Industrielle Inc. in reviewing and describing the essential features of PLCs is also hereby acknowledged, 1 also want to express my appreciation to Charles E, Stewart, Je, Publisher; to Delia Uheree, Associate Editor: and to Alexandrina B. Wolf, Senior Production Editor, of Prentice Hall, for planning, coordinating, his text As in previous editions, my son Karl continued (o provide his valuable help in preparing the line art, photographs. and word processing of this latest edition My thanks also go fo my wife, Rachel, for hav- ng supported me in my continuing vocation as au- and adainisteat thor, consultant, and teacher, Talso wish to voice my gratitude to the instruc- tors and students, practici cians who asked questions and made suggestions by e-mailing their messages to wildi@ wildi-theo.com. ‘You are cordially invited to do the same engineers, and techni- Theodore WildiCONTENTS PART I. FUNDAMENTALS 1. UNITS 3 LO. Introduction 3 LI Systems of units 3 1.2 Getting used to SI 4 1.3 Base and derived units of the SI 4 14 Definitions of base units. 5 15 Definitions of derived units 5 16 Multiples and submuttiples of SL units 7 1.7 Commonly used anits 7 1.8 Conversion charts and their use 8 1.9 The per-unit system of measurement 9 1.10. Per-unit system with one base. 10 LIL Per-unit system with two bases 11 Questions and Problems. 12 2. FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM, AND CIRCUITS 15 2.0 Introduction 15 2.1 Conventional and electron current flow 15 213 215 16 0 18 19 Distinction between sources and Toads 16 Sign notation 17 Double-subseript notation for voltages {7 Sign notation for voltages. 17 Graph of an alternating voltage 18 Positive and negative currents. 19 Sinusoidal voltage 19 Converting cosine functions into sine functions 20 Effective value of an ac voltage 20 Phasor representation 21 Harmonies 23 Ene Energy ina capacitor 25 Some useful equations 26 xy in an inductor 25 ELECTROMAGNETISM density B 27 FACULTAD DEH! B-H curve of vacuum 27 ayn B-H curve of a yetic material’ 27 Determining the relative BABLIO A ECA permeability 28viii, CONTENTS 2.36 2.37 2.38 Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction 29 Voltage induced in a eonductor 30 Lorentz force on a conduetor 31 Direction of the force aeting on a straight conductor 31 Residual flux density and coercive force 32 Hysteresis loop 33 Hysteresis loss. 33, Hysteresis fosses caused by roration 33 Eddy currents 34 Eddy currents in a stationary iron core 35 daly-current losses in a revolving core 35 Current ia an inductor 36 CIRCUITS AND EQUATIONS. Kirchhoft’s voltage law 40 Kirchhoff’ voltage law and double- subscript notation 40 Kirchhof’s current law 41 Currenis, impedances, and associated voltages 41 Kirchhott"s laws and ac circuits 43 KVL and sign notation 43 Solving ae and de circuits with sign notation 44 Circuits and hybrid notation 45 Questions und Problems 46 3. FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICS AND HEAT 50 3.0 Introduction 50 3.1 Force 50 3.2 Torque 51 3.3. Mechanica) work 51 34 Power 52 3.5 Power ofa motor 52 3.6 Transformation of energy 53 3.7. Efficiency of a machine 53, 3.8 Kinetic energy of linear motion 54 35 3.16 37 38 3.19 3.20 321 PART Il. Kinetic energy of rotation, moment of inertia 54 ‘Torque, inertia, and change in speed 57 Speed of a motor/load system 57 Power flow in a mechanically coupled system 58 Motor driving a load having inertia 58 Electric motors driving linear motion loads 39 Heat and temperature 60 Temperature scales 61 Heat required to raise the temperature of a body 61 Transmission of heat 62 Heat transfer by conduction 62 Heat transfer by convection 63 Calculating the losses by convection 63 Heat transfer by radiation 64 Calculating radiation losses G4 Questions and Problems 65 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS 4. DIRECT-CURRENT GENERATORS 71 40 4.1 42 43 44 5 46 47 48 49 4.10 4a 4.12 Inoduction 71 Generating an ae voltage 7) Direct-current generator 72 Difference between ae and de generators 73 Improving the waveshape 73 Induced voltage 75 Neutral zones. 76 Value of the induced voltage 76 Generator under load: the energy conversion process. 77 Armature reaction 77 Shifting the brushes to improve commutation 78 Commutating poles 79 Separately excited generator 794.13 No-load operation and saturation curve 79 4.14 Shunt generator 80 4.15 Controlling the voltage of a shunt generator 81 4.16 Equivalent circuit $2 4.17 Separately excited generator under load 82 4.18 Shunt generator under load 83 4.19 Compound generator 83 4.20 Differential compound generator 84 4.21 Load characteristics: 84 6. 4.22 Generator specifications 84 CONSTRUCTION OF DIRECT. CURRENT GENERATORS 423° Field 84 424° Armature 85 Commutator and brushes. 86 Details of a multipole generator $8 The ideal commutation process 91 4.28 The practical commutation process. 92 Questions and Problems 93 DIRECT-CURRENT MOTORS 96 5.0 Introduction 96 5.1 Counter-electromotive force (comf) 96 Acceleration of the motor 97 Mechanical power and torque 98 Speed of rotation 100 Armature speed control 101 Field speed control 102 7 Shunt motor under load 103 Series motor 104 Series motor speed control. 105 Applications of the series motor 106 5.11 Compound motor 106 5.12. Reversing the direction of rotation 107 5.13 Starting a shunt motor 108 5.14 Face-plate starter 108 5.15 Stopping a motor 109 5.16 Dynamic braking 109 5.17 Plugging 110 CONTENTS — ix 5.18 Dynamie braking and mechanical time constant IIL 5.19 Armature reaction 113 5.20. Flux distortion due to armature ion 113 5.21 Commutating poles 113 5.22 Compensating winding 114 5.23 Basics of variable speed control 114 5.24 Permanent magnet motors. 117 Questions and Problems. 118 EFFICIENCY AND HEATING OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES 120 6.0 Introduction 120 6.1 Mechanical losses 120 6.2 Electrical losses 120 6.3 Losses asa function of load 123 64 Efficiency curve 123 65 Temperature rise 1 6.6 Life expectancy of electric equipment 126 6.7 Thermal classification of insulators 126 6.8 Maximum ambient temperature and hot-spot temperature rise. 127 6.9 Temperature rise by the resistance method 129 6.10 Relationship between the speed and size of a machine 130 Questions and Problems 131 ACTIVE, REACTIVE, AND APPARENT POWER 134 7.0 Introduction 134 7.1 Instantaneous power 134 72 Active power 136 73 Reactive power 137 74 Definition of reactive load and reactive source 138 7.5 The capacitor and reactive power 139 7.6 Distinction between active and reactive power 140conte! 77 Combined active and reactive loads apparent power 141 Relatioastip between PQ. and S LL Power factor 143, Power triangle 144 Further aspects of sources and loads 144 Systems comprising several loads 146 Reactive power without magnetic fields 148 Solving AC circuits using the power triangle method 148 Power and vector notation 151 Rules on sources and loads (sign notation) 154 Rules on sources atid toads (double subscript notation) 154 Questions and Problems. 155 THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS 158 80 8 82 83 84 8S 86 8.7 88 89 810 gl 8.12 8.13 8.14 BIS 8.16 B17 818 Introduction 158 Polyphase systems 158 Single-phase generator 159 Power output of a single-phase generator 166 Two-phase generator 160 Power output of a 2-phase generator 161 Three-phase Power output of a 3-phase generator 162 Wye connection 164 Voltage relationships 165 Delta connection 167 Power transmitted by a 3-phase line 168 Active, reactive and apparent power in 3-phase circnits 169 Solving 3-phase circuits. 170 Industrial loads 171 Phase sequence 174 Determining the pl Power measurement in a¢ cir sequence 175 wits 176 we, Power measurement in 3-p S.wire circuits 176 9. 10. 8.19. Power measurement ir 3-phase, 4-wire circuits. 177 8.20. Varmeter 177 8.21 Aremarkable single-phase to 3-phase transformation. 178 Questions and Problems. 180 THE IDEAL TRANSFORMER 183 9.0 Introduction 183 9.1 Vollage iactuced in a coil 183 9.2 Applied voltage and induced voltage 184 9.3. Elementary transformer 185 9.4 Polarity of a transformer 186 9.5 Properties of polarity marks. 186 9.6 Ideal transformer at no-load; voltage ratio. 187 9.7 Ideal transformer under load: current ratio 188 9.8 Circuit symbol for an ideal transformer 191 9.9 Impedance ratio 191 9.10 Shifting impedances from secondary to primary and vice versa 192 Questions and Problems. 195 PRACTICAL TRANSFORMERS 197 10.9 introduction 197 10.1. Ideal transformer with an imperfect core 197 10.2. Ideal transformer with loose coupling 199 10.3 Primary and secondary leakage reactance 200 10.4 Equivalent circuit of a practical transformer 202 10.5 Construction of a power transformer 203 10.6 Standard terminal markings 204 10.7 Polarity tests, 204 10.8 Transformer taps 20S 10.9 Losses and transformer rating 206 10.10 No-load saturation curve 206 10.11 Cooling methods 207 10.12. Simplifying the equivatent circuit 20910.13 10.14 10.15 10.16 10.17 10.18. Voltage regulation 211 Measuring transformer impedances 212 Introducing the per unit method 215, Impedance of a transformer 216 Typical per-unit impedances 216 ‘Transformers in parallel 219 Questions and Problems 221 11. SPECIAL TRANSFORMERS 225 11.0 int n2 n3 4 ns 116 nz 118 19 11.10 na Introduction 225 Dual-voltage distribution transformer 225 Autotranstormer 226 Conventional transformer connected as an autotransformer 228 Voltage ttansformers. 230 Carrent transformers 231 Opening the secondary of a CT can be dangerous 233 Toroidal current transformers 234 Variable autotransformer 235 High-impedance transformers. 236 Induction heating transformers 237 High-frequency transformers 238 Questions and Problems 241 12. THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS 243 20 1 12.2 12.3 124 Introduction 243 Isic properties of 3-phase transformer banks 243 Delta-delta connection 244 Delta-wye connection 246 Wye-delta connection 247 Wye-wye connection 248 Open-delta connection 248 Three-phase transformers 249 Step-up and step-down autotransformer 2. transformation 254 Phave-shift transformer 256 Calculations involving 3-phase trans- formers 258 12.13 Polarity marking of 3-phase transformers 260 Questions and Problems. 260 |. THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 263 13.0 Introduction 263 13.1 Principal components 263 13.2. Principle of operation 264 13.3 The rotating field 265 134 Direction of rotation 270 13.5. Number of pole speed 271 13.6 Starting characteristies of a squirrel- cage motor 273, 13.7 Acceleration of the rotor-slip 274 13.8 Motor under load 274 13.9. Slip and slip speed 274 13.10 Voltage and frequency induced in the rotor 275 13.11 Characteristics of squirrel-eage induction motors 276 13.12 Estimating the currents in an induction motor 277 13.13. Active power flow 278 13.14 Torque versus speed curve 281 13.15 Effect of rotor resistance 282 13.16 Wound-rotor motor 284 13.17 Three-phase windings 285 13.18 Sector motor 288 13.19 Linear induction motor 289 13.20 Traveling waves 29) 13.21 Properties of a linear induction motor 291 13.22, Magnetic levitation 293 Questions and Problems. synchronous, |. SELECTION AND APPLICATION OF ‘THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 299 14.0 Introduction 299 14.1. Standardization and classification of induction motors. 299 420 cI rent and cooling methods 299 sification according to environ.15. CONTENTS 14.3. Classification according to electrical and mechanical propeitiey 301 Choice of motor speed 303 Two-speed motors. 303 Induction motor charaeveristies under various load conditions 305 Starting an induction motor 308 Plugging an induction motor 308 Braking with direct current 309 Abnormal conditions 310 Mechanical overload 310 Line voltage changes 310 Single-phasing 310 Frequency variation 311 Induction motor operating ay a enerator 311 Complete torque-speed characteristic of an induction machine 314 tures of a wound-rotor induction motor 315 Start-up of high-inertia loudy 315 Variable-speed drives 315 Frequency converter 315 Questions and Problems 318 Ma Ws M6 147 4s Wo 10 at 1412 3 Ml Las 1416 1417 148 1419 14.20 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF THE INDUCTION MOTOR 322 15.0. Inttoduetion 3 15.1 The wound-rotor induction motor 322 15.2 Power relationships 325 15.3. Phasor diagram of the iruetion motor 326 154 Breakdown torque and speed 327 15.5. Equivalent circuit of two practical motors 327 15.6 Calculation of the breakdown, torque 328 15.7. Torque-speed curve and other characteristies 329 15.8. Properties of an ayynchronous generator 330 15.9 Tests to determine the equivalent circuit 331 Questions and Problems 333 16. 17. SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS 335 16.0 Introduction 335 16.{ Commercial synchronous nerators. 335, 16.2. Number of poles. 335 16.3. Main features of the stator 336 16.4 Main features of the rotor 340 16.5. Field excitation and exciters 342 16.6 Brushless excitation 343 16.7 Factors affecting the size of synchronous generators, M4 168 No-load saturation curve 345 16.9 Synchronous reactance-equivalent circuit of am ac generator $46 16.30 Determining the value of X 348. 16.11 Base impedance. per-unit X_ 349 16.12 Short-cireuit ratio’ 350 16.13 Synchronous generator under load 350 16.14 Regulation curves 352 16.15. Synchronization of a generator 353 16.16 Synchronous generator on an infinite bus 355 16.17. Infinite buseffeet of varying the 16.18 mechanical torque 355 Physical interpretation of alternator behavior 357 Active power delivered by the 16.19 generator 358 Control of active power 359 Transient reactance 359 Power transfer between two sources. 361 Efficiency. power, and size of electrical machines 362 Questions and Problens. 364 SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS 369 17.0 Introduction 369 17.1 Construction 370 17.2. Starting @ synchronous motor 372 17.3. Pullin torque 372(Ta 176 17 78 9 11.10 mu 1.12 17.3 114 15s Motor under loud~general description 372 Motor under load-simple calculations 373 Power and torque 376 Mechanical and electrical angles. 377 Reluctance torque 378 Losses and efficiency of a synchronous motor 379 Excitation and reactive power 380 Power factor rating 38] Vecurves. 382 Stopping synctmmous motors 383 The synchronous motor versus the induction motor 385 Synchronous capacitor 385 Questions and Problems 388 18. SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS 391 180 18 Introduetion 391 Construction of a single-phase induction motor 391 Synchronous speed 393 Torque-speed characteristic 394 Principle of operation 394 Locked-rotor torque 396 Resistance split-phase motor 396 Capacitor-start motor 398 Efficiency and power factor of sing phase induction motors. 399 Vibration of single-phase motors 401 Capacitor-run motor 402, Reversing the direction of rotation 403 Shaded-pole motor 403 Universal motor 404 Hysteresis motor 405 Synchronous rele Synchro drive 408 -e motor 407 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A SINGLE-PHASE MOTOR 18.17 ISIS Magnetomotive force distribution 409 Revolving mmf in a single-phase motor 110 19. CONTENTS siti 18,19 Deducing the circuit diagram of a phase motor 411 Questions and Problems 414 STEPPER MOTORS 417 19.0 Introduction 417 19.1 Elementary stepper motor 417 19.2 Effect of inertia 418, 19.3 Bffect of a mechanical load 419 19.4 Torque versus current 420 19.5. Start-stop stepping rate 420 19.6 Slew speed 421 19.7 Ramping 422 19.8 Typesof stepper motors 4: 19.9 Motor windings and associated drives 424 19.10 High-speed operation 427 19.11 Modifying the time constant 428 19,12 Bilevel drive 428 19,13 Inseabitity and resonance 434 19.14 Stepper motors and linear drives 434 Questions and Problems 434 PART UJ]. ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC 20. DRIVES BASICS OF INDUSTRIAL MOTOR CONTROL 439 20.0 Introduetion 439 20.1 Control devices 439 20.2 Normally-open and normally cloved contacts 443 203. Relay coil exciting current 443 204 Control diagrams 445 20.5. Starting methods 446 20.6 Manual across-the-line starters. 447 20.7 Magnetic across-the-line starters 448, 20.8 Inching and jogging 450 20.9. Reversing the direction of rotation 451 20.10 Plugging 453 20.11 Reduced-voltage start 454 20.12. Primary resistance starting 454at. CONTENTS 20,13, Autotransformer starting 458 20.14 Other starting methods 460 20.15 Cam switches 461 20.16 Computers and controls 462 ELECTRIC RIVES, 20.17 Fundamentals of electric drives 462 20.18 Typical torque-speed curves 463 20.19 Shape of the torque-speed curve 464 20.20. Current-speed curves. 466 20.21 Regenerative braking 467 Questions and Problems 468 FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF POWER ELECTRONICS 472 21.0 Introduction 472 21.1 Potential level 472 21.2 Voltage across some circuit elements 474 ‘THE DIODE AND DIODE CIRCUITS 21.3. The diode 475 214 Maine 21.5 Battery charger with series resistor 476 21.6 Battery charger with series inductor 478 21.7 Single-phase bridge rectifier 480 21.8 Filters 481 21.9 Three-phase, 3-pulse diode rectifier 483 21.10. Three-phase, 6-pulse rectifier 485 21.11 Effective Fine current, fundamental line current 489 Distortion power factor 490 Displacement power factor, total power factor 490 21.14 Harmonie content, THD 491 acteristics of a diode 476 THE THYRISTOR {AND THYRISTOR CIRCUITS, The thyristor 492 Principles of gate firing 492 21.17 21.18 21.19 21.20 21.23 21.24 21.25 21.26 21.27 21.28 21.29 21.30 2131 21.32 21.33 20.34 21.35 Power gain of a thyristor 494 Current interruption and forced commutation 495 Basic thyristor power circuits 496 Controlled rectifier supplying a passive load (Circuit 1. Table 21D) 496 Controlled rectifier supplying an ac tive load (Cireuit 2, Table 21D) 497 Line-commutated inverter (Circuit 3 Table 21D) 498 AC static switch (Circuit 4, Table 21D) 500 Cycloconverter (Circuit 5, Table 21D) 501 Three-phase, 6-pulse controllable converter (Circuit 6, Table 21D) 5 Basic principle of operation S03 Three-phase, 6-pulse rectifier feeding an active load 504 Delayed triggering-rectifier mode 505 Delayed t Triggering range 508 Equivalent circuit of a converter 509 vering-inverter mode 507 Currents in a 3 converter 511 Power factor S11 Commutation overlap 514 Extinction angle 514 phase, 6-pulse C-TO-DC SWITCHING CONVERTERS 21.36 21.37 21.38 21.39 21.40 2141 2142 21.43 5 Semiconductor switches DC-to-DC switching converter $17 Rapid switching 519 Impedance transformation 522 Basie 2-quadrant de-to-de converter 522 Two-quadrant electronic converter 525 Four-quadrant de-to-de converter 526 Switching losses 52822. DC-TO.AG SWITCHING CONVERTERS 2144 Derto-ac rectangular Wave converter 529 2145. De-to-ac converter with pulse-width ‘modulation 530 21.46 De-to-ae sine wave converter 532 21.47 Generating a sine wave $33 21.48. Creating the PWM pulse train 534 21.49 De-to-ac 3-phase converter 535 21.50 Conclusion 537 Questions and Problems $37 ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF DIRECT- CURRENT MOTORS 541 22.0 introduction 541 1 First quadrant speed control 41 2 Two-quadrant control-field reversal 544 22.3. Two.quadrant contro!-armature reversal 545 22.4 Two-quadrant control-two converters 545 22.5. Fout-quadrant control-two converters with circulating current 546 22.6 Two-quadrant control with positive torque 549 Four-quadrant drive 549 22.8 _ Six-pulve converter with freewheeling diode 551 Halt-bridge converter 556 DC traction 558 Motor drive using a de-to-de switching converter 560 Introduction to brushless de motors 565 22.13 Commutator replaced by reversing switches. 566 22.14 Synchronous motor as a brushless de 568 22.J5. Standard synchronous motor and brushless de machine 569 22.16 Practical application of a brushless de motor 569) Questions and Probleais. 571 23. CONTENTS xv ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF ALTERNATING CURRENT MOTORS 575 23.0. Introduetion 575 23.) Types of ac drives. 575 23.2. Synchronous motor drive using -source de link $77 23.3. Synchronous motor and ‘cloconverter 580 23.4 Cycloconverter voltage and frequency control 580 23.5. Squirrel-cage induction motor with cycloconverter 582 23.6 Squirrel-cage motor and static voltage controller 589 23.7 Sofi-starting cage motors 590 ‘SELP.COMMUTATED INVERTERS. 23.8 Self-commutated inverters for € motors 592 23.9 Current-source self-commutated Frequeney converter ( wave) $93 23.10. Voltage-source self-commutated frequency converter (rectangular wave) 504 23.11 Chopper speed control of a wound- rotor induction motor 597 23.12. Recovering power in a wound-rotor induction motor 599 cclangular PULSE-WIDTH MODULATION DRIVES 23.13 Review of pulse-width modulation 602 23.14 Pulse-width modulation and ing motors. 604 TTORGUE AND SPEED CONTROL OFINDUCTION MOTORS B40U1 383 OE AUGN RIE 23.15. De motor and flux orientation 664° 72 # 23.16. Slip speed, flux orientation, «BIBLIOTECA torque 605 23.17 Features of variable-speed control constant torque mode. 60728.18 Features of variable-speed control— constant horsepower mode 610 23.19 Features of variable-speed control generator mode 610 28.20. Induction motor and its equivalent, circuit 611 23.21 Equivalent circuit of a practical motor 612 Volts per hertz of a practical motor 613 23.23 Speed and torque motors 614 Carrier frequencies 615 Dynamic control of induction motors 615 ontrol of induetion 23.26 Principle of flux vector control 616 23.27, Variable-speed drive and electric traction 618 23.28 Principal components 621 23.29. Operating mode of the 3-phase converter 622 23.30. Operating mode of the single-phase converter 624 23.31 Conclusion 629 Questions and Problems 629 PART IV. ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER 24, ‘SYSTEMS GENERATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 635, 24.0 Introduction 63 24.1 Demand of an electrical system 635 24.2 Location of the generating station 637 24.3 Types of generating stations 637 24.4 Controlling the power balance between generator and load 638 245 Advantage of interconnected systems 639 246 Conditions during an outage 641 24.7 Frequency and electric clocks 642 HYDROPOWER GENERATING STATIONS 248 Available hydro power 642 25. 24.9 Types of hydropower stations 643 24.10 Makeup of u hydropower plant 644 24.11 Pumped-storage installations. 646 ‘THERMAL GENERATING STATIONS. 24.12 Makeup of a thermal generating station 648 24.13 Turbines 650 24.14 Condenser 650 24.15 Cooling towers 650 24.16 Boiler-feed pump 651 24.17 Energy flow diagram for a steam plant 651 24.18 Thermal stations and the ronment 652 NUOLEAR GENERATING STATIONS 24.19 Composition of an atomic nucleus: isotopes 655 24.20 The source of uranium 655 24.21 Energy released by atomic fission 656 24.22 Chain reaction 656 24.23 Types of nuclear reactors. 657 24.24 Example of a light-water reactor 658 24.25 Example of a heavy-water reactor 659 24.26 Principle of the fast breeder reactor 660 24.27 Nuclear fusion 661 Questions and Problems 661 TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 664 25.0 Introduction 664 25.1 Principal components of a power distribution system 664 Types of power lines 665 Standard voltages 667 25.4 Components of a HV transmission line 667 25.5 Construction of a line 668 25.6 Galloping lines 669 radio interference 669 Corona ete Pollution 669 Lightning strokes. 67026. 25.10 Lightning arresters on buildings 671 25.11 Lightning and transmissiow fines. 671 25.12 Basic impulse insulation level (BIL) 672 13 Ground wires 673 14 Tower ground 15. Fundamental obj transmission line 675 25.16 Equivalent circuit of a line 676 25.17 Typical impedance values 676 25.18. Simplifying th 25.19. Voltage regulation aad power- 673 tives of a transmission capability of transmission lines. 680 Resistive line 680 Inductive line 681 Compensated inductive line 683 Inductive line connectin systems 685 25.24 Review of power transmission 686 25.25. Choosing the line voltage 687 25.26 Methods of increasing the power capacity 689 25.27 Extrachigh-voltage lines 689 25.28 Power exchange between power centers. 692 25.29: Practical example of power exchange 693 Questions and Problems 695 (wo DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 698 26.8 Introduction 698 SUBSTATIONS. 26.1 Substation equipment 698 26.2 Circuit breakers. 698 26.3 Air-break switches. 702 264 Disconnecting switches 702 26,5 Grounding switches 702 26.6 Surge arresters 702 26.7 Current-limiting reactors 705 26.8 Grounding transformer 706 26,9 Example of a substation 707 26.10 Medium-voltage distribution 709 equivalent circuit 678 ‘BOULTAD OF REN BIBL ces 26.11 26.12 26.13 26.14 26.15 26.16 26.17 26.18 26.19 26.20 26.21 26.24 26.25 26.26 27.0 274 292 273 274 275 27.6 7 278 29 27.10 271 CONTENTS — wit Low-voltage distribution 709 PROTECTION OF MEDIUM.VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS Coordination of the protective devices 714 Fused cutouts 715 Reclosers 716 Sectionalizers 716 Review of MV protection 717 LOW-VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION LV distribution system 717 Grounding electrical installations. 719 Electric shock 719 Grounding of 120 V and 240 V/120 systems 720 Equipment grounding 721 Ground-fault circuit breaker 723 Rapid conductor heating: Pr factor 724 The role of fuses. 725 Electrical installation in buildings 725 Principal components of an efectrical installation 725 Questions and Problems 727 . THE COST OF ELECTRICITY 729 Introduction 729 Tariff based upon energy 730 Tariff based upon demand 730 Demand meter 730 Tariff based upon power fa Typical rate structures. 733 Demet controllers. 733 Power factor correction 737 Measuring electrical energy. the watthourmeter 740 Operation of the watthourmeter 741 Meter readout 742 Measuring three-phase ene power 743 Questions and Problems 74328, DIRECT-CURRENT TRANSMISSION 746 29. CONTENTS 28.0. Introduction 746 28.1 Features of de transmission 746 28.2 Basic de transmission system 747 28.3 Voltage, current, and power relationships. 748 28.44 Power fluctuations on ade line 751 ‘Typical rectifier and inverter characteristic 752 28.6. Power control 753 28.7 Bflect of voltage fluctuations 754 28.8 Bipolar transmission line 754 28.9 Power reversal 755 28.10 Components of a de transmission line 755 28.11 Inductors and harmonic filters on the de side (6-pulse converter) 756 2. Converter transformers: 756 3. Reactive power source 757 28.14 Harmonic filters on the ac side 757 28.15 Communications link 757 28.16 Ground electrode 757 28.17 Example of a monopolar converter station 757 28.18 Thyristor converter station 758 28.19 Typical installations 760 Questions and Problems 765 TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION SOLID-STATE CONTROLLERS 768 TRANSMISSION POWER FLOW CONTROLLERS 29.0 Introduction 768 29.1 Thyristor-controlled series capacitor (ICSC) 769 29.2. Vernier control 771 29.3 Static synchronous compensator 773 29.4 Eliminating the harmonics 776 29.5. Unified power flow controller (UPFC) 776 29.6 Static frequency changer 780 DISTRIBUTION CUSTOM POWER PRODUCTS: 29.7 Disturhasives on distribution systems 782 29.8 Why PWM converters? 784 29.9 Distribution system 785 29.{0 Compensators and circuit analysis. 787 29.11 The shunt compensator: principle of operation 787 29.12 The series compensator: principle of operation 793 29.13 Conclusion 796 Questions and Problems. 797 |. HARMONICS 799 30.0 Introduction 799 30.1 Harmonics and phasor diagrams 799 30.2 Effective value of a distorted wave 800 30.3 Crest factor and total harmonic distortion (THD) 801 30.4 Harmonies and circuits. 802 305 Displacement power factor and total power factor 804 30.6 Non-linear loads 804 30.7 Generating harmonics. 805 30.8 Correcting the power factor 807 30.9. Generation of reactive power 808 EFFECT OF HARMONICS 30.10 Harmonie current in a capacitor 809 30.11 Harmonie currents in a conductor 810 30.12. Distorted voltage and flux in a coil 810 30,13 Harmonie currents in a 3-phase, 4-wire distribution system 812 30.14, Harmonics and resonance 813, 30.15 Harmonic filters 818. 30.16 Harmonies in the supply network 819 30.17 Transformers and the K factor 821 HARMONIC ANALYSIS 30.18 Procedure of analyzing a periodic wave 823 Questions and Problems 82731. PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS 831 31.0 Introduction 831 31-1 Capacity of industrial PLCs 831 31.2 Elements of a control system 832 31.3. Examples of the use of a PLC 835 314 The central processing unit (CPU) 838 31.5. Programming unit 838 31.6 ‘The HO modules 839 31.7 Structure of the input modules 839 31.8 Structure of the output modules. 840 31.9 Modular construction of PLCs 841 41.10 Remote inputs and outputs 84 31.11 Conventional control circuits and PLC circuits 844 31.12 Security rule 847 31.13. Programming the PLC 847 31.14 Programming languages 847 3115 Advantages of PLCs over relay cabinets 848 MODERNIZATION OF AN INDUSTAY 3116 Industrial application of PLCs. 850 31.17, Planning the change 850 CONTENTS xix 31.18 Getting 10 know PLCs 851 31,19 Linking the PLCs 853 31.20, Programming the PLCs 853 31.21 The transparent enterprise 855 Questions and Problems 856 References 859 Appendixes 865 AXO Conversion Charts 865 AX1_ Properties of Insulating Materials 869 AX2_ Electrical, Mechanicat and ‘Thermal Properties of Some ‘Comman Conductors (and Insulators) 870 AX3_ Properties of Round Copper Conductors 871 Answers to Problems 873 Answers to Industrial Applis Problems 877 Index 879To RachelPART ONE FundamentalsCHAPTER 1 Units 1.0 Introduction nits play an important role in our daily lives. In Ueicescoineg we see an fs ad ovr thing we buy and sell is measured and compared by means of units. Some of these units have become so. familiar that we often take them for granted, seldom Stopping to think how they started, or why they were given the sizes they have. Centuries ago the foot was defined as the length of 36 barleycorns strung end to end, and the yard was the distance from che tip of King Edgar’s nose tothe end of his outstretched hand. Since then We have come a long way in defining our nits of measure more precisely. Most units are now based upon the physical laws of nature, which are both invariable and reproducible. Thus the me- terand yard are measured in terms of the speed of Fight, and time by the duration of atomic vibrations This improvement in our standards of measure has gone hand in hand with the advances in technology, and the one could not have been achieved without the other. Although the basic standards of reference are rec ognized by all countries of the world, the units of everyday measure are far from being universal. For example, in measuring length some people use the inch and yard, while ethers use the millimeter anc meter. Astronomers employ the parsec, physicists use the Jingstriim, and some surveyors still have to deal with the rod and chain, But these units of le n be compared with great accuracy standard of length is based upon the speed of Such standards of reference make it possible to compare the units of measure in one country. or in one specialty. with the units of measure in any other, Standard units of length, mass. and time are the anchors that tie together the unity used in the ‘world today. use the 1.1. Systems of units Over the years systems of units have been devised to ‘meet the needs of commerce, industry, and science, A system of units may be described as 0 nits bear a direct numerical relationship 10 each other. usually expressed as a whole number. Thus in the English system of units, the inch, foot, and yard are related to each other by the numbers 12.3, and 36. The same correlation exists in metric systems, except that the units are related to each other by multiples of ten. Thus the centimeter, meter, asd n which the4 FUNDAMENTALS Kilometer are related by the numbers 100, 1000, and 100 000. It is therefore easier to convert meters into centimeters than to convert yards into feet, and this decimal approach is one of the advantages of the etrie system of upits Today the officially recognized metric system is the International System of Units, for which the universal ablyeviation is SZ, The SI was formally introduced in 1960, at the Eleventh General Conference of Weights and Measures, under the official sitle “Systéme imeernational d°unités.” 1.2 Getting used to SI ‘The official introduction of the Internation: of Units. and its adoption by most countries of the world, did not, however, eliminate the systems that were previously employed. Just like well-established habits, units become a part of ourselves, which we cannot readily let go. Itis not easy to switch overnight from yards to meters and from ounces to grams. And this is quite natural, because long familiarity with a Unit gives us an ides of its magnitude and how it re lates to the physical world. Nevertheless, the growing importance of SI (particularly in the electrical and me ds) makes it necessary to know the essentials of this measurement system. Consequently, one must be able to convert from one system to another in a sim- ple, unambiguous way. In this regard the reader will discover that the conversion charts listed in the Appendix are particularly helpful The SI possesses a number of remarkable fea tures shared by no other system of units sani f 1. Iisa decimal system. 2. [employs many units commonly used in in- dustry and commerce: for example, volt, am- pere. kilogram, and wat 3. Its coherent system that expresses with star- Uling simplicity some of the most basie relation- ships in electricity. mechanics, and heat, © ‘he metre ito le Canada the oficial spelling is mene: uh is spelled either meter oF metre. Ln 4. It can be used by the research scientist, the technician, the practic peer. and by the layman, thereby blending the theoretical and the practical worlds. Despite these advantages the ST is not the answer toeverything, In specialized areas of alomie physics, and even in day-to-day work, other units may be more convenient, Thus we will continue t measure plane angles in degrees, even though the SI unit is the radian, Furthermore, day and hour will still be use despite the fact that the ST unit of time is the second, 1.3 Base and derived units of the SI stem of Units rests upon the seven base units listed in Table 1A, ‘The foundation of the International TABLE 1A BASE UNITS Quanity Unit Syma th meter m Mass kilogram kg. Time second s Electric current ampere A Temperaure kelvin kK Luminous intensity ceandela ed Amount of substance mole mol From these base units we derive other un express quantities such as area, power, force, netic flux, and so on. There is really no limit to the number of units we can derive, but some occur so frequently that they have been given special names. ‘Thus, inst the newton per square meter, we use a less cumber \d of saying that the unit of pressure is some name, the pascal. Some of the derived units that have spe ial names are listed in Table 1B. TABLE 1B DERIVED UNITS Quantity Unit Symbol Eleetrie capacitance Farad F Electric el coulomb c Electric conductance siemens SsTABLE 1B (contirued) Quantity Unit Symbol Electric potential volt v Flectric resistance ohm a Energy joule J Force newton N Frequency hertz WW {Mlumination lux Ik Inductance heary H Luminous flux lumen Im Magnetic flux weber Wb Magnetic flux density tesla r Plane angle radian rad Power watt w Pressure paseal Pa Solid ang! serudian x 1.4 Definitions of base units The following official definitions of 1 mits illustrate the extraordinary precision associ SI base ated with this modern system of units. The text in is explanatory and does not form part of the tion: The meter (m) is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second, In 1983 the speed of light was defined 10 be 299 792 458 m/s exactly ‘The kilogram (kg) is the unit of mays: it is equal to the mass of the international prototype of the kilogram. The international prototype of the kilogram is a particular cvlinder of platinun-iridium alloy that is preserved in a vault at Sevres, France, by the Internationa! Bureau of Weights and Measures Duplicates of the prototype exist in all important standards laboratories in the world, The platinum. iridiwn evlinder (90 percent platinum, 10 percent iridiuin) is about 4 cm high and 4 cm in diameter. The second (s) is the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transi ital de tion between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium-133 atom UMTS 5 A quarts oscillator, tuned to the resonant fre quency of cesium atoms, produces a highls acew rate and stable frequency: The ampere (A) is that constant current whic maintained in two straight parallel conductors of i finite length, of negligible citcularcross-section, and placed | meter apart in vacuum, would produce be- tween these conductors a force equal to 2x 107 newton per meter of length, The kelvin (K). unit of thermodynamic temper- ‘ature. is the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water Pure water in an evacuated cell is cooled until ice begins to form. The resulting temperature where ice, water. and water vapor coexist is called the triple pein of water and is equal to 273.16 kelvins, by definition, The triple point is equa 10 0.01 de: gree Celsius (°C). A temperature of O °C is therefore equal to 273.15 kelvins, exactly: The candela (cd) is the luminous intensity. in a given direction, of a source that emits monochro- ic radiation of frequency 540 x 10"? hertz and that has.a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 walt per steradian. ‘The mole (mol) is the amount of substance of a it system that contains as many there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon 12. Note: When the mole is used. the elementary en- tities must be specified and may be atoms, mol cules, ions, electrons. other particles. or specified groups of such particles. yentary entities as 1.5 Definitions of derived units Some of the more important derived unity are de- fined as follows The coulomb (C) is the quantity of electricity wansported in 1 second by a current of 1 ampere, (Hence I coulomb = L ampere second.) The degree Celsius (°C) is equal to the kelvin and is used in place of the kelvin for expressing Celsius temperature (symbol r) defined by the equa: tion t = T~ T,, where T's the thermodynamic tem- perature and T,, ~ 273.15 K, by definition,