LITERATURE REVIEW ON COLLEGE ACCESS College Access: Major Themes within the Research An Executive Summary published by the

U.S. Department of Education in 2010 states that President Barack Obama has set an explicit focus on two goals: first, to increase the percentage of college graduates from 41 to 60% by the year 2020 and second, to close the achievement gap in order to enable all students to graduate from high school ready for postsecondary success in college and careers (U.S. Department of Education, 2010). The topic of college access is vast, and the extent of the research on this topic covers a wide variety of aspects, including college readiness and the role of high schools, college application and enrollment processes, the disparities that exist between racial minority and low-income students access and that of the overall student population, and college completion (Mudge & Higgins, 2011; Roderick, Coca, & Nagaoka, 2011; Roderick, Nagaoka, & Coca, 2009). Regardless of the variance of the research, there is no doubt there is a need to focus on the goals set forth by President Barack Obama and that these are some of the most important issues of the 21st century (Mudge & Higgins, 2011; Roderick et al., 2009). In this review, I have grouped the research on college access according to the major themes that emerged. The first two sections focus on defining college readiness and examining the role that high schools play in preparing students for college. From there, I transition into a discussion of college enrollment, the gaps that exist for students in the areas of social capital and college knowledge (Roderick et al., 2009) and college completion. Next is an analysis of the research on the disparities that exist in regards to college-going rates for minorities, low-income students, and other underrepresented minorities (Roderick et al., 2009; Roderick et al., 2011). Finally, the review culminates with policy recommendations cited within the research (Engberg & Wolniak,

LITERATURE REVIEW ON COLLEGE ACCESS 2009; Raphael & Kushman, 2009; Roderick et al., 2009; Santos, Cabrera & Fosnacht, 2010; Sparkman, Maulding and Roberts, 2012). College Readiness College readiness definitions are greatly varied (Roderick et al., 2009). Roderick et al. (2009) defines it as students academic foundations, such as coursework, test scores, and grades. The 2005 ACT College Readiness Benchmark results in the area of reading show that only approximately 50% of the students assessed were prepared for the reading levels they would encounter in college courses (Mudge & Higgins, 2011). Mudge and Higgins (2011) assert that college and career readiness differs greatly from high school completion in that students will need to be able to demonstrate higher level thinking skills such as analysis, inference, and complex problem solving that is unique to the college environment. The authors make seven recommendations to help high schools develop college readiness among students, ranging from developing academic programs which align with college expectations to developing a collegegoing culture and teaching necessary skills that will facilitate students application and enrollment in college (Mudge & Higgins, 2011). A study by Adelman (2006) showed that the variable most directly connected to college completion was the rigor of high school coursework, even stronger than variables such as other college entrance requirements and demographics. Although more students are taking advanced-level courses and are exceeding the minimum recommended coursework for college admission, students are still falling short of achieving the scores that would indicate their potential success in their first year of college (Raphael & Kushman, 2009). Still another study presented by Greene and Winters (2005) reported that only 34% of 2002 graduates were deemed college-ready based on whether or not they met the minimum admission requirements for the least selective four-year institutions. Roderick et al.

LITERATURE REVIEW ON COLLEGE ACCESS (2009) break college readiness into four distinct categories: content knowledge and basic skills, core academic skills, non-cognitive skills and norms of performance, and college knowledge (p. 190). Other non-cognitive skills students need to facilitate both increased enrollment and success in college include those related to emotional intelligence, particularly social responsibility, impulse control, and empathy (Sparkman et al., 2012). Traditional assessments of these readiness skills would include high school coursework, achievement scores, class rank and grade point average (Roderick et al., 2009). Recent focus has been specifically on coursework and test scores, and many schools, districts, and states have raised secondary graduation requirements to align with college preparatory expectations and have adopted minimum competency testing and accountability linked to performance on standardized tests to ensure that students who graduate from high school meet minimum standards of performance (Roderick et al., 2009, p. 191). Regardless of how one defines college readiness, it is apparent that high schools must modify their existing focus on credits and graduation requirements to one that prepares students for success in college (Roderick et al., 2009). College readiness is not only defined as the types of skills and concepts students will learn in high school, but it could also include non-academic factors such as students ability to navigate the college admission and enrollment process (Roderick et al., 2011). High Schools Role in Developing College Readiness Individual high schools and districts differ in their approaches to developing college readiness for their students. Engberg and Wolniak (2009) contend that if the U.S. is to attain the goal set forth by President Obama it will be necessary to examine how high schools have traditionally operated and how they have prepared their students for the postsecondary world. These authors went on to study research questions that specifically examined the connections

LITERATURE REVIEW ON COLLEGE ACCESS between student demographics, high school structures, and college enrollment (Engberg & Wolniak, 2009). Findings indicated that of all the student-level data examined, academic achievement measures such as highest level of math as well as grade point average, family and friends support for the student to attend college, and the development of college-linking networks are the variables that showed the highest impact on enrollment in both two-year and four-year colleges (Engberg & Wolniak, 2009). Other findings included evidence that grade point average, socioeconomic levels, and students, their peers, and their families aspirations for them to attend college all had positive impacts on college enrollment (Engberg & Wolniak, 2009). High schools must ensure that students who enroll in college are academically prepared to succeed in college, which at least in part means reducing the percentage of students who are required to take remedial courses (Roderick et al., 2009). High schools should also provide a strong college-going climate in order to ensure college readiness (Roderick et al., 2011). Doing so will not only increase the percentage of students who aspire to achieve a degree, but it will also increase the number of students who enroll in a college that matches the students qualifications level (Roderick et al., 2009). Roderick et al. (2011) defines a college-going climate as the extent to which adults within the high school create an environment that promotes norms for college attendance and provides the information, resources, and supports students need to effectively navigate college search and application (p. 199). Roderick et al. (2011) goes on to list three different types of indicators which were used to measure urban secondary schools college-going climate: the percentage of graduates enrolled in a four-year college, the percentage of graduates who applied to three or more colleges and completed a FAFSA, and teacher assessment of college-going climate. The findings indicated that all of these factors, with the exception of the percentage of students applying to three or

LITERATURE REVIEW ON COLLEGE ACCESS more colleges, correlated to the extent or lack of college-going culture at urban high schools (Roderick et al., 2011). College Enrollment It was apparent by examining the different research questions that there is a difference between the issues of student access, the college application process, and the study of whether or not students enroll in a four-year university (Roderick et al., 2011). Policymakers have focused on developing programs that address the barriers that students face during the college enrollment process (Perna, Rowan-Kenyon, Bell, Thomas & Chunyan, 2008). According to the study conducted by Perna et al. (2008), federal and state programs designed to increase college enrollment in the five states studied focused on providing financial assistance to students with either low financial resources, high academic performance or both, but rarely were there programs that targeted such groups as underrepresented minorities or students who would likely struggle academically in college. In addition, 90% of the programs studied were made available to students at the time of college enrollment or later, as opposed to providing students with intervention earlier in their educational career. Only six percent of all programs studied focused on the academic preparation of students before they go to the college (Perna et al., 2008). Although an explicit focus on improving college enrollment was found in each of the five states, the approaches were distinctive, which indicates that these programs lack philosophical coherence, systematic and intentional policy development, and program clarity and distinctiveness (Perna et al., 2008, p. 263). For minorities and low-income students, the barriers to college enrollment are even more pronounced (Perna et al., 2008). When specifically looking at undocumented immigrants, some states have passed residency laws that allow these students to access state financial aid or even

LITERATURE REVIEW ON COLLEGE ACCESS become eligible for in-state tuition, which they would not normally be eligible for given their residency status (Heilig, Rodriguez & Somers, 2011). These types of DREAM (Development, Relief, and Education for Alien Minors) Acts appear to be having a positive effect on increasing the college enrollment rates in Texas, even more so than the Texas Top 10% Plan, which requires that all graduates from the top 10% of their Texas high school class be admitted to any Texas public university (Heilig et al., 2011). Social Capital and College Knowledge Gaps Aside from academic content and skills needed by students to succeed in college, there are non-cognitive skills and college knowledge that is needed as well (Roderick et al., 2011; Sparkman et al., 2012). Collaboration between high schools and colleges needs to focus on building college-going cultures in order to foster college enrollment (Engberg & Wolniak, 2009). Skills such as time management, study and work habits, problem-solving, and coping skills contribute to a students ability to persevere in the college environment (Sparkman et al., 2012). There is also the role of social capital or the lack thereof that contributes to a students success; being able to successfully navigate the application, admissions, enrollment, and financial aid acquisition processes are equally important in determining whether or not a student is likely to complete their first-year, which is a key indicator of whether or not a student will acquire a bachelors degree (Roderick et al., 2009). Engberg and Wolniak (2009) examine the crucial role that the presence or lack of individual students and schools social capital has on whether or not students attend no college, two-year or four-year universities. Low-income and minority students, groups that are lacking when it comes to college knowledge, are more likely to attend two-year colleges or even less-selective four-year colleges, which suggests that simply meeting the qualifications for college entrance will not prompt these students to enroll in a university

LITERATURE REVIEW ON COLLEGE ACCESS (Roderick et al., 2009). An estimated one in five low socioeconomic students who would likely be eligible for financial aid never even complete the FAFSA (Free Application for Federal and State Aid), which in and of itself can be an indicator of whether or not a high school has a strong college-going culture (Roderick et al., 2009; Roderick et al., 2011). College Match and College Completion Another area to explore is the college choices of high school graduates. College choice theory is one theoretical framework that is used when examining the multitude of research questions that exist on the topic of college access (Heilig et al., 2011). Roderick et al. (2011) explores the issue of college choice and the likelihood of students to enroll in a match college, which means a college that equates to that students entrance qualifications. Santos et al. (2010) conducted research that showed that the perceptions of minority and low-income students negatively impact their decisions to apply at more prestigious universities, thus resulting in lower percentages of these students applying for selective college enrollment. Low-income, minority, and first generation students are more likely to under-match, in part due to the difficulty they have in effectively participating in a college search, especially if they are enrolled in a high school with a weak college-going climate (Roderick et al., 2009; Roderick et al., 2011). This is an important factor when it comes to determining a students likelihood of completing college and obtaining a degree (Roderick et al., 2009). Minority students are more likely to graduate with a college degree as the selectivity of the college they attend increases (Roderick et al., 2009). Roderick et al. (2011) presented results that indicated that when a qualified student attends a high school that has a strong college-going climate, that student is 12 to 17% more likely to enroll in a match or overmatch college versus an under-match.

LITERATURE REVIEW ON COLLEGE ACCESS It is not enough to simply increase the percentage of students who enroll in college. It is essential that high schools and colleges work toward increasing the college completion rates for all students, particularly minorities and low-income students. According to Roderick et al. (2009), Addressing the gap between rising aspirations and college completion is one of the most vexing problems in education today (p. 188). Sparkman et al. (2012) looked specifically at emotional intelligence factors that indicated the difference between students who complete college and those that simply enroll or even fail to enroll in college. Those attributes that were linked with college graduates were social responsibility, empathy and impulse control (Sparkman et al., 2012). In addition to examining indicators that will improve students college access, it is equally important to examine which factors will lead all students to finish college. Minority and Low-Income Students Disparities An overarching concern mentioned throughout the research on college access is the disparity that exists when it comes to access for low-income and minority students (Roderick et al., 2009; Roderick et al, 2011; Santos et al., 2010). This disparity has become a crucial issue to address because of the reduced demand for low-skill workers and an increased need for those with postsecondary training (Mudge & Higgins, 2011). This means that for these

underrepresented minorities, acquiring a college degree could be the difference between a life of prosperity or one of poverty (Mudge & Higgins, 2011). Research gathered by the Department of Education from 1980-2004 shows an overall increase in the percentage of graduates across all population subgroups, including low-income students, who immediately enrolled in college following high school; however, the disparity between the increase for white students as opposed to that of African-American and Latino students also increased (Roderick et al., 2009). Half of whites and less than one quarter of Latino and African American graduates meet college

LITERATURE REVIEW ON COLLEGE ACCESS readiness benchmarks (Roderick et al., 2009). Following the passing of Proposition 209 in California in 1996, which eliminated the consideration of race when admitting students to college, there was a considerable drop in the number of minority students being admitted to and enrolling in the University of California system, a drop that resulted in the system implementing a number of other steps such as expanded outreach and comprehensive admission review to increase the enrollment of minority students (Santos et al., 2010). Santos et al. (2010) also asserts that increasing diversity in the UC system is justifiable and necessary[and]entails valuing diversity at all phases of the college selection process through tangible actionsfrom application through graduation (p. 626). It is also important to focus on students who are immigrants and English Learners. Between 1990 and 2000, the national enrollment of children of immigrants in secondary schools grew by 64% and represented nearly 1 in 5 of all students in U.S. schools; in Texas specifically, the EL enrollment increased by 40% from 2000 to 2008 (Heilig et al., 2011). Heilig et al. (2011) also shared that only 11.6% of immigrants from Latin America possess a bachelors degree or higher. While the Texas Top 10% Law aimed at closing the gap in disparity for minority and specifically low-income students, the policy merely resulted in an increase in applicants from more affluent high schools (Roderick et al., 2011). Research must focus more on finding means to fill the social capital gap, helping low-income urban students find a college match, and facilitating the college choice process in order to address these disparities among underrepresented minorities (Roderick et al., 2011). Policy Recommendations Policies regarding college readiness, application, admission, and enrollment all need to be examined in order for President Obamas goals to be met. In addition to establishing clear

LITERATURE REVIEW ON COLLEGE ACCESS indicators of college readiness, there is a strong need to invest in building effective data systems that allow high schools to connect with their graduates postsecondary performance (Roderick et al., 2009). There is currently no effective system across grade levels or institutions that allows for tracking and provides methods of accountability for measuring college readiness and success rates (Roderick et al., 2009). A connection must be established that sets clear indicators of success, provides new feedback systems, and links high school performance with college outcomes (Roderick et al., 2009). Policies should help high schools align instructional practices with the performance needed for college readiness as well as close the social capital gap for lowincome and minority students (Engberg & Wolniak, 2010; Roderick et al., 2009;). Eligibility and entrance requirements need to be carefully examined in order to eliminate the disparities that exist when it comes to minority and low-income students college access (Santos et al., 2010). There is also evidence that there should be some explicit focus on developing students emotional intelligence through interventions at both the high school and university levels in order to facilitate higher rates of college enrollment and completion (Sparkman et al., 2012). Some recommended resources and programs to address some of these policy and practice concerns include the Texas Advanced Placement Incentive Program (Roderick et al., 2009), the American Diploma Project Network (Raphael & Kushman, 2009), and ACT and Education Trusts On Course for Success (Raphael & Kushman, 2009). Conclusion After examining numerous research articles on the topic of college access, it is apparent that there is a wide variety of lenses through which to examine the different issues. The challenges are apparent, but finding solutions to those challenges is a little less clear. The issue of college access, college completion, and the widening gaps when it comes to low-income and minority

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LITERATURE REVIEW ON COLLEGE ACCESS students enrollment all have a direct impact on the economic future of the United States (Mudge & Higgins, 2011). Despite the overabundance of research available on this topic, there are questions that still need to be answered. Why do more selective institutions produce more college graduates? How do educators determine the effectiveness of current programs that promote college enrollment and success, and how can those successes be replicated? What other kinds of college enrollment programs, other than financial, could assist in closing the gap and increasing college enrollment and completion? What types of qualitative research studies could contribute to the current knowledge base? Exploring possible answers to these questions will only add to the body of knowledge about college access and will enable educators to better prepare students for the path toward a college degree.

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LITERATURE REVIEW ON COLLEGE ACCESS References Adelman, C. (2006). The toolbox revisited: Paths to degree completion from high school through college. Retrieved November 29, 2012, from www.ed.gov/rschstat/research/pubs/toolboxrevisit/toolbox.pdf Engberg, M., & Wolniak, G. (2010). Examining the Effects of High School Contexts on Postsecondary Enrollment. Research In Higher Education, 51(2), 132-153. doi:10.1007/s11162-009-9150-y Greene, J.P., & Winters, M.S. (2005). Public High School Graduation and College-Readiness Rates: 1991-2002 (Education Working Paper No. 8). New York: NY: Manhattan Institute for Policy Research. Heilig, J., Rodriguez, C., & Somers, P. (2011). Immigrant DREAMs: English Learners, the Texas 10% Admissions Plan, and College Academic Success. Journal Of Latinos & Education, 10(2), 106-126. doi:10.1080/15348431.2011.556521 Mudge, S., & Higgins, D. J. (2010). College Access Programming: Removing Higher Education Barriers for Underrepresented Student Populations. International Journal Of Learning, 17(11), 123-139. Perna, L. W., Rowan-Kenyon, H., Bell, A., Thomas, S. L., & Chunyan, L. (2008). A Typology of Federal and State Programs Designed to Promote College Enrollment. Journal Of Higher Education, 79(3), 243-267. Raphael, J. & J. Kushman. (2009). Predicting Postsecondary Success. Principals Research Review, 4(3), 1-6.

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LITERATURE REVIEW ON COLLEGE ACCESS Roderick, M., Coca, V., & Nagaoka, J. (2011). Potholes on the Road to College: High School Effects in Shaping Urban Students Participation in College Application, Four-year College Enrollment, and College Match. Sociology Of Education, 84(3), 178-211. doi:10.1177/003804071141128 Roderick, M., Nagaoka, J., & Coca, V. (2009). College Readiness for All: The Challenge for Urban High Schools. Future Of Children, 19(1), 185-210. Santos, J. L., Cabrera, N. L., & Fosnacht, K. J. (2010). Is "Race-Neutral" Really Race-Neutral?: Disparate Impact Towards Underrepresented Minorities in Post-209 UC System Admissions. Journal Of Higher Education, 81(6), 605-631. Sparkman, L. A., Maulding, W. S., & Roberts, J. G. (2012). Non-Cognitive Predictors Of Student Success In College. College Student Journal, 46(3), 642-652. U.S. Department of Education. (2010). Executive Summary. Retrieved from:

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http://www.ed.gov/technology/netp-2010/executive-summary