Chapter 6 Basic Motivation Concepts MULTIPLE CHOICE Defining Motivation 1.

Jim is a student who cannot work at writing a paper for more than 30 minutes, yet he can spend many hours writing comments on blogs. What accounts for the change in motivation in this case? a. his ability b. the situation c. his personality d. the congruence e. the structure of the task (b; Moderate; Motivation; p. 175) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 2. Motivation is best defined as a process that _____. a. results in a level of effort b. intensifies an individuals efforts c. accounts for an individuals efforts toward attaining a goal d. meets an individuals needs e. stabilizes over time (c; Moderate; Motivation; p. 175) 3. What are the three key elements of motivation? a. reactance, congruence, and circumstance b. interest, activity, and reward c. awareness, effort, and outcome d. stimulation, progress, and achievement e. intensity, direction, and persistence (e; Moderate; Elements of Motivation; p. 175) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} Early Theories of Motivation 4. What is the most well-known theory of motivation? a. theories X and Y b. Maslows hierarchy of needs c. two-factor theory d. motivator-hygiene theory e. cognitive evaluation theory (b; Easy; Hierarchy of Needs; p. 176) 5. Maslows hierarchy has five levels of needs. Which of the following is not one of those levels? a. safety needs b. social needs c. animal needs d. self-actualization needs e. physiological needs (c; Moderate; Hierarchy of Needs; p. 176)

104

6.

Maslows hierarchy of needs arranges those needs in which of the following orders? a. physiological, esteem, safety, social, and self-actualization b. physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization c. safety, physiological, esteem, social, and self-actualization d. physiological, social, safety, esteem, and self-actualization e. safety, physiological, social, esteem, and self-actualization (b; Moderate; Hierarchy of Needs; p. 176) 7. Which level of Maslows hierarchy of needs deals with satisfying ones hunger, thirst, and need for sex? a. safety b. physiological c. social d. esteem e. psychological (b; Moderate; Physiological Needs; p. 176) 8. Danielle wants to become a surgeon, not only because achieving this goal will give her selfrespect and autonomy, but also because she wants a job with high status and recognition from others. Which of Maslows needs is Danielle trying to fill? a. self-actualization b. social c. esteem d. psychological e. safety (c; Moderate; Esteem Needs; p. 176) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 9. Hans derives a great sense of belongingness, acceptance and friendship from his relationships with his extended family. Which of Maslows needs is Hans fulfilling through these relationships? a. lower-order b. self-actualization c. esteem d. social e. physiological (d; Moderate; Social Needs; p. 176) {AACSB: Analytic Skills}

10.

In Maslows hierarchy of needs, what is the term used for the drive to become what one is capable of becoming? a. perfection b. self-actualization c. hypo-glorification d. self-esteem e. attainment (b; Easy; Self-Actualization Needs; p. 176) 11. According to Maslow, when does a need stop motivating? a. when it is substantially satisfied b. it never stops motivating c. when one returns to a lower level need d. when one chooses to move to a higher level need e. only when it is completely satisfied (a; Moderate; Hierarchy of Needs; p. 176)

105

12.

Which of the following were considered higher-order needs by Maslow? a. physiological, safety, social b. safety, social, esteem c. esteem, self-actualization d. social, esteem, self-actualization e. recognition, pay, admiration (d; Moderate; Higher Order Needs; p. 176) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 13. Kate says that she plans to do a graduate degree in art in order to realize her passion for the subject, even though this will mean she has to adjust to a much more frugal lifestyle while she is at school. Kates case illustrates which point about Maslows hierarchy of needs theory? a. Higher-order needs tend to dominate lower order needs. b. Physiological needs can be controlled by the individual more than higher-order needs. c. Lower-order needs do not have to be fully satisfied before higher-order needs become dominant. d. Self-actualization is the need that requires the most resources to fill. e. Self actualization is the highest order of need. (c; Challenging; Hierarchy of Needs; p. 176) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 14. What is the primary organizational factor that satisfies peoples physiological needs? a. their relationships with co-workers b. recognition c. pay d. admiration e. their position within the organization (c; Moderate; Physiological Needs; p. 176) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 15. Who developed ERG theory? a. McClelland b. Maslow c. Alderfer d. Ouchi e. Dieckmann (c; Moderate; ERG Theory; p. 177) 16. Hunger, thirst, sex, pay, and physical work environment are examples of which of Alderfers needs? a. existence b. safety c. growth d. physiological e. subsistence (a; Moderate; Existence Needs; p. 177) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 17. Desires for associations with those who are significant to us, such as family members, supervisors, and friends, are examples of Alderfers _____ needs. a. existence b. relatedness c. association d. esteem e. subsistence (b; Moderate; Relatedness Needs; p. 177) {AACSB: Analytic Skills}

106

18.

Our intrinsic desire for personal development is included in Alderfers _____ needs. a. existence b. relatedness c. subsistence d. esteem e. growth (e; Moderate; Growth Needs; p. 177) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 19. ERGs ______ needs include the intrinsic component from Maslows esteem category and the characteristics included under self-actualization. a. existence b. relatedness c. growth d. physiological e. psychophysical (c; Moderate; Growth Needs; p. 177) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 20. Which one of the following is not a characteristic of ERG theory? a. It proposes three levels of needs: existence, relatedness, and growth. b. More than one level of needs may serve as motivators at the same time. c. It involves a frustration-regression process. d. The existence needs must be satisfied before the relatedness needs become important. e. It is an extension and improvement of Maslows theory. (d; Moderate; ERG Theory; p. 177) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 21. Which of the following is not one of the ways in which ERG theory differs from Maslows hierarchy of needs? a. There are only three groups of core needs. b. The needs are not hierarchical. c. It assumes that an individual can focus on more than one need at a time. d. It posits that an unsatisfied higher-order need can lead to regression to a lower need. e. It is supported by a great deal more empirical research. (e; Moderate; ERG Theory; p. 177) 22. What is the major problem with Maslows hierarchy of needs in organizational behavior? a. It is difficult to apply to the workplace. b. It is vague as to how a workplace can satisfy higher-order needs. c. Its terminology tends to alienate those to whom it is applied. d. It is almost impossible to assess how well an individual has a particular need filled. e. There is little evidence that needs are structured or operate in the way it describes. (e; Moderate; Hierarchy of Needs; p. 177-178) 23. Which of the following theories was proposed by Douglas McGregor? a. hierarchy of needs theory b. Theories X and Y c. two-factor theory d. ERG theory e. expectancy theory (b; Moderate; Theory X and Theory Y; p. 178)

107

24.

How would a Theory X manager view employees? a. seeking responsibility b. needing to be coerced to achieve goals c. viewing work as a normal daily activity d. exercising self control e. not motivated by rewards (b; Easy; Theory X; p. 177) 25. A Theory Y manager would assume that employees would _____. a. dislike work b. need to be controlled c. avoid responsibility d. exercise self direction e. attempt to avoid work (d; Easy; Theory Y; p. 177) 26. Which of the following is a behavior that would most likely be exhibited by a Theory X manager? a. She lets her employees choose their own goals. b. She trusts her employees to use discretion in most matters. c. She strictly controls the details of any project she is managing. d. She delegates authority extensively to junior managers. e. She honestly informs her employees of the likelihood that they will lose their jobs. (c; Moderate; Theory X; p. 177) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 27. Two managers are talking about how they get the best out of their employees: Jo: I tell my employees that times are tough and there is no way of telling when the guys in head office might try to downsize. Let me tell you, a bit of fear keeps them focused on the task at hand. Chris I tell them that head office is making them more responsible for deciding how to do their work. The increased sense of ownership they have makes productivity go way up How would these managers be best characterized by Douglas McGregor? a. Both hold Theory X assumptions. b. Both hold Theory Y assumptions. c. Chris holds Theory X assumptions; Jo holds Theory Y assumptions. d. Jo holds Theory X assumptions; Chris holds Theory Y assumptions. e. The statements would not indicate that either manager is predisposed to either Theory X or Theory Y assumptions. (d; Moderate; Theory X and Theory Y; p. 177) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 28. Someone subscribing to theory X would agree with which of the following statements? a. Individuals are dominated by Maslows lower level needs. b. Individuals are dominated by Maslows higher level needs. c. Individuals are not clearly dominated by any particular level of Maslows hierarchy of needs. d. Individuals are in reality independent of Maslows hierarchy of needs. e. Individuals are dominated by their needs in a situational context rather than in a strict hierarchy. (a; Moderate; Theory X; p. 177)

108

29.

What other name is the two-factor theory known by? a. theories X and Y b. motivator-hygiene theory c. hierarchy of needs theory d. satisfaction/dissatisfaction theory e. minimal justification theory (b; Moderate; Two-Factor Theory; p. 178) 30. Who proposed a two-factor theory? a. Maslow b. McClelland c. Surber d. Alderfer e. Herzberg (e; Moderate; Two-Factor Theory; p. 178) 31. Two-factor theory suggests that dissatisfaction is caused by extrinsic factors. Which of the following is an example of such a factor? a. advancement b. working conditions c. achievement d. recognition e. nature of the work itself (b; Moderate; Extrinsic Factors; p. 178) 32. Which of the following is not true about the two-factor theory? a. Working conditions are characterized as hygiene factors. b. Intrinsic factors are motivators. c. A job becomes satisfying when the dissatisfying characteristics are removed. d. Responsibility is a satisfier. e. Hygiene factors are demotivators. (c; Moderate; Two-Factor Theory; p. 178) 33. Gerry has a job which pays an excellent salary. She has a good relationship with her peers and her supervisors. She also likes the fact that the company policy fits well with what she personally believes, and that she has received considerable recognition for her achievements at the company. Which of these factors is most likely responsible for the fact that Gerry loves her job? a. high compensation b. good nature of peer relationships c. good nature of supervisor relationships d. good fit between personal beliefs and company policy e. recognition for her achievements (e; Challenging; Two-Factor Theory; p. 178) 34. Which of the following would be considered a motivator in the two-factor theory? a. salary b. supervision c. working conditions d. bonuses e. responsibility (e; Moderate; Motivators; p. 178)

109

35.

What continuum in the two-factor theory is made up of the hygiene factors? a. no dissatisfaction to dissatisfaction b. no dissatisfaction to satisfaction c. satisfaction to no satisfaction d. satisfaction to dissatisfaction e. dissatisfaction to exit behavior (a; Challenging; Hygiene Factors; p. 179) 36. Which of the following is a not a criticism of the two-factor theory? a. No overall measure of satisfaction is utilized. b. The research methodology does not examine productivity. c. The theory is inconsistent with previous research. d. The system used by raters is too rigid and not open to interpretation. e. He assumed a strong relationship between satisfaction and productivity. (d; moderate; Two-Factor Theory; p. 180) 37. McClellands theory of needs concentrates on which three needs? a. achievement, realization, and acceptance b. achievement, power, and affiliation c. power, acceptance, and confirmation d. affiliation, control, and realization e. control, status, and relationships (b; Moderate; McClellands Theory of Needs; p. 180) 38. Jasmine is trying to gain control of her department. Although she will be greatly compensated if she achieves this aim and will gain control over many subordinates, the main reason she is pursuing this position is that she thinks she can do the job better than her predecessors and wants people to know that this is so. What need would McClelland say primarily drives Jasmine in this case? a. the need for control b. the need for achievement c. the need for attainment d. the need for influence e. the need for power (b; Challenging; Achievement Needs; p. 180) 39. According to McClelland, individuals who have a desire to excel and to succeed are high in _____. a. nPow b. nAch c. nMot d. nAff e. nSync (b; Moderate; Achievement Needs; p. 180)

110

40.

According to McClelland, what is the need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise? a. the need for power b. the need for achievement c. the need for affiliation d. the need for control e. the need for social validation (a; Easy; Power Needs; p. 180) 41. How does McClelland define the need for affiliation? a. drive to excel, to strive to succeed. b. need to make others behave in a novel way c. desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships d. same as Maslows social need e. all of the above (c; Moderate; Affiliation Needs; p. 180) 42. An individual who joins the armed services out of a desire to be involved in an enterprise that requires a high degree of cooperation for success probably would have high _____. a. nAch b. nAff c. nPow d. nEst e. nLov (b; Easy; Affiliation Needs; p. 180) 43. A manager wishes to motivate a sales employee who is a high achiever. According to McClelland, which of the following sales territories should be assigned to such a salesperson? a. one where he is loosely controlled and he is certain to meet his sales targets b. one where he is closely controlled and there is a moderate chance he will exceed his sales targets c. one where he is loosely controlled and there is a moderate chance he will exceed his sales targets d. one where he is closely controlled and there is a small chance he will greatly exceed his sales targets e. one where he is loosely controlled and there is a small chance he will greatly exceed his sales targets (b; Challenging; McClellands Theory of Needs; p. 181) 44. You are supervising a team leader in charge of training employees to use a new phone system. According to McClelland, which of the following courses of action will best ensure this employee stays motivated in his task? a. Trust him to do the job independently, and do not give feedback until the project is completed. b. Trust him to do the job independently, and do not give any feedback unless it is asked for. c. Trust him to do the job independently, but do not fail to provide plenty of feedback. d. Closely supervise him, and provide moderate amounts of feedback. e. Closely supervise him, and provide a great deal of feedback. (c; Easy; McClellands Theory of Needs; p. 181) {AACSB: Analytic Skills}

111

45.

Individuals with a high need to achieve prefer all of the following except _____. a. job situations with personal responsibility b. a high degree of risk c. overcoming obstacles d. feedback e. personal empowerment (b; Moderate; Achievement Needs; p. 181) Cognitive Evaluation Theory 46. The issue of whether or not intrinsic and extrinsic motivators are independent is considered in which theory? a. expectancy b. reinforcement c. equity d. cognitive evaluation e. two-factor (d; Moderate; Cognitive Evaluation Theory; p. 182) 47. Cognitive evaluation theory suggests that which of the following would not serve to increase an employees motivation? a. base pay on performance b. praise good performance c. make the work interesting d. support employee development e. make pay not contingent on performance (a; Moderate; Cognitive Evaluation Theory; p. 182) Goal-Setting Theory 48. Who proposed that intentions to work toward a goal are a major source of work motivation? a. Abraham Maslow b. Jake Herzberg c. Stephen McClelland d. Edwin Locke e. Douglas Surber (d; Easy; Goal-Setting Theory; p. 185) 49. According to the goal-setting theory of motivation, highest performance is reached when goals are set to which level? a. impossible but inspirational b. difficult but attainable c. slightly beyond a persons actual potential d. only marginally challenging e. easily attained (b; Moderate; Goal-Setting Theory; p. 185)

112

50.

Which of the following is not an important issue relating to goal-setting theory? a. goal difficulty b. goal specificity c. equity among co-workers d. feedback e. defining the goal (c; Moderate; Goal-Setting Theory; pp. 185-186) 51. Deborah works for a U.S. based firm with extensive business interests in Latin America. Deborah has successfully used goal-setting theory in her efforts to motivate her US employees. When she tries to use it on her Chilean employees, she has much poorer results. Why is this probably so? a. Language difference makes it very difficult to translate the necessary concepts into Spanish. b. Chilean employees tend to have higher scores on power distance and uncertainty avoidance. c. Chilean employees tend to score high on measures of the need for achievement. d. The goals the workers in Chile must reach are substantially simpler than those her U.S. employees must reach. e. She publicly announced the goals she wanted her Chilean workers to reach. (b; Challenging; Goal-Setting Theory; p. 186) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} {AACSB: Multicultural and Diversity} 52. What is generally considered to be the single best thing that managers can do to improve performance? a. allocate tasks depending on personality b. restrict the use of punishment as a means of motivating workers c. give abundant opportunities for employee growth d. set specific, challenging goals e. concentrate on intrinsic rewards rather than extrinsic rewards (d; Moderate; Goal-Setting Theory; p. 186) 53. What sort of goals does Management by Objectives (MBO) emphasize? a. tangible, verifiable, and measurable b. achievable, controllable, and profitable c. inspirational, teachable, and creative d. challenging, emotional, and constructive e. hierarchical, attainable, and effective (a; Moderate; Management by Objectives; p. 187) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 54. Management by Objectives (MBO) emphasizes translating overall organizational objectives into _____. a. capital gains b. specific objectives for organizational units and individual members c. operational units d. terms that the individual worker can understand and accept e. personal gain (b; Easy; Management by Objectives; p. 187) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 55. Who sets MBO objectives? a. the boss b. the boss and immediate subordinates c. they are set jointly by superior and subordinate d. the employees performing the task in question e. each working division in cooperation with management (c; Easy; Management by Objectives; p. 187)

113

56.

What does MBO provide for the individual employee? a. specific personal performance objectives b. precise job descriptions c. explicit task objectives. d. clear direction and purpose e. higher salaries (a; Moderate; Management by Objectives; p. 188) 57. Which of the following is not an ingredient common to all MBO programs? a. an explicit time period b. participative decision making c. consistent monetary rewards d. performance feedback e. a known timeline (c; Easy; Management by Objectives; p. 188) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 58. Which of the following is an example of an MBO objective? a. Decrease payroll costs by 6%. b. Modernize outdated equipment. c. Train employees to use new invoicing software. d. Improve customer service. e. Increase employee satisfaction. (a; Moderate; Management by Objectives; p. 188) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 59. Some MBO programs fail to live up to expectations. Which of the following is not a common reason that MBO programs fail? a. They allow lower-unit managers to participate in setting their own goals. b. There are cultural incompatibilities. c. There are unrealistic expectations regarding results. d. There is a lack of commitment by top management. e. There is an unwillingness or inability by management to reward goal accomplishment. (a; Moderate; Management by Objectives; p. 188) Self-Efficacy Theory 60. What is the term used for an individuals personal evaluation of their ability to perform? a. expectancy b. autonomy c. self-efficacy d. task identity e. auto-discrimination (c; Easy; Self-Efficacy; p. 188) 61. According to Bandura, what is the most important source of increasing self-efficacy? a. arousal b. verbal modeling c. verbal persuasion d. enactive mastery e. focused training (d; Moderate; Ways to Increase Self-Efficacy; p. 189)

114

Reinforcement Theory 62. How do proponents of reinforcement theory view behavior? a. as the result of a cognitive process b. as environmentally caused c. as a reflection of the inner state of the individual d. as a function of ones power need e. as a product of heredity (b; Moderate; Reinforcement Theory; p. 191) 63. Which theory is, strictly speaking, not a theory of motivation since it does not concern itself with what initiates behavior? a. equity theory b. expectancy theory c. ERG theory d. reinforcement theory e. Theory X and Theory Y (d; Moderate; Reinforcement Theory; p. 191) 64. What is the major failure of reinforcement theory in explaining changes in behavior? a. It cannot adequately describe the original behavior. b. It originated in the studies of the responses of animals. c. Most behavior is in fact environmentally caused. d. It ignores the effect of rewards and punishments upon behavior. e. It does not recognize the effect of feelings, attitudes, and other cognitive variables. (e; Moderate; Reinforcement Theory; p. 191) Equity Theory 65. In equity theory, individuals assess the _____. a. cost-benefit ratio b. efficiency-effectiveness trade-off c. quantity-quality trade-off d. outcome-input ratio e. pareto efficient outcome (d; Moderate; Outcome-Input Ratio; 192) 66. When individuals compare their outcomes and inputs against those of others, the framework is _____. a. equity b. expectancy c. JCM d. SIC e. JAV (a; Easy; Equity; p. 192)

115

67.

When people perceive an imbalance in their outcome-input ratio relative to others, _____. a. reinforcement theory is imbalanced b. expectancy theory is violated c. equity tension is created d. distributive justice is questioned e. they seek to move to another position of authority (c; Moderate; Outcome-Input Ratio; 192) 68. Which of the following is not a comparison an employee can use in equity theory? a. self-inside b. self-goal c. other-outside d. self-outside e. other-inside (b; Moderate; Referent Comparisons; p. 193) 69. Which of the following is not true about referent comparisons in equity theory? a. Both men and women prefer same-sex comparisons. b. Employees in sex-segregated jobs use more cross-sex comparisons. c. Employees with long tenure rely more heavily on co-workers for comparisons. d. Upper-level employees make more other-outside comparisons. e. Those with higher amounts of education tend to have better information about people in other organizations. (b; Moderate; Referent Comparisons; p. 193) {AACSB: Multicultural and Diversity} 70. Which of the following is not a predictable choice when employees perceive an inequity? a. change their inputs b. change their outcomes c. choose a different referent d. acquire more tenure e. leave the field (d; Moderate; Inequity; p. 194) 71. James is a salaried employee whose job it is to proofread legal documents. He discovers that he is paid substantially more than his colleagues, even though their jobs and performances are very similar. What is likely to be his reaction to this discovery according to equity theory? a. The quantity of documents he proofreads will decrease. b. The quality of documents he proofreads will decrease. c. The quantity and/or the quality of documents he proofreads will increase. d. He will seek a position within the company commensurate with his pay. e. There will be no effect. (c; Challenging; Inequity; p. 194) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 72. What would be the predicted result of overpaying a piece-rate worker, according to equity theory? a. Quality will increase. b. Quantity will increase. c. Quality will decrease. d. There will be no effect. e. The employee will seek a higher wage. (a; Moderate; Inequity; p. 194)

116

73.

Equity theory historically focused on _____ justice. a. procedural b. distributive c. interpersonal d. organizational e. interactional (b; Moderate; Distributive Justice; p. 195) 74. Contemporary research on equity theory focuses on_____ justice. a. interpersonal b. distributive c. organizational d. procedural e. interactional (c; Moderate; Organizational Justice; p. 195) 75. Gloria thinks that she is paid less than other workers in her division and feels extremely resentful. She starts taking long breaks and generally wasting time. Her actions were a result of her perceiving what kind of injustice? a. interactive b. interpersonal c. procedural d. distributive e. interactional (d; Easy; Distributive Justice; p. 195) 76. Jessica believes that she received an appropriate salary increase this year but she does not believe that the companys methods for determining salary increases were fair. She believes that there is a problem with the firms _____ justice. a. interpersonal b. distributive c. equity d. procedural e. outcome (d; Moderate; Procedural Injustice; p. 195) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 77. People who perceive that they are victims of interactional injustice tend to blame their immediate supervisor rather than the organization at large. Why is this? a. Interactional justice or injustice is intimately tied to the conveyer of the information. b. Interactional injustice can only occur during face-to-face encounters. c. When people are not treated with respect they tend to retaliate against those closest to hand. d. Interactional injustice is in the eyes of those who perceive they are disrespected. e. Interactional injustice is most often the result of impersonal policies of the organization. (b; Moderate; Interactional Injustice; p. 196)

117

Expectancy Theory 78. Who developed expectancy theory? a. McClelland b. Maslow c. House d. Vroom e. Sondak (d; Moderate; Expectancy Theory; p. 197) 79. What theory attempts to measure the strength of ones expectations and predict motivation? a. expectancy theory b. equity theory c. goal setting theory d. ERG theory e. Surberist theory (a; Moderate; Expectancy Theory; p. 197) 80. The theory that asserts that motivation depends upon an employees goals, and the belief that productive behavior will get these goals accomplished, is called _____. a. Herzbergs dual-factor theory b. McClellands three needs theory c. Vrooms expectancy theory d. Maslows hierarchy of needs e. Alderfers ERG theory (c; Easy; Expectancy Theory; p. 197) 81. Helen is an office worker who processes health insurance forms. She has worked at her present job for three years. Initially she was criticized by her supervisor for sloppy work, but in the months after that improved considerably. Now she consistently processes her forms without errors and above quota. However she has found her supervisor has not responded to the extra effort she puts in, giving her no praise and no financial reward. Helen will most likely perceive that there is a problem in which of the following relationships? a. rewards-personal goals b. performance-reward c. effort-performance d. rewards-effort e. performance-achievement (c; Moderate; Effort-Performance Relationship; p. 197) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 82. The degree to which an individual believes that performing at a particular level will generate a desired outcome is defined by expectancy theory as what kind of relationship? a. performance-reward b. effort-performance c. reward-personal goal d. effort-satisfaction e. agent-actor (a; Moderate; Performance-Reward Relationship; p. 197)

118

83.

Which of the following is one of the relationships proposed in expectancy theory? a. reward-satisfaction relationship b. satisfaction-performance relationship c. rewards-personal goals relationship d. effort-satisfaction relationship e. performance-achievement relationship (c; Moderate; Rewards-Personal Goals Relationship; p. 197) 84. According to expectancy theory, the degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individuals personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those potential rewards for the individual is known as what sort of relationship? a. performance-reward b. effort-performance c. rewards-personal goals d. effort-satisfaction e. performance-achievement (c; Moderate; Rewards-Personal Goals Relationship; p. 197) Global Implications 85. Most current motivation theories have a strong emphasis on individualism and quantity of life. Why is this? a. They were developed in the United States by Americans. b. These are the traits needed to successfully motivate people. c. Researchers tend to concentrate on those traits that are easiest to quantify. d. Motivation theory relies on the study of personality traits to understand what drives people. e. These are the two traits that are most distinct in most people worldwide. (a; Moderate; Motivation Theories; p. 201) {AACSB: Multicultural and Diversity} 86. Which of the following motivation concepts clearly has an American bias? a. need for power b. need for affiliation c. need for achievement d. social needs e. need for association (c; Moderate; Achievement Need; p. 201) 87. Which of the following desires would most likely be common to a worker in China, Australia, Kenya, Canada, and Kuwait? a. interesting work b. higher pay c. more flexibility d. telecommuting options e. advancement (a; Moderate; Cross-Cultural Motivational Consistencies; p. 202) {AACSB: Multicultural and Diversity}

119

Summary and Implications for Managers 88. A theory based on needs is the premise for theories by all of the following except _____. a. McClelland b. Alderfer c. McGregor d. Maslow e. Vroom (c; Moderate; Need Theories; p. 202) TRUE/FALSE Defining Motivation 89. Motivation is a personality trait. (False; Moderate; Motivation; p. 175) 90. Motivation is the result of the interaction of the individual and the situation. (True; Easy; Motivation; p. 175) 91. Leadership is the processes that accounts for an individuals intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal. (False; Moderate; Motivation; p. 175) 92. High intensity is unlikely to lead to favorable job-performance outcomes unless the effort is channeled in a direction that benefits the individual. (False; Moderate; Motivation; p. 175) Early Theories of Motivation 93. Research shows that contemporary theories of motivation are generally more valid than the early theories of motivation. (True; Moderate; Early Theories of Motivation; p. 176) 94. The early theories of motivation are the best known explanations of employee motivation. (True; Moderate; Early Theories of Motivation; p. 176) 95. According to Maslow, a need that is essentially satisfied no longer motivates. (True; Moderate; Hierarchy of Needs; p. 176) 96. Esteem is considered a lower order need. (False; Moderate; Lower Order Needs; p. 176) 97. Higher-order needs are satisfied externally, whereas lower-order needs are predominantly satisfied internally. (False; Moderate; Higher Order Needs; p. 176) 98. The core needs in ERG theory are reconcilable with Maslows five need categories. (True; Moderate; ERG Theory; p. 177)

120

99.

According to Alderfer, existence needs include the items Maslow considered to be physical and safety needs. (True; Moderate; Existence Needs; p. 177) 100. According to Alderfer, once an employees existence needs are substantially satisfied, the employee moves on to his or her relatedness needs. (False; Moderate; ERG Theory; p. 177) 101. Research actively validates Maslows hierarchy of needs theory. (False; Easy; Hierarchy of Needs; pp. 176-177) 102. Theory X assumes that human beings are inherently good. (False; Moderate; Theory X; p. 177) 103. McGregor referred to the positive assumptions about human beings as Theory Y. (True; Moderate; Theory Y; p. 177) 104. Maslow proposed a two-factor theory, suggesting that intrinsic job factors motivate, whereas extrinsic factors only maintain and placate employees. (False; Moderate; Two-Factor Theory; p. 178) 105. According to Herzberg, the opposite of satisfaction is dissatisfaction. (False; Moderate; Two-Factor Theory; p. 178) 106. According to Herzberg, some factors lead to satisfaction, and if you remove these factors you create dissatisfaction. (False; Moderate; Two-Factor Theory; p. 178) 107. According to Herzberg, pay strongly motivates. (False; Moderate; Two-Factor Theory; p. 180) 108. McClellands theory of needs contains a frustration-regression dimension. (False; Moderate; McClellands Theory of Needs; p. 180) 109. A drive to succeed would be described by McClelland as a need for achievement. (True; Moderate; McClellands Theory of Needs; p. 180) 110. High achievers attempt the most difficult goals because once achieved, they gain more recognition. (False; Moderate; McClellands Theory of Needs; p. 181) 111. Individuals with a high need to achieve prefer job situations with personal responsibility, feedback, and an intermediate degree of risk (True; Moderate; McClellands Theory of Needs; p. 181) 112. Evidence indicates that high achievers make good managers. (False; Moderate; McClellands Theory of Needs; p. 181) 113. Evidence indicates that the best managers are high in nPow and low in nAff. (True; Moderate; McClellands Theory of Needs; p. 181)

121

114. The achievement need can be stimulated through training. (True; Moderate; McClellands Theory of Needs; p. 181) Cognitive Evaluation Theory 115. When extrinsic rewards are given to someone for performing an interesting task, it causes intrinsic interest in the task itself to decline. (True; Challenging; Cognitive Evaluation Theory; p. 182) 116. Cognitive evaluation theory is concerned with whether individuals perceive that rewards are distributed fairly. (False; Moderate; Cognitive Evaluation Theory; p. 182) 117. According to the cognitive evaluation theory, pay should not be directly related to job performance. (True; Challenging; Cognitive Evaluation Theory; p. 184) 118. Evidence gathered about the cognitive evaluation theory leads us to believe that extrinsic and intrinsic rewards are independent. (False; Challenging; Cognitive Evaluation Theory; p. 184) Goal-Setting Theory 119. According to goal-setting theory, a generalized goal will produce a high level of output. (False; Moderate; Goal-Setting Theory; p. 185) 120. External feedback has been shown to be a more powerful motivator than self-generated feedback. (False; Moderate; Goal-Setting Theory; p. 186) 121. Participatively set goals have been clearly shown to elicit improved performance. (False; Challenging; Participative goals; p. 186) Self-Efficacy Theory 122. Self-efficacy refers to an individuals belief that he or she is capable of performing a task. (True; Moderate; Self-Efficacy; p. 188) Reinforcement Theory 123. The basic concepts underlying goal-setting theory and reinforcement theory are at odds. (True; Challenging; Reinforcement Theory; p. 191) 124. According to reinforcement theory, behavior is environmentally determined. (True; Moderate; Reinforcement Theory; p. 191) 125. The statement that behavior is a function of its consequences is consistent with reinforcement theory. (True; Moderate; Reinforcement Theory; p. 191) 126. Changes in behavior attributed to reinforcement may also be explained in terms of goals, inequity, and expectancies. (True, Moderate, Reinforcement Theory; p. 191)

122

Equity Theory 127. Equity theory proposes that equity tension is the negative tension state which provides the motivation to do something to correct it. (True; Moderate; Equity Theory; 192) 128. In equity theory, if perceived outcomes and inputs are not balanced, an individual will make certain adjustments to correct imbalance. (True; Moderate; Outcome-Input Ratio; 192) 129. Research shows that in equity theory men prefer same-sex comparisons but women do not. (False; Moderate; Referent Comparisons; p. 193) {AACSB: Multicultural and Diversity} 130. If you pay an individual an hourly rate, according to the equity theory, overpaying this individual will result in more output. (True; Moderate; Inequity; p. 194) 131. Underpayment and overpayment, according to equity theory, tend to produce similar reactions to correct the inequities. (False; Moderate; Inequity; p. 194) 132. It is possible for an employee to perceive injustice even if the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals is perceived as fair. (True; Moderate; Inequity; p. 194) 133. Distributive justice refers to the perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards. (False; Moderate; Distributive Justice; p. 195) 134. Interactional justice is the individuals perception of the degree to which he or she is treated with dignity, concern, and respect. (True; Moderate; Interactional Injustice; p. 196) Expectancy Theory 135. In expectancy theory, the strength of a persons motivation to perform depends in part on how strongly he believes he can achieve what he attempts. (True; Moderate; Expectancy Theory; p. 197)

123

SCENARIO-BASED QUESTIONS Application of Maslows Hierarchy Your church is made up of people who are very different in their lifestyles and their stages of life. Mary is a 23-year-old single parent who is working for minimum wage. Jonathan is 60 years old, extremely wealthy and works because he enjoys it. Jane is single, 45 years old and has few interests outside of the office. You have decided to attempt to apply Maslows hierarchy of needs to determine what motivates each of these individuals. 136. What is the need that you would expect that Mary is trying to satisfy? a. social b. esteem c. physiological d. self-actualization e. alter-actualization (c; Easy; Hierarchy of Needs; p. 176) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 137. You would expect that Jane is trying to satisfy her ______ needs. a. social b. esteem c. physiological d. self-actualization e. psychophysical (a; Moderate; Hierarchy of Needs; p. 176) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 138. Which of the following do you think would motivate Jonathan the most? a. more vacation time b. more responsibility c. greater discretion over his job d. more money e. a greater sense of inner peace (e; Moderate; Hierarchy of Needs; p. 176) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} Application of McGregors Theory X and Theory Y You are a new employee with Acme, Inc. Your supervisor has explained your job to you and has indicated that you will have a great deal of control over your job once you become proficient at it. He compliments your history of accepting responsibility and suggests that you are to feel free to offer constructive criticism about the way that your job is structured. 139. Your supervisor seems to possess _____ assumptions. a. Theory T b. Theory V c. Theory W d. Theory X e. Theory Y (e; Easy; Theory Y; p. 177) {AACSB: Analytic Skills}

124

140.

Which of the following is something you would not expect your supervisor to believe? a. Employees view work as natural. b. The average person will seek responsibility. c. Workers place security above most other factors. d. The ability to make innovative decisions is not necessarily the sole province of managers. e. Workers are generally reliable. (c; Moderate; Theory X and Theory Y; p. 177) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 141. Which of the following is something you would not expect your supervisor to do? a. assume that you will be internally motivated b. assume that you want to do your job c. allow you freedom to do your job as you believe it should be done d. monitor your work closely for an opportunity to praise you for work well done e. empower you to take responsibility (d; Challenging; Theory X and Theory Y; p. 177) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} Application of Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory Your fellow employees have a terrible work situation. They work in an old, run-down building with an antiquated heating system. The work itself is tedious and the supervisor is rarely available and only shows up to give reprimands for production shortfalls. Nobody has received a promotion in two years. The work is boring, repetitious, and unrewarding. You have decided to try to apply Herzbergs two-factor theory. 142. You decide that your first job should be to remedy the hygiene factors. Which are they? a. working conditions b. intrinsic rewards c. recognition d. advancement e. reprimands (a; Moderate; Two-Factor Theory; p. 180) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 143. Which of the following statements would likely be true? a. When the working conditions are improved, employees will be satisfied. b. The relationship with the supervisor is a motivation factor. c. Fixing the conditions that make the employees dissatisfied will not make them satisfied. d. Employees are dissatisfied due to lack of recognition. e. The major reason for dissatisfaction is probably the nature of the work itself. (c; Challenging; Two-Factor Theory; pp. 179-180) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 144. What action would probably most motivate the employees? a. improving in working conditions b. fixing the heating system c. receiving recognition for a job well done d. having the supervisor hang around more e. relying more on punishment for poor performance (c; Moderate; Two-Factor Theory; p. 180) {AACSB: Analytic Skills}

125

Application of McClellands Theory of Needs You manage a department of five employees. You have identified that Joe scores high in the need for achievement, Mary scores high in the need for power, and Tim scores high in the need for affiliation. Sarah scored high in the need for power and low in the need for affiliation. Doug scores low in both need for power and need for affiliation. 145. Which employee would be best suited to a challenging new assignment where they would receive rapid feedback? a. Joe b. Mary c. Tim d. Sarah e. Doug (a; Challenging; McClellands Theory of Needs; p. 181) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 146. Which employee would be best suited as a mentor to new employees with a chance to develop friendships? a. Joe b. Mary c. Tim d. Sarah e. Doug (c; Easy; McClellands Theory of Needs; p. 181) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 147. Which employee would probably be best to leave in charge while you are on vacation? a. Joe b. Mary c. Tim d. Sarah e. Doug (d; Challenging; McClellands Theory of Needs; p. 181) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} Application of Equity Theory You graduated from college two years ago and began working at Hampstead Electronics. You have received good performance evaluations and a raise. You just found out that a recent college graduate with no experience has been hired at a higher salary than you are now making. 148. Which of the following will you probably use to evaluate this situation? a. equity b. expectancy c. goal setting d. reinforcement e. self-enhancement (a; Moderate; Equity Theory; p. 192) {AACSB: Analytic Skills}

126

149.

Your referent comparison for equity theory is termed _____. a. self-inside b. self-outside c. other-inside d. other-outside e. inside-outside (c; Challenging; Equity Theory; p. 193) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 150. How can your behavior at work be predicted to change? a. You will work harder. b. You will call in sick more often. c. You will acknowledge that the new person hired is worth more. d. You will not work so hard. e. You will act to undermine the new employee. (d; Moderate; Equity Theory; p. 193) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} SHORT DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 151. List and explain the three groups of core needs in ERG Theory. Alderfer argues that there are three groups of core needs existence, relatedness, and growth. a) The existence group is concerned with providing our basic material existence requirements. b) The second group of needs is relatedness the desire we have for maintaining important interpersonal relationships. c) Growth needs reflect an intrinsic desire for personal development. (Easy; ERG Theory; p. 177) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 152. What assumptions are held by a Theory Y manager? Theory Y managers assume that employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play, and therefore the average person can learn to accept, even seek, responsibility. Theory Y assumes that higher-order needs dominate individuals. Theory Y managers would contend that ideas as participative decision making, responsible and challenging jobs, and good group relations are approaches that would maximize an employees job motivation. (Easy; Theory Y; p. 177) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 153. Differentiate motivators from hygiene factors. Conditions surrounding the job such as quality of supervision, pay, company policies, physical working conditions, relations with others, and job security were characterized by Herzberg as hygiene factors. When theyre adequate, people will not be dissatisfied; neither will these factors cause them to become satisfied when they are filled. Herzberg suggested that factors associated with the work itself or outcomes directly derived from it, such as promotional opportunities, opportunities for personal growth, recognition, responsibility, and achievement are motivators. These are the characteristics that people find intrinsically rewarding. (Moderate; Two-Factor Theory; p. 180) {AACSB: Analytic Skills}

127

154.

Briefly discuss McClellands Theory of Needs. McClellands theory of needs focuses on three needs: achievement, power, and affiliation. The need for achievement is the drive to excel; to achieve in relation to a set of standards and to strive to succeed. The need for power is the need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise. The need for affiliation is the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships. (Easy; McClellands Theory of Needs; p. 180)

155.

Briefly explain cognitive evaluation theory. Cognitive evaluation theory proposes that the introduction of extrinsic rewards, such as pay, for work effort that had been previously intrinsically rewarding due to the pleasure associated with the content of the work itself would tend to decrease the overall level of motivation. (Easy; Cognitive Evaluation Theory; p. 182) {AACSB: Analytic Skills}

156.

What is self-efficacy? Self-efficacy refers to an individuals belief that he or she is capable of performing a task. The higher your self-efficacy, the more confidence you have in your ability to succeed in a task. Individuals high in self-efficacy seem to respond to negative feedback with increased effort and motivation, while those low in self-efficacy are likely to lessen their effort when given negative feedback. (Easy; Self-Efficacy; p. 188) {AACSB: Analytic Skills}

157.

What are the three relationships in Vrooms expectancy theory? Expectancy theory argues that the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. The theory focuses on three relationships. a) The effort-performance relationship is the probability perceived by the individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance. b) The performance-reward relationship is the degree to which the individual believes that performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome. c) The rewards-personal goals relationship is the degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individuals personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those potential rewards for the individual. (Moderate; Expectancy Theory; p. 197) {AACSB: Analytic Skills}

128

MEDIUM LENGTH DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 158. Describe Maslows hierarchy of needs. Maslows hierarchy of needs hypothesized that within every human being there exists a hierarchy of five needs. a) The physiological needs include hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs. b) Safety includes security and protection from physical and emotional harm. c) Social includes affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship. d) Esteem includes internal esteem factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and achievement; and external esteem factors such as status, recognition, and attention. e) Self-actualization is the drive to become what one is capable of becoming; includes growth, achieving ones potential, and self-fulfillment. As each of these needs becomes substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. So if you want to motivate someone, according to Maslow, you need to understand what level of the hierarchy that person is currently on and focus on satisfying those needs at or above that level. (Moderate; Hierarchy of Needs; p. 175) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 159. According to Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory, how might a manager motivate employees? According to Herzberg, the factors leading to job satisfaction are separate and distinct from those that lead to job dissatisfaction. Therefore, managers who seek to eliminate factors that can create job dissatisfaction may bring about peace but not necessarily result in motivation, conditions surrounding the job such as quality of supervision, pay, company policies, physical working conditions, relations with others, and job security were characterized by Herzberg as hygiene factors. When they are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied; neither will they be satisfied. If we want to motivate people on their jobs, Herzberg suggested emphasizing factors associated with the work itself or to outcomes directly derived from it, such as promotional opportunities, opportunities for personal growth, recognition, responsibility, and achievement. These are the characteristics that people find intrinsically rewarding. (Moderate; Two-Factor Theory; p. 178) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 160. What predictions can be made based on the relationship between the achievement need and job performance? Individuals with a high need to achieve prefer job situations with personal responsibility, feedback, and an intermediate degree of risk. When these characteristics are prevalent, high achievers will be strongly motivated. The evidence consistently demonstrates, for instance, that high achievers are successful in entrepreneurial activities such as running their own businesses and managing a self-contained unit within a large organization. A high need to achieve does not necessarily lead to being a good manager, especially in large organizations. People with a high achievement need are interested in how well they do personally and not in influencing others to do well. Employees have been successfully trained to stimulate their achievement need. So if a job calls for a high achiever, management can select a person with a high need for achievement or develop its own candidate through achievement training. (Moderate; McClellands Theory of Needs; p. 181) {AACSB: Analytic Skills}

129

161.

Discuss distributive justice and procedural justice and how managers can use these concepts. Historically, equity theory focused on distributive justice or the perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals. But equity should also consider procedural justice the perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards. The evidence indicates that distributive justice has a greater influence on employee satisfaction than procedural justice, while procedural justice tends to affect an employees organizational commitment, trust in his or her boss, and intention to quit. As a result, managers should consider openly sharing information on how allocation decisions are made, following consistent and unbiased procedures, and engaging in similar practices to increase the perception of procedural justice. By increasing the perception of procedural fairness, employees are likely to view their bosses and the organization as positive even if theyre dissatisfied with pay, promotions, and other personal outcomes. (Moderate; Distributive Justice and Procedural Justice; p. 194) {AACSB: Analytic Skills}

162.

Clarify the key relationships in expectancy theory. Expectancy theory predicts that an employee will exert a high level of effort if he or she perceives that there is a strong relationship between effort and performance, performance and rewards, and rewards and satisfaction of personal goals. Each of these relationships, in turn, is influenced by certain factors. For effort to lead to good performance, the individual must have the requisite ability to perform, and the performance appraisal system that measures the individuals performance must be perceived as being fair and objective. The performancereward relationship will be strong if the individual perceives that it is performance (rather than seniority, personal favorites, or other criteria) that is rewarded. The strength of the reward-satisfaction will be highest if the individual actually places a high value on the rewards that they receive. (Moderate; Key Relationships in Expectancy Theory; p. 197) {AACSB: Analytic Skills}

130

COMPREHENSIVE ESSAYS 163. How does ERG theory differ from Maslows hierarchy of needs? Maslows hierarchy of needs hypothesized that within every human being there exists a hierarchy of five needs. The physiological needs include hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs. Safety includes security and protection from physical and emotional harm. Social includes affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship. Esteem includes internal esteem factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and achievement; and external esteem factors such as status, recognition, and attention. Self-actualization is the drive to become what one is capable of becoming; includes growth, achieving ones potential, and self-fulfillment. As each of these needs becomes substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. So if you want to motivate someone, according to Maslow, you need to understand what level of the hierarchy that person is currently on and focus on satisfying those needs at or above that level. Alderfer argues that there are three groups of core needs existence, relatedness, and growth. The existence group is concerned with providing our basic material existence requirements. They include the items that Maslow considered to be physiological and safety needs. The second group of needs are those of relatedness the desire we have for maintaining important interpersonal relationships. These social and status desires require interaction with others if they are to be satisfied, and they align with Maslows social need and the external component of Maslows esteem classification. Growth needs reflect an intrinsic desire for personal development. These include the intrinsic component from Maslows esteem category and the characteristics included under selfactualization. The major difference between the theories is that ERG theory posits that more than one need may be operative at the same time and if the gratification of a higher-level need is stifled, the desire to satisfy a lower-level need increases. ERG theory contains a frustration-regression dimension. ERG theory is also more consistent with our knowledge of individual differences among people. Overall, ERG theory represents a more valid version of the need hierarchy. (Challenging; Hierarchy of Needs and ERG Theory; p. 177) {AACSB: Analytic Skills}

131

164.

Discuss goal-setting theory and its implications for managers. Edwin Locke proposed that intentions to work toward a goal are a major source of work motivation. Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how much effort will need to be expended. The evidence strongly supports the value of goals. It shows that specific goals increase performance; that difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals; and that feedback leads to higher performance than does nonfeedback. Specific hard goals produce a higher level of output than does the generalized goal of do your best. The specificity of the goal itself acts as an internal stimulus. The more difficult the goals, the higher the level of performance. However, its logical to assume that easier goals are more likely to be accepted. But once an employee accepts a hard task, he or she will exert a high level of effort until it is achieved, lowered, or abandoned. People will do better when they get feedback on how well they are progressing toward their goals because feedback helps to identify discrepancies between what they have done and what they want to do; that is, feedback acts to guide behavior. Goal-setting theory presupposes that an individual is committed to the goals, that is, is determined not to lower or abandon the goal when the goal is made public, when the individual has an internal locus of control, and when the goal is self-set rather than assigned. Goal-setting has also been found to be culture bound. It is well adapted to countries like the United States and Canada. (Challenging; Goal-setting Theory; pp. 185186) {AACSB: Analytic Skills}

165.

Discuss equity theory. Include the concepts of equity tension, referent comparisons, and how employees might reduce perceived inequity. Employees make comparisons of their job inputs and outcomes relative to those of others. We perceive what we get from a job situation in relation to what we put into it, and then we compare out outcome-input ratio with the outcome-input ratio of relevant others. If we perceive our ratio to be equal to that of the relevant others with whom we compare ourselves, a state of equity is said to exist. We perceive our situation as fair. Equity tension arises when we perceive that this is not the case. When we see ourselves as under-rewarded, the tension creates anger; when over-rewarded, the tension creates guilt. This negative state provides the motivation to do something to correct it. The referent that an employee selects adds to the complexity of equity theory. The four referent comparisons that an employee can use are comparisons to how that employee has been treated in the past in both the company he or she currently works for and in similar situations outside the company(the self-inside and the self-outside) and comparisons to others both within the company he or she currently works for and outside the company (the other-inside and the other-outside). When employees perceive an inequity, they can be predicted to make one of six choices. They may change their inputs. They may change their outcomes. They may distort perceptions of self. They may distort perceptions of others. They may choose a different referent, or they may leave the field. (Challenging; Equity Theory; pp. 192-194) {AACSB: Analytic Skills}

132