Maths 1202 to 1800 AD

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Fibonacci number Perspective (geometry) Perspective (visual) Quartic function Lodovico Ferrari Gerolamo Cardano Ars Magna (Gerolamo Cardano) Nicolaus Copernicus Copernican heliocentrism Copernican Revolution Mathematical induction Equations for a falling body Galileo Galilei Johannes Kepler Logarithm John Napier Tessellation Platonic solid Mechanical calculator Analytic geometry Formula for primes Probability theory Probability Pascal's triangle Binomial distribution Bernoulli trial Bernoulli distribution Pascal's Wager Derivative Integral Isaac Newton Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Fundamental theorem of calculus Newton's laws of motion 1 17 18 20 33 34 39 41 69 77 79 87 90 118 138 158 162 169 179 197 204 210 215 221 235 243 245 247 256 271 292 315 336 344

Gravitation Axial precession Law of large numbers Normal distribution Seven Bridges of Knigsberg Goldbach's conjecture Leonhard Euler Euler characteristic Gambler's fallacy Complex number Natural logarithm Heptadecagon Carl Friedrich Gauss Arithmetic progression Geometric progression Fundamental theorem of algebra

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Fibonacci number

Fibonacci number
In mathematics, the Fibonacci numbers or Fibonacci series or Fibonacci sequence are the numbers in the following integer sequence: (sequence A000045 in OEIS) or, alternatively,[1]
A tiling with squares whose sides are successive Fibonacci numbers in length

By definition, the first two numbers in the Fibonacci sequence are 0 and 1 (alternatively, 1 and 1), and each subsequent number is the sum of the previous two. In mathematical terms, the sequence Fn of Fibonacci numbers is defined by the recurrence relation with seed values[2]

in the first form, or

A Fibonacci spiral created by drawing circular arcs connecting the opposite corners of squares in the Fibonacci tiling; this one uses squares of sizes 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, and 34. See golden spiral.

in the second form.

The Fibonacci sequence is named after Leonardo of Pisa, who was known as Fibonacci. Fibonacci's 1202 book Liber Abaci introduced the sequence to Western European mathematics,[3] although the sequence had been described earlier in Indian mathematics.[4][5][6] (By modern convention, the sequence begins either with F0=0 or with F1=1. The Liber Abaci began the sequence with F1=1, without an initial 0.) Fibonacci numbers are closely related to Lucas numbers in that they are a complementary pair of Lucas sequences. They are intimately connected with the golden ratio, for example the closest rational approximations to the ratio are 2/1,3/2,5/3,8/5,.... Applications include computer algorithms such as the Fibonacci search technique and the Fibonacci heap data structure, and graphs called Fibonacci cubes used for interconnecting parallel and distributed systems. They also appear in biological settings,[7] such as branching in trees, phyllotaxis (the arrangement of leaves on a stem), the fruit sprouts of a pineapple,[8] the flowering of artichoke, an uncurling fern and the arrangement of a pine cone.[9]

Fibonacci number

Origins
The Fibonacci sequence appears in Indian mathematics, in connection with Sanskrit prosody.[5][10] In the Sanskrit oral tradition, there was much emphasis on how long (L) syllables mix with the short (S), and counting the different patterns of L and S within a given fixed length results in the Fibonacci numbers; the number of patterns that are m short syllables long is the Fibonacci number Fm+1.[6] Susantha Goonatilake writes that the development of the Fibonacci sequence "is attributed in part to Pingala (200 BC), later being associated with Virahanka (c. 700 AD), Gopla (c. 1135), and Hemachandra (c. 1150)".[4] Parmanand Singh cites Pingala's cryptic formula misrau cha ("the two are mixed") and cites scholars who interpret it in context as saying that the cases for m beats (Fm+1) is obtained by adding a [S] to Fm cases and [L] to the Fm1 cases. He dates Pingala before 450 BCE.[11] However, the clearest exposition of the series arises in the work of Virahanka (c. 700 AD), whose own work is lost, but is available in a quotation by Gopala (c. 1135): Variations of two earlier meters [is the variation]... For example, for [a meter of length] four, variations of meters of two [and] three being mixed, five happens. [works out examples 8, 13, 21]... In this way, the process should be followed in all mtr-vttas [prosodic combinations].[12]

A page of Fibonacci's Liber Abaci from the Biblioteca Nazionale di Firenze showing (in box on right) the Fibonacci sequence with the position in the sequence labeled in Roman numerals and the value in Hindu-Arabic numerals.

The series is also discussed by Gopala (before 1135 AD) and by the Jain scholar Hemachandra (c. 1150). In the West, the Fibonacci sequence first appears in the book Liber Abaci (1202) by Leonardo of Pisa, known as Fibonacci.[3] Fibonacci considers the growth of an idealized (biologically unrealistic) rabbit population, assuming that: a newly born pair of rabbits, one male, one female, are put in a field; rabbits are able to mate at the age of one month so that at the end of its second month a female can produce another pair of rabbits; rabbits never die and a mating pair always produces one new pair (one male, one female) every month from the second month on. The puzzle that Fibonacci posed was: how many pairs will there be in one year? At the end of the first month, they mate, but there is still only 1 pair. At the end of the second month the female produces a new pair, so now there are 2 pairs of rabbits in the field. At the end of the third month, the original female produces a second pair, making 3 pairs in all in the field. At the end of the fourth month, the original female has produced yet another new pair, the female born two months ago produces her first pair also, making 5 pairs.

At the end of the nth month, the number of pairs of rabbits is equal to the number of new pairs (which is the number of pairs in month n2) plus the number of pairs alive last month (n1). This is the nth Fibonacci number.[13] The name "Fibonacci sequence" was first used by the 19th-century number theorist douard Lucas.[14]

Fibonacci number

List of Fibonacci numbers

The first 21 Fibonacci numbers Fn for n=0,1,2, ..., 20 are:[15]
F0 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8 F9 F10 F11 F12 F13 F14 F15 F16 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 F17 F18 F19 F20

89 144 233 377 610 987 1597 2584 4181 6765

The sequence can also be extended to negative index n using the re-arranged recurrence relation which yields the sequence of "negafibonacci" numbers[16] satisfying

Thus the bidirectional sequence is

F8 F7 F6 F5 F4 F3 F2 F1 F0 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8 21 13 8 5 3 2 1 1 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21

Occurrences in mathematics
The Fibonacci numbers occur in the sums of "shallow" diagonals in Pascal's triangle (see Binomial coefficient).[17]

The Fibonacci numbers can be found in different ways in the sequence of binary strings. The number of binary strings of The Fibonacci numbers are the sums of the "shallow" diagonals (shown in red) of Pascal's length n without consecutive 1s is triangle. the Fibonacci number Fn+2. For example, out of the 16 binary strings of length 4, there are F6 = 8 without consecutive 1s they are 0000, 0100, 0010, 0001, 0101, 1000, 1010 and 1001. By symmetry, the number of strings of length n without consecutive 0s is also Fn+2. The number of binary strings of length n without an odd number of consecutive 1s is the Fibonacci number Fn+1. For example, out of the 16 binary strings of length 4, there are F5 = 5 without an odd number of consecutive 1s they are 0000, 0011, 0110, 1100, 1111. The number of binary strings of length n without an even number of consecutive 0s or 1s is 2Fn. For example, out of the 16 binary strings of length 4, there are 2F4 = 6 without an even number of consecutive 0s or 1s they are 0001, 1000, 1110, 0111, 0101, 1010.

Fibonacci number

Relation to the golden ratio

Closed-form expression
Like every sequence defined by a linear recurrence with constant coefficients, the Fibonacci numbers have a closed-form solution. It has become known as Binet's formula, even though it was already known by Abraham de Moivre:[18]

where

is the golden ratio (sequence A001622 in OEIS), and

[19]

To see this,[20] note that and are both solutions of the equations

so the powers of and satisfy the Fibonacci recursion. In other words

and

It follows that for any values a and b, the sequence defined by

satisfies the same recurrence

If a and b are chosen so that U0=0 and U1=1 then the resulting sequence Un must be the Fibonacci sequence. This is the same as requiring a and b satisfy the system of equations:

which has solution

producing the required formula.

Computation by rounding
Since

for all n 0, the number Fn is the closest integer to

Therefore it can be found by rounding, or in terms of the floor function:

Fibonacci number

Or the nearest integer function:

Similarly, if we already know that the number F > 1 is a Fibonacci number, we can determine its index within the sequence by

Limit of consecutive quotients

Johannes Kepler observed that the ratio of consecutive Fibonacci numbers converges. He wrote that "as 5 is to 8 so is 8 to 13, practically, and as 8 is to 13, so is 13 to 21 almost", and concluded that the limit approaches the golden ratio .[21]

This convergence does not depend on the starting values chosen, excluding 0, 0. For example, the initial values 19 and 31 generate the sequence 19, 31, 50, 81, 131, 212, 343, 555 ... etc. The ratio of consecutive terms in this sequence shows the same convergence towards the golden ratio. In fact this holds for any sequence which satisfies the Fibonacci recurrence other than a sequence of 0's. This can be derived from Binet's formula. Another consequence is that the limit of the ratio of two Fibonacci numbers offset by a particular finite deviation in index corresponds to the golden ratio raised by that deviation. Or, in other words:

Decomposition of powers of the golden ratio

Since the golden ratio satisfies the equation

this expression can be used to decompose higher powers Fibonacci numbers as the linear coefficients: This equation can be proved by induction on This expression is also true for Fibonacci rule .

as a linear function of lower powers, which in turn can and 1. The resulting recurrence relationships yield

be decomposed all the way down to a linear combination of

if the Fibonacci sequence

is extended to negative integers using the

Fibonacci number

Matrix form
A 2-dimensional system of linear difference equations that describes the Fibonacci sequence is

The eigenvalues of the matrix A are and , are in the ratios and

and

, and the elements of the eigenvectors of A,

Using these facts, and the properties of eigenvalues, we can derive a

direct formula for the nth element in the Fibonacci series as an analytic function of n:

The matrix has a determinant of 1, and thus it is a 22 unimodular matrix. This property can be understood in terms of the continued fraction representation for the golden ratio:

The Fibonacci numbers occur as the ratio of successive convergents of the continued fraction for formed from successive convergents of any continued fraction has a determinant of +1 or 1. The matrix representation gives the following closed expression for the Fibonacci numbers:

, and the matrix

Taking the determinant of both sides of this equation yields Cassini's identity

Additionally, since

for any square matrix A, the following identities can be derived:

In particular, with

Recognizing Fibonacci numbers

The question may arise whether a positive integer z is a Fibonacci number. Since , the most straightforward, brute-force test is the identity is the closest integer to

which is true if and only if z is a Fibonacci number. In this formula,

can be computed rapidly using any of the

previously discussed closed-form expressions. One implication of the above expression is this: if it is known that a number z is a Fibonacci number, we may determine an n such that F(n) = z by the following:

Fibonacci number

Alternatively, a positive integer z is a Fibonacci number if and only if one of square.

[22]

or

is a perfect are

A slightly more sophisticated test uses the fact that the convergents of the continued fraction representation of ratios of successive Fibonacci numbers. That is, the inequality

(with coprime positive integers p, q) is true if and only if p and q are successive Fibonacci numbers. From this one derives the criterion that z is a Fibonacci number if and only if the closed interval

contains a positive integer.[23] For

, it is easy to show that this interval contains at most one integer, and in

the event that z is a Fibonacci number, the contained integer is equal to the next successive Fibonacci number after z. Somewhat remarkably, this result still holds for the case , but it must be stated carefully since appears twice in the Fibonacci sequence, and thus has two distinct successors.

Combinatorial identities
Most identities involving Fibonacci numbers can be proven using combinatorial arguments using the fact that Fn can be interpreted as the number of sequences of 1s and 2s that sum to n 1. This can be taken as the definition of Fn, with the convention that F0 = 0, meaning no sum will add up to 1, and that F1 = 1, meaning the empty sum will "add up" to 0. Here the order of the summand matters. For example, 1 + 2 and 2 + 1 are considered two different sums. For example, the recurrence relation

or in words, the nth Fibonacci number is the sum of the previous two Fibonacci numbers, may be shown by dividing the F(n) sums of 1s and 2s that add to n1 into two non-overlapping groups. One group contains those sums whose first term is 1 and the other those sums whose first term is 2. In the first group the remaining terms add to n2, so it has F(n1) sums, and in the second group the remaining terms add to n3, so there are F(n2) sums. So there are a total of F(n1)+F(n2) sums altogether, showing this is equal to F(n). Similarly, it may be shown that the sum of the first Fibonacci numbers up to the nth is equal to the n+2nd Fibonacci number minus 1.[24] In symbols:

This is done by dividing the sums adding to n+1 in a different way, this time by the location of the first 2. Specifically, the first group consists of those sums that start with 2, the second group those that start 1+2, the third 1+1+2, and so on, until the last group which consists of the single sum where only 1's are used. The number of sums in the first group is F(n), F(n-1) in the second group, and so on, with 1 sum in the last group. So the total number of sums is F(n)+F(n1)+...+F(1)+1 and therefore this quantity is equal to F(n+2) A similar argument, grouping the sums by the position of the first 1 rather than the first 2, gives two more identities:

and

Fibonacci number

In words, the sum of the first Fibonacci numbers with odd index up to F2n-1 is the (2n)th Fibonacci number, and the sum of the first Fibonacci numbers with even index up to F2n is the (2n+1)th Fibonacci number minus 1.[25] A different trick may be used to prove

or in words, the sum of the squares of the first Fibonacci numbers up to Fn is the product of the nth and (n+1)th Fibonacci numbers. In this case note that Fibonacci rectangle of size Fn by F(n+1) can be decomposed into squares of size Fn, Fn1, and so on to F1=1, from which the identity follows by comparing areas.

Other identities
There are numerous other identities which can be derived using various methods. Some of the most noteworthy are:[26] (Catalan's identity) (Cassini's identity) (d'Ocagne's identity)

where Ln is the n'th Lucas Number. The last is an identity for doubling n; other identities of this type are by Cassini's identity.

These can be found experimentally using lattice reduction, and are useful in setting up the special number field sieve to factorize a Fibonacci number. More generally,[26]

of which a special case is

Doubling identities of this type can be used to calculate Fn using O(logn) long multiplication operations of size n bits. The number of bits of precision needed to perform each multiplication doubles at each step, so the performance is limited by the final multiplication; if the fast SchnhageStrassen multiplication algorithm is used, this is O(nlognloglogn) bit operations.

Fibonacci number

Power series
The generating function of the Fibonacci sequence is the power series

This series has a simple and interesting closed-form solution for

:[27]

This solution can be proven by using the Fibonacci recurrence to expand each coefficient in the infinite sum defining :

Solving the equation

for

results in the closed form solution. ,[28] or more generally

In particular, math puzzle-books note the curious value

for all integers More generally,

Reciprocal sums
Infinite sums over reciprocal Fibonacci numbers can sometimes be evaluated in terms of theta functions. For example, we can write the sum of every odd-indexed reciprocal Fibonacci number as

and the sum of squared reciprocal Fibonacci numbers as

If we add 1 to each Fibonacci number in the first sum, there is also the closed form

and there is a nice nested sum of squared Fibonacci numbers giving the reciprocal of the golden ratio,

Fibonacci number

10

Results such as these make it plausible that a closed formula for the plain sum of reciprocal Fibonacci numbers could be found, but none is yet known. Despite that, the reciprocal Fibonacci constant

has been proved irrational by Richard Andr-Jeannin. Millin series gives a remarkable identity:[29]

which follows from the closed form for its partial sums as N tends to infinity:

Primes and divisibility

Divisibility properties
Every 3rd number of the sequence is even and more generally, every kth number of the sequence is a multiple of Fk. Thus the Fibonacci sequence is an example of a divisibility sequence. In fact, the Fibonacci sequence satisfies the stronger divisibility property

Fibonacci primes
A Fibonacci prime is a Fibonacci number that is prime. The first few are: 2, 3, 5, 13, 89, 233, 1597, 28657, 514229, (sequence A005478 in OEIS). Fibonacci primes with thousands of digits have been found, but it is not known whether there are infinitely many.[30] Fkn is divisible by Fn, so, apart from F4 = 3, any Fibonacci prime must have a prime index. As there are arbitrarily long runs of composite numbers, there are therefore also arbitrarily long runs of composite Fibonacci numbers. With the exceptions of 1, 8 and 144 (F1 = F2, F6 and F12) every Fibonacci number has a prime factor that is not a factor of any smaller Fibonacci number (Carmichael's theorem).[31] 144 is the only nontrivial square Fibonacci number.[32] Attila Peth proved[33] in 2001 that there are only finitely many perfect power Fibonacci numbers. In 2006, Y. Bugeaud, M. Mignotte, and S. Siksek proved that only 8 and 144 are non-trivial perfect powers.[34] No Fibonacci number greater than F6 = 8 is one greater or one less than a prime number.[35] Any three consecutive Fibonacci numbers, taken two at a time, are relatively prime: that is, gcd(Fn, Fn+1) = gcd(Fn, Fn+2) = 1. More generally, gcd(Fn, Fm) = Fgcd(n, m).[36][37]

Fibonacci number

11

Prime divisors of Fibonacci numbers

The divisibility of Fibonacci numbers by a prime p is related to the Legendre symbol follows: which is evaluated as

If p is a prime number then For example,

[38][39]

It is not known whether there exists a prime p such that would be called WallSunSun primes. Also, if p 5 is an odd prime number then:[40]

. Such primes (if there are any)

Examples of all the cases:

For odd n, all odd prime divisors of Fn are 1(mod4), implying that all odd divisors of Fn (as the products of odd prime divisors) are 1(mod4).[41] For example, F1 = 1, F3 = 2, F5 = 5, F7 = 13, F9 = 34 = 217, F11 = 89, F13 = 233, F15 = 610 = 2561

Fibonacci number All known factors of Fibonacci numbers F(i) for all i < 50000 are collected at the relevant repositories.[42][43]

12

Periodicity modulo n
It may be seen that if the members of the Fibonacci sequence are taken modn, the resulting sequence must be periodic with period at mostn2-1. The lengths of the periods for various n form the so-called Pisano periods (sequence A001175 in OEIS). Determining the Pisano periods in general is an open problem, although for any particular n it can be solved as an instance of cycle detection.

Right triangles
Starting with 5, every second Fibonacci number is the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle with integer sides, or in other words, the largest number in a Pythagorean triple. The length of the longer leg of this triangle is equal to the sum of the three sides of the preceding triangle in this series of triangles, and the shorter leg is equal to the difference between the preceding bypassed Fibonacci number and the shorter leg of the preceding triangle. The first triangle in this series has sides of length 5, 4, and 3. Skipping 8, the next triangle has sides of length 13, 12 (5+4+3), and 5 (83). Skipping 21, the next triangle has sides of length 34, 30 (13+12+5), and 16 (215). This series continues indefinitely. The triangle sides a, b, c can be calculated directly:

These formulas satisfy

for all n, but they only represent triangle sides whenn>2.

Any four consecutive Fibonacci numbers Fn, Fn+1, Fn+2 and Fn+3 can also be used to generate a Pythagorean triple in a different way[44]:

Example 1: let the Fibonacci numbers be 1, 2, 3 and 5. Then:

Magnitude
Since is asymptotic to , the number of digits in is asymptotic to . As a consequence, for every integer there are either 4 or 5 Fibonacci numbers with d decimal digits. More generally, in the base b representation, the number of digits in is asymptotic to .

Applications
The Fibonacci numbers are important in the computational run-time analysis of Euclid's algorithm to determine the greatest common divisor of two integers: the worst case input for this algorithm is a pair of consecutive Fibonacci numbers.[45] Yuri Matiyasevich was able to show that the Fibonacci numbers can be defined by a Diophantine equation, which led to his original solution of Hilbert's tenth problem. The Fibonacci numbers are also an example of a complete sequence. This means that every positive integer can be written as a sum of Fibonacci numbers, where any one number is used once at most. Specifically, every positive

Fibonacci number integer can be written in a unique way as the sum of one or more distinct Fibonacci numbers in such a way that the sum does not include any two consecutive Fibonacci numbers. This is known as Zeckendorf's theorem, and a sum of Fibonacci numbers that satisfies these conditions is called a Zeckendorf representation. The Zeckendorf representation of a number can be used to derive its Fibonacci coding. Fibonacci numbers are used by some pseudorandom number generators. Fibonacci numbers are used in a polyphase version of the merge sort algorithm in which an unsorted list is divided into two lists whose lengths correspond to sequential Fibonacci numbers by dividing the list so that the two parts have lengths in the approximate proportion . A tape-drive implementation of the polyphase merge sort was described in The Art of Computer Programming. Fibonacci numbers arise in the analysis of the Fibonacci heap data structure. The Fibonacci cube is an undirected graph with a Fibonacci number of nodes that has been proposed as a network topology for parallel computing. A one-dimensional optimization method, called the Fibonacci search technique, uses Fibonacci numbers.[46] The Fibonacci number series is used for optional lossy compression in the IFF 8SVX audio file format used on Amiga computers. The number series compands the original audio wave similar to logarithmic methods such as -law.[47][48] Since the conversion factor 1.609344 for miles to kilometers is close to the golden ratio (denoted ), the decomposition of distance in miles into a sum of Fibonacci numbers becomes nearly the kilometer sum when the Fibonacci numbers are replaced by their successors. This method amounts to a radix 2 number register in golden ratio base being shifted. To convert from kilometers to miles, shift the register down the Fibonacci sequence instead.[49]

13

In nature
Fibonacci sequences appear in biological settings,[7] in two consecutive Fibonacci numbers, such as branching in trees, arrangement of leaves on a stem, the fruitlets of a pineapple,[8] the flowering of artichoke, an uncurling fern and the arrangement of a pine cone.[9] In addition, numerous poorly substantiated claims of Fibonacci numbers or golden sections in nature are found in popular sources, e.g., relating to the breeding of rabbits, the seeds on a sunflower, the spirals of shells, and the curve of waves.[50] The Fibonacci numbers are also found in the family tree of honeybees.[51] Przemysaw Prusinkiewicz advanced the idea that real instances can in part be understood as the expression of certain algebraic constraints on free groups, specifically as certain Lindenmayer grammars.[52]

Yellow Chamomile head showing the arrangement in 21 (blue) and 13 (aqua) spirals. Such arrangements involving consecutive Fibonacci numbers appear in a wide variety of plants.

Fibonacci number

14 A model for the pattern of florets in the head of a sunflower was proposed by H. Vogel in 1979.[53] This has the form

where n is the index number of the floret and c is a constant scaling factor; the florets thus lie on Fermat's spiral. The divergence angle, approximately 137.51, is the golden angle, dividing the circle in the golden ratio. Because this ratio is irrational, no floret has a neighbor at exactly the same angle from the center, so the florets pack efficiently. Because the rational approximations to the golden ratio are of the form F(j):F(j+1), the nearest neighbors of floret number n are those at Illustration of Vogel's model for n=1... 500 nF(j) for some index j which depends on r, the distance from the center. It is often said that sunflowers and similar arrangements have 55 spirals in one direction and 89 in the other (or some other pair of adjacent Fibonacci numbers), but this is true only of one range of radii, typically the outermost and thus most conspicuous.[54]

The bee ancestry code

Fibonacci numbers also appear in the description of the reproduction of a population of idealized honeybees, according to the following rules: If an egg is laid by an unmated female, it hatches a male or drone bee. If, however, an egg was fertilized by a male, it hatches a female. Thus, a male bee will always have one parent, and a female bee will have two. If one traces the ancestry of any male bee (1 bee), he has 1 parent (1 bee), 2 grandparents, 3 great-grandparents, 5 great-great-grandparents, and so on. This sequence of numbers of parents is the Fibonacci sequence. The number of ancestors at each level, Fn, is the number of female ancestors, which is Fn1, plus the number of male ancestors, which is Fn2.[55] (This is under the unrealistic assumption that the ancestors at each level are otherwise unrelated.)

Generalizations
The Fibonacci sequence has been generalized in many ways. These include: Generalizing the index to negative integers to produce the Negafibonacci numbers. Generalizing the index to real numbers using a modification of Binet's formula.[26] Starting with other integers. Lucas numbers have L1 = 1, L2 = 3, and Ln = Ln1 + Ln2. Primefree sequences use the Fibonacci recursion with other starting points in order to generate sequences in which all numbers are composite. Letting a number be a linear function (other than the sum) of the 2 preceding numbers. The Pell numbers have Pn = 2Pn 1 + Pn 2. Not adding the immediately preceding numbers. The Padovan sequence and Perrin numbers have P(n) = P(n 2) + P(n 3). Generating the next number by adding 3 numbers (tribonacci numbers), 4 numbers (tetranacci numbers), or more. The resulting sequences are known as n-Step Fibonacci numbers.[56] Adding other objects than integers, for example functions or stringsone essential example is Fibonacci polynomials.

Fibonacci number

15

Notes
[1] [2] [3] [4] See for example Beck and Geoghegan (2010), or Bona (2011), page 180. Lucas p. 3 Sigler (trans.) (2002), Chapter II.12, pp. 404405. Susantha Goonatilake (1998). Toward a Global Science (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=SI5ip95BbgEC& pg=PA126& dq=Virahanka+ Fibonacci). Indiana University Press. p.126. ISBN978-0-253-33388-9. . [5] Singh, Parmanand (1985). "The So-called Fibonacci numbers in ancient and medieval India". Historia Mathematica 12 (3): 229244. doi:10.1016/0315-0860(85)90021-7. [6] Donald Knuth (2006). The Art of Computer Programming: Generating All TreesHistory of Combinatorial Generation; Volume 4 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=56LNfE2QGtYC& pg=PA50& dq=rhythms). AddisonWesley. p.50. ISBN978-0-321-33570-8. . quote: it was natural to consider the set of all sequences of [L] and [S] that have exactly m beats. ... there are exactly Fm+1 of them. For example the 21 sequences when m=7 are: [gives list]. In this way Indian prosodists were led to discover the Fibonacci sequence, as we have observed in Section 1.2.8 (from v.1) [7] S. Douady and Y. Couder (1996). "Phyllotaxis as a Dynamical Self Organizing Process" (http:/ / www. math. ntnu. no/ ~jarlet/ Douady96. pdf) (PDF). Journal of Theoretical Biology 178 (178): 255274. doi:10.1006/jtbi.1996.0026. . [8] Jones, Judy; William Wilson (2006). "Science". An Incomplete Education. Ballantine Books. p.544. ISBN978-0-7394-7582-9. [9] A. Brousseau (1969). "Fibonacci Statistics in Conifers". Fibonacci Quarterly (7): 525532. [10] Donald Knuth (1968). The Art Of Computer Programming, Volume 1 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=MooMkK6ERuYC& pg=PA100& dq=knuth+ gopala+ fibonacci#v=onepage& ). Addison Wesley. ISBN81-7758-754-4. .quote: "Before Fibonacci wrote his work, the sequence Fn had already been discussed by Indian scholars, who had long been interested in rhythmic patterns... both Gopala (before 1135AD) and Hemachandra (c.1150) mentioned the numbers 1,2,3,5,8,13,21 explicitly. [See P. Singh Historia Math 12 (1985) 229244]" p. 100 (3d ed)... [11] [Agrawala. V. S. 1969]. Piniklna Bhratavara (Hn.). Varanasi-I: TheChowkhamba Vidyabhawan. [12] Velankar, H. D. (1962.). Vttajtisamuccaya of kavi Virahanka. Rajasthan Oriental Research Institute, Jodhpur. p.101. [13] Knott, Ron. "Fibonacci's Rabbits" (http:/ / www. maths. surrey. ac. uk/ hosted-sites/ R. Knott/ Fibonacci/ fibnat. html#Rabbits). University of Surrey Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences. . [14] Martin Gardner (1996). Mathematical Circus. The Mathematical Association of America. ISBN0-88385-506-2.quote: "It is ironic that Leonardo, who made valuable contributions to mathematics, is remembered today mainly because a 19th-century French number theorist, Edouard Lucas ... attached the name Fibonacci to a number sequence that appears in a trivial problem in Liber abaci." p.153 [15] The website (http:/ / www. maths. surrey. ac. uk/ hosted-sites/ R. Knott/ Fibonacci/ fibtable. html) has the first 300 Fn factored into primes and links to more extensive tables. [16] Knuth, Donald. "Negafibonacci Numbers and the Hyperbolic Plane" Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Mathematical Association of America, The Fairmont Hotel, San Jose, CA. 2008-12-11 <http://research.allacademic.com/meta/p206842_index.html> [17] Lucas p. 7 [18] Weisstein, Eric W., " Binet's Fibonacci Number Formula (http:/ / mathworld. wolfram. com/ BinetsFibonacciNumberFormula. html)" from MathWorld. [19] Ball p. 156 [20] Following Ball p. 155-156 [21] Kepler, Johannes (1966). A New Year Gift: On Hexagonal Snow. Oxford University Press. p.92. ISBN0-19-858120-3. Strena seu de Nive Sexangula (1611). [22] Gessel, Ira (October 1972). "Fibonacci is a Square" (http:/ / www. fq. math. ca/ Scanned/ 10-4/ advanced10-4. pdf) (PDF). The Fibonacci Quarterly 10 (4): 417-419. . Retrieved April 11, 2012. [23] M.Mbius, Wie erkennt man eine Fibonacci Zahl?, Math. Semesterber. (1998) 45; 243246. [24] Lucas p. 4 [25] Vorobiev, Nikola Nikolaevich; Mircea Martin (2002). "Chapter 1". Fibonacci Numbers. Birkhuser. pp.56. ISBN3-7643-6135-2. [26] Weisstein, Eric W., " Fibonacci Number (http:/ / mathworld. wolfram. com/ FibonacciNumber. html)" from MathWorld. [27] Glaister, P.. Fibonacci power series. The Mathematical Gazette, 1995, p. 521. [28] Khler, Gnter (February 1985). "Generating functions of Fibonacci-like sequences and decimal expansions of some fractions" (http:/ / www. fq. math. ca/ Scanned/ 23-1/ kohler. pdf) (PDF). The Fibonacci Quarterly 23 (1): 2935. . Retrieved December 31, 2011. [29] Weisstein, Eric W., " Millin Series (http:/ / mathworld. wolfram. com/ MillinSeries. html)" from MathWorld. [30] Weisstein, Eric W., " Fibonacci Prime (http:/ / mathworld. wolfram. com/ FibonacciPrime. html)" from MathWorld. [31] Ron Knott, "The Fibonacci numbers" (http:/ / www. maths. surrey. ac. uk/ hosted-sites/ R. Knott/ Fibonacci/ fibtable. html). [32] J H E Cohn (1964). "Square Fibonacci Numbers Etc" (http:/ / math. la. asu. edu/ ~checkman/ SquareFibonacci. html). Fibonacci Quarterly 2: 109113. . [33] A. Peth, Diophantine properties of linear recursive sequences II, Acta Math. Paedagogicae Nyregyhziensis, 17(2001), 8196. [34] Y. Bugeaud, M. Mignotte, S. Siksek: Classical and modular approaches to exponential Diophantine equations. I. Fibonacci and Lucas perfect powers. Ann. Math. (2), 163(2006), 9691018. [35] Ross Honsberger Mathematical Gems III (AMS Dolciani Mathematical Expositions No. 9), 1985, ISBN 0-88385-318-3, p. 133. [36] Paulo Ribenboim, My Numbers, My Friends, Springer-Verlag 2000.

Fibonacci number
[37] Su, Francis E., et al. "Fibonacci GCD's, please." (http:/ / www. math. hmc. edu/ funfacts/ ffiles/ 20004. 5. shtml), Mudd Math Fun Facts. [38] Paulo Ribenboim (1996), The New Book of Prime Number Records, New York: Springer, ISBN 0-387-94457-5, p. 64. [39] Franz Lemmermeyer (2000), Reciprocity Laws, New York: Springer, ISBN 3-540-66957-4, ex 2.252.28, pp. 7374. [40] Lemmermeyer, ex. 2.28, pp. 7374. [41] Lemmermeyer, ex. 2.27 p. 73. [42] Fibonacci and Lucas factorizations (http:/ / mersennus. net/ fibonacci/ ) collects all known factors of F(i) with i<10000. [43] Factors of Fibonacci and Lucas numbers (http:/ / fibonacci. redgolpe. com/ ) collects all known factors of F(i) with 10000<i<50000. [44] Koshy, Thomas (2007). Elementary number theory with applications. Academic Press. p.581. ISBN0-12-372487-2. [45] Knuth, Donald E. (1997). The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 1: Fundamental Algorithms (3rd ed.). AddisonWesley. ISBN0-201-89683-4. (p. 343). [46] M. Avriel and D.J. Wilde (1966). "Optimality of the Symmetric Fibonacci Search Technique". Fibonacci Quarterly (3): 265269. [47] Amiga ROM Kernel Reference Manual, AddisonWesley 1991. [48] IFF MultimediaWiki (http:/ / wiki. multimedia. cx/ index. php?title=IFF#Fibonacci_Delta_Compression). [49] Zeckendorf representation (http:/ / www. encyclopediaofmath. org/ index. php/ Zeckendorf_representation). [50] "Fibonacci Flim-Flam" (http:/ / www. lhup. edu/ ~dsimanek/ pseudo/ fibonacc. htm). . [51] "Marks for the da Vinci Code: B" (http:/ / www. cs4fn. org/ maths/ bee-davinci. php). Computer Science For Fun: CS4FN. . [52] Prusinkiewicz, Przemyslaw; James Hanan (1989). Lindenmayer Systems, Fractals, and Plants (Lecture Notes in Biomathematics). Springer-Verlag. ISBN0-387-97092-4. [53] Vogel, H (1979). "A better way to construct the sunflower head". Mathematical Biosciences 44 (44): 179189. doi:10.1016/0025-5564(79)90080-4 [54] Prusinkiewicz, Przemyslaw; Lindenmayer, Aristid (1990). [[The Algorithmic Beauty of Plants (http:/ / algorithmicbotany. org/ papers/ #webdocs)]]. Springer-Verlag. pp.101107. ISBN978-0-387-97297-8. . [55] The Fibonacci Numbers and the Ancestry of Bees (http:/ / www1. math. american. edu/ newstudents/ shared/ puzzles/ fibbee. html). [56] Weisstein, Eric W., " Fibonacci n-Step Number (http:/ / mathworld. wolfram. com/ Fibonaccin-StepNumber. html)" from MathWorld.

16

References
Ball, Keith M. (2003). "Chapter 8: Fibonacci's Rabbits Revisited". Strange Curves, Counting Rabbits, and Other Mathematical Explorations. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN0-691-11321-1. Beck, Matthias; Geoghegan, Ross (2010). The Art of Proof: Basic Training for Deeper Mathematics. New York: Springer. Bna, Mikls (2011). A Walk Through Combinatorics (third ed.). New Jersey: World Scientific. Lucas, douard (1891). Thorie des nombres. 1. Gauthier-Villars. Sigler, Laurence E. (2002). Fibonaccis Liber Abaci: A Translation into Modern English of Leonardo Pisanos Book of Calculation. Sources and Studies in the History of Mathematics and Physical Sciences. Springer. ISBN0-387-95419-8(hardback), 978-0-387-40737-1 (paperback).

External links
Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001), "Fibonacci numbers" (http://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index. php?title=p/f040020), Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer, ISBN978-1-55608-010-4 Fibonacci Sequence (http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b008ct2j) on In Our Time at the BBC. ( listen now (http://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/console/b008ct2j/In_Our_Time_Fibonacci_Sequence)) " Sloane's A000045 : Fibonacci Numbers (http://oeis.org/A000045)", The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. Periods of Fibonacci Sequences Mod m (http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath078/kmath078.htm) at MathPages Scientists find clues to the formation of Fibonacci spirals in nature (http://www.physorg.com/news97227410. html) Implementation to calculate Fibonacci sequence in Lisp (http://wikinternet.com/wordpress/code/lisp/ fibonacci-number/)

Perspective (geometry)

17

Perspective (geometry)
In geometry, two triangles are perspective (or homologic) if, when the sides of each triangle are extended, they meet at three collinear points. The line which goes through the three points is known as the perspectrix, perspective axis, homology axis, or axis of perspectivity. The triangles are said to be perspective from the line.[1] The point at which the lines joining the vertices of the perspective triangle intersect is called the perspector, perspective center, homology center, pole, or center of perspectivity. Karl von Staudt introduced the notation for the relation of triangles ABC and abc.[2]
A diagram of perspective triangles

References
[1] Weisstein, Eric W., " Perspective Triangles (http:/ / mathworld. wolfram. com/ PerspectiveTriangles. html)" from MathWorld. [2] Coxeter 1942 21,2

H. S. M. Coxeter (1942) Non-Euclidean Geometry, University of Toronto Press, reissued 1998 by Mathematical Association of America, ISBN 0-88385-522-4 .

Perspective (visual)

18

Perspective (visual)
Perspective, in context of vision and visual perception, is the way in which objects appear to the eye based on their spatial attributes; or their dimensions and the position of the eye relative to the objects. There are two main meanings of the term: linear perspective and aerial perspective. The development of new forms of geometric projection in the construction of perspective corresponds with the invention of novel pictorial art forms of visual representation in the Italian Renaissance, since the fourteenth century and up till the end of the sixteenth century, A sharpened pencil in extreme perspective. Note and specifically within the circles of architectural and artistic the shallow depth of field. experimentation and design. Treatises were composed on perspective by eminent theorists of art and architecture, including figures like Leon Battista Alberti, Lorenzo Ghiberti, and Piero della Francesca, aided also by experimental uses of optical devices through the installations of Filippo Brunelleschi. The investigations and writings of these Renaissance theorists of architecture and visual art were informed by the studies in classical optics of thirteenth-century Franciscan perspectivists like Roger Bacon, John Peckham, and Witelo, who all were directly inspired and influenced by the translation into Latin from Arabic of the Book of Optics (known in Latinate renditions as Perspectiva, and in Arabic as Kitab al-manazir) of the eleventh-century Arab polymath and optician, Alhazen (Ibn al-Haytham).[1]

Linear perspective
As objects become more distant they appear smaller because their visual angle decreases. The visual angle of an object is the angle subtended at the eye by a triangle with the object at its base. The greater the distance of the object from the eye, the greater is the height of this triangle, and the less the visual angle. This follows simply from Euclidean geometry.[2] The Sun and the Moon appear to be roughly the same size because the Sun, although much larger, is also much farther away. The relationship between distance and apparent height of objects is an inverse-linear function:

where h is the apparent height, d is the distance of the object, and a is the actual size of the object. So if you want to find the true height of an object in the distance, multiply the apparent height with the distance the object is from you.

Railway tracks appear to meet at a distant point.

Hypothetically, if an object were positioned at the focal point of the light entering the eye (i.e., at the single point in space that the rays of light cross over), it would appear infinitely tall.

Perspective (visual)

19

Perspective is also seen in the way the parallel lines of railway tracks appear to meet at a distant point, the vanishing point. This point lies on a line, called the geometrical horizon, at the level of the viewer's eye. Because the Earth's surface is curved, the true horizon (the line dividing the ground and the sky) is lower than this apparent horizon. The difference is imperceptibly small when standing on the surface, but noticeable from great height (a person standing on a mountain can see further than someone at ground level). (See horizon for more information.)

A flat road approaching the horizon shows a similar effect when observed obliquely.

In graphic representation, an artist uses intuitive, artistic, scientific, or technical skills to represent the phenomenon of the visual perception of perspective. In simpler terms, these skills are used to add a suggestion of depth to what is ultimately a flat image or drawing. See Perspective (graphical). Forced perspective can be used to deliberately misrepresent an object's size, making something appear larger or smaller than it really is. This is common in film, where a distant castle in the background may in fact only be a cardboard model a few feet high (and much closer to the camera). These are forms of optical illusions.

Aerial perspective
Aerial perspective refers to the effect on the appearance of an ordinary object (i.e., other than a self-luminous object) of being viewed through the atmosphere. In daylight, as an ordinary object gets further from the eye, its contrast with the background is reduced, its colour saturation is reduced and its colour becomes more blue.

Film, television and video games

Perspective in film, television and video games can include first-person view, third-person view and other camera field of view effects.

References
[1] See: Nader El-Bizri, 'A Philosophical Perspective on Alhazen's Optics', Arabic Sciences and Philosophy (Cambridge University Press), Volume 15 (2005), pp. 189-218; Nader El-Bizri, 'Ibn al-Haytham et le problme de la couleur', Oriens-Occidens: Cahiers du centre d'histoire des sciences et des philosophies arabes et mdivales, Volume 7 (2009), pp. 201-226. [2] Burton, H. E. (1945). The optics of Euclid. Journal of the Optical Society of America, 35, 357-372.

External links
handprint.com elements of perspective (http://www.handprint.com/HP/WCL/tech10.html) Largest online treatment of linear perspective Harold Olejarz's Drawing in One-Point Perspective (http://www.olejarz.com/arted/perspective/) Educational Resource

Quartic function

20

Quartic function
In mathematics, a quartic function, or equation of the fourth degree, is a function of the form

where a is nonzero; or in other words, a polynomial of degree four. Such a function is sometimes called a biquadratic function, but the latter term can occasionally also refer to a quadratic function of a square, having the form

or a product of two quadratic factors, having the form

Setting form:

results in a quartic equation of the

Graph of a polynomial of degree 4, with 3 critical points.

where a 0. The derivative of a quartic function is a cubic function. Since a quartic function is a polynomial of even degree, it has the same limit when the argument goes to positive or negative infinity. If a is positive, then the function increases to positive infinity at both sides; and thus the function has a global minimum. Likewise, if a is negative, it decreases to negative infinity and has a global maximum. The quartic is the highest order polynomial equation that can be solved by radicals in the general case (i.e., one where the coefficients can take any value).

History
Lodovico Ferrari is attributed with the discovery of the solution to the quartic in 1540, but since this solution, like all algebraic solutions of the quartic, requires the solution of a cubic to be found, it couldn't be published immediately.[1] The solution of the quartic was published together with that of the cubic by Ferrari's mentor Gerolamo Cardano in the book Ars Magna (1545). It is reported that even earlier, in 1486, Spanish mathematician Paolo Valmes was burned at the stake for claiming to have solved the quartic equation. Inquisitor General Toms de Torquemada allegedly told him that it was the will of God that such a solution be inaccessible to human understanding.[2] However, attempts to find corroborating evidence for this story, or for the existence of Paolo Valmes, have not succeeded.[3] The proof that four is the highest degree of a general polynomial for which such solutions can be found was first given in the AbelRuffini theorem in 1824, proving that all attempts at solving the higher order polynomials would be futile. The notes left by variste Galois prior to dying in a duel in 1832 later led to an elegant complete theory of the roots of polynomials, of which this theorem was one result.[4]

Quartic function

21

Applications
Polynomials of high degrees often appear in problems involving optimization, and sometimes these polynomials happen to be quartics, but this is a coincidence. Quartics often arise in computer graphics and during ray-tracing against surfaces such as quadric or tori surfaces, which are the next level beyond the sphere and developable surfaces. Another frequent generator of quartics is the intersection of two ellipses. In computer-aided manufacturing, the torus is a common shape associated with the endmill cutter. To calculate its location relative to a triangulated surface, the position of a horizontal torus on the Z-axis must be found where it is tangent to a fixed line, and this requires the solution of a general quartic equation to be calculated. Over 10% of the computational time in a CAM system can be consumed simply calculating the solution to millions of quartic equations. A program demonstrating various analytic solutions to the quartic was provided in Graphics Gems Book V.[5] However, none of the three algorithms implemented are unconditionally stable. In an updated version of the paper,[6] which compares the 3 algorithms from the original paper and 2 others, it is demonstrated that computationally stable solutions exist only for 4 of the possible 16 sign combinations of the quartic coefficients.

Solving a quartic equation

The 4 roots ( ) for any quartic equation;

where

are equal to those of

where

and

. However, this formula is too unwieldy for general use, hence other methods or simpler formulas (given below) are generally used.[7]

The roots in terms of these 4 coefficients are given by the formula in the image below:

Quartic Formula

Special cases
Consider the quartic

Degenerate case If a0 = 0 then Q(0) = 0, and so x = 0 is a solution. It follows that Q(x) may be factorised as Q(x) = x(a4x3 + a3x2 + a2x + a1). The remaining three roots (see Fundamental Theorem of Algebra) can be found by solving the cubic equation a4x3 + a3x2 + a2x + a1 = 0.

Quartic function Evident roots: 1 and 1 and k If When is a root, we can divide then that is, by and get , so then is a root. Similarly, if

22

is a root.

where

is a cubic polynomial, which may be solved to find

's other roots. Similarly, if

is a root,

where If

is some cubic polynomial. then k is a root and we can factor out ,

And if

then both

and

are roots Now we can factor out

and get

To get Q 's other roots, we simply solve the quadratic factor. Biquadratic equations If then

We call such a polynomial a biquadratic, which is easy to solve. Let Then Q becomes a quadratic q in

Let

and

be the roots of q. Then the roots of our quartic Q are

Quasi-symmetric equations
Steps: 1. Divide by x2. 2. Use variable change z = x + m/x.

The general case, along Ferrari's lines

To begin, the quartic must first be converted to a depressed quartic.

Quartic function Converting to a depressed quartic Let

23

be the general quartic equation we want to solve. Divide both sides by A to produce a monic polynomial,

The first step should be to eliminate the x3 term. To do this, change variables from x to u, such that . Then

Expanding the powers of the binomials produces

Collecting the same powers of u yields

Now rename the coefficients of u. Let

The resulting equation is

which is a depressed quartic equation. If If then we have a biquadratic equation, which (as explained above) is easily solved; using reverse . and the other roots can be found by dividing by , and solving the then one of the roots is

substitution we can find our values for resulting depressed cubic equation,

Using reverse substitution we can find our values for

Quartic function Ferrari's solution Otherwise, the depressed quartic can be solved by means of a method discovered by Lodovico Ferrari. Once the depressed quartic has been obtained, the next step is to add the valid identity

24

to equation (1), yielding The effect has been to fold up the u4 term into a perfect square: (u2+)2. The second term, u2 did not disappear, but its sign has changed and it has been moved to the right side. The next step is to insert a variable y into the perfect square on the left side of equation (2), and a corresponding 2y into the coefficient of u2 in the right side. To accomplish these insertions, the following valid formulas will be added to equation (2),

and

These two formulas, added together, produce

which added to equation (2) produces

This is equivalent to

The objective now is to choose a value for y such that the right side of equation (3) becomes a perfect square. This can be done by letting the discriminant of the quadratic function become zero. To explain this, first expand a perfect square so that it equals a quadratic function:

The quadratic function on the right side has three coefficients. It can be verified that squaring the second coefficient and then subtracting four times the product of the first and third coefficients yields zero:

Therefore to make the right side of equation (3) into a perfect square, the following equation must be solved:

Multiply the binomial with the polynomial, Divide both sides by 4, and move the 2/4 to the right,

This is a cubic equation for y. Divide both sides by 2,

Quartic function Conversion of the nested cubic into a depressed cubic Equation (4) is a cubic equation nested within the quartic equation. It must be solved to solve the quartic. To solve the cubic, first transform it into a depressed cubic by means of the substitution

25

Equation (4) becomes

Expand the powers of the binomials,

Distribute, collect like powers of v, and cancel out the pair of v2 terms,

This is a depressed cubic equation. Relabel its coefficients,

The depressed cubic now is

Solving the nested depressed cubic The solutions (any solution will do, so pick any of the three complex roots) of equation (5) are computed as (see Cubic equation)

where

and V is computed according to the two defining equations

and

, so

Quartic function Folding the second perfect square With the value for y given by equation (6), it is now known that the right side of equation (3) is a perfect square of the form

26

(This is correct for both signs of square root, as long as the same sign is taken for both square roots. A is redundant, as it would be absorbed by another a few equations further down this page.) so that it can be folded: . Note: If 0 then + 2y 0. If = 0 then this would be a biquadratic equation, which we solved earlier. Therefore equation (3) becomes . Equation (7) has a pair of folded perfect squares, one on each side of the equation. The two perfect squares balance each other. If two squares are equal, then the sides of the two squares are also equal, as shown by: . Collecting like powers of u produces . Note: The subscript s of and is to note that they are dependent.

Equation (8) is a quadratic equation for u. Its solution is

Simplifying, one gets

This is the solution of the depressed quartic, therefore the solutions of the original quartic equation are

Remember: The two sign, while the sign of

come from the same place in equation (7'), and should both have the same is independent.

Quartic function Summary of Ferrari's method Given the quartic equation

27

its solution can be found by means of the following calculations:

If

then

Otherwise, continue with

(either sign of the square root will do)

(there are 3 complex roots, any one of them will do)

As stated above, Cardano credited Ferrari as the first to discover one of these labyrinthine solutions. The equation he solved was:

which was already in depressed form. It has a pair of solutions that can be found with the set of formulas shown above.

Quartic function Ferrari's solution in the special case of real coefficients If the coefficients of the quartic equation are real then the nested depressed cubic equation (5) also has real coefficients, thus it has at least one real root. Furthermore the cubic function and where and are given by (1). This means that (5) has a real root greater than Using this root the term real coefficients.[8] Obtaining alternative solutions by factoring out complex conjugate solutions It could happen that one only obtained one solution through the seven formulae above, because not all four sign patterns are tried for four solutions, and the solution obtained is complex. It may also be the case that one is only looking for a real solution. Let x1 denote the complex solution. If all the original coefficients A, B, C, D and E are real which should be the case when one desires only real solutions then there is another complex solution x2, which is the complex conjugate of x1. If the other two roots are denoted as x3 and x4 then the quartic equation can be expressed as , and therefore that (4) has a real root greater than . where P and Q are given by (5) has the properties that

28

in (8) is always real, which ensures that the two quadratic equations (8) have

but this quartic equation is equivalent to the product of two quadratic equations:

and

Since

then

Let

so that equation (9) becomes

Also let there be (unknown) variables w and v such that equation (10) becomes

Multiplying equations (11) and (12) produces

Comparing equation (13) to the original quartic equation, it can be seen that

Quartic function

29

and

Therefore

Equation (12) can be solved for x yielding

These two solutions are the desired real solutions if real solutions exist.

Alternative methods
Factorization into quadratics One can solve a quartic by factoring it into a product of two quadratics.[9] Let

By equating coefficients, this results in the following set of simultaneous equations:

This can be simplified by starting again with a depressed quartic where substituting for , then , and:

, which can be obtained by

It's now easy to eliminate both

and

by doing the following:

If we set

, then this equation turns into the resolvent cubic equation

which is solved elsewhere. Then:

Quartic function The symmetries in this solution are easy to see. There are three roots of the cubic, corresponding to the three ways that a quartic can be factored into two quadratics, and choosing positive or negative values of for the square root of merely exchanges the two quadratics with one another. The above solution shows that the quartic polynomial with a zero coefficient on the cubic term is factorable into quadratics with rational coefficients if and only if the resolvent cubic has a root which is the square of a rational; this can readily be checked using the rational root test. Galois theory and factorization The symmetric group S4 on four elements has the Klein four-group as a normal subgroup. This suggests using a resolvent cubic whose roots may be variously described as a discrete Fourier transform or a Hadamard matrix transform of the roots; see Lagrange resolvents for the general method. Suppose ri for i from 0 to 3 are roots of If we now set

30

then since the transformation is an involution we may express the roots in terms of the four si in exactly the same way. Since we know the value s0 = -b/2, we really only need the values for s1, s2 and s3. These we may find by expanding the polynomial

which if we make the simplifying assumption that b=0, is equal to This polynomial is of degree six, but only of degree three in z2, and so the corresponding equation is solvable. By trial we can determine which three roots are the correct ones, and hence find the solutions of the quartic. We can remove any requirement for trial by using a root of the same resolvent polynomial for factoring; if w is any root of (3), and if

then

We therefore can solve the quartic by solving for w and then solving for the roots of the two factors using the quadratic formula.

Quartic function Algebraic geometry An alternative solution using algebraic geometry is given in (Faucette 1996), and proceeds as follows (more detailed discussion in reference). In brief, one interprets the roots as the intersection of two quadratic curves, then finds the three reducible quadratic curves (pairs of lines) that pass through these points (this corresponds to the resolvent cubic, the pairs of lines being the Lagrange resolvents), and then use these linear equations to solve the quadratic. The four roots of the depressed quartic the intersections of the two quadratic equations substitution may also be expressed as the x coordinates of i.e., using the

31

that two quadratics intersect in four points is an instance of Bzout's theorem. Explicitly, the and thus there is a

four points are for the four roots of the quartic. These four points are not collinear because they lie on the irreducible quadratic

1-parameter family of quadratics (a pencil of curves) passing through these points. Writing the projectivization of the two quadratics as quadratic forms in three variables:

the pencil is given by the forms and

for any point

in the projective line in other words, where

are not both zero, and multiplying a quadratic form by a constant does not change its quadratic curve of

zeros. This pencil contains three reducible quadratics, each corresponding to a pair of lines, each passing through two of the four points, which can be done different ways. Denote these Given any two of these, their intersection is exactly the four points. The reducible quadratics, in turn, may be determined by expressing the quadratic form as a 33 matrix: reducible quadratics correspond to this matrix being singular, which is equivalent to its determinant being zero, and the determinant is a homogeneous degree three polynomial in and and corresponds to the resolvent cubic.

References
[1] O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Lodovico Ferrari" (http:/ / www-history. mcs. st-andrews. ac. uk/ Biographies/ Ferrari. html), MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews, . [2] P. Beckmann (1971). A history of (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=TB6jzz3ZDTEC& pg=PA80). Macmillan. p.80. . [3] P. Zoll (1989). "Letter to the Editor". American Mathematical Monthly 96 (8): 709710. JSTOR2324719. [4] Stewart, Ian, Galois Theory, Third Edition (Chapman & Hall/CRC Mathematics, 2004) [5] http:/ / www. acm. org/ pubs/ tog/ GraphicsGems/ gems. html#gemsv [6] http:/ / www-staff. it. uts. edu. au/ ~don/ pubs/ solving. html [7] http:/ / planetmath. org/ QuarticFormula. html, PlanetMath, quartic formula, 21st October 2012 [8] Carstensen, Jens, Komplekse tal, First Edition, (Systime 1981), ISBN 87-87454-71-8. (Danish) [9] Brookfield, G. (2007). "Factoring quartic polynomials: A lost art". Mathematics Magazine 80 (1): 6770.

Further reading
Cardano, Gerolamo (1545), Ars magna or The Rules of Algebra, Dover (published 1993), ISBN0-486-67811-3 Faucette, William Mark (1996), "A Geometric Interpretation of the Solution of the General Quartic Polynomial", The American Mathematical Monthly 103 (1): 5157, doi:10.2307/2975214, CiteSeerX: 10.1.1.111.5574 (http:// citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.111.5574) Nickalls, R. W. D. (2009). "The quartic equation: invariants and Euler's solution revealed" (http://www.nickalls. org/dick/papers/maths/quartic2009.pdf). Mathematical Gazette 93: 6675. Carpenter, W. (1966). "On the solution of the real quartic". Mathematics Magazine 39: 2830. Shmakov, S.L. (2011). "A Universal Method of Solving Quartic Equations" (http://www.ijpam.eu/contents/ 2011-71-2/7/7.pdf). International Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics 71: 251259.

Quartic function

32

External links
Quartic formula as four single equations (http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/QuarticFormula.html) at PlanetMath Ferrari's achievement (http://members.tripod.com/l_ferrari/quartic_equation.htm) Calculator for solving Quartics (also solves Cubics and Quadratics) (http://www.freewebs.com/brianjs/ ultimateequationsolver.htm)

Lodovico Ferrari

33

Lodovico Ferrari
Lodovico Ferrari
Born Died Bologna, Italy October 5, 1565

Nationality Italian Fields mathematics

Knownfor quartic equations Influences Gerolamo Cardano

Lodovico Ferrari (February 2, 1522 October 5, 1565) was an Italian mathematician. Born in Bologna, Italy, Lodovico's grandfather, Bartholomew Ferrari, was forced out of Milan to Bologna. Lodovico settled in Bologna, Italy and he began his career as the servant of Gerolamo Cardano. He was extremely bright, so Cardano started teaching him mathematics. Ferrari aided Cardano on his solutions for quadratic equations and cubic equations, and was mainly responsible for the solution of quartic equations that Cardano published. While still in his teens, Ferrari was able to obtain a prestigious teaching post after Cardano resigned from it and recommended him. Ferrari eventually retired young (only 42) and quite rich. He then moved back to his home town of Bologna where he lived with his widowed sister Maddalena to take up a professorship of mathematics at the University of Bologna in 1565. Shortly thereafter, he died of white arsenic poisoning, allegedly murdered by his greedy sister.

Further reading
Jayawardene, S. A. (197080). "Ferrari, Ludovico". Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 4. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp.586-8. ISBN0684101149.

External links
O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Lodovico Ferrari" [1], MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews.

References
[1] http:/ / www-history. mcs. st-andrews. ac. uk/ Biographies/ Ferrari. html

Gerolamo Cardano

34

Gerolamo Cardano
Gerolamo Cardano

Gerolamo Cardano Born 24 September 1501 Pavia 21 September 1576 (aged74) Rome Italian Mathematics Medicine

Died

Nationality Fields

Alma mater University of Pavia Knownfor Algebra

Gerolamo (or Girolamo, or Geronimo) Cardano (French: Jrme Cardan; Latin: Hieronymus Cardanus; 24 September 1501 21 September 1576) was an Italian Renaissance mathematician, physician, astrologer and gambler.[1] He wrote more than 200 works on medicine, mathematics, physics, philosophy, religion, and music.[2] His gambling led him to formulate elementary rules in probability, making him one of the founders of the field.

Early life and education

He was born in Pavia, Lombardy, the illegitimate child of Fazio Cardano, a mathematically gifted lawyer, who was a friend of Leonardo da Vinci. In his autobiography, Cardano claimed that his mother had attempted to abort him. Shortly before his birth, his mother had to move from Milan to Pavia to escape the Plague; her three other children died from the disease. In 1520, he entered the University of Pavia and later in Padua studied medicine. His eccentric and confrontational style did not earn him many friends and he had a difficult time finding work after his studies ended. In 1525, Cardano repeatedly applied to the College of Physicians in Milan, but was not admitted owing to his combative reputation and illegitimate birth. Eventually, he managed to develop a considerable reputation as a physician and his services were highly valued at the courts. He was the first to describe typhoid fever. In 1553 he cured the Scottish Archbishop of St Andrews of a disease that had left him speechless and was thought incurable. The diplomat Thomas Randolph recorded the "merry tales" rumoured about his methods still current in Edinburgh nine years later.[3] Cardano himself wrote that the Archbishop had been short of breath for ten years, and after the cure was effected by his assistant, he was paid 1,400 gold crowns.[4]

Gerolamo Cardano

35

Mathematics
Today, he is best known for his achievements in algebra. Cardano was the first mathematician to make systematic use of numbers less than zero.[5] He published the solutions to the cubic and quartic equations in his 1545 book Ars [6] Magna. The solution to one particular case of the cubic equation (in modern notation), was communicated to him by Niccol Fontana Tartaglia (who later claimed that Cardano had sworn not to reveal it, and engaged Cardano in a decade-long fight), and the quartic was solved by Cardano's student Lodovico Ferrari. Both were acknowledged in the foreword of the book, as well as in several places within its body. In his exposition, he acknowledged the existence of what are now called imaginary numbers, although he did not understand their properties (described for the first time by his Italian contemporary Rafael Bombelli, although mathematical field theory was developed centuries later). In Opus novum de proportionibus he introduced the binomial coefficients and the binomial theorem. Cardano was notoriously short of money and kept himself solvent by being an accomplished gambler and chess player. His book about games of chance, Liber de ludo aleae ("Book on Games of Chance"), written in 1526, but not published until 1663, contains the first systematic treatment of probability, as well as a section on effective cheating methods. Cardano invented several mechanical devices including the combination lock, the gimbal consisting of three concentric rings allowing a supported compass or gyroscope to rotate freely, and the Cardan shaft with universal joints, which allows the transmission of rotary motion at various angles and is used in vehicles to this day. He studied hypocycloids, published in de proportionibus 1570. The generating circles of these hypocycloids were later named Cardano circles or cardanic circles and were used for the construction of the first high-speed printing presses.[7] He made several contributions to hydrodynamics and held that perpetual motion is impossible, except in celestial bodies. He published two encyclopedias of natural science which contain a wide variety of inventions, facts, and occult superstitions. He also introduced the Cardan grille, a cryptographic tool, in 1550.
Portrait of Cardano on display at the School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews.

Someone also assigned to Cardano the credit for the invention of the so-called Cardano's Rings, also called Chinese Rings, but it is very probable that they are more ancient than Cardano. Significantly, in the history of education of the deaf, he said that deaf people were capable of using their minds, argued for the importance of teaching them, and was one of the first to state that deaf people could learn to read and write without learning how to speak first. He was familiar with a report by Rudolph Agricola about a deaf mute who had learned to write.

De Subtilitate 1552
As quoted from Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology: The title of a work of Cardano's, published in 1552, 'De Subtilitate' (corresponding to what would now be called Transcendental Philosophy), would lead us to expect, in the chapter on minerals, many far fetched theories characteristic of that age; but when treating of petrified shells, he decided that they clearly indicated the former sojourn of the sea upon the mountains.[8]

Gerolamo Cardano

36

Later years
Cardano's eldest and favorite son was executed in 1560 after he confessed to having poisoned his cuckolding wife. His other son was a gambler, who stole money from him. He allegedly cropped the ears of one of his sons. Cardano himself was accused of heresy in 1570 because he had computed and published the horoscope of Jesus in 1554. Apparently, his own son contributed to the prosecution, bribed by Tartaglia. He was arrested, had to spend several months in prison and was forced to abjure his professorship. He moved to Rome, received a lifetime annuity from Pope Gregory XIII (after first having been rejected by Pope Pius V) and finished his autobiography. It appears that he was still practicing medicine up to his death in 1576.[2] The date of his death is disputed, most probably he was still alive in 1577.

References in literature
Richard Hinckley Allen tells of an amusing reference made by Samuel Butler in his book Hudibras: Cardan believ'd great states depend Upon the tip o'th' Bear's tail's end; That, as she wisk'd it t'wards the Sun, Strew'd mighty empires up and down; Which others say must needs be false, Because your true bears have no tails. Alessandro Manzoni's novel I Promessi Sposi portrays a pedantic scholar of the obsolete, Don Ferrante, as a great admirer of Cardano. Significantly, he values him only for his superstitious and astrological writings; his scientific writings are dismissed because they contradict Aristotle, but excused on the ground that the author of the astrological works deserves to be listened to even when he is wrong. English novelist E M Forster's Abinger Harvest, a 1936 volume of essays, authorial reviews and a play, provides a sympathetic treatment of Cardano in the section titled 'The Past'. Forster believes Cardano was too absorbed in "self-analysis that he often forgot to repent of his bad temper, his stupidity, his licentiousness, and love of revenge" (212).[9]

Works
De malo recentiorum medicorum usu libellus, Venice, 1536 (on medicine). Practica arithmetice et mensurandi singularis, Milan, 1539 (on mathematics). Artis magnae, sive de regulis algebraicis (also known as Ars magna), Nuremberg, 1545 (on algebra).[10] De immortalitate (on alchemy). Opus novum de proportionibus [11] (on mechanics) (Archimedes Project). Contradicentium medicorum (on medicine). De subtilitate rerum, Nuremberg, Johann Petreius, 1550 (on natural phenomena). De libris propriis, Leiden, 1557 (commentaries). De varietate rerum, Basle, Heinrich Petri, 1559 (on natural phenomena). Neronis encomium, Basle, 1562. De Methodo medendi, 1565 Opus novum de proportionibus numerorum, motuum, ponderum, sonorum, aliarumque rerum mensurandarum. Item de aliza regula, Basel, 1570. De vita propria, 1576 (autobiography); a later edition, De Propria Vita Liber, Amsterdam, (1654) [12] Liber de ludo aleae, ("On Casting the Die")[13] posthumous (on probability).

Gerolamo Cardano De Musica, ca 1546 (on music theory), posthumously published in Hieronymi Cardani Mediolensis opera omnia, Sponius, Lyons, 1663 De Consolatione, Venice, 1542

37

Notes
[1] Patty, Peter Fletcher, Hughes Hoyle, C. Wayne (1991). Foundations of Discrete Mathematics (International student ed. ed.). Boston: PWS-KENT Pub. Co.. p.207. ISBN0-53492-373-9. "Cardano was a physician, astrologer, and mathematician.... [He] supported his wife and three children by gambling and casting horoscopes." [2] Westfall, Richard S.. "Cardano, Girolamo" (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 69HDd2llY). The Galileo Project. rice.edu. Archived from the original (http:/ / galileo. rice. edu/ Catalog/ NewFiles/ cardano. html) on 2012-07-19. . Retrieved 2012-07-19. [3] Calendar State Papers Scotland, vol.1 (1898), p.592: Melville, James, Memoirs of his own life, Brookman, (1833), 21, 73 [4] Cardanus, Gerolamo, De Propria Vita Liber: His Own Life, Amsterdam, (1654) (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=blA9AAAAcAAJ& source=gbs_navlinks_s), pp.136-7, (Latin) [5] Issac Asimov, "Asimov On Numbers", published by Pocket Books, a division of Simon & Schuster, Inc. 1966, 1977, page 119. [6] David Burton, The History of Mathematics: An Introduction, 7th edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2010. [7] "Jerome Cardan: A Biographical Study (Dodo Press) Summary" (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books/ about/ Jerome_Cardan. html?id=GNpEPgAACAAJ& redir_esc=y). . [8] Charles Lyell, Principles of Geology (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=mmIOAAAAQAAJ& ), 1832, p.29 [9] Forster, E. M. [10] http:/ / www. filosofia. unimi. it/ cardano/ testi/ operaomnia/ vol_4_s_4. pdf An electronic copy of his book Ars Magna (in Latin) [11] http:/ / archimedes. mpiwg-berlin. mpg. de/ cgi-bin/ toc/ toc. cgi?dir=carda_propo_015_la_1570;step=thumb [12] http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=blA9AAAAcAAJ& source=gbs_navlinks_s [13] p963, Jan Gullberg, Mathematics from the birth of numbers, W. W. Norton & Company; ISBN 0-393-04002-X ISBN 978-0393040029

References
Cardano, Girolamo, Astrological Aphorisms of Cardan, The. Edmonds, WA: Sure Fire Press, 1989. Cardano, Girolamo, The Book of My Life. trans. by Jean Stoner. New York: New York Review of Books, 2002. Ore, ystein: Cardano, the Gambling Scholar. Princeton, 1953. Cardano, Girolamo, Opera omnia, Charles Sponi, ed., 10 vols. Lyons, 1663. Dunham, William, Journey through Genius, Chapter 6, Penguin, 1991. Discusses Cardano's life and solution of the cubic equation. Sirasi, Nancy G. The Clock and the Mirror: Girolamo Cardano and Renaissance Medicine. Princeton University Press,1997. Grafton, Anthony, Cardano's Cosmos: The Worlds and Works of a Renaissance Astrologer. Harvard University Press, 2001. Morley, Henry The life of Girolamo Cardano, of Milan, Physician 2 vols. Chapman and Hall, London 1854. Ekert, Artur "Complex and unpredictable Cardano. International Journal of Theoretical Physics, Vol. 47, Issue 8, pp.21012119. arXiv e-print (arXiv:0806.0485). Girolamo Cardano "Nero:an Exemplary Life" Inckstone 2012, translation in English of the Neronis Encomium.

Gerolamo Cardano

38

External links
A recreational article about Cardano and the discovery of the two basic ingredients of quantum theory, probability and complex numbers. (http://www.arturekert.org/Site/Varia_files/NewCardano.pdf) O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Gerolamo Cardano" (http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/ Biographies/Cardan.html), MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews. http://it.wikisource.org/wiki/Categoria:Testi_in_cui_%C3%A8_citato_Girolamo_Cardano Linda Hall Library History of Science Collection (http://www.chlt.org/sandbox/lhl/dsb/page.64.php) Jerome Cardan, a Biographical Study (http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/19600), 1898, by William George Waters, from Project Gutenberg "Girolamo Cardan" (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03332a.htm). Catholic Encyclopedia. Girolamo Cardano, Strumenti per la storia del Rinascimento in Italia settentrionale (in Italian) (http://www. filosofia.unimi.it/cardano/index.php) and English (http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl=it& u=http://www.filosofia.unimi.it/cardano/index.php?page=biblio&sa=X&oi=translate&resnum=2& ct=result&prev=/search?q=http://www.filosofia.unimi.it/cardano/index.php&hl=en&sa=G) Online Galleries, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries (http://hos.ou.edu/ galleries//16thCentury/Cardano/) High resolution images of works by and/or portraits of Gerolamo Cardano in .jpg and .tiff format. Forster, E.M. (1936) 'Cardan' in Abinger Harvest. Middlesex,UK: Penguin Books Ltd. pp. 208-221.

Ars Magna (Gerolamo Cardano)

39

Ars Magna (Gerolamo Cardano)

The Ars Magna (Latin: "The Great Art") is an important book on Algebra written by Girolamo Cardano. It was first published in 1545 under the title Artis Magn, Sive de Regulis Algebraicis Liber Unus (Book number one about The Great Art, or The Rules of Algebra). There was a second edition in Cardano's lifetime, published in 1570. It is considered[1] one of the three greatest scientific treatises of the early Renaissance, together with Copernicus' De revolutionibus orbium coelestium and Vesalius' De humani corporis fabrica. The first editions of these three books were published within a two year span (15431545).

History
In 1535, Niccol Fontana Tartaglia became famous for having solved cubics of the form x3+ax=b (with a,b>0). However, he chose to keep his method secret. In 1539, Cardano, then a lecturer in mathematics at the Piatti Foundation in Milan, published his first mathematical book, Pratica Arithmetic et mensurandi singularis (The Practice of Arithmetic and Simple Mensuration). That same year, he asked Tartaglia to The title page of the Ars Magna. The full title is Artis Magn, explain to him his method for solving cubic equations. Sive de Regulis Algebraicis Liber Unus (Book number one about The Great Art, or The Rules of Algebra). After some reluctance, Tartaglia did so, but he asked Cardano not to share the information until he published it. Cardano submerged himself in mathematics during the next several years working on how to extend Tartaglia's formula to other types of cubics. Furthermore, his student Lodovico Ferrari found a way of solving quartic equations, but Ferrari's method depended upon Tartaglia's, since it involved the use of an auxiliary cubic equation. Then Cardano become aware of the fact that Scipione del Ferro had discovered Tartaglia's formula before Tartaglia himself, a discovery that prompted him to publish these results.

Contents
The book, which is divided into forty chapters, contains the first published solution to cubic and quartic equations. Cardano acknowledges that Tartaglia gave him the formula for solving a type of cubic equations and that the same formula had been discovered by Scipiano del Ferro. He also acknowledges that it was Ferrari who found a way of solving quartic equations. Since at the time negative numbers were not generally acknowledged, knowing how to solve cubics of the form x3+ax=b did not mean knowing how to solve cubics of the form x3=ax+b (with a,b>0), for instance. Besides, Cardano, also explains how to reduce equations of the form x3+ax2+bx+c=0 to cubic equations without a quadratic term, but, again, he has to consider several cases. In all, Cardano was driven to the study of thirteen different types of cubic equations (chapters XIXXIII).

Ars Magna (Gerolamo Cardano) In Ars Magna the concept of multiple root appears for the first time (chapter I). The first example that Cardano provides of a polynomial equation with multiple roots is x3=12x+16, of which 2 is a double root. Ars Magna also contains the first occurrence of complex numbers (chapterXXXVII). The problem mentioned by Cardano which leads to square roots of negative numbers is: find two numbers whose sum is equal to 10 and whose product is equal to 40. The answer is 5+15 and 515. Cardano called this "sophistic," because he saw no physical meaning to it, but boldly wrote "nevertheless we will operate" and formally calculated that their product does indeed equal 40. Cardano then says that this answer is as subtle as it is useless. It is a common misconception that Cardano introduced complex numbers in solving cubic equations. Since (in modern notation) Cardano's formula for a root of the polynomial x3+px+q is

40

square roots of negative numbers appear naturally in this context. However, q2/4+p3/27 never happens to be negative in the specific cases in which Cardano applies the formula.[2]

Notes
[1] See, for instance, the foreword that Oystein Ore wrote for the English translation of the book, mentioned at the bibliography. [2] This does not mean that no cubic equation occurs in Ars Magna for which q2/4+p3/27<0. For instance, chapterI contains the equation x3+9=12x, for which q2/4+p3/27=175/4. However, Cardano never applies his formula in those cases.

Bibliography
Calinger, Ronald (1999), A contextual history of Mathematics, Prentice-Hall, ISBN0-02-318285-7 Cardano, Gerolamo (1545), Ars magna or The Rules of Algebra, Dover (published 1993), ISBN0-486-67811-3 Gindikin, Simon (1988), Tales of physicists and mathematicians, Birkhuser, ISBN3-7643-3317-0 GIROLAMO cardano "Nero:an exemplary life" Inkstone, 2012. First English translation of the Neronis Encomium.

External links
.pdf of Ars Magna (http://www.filosofia.unimi.it/cardano/testi/operaomnia/vol_4_s_4.pdf) (in Latin) Cardano's biography (http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Cardan.html)

Nicolaus Copernicus

41

Nicolaus Copernicus
Nicolaus Copernicus

Portrait, 1580, Toru Old Town City Hall Born 19 February 1473 Toru (Thorn), Royal Prussia, Kingdom of Poland 24 May 1543 (aged70) Frombork (Frauenburg), Prince-Bishopric of Warmia, Royal Prussia, Kingdom of Poland Mathematics, astronomy, canon law, medicine, economics

Died

Fields

Alma mater Krakw University Bologna University University of Padua University of Ferrara Knownfor Heliocentrism Copernicus' Law Signature

Nicolaus Copernicus (German: Nikolaus Kopernikus; Italian: Nicol Copernico; Polish: Mikoaj Kopernik) (19February 1473 24May 1543) was a Renaissance astronomer and the first person to formulate a comprehensive heliocentric cosmology which displaced the Earth from the center of the universe.[1] Copernicus' epochal book, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres), published just before his death in 1543, is often regarded as the starting point of modern astronomy and the defining epiphany that began the scientific revolution. His heliocentric model, with the Sun at the center of the universe, demonstrated that the observed motions of celestial objects can be explained without putting Earth at rest in the center of the universe. His work stimulated further scientific investigations, becoming a landmark in the history of science that is often referred to as the Copernican Revolution. Among the great polymaths of the Renaissance, Copernicus was a mathematician, astronomer, jurist with a doctorate in law, physician, quadrilingual polyglot, classics scholar, translator, artist,[2] Catholic cleric, governor, diplomat and economist.

Nicolaus Copernicus

42

Life
Nicolaus Copernicus was born on 19 February 1473 in the city of Toru (Thorn), in the province of Royal Prussia, in the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland.[3][4] His father was a merchant from Krakw and his mother was the daughter of a wealthy Toru merchant. Nicolaus was the youngest of four children. His brother Andreas (Andrew) became an Augustinian canon at Frombork (Frauenburg). His sister Barbara, named after her mother, became a Benedictine nun and, in her final years (she died after 1517), prioress of a convent in Chemno (Kulm). His sister Katharina married the businessman and Toru city councilor Barthel Gertner and left five children, whom Copernicus looked after to the end of his life.[5] Copernicus never married or had children. "Towards the close of 1542, he was seized with apoplexy and paralysis." He died on 24 May 1543, on the day that he was presented with an advance copy of his De revolutionibus orbium coelestium.[6]
Toru birthplace (ul. Kopernika 15, left). Together with the house at no. 17 (right), it forms the Muzeum Mikoaja Kopernika.

Father's family
The fathers family can be traced to a village in Silesia near Nysa (Neie). The village's name has been variously spelled Kopernik,[7] Kppernig, Kppernick, and today Koperniki. In the 14th century, members of the family began moving to various other Silesian cities, to the Polish capital, Krakw (Cracow, 1367), and to Toru (1400). The father, likely the son of Jan, came from the Krakw line.[8] Nicolaus was named after his father, who appears in records for the first time as a well-to-do merchant who dealt in copper, selling it mostly in Danzig (Gdask).[9][10] He moved from Krakw to Toru around 1458.[11] Toru, situated on the Vistula River, was at that time embroiled in the Thirteen Years' War (145466), in which the Kingdom of Poland and the Prussian Confederation, an alliance of Prussian cities, gentry and clergy, fought the Teutonic Order over control of the region. In this war Hanseatic cities like Danzig and Toru, the hometown of Nicolaus Copernicus, chose to support the Polish king, who promised to respect the cities' traditional vast independence, which the Teutonic Order had challenged. Nicolaus' father was actively engaged in the politics of the day and supported Poland and the cities against the Teutonic Order.[12] In 1454 he mediated negotiations between Polands Cardinal Zbigniew Olenicki and the Prussian cities for repayment of war loans. In the Second Peace of Thorn (1466), the Teutonic Order formally relinquished all claims to its western provinces, which as Royal Prussia remained a region of Poland for the next 300 years. The father married Barbara Watzenrode, the astronomer's mother, between 1461 and 1464. He died sometime between 1483 and 1485. Upon the fathers death, young Nicolaus maternal uncle, Lucas Watzenrode the Younger (14471512), took the boy under his protection and saw to his education and career.

Nicolaus Copernicus

43

Mother's family
Nicolaus mother, Barbara Watzenrode, was the daughter of Lucas Watzenrode the Elder and his wife Katherine (ne Modlibg).[13][14][15] Not much is known about her life, but she is believed to have died when Nicolaus was a small boy. The Watzenrodes had come from the Schweidnitz (widnica) region of Silesia and had settled in Toru after 1360, becoming prominent members of the citys patrician class.[16] Through the Watzenrodes' extensive family relationships by marriage, they were related to wealthy families of Toru, Danzig and Elblg (Elbing), and to the prominent Czapski, Dziayski, Konopacki and Kocielecki noble families.[17] The Modlibgs (literally, in Polish, "Pray to God") were a prominent Polish family who had been well known in Poland's history since 1271.[15] Lucas and Katherine had three children: Lucas Watzenrode the Younger, who would become Copernicus' patron; Barbara, the astronomer's mother; and Christina, who in 1459 married the merchant and mayor of Toru,

Copernicus' maternal uncle, Lucas Watzenrode the Younger

Tiedeman von Allen. Lucas Watzenrode the Elder was well regarded in Toru as a devout man and honest merchant, and he was active politically. He was a decided opponent of the Teutonic Knights and an ally of Polish King Casimir IV Jagiellon.[18] In 1453 he was the delegate from Toru at the Grudzidz (Graudenz) conference that planned to ally the cities of the Prussian Confederation with Casimir IV in their subsequent war against the Teutonic Knights.[5] During the Thirteen Years' War that ensued the following year, he actively supported the war effort with substantial monetary subsidies, with political activity in Toru and Danzig, and by personally fighting in battles at asin (Lessen) and Malbork (Marienburg).[19] He died in 1462. Lucas Watzenrode the Younger, the astronomer's maternal uncle and patron, was educated at the University of Krakw (now Jagiellonian University) and at the universities of Cologne and Bologna. He was a bitter opponent of the Teutonic Order,[20][21] and its Grand Master once referred to him as the devil incarnate.[22] In 1489 Watzenrode was elected Bishop of Warmia (Ermeland, Ermland) against the preference of King Casimir IV, who had hoped to install his own son in that seat. As a result, Watzenrode quarreled with the king until Casimir IVs death three years later.[23] Watzenrode was then able to form close relations with three successive Polish monarchs: John I Albert, Alexander Jagiellon, and Sigismund I the Old. He was a friend and key advisor to each ruler, and his influence greatly strengthened the ties between Warmia and Poland proper.[24][25] Watzenrode came to be considered the most powerful man in Warmia, and his wealth, connections and influence allowed him to secure Copernicus education and career as a canon at Frombork Cathedral.

Nicolaus Copernicus

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Languages
Copernicus is postulated to have spoken Latin, German, and Polish with equal fluency. He also spoke Greek and Italian.[26][27][28][29] The vast majority of Copernicus surviving works are in Latin, which in his lifetime was the language of academia in Europe. Latin was also the official language of the Roman Catholic Church and of Poland's royal court, and thus all of Copernicus correspondence with the Church and with Polish leaders was in Latin. There survive a few documents written by Copernicus in German. Martin Carrier mentions this as a reason to consider Copernicus native language to have been German.[30] Other arguments are that Copernicus was born in a predominantly German-speaking town and that, while studying law at Bologna in 1496, he signed into the German natio (Natio Germanorum)a student organization which, according to its 1497 by-laws, was open to students of all kingdoms and states whose mother-tongue ("Muttersprache") was German.[31] However, according to French philosopher Alexandre German-language letter from Copernicus Koyre, this in itself does not imply that Copernicus considered himself to Duke Albert of Prussia, giving medical advice for George von Kunheim (1541) German, since students from Prussia and Silesia were routinely placed in that category, which carried certain privileges that made it a natural choice for German-speaking students, regardless of their ethnicity or self-identification.[31][32][33][34][35][36]

Name
In Copernicus day, people were often called after the places where they lived. Like the Silesian village that inspired it, Copernicus surname has been spelled variously. Today the English-speaking world knows the astronomer principally by the Latinized name, "Nicolaus Copernicus." The surname likely had something to do with the local Silesian copper-mining industry,[37] though some scholars assert that it may have been inspired by the dill plant (in Polish, "koperek" or "kopernik") that grows wild in Silesia.[38] As was to be the case with William Shakespeare a century later,[39] numerous spelling variants of the name are documented for the astronomer and his relatives. The name first appeared as a place name in Silesia in the 13th century, where it was spelled variously in Latin documents. Copernicus "was rather indifferent about orthography."[40] During his childhood, the name of his father (and thus of the future astronomer) was recorded in Thorn as Niclas Koppernigk around 1480.[41][42] At Krakw he signed his name "Nicolaus Nicolai de Torunia."[14] At Bologna in 1496, he registered in the Matricula Nobilissimi Germanorum Collegii resp. Annales Clarissimae Nacionis Germanorum of the Natio Germanica Bononiae as Dominus Nicolaus Kopperlingk de Thorn IX grosseti.[43][44] At Padua, Copernicus signed his name "Nicolaus Copernik", later as "Coppernicus."[40] He signed a self-portrait, a copy of which is now at Jagiellonian University, "N Copernic."[45] The astronomer Latinized his name to Coppernicus, generally with two "p"s (in 23 of 31 documents studied),[46] but later in life he used a single "p". On the title page of De revolutionibus, Rheticus published the name as (in the genitive, or possessive, case) "Nicolai Copernici".

Nicolaus Copernicus

45

Education
Copernicus' uncle Watzenrode maintained contacts with the leading intellectual figures in Poland and was a friend of the influential Italian-born humanist and Krakw courtier, Filippo Buonaccorsi.[47] Watzenrode seems first to have sent young Copernicus to the St. John's School at Thorn where he himself had been a master. Later, according to Armitage (some scholars differ), the boy attended the Cathedral School at Wocawek, up the Vistula River from Thorn, which prepared pupils for entrance to the University of Krakw, Watzenrode's alma mater in Poland's capital.[48]
Collegium Maius, Krakw In the winter semester of 149192 Copernicus, as "Nicolaus Nicolai de Thuronia," matriculated together with his brother Andrew at the University of Krakw (now Jagiellonian University). Copernicus began his studies in the Department of Arts (from the fall of 1491, presumably until the summer or fall of 1495) in the heyday of the Krakw astronomical-mathematical school, acquiring the foundations for his subsequent mathematical achievements. According to a later but credible tradition (Jan Broek), Copernicus was a pupil of Albert Brudzewski, who by then (from 1491) was a professor of Aristotelian philosophy but taught astronomy privately outside the university; Copernicus became familiar with Broek's widely read commentary to Georg von Nicolaus Copernicus Monument Peuerbach's Theoric nov planetarum and almost certainly in Krakw attended the lectures of Bernard of Biskupie and Wojciech Krypa of Szamotuy and probably other astronomical lectures by Jan of Gogw, Michael of Wrocaw (Breslau), Wojciech of Pniewy and Marcin Bylica of Olkusz.[49]

Copernicus' Krakw studies gave him a thorough grounding in the mathematical-astronomical knowledge taught at the university (arithmetic, geometry, geometric optics, cosmography, theoretical and computational astronomy), a good knowledge of the philosophical and natural-science writings of Aristotle (De coelo, Metaphysics) and Averroes (which later would play an important role in shaping his theory), stimulated his interest in learning, and made him conversant with humanistic culture. Copernicus broadened the knowledge that he took from the university lecture halls with independent reading of books that he acquired during his Krakw years (Euclid, Haly Abenragel, the Alfonsine Tables, Johannes Regiomontanus' Tabulae directionum); to this period, probably, also date his earliest scientific notes, now preserved partly at Uppsala University.[50] At Krakw Copernicus began collecting a large library on astronomy; it would later be carried off as war booty by the Swedes during the Deluge and is now at the Uppsala University Library. Copernicus' four years at Krakw played an important role in the development of his critical faculties and initiated his analysis of the logical contradictions in the two most popular systems of astronomyAristotle's theory of homocentric spheres, and Ptolemy's mechanism of eccentrics and epicyclesthe surmounting and discarding of which constituted the first step toward the creation of Copernicus' own doctrine of the structure of the universe.[50] Without taking a degree, probably in the fall of 1495, Copernicus left Krakw for the court of his uncle Watzenrode, who in 1489 had been elevated to Prince-Bishop of Warmia and soon (after November 1495) sought to place his nephew in a Warmia canonry vacated by 26 August 1495 death of its previous tenant. For unclear reasonsprobably

Nicolaus Copernicus due to opposition from part of the chapter, who appealed to RomeCopernicus' installation was delayed, inclining Watzenrode to send both his nephews to study law in Italy, seemingly with a view to furthering their ecclesiastic careers and thereby also strengthening his own influence in the Warmia chapter.[50] Leaving Warmia in mid-1496possibly with the retinue of the chapter's chancellor, Jerzy Pranghe, who was going to Italyin the fall (October?) of that year Copernicus arrived in Bologna and a few months later (after 6 January 1497) signed himself into the register of the Bologna University of Jurists' "German nation," which also included Polish youths from Silesia, Prussia and Pomerania as well as students of other nationalities.[50] It was only on 20 October 1497 that Copernicus, by proxy, formally succeeded to the Warmia canonry, which had been granted to him two years earlier. To this, by a document dated 10 January 1503 at Padua, he would add a sinecure at the Collegiate Church of the Holy Cross in Wrocaw, Silesia, Bohemia. Despite having received a papal indult on 29 November 1508 to receive further benefices, through his ecclesiastic career Copernicus not only did not acquire further prebends and higher stations (prelacies) at the chapter, but in 1538 he relinquished the Breslau sinecure. It is uncertain whether he was ordained a priest; he may only have taken minor orders, which sufficed for assuming a chapter canonry.[50] During his three-year stay at Bologna, between fall 1496 and spring 1501, Copernicus seems to have devoted himself less keenly to studying canon law (he received his doctorate in law only after seven years, following a second return to Italy in 1503) than to studying the humanities--probably attending lectures by Filippo Beroaldo, Antonio Urceo, called Codro, Giovanni Garzoni and Alessandro Achillini--and to studying astronomy. He met the famous astronomer Domenico Maria Novara da Ferrara and became his disciple and assistant. Copernicus was developing new ideas inspired by reading the "Epitome of the Almagest" (Epitome in Almagestum Ptolemei) by George von Peuerbach and Johannes Regiomontanus (Venice, 1496). He verified its observations about certain peculiarities in Ptolemy's theory of the Moon's motion, by conducting on 9 March 1497 at Bologna a memorable observation of Aldebaran, the brightest star in the Taurus constellation, whose results reinforced his doubts as to the geocentric system. Copernicus the humanist sought confirmation for his growing doubts through close reading of Greek and Latin authors (Pythagoras, Aristarchos of Samos, Cleomedes, Cicero, Plutarch, Philolaus, Heraclides, Ecphantos,

46

Via Galliera 65, Bologna, site of house of Domenico Maria Novara. Plaque on portico commemorates Copernicus.

Pliny

the

Elder,

Nicolaus Copernicus

47

Plato), gathering, especially while at Padua, fragmentary historic information about ancient astronomical, cosmological and calendar systems.[51] Copernicus spent the jubilee year 1500 in Rome, where he arrived with his brother Andrew that spring, doubtless to perform an apprenticeship at the Papal Curia. Here, too, however, he continued his astronomical work begun at Bologna, observing, for example, a lunar eclipse on the night of 56 "Here, where stood the house of Domenico Maria Novara, professor of the ancient November 1500. According to a later Studium of Bologna, NICOLAUS COPERNICUS, the Polish mathematician and account by Rheticus, Copernicus astronomer who would revolutionize concepts of the universe, conducted brilliant alsoprobably privately, rather than at the celestial observations with his teacher in 14971500. Placed on the 5th centenary Roman Sapienza--as a "Professor of [Copernicus'] birth by the City, the University, the Academy of Sciences of the Institute of Bologna, the Polish Academy of Sciences. 1473 [] 1973." Mathematum" (professor of astronomy) delivered, "to numerous... students and... leading masters of the science," public lectures devoted probably to a critique of the mathematical solutions of contemporary astronomy.[52] On his return journey doubtless stopping briefly at Bologna, in mid-1501 Copernicus arrived back in Warmia. After on 28 July receiving from the chapter a two-year extension of leave in order to study medicine (since "he may in future be a useful medical advisor to our Reverend Superior [Bishop Lucas Watzenrode] and the gentlemen of the chapter"), in late summer or in the fall he returned again to Italy, probably accompanied by his brother Andrew and by Canon B. Sculteti. This time he studied at the University of Padua, famous as a seat of medical learning, andexcept for a brief visit to Ferrara in MayJune 1503 to pass examinations for, and receive, his doctorate in canon lawhe remained at Padua from fall 1501 to summer 1503.[52] Copernicus studied medicine probably under the direction of leading Padua professorsBartolomeo da Montagnana, Girolamo Fracastoro, Gabriele Zerbi, Alessandro Benedettiand read medical treatises that he acquired at this time, by Valescus de Taranta, Jan Mesue, Hugo Senensis, Jan Ketham, Arnold de Villa Nova, and Michele Savonarola, which would form the embryo of his later medical library.[52] One of the subjects that Copernicus must have studied was astrology, since it was considered an important part of a medical education.[53] However, unlike most other prominent Renaissance astronomers, he appears never to have practiced or expressed any interest in astrology.[54] As at Bologna, Copernicus did not limit himself to his official studies. It was probably the Padua years that saw the beginning of his Hellenistic interests. He familiarized himself with Greek language and culture with the aid of Theodorus Gaza's grammar (1495) and J.B. Chrestonius' dictionary (1499), expanding his studies of antiquity, begun at Bologna, to the writings of Bessarion, J. Valla and others. There also seems to be evidence that it was during his Padua stay that there finally crystallized the idea of basing a new system of the world on the movement of the Earth.[52] As the time approached for Copernicus to return home, in spring 1503 he journeyed to Ferrara where, on 31 May 1503, having passed the obligatory examinations, he was granted the degree of doctor of canon law. No doubt it was soon after (at latest, in fall 1503) that he left Italy for good to return to Warmia.[52]

Nicolaus Copernicus

48

Work
Having completed all his studies in Italy, 30-year-old Copernicus returned to Warmia, where apart from brief journeys to Krakw and to nearby Prussian cities (Thorn, Danzig, Elbing, Graudenz, Malbork Marienburg, Knigsberg (Krlewiec) he would live out the remaining 40 years of his life.[52] The Prince-Bishopric of Warmia enjoyed substantial autonomy, with its own diet (parliament), army, monetary unit (the same as in the other parts of Royal Prussia) and treasury.[55] Copernicus was his uncle's secretary and physician from Matejko. In background: Frombork Cathedral. 1503 to 1510 (or perhaps till that uncle's death on 29 March 1512) and resided in the Bishop's castle at Lidzbark (Heilsberg), where he began work on his heliocentric theory. In his official capacity, he took part in nearly all his uncle's political, ecclesiastic and administrative-economic duties. From the beginning of 1504, Copernicus accompanied Watzenrode to sessions of the Royal Prussian diet held at Malbork and Elblg and, write Dobrzycki and Hajdukiewicz, "participated... in all the more important events in the complex diplomatic game that ambitious politician and statesman played in defense of the particular interests of Prussia and Warmia, between hostility to the [Teutonic] Order and loyalty to the Polish Crown."[52] In 150412 Copernicus made numerous journeys as part of his uncle's retinuein 1504, to Toru and Danzig, to a session of the Royal Prussian Council in the presence of Poland's King Alexander Jagiellon; to sessions of the Prussian diet at Malbork (1506), Elblg (1507) and Sztum (Stuhm) (1512); and he may have attended a Pozna (Posen) session (1510) and the coronation of Poland's King Sigismund I the Old in Krakw (1507). Watzenrode's itinerary suggests that in spring 1509 Copernicus may have attended the Krakw sejm.[52] It was probably on the latter occasion, in Krakw, that Copernicus submitted for printing at Jan Haller's press his translation, from Greek to Latin, of a collection, by the 7th-century Byzantine historian Theophylact Simocatta, of 85 brief poems called Epistles, or letters, supposed to have passed between various characters in a Greek story. They are of three kinds"moral," Copernicus' translation of Theophylact offering advice on how people should live; "pastoral," giving little pictures of Simocatta's Epistles. Cover shows shepherd life; and "amorous," comprising love poems. They are arranged to coats-of-arms of (clockwise from top) Poland, Lithuania and Krakw. follow one another in a regular rotation of subjects. Copernicus had translated the Greek verses into Latin prose, and he now published his version as Theophilacti scolastici Simocati epistolae morales, rurales et amatoriae interpretatione latina, which he dedicated to his uncle in gratitude for all the benefits he had received from him. With this translation, Copernicus declared himself on the side of the humanists in the struggle over the question whether Greek literature should be revived.[56] Copernicus' first poetic work was a Greek epigram, composed probably during a visit to Krakw, for Johannes Dantiscus' epithalamium for Barbara Zapolya's 1512 wedding to King Zygmunt I the Old.[57] Some time before 1514, Copernicus wrote an initial outline of his heliocentric theory known only from later transcripts, by the title (perhaps given to it by a copyist), Nicolai Copernici de hypothesibus motuum coelestium a se constitutis commentarioluscommonly referred to as the Commentariolus. It was a succinct theoretical description
Astronomer Copernicus, or Conversations with God, by

Nicolaus Copernicus of the world's heliocentric mechanism, without mathematical apparatus, and differed in some important details of geometric construction from De revolutionibus; but it was already based on the same assumptions regarding Earth's triple motions. The Commentariolus, which Copernicus consciously saw as merely a first sketch for his planned book, was not intended for printed distribution. He made only a very few manuscript copies available to his closest acquaintances, including, it seems, several Krakw astronomers with whom he collaborated in 151530 in observing eclipses. Tycho Brahe would include a fragment from the Commentariolus in his own treatise, Astronomiae instauratae progymnasmata, published in Prague in 1602, based on a manuscript that he had received from the Bohemian physician and astronomer Tade Hjek, a friend of Rheticus. The Commentariolus would appear complete in print for the first time only in 1878.[57] In 1510 or 1512 Copernicus moved to Frombork, a town to the northwest at the Vistula Lagoon on the Baltic Sea coast. There, in April 1512, he participated in the election of Fabian of Lossainen as Prince-Bishop of Warmia. It was only in early June 1512 that the chapter gave Copernicus an "external curia"a house outside the defensive walls of the cathedral mount. In 1514 he purchased the northwestern tower within the walls of the Frombork stronghold. He would maintain both these residences to the end of his life, despite the devastation of the chapter's buildings by a raid against Frauenburg carried out by the Teutonic Order in January 1520, during which Copernicus' astronomical instruments were probably destroyed. Copernicus conducted astronomical observations in 151316 presumably from his external curia; and in 152243, from an unidentified "small tower" (turricula), using primitive instruments modeled on ancient onesthe quadrant, triquetrum, armillary sphere. At Frombork Copernicus conducted over half of his more than 60 registered astronomical observations.[57]

49

Copernicus' tower at Frombork, where he lived and worked; rebuilt recently

Having settled permanently at Frombork, where he would reside to the end of his life, with interruptions in 151619 and 152021, Copernicus found himself at the Warmia chapter's economic and administrative center, which was also one of Frombork Cathedral mount and fortifications. In foreground: statue of Warmia's two chief centers of political life. In the Copernicus difficult, politically complex situation of Warmia, threatened externally by the Teutonic Order's aggressions (attacks by Teutonic bands; the Polish-Teutonic War of 151921; Albert's plans to annex Warmia), internally subject to strong separatist pressures (the selection of the prince-bishops of Warmia; currency reform), he, together with part of the chapter, represented a program of strict cooperation with the Polish Crown and demonstrated in all his public activities (the defense of his country against the Order's plans of conquest; proposals to unify its monetary system with the Polish Crown's; support for Poland's interests in the Warmia dominion's ecclesiastic administration) that he was consciously a citizen of the Polish-Lithuanian Republic. Soon after the death

Nicolaus Copernicus of uncle Bishop Watzenrode, he participated in the signing of the Second Treaty of Piotrkw Trybunalski (7 December 1512), governing the appointment of the Bishop of Warmia, declaring, despite opposition from part of the chapter, for loyal cooperation with the Polish Crown.[57] That same year (before 8 November 1512) Copernicus assumed responsibility, as magister pistoriae, for administering the chapter's economic enterprises (he would hold this office again in 1530), having already since 1511 fulfilled the duties of chancellor and visitor of the chapter's estates.[57] His administrative and economic dutes did not distract Copernicus, in 151215, from intensive observational activity. The results of his observations of Mars and Saturn in this period, and especially a series of four observations of the Sun made in 1515, led to discovery of the variability of Earth's eccentricity and of the movement of the solar apogee in relation to the fixed stars, which in 151519 prompted his first revisions of certain assumptions of his system. Some of the observations that he made in this period may have had a connection with a proposed reform of the Julian calendar made in the first half of 1513 at the request of the Bishop of Fossombrone, Paul of Middelburg. Their contacts in this matter in the period of the Fifth Lateran Council were later memorialized in a complimentary mention in Copernicus' dedicatory epistle in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium and in a treatise by Paul of Middelburg, Secundum compendium correctionis Calendarii (1516), which mentions Copernicus among the learned men who had sent the Council proposals for the calendar's emendation.[58] During 151621, Copernicus resided at Olsztyn (Allenstein) Castle as economic administrator of Warmia, including Olsztyn (Allenstein) and Pienino (|Mehlsack). While there, he wrote a manuscript, Locationes mansorum desertorum (Locations of Deserted Fiefs), with a view to populating those fiefs with industrious farmers and so bolstering the economy of Warmia. When Olsztyn was besieged by the Teutonic Knights during the PolishTeutonic War (151921), Copernicus directed the defense of Olsztyn and Warmia by Royal Polish forces. He also represented the Polish side in the ensuing peace negotiations.[59]

50

Olsztyn Castle

Copernicus worked for years with the Royal Prussian diet, and with Duke Albert of Prussia (against whom Copernicus had defended Warmia in the Polish-Teutonic War), and advised King Sigismund, on monetary reform. He participated in discussions in the Ducal Prussian diet about coinage reform in the Prussian countries; a question that concerned the diet was who had the right to mint coin. Political developments in Prussia culminated in the 1525 establishment of the Duchy of Prussia as a Protestant state in vassalage to Poland. In 1526 Copernicus wrote a study on the value of money, Monetae cudendae ratio. In it he formulated an early iteration of the theory, now called Gresham's Law, that "bad" (debased) coinage drives "good" (un-debased) coinage out of circulation70 years before Thomas Gresham. He also formulated a version of quantity theory of money. Copernicus' recommendations on monetary reform were widely read by leaders of both Prussia and Poland in their attempts to stabilize currency.[60][61]

Nicolaus Copernicus

51 In 1533, Johann Widmanstetter, secretary to Pope Clement VII, explained Copernicus' heliocentric system to the Pope and two cardinals. The Pope was so pleased that he gave Widmanstetter a valuable gift.[62] In 1535 Bernard Wapowski wrote a letter to a gentleman in Vienna, urging him to publish an enclosed almanac, which he claimed had been written by Copernicus. This is the only mention of a Copernicus almanac in the historical records. The "almanac" was likely Copernicus' tables of planetary positions. Wapowski's letter mentions Copernicus' theory about the motions of the earth. Nothing came of Wapowski's request, because he died a couple of weeks later.[62]

Following the death of Prince-Bishop of Warmia Mauritius Ferber (1 July 1537), Copernicus participated in the election of his successor, Johannes Dantiscus (20 September 1537). Copernicus was one of four candidates for the post, written in at the initiative of Tiedemann Giese; but his candidacy Thorvaldsen's Copernicus Monument in was actually pro forma, since Dantiscus had earlier been named coadjutor Warsaw bishop to Ferber.[63] At first Copernicus maintained friendly relations with the new Prince-Bishop, assisting him medically in spring 1538 and accompanying him that summer on an inspection tour of Chapter holdings. But that autumn, their friendship was strained by suspicions over Copernicus' housekeeper, Anna Schilling, whom Dantiscus removed from Frombork in 1539.[63] In his younger days, Copernicus the physician had treated his uncle, brother and other chapter members. In later years he was called upon to attend the elderly bishops who in turn occupied the see of WarmiaMauritius Ferber and Johannes Dantiscus and, in 1539, his old friend Tiedemann Giese, Bishop of Chemno (Kulm). In treating such important patients, he sometimes sought consultations from other physicians, including the physician to Duke Albert and, by letter, the Polish Royal Physician.[64]

Copernicus with medicinal plant

In the spring of 1541, Duke Albert summoned Copernicus to Knigsberg to attend the Duke's counselor, George von Kunheim, who had fallen seriously ill, and for whom the Prussian doctors seemed unable to do anything. Copernicus went willingly; he had met von Kunheim during negotiations over reform of the coinage. And Copernicus had come to feel that Albert himself was not such a bad person; the two had many intellectual interests in common. The Chapter readily gave Copernicus permission to go, as it wished to remain on good terms with the Duke, despite his Lutheran faith. In about a month the patient recovered, and Copernicus returned to Frombork. For a time, he continued to receive reports on von Kunheim's condition, and to send him medical advice by letter.[65] Throughout this period of his life, Copernicus continued making astronomical observations and calculations, but only as his other responsibilities permitted and never in a professional capacity.

"Nicolaus Copernicus Tornaeus Borussus Mathemat.", 1597

Some of Copernicus' close friends turned Protestant, but Copernicus never showed a tendency in that direction. The first attacks on him came from Protestants. Wilhelm Gnapheus, a Dutch refugee settled in Elblg, wrote a comedy in Latin, Morosophus (The Foolish Sage), and staged it at the Latin school that he had established there. In the play,

Nicolaus Copernicus Copernicus was caricatured as a haughty, cold, aloof man who dabbled in astrology, considered himself inspired by God, and was rumored to have written a large work that was moldering in a chest.[47] Elsewhere Protestants were the first to react to news of Copernicus' theory. Melanchthon wrote: Some people believe that it is excellent and correct to work out a thing as absurd as did that Sarmatian [i.e., Polish] astronomer who moves the earth and stops the sun. Indeed, wise rulers should have curbed such light-mindedness.[47] Nevertheless, in 1551, eight years after Copernicus' death, astronomer Erasmus Reinhold published, under the sponsorship of Copernicus' former military adversary, the Protestant Duke Albert, the Prussian Tables, a set of astronomical tables based on Copernicus' work. Astronomers and astrologers quickly adopted it in place of its predecessors.[66]

52

Heliocentrism
Some time before 1514 Copernicus made available to friends his "Commentariolus" ("Little Commentary"), a forty-page manuscript describing his ideas about the heliocentric hypothesis.[68] It contained seven basic assumptions (detailed below).[69] Thereafter he continued gathering data for a more detailed work. About 1532 Copernicus had basically completed his work on the manuscript of De revolutionibus orbium coelestium; but despite urging by his closest friends, he resisted openly publishing his views, not wishingas he confessedto risk the scorn "to which he would expose himself on account of the novelty and incomprehensibility of his theses."[63] In 1533, Johann Albrecht Widmannstetter delivered a series of lectures in Rome outlining Copernicus' theory. Pope Clement VII and several Catholic cardinals heard the lectures and were interested in the theory. On 1 November 1536, Cardinal Nikolaus von Schnberg, Archbishop of Capua, wrote to Copernicus from Rome:
Mid-16th-century [67] portrait

Some years ago word reached me concerning your proficiency, of which everybody constantly spoke. At that time I began to have a very high regard for you... For I had learned that you had not merely mastered the discoveries of the ancient astronomers uncommonly well but had also formulated a new cosmology. In it you maintain that the earth moves; that the sun occupies the lowest, and thus the central, place in the universe... Therefore with the utmost earnestness I entreat you, most learned sir, unless I inconvenience you, to communicate this discovery of yours to scholars, and at the earliest possible moment to send me your writings on the sphere of the universe together with the tables and whatever else you have that is relevant to this subject ...[70] By then Copernicus' work was nearing its definitive form, and rumors about his theory had reached educated people all over Europe. Despite urgings from many quarters, Copernicus delayed publication of his book, perhaps from fear of criticisma fear delicately expressed in the subsequent dedication of his masterpiece to Pope Paul III. Scholars disagree on whether Copernicus' concern was limited to possible astronomical and philosophical objections, or whether he was also concerned about religious objections.[71]

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The book
Copernicus was still working on De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (even if not certain that he wanted to publish it) when in 1539 Georg Joachim Rheticus, a Wittenberg mathematician, arrived in Frombork. Philipp Melanchthon, a close theological ally of Martin Luther, had arranged for Rheticus to visit several astronomers and study with them. Rheticus became Copernicus' pupil, staying with him for two years and writing a book, Narratio prima (First Account), outlining the essence of Copernicus' theory. In 1542 Rheticus published a treatise on trigonometry by Copernicus (later included in the second book of De revolutionibus). Under strong pressure from Rheticus, and having seen the favorable first general De revolutionibus, 1543. Click reception of his work, Copernicus finally agreed to give De revolutionibus to his on image to read book. close friend, Tiedemann Giese, bishop of Chemno (Kulm), to be delivered to Rheticus for printing by the German printer Johannes Petreius at Nuremberg (Nrnberg), Germany. While Rheticus initially supervised the printing, he had to leave Nuremberg before it was completed, and he handed over the task of supervising the rest of the printing to a Lutheran theologian, Andreas Osiander.[72] Osiander added an unauthorised and unsigned preface, defending the work against those who might be offended by the novel hypotheses. He explained that astronomers may find different causes for observed motions, and choose whatever is easier to grasp. As long as a hypothesis allows reliable computation, it does not have to match what a philosopher might seek as the truth.

Death
Copernicus died in Frombork on 24 May 1543. Legend has it that the first printed copy of De revolutionibus was placed in his hands on the very day that he died, allowing him to take farewell of his life's work. He is reputed to have awoken from a stroke-induced coma, looked at his book, and then died peacefully. Copernicus was reportedly buried in Frombork Cathedral, where archaeologists for over two centuries searched in vain for his remains. Efforts to locate the remains in 1802, 1909, 1939 and 2004 had come to nought. In August 2005, however, a team led by Jerzy Gssowski, head of an archaeology and anthropology institute in Putusk, after scanning beneath the cathedral floor, discovered what they believed to be Copernicus' remains.[73] The find came after a year of searching, and the discovery was announced only after further research, on 3 November 2008. Gssowski said he was "almost 100 percent sure it is Copernicus."[74] Forensic expert Capt. Dariusz Zajdel of the Polish Police 1735 epitaph, Frombork Central Forensic Laboratory used the skull to reconstruct a face that closely Cathedral. A 1580 epitaph had been destroyed. resembled the featuresincluding a broken nose and a scar above the left eyeon a Copernicus self-portrait.[74] The expert also determined that the skull belonged to a man who had died around age 70Copernicus' age at the time of his death.[73]

Nicolaus Copernicus

54

The grave was in poor condition, and not all the remains of the skeleton were found; missing, among other things, was the lower jaw.[75] The DNA from the bones found in the grave matched hair samples taken from a book owned by Copernicus which was kept at the library of the University of Uppsala in Sweden.[76][77] On 22 May 2010 Copernicus was given a second funeral in a Mass led by Jzef Kowalczyk, the former papal nuncio to Poland and newly named Primate of Poland. Copernicus' remains were reburied in the same spot in Frombork Cathedral where part of his skull and other bones had been found. A black granite tombstone now identifies him as the founder of the heliocentric theory and also a church canon. The tombstone bears a representation of Copernicus' model of the solar systema golden sun encircled by six of the planets.[78]

Casket with Copernicus' remains, St. James' Cathedral Basilica, Allenstein, March 2010

Copernican system
Predecessors
Philolaus (c. 480385 BCE) described an astronomical system in which a Central Fire (different from the Sun) occupied the centre of the universe, and a counter-Earth, the Earth, Moon, the Sun itself, planets, and stars all revolved around it, in that order outward from the centre.[79] Heraclides Ponticus (387312 BCE) proposed that the Earth rotates on its axis.[80] Aristarchus of Samos (310 BCE c. 230 BCE) identified the "central fire" with the Sun, around which he had the Earth orbiting.[81] Some technical details of Copernicus's system[82] closely resembled those developed earlier by the Islamic astronomers Nar al-Dn al-s and Ibn al-Shir, both of whom retained a geocentric model. The prevailing theory in Europe during Copernicus' lifetime was the one that Ptolemy published in his Almagest circa 150 CE; the Earth was the stationary center of the universe. Stars were embedded in a large outer sphere which rotated rapidly, approximately daily, while each of the planets, the Sun, and the Moon were embedded in their own, smaller spheres. Ptolemy's system employed devices, including epicycles, deferents and equants, to account for observations that the paths of these bodies differed from simple, circular orbits centered on the Earth.
Frombork Cathedral

Copernicus' 2010 grave, Frombork Cathedral

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Copernicus
Copernicus' major theory was published in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres), in the year of his death, 1543, though he had formulated the theory several decades earlier. Copernicus' "Commentariolus" summarized his heliocentric theory. It listed the "assumptions" upon which the theory was based as follows: "1. There is no one center of all the celestial circles or spheres. 2. The center of the earth is not the center of the universe, but only of gravity and of the lunar sphere. 3. All the spheres revolve about the sun as their mid-point, and therefore Copernicus' vision of the universe in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium the sun is the center of the universe. 4. The ratio of the earth's distance from the sun to the height of the firmament (outermost celestial sphere containing the stars) is so much smaller than the ratio of the earth's radius to its distance from the sun that the distance from the earth to the sun is imperceptible in comparison with the height of the firmament. 5. Whatever motion appears in the firmament arises not from any motion of the firmament, but from the earth's motion. The earth together with its circumjacent elements performs a complete rotation on its fixed poles in a daily motion, while the firmament and highest heaven abide unchanged. 6. What appear to us as motions of the sun arise not from its motion but from the motion of the earth and our sphere, with which we revolve about the sun like any other planet. The earth has, then, more than one motion. 7. The apparent retrograde and direct motion of the planets arises not from their motion but from the earth's. The motion of the earth alone, therefore, suffices to explain so many apparent inequalities in the heavens."[83] De revolutionibus itself was divided into six parts, called "books": 1. General vision of the heliocentric theory, and a summarized exposition of his idea of the World 2. Mainly theoretical, presents the principles of spherical astronomy and a list of stars (as a basis for the arguments developed in the subsequent books) 3. Mainly dedicated to the apparent motions of the Sun and to related phenomena 4. Description of the Moon and its orbital motions 5. Concrete exposition of the new system 6. Concrete exposition of the new system

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Successors
Georg Joachim Rheticus could have been Copernicus' successor, but did not rise to the occasion.[62] Erasmus Reinhold could have been his successor, but died prematurely.[62] The first of the great successors was Tycho Brahe[62] (though he did not think the earth orbitted the sun), followed by Johannes Kepler,[62] who had worked as Tycho's assistant in Prague. Despite the near universal acceptance today of the basic heliocentric idea (though not the epicycles or the circular orbits), Copernicus' theory was originally slow to catch on. Scholars hold that sixty years after the publication of The Revolutions there were only around 15 astronomers espousing Copernicanism in all of Europe, "Thomas Digges and Thomas Hariot in England; Giordano Bruno and Galileo Galilei in Italy; Diego de Zuniga in Spain; Simon Stevin in the Low Countries; and in Germany, the largest group Georg Joachim Rheticus, Michael Maestlin, Christoph Rothmann (who may have later recanted),[84] and Johannes Kepler."[84] Additional possibilities are Englishman William Gilbert, along with Achilles Gasser, Georg Vogelin, Valentin Otto, and Tiedemann Giese.[84] Arthur Koestler, in his popular book The Sleepwalkers, asserted that Copernicus' book had not been widely read on its first publication.[85] This claim was trenchantly criticised by Edward Rosen,[86] and has been decisively disproved by Owen Gingerich, who examined every surviving copy of the first two editions and found copious marginal notes by their owners throughout many of them. Gingerich published his conclusions in 2004 in The Book Nobody Read.[87] The intellectual climate of the time "remained dominated by Aristotelian philosophy and the corresponding Ptolemaic astronomy. At that time there was no reason to accept the Copernican theory, except for its mathematical simplicity [by avoiding using the equant in determining planetary positions]."[88] Tycho Brahe's system ("that the earth is stationary, the sun revolves about the earth, and the other planets revolve about the sun")[88] also directly competed with Copernicus'. It was only a half century later with the work of Kepler and Galileo that any substantial evidence defending Copernicanism appeared, starting "from the time when Galileo formulated the principle of inertia...[which] helped to explain why everything would not fall off the earth if it were in motion."[88] It was not until "after Isaac Newton formulated the universal law of gravitation and the laws of mechanics [in his 1687 Principia], which unified terrestrial and celestial mechanics, was the heliocentric view generally accepted."[88]

Controversy
Only mild controversy (and no fierce sermons) was the immediate result of the publication of Copernicus' book. At the Council of Trent neither Copernicus' theory nor calendar reform (which would later use tables deduced from Copernicus' calculations) were discussed. The first notable to move against Copernicanism was the Magister of the Holy Palace (i.e., the Catholic Church's chief censor), Dominican Bartolomeo Spina, who "expressed a desire to stamp out the Copernican doctrine."[89][90] But with Spina's death in 1546, his cause fell to his friend, the well known theologian-astronomer, the Dominican Giovanni Maria Tolosani of the Convent of St. Mark in Florence. Tolosani had written a treatise on reforming the calendar (in which astronomy would play a large role), and had attended the Fifth Lateran Council to discuss the matter. Copernicus, astronomer He had obtained a copy of De Revolutionibus in 1544. His denouncement of Copernicanism appeared in an appendix to his work entitled On the Truth of Sacred Scripture.[91][92] Emulating the rationalistic style of Thomas Aquinas, Tolosani sought to refute Copernicanism on philosophical arguments. While still invoking Christian Scripture and Tradition, Tolosani strove to show Copernicanism was absurd because it was unproven and unfounded on three main points. First Copernicus had assumed the motion of the Earth but offered no physical theory whereby one would deduce this motion. (No one realized that the

Nicolaus Copernicus investigation into Copernicanism would result in a rethinking of the entire field of physics.) Second Tolosani charged that Copernicus' thought processes was backwards. He held that Copernicus had come up with his idea and then sought phenomena that would support it, rather than observing phenomena and deducing from that the idea of what caused it. In this Tolosani was linking Copernicus' mathematical equations with the practices of the Pythagoreans (whom Aristotle had made arguments against, which were later picked up by Thomas Aquinas). It was argued that mathematical numbers were a mere product of the intellect without any physical reality, and as such "numbers could not provide physical causes in the investigation of nature."[89] (This was basically a denial of the possibility of mathematical physics.) Some astronomical hypotheses at the time (such as epicycles and eccentrics) were seen as mere mathematical devices to adjust calculations of where the heavenly bodies would appear, rather than an explanation of the cause of those motions. (As Copernicus still maintained the idea of perfectly spherical orbits he relied on epicycles). This "saving the phenomena" was seen as proof that Astronomy and Math could not be taken as a serious means to determine physical causes. Holding this view, Tolosani invoked it in his final critique of Copernicus, saying his biggest error was that he started with "inferior" fields of science to make pronouncements about "superior" fields. Copernicus had used Mathematics and Astronomy to postulate about Physics and Cosmology, rather than beginning with the accepted principles of Physics and Cosmology to determine things about Astronomy and Math. In this way Copernicus seemed to be undermining the whole system of the philosophy of science at the time. Tolosani held that Copernicus had just fallen into philosophical error because he hadn't been versed in physics and logic - anyone without such knowledge would make a poor astronomer and be unable to distinguish truth from falsehood. Because it had not meet the criteria for scientific truth set out by Thomas Aquinas, Tolosani held that Copernicanism could only be viewed as a wild unproven theory. Tolosani recognized that the Ad Lectorem preface to Copernicus' book wasn't actually by him. Its thesis that astronomy as a whole would never be able to make truth claims was rejected by Tolosani, (though he still held that Copernicus' attempt to describe physical reality had been faulty), he found it ridiculous that Ad Lectorem had been included in the book (unaware that Copernicus hadn't authorized its inclusion). Tolosani wrote "By means of these words [of the Ad Lectorem], the foolishness of this book's author is rebuked. For by a foolish effort he [Copernicus] tried to revive the weak Pythagorean opinion [that the element of fire was at the Ptolemy and Copernicus, ca. center of the Universe], long ago deservedly destroyed, since it is expressly contrary 1686, at King Jan Sobieski's to human reason and also opposes holy writ. From this situation, there could easily library, Wilanw Palace: an arise disagreements between Catholic expositors of holy scripture and those who early Copernicus depiction might wish to adhere obstinately to this false opinion. We have written this little work for the purpose of avoiding this scandal."[92] Tolosani declared "Nicolaus Copernicus neither read nor understood the arguments of Aristotle the philosopher and Ptolemy the astronomer."[92] He wrote that Copernicus "is very deficient in the sciences of physics and logic. Moreover, it appears that he is unskilled with regard to [the interpretation of] holy scripture, since he contradicts several of its principles, not without danger of infidelity to himself and the readers of his book. ...his arguments have no force and can very easily be taken apart. For it is stupid to contradict an opinion accepted by everyone over a very long time for the strongest reasons, unless the impugner uses more powerful and insoluble demonstrations and completely dissolves the opposed reasons. But he does not do this in the least."[92] He declared that he had written against Copernicus "for the purpose of preserving the truth to the common advantage of the Holy Church."[92] Despite the efforts Tolosani put into his work it remained unpublished and it "was likely shelved in the library of the Dominican order at San Marco in Florence, awaiting its use by some new prosecutor" (it is believed that Dominican Tommaso Caccini read it before delivering a sermon against Galileo in December 1613).[92]

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Nicolaus Copernicus It has been much debated why it was not until six decades after the publication of De revolutionibus that the Catholic Church took any official action against it, even the efforts of Tolosani had gone unheeded. Proposed reasons have included the personality of Galileo Galilei and the availability of evidence such as telescope observations. How entwined the pre-Copernican theory was in theological circles can be seen in a sample of the works of John Calvin. In his Commentary on Genesis he said that "We indeed are not ignorant that the circuit of the heavens is finite, and that the earth, like a little globe, is placed in the centre."[93] Commenting on Job 26:7 Calvin wrote "It is true that Job specifically says 'the north,' and yet he is speaking about the whole heaven. And that is because the sky turns around upon the pole that is there. For, just as in the wheels of a chariot there is an axle that runs through the middle of them, and the wheels turn around the axle by reason of the holes that are in the middle of them, even so is it in the skies. This is manifestly seen; that is to say, those who are well acquainted with the course of the firmament see that the sky so turns."[93] Calvin's commentaries on the Psalms also show a reliance on the pre-Copernican theory; for Psalms 93:1 "The heavens revolve daily, and, immense as is their fabric and inconceivable the rapidity of their revolutions, we experience no concussion no disturbance in the harmony of their motion. The sun, though varying its course every diurnal revolution, returns annually to the same point. The planets, in all their wanderings, maintain their respective positions. How could the earth hang suspended in the air were it not upheld by God's hand? By what means could it maintain itself unmoved, while the heavens above are in constant rapid motion, did not its Divine Maker fix and establish it."[93] Commenting on Psalms 19:4 Calvin says "the firmament, by its own revolution draws with it all the fixed stars".[93] There is no evidence that Calvin was aware of Copernicus, and claims that after quoting Psalm 93:1 he went on to say "Who will venture to place the authority of Copernicus above the Holy Spirit", have been discredited and shown to originate with Frederic William Farrar's Bampton Lecture in 1885.[93] Unlike Calvin many theologians did become aware of Copernicus' theory which became increasingly controversial. The sharpest point of conflict between Copernicus' theory and the Bible concerned the story of the Battle of Gibeon in the Book of Joshua where the Hebrew forces were winning but whose opponents were likely to escape once night fell. This is averted by Joshua's prayers causing the sun and the moon to stand still. Martin Luther would question Copernicus' theory on these grounds. According to Anthony Lauterbach, while eating with Martin Luther the topic of Copernicus arouse during dinner on 4 June 1539 (as professor George Joachim Rheticus of the local University had been granted leave to visit him). Luther is said to have remarked "So it goes now. Whoever wants to be clever must agree with nothing others esteem. He must do something of his own. This is what that fellow does who wishes to turn the whole of astronomy upside down. Even in these thing that are thrown into disorder I believe the Holy Scriptures, for Joshua commanded the sun to stand still and not the earth."[88] These remarks were made four years before the publication of On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres and a year before Rheticus' Narratio Prima. In John Aurifaber's account of the conversation Luther calls Copernicus "that fool" rather than "that fellow", this version is viewed by historians as less reliably sourced.[88] Luther's collaborator Philipp Melanchthon also took issue with Copernicanism. After receiving the first pages of Narratio Prima from Rheticus himself, Melanchthon wrote to Mithobius (physician and mathematician Burkard Mithob of Feldkirch) on October 16, 1541 condemning the theory and calling for it to be repressed by governmental force, writing "certain people believe it is a marvelous achievement to extol so crazy a thing, like that Polish astronomer who makes the earth move and the sun stand still. Really, wise governments ought to repress impudence of mind."[94] It had appeared to Rheticus that Melanchton would understand the theory and would be open to it. This was because Melanchton had taught Ptolemaic astronomy and had even recommended his friend Rheticus to an appointment to the Deanship of the Faculty of Arts & Sciences at the University of Wittenberg after he had returned from studying with Copernicus. Rheticus' hopes were dashed when six years after the publication of De Revolutionibus Melanchthon published his Initia Doctrinae Physicae presenting three grounds to reject Copernicanism, these were "the evidence of the senses, the thousand-year consensus of men of science, and the authority of the Bible".[95] Blasting the new theory

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Nicolaus Copernicus Melanchthon wrote "Out of love for novelty or in order to make a show of their cleverness, some people have argued that the earth moves. They maintain that neither the eighth sphere nor the sun moves, whereas they attribute motion to the other celestial spheres, and also place the earth among the heavenly bodies. Nor were these jokes invented recently. There is still extant Archimedes' book on The sand-reckoner; in which he reports that Aristarchus of Samos propounded the paradox that the sun stands still and the earth revolves around the sun. Even though subtle experts institute many investigations for the sake of exercising their ingenuity, nevertheless public proclamation of absurd opinions is indecent and sets a harmful example."[94] Melanchthon went on to cite Bible passages and then declare "Encouraged by this divine evidence, let us cherish the truth and let us not permit ourselves to be alienated from it by the tricks of those who deem it an intellectual honor to introduce confusion into the arts."[94] In the first edition of Initia Doctrinae Physicae, Melanchthon even questioned Copernicus' character claiming his motivation was "either from love of novelty or from desire to appear clever", these more personal attacks were largely removed by the second edition in 1550.[95] Another Protestant theologican who took issue with Copernicus was John Owen who declared that "the late hypothesis, fixing the sun as in the centre of the world' was 'built on fallible phenomena, and advanced by many arbitrary presumptions against evident testimonies of Scripture.'[96] In Roman Catholic circles, German Jesuit Nicolaus Serarius was one of the first to write against Copernicus' theory as heretical, citing the Joshua passage, in a work published in 16091610, and again in a book in 1612. In his 12 April 1615 letter to a Catholic defender of Copernicus, Paolo Antonio Foscarini, Catholic Cardinal Robert Bellarmine condemned Copernican theory, writing "...not only the Holy Fathers, but also the modern commentaries on Genesis, the Psalms, Ecclesiastes, and Joshua, you will find all agreeing in the literal interpretation that the sun is in heaven and turns around the earth with great speed, and that the earth is very far from heaven and sits motionless at the center of the world...Nor can one answer that this is not a matter of faith, since if it is not a matter of faith 'as regards the topic,' it is a matter of faith 'as regards the speaker': and so it would be heretical to say that Abraham did not have two children and Jacob twelve, as well as to say that Christ was not born of a virgin, because both are said by the Holy Spirit through the mouth of prophets and apostles."[97] Perhaps the strongest opponent to Copernican theory was Francesco Ingoli, a Catholic priest. Ingoli wrote a January 1616 essay condemning Copernicanism as "philosophically untenable and theologically heretical."[97] Though "it is not certain, it is probable that he was commissioned by the Inquisition to write an expert opinion on the controversy",[97] (after the Congregation of the Index's decree against Copernicanism on 5 March 1616 Ingoli was officially appointed its consultant). Two of Ingoli's theological issues with Copernicus' theory were "common Catholic beliefs not directly traceable to Scripture: the doctrine that hell is located at the center of Earth and is most distant from heaven; and the explicit assertion that Earth is motionless in a hymn sung on Tuesdays as part of the Liturgy of the Hours of the Divine Office prayers regularly recited by priests."[97] Ingoli also cited Genesis 1:14 where YHWH places "lights in the firmament of the heavens to divide the day from the night."[97] Like previous commentators Ingoli pointed to the passages about the Battle of Gibeon and dismissed arguments that they should be taken metaphorically, saying "Replies which assert that Scripture speaks according to our mode of understanding are not satisfactory: both because in explaining the Sacred Writings the rule is always to preserve the literal sense, when it is possible, as it is in this case; and also because all the [Church] Fathers unanimously take this passage to mean that the sun which was truly moving stopped at Joshua's request. An interpretation which is contrary to the unanimous consent of the Fathers is condemned by the Council of Trent, Session IV, in the decree on the edition and use of the Sacred Books. Furthermore, although the Council speaks about matters of faith and morals, nevertheless it cannot be denied that the Holy Fathers would be displeased with an interpretation of Sacred Scriptures which is contrary to their common agreement."[97] In March 1616, in connection with the Galileo affair, the Roman Catholic Church's Congregation of the Index issued a decree suspending De revolutionibus until it could be "corrected," on the grounds that the supposedly Pythagorean doctrine[98] that the Earth moves and the Sun does not was "false and altogether opposed to Holy Scripture."[99] The

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Nicolaus Copernicus same decree also prohibited any work that defended the mobility of the Earth or the immobility of the Sun, or that attempted to reconcile these assertions with Scripture. On the orders of Pope Paul V, Cardinal Robert Bellarmine gave Galileo prior notice that the decree was about to be issued, and warned him that he could not "hold or defend" the Copernican doctrine.[100] The corrections to De revolutionibus, which omitted or altered nine sentences, were issued four years later, in 1620.[101] In 1633 Galileo Galilei was convicted of grave suspicion of heresy for "following the position of Copernicus, which is contrary to the true sense and authority of Holy Scripture,"[102] and was placed under house arrest for the rest of his life. At the instance of Roger Boscovich, the Catholic Church's 1758 Index of Prohibited Books omitted the general prohibition of works defending heliocentrism,[103] but retained the specific prohibitions of the original uncensored versions of De revolutionibus and Galileo's Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems. Those prohibitions were finally dropped from the 1835 Index.[104]

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Nationality
There has been discussion of Copernicus' nationality and of whether, in fact, it is meaningful to ascribe to him a nationality in the modern sense. Historian Michael Burleigh describes the nationality debate as a "totally insignificant battle" between German and Polish scholars during the interwar period.[105] Polish astronomer Konrad Rudnicki calls the discussion a "fierce scholarly quarrel in... times of nationalism" and describes Copernicus as an inhabitant of a German-speaking territory that belonged to Poland, himself being of mixed Polish-German extraction.[106] Rudnicki adds that Martin Luther, an opponent of Copernicus' theories, regarded him as Polish and referred to him as a "Sarmatic fool". (At the time, "Sarmatian" was a term for a nobleman of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland.)[106]

Bust by Schadow, 1807, Walhalla temple

According to Czesaw Miosz, the debate is an "absurd" projection of a modern understanding of nationality onto Renaissance people, who identified with their home territories rather than with a nation.[107] Similarly historian Norman Davies writes that Copernicus, as was common in his era, was "largely indifferent" to nationality, being a local patriot who considered himself "Prussian".[108] Miosz and Davies both write that Copernicus had a German-language cultural background, while his working language was Latin in accordance with the usage of the time.[107][108] Additionally, according to Davies, "there is ample evidence that he knew the Polish language."[108] Davies concludes: "Taking everything into consideration, there is good reason to regard him both as a German and as a Pole: and yet, in the sense that modern nationalists understand it, he was neither."[108] The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy describes Copernicus as a "child of a German family [who] was a subject of the Polish crown",[4] while others note that his father was a Germanized Pole.[109] Encyclopdia Britannica,[110] Encyclopedia Americana,[111] The Columbia Encyclopedia[112] and The Oxford World Encyclopedia[113] identify Copernicus as a "Polish astronomer".

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Copernicium
On 14 July 2009, the discoverers, from the Gesellschaft fr Schwerionenforschung in Darmstadt, Germany, of chemical element 112 (temporarily named ununbium) proposed to the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry that its permanent name be "copernicium" (symbol Cn). "After we had named elements after our city and our state, we wanted to make a statement with a name that was known to everyone," said Hofmann. "We didn't want to select someone who was a German. We were looking world-wide."[114] On the 537th anniversary of his birthday the official naming was released to the public.[115]

Veneration
Copernicus is honored, together with Johannes Kepler, in the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church (USA), with a feast day on 23 May.[116]

Notes
[1] Linton (2004, p.39 (http:/ / books. google. com. au/ books?id=B4br4XJFj0MC& pg=PA39)). Copernicus was not, however, the first to propose some form of heliocentric system. A Greek mathematician and astronomer, Aristarchus of Samos, had already done so as early as the third century BCE. Nevertheless, there is little evidence that he ever developed his ideas beyond a very basic outline (Dreyer, 1953, pp.13548) (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ historyofplaneta00dreyuoft#page/ 134/ mode/ 2up). [2] A self-portrait helped confirm the identity of his cranium when it was discovered at Frombork Cathedral in 2008. Krakw's Jagiellonian University has a 17th-century copy of Copernicus' 16th-century self-portrait. (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic-art/ 533435/ 1279/ Copernicus-17th-century-copy-of-a-16th-century-self-portrait) "Copernicus," Encyclopdia Britannica, 15th ed., 2005, vol. 16, p.760. [3] Iowiecki, Maciej (1981). Dzieje nauki polskiej. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Interpress. p.40. ISBN83-223-1876-6. [4] "Nicolaus Copernicus" (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ copernicus/ #1). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. . Retrieved 2007-04-22. [5] Jerzy Dobrzycki and Leszek Hajdukiewicz, "Kopernik, Mikoaj", Polski sownik biograficzny, vol. XIV, 1969, p. 4. [6] [Great Books of the Western World, Book 16] [7] "The name of the village, not unlike that of the astronomer's family, has been variously spelled. A large German atlas of Silesia, published by Wieland in Nuremberg in 1731, spells it Kopernik." Stephen Mizwa, Nicolaus Copernicus, 15431943, Kessinger Publishing, 1943, p.36. ( (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ZHDWSYV6pKoC& pg=PA36& lpg=PA36& dq=silesia+ copernicus& source=bl& ots=ZZDjIBncVQ& sig=BcJwqCjxc7rn2YLgDnC-OIQljQo& hl=en& ei=a0gES-jNBM6onQenuqF4& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=5& ved=0CBwQ6AEwBA#v=onepage& q=silesia copernicus& f=false)) [8] Jerzy Dobrzycki and Leszek Hajdukiewicz, "Kopernik, Mikoaj", Polski sownik biograficzny, vol. XIV, 1969, p. 3. [9] Barbara Biekowska, The Scientific World of Copernicus, Springer, 1973 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=LQflKvEtYL8C& pg=PA15& dq=Copernicus+ father+ copper) [10] Eugeniusz Rybka for Polska Akademia Nauk (the Polish Academy of Sciences), The Review of the Polish Academy of Sciences: Nicolaus Copernicus' Relationship with Cracow, Ossolineum, 1973, p. 23. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=BjJFAAAAIAAJ& q=Copernicus+ father+ copper+ Gdansk& dq=Copernicus+ father+ copper+ Gdansk& pgis=1) [11] Josh Sakolsky, Copernicus and Modern Astronomy, Rosen Publishing Group, 2005, p. 8. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=0QC8ZSklbxYC& pg=PT11& dq=Copernicus+ father+ Torun#PPT11,M1) [12] Marian Biskup, Regesta Copernicana (calendar of Copernicus' papers), Ossolineum, 1973, p. 16. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=3gkLAAAAMAAJ& q=Copernicus+ Olesnicki+ loan& dq=Copernicus+ Olesnicki+ loan& pgis=1) [13] "The mother of Barbara and Lucas was a Modlibog." Alexandre Koyre, Astronomical Revolution: Copernicus Kepler Borelli, Cornell University Press, 1973, ISBN 0-486-27095-5, p.78. ( (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=l0YRAZz2yU0C& pg=PA78& dq=modlibog+ + + copernicus& lr=& as_brr=3#v=onepage& q=modlibog + copernicus& f=false)) [14] "Adrian Krzyzanowski and John Sniadecki: Copernicus and His Native Land," The Foreign and Colonial Quarterly Review, Smith, Elder & Co., 1844, p.367. ( (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ldwRAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA367& lpg=PA367& dq=copernicus+ modlibog& source=bl& ots=heDom9dv_y& sig=koaEdou1Jss4uaP4-HugEGBV3cs& hl=en& ei=WwoHS4PSGNHbnAeOlK25Cw& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=5& ved=0CBYQ6AEwBA#v=onepage& q=modlibog& f=false)) [15] Stephen Mizwa: Nicolaus Copernicus, 15431943. Kessinger Publishing, 1943, p.38. [16] Czesaw Miosz, The History of Polish Literature, University of California Press, 1983, p. 38. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=11MVdBYUX5oC& pg=PA38& dq=Watzenrode+ Teutonic& lr=) [17] Dobrzycki and Hajdukiewicz, Polski sownik biograficzny, vol. XIV, 1969, p. 4. [18] The Head Office of State Archives, Poland, "Copernicus' Biography", accessed 2009-05-22, (http:/ / www. archiwa. gov. pl/ memory/ sub_kopernik/ index. php?va_lang=en& fileid=004) [19] Jeremi Wasiutyski, The Solar Mystery: An Inquiry Into the Temporal and the Eternal Background of the Rise of Modern Civilization, Solum Forlag, 2003, p. 29. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?q=Lasin+ Watzenrode& btnG=Search+ Books)

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[20] "In 1512, Bishop Watzenrode died suddenly after attending King Sigismund's wedding feast in Krakw. Rumors abounded that the bishop had been poisoned by agents of his long-time foe, the Teutonic Knights." Alan Hirshfeld: Parallax: The race to Measure the Cosmos. W.H. Freemand and Company, 2001, ISBN 0-7167-3711-6, p.38. ( (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=CW6tqdhVMJoC& pg=PA38& dq=watzenrode+ died+ suddenly& as_brr=3#v=onepage& q=watzenrode died suddenly& f=false)) [21] "The Watzelrodesor Watzenrodesin spite of their rather Germanic name seemed to have been good Poles (enemies of the Teutonic Order)." Alexandre Koyre, Astronomical Revolution, Copernicus Kepler Borelli, New York, Cornell University Press, 1973, ISBN 0-486-27095-5, p.38. ( (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=l0YRAZz2yU0C& pg=PA78& dq=germanic+ names+ good+ poles& lr=& as_brr=3#v=onepage& q=& f=false)) [22] "[Watzenrode] was also firm, and the Teutonic Knights, who remained a constant menace, did not like him at all; the Grand Master of the order once described him as 'the devil incarnate'. [Watzenrode] was the trusted friend and advisor of three kings in succession: John Albert, Alexander (not to be confused with the poisoning pope), and Sigismund; and his influence greatly strengthened the ties between Warmia and Poland proper." Patrick Moore: The Great Astronomical Revolution: 15341687 and the Space Age Epilogue. Albion Publishing, 1994, ISBN 1-898563-18-7, pp.52, 62 ( (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=guAUPMLcHyoC& pg=PA62& dq=watzenrode+ john+ albert+ sigismund& as_brr=3#v=onepage& q=watzenrode john albert sigismund& f=false)). [23] Wojciech Iwanczak (1998). "WATZENRODE, Lucas" (http:/ / www. bautz. de/ bbkl/ w/ watzenrode. shtml). In Bautz, Traugott (in German). Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon (BBKL). 13. Herzberg: Bautz. col. 389393. ISBN3-88309-072-7. . [24] "Lucas was on more friendly terms with his successors, Johann Albert (Jan Olbracht) (from 1492 to 1501), and later Alexander (Aleksander) (from 1501 to 1506), and Sigismund (Zygmunt) I (from 1506)." Pierre Gassendi & Olivier Thill: The Life of Copernicus (14731543): The Man Who Did Not Change the World. Xulon Press, 2002, ISBN 1-59160-193-2, p.22. ( (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=9r0RfQtpU6AC& pg=PA22& dq=lucas+ was+ in+ more+ friendly& lr=& as_brr=3#v=onepage& q=lucas was in more friendly& f=false)) [25] "[Watzenrode] was also firm, and the Teutonic Knights, who remained a constant menace, did not like him at all; the Grand Master of the order once described him as 'the devil incarnate'. [Watzenrode] was the trusted friend and advisor of three kings in succession: John Albert, Alexander (not to be confused with the poisoning pope), and Sigismund; and his influence greatly strengthened the ties between Warmia and Poland proper." Patrick Moore: The Great Astronomical Revolution: 15341687 and the Space Age Epilogue. Albion Publishing, 1994, ISBN 1-898563-18-7, pp.52, 62. ( (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=guAUPMLcHyoC& pg=PA62& dq=watzenrode+ john+ albert+ sigismund& as_brr=3#v=onepage& q=watzenrode john albert sigismund& f=false)) [26] "He spoke German, Polish and Latin with equal fluency as well as Italian." Daniel Stone: The Polish-Lithuanian State, 13861795. University of Washington Press, 2001, ISBN 0-295-98093-1, p.101. ( (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=LFgB_l4SdHAC& pg=PA101& dq=The+ Polish+ Lithuanian+ State+ 1386+ copernicus+ spoke#v=onepage& q=& f=false)) [27] "He spoke Polish, Latin and Greek." Barbara Somerville: Nicolaus Copernicus: Father of Modern Astronomy. Compass Point Books, 2005, ISBN 0-7565-0812-6, p.10. ( (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ODh9P4P3ElkC& pg=PA10& dq=copernicus+ somervill+ spoke+ latin#v=onepage& q=& f=false)). [28] "He was a linguist with a command of Polish, German and Latin, and he possessed also a knowledge of Greek rare at that period in northeastern Europe and probably had some acquaintance with Italian and Hebrew." Angus Armitage: Copernicus and Modern Astronomy. Dover Publications, 2004 (originally 1957), ISBN 0-486-43907-0, p.62. [29] He used Latin and German, knew enough Greek to translate the 7th-century Byzantine poet Theophylact Simocatta's verses into Latin prose (Armitage, The World of Copernicus, pp. 7577), and "there is ample evidence that he knew the Polish language" (Norman Davies, God's Playground, vol. II, p. 26). During his several years' studies in Italy, Copernicus presumably would also have learned some Italian. Professor Stefan Melkowski of Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toru likewise asserts that Copernicus spoke both German and Polish. ( (http:/ / glos. uni. torun. pl/ 2003/ 05/ historia) "O historii i o wspczesnoci" ("About History and Contemporaneity"), May 2003.]) [30] "Deutsch war fr Kopernikus Muttersprache und Alltagssprache, wenn auch der schriftliche Umgang fast ausschlielich auf Lateinisch erfolgte." Martin Carrier: Nikolaus Kopernikus. Beck'sche Reihe, C. H. Beck, 2001, ISBN 3-406-47577-9, ISBN 978-3-406-47577-1, p.192. ( online (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=bYxhZt6BZCoC& pg=PA65& vq=Deutsch+ war+ fr+ Kopernikus+ Muttersprache& source=gbs_search_r& cad=1_1))]) [31] Rosen (1995, p. 127 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=C_a1kTvuZ1MC& pg=PA127#v=onepage& f=false)). [32] "Although great importance has frequently been ascribed to this fact, it does not imply that Copernicus considered himself to be a German. The 'nationes' of a medieval university had nothing in common with nations in the modern sense of the word. Students who were natives of Prussia and Silesia were automatically described as belonging to the Natio Germanorum. Furthmore, at Bologna, this was the 'privileged' nation; consequently, Copernicus had very good reason for inscribing himself on its register." Alexandre Koyre: Astronomical Revolution, Copernicus Kepler Borelli. Cornell University Press, 1973, ISBN 0-486-27095-5, p.21. ( (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=l0YRAZz2yU0C& pg=PA21& dq=natio+ germanorum#v=onepage& q=natio germanorum& f=false)) [33] "It is important to recognize, however, that the medievel Latin concept of natio, or "nation," referred to the community of feudal lords both in Germany and elsewhere, not to 'the people' in the nineteenth-century democratic or nationalistic sense of the word." Lonnie Johnson, Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends, Oxford University Press, 1996, ISBN 0-19-510071-9, p.23. ( (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=e_m13Hk3AFEC& pg=PA23& dq=natio+ germanorum& lr=& as_brr=3#v=onepage& q=natio germanorum& f=false)) [34] Arthur Koestler, The Sleepwalkers (http:/ / books. google. ca/ books?id=skMBAAAAMAAJ& q="natio+ germanorum"& dq="natio+ germanorum"& pgis=1), 1968, p. 129.

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[35] Pierre Gassendi, Oliver Thill, The Life of Copernicus (14731543) (http:/ / books. google. ca/ books?id=9r0RfQtpU6AC& pg=PA38& dq=natio+ copernicus& sig=wZg0maLYGyn-N2P7-bO7_q6s0Jc#v=onepage& q=Nationis Germanorum& f=false), 2002, p. 37. [36] Nicolaus Copernicus et al., Nicolaus Copernicus Gesamtausgabe. Documenta Copernicana I.: Briefe, Texte und bersetzungen (http:/ / books. google. ca/ books?id=aEZrYxkjLkIC& pg=PA39& dq="natio+ germanorum"& sig=Dsr0AwrAI75N3ndXb5wHXWJaL4Q#PPA39,M1), 1996, p. 39. [37] Melkowski, Stefan (May 2003). "O historii i o wspczesnoci (On History and the Present Day)" (http:/ / glos. uni. torun. pl/ 2003/ 05/ historia/ ) (in Polish). . Retrieved 2007-04-22. [38] "Kopernik, Koperek, Kopr and Koprnik in Polishalso similarly in other Slavonic languagesmeans simply dill such as is used in dill pickling. Be it as it may, although the present writer is more inclined towards the occupational interpretation, it is interesting to note ..." Stephen Mizwa, Nicolaus Copernicus, 15431943, Kessinger Publishing, 1943, p.37 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ZHDWSYV6pKoC& pg=PA37& dq=dill+ + + copernicus& lr=& as_brr=0#v=onepage& q=dill + copernicus& f=false). [39] Armitage, p. 51. [40] Gingerich (2004), p.143. [41] Nicolaus Copernicus Gesamtausgabe: Urkunden, Akten und Nachrichten: Texte und bersetzungen, p.23 ff (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=aEZrYxkjLkIC& pg=PA23& vq=Koppernigk& source=gbs_search_r& cad=0_1). ISBN 3-05-003009-7. [42] Marian Biskup, Regesta Copernicana (Calendar of Copernicus' Papers), Ossolineum, 1973, page32 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=3gkLAAAAMAAJ& q=Koppernigk& pgis=1#search). [43] Biskup (1973), pp.38, 82 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=3gkLAAAAMAAJ& dq=Kopperlingk& q=Kopperlingk& pgis=1#search). [44] Carlo Malagola, Della vita e delle opere di Antonio Urceo detto Codro: studi e ricerche, 1878, pp.56265 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=SzQGAAAAQAAJ& dq=author:"Carlo+ Malagola"+ Kopperlingk& q=Kopperlingk& pgis=1#search). [45] "Copernicus, Nicolaus" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 136591/ Nicolaus-Copernicus). Encyclopdia Britannica Online. Encyclopdia Britannica. 2009. . Retrieved 2009-11-21. [46] Maximilian Curtze, Ueber die Orthographie des Namens Coppernicus, 1879, (http:/ / de. wikisource. org/ wiki/ Nicolaus_Coppernicus_aus_Thorn_ber_die_Kreisbewegungen_der_Weltkrper/ Vorwort#Orthographie). [47] Czesaw Miosz, The History of Polish Literature, p. 38. [48] Angus Armitage, The World of Copernicus, p. 55. [49] Jerzy Dobrzycki and Leszek Hajdukiewicz, "Kopernik, Mikoaj", Polski sownik biograficzny, pp. 45. [50] Jerzy Dobrzycki and Leszek Hajdukiewicz, "Kopernik, Mikoaj", Polski sownik biograficzny, p. 5. [51] Jerzy Dobrzycki and Leszek Hajdukiewicz, "Kopernik, Mikoaj", Polski sownik biograficzny, pp. 56. [52] Jerzy Dobrzycki and Leszek Hajdukiewicz, "Kopernik, Mikoaj", Polski sownik biograficzny, p. 6. [53] Rabin (2005). [54] Gingerich (2004, pp.18789, 201); Koyr (1973, p.94); Kuhn (1957, p.93); Rosen (2004, p.123); Rabin (2005). Robbins (1964, p.x), however, includes Copernicus among a list of Renaissance astronomers who "either practiced astrology themselves or countenanced its practice." [55] Sedlar (1994). [56] Angus Armitage, The World of Copernicus, pp. 7577. [57] Jerzy Dobrzycki and Leszek Hajdukiewicz, "Kopernik, Mikoaj", Polski sownik biograficzny, p. 7. [58] Jerzy Dobrzycki and Leszek Hajdukiewicz, "Kopernik, Mikoaj", Polski sownik biograficzny, pp. 78. [59] Repcheck (2007), p. 66. [60] Copernicus, Nicolaus, Minor Works (Edward Rosen, translator), Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992, pp. 176215. [61] Oliver Volckart, "Early Beginnings of the Quantity Theory of Money and Their Context in Polish and Prussian Monetary Policies, c. 15201550", The Economic History Review, New Series 50 (August 1997) 3, pp. 43049. [62] Repcheck, Jack (2007). Copernicus' Secret. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. pp.79, 78, 184, 186. ISBN978-0-7432-8951-1. [63] Jerzy Dobrzycki and Leszek Hajdukiewicz, "Kopernik, Mikoaj", Polski sownik biograficzny, vol. XIV, 1969, p. 11. [64] Angus Armitage, The World of Copernicus, pp. 9798. [65] Angus Armitage, The World of Copernicus, p. 98. [66] Kuhn, 1957, pp. 18788. [67] Photograph of a portrait of Copernicus by an unknown painter. The original was lootedpossibly destroyedby the Germans in World War II. Jan wieczyski, Katalog skradzionych i zaginionych dbr kultury (Catalog of Stolen and Missing Cultural Property), Warsaw, Orodek Informacyjno-Koordynacyjny Ochrony Obiektw Muzealnych (Center of Information and Coordination for the Safeguarding of Museum Objects), 1988. [68] A reference to the "Commentariolus" is contained in a library catalogue, dated 1 May 1514, of a 16th-century historian, Matthew of Miechw, so it must have begun circulating before that date (Koyr, 1973, p.85; Gingerich, 2004, p.32). Thoren (1990, p.99 (http:/ / books. google. com. au/ books?id=GxyA-lhWL-AC& pg=PA99)) gives the length of the manuscript as 40 pages. [69] Goddu (2010: 2456) [70] Schnberg, Nicholas, Letter to Nicolaus Copernicus, translated by Edward Rosen (http:/ / webexhibits. org/ calendars/ year-text-Copernicus. html). [71] Koyr (1973, pp. 27, 90) and Rosen (1995, pp. 64,184) take the view that Copernicus was indeed concerned about possible objections from theologians, while Lindberg and Numbers (1986) argue against it. Koestler (1963) also denies it. Indirect evidence that Copernicus was

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concerned about objections from theologians comes from a letter written to him by Andreas Osiander in 1541, in which Osiander advises Copernicus to adopt a proposal by which he says "you will be able to appease the Peripatetics and theologians whose opposition you fear." (Koyr, 1973, pp. 35, 90) [72] Dreyer (1953, p.319) (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ historyofplaneta00dreyuoft#page/ 319/ mode/ 1up). [73] Easton, Adam (21 November 2008). "Polish tests 'confirm Copernicus'" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ world/ europe/ 7740908. stm). BBC News. . Retrieved 2010-01-18. [74] "Copernicus' grave found in Polish church" (http:/ / www. usatoday. com/ tech/ science/ discoveries/ 2005-11-03-copernicus-grave_x. htm). USA Today. 3 November 2005. . Retrieved 2012-07-26. [75] Bowcott, Owen (21 November 2008). " 16th-century skeleton identified as astronomer Copernicus (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ science/ 2008/ nov/ 21/ astronomy-archaeology)" The Guardian. Retrieved 2010-01-18. [76] Bogdanowicz, W.; Allen, M.; Branicki, W.; et al., M.; Gajewska, M.; Kupiec, T. (2009). "Genetic identification of putative remains of the famous astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus". PNAS 106 (30): 1227912282. Bibcode2009PNAS..10612279B. doi:10.1073/pnas.0901848106. PMC2718376. PMID19584252. [77] Gingerich, O. (2009). "The Copernicus grave mystery". PNAS 106 (30): 1221512216. Bibcode2009PNAS..10612215G. doi:10.1073/pnas.0907491106. PMC2718392. PMID19622737. [78] Astronomer Copernicus Reburied as Hero (New York Times, 22 May 2010) (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ aponline/ 2010/ 05/ 22/ world/ AP-EU-Poland-Copernicus-Reburied. html) [79] Dreyer (1953), pp. 4052) (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ historyofplaneta00dreyuoft#page/ 40/ mode/ 2up); Linton (2004, p. 20). [80] Dreyer (1953), pp. 12335) (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ historyofplaneta00dreyuoft#page/ 122/ mode/ 2up); Linton (2004, p. 24). [81] Dreyer (1953, pp.13548 (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ historyofplaneta00dreyuoft#page/ 134/ mode/ 2up)); Heath (1913), pp.3018) (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ aristarchusofsam00heatuoft#page/ 301/ mode/ 2up) [82] Particularly his use of the Tusi couple and his models for the motions of Mercury and the Moon (Linton 2004, pp. 124 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=B4br4XJFj0MC& pg=PA124#v=onepage& q& f=false), 13738 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=B4br4XJFj0MC& pg=PA137#v=onepage& q& f=false)). [83] Rosen (2004), pp.5859 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ceSnipu4MykC& pg=PA58)). [84] Danielson (2006). [85] Koestler (1959, p.191) [86] Rosen (1995, pp.187192), originally published in 1967 in Saggi su Galileo Galilei . Rosen is particularly scathing about this and other statements in The Sleepwalkers which he criticises as inaccurate. [87] Gingerich (2004), DeMarco (2004) (http:/ / www. boston. com/ news/ education/ higher/ articles/ 2004/ 04/ 13/ book_quest_took_him_around_the_globe) [88] Copernicus and Martin Luther: An Encounter Between Science and Religion by Donald H. Kobe, American Journal of Physics, March 1998, Volume 66, Issue 3, pp. 190 [89] Rivka Feldhay (1995). Galileo and the Church. Cambridge University Press. [90] Rosen (1995, p.158) [91] Rosen (1995, pp.15159) [92] Robert S. Westman (2011). The Copernican Question: Prognostication, Skepticism, and Celestial Order. Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press. [93] Calvin's Attitude Toward Copernicus by Edward Rosen, Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 21, No. 3 (Jul. Sep., 1960), pp. 431441 Published by: University of Pennsylvania Press [94] Edward Rosen (2003). Copernicus and his successors. Hambledon Continuum. [95] I. Bernard Cohen (1985). Harvard College Press. [96] Exercitations concerning the Name, Original, Nature, Use, and Continuance of a Day of Sacred Rest, Exercitation II = An Exposition of the Epistle to the Hebrews, Exercitation XXXVI, section 16 (Works, London, 18501855; re-issued, Edinburgh, 1862, XIX, 310). [97] Maurice A. Finocchiaro (2010). Defending Copernicus and Galileo: Critical Reasoning in the Two Affairs. Springer Science & Business Media. [98] In fact, in the Pythagorean cosmological system the Sun was not motionless. [99] Decree of the General Congregation of the Index, 5 March 1616, translated from the Latin by Finocchiaro (1989, pp.148149). An on-line copy (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070930013053/ http:/ / astro. wcupa. edu/ mgagne/ ess362/ resources/ finocchiaro. html#indexdecree) of Finocchiaro's translation has been made available by Gagn (2005). [100] Fantoli (2005, pp.11819); Finocchiaro (1989, pp.148, 153). On-line copies of Finocchiaro's translations of the relevant documents, Inquisition Minutes of 25 February 1616 (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070930013053/ http:/ / astro. wcupa. edu/ mgagne/ ess362/ resources/ finocchiaro. html#inqminutes) and Cardinal Bellarmine's certificate of 26 May 1616 (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070930013053/ http:/ / astro. wcupa. edu/ mgagne/ ess362/ resources/ finocchiaro. html#certificate), have been made available by Gagn (2005). This notice of the decree would not have prevented Galileo from discussing heliocentrism solely as a mathematical hypothesis, but a stronger formal injunction (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070930013053/ http:/ / astro. wcupa. edu/ mgagne/ ess362/ resources/ finocchiaro. html#specinj) (Finocchiaro, 1989, p.147-148) not to teach it "in any way whatever, either orally or in writing", allegedly issued to him by the Commissary of the Holy Office, Father Michelangelo Segizzi, would certainly have done so (Fantoli, 2005, pp.11920, 137). There has been much controversy over whether the copy of this injunction in the Vatican archives is authentic; if so, whether it was ever

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issued; and if so, whether it was legally valid (Fantoli, 2005, pp.12043). [101] Catholic Encyclopedia (http:/ / www. newadvent. org/ cathen/ 04352b. htm). [102] From the Inquisition's sentence of 22 June 1633 (de Santillana, 1976, pp.30610 (http:/ / books. google. com. au/ books?id=RABIZBnf_y4C& pg=PA306); Finocchiaro 1989, pp.28791) (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070930013053/ http:/ / astro. wcupa. edu/ mgagne/ ess362/ resources/ finocchiaro. html#sentence) [103] Heilbron (2005, p. 307); Coyne (2005, p. 347). [104] McMullin (2005, p. 6); Coyne (2005, pp.34647). [105] Burleigh, Michael (1988). Germany turns eastwards. A study of Ostforschung in the Third Reich. CUP Archive. pp.60, 133, 280. ISBN0-521-35120-0. [106] Rudnicki, Konrad (NovemberDecember 2006). "The Genuine Copernican Cosmological Principle" (http:/ / southerncrossreview. org/ 50/ rudnicki1. htm). Southern Cross Review: note 2. . Retrieved 2010-01-21. [107] Miosz, Czesaw (1983). The history of Polish literature (2 ed.). University of California Press. p.37. ISBN0-520-04477-0. [108] Davies, Norman (2005). God's playground. A History of Poland in Two Volumes. II. Oxford University Press. p.20. ISBN0-19-925340-4. [109] Manfred Weissenbacher, Sources of Power: How Energy Forges Human History, Praeger, 2009, p. 170. [110] "Copernicus, Nicolaus" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-9105759). Encyclopdia Britannica Online. Encyclopdia Britannica. 2007. . Retrieved 2007-09-21. [111] "Copernicus, Nicolaus", Encyclopedia Americana, 1986, vol. 7, pp. 75556. [112] "Nicholas Copernicus" (http:/ / www. encyclopedia. com/ topic/ Nicholas_Copernicus. aspx), The Columbia Encyclopedia, sixth edition, 2008. Encyclopedia.com. 18 July 2009. [113] "Copernicus, Nicolaus", The Oxford World Encyclopedia, Oxford University Press, 1998. [114] Fox, Stuart (2009-07-14). "14 July 2009 Element 112 shall be named copernicium, http" (http:/ / www. popsci. com/ scitech/ article/ 2009-07/ element-112-named-copernicum). //www.popsci.com/. . Retrieved 2012-08-17. [115] Renner, Terrence (20 February 2010). "Element 112 is Named Copernicium" (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ web/ nt/ 2010-02-20_112_Copernicium). International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. . Retrieved 2010-02-20. [116] "Calendar of the Church Year according to the Episcopal Church" (http:/ / satucket. com/ lectionary/ Calendar. htm). Satucket.com. 2010-06-12. . Retrieved 2012-08-17.

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Armitage, Angus (1951). The World of Copernicus. New York, NY: Mentor Books. Barbara Biekowska (1973). The Scientific World of Copernicus: On the Occasion of the 500th Anniversary of His Birth, 14731973. Springer. ISBN90-277-0353-1. Coyne, George V., S.J. (2005). The Church's Most Recent Attempt to Dispel the Galileo Myth. In McMullin (2005, pp.34059). Danielson, Dennis Richard (2006). The First Copernican: Georg Joachim Rheticus and the Rise of the Copernican Revolution. New York: Walker & Company. ISBN0-8027-1530-3. Davies, Norman, God's Playground: A History of Poland, 2 vols., New York, Columbia University Press, 1982, ISBN 0-231-04327-9. DeMarco, Peter (13 April 2004). "Book quest took him around the globe" (http://www.boston.com/news/ education/higher/articles/2004/04/13/book_quest_took_him_around_the_globe/). Boston Globe. Retrieved 2008-01-14. di Bono, Mario (1995). "Copernicus, Amico, Fracastoro and s's Device: Observations on the Use and Transmission of a Model". Journal for the History of Astronomy xxvi: 13354. Bibcode1995JHA....26..133D. Dobrzycki, Jerzy, and Leszek Hajdukiewicz, "Kopernik, Mikoaj," Polski sownik biograficzny (Polish Biographical Dictionary), vol. XIV, Wrocaw, Polish Academy of Sciences, 1969, pp.316. Dreyer, John Louis Emil (1953) [1905]. A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler (http://www.archive. org/details/historyofplaneta00dreyuoft). New York, NY: Dover Publications. Fantoli, Annibale (2005). The Disputed Injunction and its Role in Galileo's Trial. In McMullin (2005, pp.11749). Finocchiaro, Maurice A. (1989). The Galileo Affair: A Documentary History. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN0-520-06662-6. Gagn, Marc (2005). "Texts from The Galileo Affair: A Documentary History edited and translated by Maurice A. Finocchiaro" (http://web.archive.org/web/20070930013053/http://astro.wcupa.edu/mgagne/ess362/

Nicolaus Copernicus resources/finocchiaro.html). West Chester University course ESS 362/562 in History of Astronomy. Archived from the original (http://astro.wcupa.edu/mgagne/ess362/resources/finocchiaro.html) on 2007-09-30. Retrieved 2008-01-15. (Extracts from Finocchiaro (1989)) Gingerich, Owen (2004). The Book Nobody Read. London: William Heinemann. ISBN0-434-01315-3. Goddu, Andr (2010). Copernicus and the Aristotelian tradition (http://books.google.com.au/ books?id=iEjk13-1xSYC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false). Leiden, Netherlands: Brill. ISBN978-90-04-18107-6. Goodman, David C.; Russell, Colin A. (1991). The Rise of Scientific Europe, 15001800. Hodder Arnold H&S. ISBN0-340-55861-X. Heath, Sir Thomas (1913). Aristarchus of Samos, the ancient Copernicus ; a history of Greek astronomy to Aristarchus, together with Aristarchus's Treatise on the sizes and distances of the sun and moon : a new Greek text with translation and notes (http://www.archive.org/details/aristarchusofsam00heatuoft). London: Oxford University Press. Heilbron, John L. (2005). Censorship of Astronomy in Italy after Galileo. In McMullin (2005, pp.279322). Hoskin, Michael A., The Cambridge Concise History of Astronomy, Cambridge, England, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-57600-8.

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Huff, Toby E (2010). Intellectual Curiosity and the Scientific Revolution: A Global Perspective (http://books. google.com.au/books?id=xNSPo_Xda_0C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-17052-9. Koestler, Arthur (1963) [1959]. The Sleepwalkers: A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe. New York, NY: Grosset & Dunlap. ISBN0-448-00159-4. Original edition published by Hutchinson (1959, London) Koeppen, Hans et al. (1973). Nicolaus Copernicus zum 500. Geburtstag. Bhlau Verlag. ISBN3-412-83573-0. Koyr, Alexandre (1973). The Astronomical Revolution: Copernicus Kepler Borelli. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN0-8014-0504-1. Kuhn, Thomas (1957). The Copernican Revolution: Planetary Astronomy in the Development of Western Thought. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. OCLC535467. Lindberg, David C.; Numbers, Ronald L. (1986). "Beyond War and Peace: A Reappraisal of the Encounter between Christianity and Science". Church History (Cambridge University Press) 55 (3): 338354. doi:10.2307/3166822. JSTOR3166822. Linton, Christopher M. (2004). From Eudoxus to EinsteinA History of Mathematical Astronomy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-82750-8. Manetho; Ptolemy (1964) [1940]. Manetho Ptolemy Tetrabiblos. Loeb Classical Library edition, translated by W.G.Waddell and F.E.Robbins PhD. London: William Heinemann. McMullin, Ernan, ed. (2005). The Church and Galileo. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press. ISBN0-268-03483-4. Miosz, Czesaw, The History of Polish Literature, second edition, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1969, ISBN 0-520-04477-0. Ptolemy, Claudius (1964) [1940]. Tetrabiblos. Loeb Classical Library edition, translated by F.E.Robbins PhD. London: William Heinemann. Rabin, Sheila (2005). "Copernicus" (http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2005/entries/copernicus/). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2005 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). Retrieved 2008-05-26. Repcheck, Jack (2007). Copernicus' Secret: How the Scientific Revolution Began. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN0-7432-8951-X. Rosen, Edward (1995). Copernicus and his Successors. London: Hambledon Press. ISBN1-85285-071-X. Rosen, Edward (translator) (2004) [1939]. Three Copernican Treatises:The Commentariolus of Copernicus; The Letter against Werner; The Narratio Prima of Rheticus (Second Edition, revised ed.). New York, NY: Dover Publications. ISBN0-486-43605-5.

Nicolaus Copernicus Russell, Jeffrey Burton (1997) [1991]. Inventing the Flat EarthColumbus and Modern Historians. New York, NY: Praeger. ISBN0-275-95904-X. Saliba, George (2009). "Islamic reception of Greek astronomy" (http://journals.cambridge.org/action/ displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=8312919). in Valls-Gabaud & Boskenberg (2009). pp.14965 de Santillana, Giorgio (1976Midway reprint) [1955]. The Crime of Galileo (http://books.google.com/ ?id=RABIZBnf_y4C&printsec=frontcover). Chicago, Ill: University of Chicago Press. ISBN0-226-73481-1. Sedlar, Jean W. (1994). East Central Europe in the Middle Ages 10001500 (http://books.google.com/ ?id=ANdbpi1WAIQC&pg=PA282&lpg=PA282&dq=royal-prussia). University of Washington Press. ISBN0-295-97290-4. Thoren, Victor E. (1990). The Lord of Uraniborg (http://books.google.com/?id=GxyA-lhWL-AC). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-35158-8. (A biography of Danish astronomer and alchemist Tycho Brahe.) Valls-Gabaud, D.; Boskenberg, A., eds. (2009). The Role of Astronomy in Society and Culture. Proceedings IAU Symposium No. 260. Veselovsky, I.N. (1973). "Copernicus and Nar al-Dn al-s". Journal for the History of Astronomy iv: 12830. Bibcode1973JHA.....4..128V.

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Further reading
Prowe, Leopold (1884) (in German). Nicolaus Coppernicus (http://books.google.com/?id=to0DAAAAYAAJ). Berlin: Weidmannsche Verlagsbuchhandlung. Nicolaus Copernicus Gesamtausgabe (Nicolaus Copernicus Complete Edition; in German and Latin; 9 volumes, 19742004), various editors, Berlin, Akademie Verlag. A large collection of writings by and about Copernicus. Nicolaus Copernicus Gesamtausgabe: Biographies and Portraits of Copernicus from 16th to 18th century, Biographia Copernicana, 2004, ISBN 3-05-003848-9 (http://www.gbv.de/dms/goettingen/378203525.pdf) (http://books.google.com/books?id=sFF1nknsxRwC&printsec=frontcover&dq="Biographia+Copernicana"& source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0#PPA23,M1) Schmauch, Hans(1957)(in German)." Copernicus, Nicolaus (http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/0001/ bsb00016319/images/index.html?seite=364) ". In Neue Deutsche Biographie (NDB). 3. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot. pp.348355. Bruhns, Christian(1876)(in German)."Copernicus, Nicolaus". In Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (ADB).4. Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot. pp.461469.

External links
Primary Sources Works by Nicolaus Copernicus (http://www.gutenberg.org/author/Nicolaus+Copernicus) at Project Gutenberg De Revolutionibus, autograph manuscript (http://www.bj.uj.edu.pl/bjmanus/revol/titlpg_e.html) Full digital facsimile, Jagiellonian University (Polish) Polish translations of letters written by Copernicus in Latin or German (http://domwarminski.pl/index. php?option=com_content&view=article&id=19) Online Galleries, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries (http://hos.ou.edu/ galleries//16thCentury/Copernicus/) High resolution images of works by and/or portraits of Nicolaus Copernicus in .jpg and .tiff format. General O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Nicolaus Copernicus" (http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/ Biographies/Copernicus.html), MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews.

Nicolaus Copernicus Copernicus in Torun (http://www.visittorun.pl/index.php?strona=6) Nicolaus Copernicus Thorunensis (http://copernicus.torun.pl/en/) by the Copernican Academic Portal (http:// copernicus.torun.pl/en/project/) Nicolaus Copernicus Museum in Frombork (http://www.frombork.art.pl/Ang01.htm) Portraits of Copernicus: Copernicus's face reconstructed (http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/9913250/); Portrait (http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/PictDisplay/Copernicus.html); Nicolaus Copernicus (http://www.frombork.art.pl/Ang10.htm) Copernicus and Astrology (http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/starry/coperastrol.html) Cambridge University: Copernicus had of course teachers with astrological activities and his tables were later used by astrologers. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/copernicus/) Find-A-Grave profile for Nicolaus Copernicus (http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr& GRid=10340) 'Body of Copernicus' identified (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4405958.stm) BBC article including image of Copernicus using facial reconstruction based on located skull Copernicus and Astrology (http://www.skyscript.co.uk/copernicus.html) Nicolaus Copernicus on the 1000 Polish Zloty banknote. (http://www-personal.umich.edu/~jbourj/money2. htm) Parallax and the Earth's orbit (http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/retrograpde/parallax.gif) Copernicus's model for Mars (http://www.mhhe.com/physsci/astronomy/fix/student/images/04f08.jpg) Retrograde Motion (http://www.mhhe.com/physsci/astronomy/fix/student/images/02f27.jpg) Copernicus's explanation for retrograde motion (http://www.mhhe.com/physsci/astronomy/fix/student/ images/04f04.jpg) Geometry of Maximum Elongation (http://www.mhhe.com/physsci/astronomy/fix/student/images/04f07. jpg) Copernican Model (http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/retrograde/copernican.html) Portraits of Nicolaus Copernicus (http://www.frombork.art.pl/Ang10.htm) About De Revolutionibus The Copernican Universe from the De Revolutionibus (http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/theories/copernican_system. html) De Revolutionibus, 1543 first edition (http://digital.lib.lehigh.edu/planets/cop.php?num=F.1&exp=false& lang=lat&CISOPTR=0&limit=cop&view=full) Full digital facsimile, Lehigh University The front page of the De Revolutionibus (http://www.hao.ucar.edu/Public/education/bios/derevolutionibus. html) The text of the De Revolutionibus (http://webexhibits.org/calendars/year-text-Copernicus.html) A java applet about Retrograde Motion (http://www.flex.com/~jai/astrology/retrograde.html) The Antikythera Calculator (Italian and English versions) (http://www.giovannipastore.it/CALCOLATORE DI ANTIKYTHERA.htm) Pastore Giovanni, Antikythera e i Regoli calcolatori, Rome, 2006, privately published (http://www. giovannipastore.it/ISTRUZIONI.htm) Legacy (Italian) Copernicus in Bologna (http://www.bo.astro.it/dip/Museum/italiano/sto1_08.html) in Italian Chasing Copernicus: The Book Nobody Read (http://www.npr.org/display_pages/features/feature_1746110. html) Was One of the Greatest Scientific Works Really Ignored? All Things Considered. NPR Copernicus and his Revolutions (http://www.bede.org.uk/copernicus.htm) A detailed critique of the rhetoric of De Revolutionibus

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Nicolaus Copernicus Article which discusses Copernicus's debt to the Arabic tradition (http://www.columbia.edu/~gas1/project/ visions/case1/sci.1.html) Prizes Nicolaus Copernicus Prize, founded by the City of Krakw (http://pau.krakow.pl/index.php/en/2008031765/ Prizes-by-PAU/Page-2.html), awarded since 1995 German-Polish cooperation (English) (German) (Polish) German-Polish "Copernicus Prize" awarded to German and Polish scientists ( DFG website (http://www.dfg.de/en/funded_projects/prizewinners/copernicus_award/index.html)) ( FNP website (http://www.fnp.org.pl/programmes/overview_of_programmes/the_copernicus_award)) (English) (German) (Polish) Bro Kopernikus An initiative of German Federal Cultural Foundation (http:// www.buero-kopernikus.org/en/home/31/0/0) (German) (Polish) German-Polish school project on Copernicus (http://www.bkherne.eu/index. php?option=com_content&view=article&id=304&Itemid=272)

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Copernican heliocentrism
Copernican heliocentrism is the name given to the astronomical model developed by Nicolaus Copernicus and published in 1543. It positioned the Sun near the center of the Universe, motionless, with Earth and the other planets rotating around it in circular paths modified by epicycles and at uniform speeds. The Copernican model departed from the Ptolemaic system that prevailed in Western culture for centuries, placing Earth at the center of the Universe, and is often regarded as the launching point to modern astronomy and the Scientific Revolution.[1] As a university-trained Catholic priest dedicated to astronomy, Copernicus was acquainted with the Sun-centered cosmos of Heliocentric model from Nicolaus Copernicus' De revolutionibus orbium the ancient Greek Aristarchus. Although he coelestium circulated an outline of the heliocentric theory to colleagues decades earlier, the idea was largely forgotten until late in his life he was urged by a pupil to complete and publish a mathematically detailed account of his model. Copernicus's challenge was to present a practical alternative to the Ptolemaic model by more elegantly and accurately determining the length of a solar year while preserving the metaphysical implications of a mathematically ordered cosmos. Thus his heliocentric model retained several of the Ptolemaic elements causing the inaccuracies, such as the planets' circular orbits, epicycles, and uniform speeds,[1] while at the same time re-introducing such innovations as: Earth is one of seven ordered planets in a solar system circling a stationary Sun Earth has three motions: daily rotation, annual revolution, and annual tilting of its axis Retrograde motion of the planets is explained by Earth's motion

Copernican heliocentrism Distance from Earth to the Sun is small compared to the distance to the stars

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Earlier theories with the Earth in motion

Philolaus (4th century BCE) was also one of the first to hypothesize movement of the Earth, probably inspired by Pythagoras' theories about a spherical globe. Aristarchus of Samos in the 3rd century BCE had developed some theories of Heraclides Ponticus (speaking of a revolution by Earth on its axis) to propose what was, so far as is known, the first serious model of a heliocentric solar system. His work about a heliocentric system has not survived, so one may only speculate about what led him to his conclusions. It is notable that, according to Plutarch, a contemporary of Aristarchus accused him of impiety for "putting the Earth in motion." Several Muslim astronomers, such as Ibn al-Haytham, Abu-Rayhan Biruni, Abu Said Sinjari, Najm al-Dn al-Qazwn al-Ktib, and Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi also discussed the possibility of heliocentrism. Copernicus cited Aristarchus and Philolaus in an early manuscript of his book which survives, stating: "Philolaus believed in the mobility of the earth, and some even say that Aristarchus of Samos was of that opinion." For reasons unknown (although possibly out of reluctance to quote pre-Christian sources), he did not include this passage in the publication of his book. Inspiration came to Copernicus not from observation of the planets, but from reading two authors. In Cicero he found an account of the theory of Hicetas. Plutarch provided an account of the Pythagoreans Heraclides Ponticus, Philolaus, and Ecphantes. These authors had proposed a moving Earth, which did not, however, revolve around a central sun. When Copernicus' book was published, it contained an unauthorized preface by the Lutheran theologian Andreas Osiander. This cleric stated that Copernicus wrote his heliocentric account of the Earth's movement as a mere mathematical hypothesis, not as an account that contained truth or even probability. Since Copernicus' hypothesis was believed to contradict the Old Testament account of the Sun's movement around the Earth (Joshua 10:12-13), this was apparently written to soften any religious backlash against the book. However, there is no evidence that Copernicus himself considered the heliocentric model as merely mathematically convenient, separate from reality.

Anticipations of Copernicus's models for planetary orbits

Mathematical techniques developed in the 13th-14th centuries by the Muslim astronomers, Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, and Ibn al-Shatir for geocentric models of planetary motions[2] closely resemble some of those used later by Copernicus in his heliocentric models.[3] This has led some scholars to argue that Copernicus must have had access to some yet to be identified work on the ideas of those earlier astronomers.[4] However, no likely candidate for this conjectured work has yet come to light, and other scholars have argued that Copernicus could well have developed these ideas independently of the Islamic tradition.[5] Copernicus also discusses the theories of Al-Battani and Averroes in his major work.

Copernican heliocentrism

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The Ptolemaic system

The prevailing astronomical model of the cosmos in Europe in the 1,400 years leading up to the 16th century was that created by the Roman citizen Claudius Ptolemy in his Almagest, dating from about 150 A.D. Throughout the Middle Ages it was spoken of as the authoritative text on astronomy, although its author remained a little understood figure frequently mistaken as one of the Ptolemaic rulers of Egypt.[6] The Ptolemaic system drew on many previous theories that viewed Earth as a stationary center of the universe. Stars were embedded in a large outer sphere which rotated relatively rapidly, while the planets dwelt in smaller spheres betweena separate one for each planet. To account for apparent anomalies in this view, such as the apparent retrograde motion of the Line art drawing of Ptolemaic system planets, a system of deferents and epicycles was used. The planet was said to revolve in a small circle (the epicycle) about a center, which itself revolved in a larger circle (the deferent) about a center on or near the Earth.[7] A complementary theory to Ptolemy's employed homocentric spheres: the spheres within which the planets rotated, could themselves rotate somewhat. This theory predated Ptolemy (it was first devised by Eudoxus of Cnidus; by the time of Copernicus it was associated with Averroes). Also popular with astronomers were variations such as eccentricsby which the rotational axis was offset and not completely at the center. Ptolemy's unique contribution to this theory was the equanta point about which the center of a planet's epicycle moved with uniform angular velocity, but which was offset from the center of its deferent. This violated one of the fundamental principles of Aristotelian cosmologynamely, that the motions of the planets should be explained in terms of uniform circular motion, and was considered a serious defect by many medieval astronomers.[8] In Copernicus's day, the most up-to-date version of the Ptolemaic system was that of Peurbach (14231461) and Regiomontanus (14361476).

Copernican heliocentrism

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Copernican theory
Copernicus' major work, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium - On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres (first edition 1543 in Nuremberg, second edition 1566 in Basel[9]), was published during the year of his death, though he had arrived at his theory several decades earlier. The book marks the beginning of the shift away from a geocentric (and anthropocentric) universe with the Earth at its center. Copernicus held that the Earth is another planet revolving around the fixed sun once a year, and turning on its axis once a day. But while Copernicus put the Sun at the center of the celestial spheres, he did not put it at the exact center of the universe, but near it. Copernicus' system used only uniform circular motions, correcting what was seen by many as the chief inelegance in Ptolemy's system. The Copernican model replaced Ptolemy's equant circles with more epicycles.[10] This is the main reason that Copernicus' system had even more epicycles than Ptolemy's. The Copernican system can be summarized in several propositions, as Copernicus himself did in his early Commentariolus that he handed only to friends probably in the 1510s. The "little commentary" was never printed. Its existence was only known indirectly until a copy was discovered in Stockholm around 1880, and another in Vienna a few years later.[11] The major features of Copernican theory are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Nicolai Copernicito Torinensis De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium, Libri VI (title page of 2nd edition, Basel, 1566)

Heavenly motions are uniform, eternal, and circular or compounded of several circles (epicycles). The center of the universe is near the Sun. Around the Sun, in order, are Mercury, Venus, Earth and Moon, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the fixed stars. The Earth has three motions: daily rotation, annual revolution, and annual tilting of its axis. Retrograde motion of the planets is explained by the Earth's motion. The distance from the Earth to the Sun is small compared to the distance to the stars.

De revolutionibus orbium coelestium

It opened with an originally anonymous preface by Andreas Osiander, a theologian friend of Copernicus, who urged that the theory, which was considered a tool that allows simpler and more accurate calculations, did not necessarily have implications outside the limited realm of astronomy.[12] Copernicus' actual book began with a letter from his (by then deceased) friend Nikolaus von Schnberg, Cardinal Archbishop of Capua, urging Copernicus to publish his theory.[13] Then, in a lengthy introduction, Copernicus dedicated the book to Pope Paul III, explaining his ostensible motive in writing the book as relating to the inability of earlier astronomers to agree on an adequate theory of the planets, and noting that if his system increased the accuracy of astronomical predictions it would allow the Church to develop a more accurate calendar. At that time, a reform of the Julian Calendar was considered necessary and was one of the major reasons for the Church's interest in astronomy. The work itself was then divided into six books:[14] 1. General vision of the heliocentric theory, and a summarized exposition of his idea of the World.

Copernican heliocentrism 2. Mainly theoretical, presents the principles of spherical astronomy and a list of stars (as a basis for the arguments developed in the subsequent books). 3. Mainly dedicated to the apparent motions of the Sun and to related phenomena. 4. Description of the Moon and its orbital motions. 5. Concrete exposition of the new system including planetary longitude. 6. Further concrete exposition of the new system Including planetary latitude.

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Acceptance of Copernican heliocentrism

From publication until about 1700, few astronomers were convinced by the Copernican system, though the book was relatively widely circulated (around 500 copies of the first and second editions have survived,[15] which is a large number by the scientific standards of the time). Few of Copernicus' contemporaries were ready to concede that the Earth actually moved, although Erasmus Reinhold used Copernicus' parameters to produce the Prutenic Tables. However, these tables translated Copernicus' mathematical methods back into a geocentric system, rejecting heliocentric cosmology on physical and theological grounds.[16] The Prutenic tables came to be preferred by Prussian and German astronomers. The degree of improved accuracy of these tables remains an open question, but their usage of Copernican ideas led to more serious consideration of a heliocentric model. However, even forty-five years after the publication of De Revolutionibus, the astronomer Tycho Brahe went so far as to construct a cosmology precisely equivalent to that of Copernicus, but with the Earth held fixed in the center of the celestial sphere instead of the Sun.[17] It was another generation before a community of practicing astronomers appeared who

Statue of Copernicus next to Cracow University's Collegium Novum

accepted heliocentric cosmology. From a modern point of view, the Copernican model has a number of advantages. It accurately predicts the relative distances of the planets from the Sun, although this meant abandoning the cherished Aristotelian idea that there is no empty space between the planetary spheres. Copernicus also gave a clear account of the cause of the seasons: that the Earth's axis is not perpendicular to the plane of its orbit. In addition, Copernicus's theory provided a strikingly simple explanation for the apparent retrograde motions of the planetsnamely as parallactic displacements resulting from the Earth's motion around the Sunan important consideration in Johannes Kepler's conviction that the theory was substantially correct.[18] However, for his contemporaries, the ideas presented by Copernicus were not markedly easier to use than the geocentric theory and did not produce more accurate predictions of planetary positions. Copernicus was aware of this and could not present any observational "proof", relying instead on arguments about what would be a more complete and elegant system. The Copernican model appeared to be contrary to common sense and to contradict the Bible. Tycho Brahe's arguments against Copernicus are illustrative of the physical, theological, and even astronomical grounds on which heliocentric cosmology was rejected. Tycho, arguably the most accomplished astronomer of his time, appreciated the elegance of the Copernican system, but objected to the idea of a moving Earth on the basis of

Copernican heliocentrism physics, astronomy, and religion. The Aristotelian physics of the time (modern Newtonian physics was still a century away) offered no physical explanation for the motion of a massive body like Earth, but could easily explain the motion of heavenly bodies by postulating that they were made of a different sort substance called aether that moved naturally. So Tycho said that the Copernican system ... expertly and completely circumvents all that is superfluous or discordant in the system of Ptolemy. On no point does it offend the principle of mathematics. Yet it ascribes to the Earth, that hulking, lazy body, unfit for motion, a motion as quick as that of the aethereal torches, and a triple motion at that.[19] Likewise, Tycho took issue with the vast distances to the stars that Copernicus had assumed in order to explain why the Earth's motion produced no visible changes in the appearance of the fixed stars (known as annual stellar parallax). Tycho had measured the apparent sizes of stars (now known to be illusory see stellar magnitude), and used geometry to calculate that in order to both have those apparent sizes and be as far away as heliocentrism required, stars would have to be huge (the size of Earth's orbit or larger, and thus much larger than the sun). Regarding this Tycho wrote, Deduce these things geometrically if you like, and you will see how many absurdities (not to mention others) accompany this assumption [of the motion of the earth] by inference.[20] He said his Tychonic system, which incorporated Copernican features into a geocentric system, offended neither the principles of physics nor Holy Scripture.[21] Thus many astronomers accepted some aspects of Copernicus's theory at the expense of others. His model did have a large influence on later scientists such as Galileo and Johannes Kepler, who adopted, championed and (especially in Kepler's case) sought to improve it. However, in the years following publication of de Revolutionibus, for leading astronomers such as Erasmus Reinhold, the key attraction of Copernicus's ideas was that they reinstated the idea of uniform circular motion for the planets.[22] During the 17th century, several further discoveries eventually led to the complete acceptance of heliocentrism: Using the newly-invented telescope, Galileo discovered the four large moons of Jupiter (evidence that the solar system contained bodies that did not orbit Earth), the phases of Venus (the first observational evidence for Copernicus' theory) and the rotation of the Sun about a fixed axis[23] as indicated by the apparent annual variation in the motion of sunspots; With a telescope, Giovanni Zupi saw the phases of Mercury in 1639; Kepler introduced the idea that the orbits of the planets were elliptical rather than circular. Isaac Newton proposed universal gravity and the inverse-square law of gravitational attraction to explain Kepler's elliptical planetary orbits. In 1725, James Bradley discovered stellar aberration, an apparent annual motion of stars around small ellipses, and attributed it to the finite speed of light and the motion of Earth in its orbit around the Sun.[24] In 1838, Friedrich Bessel made the first successful measurements of annual parallax for the star 61 Cygni using a heliometer. In the 20th century, orbits are explained by general relativity, which can be formulated using any desired coordinate system, and it is no longer necessary to consider the Sun the center of anything.

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Modern opinion
Whether Copernicus' propositions were "revolutionary" or "conservative" was a topic of debate in the late twentieth century. Thomas Kuhn argued that Copernicus only transferred "some properties to the Sun's many astronomical functions previously attributed to the earth." Other historians have since argued that Kuhn underestimated what was "revolutionary" about Copernicus' work, and emphasized the difficulty Copernicus would have had in putting forward a new astronomical theory relying alone on simplicity in geometry, given that he had no experimental evidence. In his book The Sleepwalkers: A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe, Arthur Koestler puts Copernicus in a different light to what many authors seem to suggest, portraying him as a coward who was reluctant to publish his work due to a crippling fear of ridicule.

Copernican heliocentrism

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Notes
[1] [2] [3] [4] Kuhn 1985 Especially the Tusi couple, and models for the motions of Mercury and the Moon. Esposito 1999, p.289 Linton (2004, pp. 124 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=B4br4XJFj0MC& pg=PA124#v=onepage& q& f=false), 13738) (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=B4br4XJFj0MC& pg=PA137#v=onepage& q& f=false), Saliba (2009, pp.16065). [5] Goddu (2010, pp.26169, 47686), Huff (2010, pp.26364) (http:/ / books. google. com. au/ books?id=xNSPo_Xda_0C& pg=PA263#v=onepage& q& f=false), di Bono (1995), Veselovsky (1973). [6] McCluskey (1998), pp. 27 [7] Koestler (1989), pp. 69-72 [8] Gingerich (2004), p. 53 [9] Koestler (1989), p.194 [10] Koestler (1989), pp. 579-80 [11] Gingerich (2004), pp.3132 [12] Gingerich (2004), p.139 [13] Koestler (1989), p.196 [14] Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ copernicus/ ) [15] Gingerich (2004), p.248 [16] Hanne Andersen, Peter Barker, and Xiang Chen. The Cognitive Structure of Scientific Revolutions. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006. pp 138-148 [17] Kuhn 1985, pp.200202 [18] Linton (2004, pp.138 (http:/ / books. google. com. au/ books?id=B4br4XJFj0MC& pg=PA138), 169 (http:/ / books. google. com. au/ books?id=B4br4XJFj0MC& pg=PA169)), Crowe (2001, pp.9092 (http:/ / books. google. com. au/ books?id=IGlhN0MI87oC& pg=PA90)), Kuhn 1985, pp.165167 [19] Owen Gingerich, The eye of heaven: Ptolemy, Copernicus, Kepler, New York: American Institute of Physics, 1993, 181, ISBN 0-88318-863-5 [20] Blair, Ann, "Tycho Brahe's critique of Copernicus and the Copernican system", Journal of the History of Ideas, 51, 1990, 364. [21] Gingerich, O. & Voelkel, J. R., J. Hist. Astron., Vol. 29, 1998 (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1998JHA. . . . 29. . . . 1G#), page 1 [22] Gingerich (2004), pp.23, 55 [23] Fixed, that is, in the Copernican system. In a geostatic system the apparent annual variation in the motion of sunspots could only be explained as the result of an implausibly complicated precession of the Sun's axis of rotation (Linton, 2004, p.212; Sharratt, 1994, p.166; Drake, 1970, pp.191196) [24] Hirschfeld, Alan (2001). Parallax:The Race to Measure the Cosmos. New York: Henry Holt. ISBN0-8050-7133-4.

Bibliography
Crowe, Michael J. (2001). Theories of the World from Antiquity to the Copernican Revolution (http://books. google.com.au/books?id=IGlhN0MI87oC). Mineola, New York: Dover Publications, Inc. ISBN0-486-41444-2. di Bono, Mario (1995). "Copernicus, Amico, Fracastoro and s's Device: Observations on the Use and Transmission of a Model". Journal for the History of Astronomy xxvi: 13354. Bibcode1995JHA....26..133D. Drake, Stillman (1970). Galileo Studies. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. ISBN0-472-08283-3. Esposito, John L. (1999). The Oxford history of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-510799-9. Gingerich, Owen (2004). The Book Nobody Read. London: William Heinemann. ISBN0-434-01315-3. Goddu, Andr (2010). Copernicus and the Aristotelian tradition (http://books.google.com.au/ books?id=iEjk13-1xSYC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false). Leiden, Netherlands: Brill. ISBN978-90-04-18107-6. Huff, Toby E (2010). Intellectual Curiosity and the Scientific Revolution: A Global Perspective (http://books. google.com.au/books?id=xNSPo_Xda_0C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-17052-9. Koestler, Arthur (1989). The Sleepwalkers. Arkana. ISBN978-0-14-019246-9. Kuhn, Thomas S. (1985). The Copernican RevolutionPlanetary Astronomy in the Development of Western Thought. Cambridge, Mississippi: Harvard University Press. ISBN978-0-674-17103-9. Linton, Christopher M. (2004). From Eudoxus to EinsteinA History of Mathematical Astronomy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-82750-8.

Copernican heliocentrism McCluskey, S. C. (1998). Astronomies and Cultures in Early Medieval Europe. Cambridge: CUP. Raju, C. K. (2007). Cultural foundations of mathematics: the nature of mathematical proof and the transmission of the calculus from India to Europe in the 16th c. CE. Pearson Education India. ISBN978-81-317-0871-2. Saliba, George (2009). "Islamic reception of Greek astronomy" (http://journals.cambridge.org/action/ displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=8312919). in Valls-Gabaud & Boskenberg (2009). pp.14965 Sharratt, Michael (1994). Galileo: Decisive Innovator. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-56671-1. Veselovsky, I.N. (1973). "Copernicus and Nar al-Dn al-s". Journal for the History of Astronomy iv: 12830. Bibcode1973JHA.....4..128V.

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Further reading
Hannam, James (2007). "Deconstructing Copernicus" (http://jameshannam.com/copernicus.htm). Medieval Science and Philosophy. Retrieved 2007-08-17. Analyses the varieties of argument used by Copernicus in De revolutionibus.

Related fiction
Goldstone, Lawrence (2010). The Astronomer: A Novel of Suspense. New York: Walker and Company. ISBN0-8027-1986-4.

External links
Elementary analysis of planetary orbits (http://www.phy6.org/stargaze/Ssolsys.htm) from educational website From Stargazers to Starships (http://www.phy6.org/stargaze/Sintro.htm)

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Copernican Revolution
The Copernican Revolution refers to the paradigm shift away from the Ptolemaic model of the heavens, which postulated the Earth at the center of the galaxy, towards the heliocentric model with the Sun at the center of our Solar System. It was one of the starting points of the Scientific Revolution of the 16th century.

Historical overview

In 1543 Nicolaus Copernicus published his treatise De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres), which presented a heliocentric model view of the universe. It took about 200 years for a heliocentric model to replace the Ptolemaic model. To describe the innovation initiated by Copernicus as the simple interchange of the position of the earth and sun is to make a molehill out of a promontory in the development of human thought. If Copernicus' proposal had had no consequences outside astronomy, it would have been neither so long delayed nor so strenuously resisted.[1]

Motion of Sun, Earth, and Mars according to heliocentrism (left) and to geocentrism (right), before the Copernican-Galilean-Newtonian revolution. Note the retrograde motion of Mars on the right. Yellow dot, Sun; blue, Earth; red, Mars. (In order to get a smooth animation, it is assumed that the period of revolution of Mars is exactly 2 years, instead of the actual value, 1.88 years). The orbits are assumed to be circular.

Nicolaus Copernicus
Nicolaus Copernicus, in his On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543), demonstrated that the motion of the heavens can be explained without the Earth's being in the geometric center of the system. This led to the view that we can dispense with the assumption that we are observing the universe from a special position. Although Copernicus initiated the revolution, he certainly didn't complete it. He continued to believe in the celestial spheres and could provide little in the way of direct observational evidence that his theory was superior to Ptolemy's.

Tycho Brahe
The Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe, who proposed a compromise between the geocentric and the heliocentric theories with the Tychonic system, contributed to the revolution by showing that the heavenly spheres were at best mathematical devices rather than physical objects, since the great comet of 1577 passed through the spheres of several planets, and, moreover, the spheres of Mars and the Sun passed through each other. Brahe and his assistants also made the numerous and painstaking observations which allowed Johannes Kepler to derive his laws of planetary motion. Kepler's revised heliocentric system gave a far more accurate description of planetary motions than the Ptolemaic one.

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Johannes Kepler
Johannes Kepler proposed an alternative model in 1605, essentially the modern one, in which the planetary orbits were ellipses, rather than circles modified by epicycles as Copernicus used.

Galileo Galilei
Starting with his first use of the telescope for astronomical observations in 1610, Galileo Galilei provided support for the Copernican system by observing the phases of Venus and the moons of Jupiter (which showed that the apparently anomalous orbit of the Moon in Copernicus' theory was not unique). Galileo also wrote a defense of the heliocentric system, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (1632), which led to his trial and house arrest by the Inquisition.

Giordano Bruno
In the same period, a number of writers inspired by Copernicus, such as Thomas Digges and Giordano Bruno, argued for an infinite or at least indefinitely extended universe, with other stars as distant suns. Although opposed by Copernicus and Kepler (with Galileo agnostic), by the middle of the 17th century this became widely accepted, partly due to the support of Ren Descartes.

Isaac Newton
The Copernican revolution was arguably completed by Isaac Newton whose Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687) provided a consistent physical explanation which showed that the planets are kept in their orbits by the familiar force of gravity. Newton was able to derive Kepler's laws as good approximations and to get yet more accurate predictions by taking account of the gravitational interaction between the planets.

Metaphorical use
The philosopher Immanuel Kant made an analogy to Copernicus when describing a problem from a different point of view, and some later philosophers have called it his "Copernican revolution".[2] The conditions and qualities he ascribed to the subject of knowledge placed man at the centre of all conceptual and empirical experience, and overcame the rationalism-empiricism impasse, characteristic of the 17th and 18th centuries. See also Subject-object problem.

Notes
[1] Kuhn 1957, p. 94 [2] Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ hegel/ )

References
1. Blumenberg, Hans; Robert M. Wallace (translator) (1987). The Genesis of the Copernican World. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. pp.1,772. ISBN0-262-52144-X. 2. Koestler, Arthur (1959). The Sleepwalkers: A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe. Hutchinson. 3. Koyr, Alexandre (1957). From the Closed World to the Infinite Universe. Johns Hopkins University Press. 4. Kuhn, Thomas S. (1957). The Copernican Revolution: Planetary Astronomy in the Development of Western Thought. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN0-674-17103-9. 5. Kuhn, Thomas S.; Conant, James and Haugeland, John (2000). The Road Since Structure: Philosophical Essays, 1970-1993, with an autobiographical interview. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN0-226-45798-2.

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Mathematical induction
Mathematical induction is a method of mathematical proof typically used to establish that a given statement is true for all natural numbers (positive integers). It is done by proving that the first statement in the infinite sequence of statements is true, and then proving that if any one statement in the infinite sequence of statements is true, then so is the next one. The method can be extended to prove statements about more general well-founded structures, such as trees; this generalization, known as structural induction, is used in mathematical logic and computer science. Mathematical induction in this extended sense is closely related to recursion.

Mathematical induction can be informally illustrated by reference to the sequential effect of falling dominoes.

Mathematical induction should not be misconstrued as a form of inductive reasoning, which is considered non-rigorous in mathematics (see Problem of induction for more information). In fact, mathematical induction is a form of rigorous deductive reasoning.[1]

History
In 370 BC, Plato's Parmenides may have contained an early example of an implicit inductive proof.[2] The earliest implicit traces of mathematical induction can be found in Euclid's [3] proof that the number of primes is infinite and in Bhaskara's "cyclic method".[4] An opposite iterated technique, counting down rather than up, is found in the Sorites paradox, where one argued that if 1,000,000 grains of sand formed a heap, and removing one grain from a heap left it a heap, then a single grain of sand (or even no grains) forms a heap. An implicit proof by mathematical induction for arithmetic sequences was introduced in the al-Fakhri written by al-Karaji around 1000 AD, who used it to prove the binomial theorem and properties of Pascal's triangle. None of these ancient mathematicians, however, explicitly stated the inductive hypothesis. Another similar case (contrary to what Vacca has written, as Freudenthal carefully showed) was that of Francesco Maurolico in his Arithmeticorum libri duo (1575), who used the technique to prove that the sum of the first n odd integers is n2. The first explicit formulation of the principle of induction was given by Pascal in his Trait du triangle arithmtique (1665). Another Frenchman, Fermat, made ample use of a related principle, indirect proof by infinite descent. The inductive hypothesis was also employed by the Swiss Jakob Bernoulli, and from then on it became more or less well known. The modern rigorous and systematic treatment of the principle came only in the 19th century, with George Boole,[5] Augustus de Morgan, Charles Sanders Peirce,[6] Giuseppe Peano, and Richard Dedekind.[4]

Description
The simplest and most common form of mathematical induction proves that a statement involving a natural number n holds for all values of n. The proof consists of two steps: 1. The basis (base case): showing that the statement holds when n is equal to the lowest value that n is given in the question. Usually, n = 0 or n = 1. 2. The inductive step: showing that if the statement holds for some n, then the statement also holds when n+1 is substituted for n. The assumption in the inductive step that the statement holds for some n is called the induction hypothesis (or inductive hypothesis). To perform the inductive step, one assumes the induction hypothesis and then uses this assumption to prove the statement for n+1.

Mathematical induction The choice between n=0 and n=1 in the base case is specific to the context of the proof: If 0 is considered a natural number, as is common in the fields of combinatorics and mathematical logic, then n=0. If, on the other hand, 1 is taken as the first natural number, then the base case is given by n=1. This method works by first proving the statement is true for a starting value, and then proving that the process used to go from one value to the next is valid. If these are both proven, then any value can be obtained by performing the process repeatedly. It may be helpful to think of the domino effect; if one is presented with a long row of dominoes standing on end, one can be sure that: 1. The first domino will fall 2. Whenever a domino falls, its next neighbor will also fall, so it is concluded that all of the dominoes will fall, and that this fact is inevitable.

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Axiom of induction
The basic assumption or axiom of induction is, in logical symbols,

where P is any proposition and k and n are both natural numbers. In other words, the basis P(0) being true along with the inductive case ("P(k) is true implies P(k+1) is true" for all natural k) being true together imply that P(n) is true for any natural number n. A proof by induction is then a proof that these two conditions hold, thus implying the required conclusion. This works because k is used to represent an arbitrary natural number. Then, using the inductive hypothesis, i.e. that P(k) is true, show P(k+1) is also true. This allows us to "carry" the fact that P(0) is true to the fact that P(1) is also true, and carry P(1) to P(2), etc., thus proving P(n) holds for every natural numbern. Note that the first quantifier in the axiom ranges over predicates rather than over individual numbers. This is called a second-order quantifier, which means that the axiom is stated in second-order logic. Axiomatizing arithmetic induction in first-order logic requires an axiom schema containing a separate axiom for each possible predicate. The article Peano axioms contains further discussion of this issue.

Example
Mathematical induction can be used to prove that the following statement, which we will call P(n), holds for all natural numbers n.

P(n) gives a formula for the sum of the natural numbers less than or equal to number n. The proof that P(n) is true for each natural number n proceeds as follows. Basis: Show that the statement holds for n = 0. P(0) amounts to the statement:

In the left-hand side of the equation, the only term is 0, and so the left-hand side is simply equal to 0. In the right-hand side of the equation, 0(0 + 1)/2 = 0. The two sides are equal, so the statement is true for n = 0. Thus it has been shown that P(0) holds. Inductive step: Show that if P(k) holds, then also P(k + 1) holds. This can be done as follows. Assume P(k) holds (for some unspecified value of k). It must then be shown that P(k + 1) holds, that is:

Mathematical induction Using the induction hypothesis that P(k) holds, the left-hand side can be rewritten to:

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Algebraically:

thereby showing that indeed P(k + 1) holds. Since both the basis and the inductive step have been proved, it has now been proved by mathematical induction that P(n) holds for all natural n. Q.E.D.

Variants
In practice, proofs by induction are often structured differently, depending on the exact nature of the property to be proved.

Starting at some other number

If we want to prove a statement not for all natural numbers but only for all numbers greater than or equal to a certain number b then: 1. Showing that the statement holds when n = b. 2. Showing that if the statement holds for n = m b then the same statement also holds for n = m + 1. This can be used, for example, to show that n2 3n for n 3. A more substantial example is a proof that

In this way we can prove that P(n) holds for all n 1, or even n 5. This form of mathematical induction is actually a special case of the previous form because if the statement that we intend to prove is P(n) then proving it with these two rules is equivalent with proving P(n + b) for all natural numbers n with the first two steps.

Building on n = 2
In mathematics, many standard functions, including operations such as "+" and relations such as "=", are binary, meaning that they take two arguments. Often these functions possess properties that implicitly extend them to more than two arguments. For example, once addition a + b is defined and is known to satisfy the associativity property (a + b) + c = a + (b + c), then the ternary addition a + b + c makes sense, either as (a + b) + c or as a + (b + c). Similarly, many axioms and theorems in mathematics are stated only for the binary versions of mathematical operations and relations, and implicitly extend to higher-arity versions. Suppose that we wish to prove a statement about an n-ary operation implicitly defined from a binary operation, using mathematical induction on n. Then it should come as no surprise that the n = 2 case carries special weight. Here are some examples.

Mathematical induction Example: product rule for the derivative In this example, the binary operation in question is multiplication (of functions). The usual product rule for the derivative taught in calculus states:

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or in logarithmic derivative form

This can be generalized to a product of n functions. One has

or in logarithmic derivative form

In each of the n terms of the usual form, just one of the factors is a derivative; the others are not. When this general fact is proved by mathematical induction, the n = 0 case is trivial, product is 1, and the empty sum is 0). The n = 1 case is also trivial, the standard product rule. Alternative way to look at this is to generalize . Example: Plya's proof that there is no "horse of a different color" In this example, the binary relation in question is an equivalence relation applied to horses, such that two horses are equivalent if they are the same color. The argument is essentially identical to the one above, but the crucial n=1 case fails, causing the entire argument to be invalid. In the middle of the 20th century, a commonplace colloquial locution to express the idea that something is unexpectedly different from the usual was "That's a horse of a different color!". George Plya posed the following exercise: Find the error in the following argument, which purports to prove by mathematical induction that all horses are of the same color: Basis: If there is only one horse, there is only one color. Induction step: Assume as induction hypothesis that within any set of n horses, there is only one color. Now look at any set of n+1 horses. Number them: 1, 2, 3, ..., n, n+1. Consider the sets {1, 2, 3, ..., n} and {2, 3, 4, ..., n+1}. Each is a set of only n horses, therefore within each there is only one color. But the two sets overlap, so there must be only one color among all n+1 horses. The basis case is trivial (as any horse is the same color as itself), and the inductive step is correct in all cases n>2. However, the logic of the inductive step is incorrect for n=2, because the statement that "the two sets overlap" is false (there are only two horses). Indeed, the n=2 case is clearly the crux of the matter; if one could prove the n=2 case directly, then all higher cases would follow from the inductive hypothesis. (since the empty

And for each n 3, the case is easy to

prove from the preceding n 1 case. The real difficulty lies in the n = 2 case, which is why that is the one stated in (a monoid homomorphism) to

Mathematical induction

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Induction on more than one counter

It is sometimes desirable to prove a statement involving two natural numbers, n and m, by iterating the induction process. That is, one performs a basis step and an inductive step for n, and in each of those performs a basis step and an inductive step for m. See, for example, the proof of commutativity accompanying addition of natural numbers. More complicated arguments involving three or more counters are also possible.

Infinite descent
The method of infinite descent was one of Pierre de Fermat's favorites. This method of proof can assume several slightly different forms. For example, it might begin by showing that if a statement is true for a natural number n it must also be true for some smaller natural number m (m < n). Using mathematical induction (implicitly) with the inductive hypothesis being that the statement is false for all natural numbers less than or equal to m, we can conclude that the statement cannot be true for any natural number n. Although this particular form of infinite-descent proof is clearly a mathematical induction, whether one holds all proofs "by infinite descent" to be mathematical inductions depends on how one defines the term "proof by infinite descent." One might, for example, use the term to apply to proofs in which the well-ordering of the natural numbers is assumed, but not the principle of induction. Such, for example, is the usual proof that 2 has no rational square root (see Infinite descent).

Complete induction
Another variant, called complete induction (or strong induction or course of values induction), says that in the second step we may assume not only that the statement holds for n = m but also that it is true for all n less than or equal to m. Complete induction is most useful when several instances of the inductive hypothesis are required for each inductive step. For example, complete induction can be used to show that

where Fn is the nth Fibonacci number, =(1+5)/2 (the golden ratio) and =(15)/2 are the roots of the polynomial x2x1. By using the fact that Fn+2 =Fn+1+Fn for each nN, the identity above can be verified by direct calculation for Fn+2 if we assume that it already holds for both Fn+1 and Fn. To complete the proof, the identity must be verified in the two base cases n = 0 and n = 1. Another proof by complete induction uses the hypothesis that the statement holds for all smaller n more thoroughly. Consider the statement that "every natural number greater than 1 is a product of prime numbers", and assume that for a given m > 1 it holds for all smaller n > 1. If m is prime then it is certainly a product of primes, and if not, then by definition it is a product: m = n1 n2, where neither of the factors is equal to 1; hence neither is equal to m, and so both are smaller than m. The induction hypothesis now applies to n1 and n2, so each one is a product of primes. Then m is a product of products of primes; i.e. a product of primes. This generalization, complete induction, is equivalent to the ordinary mathematical induction described above. Suppose P(n) is the statement that we intend to prove by complete induction. Let Q(n) mean P(m) holds for all m such that 0 m n. Then Q(n) is true for all n if and only if P(n) is true for all n, and a proof of P(n) by complete induction is just the same thing as a proof of Q(n) by (ordinary) induction.

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Transfinite induction
The last two steps can be reformulated as one step: 1. Showing that if the statement holds for all n < m then the same statement also holds for n = m. This form of mathematical induction is not only valid for statements about natural numbers, but for statements about elements of any well-founded set, that is, a set with an irreflexive relation < that contains no infinite descending chains. This form of induction, when applied to ordinals (which form a well-ordered and hence well-founded class), is called transfinite induction. It is an important proof technique in set theory, topology and other fields. Proofs by transfinite induction typically distinguish three cases: 1. when m is a minimal element, i.e. there is no element smaller than m 2. when m has a direct predecessor, i.e. the set of elements which are smaller than m has a largest element 3. when m has no direct predecessor, i.e. m is a so-called limit-ordinal Strictly speaking, it is not necessary in transfinite induction to prove the basis, because it is a vacuous special case of the proposition that if P is true of all n < m, then P is true of m. It is vacuously true precisely because there are no values of n < m that could serve as counterexamples.

Proof of mathematical induction

The principle of mathematical induction is usually stated as an axiom of the natural numbers; see Peano axioms. However, it can be proved in some logical systems. For instance, it can be proved if one assumes: The set of natural numbers is well-ordered. Every natural number is either zero, or n+1 for some natural number n. For any natural number n, n+1 is greater than n. To derive simple induction from these axioms, we must show that if P(n) is some proposition predicated of n, and if: P(0) holds and whenever P(k) is true then P(k+1) is also true then P(n) holds for all n. Proof. Let S be the set of all natural numbers for which P(n) is false. Let us see what happens if we assert that S is nonempty. Well-ordering tells us that S has a least element, say t. Moreover, since P(0) is true, t is not 0. Since every natural number is either zero or some n+1, there is some natural number n such that n+1=t. Now n is less than t, and t is the least element of S. It follows that n is not in S, and so P(n) is true. This means that P(n+1) is true, and so P(t) is true. This is a contradiction, since t was in S. Therefore, S is empty. It can also be proved that induction, given the other axioms, implies well-ordering.

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Notes
[1] Suber, Peter. "Mathematical Induction" (http:/ / www. earlham. edu/ ~peters/ courses/ logsys/ math-ind. htm). Earlham College. . Retrieved 26 March 2011. [2] Mathematical Induction: The Basis Step of Verification and Validation in a Modeling and Simulation Course (http:/ / me. nmsu. edu/ ~aseemath/ 1465_04_3. PDF) [3] Proof due to Euclid http:/ / primes. utm. edu/ notes/ proofs/ infinite/ euclids. html http:/ / www. mathsisgoodforyou. com/ conjecturestheorems/ euclidsprimes. htm http:/ / www. hermetic. ch/ pns/ proof. htm [4] Cajori (1918), p.197

"The process of reasoning called "Mathematical Induction" has had several independent origins. It has been traced back to the Swiss Jakob (James) Bernoulli, the Frenchman B. Pascal and P. Fermat, and the Italian F. Maurolycus. [...] By reading a little between the lines one can find traces of mathematical induction still earlier, in the writings of the Hindus and the Greeks, as, for instance, in the "cyclic method" of Bhaskara, and in Euclid's proof that the number of primes is infinite."
[5] "It is sometimes required to prove a theorem which shall be true whenever a certain quantity n which it involves shall be an integer or whole number and the method of proof is usually of the following kind. 1st. The theorem is proved to be true whenn=1. 2ndly. It is proved that if the theorem is true when n is a given whole number, it will be true if n is the next greater integer. Hence the theorem is true universally. . .. This species of argument may be termed a continued sorites" (Boole circa 1849 Elementary Treatise on Logic not mathematical pages 4041 reprinted in Grattan-Guinness, Ivor and Bornet, Grard (1997), George Boole: Selected Manuscripts on Logic and its Philosophy, Birkhuser Verlag, Berlin, ISBN 3-7643-5456-9 Peirce, C.S. (1881). "On the Logic of Number" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=LQgPAAAAIAAJ& jtp=85). American Journal of Mathematics 4 (14): pp.8595. doi:10.2307/2369151. JSTOR2369151. MR1507856. . Reprinted (CP3.252-88), (W4:299-309). Paul Shields. (1997), "Peirces Axiomatization of Arithmetic", in Houser et al., eds., Studies in the Logic of CharlesS. Peirce.

References
Introduction Knuth, Donald E. (1997). The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 1: Fundamental Algorithms (3rd ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN0-201-89683-4. (Section 1.2.1: Mathematical Induction, pp.1121.) Kolmogorov, Andrey N.; Sergei V. Fomin (1975). Introductory Real Analysis. Silverman, R. A. (trans., ed.). New York: Dover. ISBN0-486-61226-0. (Section 3.8: Transfinite induction, pp.2829.) Franklin, J.; A. Daoud (2011). Proof in Mathematics: An Introduction (http://www.maths.unsw.edu.au/~jim/ proofs.html). Sydney: Kew Books. ISBN0-646-54509-4. (Ch. 8.) History Acerbi, F. (2000). "Plato: Parmenides 149a7-c3. A Proof by Complete Induction?". Archive for History of Exact Sciences 55: 5776. doi:10.1007/s004070000020. Bussey, W. H. (1917). "The Origin of Mathematical Induction". The American Mathematical Monthly 24 (5): 199207. doi:10.2307/2974308. JSTOR2974308. Cajori, Florian (1918). "Origin of the Name "Mathematical Induction"". The American Mathematical Monthly 25 (5): 197201. doi:10.2307/2972638. JSTOR2972638. "Could the Greeks Have Used Mathematical Induction? Did They Use It?". Physis XXXI: 253265. 1994. Freudenthal, Hans (1953). "Zur Geschichte der vollstndigen Induction". Archives Internationales d'Histiore des Sciences 6: 1737. Katz, Victor J. (1998). History of Mathematics: An Introduction. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-321-01618-1. Peirce, C.S. (1881). "On the Logic of Number" (http://books.google.com/books?id=LQgPAAAAIAAJ& jtp=85). American Journal of Mathematics 4 (14): pp.8595. doi:10.2307/2369151. JSTOR2369151. MR1507856. Reprinted (CP3.252-88), (W4:299-309). Rabinovitch, Nachum L. (1970). "Rabbi Levi Ben Gershon and the origins of mathematical induction". Archive for History of Exact Sciences 6 (3): 237248. doi:10.1007/BF00327237.

Mathematical induction Rashed, Roshdi (1972). "L'induction mathmatique: al-Karaj, as-Samaw'al" (in French). Archive for History of Exact Sciences 9 (1): 121. doi:10.1007/BF00348537. Shields, Paul (1997). "Peirces Axiomatization of Arithmetic". In Houser et al.. Studies in the Logic of CharlesS. Peirce. Ungure, S. (1991). "Greek Mathematics and Mathematical Induction". Physis XXVIII: 273289. Ungure, S. (1994). "Fowling after Induction". Physis XXXI: 267272. Vacca, G. (1909). "Maurolycus, the First Discoverer of the Principle of Mathematical Induction". Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society 16 (2): 7073. doi:10.1090/S0002-9904-1909-01860-9. Yadegari, Mohammad (1978). "The Use of Mathematical Induction by Ab Kmil Shuj' Ibn Aslam (850-930)". Isis 69 (2): 259262. doi:10.1086/352009. JSTOR230435.

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Equations for a falling body

87

Equations for a falling body

A set of dynamical equations describe the resultant trajectories when objects move owing to a constant gravitational force under normal Earth-bound conditions. For example, Newton's law of universal gravitation simplifies to F = mg, where m is the mass of the body. This assumption is reasonable for objects falling to earth over the relatively short vertical distances of our everyday experience, but is very much untrue over larger distances, such as spacecraft trajectories. Please note that in this article any resistance from air (drag) is neglected.

History
The equations ignore air resistance, which has a dramatic effect on objects falling an appreciable distance in air, causing them to quickly approach a terminal velocity. The effect of air resistance varies enormously depending on the size and geometry of the falling object for example, the equations are hopelessly wrong for a feather, which has a low mass but offers a large resistance to the air. (In the absence of an atmosphere all objects fall at the same rate, as astronaut David Scott demonstrated by dropping a hammer and a feather on the surface of the Moon.) The equations also ignore the rotation of the Earth, failing to describe the Coriolis effect for example. Nevertheless, they are usually accurate enough for dense and compact objects falling over heights not exceeding the tallest man-made structures.

Overview
Near the surface of the Earth, use g=9.8m/s (metres per second squared; which might be thought of as "metres per second, per second", or 32ft/s as "feet per second per second"), approximately. For other planets, multiply g by the appropriate scaling factor. It is essential to use a coherent set of units for g, d, t and v. Assuming SI units, g is measured in metres per second squared, so d must be measured in metres, t in seconds and v in metres per second.
An initially stationary object which is allowed to fall freely under gravity drops a distance which is proportional to the square of the elapsed time. This image, spanning half a second, was captured with a stroboscopic flash at 20 flashes per second. During the first 1/20th of a second the ball drops one unit of distance (here, a unit is about 12mm); by 2/20ths it has dropped at total of 4 units; by 3/20ths, 9 units and so on.

In all cases, the body is assumed to start from rest, and air resistance is neglected. Generally, in Earth's atmosphere, this means all results below will be quite inaccurate after only 5 seconds of fall (at which time an object's velocity will be a little less than the vacuum value of 49m/s(9.8m/s5s), due to air resistance). When a body is travelling through any atmosphere other than a perfect vacuum it will encounter a drag force induced by air resistance, this drag force increases with velocity. The object will reach a state where the drag force equals the gravitational force at this point the acceleration of the object becomes 0, the object now falls at a constant velocity. This state is called the terminal velocity. The drag force is dependant on the density of the atmosphere, the coefficient of drag for the object, the velocity of the object (instantaneous) and the area presented to the airflow. Apart from the last formula, these formulas also assume that g does not vary significantly with height during the fall (that is, they assume constant acceleration). For situations where fractional distance from the center of the planet varies significantly during the fall, resulting in significant changes in g, the last equation must be used for accuracy. This equation occurs in many applications of basic physics.

Equations for a falling body

88

Distance Time

travelled by an object falling for time :

taken for an object to fall distance

Instantaneous velocity Instantaneous velocity Average velocity Average velocity

of a falling object after elapsed time

: :

of a falling object that has travelled distance

of an object that has been falling for time

(averaged over time): (averaged over time):

of a falling object that has travelled distance

Instantaneous velocity of a falling object that has travelled distance on a planet with mass , with the combined radius of the planet and altitude of the falling object being , this equation is used for larger radii where is smaller than standard at the surface of Earth, but assumes a small distance of fall, so the change in is small and relatively constant: Instantaneous velocity of a falling object that has travelled distance (used for large fall distances where can change significantly): on a planet with mass and radius

Example: the first equation shows that, after one second, an object will have fallen a distance of 1/2 9.8 12 = 4.9 metres. After two seconds it will have fallen 1/2 9.8 22 = 19.6 metres; and so on. We can see how the second to last, and the last equation change as the distance increases. If an object were to fall 10,000 metres to Earth, the results of both equations differ by only 0.08%. However, if the distance increases to that of geosynchronous orbit, which is 42,164 km, the difference changes to being almost 64%. At high values, the results of the second to last equation become grossly inaccurate.

For astronomical bodies other than Earth, and for short distances of fall at other than "ground" level, g in the gravity. above equations may be replaced by G(M+m)/r where G is the gravitational constant, M is the mass of the astronomical body, m is the mass of the falling body, and r is the radius from the falling object to the center of the body.
, where h is the height and g is the acceleration of

Measured fall time of a small steel sphere falling from various heights. The data is in good agreement with the predicted fall time of

Removing the simplifying assumption of uniform gravitational acceleration provides more accurate results. We find from the formula for radial elliptic trajectories: The time t taken for an object to fall from a height r to a height x, measured from the centers of the two bodies, is given by:

where

is the sum of the standard gravitational parameters of the two bodies. This equation

should be used whenever there is a significant difference in the gravitational acceleration during the fall.

Equations for a falling body

89

Acceleration relative to the rotating Earth

The acceleration measured on the rotating surface of the Earth is not quite the same as the acceleration that is measured for a free-falling body because of the centripetal force. In other words, the apparent acceleration in the rotating frame of reference is the total gravity vector minus a small vector toward the north-south axis of the Earth, corresponding to staying stationary in that frame of reference.

Notes External links

Falling body equations calculator (http://www.gravitycalc.com)

Galileo Galilei

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Galileo Galilei
Galileo Galilei

Portrait of Galileo Galilei by Giusto Sustermans Born [1] 15 February 1564 [1] Pisa, Duchy of Florence, Italy [1] 8 January 1642 (aged77) [1] Arcetri, Grand Duchy of Tuscany, Italy Grand Duchy of Tuscany, Italy Italian (Tuscan) Astronomy, physics and mathematics University of Pisa University of Padua University of Pisa Ostilio Ricci [2]

Died

Residence Nationality Fields Institutions

Alma mater Academic advisors Notable students

Benedetto Castelli Mario Guiducci [3] Vincenzo Viviani Kinematics Dynamics Telescopic observational astronomy Heliocentrism Signature

Knownfor

Notes His father was the musician Vincenzo Galilei. Galileo Galilei's mistress Marina Gamba (1570 21 August 1612?) bore him two daughters (Maria Celeste (Virginia, 16001634) and Livia (16011659), both of whom became nuns) and a son Vincenzo (16061649), a lutenist.

Galileo Galilei Galileo Galilei (Italian pronunciation:[alilo alili]; 15 February 1564[4] 8 January 1642),[5] was an Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher who played a major role in the Scientific Revolution. His achievements include improvements to the telescope and consequent astronomical observations and support for Copernicanism. Galileo has been called the "father of modern observational astronomy",[6] the "father of modern physics",[7] the "father of science",[7] and "the Father of Modern Science".[8] His contributions to observational astronomy include the telescopic confirmation of the phases of Venus, the discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter (named the Galilean moons in his honour), and the observation and analysis of sunspots. Galileo also worked in applied science and technology, inventing an improved military compass and other instruments. Galileo's championing of heliocentrism was controversial within his lifetime, when most subscribed to either geocentrism or the Tychonic system.[9] He met with opposition from astronomers, who doubted heliocentrism due to the absence of an observed stellar parallax.[9] The matter was investigated by the Roman Inquisition in 1615, and they concluded that it could be supported as only a possibility, not an established fact.[9][10] Galileo later defended his views in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, which appeared to attack Pope Urban VIII and thus alienated him and the Jesuits, who had both supported Galileo up until this point.[9] He was tried by the Inquisition, found "vehemently suspect of heresy", forced to recant, and spent the rest of his life under house arrest.[11][12] It was while Galileo was under house arrest that he wrote one of his finest works, Two New Sciences, in which he summarised the work he had done some forty years earlier, on the two sciences now called kinematics and strength of materials.[13][14]

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Early life
Galileo was born in Pisa (then part of the Duchy of Florence), Italy, the first of six children of Vincenzo Galilei, a famous lutenist, composer, and music theorist; and Giulia Ammannati. Galileo became an accomplished lutenist himself and would have learned early from his father a healthy scepticism for established authority,[15] the value of well-measured or quantified experimentation, an appreciation for a periodic or musical measure of time or rhythm, as well as the illuminative progeny to expect from a marriage of mathematics and experiment. Three of Galileo's five siblings survived infancy, and the youngest Michelangelo (or Michelagnolo) also became a noted lutenist and composer, although he contributed to financial burdens during Galileo's young adulthood. Michelangelo was incapable of contributing his fair share for their father's promised dowries to their brothers-in-law, who would later attempt to seek legal remedies for payments due. Michelangelo would also occasionally have to borrow funds from Galileo for support of his musical endeavours and excursions. These financial burdens may have contributed to Galileo's early fire to develop inventions that would bring him additional income. Galileo was named after an ancestor, Galileo Bonaiuti, a physician, university teacher and politician who lived in Florence from 1370 to 1450; at that time in the late 14th century, the family's surname shifted from Bonaiuti (or Buonaiuti) to Galilei. Galileo Bonaiuti was buried in the same church, the Basilica of Santa Croce in Florence, where about 200 years later his more famous descendant Galileo Galilei was buried too. When Galileo Galilei was 8, his family moved to Florence, but he was left with Jacopo Borghini for two years.[1] He then was educated in the Camaldolese Monastery at Vallombrosa, 35km southeast of Florence.[1]

Galileo Galilei Although a genuinely pious Roman Catholic,[16] Galileo fathered three children out of wedlock with Marina Gamba. They had two daughters, Virginia in 1600 and Livia in 1601, and one son, Vincenzo, in 1606. Because of their illegitimate birth, their father considered the girls unmarriageable, if not posing problems of prohibitively expensive support or dowries, which would have been similar to Galileo's previous extensive financial problems with two of his sisters.[17] Their only worthy alternative was the religious life. Both girls were accepted by the convent of San Matteo in Arcetri and remained there for the rest of their lives.[18] Virginia took the name Maria Celeste upon entering the convent. She died on 2 April 1634, and is buried with Galileo at the Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence. Livia took the name Sister Arcangela and was ill for most of her life. Vincenzo was later legitimised as the legal heir of Galileo, and married Sestilia Bocchineri.[19]

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Galileo's beloved elder daughter, Virginia (Sister Maria Celeste), was particularly devoted to her father. She is buried with him in his tomb in the Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence.

Career as a scientist

Although he seriously considered the priesthood as a young man, at his father's urging he instead enrolled at the University of Pisa for a medical degree.[20] In 1581, when he was studying medicine, he noticed a swinging chandelier, which air currents shifted about to swing in larger and smaller arcs. It seemed, by comparison with his heartbeat, that the chandelier took the same amount of time to swing back and forth, no matter how far it was swinging. When he returned home, he set up two pendulums of equal length and swung one with a large sweep and the other with a small sweep and found that they kept time together. It was not until Christiaan Huygens almost one hundred years later, however, that the tautochrone nature of a swinging pendulum was used to create an accurate timepiece.[21] To this point, he had deliberately been kept away from mathematics (since a physician earned so much more than a mathematician), but upon accidentally attending a lecture on geometry, he talked his reluctant father into letting him study mathematics and natural philosophy instead.[21] He created a thermoscope (forerunner of the thermometer) and in 1586 published a small book on the design of a hydrostatic balance he had invented (which first brought him to the attention of the scholarly world). Galileo also studied disegno, a term encompassing fine art, and in 1588 attained an instructor position in the Accademia delle Arti del Disegno in Florence, teaching perspective and chiaroscuro. Being inspired by the artistic tradition of the city and the works of the Renaissance artists, Galileo acquired an aesthetic mentality. While a young teacher at the Accademia, he began a lifelong friendship with the Florentine painter Cigoli, who included Galileo's lunar observations in one of his paintings.[22][23] In 1589, he was appointed to the chair of mathematics in Pisa. In 1591 his father died and he was entrusted with the care of his younger brother Michelagnolo. In 1592, he moved to the University of Padua, teaching geometry, mechanics, and astronomy until 1610.[24] During this period Galileo made significant discoveries in both pure fundamental science (for example, kinematics of motion and astronomy) as well as practical applied science (for example, strength of materials and improvement of the telescope). His multiple interests included the study of astrology, which at the time was a discipline tied to the studies of mathematics and astronomy.[25]

Galileo Galilei

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Galileo, Kepler and theories of tides

Cardinal Bellarmine had written in 1615 that the Copernican system could not be defended without "a true physical demonstration that the sun does not circle the earth but the earth circles the sun".[26] Galileo considered his theory of the tides to provide the required physical proof of the motion of the earth. This theory was so important to him that he originally intended to entitle his Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems the Dialogue on the Ebb and Flow of the Sea.[27] The reference to tides was removed by order of the Inquisition. For Galileo, the tides were caused by the sloshing back and forth of water in the seas as a point on the Earth's surface speeded up and slowed down because of the Earth's rotation on its axis and revolution around the Sun. He circulated his first account of the tides in 1616, addressed to Cardinal Orsini.[28] His theory gave the first insight into the importance of the shapes of ocean basins in the size and timing of tides; he correctly accounted, for instance, for the negligible tides halfway along the Adriatic Sea compared to those at the ends. As a general account of the cause of tides, however, his theory was a failure.

Galileo Galilei. Portrait by Leoni

If this theory were correct, there would be only one high tide per day. Galileo and his contemporaries were aware of this inadequacy because there are two daily high tides at Venice instead of one, about twelve hours apart. Galileo dismissed this anomaly as the result of several secondary causes, including the shape of the sea, its depth, and other factors.[29] Against the assertion that Galileo was deceptive in making these arguments, Albert Einstein expressed the opinion that Galileo developed his "fascinating arguments" and accepted them uncritically out of a desire for physical proof of the motion of the Earth.[30] Galileo dismissed as a "useless fiction" the idea, held by his contemporary Johannes Kepler, that the moon caused the tides.[31] He also refused to accept Kepler's elliptical orbits of the planets,[32] considering the circle the "perfect" shape for planetary orbits.

Controversy over comets and The Assayer

In 1619, Galileo became embroiled in a controversy with Father Orazio Grassi, professor of mathematics at the Jesuit Collegio Romano. It began as a dispute over the nature of comets, but by the time Galileo had published The Assayer (Il Saggiatore) in 1623, his last salvo in the dispute, it had become a much wider argument over the very nature of science itself. Because The Assayer contains such a wealth of Galileo's ideas on how science should be practised, it has been referred to as his scientific manifesto.[33] Early in 1619, Father Grassi had anonymously published a pamphlet, An Astronomical Disputation on the Three Comets of the Year 1618, [34] which discussed the nature of a comet that had appeared late in November of the previous year. Grassi concluded that the comet was a fiery body which had moved along a segment of a great circle at a constant distance from the earth,[35] and since it moved in the sky more slowly than the moon, it must be farther away than the moon. Grassi's arguments and conclusions were criticised in a subsequent article, Discourse on the Comets,[36] published under the name of one of Galileo's disciples, a Florentine lawyer named Mario Guiducci, although it had been largely written by Galileo himself.[37] Galileo and Guiducci offered no definitive theory of their own on the nature of comets,[38] although they did present some tentative conjectures that are now known to be mistaken. In its opening passage, Galileo and Guiducci's Discourse gratuitously insulted the Jesuit Christopher Scheiner,[39] and various uncomplimentary remarks about the professors of the Collegio Romano were scattered throughout the work.[40] The Jesuits were offended,[41] and Grassi soon replied with a polemical tract of his own, The Astronomical and Philosophical Balance,[42] under the pseudonym Lothario Sarsio Sigensano,[43] purporting to be one of his own pupils.

Galileo Galilei The Assayer was Galileo's devastating reply to the Astronomical Balance.[44] It has been widely regarded as a masterpiece of polemical literature,[45] in which "Sarsi's" arguments are subjected to withering scorn.[46] It was greeted with wide acclaim, and particularly pleased the new pope, Urban VIII, to whom it had been dedicated.[47] Galileo's dispute with Grassi permanently alienated many of the Jesuits who had previously been sympathetic to his ideas,[48] and Galileo and his friends were convinced that these Jesuits were responsible for bringing about his later condemnation.[49] The evidence for this is at best equivocal, however.[50]

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Controversy over heliocentrism

Biblical references Psalm 93:1, 96:10, and 1 Chronicles 16:30 include text stating that "the world is firmly established, it cannot be moved." In the same manner, Psalm104:5 says, "the Lord set the earth on its foundations; it can never be moved." Further, Ecclesiastes 1:5 states that "And the sun rises and sets and returns to its place" etc.[51] Galileo defended heliocentrism, and claimed it was not contrary to those Scripture passages. He took Augustine's position on Scripture: not to take every passage literally, particularly when the scripture in question is a book of poetry and songs, not a book of instructions or Cristiano Banti's 1857 painting Galileo facing the history. He believed that the writers of the Scripture merely wrote from Roman Inquisition the perspective of the terrestrial world, from that vantage point that the sun does rise and set. Another way to put this is that the writers would have been writing from a phenomenological point of view, or style. So Galileo claimed that science did not contradict Scripture, as Scripture was discussing a different kind of "movement" of the earth, and not rotations.[52] By 1616 the attacks on the ideas of Copernicus had reached a head, and Galileo went to Rome to try to persuade the Catholic Church authorities not to ban Copernicus' ideas. In the end, a decree of the Congregation of the Index was issued, declaring that the ideas that the Sun stood still and that the Earth moved were "false" and "altogether contrary to Holy Scripture", and suspending Copernicus's De Revolutionibus until it could be corrected. Acting on instructions from the Pope before the decree was issued, Cardinal Bellarmine informed Galileo that it was forthcoming, that the ideas it condemned could not be "defended or held", and ordered him to abandon them. Galileo promised to obey. Bellarmine's instruction did not prohibit Galileo from discussing heliocentrism as a mathematical fiction but was dangerously ambiguous as to whether he could treat it as a physical possibility.[53] For the next several years Galileo stayed well away from the controversy. He revived his project of writing a book on the subject, encouraged by the election of Cardinal Maffeo Barberini as Pope Urban VIII in 1623. Barberini was a friend and admirer of Galileo, and had opposed the condemnation of Galileo in 1616. The book, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, was published in 1632, with formal authorization from the Inquisition and papal permission.[54] Dava Sobel[55] explains that during this time, Urban had begun to fall more and more under the influence of court intrigue and problems of state. His friendship with Galileo began to take second place to his feelings of persecution and fear for his own life. At this low point in Urban's life, the problem of Galileo was presented to the pope by court insiders and enemies of Galileo. Coming on top of the recent claim by the then Spanish cardinal that Urban was soft on defending the church, he reacted out of anger and fear. This situation did not bode well for Galileo's defence of his book. Earlier, Pope Urban VIII had personally asked Galileo to give arguments for and against heliocentrism in the book, and to be careful not to advocate heliocentrism. He made another request, that his own views on the matter be included in Galileo's book. Only the latter of those requests was fulfilled by Galileo. Whether unknowingly or deliberately, Simplicio, the defender of the Aristotelian Geocentric view in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, was often caught in his own errors and sometimes came across as a fool. Indeed, although Galileo

Galileo Galilei states in the preface of his book that the character is named after a famous Aristotelian philosopher (Simplicius in Latin, Simplicio in Italian), the name "Simplicio" in Italian also has the connotation of "simpleton".[56] This portrayal of Simplicio made Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems appear as an advocacy book: an attack on Aristotelian geocentrism and defence of the Copernican theory. Unfortunately for his relationship with the Pope, Galileo put the words of Urban VIII into the mouth of Simplicio. Most historians agree Galileo did not act out of malice and felt blindsided by the reaction to his book.[57] However, the Pope did not take the suspected public ridicule lightly, nor the Copernican advocacy. Galileo had alienated one of his biggest and most powerful supporters, the Pope, and was called to Rome to defend his writings. In September 1632, Galileo was ordered to come to Rome to stand trial. He finally arrived in February 1633 and was brought before inquisitor Vincenzo Maculani to be charged. Throughout his trial Galileo steadfastly maintained that since 1616 he had faithfully kept his promise not to hold any of the condemned opinions, and initially he denied even defending them. However, he was eventually persuaded to admit that, contrary to his true intention, a reader of his Dialogue could well have obtained the impression that it was intended to be a defence of Copernicanism. In view of Galileo's rather implausible denial that he had ever held Copernican ideas after 1616 or ever intended to defend them in the Dialogue, his final interrogation, in July 1633, concluded with his being threatened with torture if he did not tell the truth, but he maintained his denial despite the threat.[58] The sentence of the Inquisition was delivered on June 22. It was in three essential parts: Galileo was found "vehemently suspect of heresy", namely of having held the opinions that the Sun lies motionless at the centre of the universe, that the Earth is not at its centre and moves, and that one may hold and defend an opinion as probable after it has been declared contrary to Holy Scripture. He was required to "abjure, curse and detest" those opinions.[59] He was sentenced to formal imprisonment at the pleasure of the Inquisition.[60] On the following day this was commuted to house arrest, which he remained under for the rest of his life. His offending Dialogue was banned; and in an action not announced at the trial, publication of any of his works was forbidden, including any he might write in the future.[61] According to popular legend, after recanting his theory that the Earth moved around the Sun, Galileo allegedly muttered the rebellious phrase And yet it moves, but there is no evidence that he actually said this or anything similar. The first account of the legend dates to a century after his death.[62] After a period with the friendly Ascanio Piccolomini (the Archbishop of Siena), Galileo was allowed to return to his villa at Arcetri near Florence in 1634, where he spent the remainder of his life under house arrest. Galileo was ordered to read the seven penitential psalms once a Tomb of Galileo Galilei, Santa Croce week for the next three years. However his daughter Maria Celeste relieved him of the burden after securing ecclesiastical permission to take it upon herself.[63] It was while Galileo was under house arrest that he dedicated his time to one of his finest works, Two New Sciences. Here he summarised work he had done some forty years earlier, on the two sciences now called kinematics and strength of materials. This book has received high praise from Albert Einstein.[64] As a result of this work, Galileo is often called the "father of modern physics". He went completely blind in 1638 and was suffering from a painful hernia and insomnia, so he was permitted to travel to Florence for medical advice.[13][14]

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Galileo Galilei

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Death
Galileo continued to receive visitors until 1642, when, after suffering fever and heart palpitations, he died on 8 January 1642, aged 77.[13] The Grand Duke of Tuscany, Ferdinando II, wished to bury him in the main body of the Basilica of Santa Croce, next to the tombs of his father and other ancestors, and to erect a marble mausoleum in his honour.[65] These plans were scrapped, however, after Pope Urban VIII and his nephew, Cardinal Francesco Barberini, protested,[66] because Galileo was condemned by the Catholic Church for "vehement suspicion of heresy".[67] He was instead buried in a small room next to the novices' chapel at the end of a corridor from the southern transept of the basilica to the sacristy.[68] He was reburied in the main body of the basilica in 1737 after a monument had been erected there in his honour;[69] during this move, three fingers and a tooth were removed from his remains.[70] One of these fingers, the middle finger from Galileo's right hand, is currently on exhibition at the Museo Galileo in Florence, Italy.[71]

Scientific methods
Galileo made original contributions to the science of motion through an innovative combination of experiment and mathematics.[72] More typical of science at the time were the qualitative studies of William Gilbert, on magnetism and electricity. Galileo's father, Vincenzo Galilei, a lutenist and music theorist, had performed experiments establishing perhaps the oldest known non-linear relation in physics: for a stretched string, the pitch varies as the square root of the tension.[73] These observations lay within the framework of the Pythagorean tradition of music, well-known to instrument makers, which included the fact that subdividing a string by a whole number produces a harmonious scale. Thus, a limited amount of mathematics had long related music and physical science, and young Galileo could see his own father's observations expand on that tradition.[74] Galileo was one of the first modern thinkers to clearly state that the laws of nature are mathematical. In The Assayer he wrote "Philosophy is written in this grand book, the universe... It is written in the language of mathematics, and its characters are triangles, circles, and other geometric figures;...."[75] His mathematical analyses are a further development of a tradition employed by late scholastic natural philosophers, which Galileo learned when he studied philosophy.[76] He displayed a peculiar ability to ignore established authorities, most notably Aristotelianism. In broader terms, his work marked another step towards the eventual separation of science from both philosophy and religion; a major development in human thought. He was often willing to change his views in accordance with observation. In order to perform his experiments, Galileo had to set up standards of length and time, so that measurements made on different days and in different laboratories could be compared in a reproducible fashion. This provided a reliable foundation on which to confirm mathematical laws using inductive reasoning. Galileo showed a remarkably modern appreciation for the proper relationship between mathematics, theoretical physics, and experimental physics. He understood the parabola, both in terms of conic sections and in terms of the ordinate (y) varying as the square of the abscissa (x). Galilei further asserted that the parabola was the theoretically ideal trajectory of a uniformly accelerated projectile in the absence of friction and other disturbances. He conceded that there are limits to the validity of this theory, noting on theoretical grounds that a projectile trajectory of a size comparable to that of the Earth could not possibly be a parabola,[77] but he nevertheless maintained that for distances up to the range of the artillery of his day, the deviation of a projectile's trajectory from a parabola would only be very slight.[78]

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Astronomy
Based only on uncertain descriptions of the first practical telescope which Hans Lippershey tried to patent in the Netherlands in 1608,[79] Galileo, in the following year, made a telescope with about 3x magnification. He later made improved versions with up to about 30x magnification.[80] With a Galilean telescope the observer could see magnified, upright images on the earthit was what is commonly known as a terrestrial telescope or a spyglass. He could also use it to observe the sky; for a time he was one of those who could construct telescopes good enough for that purpose. On 25 August 1609, he demonstrated one of his early telescopes, with a magnification of about 8 or 9, to Venetian lawmakers. His telescopes were also a profitable sideline for Galileo selling them to merchants who found them useful both at sea and as items of trade. He published his initial telescopic astronomical observations in March 1610 in a brief treatise entitled Sidereus Nuncius (Starry Messenger).[81]

Fresco by Giuseppe Bertini depicting Galileo showing the Doge of Venice how to use the telescope

Kepler's Supernova
According to Walusinsky,[82] Galileo's fame as an astronomer dates to his observation and discussion of Kepler's supernova in 1604. Since this new star displayed no detectable diurnal parallax, Galileo concluded that it was a distant star, and therefore disproved the Aristotelian belief in the immutability of the heavens. His public advocacy of this view met with strong opposition.[83]

Jupiter
On 7 January 1610 Galileo observed with his telescope what he described at the time as "three fixed stars, totally invisible[84] by their smallness", all close to Jupiter, and lying on a straight line through it.[85] Observations on subsequent nights showed that the positions of these "stars" relative to Jupiter were changing in a way that would have been inexplicable if they had really been fixed stars. On 10 January Galileo noted that one of them had disappeared, an observation which It was on this page that Galileo first noted an he attributed to its being hidden behind Jupiter. Within a few days he observation of the moons of Jupiter. This concluded that they were orbiting Jupiter:[86] He had discovered three observation upset the notion that all celestial of Jupiter's four largest satellites (moons). He discovered the fourth on bodies must revolve around the Earth. Galileo 13 January. Galileo named the group of four the Medicean stars, in published a full description in Sidereus Nuncius in March 1610 honour of his future patron, Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, and Cosimo's three brothers.[87] Later astronomers, however, renamed them Galilean satellites in honour of their discoverer. These satellites are now called Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. His observations of the satellites of Jupiter created a revolution in astronomy that reverberates to this day: a planet with smaller planets

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orbiting it did not conform to the principles of Aristotelian Cosmology, which held that all heavenly bodies should circle the Earth,[88] and many astronomers and philosophers initially refused to believe that Galileo could have discovered such a thing.[89] His observations were confirmed by the observatory of Christopher Clavius and he received a hero's welcome when he visited Rome in 1611.[90] Galileo continued to observe the satellites over the next eighteen months, and by mid 1611 he had obtained remarkably accurate estimates for their periodsa feat which Kepler had believed impossible.[91]
The phases of Venus, observed by Galileo in 1610

Venus, Saturn, and Neptune

From September 1610, Galileo observed that Venus exhibited a full set of phases similar to that of the Moon. The heliocentric model of the solar system developed by Nicolaus Copernicus predicted that all phases would be visible since the orbit of Venus around the Sun would cause its illuminated hemisphere to face the Earth when it was on the opposite side of the Sun and to face away from the Earth when it was on the Earth-side of the Sun. On the other hand, in Ptolemy's geocentric model it was impossible for any of the planets' orbits to intersect the spherical shell carrying the Sun. Traditionally the orbit of Venus was placed entirely on the near side of the Sun, where it could exhibit only crescent and new phases. It was, however, also possible to place it entirely on the far side of the Sun, where it could exhibit only gibbous and full phases. After Galileo's telescopic observations of the crescent, gibbous and full phases of Venus, therefore, this Ptolemaic model became untenable. Thus in the early 17th century as a result of his discovery the great majority of astronomers converted to one of the various geo-heliocentric planetary models,[92] such as the Tychonic, Capellan and Extended Capellan models,[93] each either with or without a daily rotating Earth. These all had the virtue of explaining the phases of Venus without the vice of the 'refutation' of full heliocentrism's prediction of stellar parallax. Galileo's discovery of the phases of Venus was thus arguably his most empirically practically influential contribution to the two-stage transition from full geocentrism to full heliocentrism via geo-heliocentrism. Galileo observed the planet Saturn, and at first mistook its rings for planets, thinking it was a three-bodied system. When he observed the planet later, Saturn's rings were directly oriented at Earth, causing him to think that two of the bodies had disappeared. The rings reappeared when he observed the planet in 1616, further confusing him.[94] Galileo also observed the planet Neptune in 1612. It appears in his notebooks as one of many unremarkable dim stars. He did not realise that it was a planet, but he did note its motion relative to the stars before losing track of it.[95]

Sunspots
Galileo was one of the first Europeans to observe sunspots, although Kepler had unwittingly observed one in 1607, but mistook it for a transit of Mercury. He also reinterpreted a sunspot observation from the time of Charlemagne, which formerly had been attributed (impossibly) to a transit of Mercury. The very existence of sunspots showed another difficulty with the unchanging perfection of the heavens posited by orthodox Aristotelian celestial physics, but their regular periodic transits also confirmed the dramatic novel prediction of Kepler's Aristotelian celestial dynamics in his 1609 Astronomia Nova that the sun rotates, which was the first successful novel prediction of post-spherist celestial physics.[96] And the annual variations in sunspots' motions, discovered by Francesco Sizzi and others in 16121613,[97] provided a powerful argument against both the Ptolemaic system and the geoheliocentric system of Tycho Brahe.[98] A dispute over priority in the discovery of sunspots, and in their interpretation, led Galileo to a long and bitter feud with the Jesuit Christoph Scheiner; in fact, there is little doubt that both of them were beaten by David Fabricius and his son Johannes, looking for confirmation of Kepler's prediction of the sun's rotation. Scheiner quickly adopted Kepler's 1615 proposal of the modern telescope design, which gave larger

Galileo Galilei magnification at the cost of inverted images; Galileo apparently never changed to Kepler's design.

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Moon
Prior to Galileo's construction of his version of a telescope, Thomas Harriot, an English mathematician and explorer, had already used what he dubbed a "perspective tube" to observe the moon. Reporting his observations, Harriot noted only "strange spottednesse" in the waning of the crescent, but was ignorant to the cause. Galileo, due in part to his artistic training[23] and the knowledge of chiaroscuro,[22] had understood the patterns of light and shadow were in fact topological markers. While not being the only one to observe the moon through a telescope, Galileo was the first to deduce the cause of the uneven waning as light occlusion from lunar mountains and craters. In his study he also made topological charts, estimating the heights of the mountains. The moon was not what was long thought to have been a translucent and perfect sphere, as Aristotle claimed, and hardly the first "planet", an "eternal pearl to magnificently ascend into the heavenly empyrian", as put forth by Dante.

Milky Way and stars

Galileo observed the Milky Way, previously believed to be nebulous, and found it to be a multitude of stars packed so densely that they appeared to be clouds from Earth. He located many other stars too distant to be visible with the naked eye. He observed the double star Mizar in Ursa Major in 1617.[99] In the Starry Messenger Galileo reported that stars appeared as mere blazes of light, essentially unaltered in appearance by the telescope, and contrasted them to planets, which the telescope revealed to be discs. But shortly thereafter, in his letters on sunspots, he reported that the telescope revealed the shapes of both stars and planets to be "quite round". From that point forward he continued to report that telescopes showed the roundness of stars, and that stars seen through the telescope measured a few seconds of arc in diameter.[100] He also devised a method for measuring the apparent size of a star without a telescope. As described in his Dialogue Concerning the two Chief World Systems, his method was to hang a thin rope in his line of sight to the star and measure the maximum distance from which it would wholly obscure the star. From his measurements of this distance and of the width of the rope he could calculate the angle subtended by the star at his viewing point.[101] In his Dialogue he reported that he had found the apparent diameter of a star of first magnitude to be no more than 5 arcseconds, and that of one of sixth magnitude to be about 5/6 arcseconds. Like most astronomers of his day, Galileo did not recognise that the apparent sizes of stars that he measured were spurious, caused by diffraction and atmospheric distortion (see seeing disk or Airy disk), and did not represent the true sizes of stars. However, Galileo's values were much smaller than previous estimates of the apparent sizes of the brightest stars, such as those made by Tycho Brahe (see Magnitude) and enabled Galileo to counter anti-Copernican arguments such as those made by Tycho that these stars would have to be absurdly large for their annual parallaxes to be undetectable.[102] Other astronomers such as Simon Marius, Giovanni Battista Riccioli, and Martinus Hortensius made similar measurements of stars, and Marius and Riccioli concluded the smaller sizes were not small enough to answer Tycho's argument.[103]

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Technology
Galileo made a number of contributions to what is now known as technology, as distinct from pure physics. This is not the same distinction as made by Aristotle, who would have considered all Galileo's physics as techne or useful knowledge, as opposed to episteme, or philosophical investigation into the causes of things. Between 1595 and 1598, Galileo devised and improved a Geometric and Military Compass suitable for use by gunners and surveyors. This Galileo's geometrical and military compass, expanded on earlier instruments designed by Niccol Tartaglia and thought to have been made c. 1604 by his Guidobaldo del Monte. For gunners, it offered, in addition to a new personal instrument-maker Marc'Antonio and safer way of elevating cannons accurately, a way of quickly Mazzoleni computing the charge of gunpowder for cannonballs of different sizes and materials. As a geometric instrument, it enabled the construction of any regular polygon, computation of the area of any polygon or circular sector, and a variety of other calculations. Under Galileo's direction, instrument maker Marc'Antonio Mazzoleni produced more than 100 of these compasses, which Galileo sold (along with an instruction manual he wrote) for 50 lire and offered a course of instruction in the use of the compasses for 120 lire.[104] In about 1593, Galileo constructed a thermometer, using the expansion and contraction of air in a bulb to move water in an attached tube. In 1609, Galileo was, along with Englishman Thomas Harriot and others, among the first to use a refracting telescope as an instrument to observe stars, planets or moons. The name "telescope" was coined for Galileo's instrument by a Greek mathematician, Giovanni Demisiani,[105] at a banquet held in 1611 by Prince Federico Cesi to make Galileo a member of his Accademia dei Lincei.[106] The name was derived from the Greek tele = 'far' and skopein = 'to look or see'. In 1610, he used a telescope at close range to magnify the parts of insects.[107] By 1624 Galileo had perfected[108] a compound A replica of the earliest surviving telescope microscope. He gave one of these instruments to Cardinal Zollern in attributed to Galileo Galilei, on display at the May of that year for presentation to the Duke of Bavaria,[109] and in Griffith Observatory. September he sent another to Prince Cesi.[110] The Linceans played a role again in naming the "microscope" a year later when fellow academy member Giovanni Faber coined the word for Galileo's invention from the Greek words (micron) meaning "small", and (skopein) meaning "to look at". The word was meant to be analogous with "telescope".[111][112] Illustrations of insects made using one of Galileo's microscopes, and published in 1625, appear to have been the first clear documentation of the use of a compound microscope.[113] In 1612, having determined the orbital periods of Jupiter's satellites, Galileo proposed that with sufficiently accurate knowledge of their orbits one could use their positions as a universal clock, and this would make possible the determination of longitude. He worked on this problem from time to time during the remainder of his life; but the practical problems were severe. The method was first successfully applied by Giovanni Domenico Cassini in 1681 and was later used extensively for large land surveys; this method, for example, was used to survey France, and later by Zebulon Pike of the midwestern United States in 1806. For sea navigation, where delicate telescopic observations were more difficult, the longitude problem eventually required development of a practical portable marine chronometer, such as that of John Harrison.[114] In his last year, when totally blind, he designed an escapement mechanism for a pendulum clock (called Galileo's escapement), a vectorial model of which may be seen here. The first fully operational pendulum clock was made by Christiaan Huygens in the 1650s.

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Physics
Galileo's theoretical and experimental work on the motions of bodies, along with the largely independent work of Kepler and Ren Descartes, was a precursor of the classical mechanics developed by Sir Isaac Newton. Galileo conducted several experiments with pendulums. It is popularly believed (thanks to the biography by Vincenzo Viviani) that these began by watching the swings of the bronze chandelier in the cathedral of Pisa, using his pulse as a timer. Later experiments are described in his Two New Sciences. Galileo claimed that a simple pendulum is isochronous, i.e. that its swings always take the same amount of time, independently of the amplitude. In fact, this is only Galileo e Viviani, 1892, Tito Lessi approximately true,[115] as was discovered by Christian Huygens. Galileo also found that the square of the period varies directly with the length of the pendulum. Galileo's son, Vincenzo, sketched a clock based on his father's theories in 1642. The clock was never built and, because of the large swings required by its verge escapement, would have been a poor timekeeper. (See Technology above.) Galileo is lesser known for, yet still credited with, being one of the first to understand sound frequency. By scraping a chisel at different speeds, he linked the pitch of the sound produced to the spacing of the chisel's skips, a measure of frequency. In 1638 Galileo described an experimental method to measure the speed of light by arranging that two observers, each having lanterns equipped with shutters, observe each other's lanterns at some distance. The first observer opens the shutter of his lamp, and, the second, upon seeing the light, immediately opens the shutter of his own lantern. The time between the first observer's opening his shutter and seeing the light from the second observer's lamp indicates the time it takes light to travel back and forth between the two observers. Galileo reported that when he tried this at a distance of less than a mile, he was unable to determine whether or not the light appeared instantaneously.[116] Sometime between Galileo's death and 1667, the members of the Florentine Accademia del Cimento repeated the experiment over a distance of about a mile and obtained a similarly inconclusive result.[117] Galileo put forward the basic principle of relativity, that the laws of physics are the same in any system that is moving at a constant speed in a straight line, regardless of its particular speed or direction. Hence, there is no absolute motion or absolute rest. This principle provided the basic framework for Newton's laws of motion and is central to Einstein's special theory of relativity.

Falling bodies
A biography by Galileo's pupil Vincenzo Viviani stated that Galileo had dropped balls of the same material, but different masses, from the Leaning Tower of Pisa to demonstrate that their time of descent was independent of their mass.[118] This was contrary to what Aristotle had taught: that heavy objects fall faster than lighter ones, in direct proportion to weight.[119] While this story has been retold in popular accounts, there is no account by Galileo himself of such an experiment, and it is generally accepted by historians that it was at most a thought experiment which did not actually take place.[120] An exception is Drake,[121] who argues that the experiment did take place, more or less as Viviani described it. The experiment described was actually performed by Simon Stevin (commonly known as Stevinus),[21] although the building used was actually the church tower in Delft in 1586.[122] In his 1638 Discorsi Galileo's character Salviati, widely regarded as Galileo's spokesman, held that all unequal weights would fall with the same finite speed in a vacuum. But this had previously been proposed by Lucretius[123] and Simon Stevin.[124] Cristiano Banti's Salviati also held it could be experimentally demonstrated by the comparison of pendulum motions in air with bobs of lead and of cork which had different weight but which were otherwise similar.

Galileo Galilei Galileo proposed that a falling body would fall with a uniform acceleration, as long as the resistance of the medium through which it was falling remained negligible, or in the limiting case of its falling through a vacuum.[125] He also derived the correct kinematical law for the distance travelled during a uniform acceleration starting from restnamely, that it is proportional to the square of the elapsed time (dt2).[126] However, in neither case were these discoveries entirely original. The time-squared law for uniformly accelerated change was already known to Nicole Oresme in the 14th century,[127] and Domingo de Soto, in the 16th, had suggested that bodies falling through a homogeneous medium would be uniformly accelerated.[128] Galileo expressed the time-squared law using geometrical constructions and mathematically precise words, adhering to the standards of the day. (It remained for others to re-express the law in algebraic terms). He also concluded that objects retain their velocity unless a forceoften frictionacts upon them, refuting the generally accepted Aristotelian hypothesis that objects "naturally" slow down and stop unless a force acts upon them (philosophical ideas relating to inertia had been proposed by John Philoponus centuries earlier, as had Jean Buridan, and according to Joseph Needham, Mo Tzu had proposed it centuries before either of them, but this was the first time that it had been mathematically expressed, verified experimentally, and introduced the idea of frictional force, the key breakthrough in validating inertia). Galileo's Principle of Inertia stated: "A body moving on a level surface will continue in the same direction at constant speed unless disturbed." This principle was incorporated into Newton's laws of motion (first law).

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Mathematics
While Galileo's application of mathematics to experimental physics was innovative, his mathematical methods were the standard ones of the day. The analysis and proofs relied heavily on the Eudoxian theory of proportion, as set forth in the fifth book of Euclid's Elements. This theory had become available only a century before, thanks to accurate translations by Tartaglia and others; but by the end of Galileo's life it was being superseded by the algebraic methods of Descartes. Galileo produced some mathematics: Galileo's paradox, which shows that there are as many perfect squares as there are whole numbers, even though most numbers are not perfect squares.
Dome of the Cathedral of Pisa with the "lamp of Galileo"

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His writings
Galileo's early works describing scientific instruments include the 1586 tract entitled The Little Balance (La Billancetta) describing an accurate balance to weigh objects in air or water[129] and the 1606 printed manual Le Operazioni del Compasso Geometrico et Militare on the operation of a geometrical and military compass.[130] His early works in dynamics, the science of motion and mechanics were his 1590 Pisan De Motu (On Motion) and his circa 1600 Paduan Le Meccaniche (Mechanics). The former was based on AristotelianArchimedean fluid dynamics and held that the speed of gravitational fall in a fluid medium was proportional to the excess of a body's specific weight over that of the medium, whereby in a vacuum bodies would fall with speeds in proportion to their specific weights. It also subscribed to the Hipparchan-Philoponan impetus dynamics in which impetus is self-dissipating and free-fall in a vacuum would have an essential terminal speed according to specific weight after an initial period of acceleration.
Statue outside the Uffizi, Florence

Galileo's 1610 The Starry Messenger (Sidereus Nuncius) was the first scientific treatise to be published based on observations made through a telescope. It reported his discoveries of: the Galilean moons; the roughness of the Moon's surface; the existence of a large number of stars invisible to the naked eye, particularly those responsible for the appearance of the Milky Way; and differences between the appearances of the planets and those of the fixed starsthe former appearing as small discs, while the latter appeared as unmagnified points of light. Galileo published a description of sunspots in 1613 entitled Letters on Sunspots[131] suggesting the Sun and heavens are corruptible. The Letters on Sunspots also reported his 1610 telescopic observations of the full set of phases of Venus, and his discovery of the puzzling "appendages" of Saturn and their even more puzzling subsequent disappearance. In 1615 Galileo prepared a manuscript known as the Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina which was not published in printed form until 1636. This letter was a revised version of the Letter to Castelli, which was denounced by the Inquisition as an incursion upon theology by advocating Copernicanism both as physically true and as consistent with Scripture.[132] In 1616, after the order by the inquisition for Galileo not to hold or defend the Copernican position, Galileo wrote the Discourse on the tides (Discorso sul flusso e il reflusso del mare) based on the Copernican earth, in the form of a private letter to Cardinal Orsini.[133] In 1619, Mario Guiducci, a pupil of Galileo's, published a lecture written largely by Galileo under the title Discourse on the Comets (Discorso Delle Comete), arguing against the Jesuit interpretation of comets.[134] In 1623, Galileo published The AssayerIl Saggiatore, which attacked theories based on Aristotle's authority and promoted experimentation and the mathematical formulation of scientific ideas. The book was highly successful and even found support among the higher echelons of the Christian church.[135] Following the success of The Assayer, Galileo published the Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo) in 1632. Despite taking care to adhere to the Inquisition's 1616 instructions, the claims in the book favouring Copernican theory and a non Geocentric model of the solar system led to Galileo being tried and banned on publication. Despite the publication ban, Galileo published his Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences (Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche, intorno a due nuove scienze) in 1638 in Holland, outside the jurisdiction of the Inquisition.

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Summary of Galileo's Published Written Works

Galileo's main written works are as follows: The Little Balance (1586) On Motion (1590)[136] Mechanics (ca. 1600) The Starry Messenger (1610; in Latin, Sidereus Nuncius) Discourse on Floating Bodies (1612) Letters on Sunspots (1613) Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina (1615; published in 1636) Discourse on the Tides (1616; in Italian, Discorso del flusso e reflusso del mare) Discourse on the Comets (1619; in Italian, Discorso Delle Comete) The Assayer (1623; in Italian, Il Saggiatore) Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (1632; in Italian Dialogo dei due massimi sistemi del mondo) Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences (1638; in Italian, Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche, intorno a due nuove scienze)

Legacy
Church reassessments of Galileo in later centuries
The Inquisition's ban on reprinting Galileo's works was lifted in 1718 when permission was granted to publish an edition of his works (excluding the condemned Dialogue) in Florence.[137] In 1741 Pope Benedict XIV authorised the publication of an edition of Galileo's complete scientific works[138] which included a mildly censored version of the Dialogue.[139] In 1758 the general prohibition against works advocating heliocentrism was removed from the Index of prohibited books, although the specific ban on uncensored versions of the Dialogue and Copernicus's De Revolutionibus remained.[140] All traces of official opposition to heliocentrism by the church disappeared in 1835 when these works were finally dropped from the Index.[141] In 1939 Pope Pius XII, in his first speech to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, within a few months of his election to the papacy, described Galileo as being among the "most audacious heroes of research... not afraid of the stumbling blocks and the risks on the way, nor fearful of the funereal monuments".[142] His close advisor of 40 years, Professor Robert Leiber wrote: "Pius XII was very careful not to close any doors (to science) prematurely. He was energetic on this point and regretted that in the case of Galileo."[143] On 15 February 1990, in a speech delivered at the Sapienza University of Rome,[144] Cardinal Ratzinger (later to become Pope Benedict XVI) cited some current views on the Galileo affair as forming what he called "a symptomatic case that permits us to see how deep the self-doubt of the modern age, of science and technology goes today".[145] Some of the views he cited were those of the philosopher Paul Feyerabend, whom he quoted as saying "The Church at the time of Galileo kept much more closely to reason than did Galileo himself, and she took into consideration the ethical and social consequences of Galileo's teaching too. Her verdict against Galileo was rational and just and the revision of this verdict can be justified only on the grounds of what is politically opportune."[145] The Cardinal did not clearly indicate whether he agreed or disagreed with Feyerabend's assertions. He did, however, say "It would be foolish to construct an impulsive apologetic on the basis of such views."[145] On 31 October 1992, Pope John Paul II expressed regret for how the Galileo affair was handled, and issued a declaration acknowledging the errors committed by the Catholic Church tribunal that judged the scientific positions of Galileo Galilei, as the result of a study conducted by the Pontifical Council for Culture.[146][147] In March 2008 the head of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, Nicola Cabibbo, announced a plan to honour Galileo by erecting a statue of him inside the Vatican walls.[148] In December of the same year, during events to mark the 400th anniversary of Galileo's earliest telescopic observations, Pope Benedict XVI praised his contributions to

Galileo Galilei astronomy.[149] A month later, however, the head of the Pontifical Council for Culture, Gianfranco Ravasi, revealed that the plan to erect a statue of Galileo in the grounds of the Vatican had been suspended.[150]

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Impact on modern science

According to Stephen Hawking, Galileo probably bears more of the responsibility for the birth of modern science than anybody else,[151] and Albert Einstein called him the father of modern science.[152][153] Galileo's astronomical discoveries and investigations into the Copernican theory have led to a lasting legacy which includes the categorisation of the four large moons of Jupiter discovered by Galileo (Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto) as the Galilean moons. Other scientific endeavours and principles are named after Galileo including the Galileo spacecraft,[154] the first spacecraft to enter orbit around Jupiter, the proposed Galileo global satellite navigation system, the transformation between inertial systems in classical mechanics denoted Galilean transformation and the Gal (unit), sometimes known as the Galileo which is a non-SI unit of acceleration. Partly because 2009 was the fourth centenary of Galileo's first recorded astronomical observations with the telescope, the United Nations scheduled it to be the International Year of Astronomy.[155] A global scheme was laid out by the International Astronomical Union (IAU), also endorsed by UNESCOthe UN body responsible for Educational, Scientific and Cultural matters. The International Year of Astronomy 2009 was intended to be a global celebration of astronomy and its contributions to society and culture, stimulating worldwide interest not only in astronomy but science in general, with a particular slant towards young people. Asteroid 697 Galilea is named in his honour.

In artistic and popular media

Galileo is mentioned several times in the "opera" section of the Queen song, "Bohemian Rhapsody".[156] He features prominently in the song "Galileo" performed by the Indigo Girls. Twentieth-century plays have been written on Galileo's life, including Life of Galileo (1943) by the German playwright Bertolt Brecht, with a film adaptation (1975) of it, and Lamp At Midnight (1947) by Barrie Stavis,[157] as well as the 2008 play "Galileo Galilei".[158] Kim Stanley Robinson wrote a science fiction novel entitled Galileo's Dream (2009), in which Galileo is brought into the future to help resolve a crisis of scientific philosophy; the story moves back and forth between Galileo's own time and a hypothetical distant future.[159] Galileo Galilei was recently selected as a main motif for a high value collectors' coin: the 25 International Year of Astronomy commemorative coin, minted in 2009. This coin also commemorates the 400th anniversary of the invention of Galileo's telescope. The obverse shows a portion of his portrait and his telescope. The background shows one of his first drawings of the surface of the moon. In the silver ring other telescopes are depicted: the Isaac Newton Telescope, the observatory in Kremsmnster Abbey, a modern telescope, a radio telescope and a space telescope. In 2009, the Galileoscope was also released. This is a mass-produced, low-cost educational 2-inch (51mm) telescope with relatively high quality.

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Timeline
1543 Nicolaus Copernicus publishes De revolutionibus orbium coelestium as an alternative world system to the Ptolemy's geocentric model causing subsequent questions to be raised about Aristotelian physics following Copernicus' death 1563 Parents Vincenzo Galilei and Giulia Ammannati marry 1564 Birth in Pisa, Italy ~1570 Thomas Digges publishes Pantometria describing a telescope built between 15401559 by his father Leonard Digges 1573 Tycho Brahe publishes De nova stella (On the new star) refuting Aristotelian belief in immutable celestial spheres and an eternal, unchanging, more perfect heavenly realm of celestial aether above the moon 1576 Giuseppe Moletti Galileo's predecessor in the mathematics chair at Padua, reports falling bodies of the same shape fall at the same speed, regardless of material[160] 1581 His father, Vincenzo Galilei publishes Dialogo della musica antica et moderna formulating musical theories[161] 1581 Enrols as medical student at University of Pisa 1582 Attends mathematics lecture by Ostilio Ricci and decides to study math and science 1585 Leaves University of Pisa without degree and works as tutor 1586 Invents hydrostatic balance; wrote La Balancitta (The little balance) 1586 Simon Stevin publishes results for dropping lead weights from 10 meters 1588 Tycho Brahe publishes work on comets containing a description of the Tychonic system of the world[162] 1589 Appointed to Mathematics Chair, University of Pisa 1590 Partially completes De Motu (On Motion), which is never published 1591 Death of his father, Vicenzo Galilei 1592 Appointed professor of mathematics at University of Padua, remains 18 years ~1593 Invents early thermometer that unfortunately depended on both temperature and pressure ~1595 Invents improved ballistics calculation geometric and military compass, which he later improves for surveying and general calculations and earns income from tutoring on its use 1597 Letter to Kepler indicates his belief in the Copernican System 1600 First child, Virginia is born; ~1600 Le Meccaniche (Mechanics) 1600 William Gilbert publishes On the Magnet and Magnetic Bodies, and on That Great Magnet the Earth with arguments supporting the Copernican system 1600 Roman Inquisition finds Giordano Bruno, Copernican system supporter, guilty of heresy for opinions on pantheism and the eternal plurality of worlds, and for denial of the Trinity, divinity of Christ, virginity of Mary, and Transubstantiation; burned at the stake by civil authorities 1601 Daughter Livia is born 1604 Measures supernova position indicating no parallax for the new star 1605 Sued by brothers-in-law for nonpayment of sisters' dowries 1606 Son Vincenzo born 1606 Publishes manual for his calculating compass 1607 Rotilio Orlandini attempts to assassinate Galileo's friend, Friar Paolo Sarpi 1608 Hans Lippershey invents a refracting telescope 1609 Independently invents and improves telescopes based on description of invention by Hans Lippershey 1609 Kepler publishes Astronomia nova containing his first two laws and for the first time demonstrates the Copernican model is more accurate than the Ptolemaic for uses such as navigation and prediction

1609 Thomas Harriot sketches the Moon from telescopic observations made four months before Galileo's 1610 Publishes Sidereus Nuncius (Starry Messenger); views our moon's mountains and craters and brightest 4 of Jupiter's moons

Galileo Galilei 1610 - Martin Horky publishes Brevissima Peregrinatio Contra Nuncium Sidereum, opposing Galileo 1610 Kepler requests one of Galileo's telescopes or lenses, but Galileo replies he is too busy to build one and has no extras[163] 1610 Lifetime appointment to mathematics position at University of Padua, and as mathematician and philosopher for Cosimo II, Grand Duke of Tuscany 1611 Discovers phases of Venus; granted audience with Pope; made member of Lincean Academy 1611 David Fabricius publishes Narration on Spots Observed on the Sun and their Apparent Rotation with the Sun prior to Christoph Scheiner and Galileo's published works on the subject 1612 Proposed Jupiter's moons could be used as a universal clock for possible determination of longitude ~1612 or 1613 Francesco Sizzi discovers annual variations in sunspots' motions 1613 Letters on Sunspots 1615 Letter to Grand Duchess Christina (not published until 1636) 1616 Officially warned by the Church not to hold or defend the Copernican System 1616 The Catholic Church places De revolutionibus orbium coelestium on the List of Prohibited Books 1616 Private letter Discourse on the Tides 1617 Moves into Bellosguardo, west of Florence, near his daughters' convent; observes double star Mizar in Ursa Major 1619 Kepler publishes Harmonices Mundi which introduces his third law 1619 Discourse on the Comets 1621 Maffeo Barberini becomes Pope Urban VIII 1623 Publishes The Assayer 1624 Visits Pope who praises and honours him, leaving with assumed permission to publish work on the Copernican vs. Ptolemaic Systems; used a compound microscope 1625 Illustrations of insects made using one of Galileo's microscopes published 1630 Completes Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems and subsequently receives approval of Church censor 1632 Publishes Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems 1633 sentenced by the Inquisition to imprisonment, commuted to house arrest, for vehement suspicion of heresy 1633 Catholic Church places Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems on the List of Prohibited Books 1638 Publishes Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences 1642 death in Arcetri, Italy 1668 Newton builds his reflecting telescope 1687 Isaac Newton publishes Philosophi Naturalis Principia Mathematica deriving Kepler's laws from the Universal Law of Gravitation and the Laws of Motion, uniting the heavens and earth under the same natural laws

107

Notes
[1] O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F.. "Galileo Galilei" (http:/ / www-history. mcs. st-andrews. ac. uk/ Biographies/ Galileo. html). The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive. University of St Andrews, Scotland. . Retrieved 2007-07-24. [2] F. Vinci, Ostilio Ricci da Fermo, Maestro di Galileo Galilei, Fermo, 1929. [3] NODAK.edu (http:/ / genealogy. math. ndsu. nodak. edu. id. php?id=134975) [4] Drake (1978, p. 1). The date of Galileo's birth is given according to the Julian calendar, which was then in force throughout the whole of Christendom. In 1582 it was replaced in Italy and several other Catholic countries with the Gregorian calendar. Unless otherwise indicated, dates in this article are given according to the Gregorian calendar. [5] "Galileo Galilei" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia. by John Gerard. Retrieved 11 August 2007 [6] Singer, Charles (1941). A Short History of Science to the Nineteenth Century (http:/ / www. google. com/ books?id=mPIgAAAAMAAJ& pgis=1). Clarendon Press. p.217. . [7] Weidhorn, Manfred (2005). The Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History. iUniverse. pp.155. ISBN0-595-36877-8.

Galileo Galilei
[8] Finocchiaro (2007). [9] Isabelle Pantin (1999), "New Philosophy and Old Prejudices: Aspects of the Reception of Copernicanism in a Divided Europe", Stud. Hist. Phil. Sci. 30: 237262 [10] Sharratt (1994, pp. 127131), McMullin (2005a). [11] Finocchiaro (1997), p. 47 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ewKMpRsF4Y8C& pg=PA47). [12] Hilliam (2005), p. 96 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=KBKSyHOLzZAC& pg=PA96). [13] Carney, Jo Eldridge (2000). Renaissance and Reformation, 15001620: a. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN0-313-30574-9. [14] Allan-Olney (1870) [15] John Gribbon. The Fellowship: Gilbert, Bacon, Harvey, Wren, Newton and the Story of the Scientific Revolution. The Overlook Press, 2008. p. 26 [16] Sharratt (1994, pp. 17, 213) [17] John Gribbon. The Fellowship: Gilbert, Bacon, Harvey, Wren, Newton and the Story of the Scientific Revolution. The Overlook Press, 2008. p. 42 [18] Sobel (2000, p. 5) Chapter 1. (http:/ / www. galileosdaughter. com/ firstchapter. shtml) Retrieved on 26 August 2007. "But because he never married Virginia's mother, he deemed the girl herself unmarriageable. Soon after her 13th birthday, he placed her at the Convent of San Matteo in Arcetri." [19] Pedersen, O. (2427 May 1984). "Galileo's Religion". Proceedings of the Cracow Conference, The Galileo affair: A meeting of faith and science. Cracow: Dordrecht, D. Reidel Publishing Co.. pp.75102. Bibcode1985gamf.conf...75P. [20] Reston (2000, pp. 314). [21] Asimov, Isaac (1964). Asimov's Biographical Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. ISBN 978-0385177719 [22] Edgerton, Samuel Y. The Mirror, the Window, and the Telescope, 2009 [23] Panofsky, Erwin (1956). "Galileo as a Critic of the Arts: Aesthetic Attitude and Scientific Thought". Isis 47 (1): 315. doi:10.1086/348450. JSTOR227542. [24] Sharratt (1994, pp. 4566). [25] Rutkin, H. Darrel. "Galileo, Astrology, and the Scientific Revolution: Another Look" (http:/ / www. stanford. edu/ dept/ HPST/ colloquia0405. html). Program in History & Philosophy of Science & Technology, Stanford University. . Retrieved 2007-04-15. [26] Finocchiaro (1989), pp. 679. [27] Finocchiaro (1989), p. 354, n. 52 [28] Finocchiaro (1989), pp. 119133 [29] Finocchiaro (1989), pp. 127131 and Drake (1953), pp. 4326 [30] Einstein (1953) p. xvii [31] Finocchiaro (1989), p. 128 [32] Kusukawa, Sachiko. "Starry Messenger. The Telescope (http:/ / www. hps. cam. ac. uk/ starry/ galtele. html), Department of History and Philosophy of Science of the University of Cambridge. Retrieved on 2007-03-10"]. . [33] Drake (1960, pp.vii, xxiiixxiv), Sharratt (1994, pp. 139140). [34] Grassi (1960a). [35] Drake (1978, p. 268), Grassi (1960a, p. 16). [36] Galilei & Guiducci (1960). [37] Drake (1960, p.xvi). [38] Drake (1957, p. 222), Drake (1960, p.xvii). [39] Sharratt (1994, p. 135), Drake (1960, p.xii), Galilei & Guiducci (1960, p. 24). [40] Sharratt (1994, p. 135). [41] Sharratt (1994, p. 135), Drake (1960, p.xvii). [42] Grassi (1960b). [43] Drake (1978, p. 494), Favaro (1896, 6:111) (http:/ / moro. imss. fi. it/ lettura/ LetturaWEB. DLL?VOL=6& VOLPAG=111). The pseudonym was a slightly imperfect anagram of Oratio Grasio Savonensis, a latinised version of his name and home town. [44] Galilei (1960). [45] Sharratt (1994, p. 137), Drake (1957, p. 227). [46] Sharratt (1994, p. 138142). [47] Drake (1960, p.xix). [48] Drake (1960, p.vii). [49] Sharratt (1994, p. 175). [50] Sharratt (1994, pp. 17578), Blackwell (2006, p. 30). [51] Brodrick (1965, c1964, p. 95) quoting Cardinal Bellarmine's letter to Foscarini, dated 12 April 1615. Translated from Favaro (1902, 12:171172) (http:/ / moro. imss. fi. it/ lettura/ LetturaWEB. DLL?VOL=12& VOLPAG=171) (Italian). [52] Galileo Galilei (http:/ / www. nmspacemuseum. org/ halloffame/ detail. php?id=108) New Mexico Museum of Space History. Retrieved 26 August 2011. [53] Sharratt (1994, pp. 12631) (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=rB0rHzrpJOMC& pg=PA126#v=onepage& q& f=false). [54] "Galileo Project Pope Urban VIII Biography" (http:/ / galileo. rice. edu/ gal/ urban. html). .

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[55] Sobel (2000, pp. 2324). [56] Finocchiaro (1997), p. 82) (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Li4eh7JIMtIC& pg=PA82); Moss & Wallace (2003), p. 11) (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Lw50esHmgacC& pg=PA11) [57] See Langford (1966, pp. 133134), and Seeger (1966, p. 30), for example. Drake (1978, p. 355) asserts that Simplicio's character is modelled on the Aristotelian philosophers, Lodovico delle Colombe and Cesare Cremonini, rather than Urban. He also considers that the demand for Galileo to include the Pope's argument in the Dialogue left him with no option but to put it in the mouth of Simplicio (Drake, 1953, p. 491). Even Arthur Koestler, who is generally quite harsh on Galileo in The Sleepwalkers (1959), after noting that Urban suspected Galileo of having intended Simplicio to be a caricature of him, says "this of course is untrue" (1959, p. 483). [58] Sharratt (1994, pp. 17175); Heilbron (2010, pp. 30817); Gingerich (1992, pp. 11718). [59] Fantoli (2005, p. 139), Finocchiaro (1989, pp. 288293). Finocchiaro's translation of the Inquisition's judgement against Galileo is available on-line (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070930013053/ http:/ / astro. wcupa. edu/ mgagne/ ess362/ resources/ finocchiaro. html#sentence). "Vehemently suspect of heresy" was a technical term of canon law and did not necessarily imply that the Inquisition considered the opinions giving rise to the verdict to be heretical. The same verdict would have been possible even if the opinions had been subject only to the less serious censure of "erroneous in faith" (Fantoli, 2005, p. 140; Heilbron, 2005, pp. 282284). [60] Finocchiaro (1989, pp. 38 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=wKCZFJuMCaQC& pg=PA38#v=onepage& f=false), 291, 306) (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=wKCZFJuMCaQC& pg=PA306#v=onepage& f=false). Finocchiaro's translation of the Inquisition's judgement against Galileo is available on-line (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070930013053/ http:/ / astro. wcupa. edu/ mgagne/ ess362/ resources/ finocchiaro. html#sentence). [61] Drake (1978, p. 367), Sharratt (1994, p. 184), Favaro (1905, 16:209 (http:/ / moro. imss. fi. it/ lettura/ LetturaWEB. DLL?VOL=16& VOLPAG=209), 230) (http:/ / moro. imss. fi. it/ lettura/ LetturaWEB. DLL?VOL=16& VOLPAG=230)(Italian). See Galileo affair for further details. [62] Drake (1978, p. 356). The phrase "Eppur si muove" does appear, however, in a painting of the 1640s by the Spanish painter Bartolom Esteban Murillo or an artist of his school. The painting depicts an imprisoned Galileo apparently pointing to a copy of the phrase written on the wall of his dungeon (Drake, 1978, p. 357). [63] William Shea, M. A. The Galileo Affair 2006. Available online William Shea (January 2006). "The Galileo Affair" (http:/ / www. unav. es/ cryf/ galileoaffair. html). Grupo de Investigacin sobre Ciencia, Razn y Fe (CRYF). Unpublished work. . Retrieved 12 September 2010. [64] Stephen Hawking, ed. p. 398, On the Shoulders of Giants: "Galileo ... is the father of modern physicsindeed of modern science"Albert Einstein. [65] Shea & Artigas (2003, p. 199); Sobel (2000, p. 378). [66] Shea & Artigas (2003, p. 199); Sobel (2000, p. 378); Sharratt (1994, p. 207); Favaro (1906,18:37880) (http:/ / moro. imss. fi. it/ lettura/ LetturaWEB. DLL?VOL=18& VOLPAG=378) (Italian). [67] Monumental tomb of Galileo (http:/ / brunelleschi. imss. fi. it/ museum/ esim. asp?c=100359). Institute and Museum of the History of Science, Florence, Italy. Retrieved 2010-02-15. [68] Shea & Artigas (2003, p. 199); Sobel (2000, p. 380). [69] Shea & Artigas (2003, p. 200); Sobel (2000, pp. 380384). [70] Section of Room VII Galilean iconography and relics (http:/ / catalogue. museogalileo. it/ section/ GalileanIconographyRelics. html), Museo Galileo. Accessed on line 27 May 2011. [71] Middle finger of Galileo's right hand (http:/ / catalogue. museogalileo. it/ object/ MiddleFingerGalileosRightHand. html), Museo Galileo. Accessed on line 27 May 2011. [72] Sharratt (1994, pp. 20405) [73] Cohen, H. F. (1984). Quantifying Music: The Science of Music at. Springer. pp.7884. ISBN90-277-1637-4. [74] Field, Judith Veronica (2005). Piero Della Francesca: A Mathematician's Art. Yale University Press. pp.317320. ISBN0-300-10342-5. [75] In Drake (1957, pp. 237238) [76] Wallace, (1984). [77] Sharratt (1994, pp. 20204), Galilei (1954, pp. 25052), Favaro (1898), 8:27475) (http:/ / moro. imss. fi. it/ lettura/ LetturaWEB. DLL?VOL=8& VOLPAG=274) (Italian) [78] Sharratt (1994, pp. 20204), Galilei (1954, pp. 252), Favaro (1898), 8:275) (http:/ / moro. imss. fi. it/ lettura/ LetturaWEB. DLL?VOL=8& VOLPAG=275) (Italian) [79] King (2003, pp. 3032 (http:/ / books. google. com. au/ books?id=KAWwzHlDVksC& pg=PA30)). The Netherlands States-General would not grant Lippershey his requested patent (King, 2003, p. 32 (http:/ / books. google. com. au/ books?id=KAWwzHlDVksC& pg=PA32)). [80] Drake (1990, pp. 13334). [81] Sharratt (1994, pp. 12 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=-TgYAq3P0P8C& pg=PA1)) [82] 1964, p. 273 [83] According to Walusinsky (1964, p. 273), it "aroused the life-long enmity of all the opponents of modern science" [84] i.e., invisible to the naked eye. [85] Drake (1978, p. 146). [86] In Sidereus Nuncius (Favaro, 1892, 3:81 (http:/ / moro. imss. fi. it/ lettura/ LetturaWEB. DLL?VOL=3& VOLPAG=81)(Latin)) Galileo stated that he had reached this conclusion on 11 January. Drake (1978, p. 152), however, after studying unpublished manuscript records of Galileo's observations, concluded that he did not do so until 15 January.

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[87] Sharratt (1994, p. 17). [88] Linton (2004, pp. 98,205), Drake (1978, p. 157). [89] Drake (1978, pp. 15868), Sharratt (1994, pp. 1819). [90] God's Philosophers ju James Hannam Orion 2009 p313 [91] Drake (1978, p. 168), Sharratt (1994, p. 93). [92] Thoren (1989), p. 8; Hoskin (1999) p. 117. [93] In the Capellan model only Mercury and Venus orbit the Sun, whilst in its extended version such as expounded by Riccioli, Mars also orbits the Sun, but the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn are centred on the Earth [94] Baalke, Ron. Historical Background of Saturn's Rings. (http:/ / www2. jpl. nasa. gov/ saturn/ back. html) Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, NASA. Retrieved on 2007-03-11 [95] Drake & Kowal (1980) [96] In Kepler's Thomist 'inertial' variant of Aristotelian dynamics as opposed to Galileo's impetus dynamics variant all bodies universally have an inherent resistance to all motion and tendency to rest, which he dubbed 'inertia'. This notion of inertia was originally introduced by Averroes in the 12th century just for the celestial spheres in order to explain why they do not rotate with infinite speed on Aristotelian dynamics, as they should if they had no resistance to their movers. And in his Astronomia Nova celestial mechanics the inertia of the planets is overcome in their solar orbital motion by their being pushed around by the sunspecks of the rotating sun acting like the spokes of a rotating cartwheel. And more generally it predicted all but only planets with orbiting satellites, such as Jupiter for example, also rotate to push them around, whereas the Moon, for example, does not rotate, thus always presenting the same face to the Earth, because it has no satellites to push around. These seem to have been the first successful novel predictions of Thomist 'inertial' Aristotelian dynamics as well as of post-spherist celestial physics. In his 1630 Epitome (See p514 on p896 of the Encyclopdia Britannica 1952 Great Books of the Western World edition) Kepler keenly stressed he had proved the Sun's axial rotation from planetary motions in his Commentaries on Mars Ch 34 long before it was telescopically established by sunspot motion. [97] Drake (1978, p. 209). Sizzi reported the observations he and his companions had made over the course of a year to Orazio Morandi in a letter dated 10 April 1613 (Favaro, 1901, 11:491 (Italian)[[Category:Articles with Italian language external links (http:/ / moro. imss. fi. it/ lettura/ LetturaWEB. DLL?VOL=11& VOLPAG=491)])]. Morandi subsequently forwarded a copy to Galileo. [98] In geostatic systems the apparent annual variation in the motion of sunspots could only be explained as the result of an implausibly complicated precession of the Sun's axis of rotation (Linton, 2004, p. 212; Sharratt, 1994, p. 166; Drake, 1970, pp. 191196). This did not apply, however, to the modified version of Tycho's system introduced by his proteg, Longomontanus, in which the Earth was assumed to rotate. Longomontanus's system could account for the apparent motions of sunspots just as well as the Copernican. [99] Ondra (2004), p. 7273 [100] Graney (2010, p. 455); Graney & Grayson (2011, p. 353). [101] Van Helden, (1985, p. 75 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=L-yb7GX9mQIC& pg=PA75)); Chalmers, (1999, p. 25 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=WQh5wDlE8cwC& pg=PA25)); Galilei (1953, pp. 36162). [102] Finocchiaro (1989, pp. 16776), Galilei (1953, pp. 35960), Ondra (2004, pp. 745). [103] Graney (2010, p. 454-462); Graney & Grayson (2011, p. 352-355). [104] Reston (2000, p. 56). [105] Sobel (2000, p. 43), Drake (1978, p. 196). In the Starry Messenger, written in Latin, Galileo had used the term "perspicillum". [106] Rosen, Edward, The Naming of the Telescope (1947) [107] Drake (1978, pp. 163164), Favaro (1892, 3:163 (http:/ / moro. imss. fi. it/ lettura/ LetturaWEB. DLL?VOL=3& VOLPAG=163) 164) (http:/ / moro. imss. fi. it/ lettura/ LetturaWEB. DLL?VOL=3& VOLPAG=164)(Latin) [108] Probably in 1623, according to Drake (1978, p. 286). [109] Drake (1978, p. 289), Favaro (1903, 13:177) (http:/ / moro. imss. fi. it/ lettura/ LetturaWEB. DLL?VOL=13& VOLPAG=177)(Italian). [110] Drake (1978, p. 286), Favaro (1903, 13:208) (http:/ / moro. imss. fi. it/ lettura/ LetturaWEB. DLL?VOL=13& VOLPAG=208)(Italian). The actual inventors of the telescope and microscope remain debatable. A general view on this can be found in the article Hans Lippershey (http:/ / micro. magnet. fsu. edu/ optics/ timeline/ people/ lippershey. html) (last updated 2003-08-01), - 19952007 by Davidson, Michael W. and the Florida State University. Retrieved 2007-08-28 [111] "brunelleschi.imss.fi.it "Il microscopio di Galileo"" (http:/ / brunelleschi. imss. fi. it/ esplora/ microscopio/ dswmedia/ risorse/ testi_completi. pdf) (PDF). . [112] Van Helden, Al. Galileo Timeline (http:/ / galileo. rice. edu/ chron/ galileo. html) (last updated 1995), The Galileo Project. Retrieved 2007-08-28. See also Timeline of microscope technology. [113] Drake (1978, p. 286). [114] Longitude: the true story of a lone genius who solved the greatest scientific problem of his time, Dava Sobel Penguin, 1996 ISBN 0-14-025879-5, ISBN 978-0-14-025879-0 [115] Newton, R. G. (2004). Galileo's Pendulum: From the Rhythm of Time to the Making of Matter. Harvard University Press. p.51. ISBN0-674-01331-X. [116] Galileo Galilei, Two New Sciences, (Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Pr., 1974) p. 50. [117] I. Bernard Cohen, "Roemer and the First Determination of the Velocity of Light (1676)", Isis, 31 (1940): 327379, see pp. 332333 [118] Drake (1978, pp. 19,20). At the time when Viviani asserts that the experiment took place, Galileo had not yet formulated the final version of his law of free fall. He had, however, formulated an earlier version which predicted that bodies of the same material falling through the

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same medium would fall at the same speed (Drake, 1978, p. 20). [119] Drake (1978, p. 9); Sharratt (1994, p. 31). [120] Groleau, Rick. "Galileo's Battle for the Heavens. July 2002" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ nova/ galileo/ experiments. html). . Ball, Phil (2005-06-30). "Science history: setting the record straight. 30 June 2005" (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ seta/ 2005/ 06/ 30/ stories/ 2005063000351500. htm). The Hindu (Chennai, India). . [121] Drake (1978, pp. 1921, 414416) [122] Galileo Galilei: The Falling Bodies Experiment (http:/ / www. juliantrubin. com/ bigten/ galileofallingbodies. html). Last accessed 26 Dec 2011. [123] Lucretius, De rerum natura II, 225229; Relevant passage appears in: Lane Cooper, Aristotle, Galileo, and the Tower of Pisa (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1935), p. 49. [124] Simon Stevin, De Beghinselen des Waterwichts, Anvang der Waterwichtdaet, en de Anhang komen na de Beghinselen der Weeghconst en de Weeghdaet [The Elements of Hydrostatics, Preamble to the Practice of Hydrostatics, and Appendix to The Elements of the Statics and The Practice of Weighing] (Leiden, Netherlands: Christoffel Plantijn, 1586) reports an experiment by Stevin and Jan Cornets de Groot in which they dropped lead balls from a church tower in Delft; relevant passage is translated in: E. J. Dijksterhuis, ed., The Principal Works of Simon Stevin (Amsterdam, Netherlands: C. V. Swets & Zeitlinger, 1955 vol. 1, pp. 509, 511. [125] Sharratt (1994, p. 203), Galilei (1954, pp. 25154) (http:/ / oll. libertyfund. org/ ?option=com_staticxt& staticfile=show. php?title=753& chapter=109969& layout=html& Itemid=27#a_2289356). [126] Sharratt (1994, p. 198), Galilei (1954, p. 174) (http:/ / oll. libertyfund. org/ ?option=com_staticxt& staticfile=show. php?title=753& chapter=109916& layout=html& Itemid=27#a_2289015). [127] Clagett (1968, p. 561). [128] Sharratt (1994, p. 198), Wallace (2004, pp.II 384, II 400, III 272) Soto, however, did not anticipate many of the qualifications and refinements contained in Galileo's theory of falling bodies. He did not, for instance, recognise, as Galileo did, that a body would only fall with a strictly uniform acceleration in a vacuum, and that it would otherwise eventually reach a uniform terminal velocity. [129] Hydrostatic balance (http:/ / galileo. rice. edu/ sci/ instruments/ balance. html). The Galileo Project. . Retrieved 2008-07-17. [130] The Works of Galileo (http:/ / hsci. ou. edu/ exhibits/ exhibit. php?exbgrp=1& exbid=10& exbpg=1). The University of Oklahoma, College of Arts and Sciences. . Retrieved 2008-07-17. [131] Sunspots and Floating Bodies (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20081024203933/ http:/ / hsci. ou. edu/ exhibits/ exhibit. php?exbgrp=1& exbid=13& exbpg=2). The University of Oklahoma, College of Arts and Sciences. . Retrieved 2008-07-17. [132] Galileo, Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina (http:/ / hsci. ou. edu/ exhibits/ exhibit. php?exbgrp=1& exbid=14& exbpg=3). The University of Oklahoma, College of Arts and Sciences. . Retrieved 2008-07-17. [133] Galileo's Theory of the Tides (http:/ / galileo. rice. edu/ sci/ observations/ tides. html). The Galileo Project. . Retrieved 2008-07-17. [134] Galileo Timeline (http:/ / galileo. rice. edu/ chron/ galileo. html). The Galileo Project. . Retrieved 2008-07-17. [135] Galileo Galilei (http:/ / muse. tau. ac. il/ museum/ galileo/ galileo. html). Tel-Aviv University, Science and Technology Education Center. . Retrieved 2008-07-17. [136] "Collection of Galileo Galilei's Manuscripts and Related Translations" (http:/ / echo. mpiwg-berlin. mpg. de/ content/ scientific_revolution/ galileo). . Retrieved 2009-12-04. [137] Heilbron (2005, p. 299). [138] Two of his non-scientific works, the letters to Castelli and the Grand Duchess Christina, were explicitly not allowed to be included (Coyne 2005, p. 347). [139] Heilbron (2005, pp. 30304); Coyne (2005, p. 347). The uncensored version of the Dialogue remained on the Index of prohibited books, however (Heilbron 2005, p. 279). [140] Heilbron (2005, p. 307); Coyne (2005, p. 347) The practical effect of the ban in its later years seems to have been that clergy could publish discussions of heliocentric physics with a formal disclaimer assuring its hypothetical character and their obedience to the church decrees against motion of the earth: see for example the commented edition (1742) of Newton's 'Principia' by Fathers Le Seur and Jacquier, which contains such a disclaimer ('Declaratio') before the third book (Propositions 25 onwards) dealing with the lunar theory. [141] McMullin (2005, p. 6); Coyne (2005, p. 346). In fact, the Church's opposition had effectively ended in 1820 when a Catholic canon, Giuseppe Settele, was given permission to publish a work which treated heliocentism as a physical fact rather than a mathematical fiction. The 1835 edition of the Index was the first to be issued after that year. [142] Discourse of His Holiness Pope Pius XII given on 3 December 1939 at the Solemn Audience granted to the Plenary Session of the Academy, Discourses of the Popes from Pius XI to John Paul II to the Pontifical Academy of the Sciences 19391986, Vatican City, p. 34 [143] Robert Leiber, Pius XII Stimmen der Zeit, November 1958 in Pius XII. Sagt, Frankfurt 1959, p. 411 [144] An earlier version had been delivered on 16 December 1989, in Rieti, and a later version in Madrid on 24 February 1990 (Ratzinger, 1994, p. 81). According to Feyerabend himself, Ratzinger had also mentioned him "in support of" his own views in a speech in Parma around the same time (Feyerabend, 1995, p. 178). [145] Ratzinger (1994, p. 98). [146] "Vatican admits Galileo was right" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ mg13618460. 600-vatican-admits-galileo-was-right-. html). New Scientist (1846). 1992-11-07. . Retrieved 2007-08-09.. [147] "Papal visit scuppered by scholars" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ world/ europe/ 7188860. stm). BBC News. 2008-01-15. . Retrieved 2008-01-16.

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Galileo Galilei
[148] Owen & Delaney (2008). [149] "Pope praises Galileo's astronomy" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ europe/ 7794668. stm). BBC News. 2008-12-21. . Retrieved 2008-12-22. [150] Owen (2009). [151] Hawking (1988, p. 179). [152] Einstein (1954, p. 271). "Propositions arrived at by purely logical means are completely empty as regards reality. Because Galileo realised this, and particularly because he drummed it into the scientific world, he is the father of modern physicsindeed, of modern science altogether." [153] Stephen Hawking, Galileo and the Birth of Modern Science (http:/ / www. medici. org/ press/ galileo-and-birth-modern-science), American Heritage's Invention & Technology, Spring 2009, Vol. 24, No. 1, p. 36 [154] Fischer, Daniel (2001). Mission Jupiter: The Spectacular Journey of the Galileo Spacecraft. Springer. pp.v. ISBN0-387-98764-9. [155] United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (11 August 2005). "Proclamation of 2009 as International year of Astronomy" (http:/ / unesdoc. unesco. org/ images/ 0014/ 001403/ 140317e. pdf) (PDF). UNESCO. . Retrieved 2008-06-10. [156] Bohemian Rhapsody (http:/ / everything2. com/ title/ Bohemian+ Rhapsody). everything2. . Retrieved 2010-08-20. [157] Stavis, Barrie. Lamp at Midnight. South Brunswick, New Jersey: A.S. Barnes, 1966. [158] Lalonde, Robert. Galileo Galilei/Vesalius and Servetus (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ GalileoGalileivesaliusAndServetus). February 2008. ISBN 978-0-9783909-1-4. [159] Robinson, Kim Stanley (2009). Galileo's Dream. New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN978-0-553-80659-5. [160] Giuseppe Moleti, Walter Roy Laird. The unfinished mechanics of Giuseppe Moletti (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ZRoYMobkW6cC& ). University of Toronto Press, 1999. p. 5 [161] Robert Henry Herman, Vincenzo Galilei. Dialogo della musica antica et della moderna of Vincenzo Galilei: translation and commentary, Part 1. North Texas State University, 1973. p. 17 [162] Adam, Mosley. "Tycho Brahe" (http:/ / www. hps. cam. ac. uk/ starry/ tycho. html). Starry Messenger. History & Philosophy of Science Dept, University of Cambridge. . Retrieved 13 January 2012. [163] Timothy Ferris. Coming of Age in the Milky Way. William Morrow & Company, Inc. 1988. p. 95

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References
Allan-Olney, Mary (1870). The Private Life of Galileo: Compiled primarily from his correspondence and that of his eldest daughter, Sister Maria Celeste (http://books.google.com/?id=zWcSAAAAIAAJ). Boston: Nichols and Noyes. Retrieved 2008-06-09. Altieri Biagi, Maria Luisa (1965). Galileo e la terminologia tecnico-scientifica. Florence: L. S. Olschki. ISBNIT\ICCU\SBL\0272939. Biagioli, Mario (1993). Galileo, Courtier: The Practice of Science in the Culture of Absolutism. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. ISBN0-226-04559-5. Blackwell, Richard J. (2006). Behind the Scenes at Galileo's Trial. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press. ISBN0-268-02201-1. Brodrick, James, S. J. (1965). Galileo: the man, his work, his misfortunes. London: G. Chapman. Chalmers, Alan Francis (1999) [1976]. What is this thing called Science? (http://books.google.com/ books?id=WQh5wDlE8cwC&printsec=frontcover) (third ed.). University of Chicago Press. ISBN978-0-7022-3093-6. Clagett, Marshall (editor & translator) (1968). Nicole Oresme and the Medieval Geometry of Qualities and Motions; a treatise on the uniformity and difformity of intensities known as Tractatus de configurationibus qualitatum et motuum. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN0-299-04880-2. Clavelin, Maurice (1974). The Natural Philosophy of Galileo. MIT Press. Coffa, J. (1968). "Galileo's Concept of Inertia". Physis Riv. Internaz. Storia Sci. 10: 261281. Consolmagno, Guy; Schaefer, Marta (1994). Worlds Apart, A Textbook in Planetary Science. Englewood, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. ISBN0-13-964131-9. Cooper, Lane (1935). Aristotle, Galileo, and the Tower of Pisa. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN1-4067-5263-0. Coyne, George V., S.J. (2005). The Church's Most Recent Attempt to Dispel the Galileo Myth. In McMullin (2005, pp. 340359).

Galileo Galilei Drabkin, Israel; Drake, Stillman, eds. (1960). On Motion and On Mechanics. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN0-299-02030-4. Drake, Stillman (1953). Notes to English translation of Galileo's Dialogue. In Galilei (1953, pp. 46791). Drake, Stillman (1957). Discoveries and Opinions of Galileo. New York: Doubleday & Company. ISBN0-385-09239-3. Drake, Stillman (1960). Introduction to the Controversy on the Comets of 1618. In Drake & O'Malley (1960, pp.viixxv). Drake, Stillman (1970). Galileo Studies. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. ISBN0-472-08283-3. Drake, Stillman (1973). "Galileo's Discovery of the Law of Free Fall". Scientific American 228 (5): 8492. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0573-84. Drake, Stillman (1978). Galileo At Work. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN0-226-16226-5. Drake, Stillman (1990). Galileo: Pioneer Scientist. Toronto: The University of Toronto Press. ISBN0-8020-2725-3. Drake, Stillman, and O'Malley, C.D. (translators) (1960). The Controversy on the Comets of 1618. Philadelphia, PA: University of Philadelphia Press. Drake, Stillman; Kowal, C. T. (1980). "Galileo's Sighting of Neptune". Scientific American 243 (6): 7481. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1280-74. Dugas, Ren (1988) [1955]. A History of Mechanics. Dover Publications. ISBN0-486-65632-2. Duhem, Pierre (190613). Etudes sur Leonard de Vinci. Duhem, Pierre (1913). Le Systeme du Monde. Duhem, Pierre. "History of Physics". Catholic Encyclopedia. Einstein, Albert (1953). "Foreword". In Drake, Stillman. Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN0-375-75766-X. Einstein, Albert (1954). Ideas and Opinions. translated by Sonja Bargmann. London: Crown Publishers. ISBN0-285-64724-5. Fantoli, Annibale (2003). Galileo: For Copernicanism and the Church (third English ed.). Vatican Observatory Publications. ISBN88-209-7427-4. Fantoli, Annibale (2005). The Disputed Injunction and its Role in Galileo's Trial. In McMullin (2005, pp. 117149). Favaro, Antonio, ed. (18901909; reprinted 19291939 and 19641966) (in Italian). Le Opere di Galileo Galilei, Edizione Nazionale [The Works of Galileo Galilei, National Edition] (http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/ LetturaWEB.DLL?AZIONE=CATALOGO). Florence: Barbera. ISBN88-09-20881-1. A searchable online copy is available on the Institute and Museum of the History of Science (http://www.imss.fi.it/istituto/index.html), Florence, and a brief overview of Le Opere is available here (http://web.archive.org/web/20110103231202/ http://www.pacifier.com/~tpope/Additional_Info.htm). Feyerabend, Paul (1975). Againat Method. Verso. Feyerabend, Paul (1995). Killing Time: The Autobiography of Paul Feyerabend. Chicago, MI: University of Chicago Press. ISBN0-226-24531-4. Fillmore, Charles (July 2004) [1931]. Metaphysical Bible Dictionary (17th ed.). Unity Village, Missouri: Unity House. ISBN0-87159-067-0. Finocchiaro, Maurice A. (1997). Galileo on the world systems: a new abridged translation and guide (http:// books.google.com/?id=Li4eh7JIMtIC). Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press. ISBN0-520-20548-0.

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Finocchiaro, Maurice A. (1989). The Galileo Affair: A Documentary History (http://books.google.com/ ?id=wKCZFJuMCaQC&printsec=frontcover&q=). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN0-520-06662-6.

Galileo Galilei Finocchiaro, Maurice A. (Fall 2007). "Book ReviewThe Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History". The Historian 69 (3): 601602. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6563.2007.00189_68.x. Galilei, Galileo (1960) [1623]. The Assayer. Translated by Stillman Drake. In Drake & O'Malley (1960, pp. 151336). ISBN1-158-34578-X. Galilei, Galileo (1953) [1632]. Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World System. Translated by Stillman Drake. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN0-520-00449-3. Galilei, Galileo (1954) [1638, 1914]. Crew, Henry; de Salvio, Alfonso. eds. Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences (http://oll.libertyfund.org/index.php?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php?title=753& Itemid=99999999). New York, NY: Dover Publications Inc.. ISBN0-486-60099-8. Galilei, Galileo Galileo: Two New Sciences (Translation by Stillman Drake of Galileo's 1638 Discourses and mathematical demonstrations concerning two new sciences) University of Wisconsin Press 1974 ISBN 0-299-06400-X Galilei, Galileo, and Guiducci, Mario (1960) [1619]. Discourse on the Comets. Translated by Stillman Drake. In Drake & O'Malley (1960, pp. 2165). Galilei, Galileo; Scheiner, Christoph (2010). On Sunspots. Translated and with and introduction by Eileen Reeves and Albert Van Helden. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN978-0-226-70715-0. von Gebler, Karl (1879). Galileo Galilei and the Roman Curia (http://books.google.com/ ?id=FheRZAirWvQC). London: C.K. Paul & Co.. ISBN0-915172-11-9. Geymonat, Ludovico (1965), Galileo Galilei, A biography and inquiry into his philosophy and science, translation of the 1957 Italian edition, with notes and appendix by Stillman Drake, McGraw-Hill Gingerich, Owen (1992). The Great Copernican Chase and other adventures in astronomical history. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-32688-5. Graney, Christopher M. (2010). "The Telescope Against Copernicus: Star Observations by Riccioli Supporting a Geocentric Universe". Journal for the History of Astronomy 41 (4): 453467. Bibcode2010JHA....41..453G. Graney, Christopher M.; Grayson, Timothy P. (2011). "On the Telescopic Disks of Stars: A Review and Analysis of Stellar Observations from the Early Seventeenth through the Middle Nineteenth Centuries". Annals of Science 68 (3): 351373. doi:10.1080/00033790.2010.507472. Grant, Edward Aristotle, Philoponus, Avempace, and Galileo's Pisan Dynamics Centaurus, 11, 19657 Grassi, Horatio (1960a) [1619]. On the Three Comets of the Year MDCXIII. translated by C.D. O'Malley. In Drake & O'Malley (1960, pp. 319). Grassi, Horatio (1960b) [1619]. The Astronomical and Philosophical Balance. translated by C.D. O'Malley. In Drake & O'Malley (1960, pp. 67132). Grisar, Hartmann, S.J., Professor of Church history at the University of Innsbruck (1882). Historisch theologische Untersuchungen ber die Urtheile Rmischen Congegationen im Galileiprocess (Historico-theological Discussions concerning the Decisions of the Roman Congregations in the case of Galileo) (http://books.google. com/books?vid=ISBN0790562294&id=aqMBAAAAQAAJ), Regensburg: Pustet. Google Books ISBN 0-7905-6229-4. (LCC# QB36microfiche) (http://isbndb.com/d/book/galileistudien.html) Reviewed here (1883), pp. 211213 (http://books.google.com/books?id=aqMBAAAAQAAJ) Hall, A. R. From Galileo to Newton 1963 Hall, A. R. Galileo and the Science of Motion in 'British Journal of History of Science', 2 1964-5 Hilliam, R., Galileo Galilei: Father of modern science (http://books.google.com/ books?id=KBKSyHOLzZAC&pg=PA96), The Rosen Publishing Group, 2005, ISBN 1-4042-0314-1. Hoskin, Michael (Ed) The Cambridge concise history of astronomy CUP 1999 Hawking, Stephen (1988). A Brief History of Time. New York, NY: Bantam Books. ISBN0-553-34614-8. Heilbron, John L. (2005). Censorship of Astronomy in Italy after Galileo. In McMullin (2005, pp. 279322). Hellman, Hal (1988). Great Feuds in Science. Ten of the Liveliest Disputes Ever. New York: Wiley Heilbron, John L. (2010). Galileo. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-958352-2.

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Galileo Galilei Humphreys, W. C. Galileo, Falling Bodies and Inclined Planes. An Attempt at Reconstructing Galileo's Discovery of the Law of Squares 'British Journal of History of Science' 1967 Jarrel, Richard A. (1989). The contemporaries of Tycho Brahe. In Taton and Wilson (1989, pp. 2232). Kelter, Irving A. (2005). The Refusal to Accommodate. Jesuit Exegetes and the Copernican System. In McMullin (2005, pp. 3853). King, Charles C. (2003) [1955]. The History of the Telescope (http://books.google.com.au/ books?id=KAWwzHlDVksC&printsec=frontcover) (Dover reprint ed.). Dover Publications. ISBN0-486-43265-3. Koestler, Arthur (1990) [1959]. The Sleepwalkers: A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe. Penguin. ISBN0-14-019246-8. Original edition published by Hutchinson (1959, London). Koyr, Alexandre A Documentary History of the Problem of Fall from Kepler to Newton Transaction of the American Philosophical Society, 1955 Koyr, Alexandre Galilean Studies Harvester Press 1978 Kuhn, T. The Copernican Revolution 1957 Kuhn, T. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions 1962 Lattis, James M. (1994). Between Copernicus and Galileo: Christopher Clavius and the Collapse of Ptolemaic Cosmology, Chicago: the University of Chicago Press Langford, Jerome K., O.P. (1998) [1966]. Galileo, Science and the Church (third ed.). St. Augustine's Press. ISBN1-890318-25-6.. Original edition by Desclee (New York, NY, 1966) Lessl, Thomas, " The Galileo Legend (http://www.catholiceducation.org/articles/apologetics/ap0138.html)". New Oxford Review, 2733 (June 2000). Linton, Christopher M. (2004). From Eudoxus to EinsteinA History of Mathematical Astronomy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-82750-8. Losee, J. Drake, Galileo, and the Law of Inertia American Journal of Physics, 34, p.430-2 1966 McMullin, Ernan, ed. (2005). The Church and Galileo. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press. ISBN0-268-03483-4. McMullin, Ernan, (2005a). The Church's Ban on Copernicanism, 1616. In McMullin (2005, pp. 150190). Mach, Ernst. The Science of Mechanics 1893 Machamer, Peter (Ed) The Cambridge Companion to Galileo Cambridge University Press 1998 Moss, Jean Dietz; Wallace, William (2003). Rhetoric & dialectic in the time of Galileo (http://books.google. com/?id=Lw50esHmgacC). Washington D.C.: CUA Press. ISBN0-8132-1331-2. Naylor, Ronald H. (1990). "Galileo's Method of Analysis and Synthesis", Isis, 81: 695707 Newall, Paul (2004). "The Galileo Affair" (http://www.galilean-library.org/hps.html) Ondra, Leos (July 2004). "A New View of Mizar". Sky & Telescope: 7275. Owen, Richard (2009-01-29). "Catholic Church abandons plan to erect statue of Galileo" (http://www. timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/europe/article5612996.ece). London: TimesOnline News. Retrieved 2011-04-22. Owen, Richard; Delaney, Sarah (2008-03-04). "Vatican recants with a statue of Galileo" (http://www. timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/faith/article3478943.ece). London: TimesOnline News. Retrieved 2009-03-02. Remmert, Volker R. (2005). "Galileo, God, and Mathematics". In Koetsier, Teun; Bergmans, Luc. Mathematics and the Divine. A Historical Study. Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp.347360. Ratzinger, Joseph Cardinal (1994). Turning point for Europe? The Church in the Modern WorldAssessment and Forecast. translated from the 1991 German edition by Brian McNeil. San Francisco, CA: Ignatius Press. ISBN0-89870-461-8. OCLC60292876. Reston, James (2000). Galileo: A Life. Beard Books. ISBN1-893122-62-X.

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Galileo Galilei Seeger, Raymond J. (1966). Galileo Galilei, his life and his works. Oxford: Pergamon Press. ISBN0-08-012025-3. Settle, Thomas B. (1961). "An Experiment in the History of Science". Science 133 (3445): 1923. Bibcode1961Sci...133...19S. doi:10.1126/science.133.3445.19. PMID17759858. Sharratt, Michael (1994). Galileo: Decisive Innovator. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-56671-1. Shapere, Dudley Galileo, a Philosophical Study University of Chicago Press 1974 Shea, William R. and Artigas, Mario (2003). Galileo in Rome: The Rise and Fall of a Troublesome Genius. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-516598-5. Sobel, Dava (2000) [1999]. Galileo's Daughter. London: Fourth Estate. ISBN1-85702-712-4. Taton, Ren, ed. (1964) [1958]. The Beginnings of Modern Science from 1450 to 1800. London: Thames and Hudson. Taton, Ren; Wilson, Curtis, eds. (1989). Planetary astronomy from the Renaissance to the rise of astrophysics Part A: Tycho Brahe to Newton. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-24254-1. Thoren, Victor E. (1989). Tycho Brahe. In Taton and Wilson (1989, pp. 321). ISBN0-521-35158-8. Van Helden, Albert (1989). Galileo, telescopic astronomy, and the Copernican system. In Taton and Wilson (1989, pp. 81105). Van Helden, Albert (1985). Measuring the Universe: Cosmic Dimensions from Aristarchus to Halley (http:// books.google.com/books?id=L-yb7GX9mQIC&printsec=frontcover). University of Chicago Press. ISBN0-226-84881-7. Wallace, William A. (1984) Galileo and His Sources: The Heritage of the Collegio Romano in Galileo's Science, (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Pr.), ISBN 0-691-08355-X Wallace, William A. (2004). Domingo de Soto and the Early Galileo. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing. ISBN0-86078-964-0. Walusinsky, G. (1964) [1958]. The Golden age of Observational Astronomy. In Taton (1964, pp. 268286). White, Andrew Dickson (1898). A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom (http://cscs. umich.edu/~crshalizi/White/). New York: D. Appleton and Company. ISBN0-7905-8168-X. White, Michael (2007). Galileo: Antichrist: A Biography. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN978-0-297-84868-4. Wisan, Winifred Lovell (1984). "Galileo and the Process of Scientific Creation". Isis 75 (2): 269286. doi:10.1086/353480. Zik, Yaakov (2001). "Science and Instruments: The telescope as a scientific instrument at the beginning of the seventeenth century". Perspectives on Science 9 (3): 259284. doi:10.1162/10636140160176143.

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External links
Works by or about Galileo Galilei (http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n79-3254) in libraries (WorldCat catalog)

By Galileo
The Galilean Library (http://www.galilean-library.org/), educational site. Electronic representation of Galilei's notes on motion (MS. 72) (http://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/ Galileo_Prototype/MAIN.HTM) Galileo's 1590 De Motu translation (http://echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/content/scientific_revolution/galileo) Works by Galileo Galilei (http://www.intratext.com/Catalogo/Autori/AUT158.HTM): text with concordances and frequencies.

Galileo Galilei Galilei, Galileo. Le Operazioni del Compasso Geometrico et Militare (http://www.rarebookroom.org/Control/ galgal/index.html) 1610 Rome. From Rare Book Room. Scanned first edition. Galilei, Galileo. Istoria e Dimostrazioni Intorno Alle Macchie Solar (http://www.rarebookroom.org/Control/ galsol/index.html) 1613 Rome. From Rare Book Room. Scanned first edition. Linda Hall Library features a first edition of Sidereus Nuncius Magna (http://contentdm.lindahall.org/u?/ classics,5292) as well as a pirated edition from the same year (http://contentdm.lindahall.org/u?/classics,426), both fully digitised.

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On Galileo
Starry Messenger: Observing the Heavens in the Age of Galileo (http://beinecke.library.yale.edu/exhibitions/ starrymessenger/)an exhibition at the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University (http:// www.library.yale.edu/beinecke/index.html) Museo Galileo (http://www.museogalileo.it/en/index.html)Florence, Italy Galileo's math genealogy (http://genealogy.math.ndsu.nodak.edu/id.php?id=134975) Portraits of Galileo (http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/PictDisplay/Galileo.html) The Galileo Project (http://galileo.rice.edu/) at Rice University PBS documentary: 400 Years of the Telescope (http://www.pbs.org/400years/) Feather & Hammer Drop on Moon (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5C5_dOEyAfk&feature=related) article by UK journalist (http://www.martinince.eu/journalist/galileos-telescope/) on proposed disinterment to determine Galileo's eyesight problems Biography PBS Nova Online: Galileo's Battle for the Heavens (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/galileo/) Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Galileo (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/galileo/) Animated Hero Classics: Galileo (1997) (http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0956139/) at the Internet Movie Database O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Galileo Galilei" (http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/ Biographies/Galileo.html), MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews. Galileo and the Church Galileo Galilei, Scriptural Exegete, and the Church of Rome, Advocate of Science (http://www.thomasaquinas. edu/news/recent_events/Decaen-Galileo.html) lecture ( audio here (http://www.thomasaquinas.edu/news/ recent_events/Galileo Galilei-Scripture Exegete.mp3)) by Thomas Aquinas College tutor Dr. Christopher Decaen " The End of the Myth of Galileo Galilei (http://www.traditioninaction.org/History/A_003_Galileo.html)" by Atila Sinke Guimares Galileo and the Church (http://blog.oup.com/2011/01/galileo/), article by John Heilbron. Galileo Affair catholic.net (http://web.archive.org/web/20071209222631/http://www.catholic.net/rcc/ Periodicals/Issues/GalileoAffair.html)

Johannes Kepler

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Johannes Kepler
Johannes Kepler

A 1610 portrait of Johannes Kepler by an unknown artist Born December 27, 1571 Free Imperial City of Weil der Stadt near Stuttgart, HRE (now part of the Stuttgart Region of Baden-Wrttemberg, Germany) November 15, 1630 (aged58) Regensburg, Electorate of Bavaria, HRE (now Germany) Germany German Astronomy, astrology, mathematics and natural philosophy University of Linz

Died

Residence Nationality Fields Institutions

Alma mater University of Tbingen Knownfor Kepler's laws of planetary motion Kepler conjecture Signature

Johannes Kepler (German: [kpl]; December 27, 1571 November 15, 1630) was a German mathematician, astronomer and astrologer. A key figure in the 17th century scientific revolution, he is best known for his eponymous laws of planetary motion, codified by later astronomers, based on his works Astronomia nova, Harmonices Mundi, and Epitome of Copernican Astronomy. These works also provided one of the foundations for Isaac Newton's theory of universal gravitation. During his career, Kepler was a mathematics teacher at a seminary school in Graz, Austria, where he became an associate of Prince Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg. Later he became an assistant to astronomer Tycho Brahe, and eventually the imperial mathematician to Emperor Rudolf II and his two successors Matthias and Ferdinand II. He was also a mathematics teacher in Linz, Austria, and an adviser to General Wallenstein. Additionally, he did fundamental work in the field of optics, invented an improved version of the refracting telescope (the Keplerian Telescope), and mentioned the telescopic discoveries of his contemporary Galileo Galilei.

Johannes Kepler Kepler lived in an era when there was no clear distinction between astronomy and astrology, but there was a strong division between astronomy (a branch of mathematics within the liberal arts) and physics (a branch of natural philosophy). Kepler also incorporated religious arguments and reasoning into his work, motivated by the religious conviction and belief that God had created the world according to an intelligible plan that is accessible through the natural light of reason.[1] Kepler described his new astronomy as "celestial physics",[2] as "an excursion into Aristotle's Metaphysics",[3] and as "a supplement to Aristotle's On the Heavens",[4] transforming the ancient tradition of physical cosmology by treating astronomy as part of a universal mathematical physics.[5]

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Early years
Johannes Kepler was born on December 27, 1571, at the Free Imperial City of Weil der Stadt (now part of the Stuttgart Region in the German state of Baden-Wrttemberg, 30km west of Stuttgart's center). His grandfather, Sebald Kepler, had been Lord Mayor of that town but, by the time Johannes was born, he had two brothers and one sister and the Kepler family fortune was in decline. His father, Heinrich Kepler, earned a precarious living as a mercenary, and he left the family when Johannes was five years old. He was believed to have died in the Eighty Years' War in the Netherlands. His mother Katharina Guldenmann, an inn-keeper's daughter, was a healer and herbalist who was later tried for witchcraft. Born prematurely, Johannes claimed to have been weak and sickly as a child. Nevertheless, he often impressed travelers at his grandfather's inn with his phenomenal mathematical faculty.[6] He was introduced to astronomy at an early age, and developed a love for it that would span his entire life. At age six, he observed the Great Comet of 1577, writing that he "was taken by [his] mother to a high place to look at it."[7] At age nine, he observed another astronomical event, a lunar eclipse in 1580, recording that he remembered being "called outdoors" to see it and that the moon "appeared quite red".[7] However, childhood smallpox left him with weak vision and crippled hands, limiting his ability in the observational aspects of astronomy.[8] In 1589, after moving through grammar school, Latin school, and seminary at Maulbronn, Kepler attended Tbinger Stift at the University of Tbingen. There, he studied philosophy under Vitus Mller[9] and theology under Jacob Heerbrand (a student of Philipp
Birthplace of Johannes Kepler in Weil der Stadt

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Melanchthon at Wittenberg), who also taught Michael Maestlin while he was a student, until he became Chancellor at Tbingen in 1590.[10] He proved himself to be a superb mathematician and earned a reputation as a skillful astrologer, casting horoscopes for fellow students. Under the instruction of Michael Maestlin, Tbingen's professor of mathematics from 1583 to 1631,[10] he learned both the Ptolemaic system and the Copernican system of planetary motion. He became a Copernican at that time. In a student disputation, he defended heliocentrism from both a theoretical and theological perspective, maintaining that the Sun was The Great Comet of 1577, which Kepler witnessed as a child, the principal source of motive power in the attracted the attention of astronomers across Europe. universe.[11] Despite his desire to become a minister, near the end of his studies Kepler was recommended for a position as teacher of mathematics and astronomy at the Protestant school in Graz (later the University of Graz). He accepted the position in April 1594, at the age of 23.[12]

Graz (15941600)
Mysterium Cosmographicum
Johannes Kepler's first major astronomical work, Mysterium Cosmographicum (The Cosmographic Mystery), was the first published defense of the Copernican system. Kepler claimed to have had an epiphany on July 19, 1595, while teaching in Graz, demonstrating the periodic conjunction of Saturn and Jupiter in the zodiac; he realized that regular polygons bound one inscribed and one circumscribed circle at definite ratios, which, he reasoned, might be the geometrical basis of the universe. After failing to find a unique arrangement of polygons that fit known astronomical observations (even with extra planets added to the system), Kepler began experimenting with 3-dimensional polyhedra. He found that each of the five Platonic solids could be uniquely inscribed and circumscribed by spherical orbs; nesting these solids, each encased in a sphere, within Kepler's Platonic solid model of the Solar system one another would produce six layers, corresponding to the six known from Mysterium Cosmographicum (1600) planetsMercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. By ordering the solids correctlyoctahedron, icosahedron, dodecahedron, tetrahedron, cubeKepler found that the spheres could be placed at intervals corresponding (within the accuracy limits of available astronomical observations) to the relative sizes of each planets path, assuming the planets circle the Sun. Kepler also found a formula relating the size of each planets orb to the length of its orbital period: from inner to outer planets, the ratio of increase in orbital period is twice the difference in orb radius. However, Kepler later rejected this formula, because it was not precise enough.[13]

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121 As he indicated in the title, Kepler thought he had revealed Gods geometrical plan for the universe. Much of Keplers enthusiasm for the Copernican system stemmed from his theological convictions about the connection between the physical and the spiritual; the universe itself was an image of God, with the Sun corresponding to the Father, the stellar sphere to the Son, and the intervening space between to the Holy Spirit. His first manuscript of Mysterium contained an extensive chapter reconciling heliocentrism with biblical passages that seemed to support geocentrism.[14]

With the support of his mentor Michael Maestlin, Kepler received permission from the Tbingen university senate to publish his Close-up of inner section of the model manuscript, pending removal of the Bible exegesis and the addition of a simpler, more understandable description of the Copernican system as well as Keplers new ideas. Mysterium was published late in 1596, and Kepler received his copies and began sending them to prominent astronomers and patrons early in 1597; it was not widely read, but it established Keplers reputation as a highly skilled astronomer. The effusive dedication, to powerful patrons as well as to the men who controlled his position in Graz, also provided a crucial doorway into the patronage system.[15] Though the details would be modified in light of his later work, Kepler never relinquished the Platonist polyhedral-spherist cosmology of Mysterium Cosmographicum. His subsequent main astronomical works were in some sense only further developments of it, concerned with finding more precise inner and outer dimensions for the spheres by calculating the eccentricities of the planetary orbits within it. In 1621 Kepler published an expanded second edition of Mysterium, half as long again as the first, detailing in footnotes the corrections and improvements he had achieved in the 25 years since its first publication.[16] In terms of the impact of Mysterium, it can be seen as an important first step in modernizing Copernicus' theory. There is no doubt that Copernicus' "De Revolutionibus" seeks to advance a sun-centered system, but in this book he had to resort to Ptolemaic devices (viz., epicycles and eccentric circles) in order to explain the change in planets' orbital speed. Furthermore, Copernicus continued to use as a point of reference the center of the earth's orbit rather than that of the sun, as he says, "as an aid to calculation and in order not to confuse the reader by diverging too much from Ptolemy." Therefore, although the thesis of the "Mysterium Cosmographicum" was in error, modern astronomy owes much to this work "since it represents the first step in cleansing the Copernican system of the remnants of the Ptolemaic theory still clinging to it." [17]

Marriage to Barbara Mller

In December 1595, Kepler was introduced to Barbara Mller, a 23-year-old widow (twice over) with a young daughter, Gemma van Dvijneveldt, and he began courting her. Mller, heiress to the estates of her late husbands, was also the daughter of a successful mill owner. Her father Jobst initially opposed a marriage despite Kepler's nobility; though he had inherited his grandfather's nobility, Kepler's poverty made him an unacceptable match. Jobst relented after Kepler completed work on Mysterium, but the engagement nearly fell apart Portraits of Kepler and his wife in oval medallions while Kepler was away tending to the details of publication. However, church officialswho had helped set up the matchpressured the Mllers to honor their agreement. Barbara and Johannes were married on April 27, 1597.[18]

Johannes Kepler In the first years of their marriage, the Keplers had two children (Heinrich and Susanna), both of whom died in infancy. In 1602, they had a daughter (Susanna); in 1604, a son (Friedrich); and in 1607, another son (Ludwig).[19]

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Other research
Following the publication of Mysterium and with the blessing of the Graz school inspectors, Kepler began an ambitious program to extend and elaborate his work. He planned four additional books: one on the stationary aspects of the universe (the Sun and the fixed stars); one on the planets and their motions; one on the physical nature of planets and the formation of geographical features (focused especially on Earth); and one on the effects of the heavens on the Earth, to include atmospheric optics, meteorology and astrology.[20] He also sought the opinions of many of the astronomers to whom he had sent Mysterium, among them Reimarus Ursus (Nicolaus Reimers Br)the imperial mathematician to Rudolph II and a bitter rival of Tycho Brahe. Ursus did not reply directly, but republished Kepler's flattering letter to pursue his priority dispute over (what is now called) the Tychonic system with Tycho. Despite this black mark, Tycho also began corresponding with Kepler, starting with a harsh but legitimate critique of Kepler's system; among a host of objections, Tycho took issue with the use of inaccurate numerical data taken from Copernicus. Through their letters, Tycho and Kepler discussed a broad range of astronomical problems, dwelling on lunar phenomena and Copernican theory (particularly its theological viability). But without the significantly more accurate data of Tycho's observatory, Kepler had no way to address many of these issues.[21] Instead, he turned his attention to chronology and "harmony," the numerological relationships among music, mathematics and the physical world, and their astrological consequences. By assuming the Earth to possess a soul (a property he would later invoke to explain how the sun causes the motion of planets), he established a speculative system connecting astrological aspects and astronomical distances to weather and other earthly phenomena. By 1599, however, he again felt his work limited by the inaccuracy of available datajust as growing religious tension was also threatening his continued employment in Graz. In December of that year, Tycho invited Kepler to visit him in Prague; on January 1, 1600 (before he even received the invitation), Kepler set off in the hopes that Tycho's patronage could solve his philosophical problems as well as his social and financial ones.[22] When he was an old man, he was allowed to continue his work in his home alone.

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Prague (16001612)
Work for Tycho Brahe
On February 4, 1600, Kepler met Tycho Brahe and his assistants Franz Tengnagel and Longomontanus at Bentky nad Jizerou (35km from Prague), the site where Tycho's new observatory was being constructed. Over the next two months he stayed as a guest, analyzing some of Tycho's observations of Mars; Tycho guarded his data closely, but was impressed by Kepler's theoretical ideas and soon allowed him more access. Kepler planned to test his theory[23] from Mysterium Cosmographicum based on the Mars data, but he estimated that the work would take up to two years (since he was not allowed to simply copy the data for his own use). With the help of Johannes Jessenius, Kepler attempted to negotiate a more formal employment arrangement with Tycho, but negotiations broke down in an angry argument and Kepler left for Prague on April 6. Kepler and Tycho soon reconciled and eventually reached an agreement on salary and living arrangements, and in June, Kepler returned home to Graz to collect his family.[24]
Tycho Brahe Political and religious difficulties in Graz dashed his hopes of returning immediately to Tycho; in hopes of continuing his astronomical studies, Kepler sought an appointment as mathematician to Archduke Ferdinand. To that end, Kepler composed an essaydedicated to Ferdinandin which he proposed a force-based theory of lunar motion: "In Terra inest virtus, quae Lunam ciet" ("There is a force in the earth which causes the moon to move").[25] Though the essay did not earn him a place in Ferdinand's court, it did detail a new method for measuring lunar eclipses, which he applied during the July 10 eclipse in Graz. These observations formed the basis of his explorations of the laws of optics that would culminate in Astronomiae Pars Optica.[26]

On August 2, 1600, after refusing to convert to Catholicism, Kepler and his family were banished from Graz. Several months later, Kepler returned, now with the rest of his household, to Prague. Through most of 1601, he was supported directly by Tycho, who assigned him to analyzing planetary observations and writing a tract against Tycho's (by then deceased) rival, Ursus. In September, Tycho secured him a commission as a collaborator on the new project he had proposed to the emperor: the Rudolphine Tables that should replace the Prutenic Tables of Erasmus Reinhold. Two days after Tycho's unexpected death on October 24, 1601, Kepler was appointed his successor as imperial mathematician with the responsibility to complete his unfinished work. The next 11 years as imperial mathematician would be the most productive of his life.[27]

Advisor to Emperor Rudolph II

Kepler's primary obligation as imperial mathematician was to provide astrological advice to the emperor. Though Kepler took a dim view of the attempts of contemporary astrologers to precisely predict the future or divine specific events, he had been casting well-received detailed horoscopes for friends, family and patrons since his time as a student in Tbingen. In addition to horoscopes for allies and foreign leaders, the emperor sought Kepler's advice in times of political trouble (though Kepler's recommendations were based more on common sense than the stars). Rudolph was actively interested in the work of many of his court scholars (including numerous alchemists) and kept up with Kepler's work in physical astronomy as well.[28]

Johannes Kepler Officially, the only acceptable religious doctrines in Prague were Catholic and Utraquist, but Kepler's position in the imperial court allowed him to practice his Lutheran faith unhindered. The emperor nominally provided an ample income for his family, but the difficulties of the over-extended imperial treasury meant that actually getting hold of enough money to meet financial obligations was a continual struggle. Partly because of financial troubles, his life at home with Barbara was unpleasant, marred with bickering and bouts of sickness. Court life, however, brought Kepler into contact with other prominent scholars (Johannes Matthus Wackher von Wackhenfels, Jost Brgi, David Fabricius, Martin Bachazek, and Johannes Brengger, among others) and astronomical work proceeded rapidly.[29]

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Astronomiae Pars Optica

As he slowly continued analyzing Tycho's Mars observationsnow available to him in their entiretyand began the slow process of tabulating the Rudolphine Tables, Kepler also picked up the investigation of the laws of optics from his lunar essay of 1600. Both lunar and solar eclipses presented unexplained phenomena, such as unexpected shadow sizes, the red color of a total lunar eclipse, and the reportedly unusual light surrounding a total solar eclipse. Related issues of atmospheric refraction applied to all astronomical observations. Through most of 1603, Kepler paused his other work to focus on optical theory; the resulting manuscript, presented to the emperor on January 1, 1604, was published as Astronomiae Pars Optica (The Optical Part of Astronomy). In it, Kepler described the inverse-square law governing the intensity of light, reflection by flat and curved mirrors, and principles of pinhole cameras, as well A plate from Astronomiae Pars as the astronomical implications of optics such as parallax and the apparent sizes Optica, illustrating the structure of eyes of heavenly bodies. He also extended his study of optics to the human eye, and is generally considered by neuroscientists to be the first to recognize that images are projected inverted and reversed by the eye's lens onto the retina. The solution to this dilemma was not of particular importance to Kepler as he did not see it as pertaining to optics, although he did suggest that the image was later corrected "in the hollows of the brain" due to the "activity of the Soul."[30] Today, Astronomiae Pars Optica is generally recognized as the foundation of modern optics (though the law of refraction is conspicuously absent).[31] With respect to the beginnings of projective geometry, Kepler introduced the idea of continuous change of a mathematical entity in this work. He argued that if a focus of a conic section were allowed to move along the line joining the foci, the geometric form would morph or degenerate, one into another. In this way, an ellipse becomes a parabola when a focus moves toward infinity, and when two foci of an ellipse merge into one another, a circle is formed. As the foci of a hyperbola merge into one another, the hyperbola becomes a pair of straight lines. He also assumed that if a straight line is extended to infinity it will meet itself at a single point at infinity, thus having the properties of a large circle.[32] This idea was later utilized by Pascal, Leibniz, Monge and Poncelet, among others, and became known as geometric continuity and as the Law or Principle of Continuity.

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The Supernova of 1604

In October 1604, a bright new evening star (SN 1604) appeared, but Kepler did not believe the rumors until he saw it himself. Kepler began systematically observing the nebula. Astrologically, the end of 1603 marked the beginning of a fiery trigon, the start of the ca. 800-year cycle of great conjunctions; astrologers associated the two previous such periods with the rise of Charlemagne (ca. 800 years earlier) and the birth of Christ (ca. 1600 years earlier), and thus expected events of great portent, especially regarding the emperor. It was in this context, as the imperial mathematician and astrologer to the emperor, that Kepler described the new star two years later in his De Stella Nova. In Remnant of Kepler's Supernova SN 1604 it, Kepler addressed the star's astronomical properties while taking a skeptical approach to the many astrological interpretations then circulating. He noted its fading luminosity, speculated about its origin, and used the lack of observed parallax to argue that it was in the sphere of fixed stars, further undermining the doctrine of the immutability of the heavens (the idea accepted since Aristotle that the celestial spheres were perfect and unchanging). The birth of a new star implied the variability of the heavens. In an appendix, Kepler also discussed the recent chronology work of the Polish historian Laurentius Suslyga; he calculated that, if Suslyga was correct that accepted timelines were four years behind, then the Star of Bethlehemanalogous to the present new starwould have coincided with the first great conjunction of the earlier 800-year cycle.[33]

Astronomia nova
The extended line of research that culminated in Astronomia nova (A New Astronomy)including the first two laws of planetary motionbegan with the analysis, under Tycho's direction, of Mars' orbit. Kepler calculated and recalculated various approximations of Mars' orbit using an equant (the mathematical tool that Copernicus had eliminated with his system), eventually creating a model that generally agreed with Tycho's observations to within two arcminutes (the average measurement error). But he was not satisfied with the complex and still slightly inaccurate result; at certain points the model differed from the data by up to eight arcminutes. The wide array of traditional mathematical astronomy methods having failed him, Kepler set about trying to fit an ovoid orbit to the data.[34] Within Kepler's religious view of the cosmos, the Sun (a symbol of God the Father) was the source of motive force in the solar system. As a physical basis, Kepler drew by analogy on William Gilbert's theory of the magnetic soul of the Earth from De Magnete (1600) and on his own work on optics. Kepler supposed that the motive power (or motive species)[35] radiated by the Sun weakens with distance, causing faster or slower motion as planets move closer or farther from it.[36][37] Perhaps this assumption entailed a mathematical relationship that would restore astronomical order. Based on measurements of the aphelion and perihelion of the Earth and Mars, he created a formula in which a planet's rate of motion is inversely proportional to its distance from the Sun. Verifying this relationship throughout the orbital cycle, however, required very extensive calculation; to simplify this task, by late 1602 Kepler reformulated the proportion in terms of geometry: planets sweep out equal areas in equal timesKepler's second law of planetary motion.[38]
The location of the stella nova, in the foot of Ophiuchus, is marked with an N (8 grid squares down, 4 over from the left).

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He then set about calculating the entire orbit of Mars, using the geometrical rate law and assuming an egg-shaped ovoid orbit. After approximately 40 failed attempts, in early 1605 he at last hit upon the idea of an ellipse, which he had previously assumed to be too simple a solution for earlier astronomers to have overlooked. Finding that an elliptical orbit fit the Mars data, he immediately concluded that all planets move in ellipses, with the sun at one focusKepler's first law of planetary motion. Because he employed no calculating assistants, however, he did not extend the mathematical analysis beyond Mars. By the end of the year, he completed the manuscript for Astronomia nova, though it would not be published until 1609 due to legal disputes over the use of Tycho's observations, the property of his heirs.[39]

Dioptrice, Somnium manuscript and other work

Diagram of the geocentric trajectory of Mars through several periods of apparent retrograde motion. Astronomia nova, Chapter 1, (1609).

In the years following the completion of Astronomia Nova, most of Kepler's research was focused on preparations for the Rudolphine Tables and a comprehensive set of ephemerides (specific predictions of planet and star positions) based on the table (though neither would be completed for many years). He also attempted (unsuccessfully) to begin a collaboration with Italian astronomer Giovanni Antonio Magini. Some of his other work dealt with chronology, especially the dating of events in the life of Jesus, and with astrology, especially criticism of dramatic predictions of catastrophe such as those of Helisaeus Roeslin.[40] Kepler and Roeslin engaged in series of published attacks and counter-attacks, while physician Philip Feselius published a work dismissing astrology altogether (and Roeslin's work in particular). In response to what Kepler saw as the excesses of astrology on the one hand and overzealous rejection of it on the other, Kepler prepared Tertius Interveniens (Third-party Interventions). Nominally this workpresented to the common patron of Roeslin and Feseliuswas a neutral mediation between the feuding scholars, but it also set out Kepler's general views on the value of astrology, including some hypothesized mechanisms of interaction between planets and individual souls. While Kepler considered most traditional rules and methods of astrology to be the "evil-smelling dung" in which "an industrious hen" scrapes, there was an "occasional grain-seed, indeed, even a pearl or a gold nugget" to be found by the conscientious scientific astrologer.[41] In the first months of 1610, Galileo Galileiusing his powerful new telescopediscovered four satellites orbiting Jupiter. Upon publishing his account as Sidereus Nuncius (Starry Messenger), Galileo sought the opinion of Kepler, in part to bolster the credibility of his observations. Kepler responded enthusiastically with a short published reply, Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo (Conversation with the Starry Messenger). He endorsed Galileo's observations and offered a range of speculations about the meaning and implications of Galileo's discoveries and telescopic methods, for astronomy and optics as well as cosmology and astrology. Later that year, Kepler published his own telescopic observations of the moons in Narratio de Jovis Satellitibus, providing further support of Galileo. To Kepler's disappointment, however, Galileo never published his reactions (if any) to Astronomia Nova.:([43]
Karlova street in Old Town, Prague house where Kepler lived.[42] Museum

After hearing of Galileo's telescopic discoveries, Kepler also started a theoretical and experimental investigation of telescopic optics using a telescope borrowed

Johannes Kepler from Duke Ernest of Cologne.[44] The resulting manuscript was completed in September 1610 and published as Dioptrice in 1611. In it, Kepler set out the theoretical basis of double-convex converging lenses and double-concave diverging lensesand how they are combined to produce a Galilean telescopeas well as the concepts of real vs. virtual images, upright vs. inverted images, and the effects of focal length on magnification and reduction. He also described an improved telescopenow known as the astronomical or Keplerian telescopein which two convex lenses can produce higher magnification than Galileo's combination of convex and concave lenses.[45] Around 1611, Kepler circulated a manuscript of what would eventually be published (posthumously) as Somnium (The Dream). Part of the purpose of Somnium was to describe what practicing astronomy would be like from the perspective of another planet, to show the feasibility of a non-geocentric system. The manuscript, which disappeared after changing hands several times, described a fantastic trip to the moon; it was part allegory, part autobiography, and part treatise on interplanetary travel (and is sometimes described as the first work of science fiction). Years later, a distorted version of the story may have instigated the witchcraft trial against his mother, as the mother of the narrator consults a demon to learn the means of space travel. Following her eventual acquittal, Kepler composed 223 footnotes to the storyseveral times longer than the actual textwhich explained the allegorical aspects as well as the considerable scientific content (particularly regarding lunar geography) hidden within the text.[46]

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Work in mathematics and physics

As a New Year's gift that year, he also composed for his friend and One of the diagrams from Strena Seu de Nive some-time patron Baron Wackher von Wackhenfels a short pamphlet Sexangula, illustrating the Kepler conjecture entitled Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula (A New Year's Gift of Hexagonal Snow). In this treatise, he published the first description of the hexagonal symmetry of snowflakes and, extending the discussion into a hypothetical atomistic physical basis for the symmetry and posed what later became known as the Kepler conjecture, a statement about the most efficient arrangement for packing spheres.[47][48] Kepler was one of the pioneers of the mathematical applications of infinitesimals, see Law of Continuity.

Personal and political troubles

In 1611, the growing political-religious tension in Prague came to a head. Emperor Rudolphwhose health was failingwas forced to abdicate as King of Bohemia by his brother Matthias. Both sides sought Kepler's astrological advice, an opportunity he used to deliver conciliatory political advice (with little reference to the stars, except in general statements to discourage drastic action). However, it was clear that Kepler's future prospects in the court of Matthias were dim.[49] Also in that year, Barbara Kepler contracted Hungarian spotted fever, then began having seizures. As Barbara was recovering, Kepler's three children all fell sick with smallpox; Friedrich, 6, died. Following his son's death, Kepler sent letters to potential patrons in Wrttemberg and Padua. At the University of Tbingen in Wrttemberg, concerns over Kepler's perceived Calvinist heresies in violation of the Augsburg Confession and the Formula of Concord prevented his return. The University of Paduaon the recommendation of the departing Galileosought Kepler to fill the mathematics professorship, but Kepler, preferring to keep his family in German territory, instead travelled to Austria to arrange a position as teacher and district mathematician in Linz. However, Barbara relapsed into illness

Johannes Kepler and died shortly after Kepler's return.[50] Kepler postponed the move to Linz and remained in Prague until Rudolph's death in early 1612, though between political upheaval, religious tension, and family tragedy (along with the legal dispute over his wife's estate), Kepler could do no research. Instead, he pieced together a chronology manuscript, Eclogae Chronicae, from correspondence and earlier work. Upon succession as Holy Roman Emperor, Matthias re-affirmed Kepler's position (and salary) as imperial mathematician but allowed him to move to Linz.[51]

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Linz and elsewhere (16121630)

In Linz, Kepler's primary responsibilities (beyond completing the Rudolphine Tables) were teaching at the district school and providing astrological and astronomical services. In his first years there, he enjoyed financial security and religious freedom relative to his life in Praguethough he was excluded from Eucharist by his Lutheran church over his theological scruples. His first publication in Linz was De vero Anno (1613), an expanded treatise on the year of Christ's birth; he also participated in deliberations on whether to introduce Pope A statue of Kepler in Linz Gregory's reformed calendar to Protestant German lands; that year he also wrote the influential mathematical treatise Nova stereometria doliorum vinariorum, on measuring the volume of containers such as wine barrels, published in 1615.[52]

Second marriage
On October 30, 1613, Kepler married the 24-year-old Susanna Reuttinger. Following the death of his first wife Barbara, Kepler had considered 11 different matches. He eventually returned to Reuttinger (the fifth match) who, he wrote, "won me over with love, humble loyalty, economy of household, diligence, and the love she gave the stepchildren."[53] The first three children of this marriage (Margareta Regina, Katharina, and Sebald) died in childhood. Three more survived into adulthood: Cordula (b. 1621); Fridmar (b. 1623); and Hildebert (b. 1625). According to Kepler's biographers, this was a much happier marriage than his first.[54]

Epitome of Copernican Astronomy, calendars and the witch trial of his mother
Since completing the Astronomia nova, Kepler had intended to compose an astronomy textbook.[55] In 1615, he completed the first of three volumes of Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae (Epitome of Copernican Astronomy); the first volume (books I-III) was printed in 1617, the second (book IV) in 1620, and the third (books V-VII) in 1621. Despite the title, which referred simply to heliocentrism, Kepler's textbook culminated in his own ellipse-based system. The Epitome became Kepler's most influential work. It contained all three laws of planetary motion and attempted to explain heavenly motions through physical causes.[56] Though it explicitly extended the first two laws of planetary motion (applied to Mars in Astronomia nova) to all the planets as well as the Moon and the Medicean satellites of Jupiter, it did not explain how elliptical orbits could be derived from observational data.[57] As a spin-off from the Rudolphine Tables and the related Ephemerides, Kepler published astrological calendars, which were very popular and helped offset the costs of producing his other workespecially when support from the Imperial treasury was withheld. In his calendarssix between 1617 and 1624Kepler forecast planetary positions and weather as well as political events; the latter were often cannily accurate, thanks to his keen grasp of contemporary political and theological tensions. By 1624, however, the escalation of those tensions and the ambiguity of the prophecies meant political trouble for Kepler himself; his final calendar was publicly burned in Graz.[58]

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In 1615, Ursula Reingold, a woman in a financial dispute with Kepler's brother Christoph, claimed Kepler's mother Katharina had made her sick with an evil brew. The dispute escalated, and in 1617, Katharina was accused of witchcraft; witchcraft trials were relatively common in central Europe at this time. Beginning in August 1620 she was imprisoned for fourteen months. She was released in October 1621, thanks in part to the extensive legal defense drawn up by Kepler. The accusers had no stronger evidence than rumors, along with a distorted, second-hand version of Kepler's Somnium, in which a woman mixes potions and enlists the aid of a demon. Katharina was subjected to territio verbalis, a graphic description of the torture awaiting her as a witch, in a final attempt to make her confess. Throughout the trial, Kepler postponed his other work to focus on his "harmonic theory". The result, published in 1619, was Harmonices Mundi ("Harmony of the World").[59]

Harmonices Mundi
Kepler was convinced "that the geometrical things have provided the Creator with the model for decorating the whole world."[60] In Geometrical harmonies in the perfect solids from Harmony, he attempted to explain the proportions of the natural Harmonices Mundi (1619) worldparticularly the astronomical and astrological aspectsin terms of music.[61] The central set of "harmonies" was the musica universalis or "music of the spheres," which had been studied by Pythagoras, Ptolemy and many others before Kepler; in fact, soon after publishing Harmonices Mundi, Kepler was embroiled in a priority dispute with Robert Fludd, who had recently published his own harmonic theory.[62] Kepler began by exploring regular polygons and regular solids, including the figures that would come to be known as Kepler's solids. From there, he extended his harmonic analysis to music, meteorology and astrology; harmony resulted from the tones made by the souls of heavenly bodiesand in the case of astrology, the interaction between those tones and human souls. In the final portion of the work (Book V), Kepler dealt with planetary motions, especially relationships between orbital velocity and orbital distance from the Sun. Similar relationships had been used by other astronomers, but Keplerwith Tycho's data and his own astronomical theoriestreated them much more precisely and attached new physical significance to them.[63] Among many other harmonies, Kepler articulated what came to be known as the third law of planetary motion. He then tried many combinations until he discovered that (approximately) "The square of the periodic times are to each other as the cubes of the mean distances." Although he gives the date of this epiphany (March 8, 1618), he does not give any details about how he arrived at this conclusion.[64] However, the wider significance for planetary dynamics of this purely kinematical law was not realized until the 1660s. For when conjoined with Christian Huygens' newly discovered law of centrifugal force it enabled Isaac Newton, Edmund Halley and perhaps Christopher Wren and Robert Hooke to demonstrate independently that the presumed gravitational attraction between the Sun and its planets decreased with the square of the distance between them.[65] This refuted the traditional assumption of scholastic physics that the power of gravitational attraction remained constant with distance whenever it applied between two bodies, such as was assumed by Kepler and also by Galileo in his mistaken universal law that gravitational fall is uniformly accelerated, and also by Galileo's student Borrelli in his 1666 celestial mechanics.[66] William Gilbert, after experimenting with magnets decided that the center of the Earth was a huge magnet. His theory led Kepler to think that a magnetic force from the Sun drove planets in their own orbits. It was an interesting explanation for planetary motion, but it was wrong. Before scientists could find the right answer, they needed to

Johannes Kepler know more about motion.

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Rudolphine Tables and his last years

In 1623, Kepler at last completed the Rudolphine Tables, which at the time was considered his major work. However, due to the publishing requirements of the emperor and negotiations with Tycho Brahe's heir, it would not be printed until 1627. In the meantime religious tensionthe root of the ongoing Thirty Years' Waronce again put Kepler and his family in jeopardy. In 1625, agents of the Catholic Counter-Reformation placed most of Kepler's library under seal, and in 1626 the city of Linz was besieged. Kepler moved to Ulm, where he arranged for the printing of the Tables at his own expense.[67] In 1628, following the military successes of the Emperor Ferdinand's armies under General Wallenstein, Kepler became an official advisor to Wallenstein. Though not the general's court astrologer per se, Kepler provided astronomical calculations for Wallenstein's astrologers and Kepler's horoscope for General Wallenstein occasionally wrote horoscopes himself. In his final years, Kepler spent much of his time traveling, from the imperial court in Prague to Linz and Ulm to a temporary home in Sagan, and finally to Regensburg. Soon after arriving in Regensburg, Kepler fell ill. He died on November 15, 1630, and was buried there; his burial site was lost after the Swedish army destroyed the churchyard.[68] Only Kepler's self-authored poetic epitaph survived the times: Mensus eram coelos, nunc terrae metior umbras Mens coelestis erat, corporis umbra iacet. I measured the skies, now the shadows I measure Skybound was the mind, earthbound the body rests.[69]

Reception of his astronomy

Kepler's laws were not immediately accepted. Several major figures such as Galileo and Ren Descartes completely ignored Kepler's Astronomia nova. Many astronomers, including Kepler's teacher, Michael Maestlin, objected to Kepler's introduction of physics into his astronomy. Some adopted compromise positions. Ismael Boulliau accepted elliptical orbits but replaced Kepler's area law with uniform motion in respect to the empty focus of the ellipse while Seth Ward used an elliptical orbit with motions defined by an equant.[70][71][72] Several astronomers tested Kepler's theory, and its various modifications, against astronomical observations<the last one is/M.T.K Al -Tamimi/ Natural Science 2 (2010) 786-792>. Two transits of Venus and Mercury across the face of the sun provided sensitive tests of the theory, under circumstances when these planets could not normally be observed. In the case of the transit of Mercury in 1631, Kepler had been extremely uncertain of the parameters for Mercury, and advised observers to look for the transit the day before and after the predicted date. Pierre Gassendi observed the transit on the date predicted, a confirmation of Kepler's prediction.[73] This was the first observation of a transit of Mercury. However, his attempt to observe the transit of Venus just one month later, was unsuccessful due to inaccuracies in the Rudolphine Tables. Gassendi did not realize that it was not visible from most of Europe, including Paris.[74] Jeremiah Horrocks, who observed the 1639 Venus transit, had used his own observations to adjust the parameters of the Keplerian model, predicted the transit, and then built apparatus to observe the transit. He remained a firm advocate of the Keplerian model.[75][76][77]

Johannes Kepler Epitome of Copernican Astronomy was read by astronomers throughout Europe, and following Kepler's death it was the main vehicle for spreading Kepler's ideas. Between 1630 and 1650, it was the most widely used astronomy textbook, winning many converts to ellipse-based astronomy.[56] However, few adopted his ideas on the physical basis for celestial motions. In the late 17th century, a number of physical astronomy theories drawing from Kepler's worknotably those of Giovanni Alfonso Borelli and Robert Hookebegan to incorporate attractive forces (though not the quasi-spiritual motive species postulated by Kepler) and the Cartesian concept of inertia. This culminated in Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica (1687), in which Newton derived Kepler's laws of planetary motion from a force-based theory of universal gravitation.[78]

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Historical and cultural legacy

Beyond his role in the historical development of astronomy and natural philosophy, Kepler has loomed large in the philosophy and historiography of science. Kepler and his laws of motion were central to early histories of astronomy such as Jean Etienne Montuclas 1758 Histoire des mathmatiques and Jean-Baptiste Delambre's 1821 Histoire de lastronomie moderne. These and other histories written from an Enlightenment perspective treated Kepler's metaphysical and religious arguments with skepticism and disapproval, but later Romantic-era natural philosophers viewed these elements as central to his success. William Whewell, in his influential History of the Inductive Sciences of 1837, found Kepler to be the archetype of the inductive scientific genius; in his Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences of 1840, Whewell held Kepler up as the embodiment of the most advanced forms of scientific method. Similarly, Ernst Friedrich Apeltthe first to extensively study Kepler's manuscripts, after their purchase by Catherine the Greatidentified Kepler as a key to the "Revolution of the sciences". Apelt, who saw Kepler's mathematics, aesthetic sensibility, physical ideas, and theology as part of a unified system of thought, produced the first extended analysis of Kepler's life and work.[79]

Monument to Tycho Brahe and Kepler in Prague, Czech Republic

Modern translations of a number of Kepler's books appeared in the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries, the systematic publication of his collected works began in 1937 (and is nearing completion in the early 21st century), and Max Caspar's Kepler biography was published in 1948.[80] However, Alexandre Koyr's work on Kepler was, after Apelt, the first major milestone in historical The GDR stamp featuring Kepler interpretations of Kepler's cosmology and its influence. In the 1930s and 1940s Koyr, and a number of others in the first generation of professional historians of science, described the "Scientific Revolution" as the central event in the history of science, and Kepler as a (perhaps the) central figure in the revolution. Koyr placed Kepler's theorization, rather than his empirical work, at the center of the intellectual transformation from ancient to modern world-views. Since the 1960s, the volume of historical Kepler scholarship has expanded greatly, including studies of his astrology and meteorology, his geometrical methods, the role of his religious views in his work, his literary and rhetorical methods, his interaction with the broader cultural and philosophical currents of his time, and even his role as an historian of science.[81]

Johannes Kepler The debate over Kepler's place in the Scientific Revolution has also produced a wide variety of philosophical and popular treatments. One of the most influential is Arthur Koestler's 1959 The Sleepwalkers, in which Kepler is unambiguously the hero (morally and theologically as well as intellectually) of the revolution.[82] Influential philosophers of sciencesuch as Charles Sanders Peirce, Norwood Russell Hanson, Stephen Toulmin, and Karl Popperhave repeatedly turned to Kepler: examples of incommensurability, analogical reasoning, falsification, and many other philosophical concepts have been found in Kepler's work. Physicist Wolfgang Pauli even used Kepler's priority dispute with Robert Fludd to explore the implications of analytical psychology on scientific investigation.[83] A well-received, if fanciful, historical novel by John Banville, Kepler (1981), explored many of the themes developed in Koestler's non-fiction narrative and in the philosophy of science.[84] Somewhat more fanciful is a recent work of nonfiction, Heavenly Intrigue (2004), suggesting that Kepler murdered Tycho Brahe to gain access to his data.[85] Kepler has acquired a popular image as an icon of scientific modernity and a man before his time; science popularizer Carl Sagan described him as "the first astrophysicist and the last scientific astrologer."[86] The German composer Paul Hindemith wrote an opera about Kepler entitled Die Harmonie der Welt, and a symphony of the same name was derived from music for the opera. In Austria, Kepler left behind such a historical legacy that he was one of the motifs of a silver collector's coin: the 10-euro Johannes Kepler silver coin, minted on September 10, 2002. The reverse side of the coin has a portrait of Kepler, who spent some time teaching in Graz and the surrounding areas. Kepler was acquainted with Prince Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg personally, and he probably influenced the construction of Eggenberg Castle (the motif of the obverse of the coin). In front of him on the coin is the model of nested spheres and polyhedra from Mysterium Cosmographicum.[87] In 2009, NASA named the Kepler Mission for Kepler's contributions to the field of astronomy.[88] In New Zealand's Fiordland National Park there is also a range of Mountains Named after Kepler, called the Kepler Mountains and a Three Day Walking Trail known as the Kepler Track through the Mountains of the same name.

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Veneration
Kepler is honored together with Nicolaus Copernicus with a feast day on the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church (USA) on May 23.[89]

Works
Mysterium cosmographicum (The Sacred Mystery of the Cosmos) (1596) De Fundamentis Astrologiae Certioribus On Firmer Fundaments of Astrology [90] (1601) Astronomiae Pars Optica (The Optical Part of Astronomy) (1604) De Stella nova in pede Serpentarii (On the New Star in Ophiuchus's Foot) (1604) Astronomia nova (New Astronomy) (1609) Tertius Interveniens (Third-party Interventions) (1610) Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo (Conversation with the Starry Messenger) (1610) Dioptrice (1611)

Johannes Kepler

133

De nive sexangula (On the Six-Cornered Snowflake) (1611) De vero Anno, quo aeternus Dei Filius humanam naturam in Utero benedictae Virginis Mariae assumpsit (1613) Eclogae Chronicae (1615, published with Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo) Nova stereometria doliorum vinariorum (New Stereometry of Wine Barrels) (1615) Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae (Epitome of Copernican Astronomy) (published in three parts from 16181621) Harmonice Mundi (Harmony of the Worlds) (1619) Mysterium cosmographicum (The Sacred Mystery of the Cosmos) 2nd Edition (1621) Tabulae Rudolphinae (Rudolphine Tables) (1627) Somnium (The Dream) (1634)
The lunar crater Kepler

Notes and references

[1] Barker and Goldstein. "Theological Foundations of Kepler's Astronomy", pp. 11213. [2] Kepler. New Astronomy, title page, tr. Donohue, pp. 267 [3] Kepler. New Astronomy, p. 48 [4] Epitome of Copernican Astronomy in Great Books of the Western World, Vol 15, p. 845 [5] Stephenson. Kepler's Physical Astronomy, pp. 12; Dear, Revolutionizing the Sciences, pp. 7478 [6] Caspar. Kepler, pp. 2936; Connor. Kepler's Witch, pp. 2346. [7] Koestler. The Sleepwalkers, p. 234 (translated from Kepler's family horoscope). [8] Caspar. Kepler, pp. 3638; Connor. Kepler's Witch, pp. 2527. [9] Connor, James A. Kepler's Witch (2004), p. 58. [10] Barker, Peter; Goldstein, Bernard R. "Theological Foundations of Kepler's Astronomy", Osiris, 2nd Series, Vol. 16, Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions (2001), p. 96. [11] Westman, Robert S. "Kepler's Early Physico-Astrological Problematic," Journal for the History of Astronomy, 32 (2001): 22736. [12] Caspar. Kepler, pp. 3852; Connor. Kepler's Witch, pp. 4969. [13] Caspar. Kepler, pp.6065; see also: Barker and Goldstein, "Theological Foundations of Kepler's Astronomy." [14] Barker and Goldstein. "Theological Foundations of Kepler's Astronomy," pp.99103, 112113. [15] Caspar. Kepler, pp.6571. [16] Field. Kepler's Geometrical Cosmology, Chapter IV, p 73ff. [17] Dreyer, J.L.E. A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler, Dover Publications, 1953, pp.331, 377-379. [18] Caspar, Kepler. pp.7175. [19] Connor. Kepler's Witch, pp.89100, 114116; Caspar. Kepler, pp.7577 [20] Caspar. Kepler, pp.8586. [21] Caspar, Kepler, pp.8689 [22] Caspar, Kepler, pp.89100 [23] Using Tycho's data, see 'Two views of a system' (http:/ / knol. google. com/ k/ the-sky-before-the-telescope#) [24] Caspar, Kepler, pp. 10008. [25] Caspar, Kepler, p. 110. [26] Caspar, Kepler, pp. 10811. [27] Caspar, Kepler, pp. 11122. [28] Caspar, Kepler, pp.149153 [29] Caspar, Kepler, pp.146148, 159177 [30] Finger, "Origins of Neuroscience," p 74. Oxford University Press, 2001. [31] Caspar, Kepler, pp.142146 [32] Morris Kline, Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times, p 299. Oxford University Press, 1972. [33] Caspar, Kepler, pp.153157 [34] Caspar, Kepler, pp.123128 [35] On motive species, see: Lindberg, "The Genesis of Kepler's Theory of Light," pp.3840 [36] "Kepler's decision to base his causal explanation of planetary motion on a distance-velocity law, rather than on uniform circular motions of compounded spheres, marks a major shift from ancient to modern conceptions of science.... [Kepler] had begun with physical principles and

Johannes Kepler
had then derived a trajectory from it, rather than simply constructing new models. In other words, even before discovering the area law, Kepler had abandoned uniform circular motion as a physical principle." Peter Barker and Bernard R. Goldstein, "Distance and Velocity in Kepler's Astronomy", Annals of Science, 51 (1994): 5973, at p. 60. [37] Koyr, The Astronomical Revolution, pp.199202 [38] Caspar, Kepler, pp.129132 [39] Caspar, Kepler, pp.131140; Koyr, The Astronomical Revolution, pp.277279 [40] Caspar, Kepler, pp.178181 [41] Caspar, Kepler, pp.181185. The full title is Tertius Interveniens, das ist Warnung an etliche Theologos, Medicos vnd Philosophos, sonderlich D. Philippum Feselium, dass sie bey billicher Verwerffung der Sternguckerischen Aberglauben nict das Kindt mit dem Badt aussschtten vnd hiermit jhrer Profession vnwissendt zuwider handlen, translated by C. Doris Hellman as "Tertius Interveniens, that is warning to some theologians, medics and philosophers, especially D. Philip Feselius, that they in cheap condemnation of the star-gazer's superstition do not throw out the child with the bath and hereby unknowingly act contrary to their profession." [42] http:/ / www. keplervpraze. cz/ en/ [43] Caspar, Kepler, pp.192197 [44] Koestler, The Sleepwalkers p 384 [45] Caspar, Kepler, pp.198202 [46] Lear, Kepler's Dream, pp.178 [47] Schneer, "Kepler's New Year's Gift of a Snowflake," pp.531545 [48] Kepler, Johannes (1966) [1611]. Hardie, Colin. ed. De nive sexangula [The Six-sided Snowflake]. Oxford: Clarendon Press. OCLC974730. [49] Caspar, Kepler, pp.202204 [50] Connor, Kepler's Witch, pp.222226; Caspar, Kepler, pp.204207 [51] Caspar, Kepler, pp.208211 [52] Caspar, Kepler, pp.209220, 227240 [53] Quotation from Connor, Kepler's Witch, p 252, translated from an October 23, 1613 letter from Kepler to an anonymous nobleman [54] Caspar, Kepler, pp.220223; Connor, Kepler's Witch, pp.251254. [55] Caspar, Kepler, pp.239240, 293300 [56] Gingerich, "Kepler, Johannes" from Dictionary of Scientific Biography, pp.302304 [57] Wolf, A History of Science, Technology and Philosophy, pp.140141; Pannekoek, A History of Astronomy, p 252 [58] Caspar, Kepler, pp.239, 300301, 307308 [59] Caspar, Kepler, pp.240264; Connor, Kepler's Witch, chapters I, XI-XIII; Lear, Kepler's Dream, pp.2139 [60] Quotation from Caspar, Kepler, pp.265266, translated from Harmonices Mundi [61] The opening of the movie Mars et Avril by Martin Villeneuve is based on German astronomer Johannes Keplers cosmological model from the 17th century, Harmonices Mundi, in which the harmony of the universe is determined by the motion of celestial bodies. Benot Charest also composed the score according to this theory. [62] Caspar, Kepler, pp.264266, 290293 [63] Caspar, Kepler, pp.266290 [64] Arthur I. Miller (March 24, 2009). Deciphering the cosmic number: the strange friendship of Wolfgang Pauli and Carl Jung (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=KR2EtBnmcRYC& pg=PA80). W. W. Norton & Company. p.80. ISBN978-0-393-06532-9. . Retrieved March 7, 2011. [65] Westfall, Never at Rest, pp.143, 152, 4023; Toulmin and Goodfield, The Fabric of the Heavens, p 248; De Gandt, 'Force and Geometry in Newton's Principia', chapter 2; Wolf, History of Science, Technology and Philosophy, p 150; Westfall, The Construction of Modern Science, chapters 7 and 8 [66] Koyr, The Astronomical Revolution, p 502 [67] Caspar, Kepler, pp.308328 [68] Caspar, Kepler, pp.332351, 355361 [69] Koestler, The Sleepwalkers, p. 427. [70] For a detailed study of the reception of Kepler's astronomy see Wilbur Applebaum, "Keplerian Astronomy after Kepler: Researches and Problems," (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1996HisSc. . 34. . 451A) History of Science, 34(1996): 451504. [71] Koyr, The Astronomical Revolution, pp.362364 [72] North, History of Astronomy and Cosmology, pp. 355360 [73] Albert van Helden, "The Importance of the Transit of Mercury of 1631," (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1976JHA. . . . . 7. . . . 1V) Journal for the History of Astronomy, 7 (1976): 110. [74] HM Nautical Almanac Office (June 10, 2004). "1631 Transit of Venus" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20061001062918/ http:/ / www. nao. rl. ac. uk/ nao/ transit/ V_1631/ ). Archived from the original (http:/ / www. nao. rl. ac. uk/ nao/ transit/ V_1631/ ) on October 1, 2006. . Retrieved August 28, 2006. [75] Allan Chapman, "Jeremiah Horrocks, the transit of Venus, and the 'New Astronomy' in early 17th-century England," (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1990QJRAS. . 31. . 333C) Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society, 31 (1990): 333357. [76] North, History of Astronomy and Cosmology, pp. 348349

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Johannes Kepler
[77] Wilbur Applebaum and Robert Hatch, "Boulliau, Mercator, and Horrock's Venus in sole visa: Three Unpublished Letters," (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1983JHA. . . . 14. . 166A) Journal for the History of Astronomy, 14(1983): 166179 [78] Kuhn, The Copernican Revolution, pp.238, 246252 [79] Jardine, "Koyrs Kepler/Kepler's Koyr," pp.363367 [80] Gingerich, introduction to Caspar's Kepler, pp.34 [81] Jardine, "Koyrs Kepler/Kepler's Koyr," pp.367372; Shapin, The Scientific Revolution, pp.12 [82] Stephen Toulmin, Review of The Sleepwalkers in The Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 59, no. 18 (1962), pp.500503 [83] Pauli, "The Influence of Archetypical Ideas" [84] William Donahue, "A Novelist's Kepler," Journal for the History of Astronomy, Vol. 13 (1982), pp.135136; "Dancing the grave dance: Science, art and religion in John Banville's Kepler," English Studies, Vol. 86, no. 5 (October 2005), pp.424438 [85] Marcelo Gleiser, "Kepler in the Dock", review of Gilder and Gilder's Heavenly Intrigue, Journal for the History of Astronomy, Vol. 35, pt. 4 (2004), pp.487489 [86] Quote from Carl Sagan, Cosmos: A Personal Voyage, episode III: "The Harmony of the Worlds". Kepler was hardly the first to combine physics and astronomy; however, according to the traditional (though disputed) interpretation of the Scientific Revolution, he would be the first astrophysicist in the era of modern science. [87] "Eggenberg Palace coin" (http:/ / austrian-mint. at/ silbermuenzen?l=en& muenzeSubTypeId=108& muenzeId=336). Austrian Mint. . Retrieved September 9, 2009. [88] Ng, Jansen (July 3, 2009). "Kepler Mission Sets Out to Find Planets Using CCD Cameras" (http:/ / www. dailytech. com/ Kepler+ Mission+ Sets+ Out+ to+ Find+ Planets+ Using+ CCD+ Cameras/ article14421. htm). DailyTech. . Retrieved July 3, 2009. [89] Calendar of the Church Year according to the Episcopal Church (http:/ / satucket. com/ lectionary/ Calendar. htm) [90] http:/ / www. johannes. cz/ kepler. php

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The most complete biography of Kepler is Max Caspar's Kepler. Though there are a number of more recent biographies, most are based on Caspar's work with minimal original research; much of the information cited from Caspar can also be found in the books by Arthur Koestler, Kitty Ferguson, and James A. Connor. Owen Gingerich's The Eye of Heaven builds on Caspar's work to place Kepler in the broader intellectual context of early-modern astronomy. Many later studies have focused on particular elements of his life and work. Kepler's mathematics, cosmological, philosophical and historical views have been extensively analyzed in books and journal articles, though his astrological workand its relationship to his astronomyremains understudied.

Sources
Andersen, Hanne; Peter Barker; and Xiang Chen. The Cognitive Structure of Scientific Revolutions, chapter 6: "The Copernican Revolution." New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006. ISBN 0-521-85575-6 Armitage, Angus. John Kepler, Faber, 1966. Banville, John. Kepler, Martin, Secker and Warburg, London, 1981 (fictionalised biography) Barker, Peter and Bernard R. Goldstein: "Theological Foundations of Kepler's Astronomy". Osiris, Volume 16. Science in Theistic Contexts. University of Chicago Press, 2001, pp.88113 Caspar, Max. Kepler; transl. and ed. by C. Doris Hellman; with a new introduction and references by Owen Gingerich; bibliographic citations by Owen Gingerich and Alain Segonds. New York: Dover, 1993. ISBN 0-486-67605-6 Connor, James A. Kepler's Witch: An Astronomer's Discovery of Cosmic Order Amid Religious War, Political Intrigue, and the Heresy Trial of His Mother. HarperSanFrancisco, 2004. ISBN 0-06-052255-0 De Gandt, Francois. Force and Geometry in Newton's Principia, Translated by Curtis Wilson, Princeton University Press 1995. ISBN 0-691-03367-6 Dreyer, J. L. E. A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler. Dover Publications Inc, 1967. ISBN 0-486-60079-3 Ferguson, Kitty. The nobleman and his housedog: Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler: the strange partnership that revolutionized science. London: Review, 2002. ISBN 0-7472-7022-8 published in the US as: Tycho & Kepler: the unlikely partnership that forever changed our understanding of the heavens. New York: Walker, 2002. ISBN 0-8027-1390-4 Field, J. V.. Kepler's geometrical cosmology. Chicago University Press, 1988. ISBN 0-226-24823-2

Johannes Kepler Gilder, Joshua and Anne-Lee Gilder: Heavenly Intrigue: Johannes Kepler, Tycho Brahe, and the Murder Behind One of History's Greatest Scientific Discoveries, Doubleday (May 18, 2004). ISBN 0-385-50844-1 Reviews bookpage.com (http://www.bookpage.com/0407bp/nonfiction/heavenly_intrigue.html), crisismagazine.com (http://www.crisismagazine.com/october2004/book4.htm) Gingerich, Owen. The Eye of Heaven: Ptolemy, Copernicus, Kepler. American Institute of Physics, 1993. ISBN 0-88318-863-5 (Masters of modern physics; v. 7) Gingerich, Owen: "Kepler, Johannes" in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Volume VII. Charles Coulston Gillispie, editor. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973 Jardine, Nick: "Koyrs Kepler/Kepler's Koyr," History of Science, Vol. 38 (2000), pp.363376 Kepler, Johannes. Johannes Kepler New Astronomy trans. W. Donahue, forward by O. Gingerich, Cambridge University Press 1993. ISBN 0-521-30131-9 Kepler, Johannes and Christian Frisch. Joannis Kepleri Astronomi Opera Omnia (John Kepler, Astronomer; Complete Works), 8 vols.(18581871). vol. 1, 1858 (http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC12905968& id=dTMAAAAAQAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq="opera+omnia"+"Joannis+Kepleri+astronomi+"), vol. 2, 1859 (http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC12905968&id=gzMAAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA1&lpg=PA1& dq="Johannes+Kepler"#PPP12,M1), vol. 3,1860 (http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC12905968& id=qjMAAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA5&lpg=PA5&dq=Frisch+"kepler"), vol. 6, 1866 (http://books.google.com/ books?vid=OCLC12905968&id=xjMAAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP9&dq="Christian+Frisch"), vol. 7, 1868 (http:// books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC12905968&id=gMkKAAAAIAAJ&pg=PP16&lpg=PP16&dq=kepleri+ "heyder+&+zimmer"), Francofurti a.M. et Erlangae, Heyder & Zimmer, Google Books Kepler, Johannes, et al. Great Books of the Western World. Volume 16: Ptolemy, Copernicus, Kepler, Chicago: Encyclopdia Britannica, Inc., 1952. (contains English translations by of Kepler's Epitome, Books IV & V and Harmonices Book 5) Koestler, Arthur. The Sleepwalkers: A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe. (1959). ISBN 0-14-019246-8 Koyr, Alexandre: Galilean Studies Harvester Press 1977. ISBN 0-85527-354-2 Koyr, Alexandre: The Astronomical Revolution: Copernicus-Kepler-Borelli Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1973. ISBN 0-8014-0504-1; Methuen, 1973. ISBN 0-416-76980-2; Hermann, 1973. ISBN 2-7056-5648-0 Kuhn, Thomas S. The Copernican Revolution: Planetary Astronomy in the Development of Western Thought. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1957. ISBN 0-674-17103-9 Lindberg, David C.: "The Genesis of Kepler's Theory of Light: Light Metaphysics from Plotinus to Kepler." Osiris, N.S. 2. University of Chicago Press, 1986, pp.542. Lear, John. Kepler's Dream. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1965 M.T.K Al-Tamimi: Great collapse Kepler's first law, Natural Science 2 (2010), ISBN 2150 - 4091 North, John. The Fontana History of Astronomy and Cosmology, Fontana Press, 1994. ISBN 0-00-686177-6 Pannekoek, Anton: A History of Astronomy, Dover Publications Inc 1989. ISBN 0-486-65994-1 Pauli, Wolfgang. Wolfgang Pauli Writings on physics and philosophy, translated by Robert Schlapp and edited by P. Enz and Karl von Meyenn (Springer Verlag, Berlin, 1994). See section 21, The influence of archetypical ideas on the scientific theories of Kepler, concerning Johannes Kepler and Robert Fludd (15741637). ISBN 3-540-56859-X Schneer, Cecil: "Kepler's New Year's Gift of a Snowflake." Isis, Volume 51, No. 4. University of Chicago Press, 1960, pp.531545. Shapin, Steven. The Scientific Revolution. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996. ISBN 0-226-75020-5 Stephenson, Bruce. Kepler's physical astronomy. New York: Springer, 1987. ISBN 0-387-96541-6 (Studies in the history of mathematics and physical sciences; 13); reprinted Princeton:Princeton Univ. Pr., 1994. ISBN 0-691-03652-7

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Johannes Kepler Stephenson, Bruce. The Music of the Heavens: Kepler's Harmonic Astronomy, Princeton University Press, 1994. ISBN 0-691-03439-7 Toulmin, Stephen and June Goodfield. The Fabric of the Heavens: The Development of Astronomy and Dynamics. Pelican, 1963. Voelkel, James R. The Composition of Kepler's Astronomia nova, Princeton University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-691-00738-1 Westfall, Richard S.. The Construction of Modern Science: Mechanism and Mechanics. John Wiley and Sons, 1971. ISBN 0-471-93531-X; reprinted Cambridge University Press, 1978. ISBN 0-521-29295-6 Westfall, Richard S. Never at Rest: A Biography of Isaac Newton. Cambridge University Press, 1981. ISBN 0-521-23143-4 Wolf, A. A History of Science, Technology and Philosophy in the 16th and 17th centuries. George Allen & Unwin, 1950.

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External links
Kommission zur Herausgabe der Werke von Johannes Kepler (http://www.kepler-kommission.de/index.html) JohannesKepler.Info (http://www.johanneskepler.info) Kepler information and community website, launched on December 27, 2009 Harmonices mundi (http://posner.library.cmu.edu/Posner/books/book.cgi?call=520_K38PI) ("The Harmony of the Worlds") in fulltext facsimile; Carnegie-Mellon University Johannes Kepler (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kepler) entry by Daniel A. Di Liscia in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy De Stella Nova in Pede Serpentarii (http://contentdm.lindahall.org/u?/star_atlas,6264) ("On the new star in Ophiuchus's foot") in full text facsimile at Linda Hall Library Walter W. Bryant. Kepler at Project Gutenberg (1920 book, part of Men of Science series) Electronic facsimile-editions of the rare book collection at the Vienna Institute of Astronomy (http://www. univie.ac.at/hwastro/) Johannes Kepler (http://www.dmoz.org/Science/Astronomy/History/People/Kepler,_Johannes/) at the Open Directory Project Audio Cain/Gay (2010) Astronomy Cast (http://www.astronomycast.com/history/ ep-189-johannes-kepler-and-his-laws-of-planetary-motion/) Johannes Kepler and His Laws of Planetary Motion Christianson, Gale E., Kepler's Somnium: Science Fiction and the Renaissance Scientist (http://www.depauw. edu/sfs/backissues/8/christianson8art.htm) Kollerstrom, Nicholas, Kepler's Belief in Astrology (http://www.skyscript.co.uk/kepler2.html) References for Johannes Kepler (http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/References/Kepler.html) Plant, David, Kepler and the "Music of the Spheres" (http://www.skyscript.co.uk/kepler.html) Kepler, Napier, and the Third Law (http://www.mathpages.com/rr/s8-01/8-01.htm) at MathPages Caldern Urreiztieta, Carlos. Harmonice Mundi Animated and multimedia version of Book V (http://www. calderon-online.com/trabajos/kepler/harmonicemundi.html) Reading the mind of God (http://www.gabridge.com/full-long.html#God) 1997 drama based on his life by Patrick Gabridge Johannes Kepler (http://www.archive.org/details/JohannesKepler-henryIiiOfFrance_680) 2010 drama based on his life by Robert Lalonde O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Johannes Kepler" (http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/ Biographies/Kepler.html), MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews. Online Galleries, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries (http://hos.ou.edu/ galleries/16thCentury/Kepler/) High resolution images of works by and/or portraits of Johannes Kepler in .jpg and .tiff format.

Logarithm

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Logarithm
The logarithm of a number is the exponent by which another fixed value, the base, must be raised to produce that number. For example, the logarithm of 1000 to base 10 is 3, because 1000 is 10 to the power 3: 1000 = 10 10 10 = 103. More generally, if x = by, then y is the logarithm of x to baseb, and is written y = logb(x), so log10(1000) = 3. The logarithm to base b = 10 is called the common logarithm and has many applications in science and engineering. The natural logarithm has the constant e ( 2.718) as its base; its use is widespread in pure mathematics, especially calculus. The binary logarithm uses base b = 2 and is prominent in computer science.

Logarithms were introduced by John Napier in the early 17th century as a means to simplify calculations. They were rapidly adopted by navigators, scientists, engineers, and others to perform computations more easily, using slide rules and logarithm tables. Tedious multi-digit multiplication steps can be replaced by table look-ups and simpler addition because of the fact important in its own right that the logarithm of a product is the sum of the logarithms of the factors:

The graph of the logarithm to base 2 crosses the x axis (horizontal axis) at 1 and passes through the points with coordinates (2, 1), (4, 2), and (8, 3). For example, log2(8) = 3, because 23 = 8. The graph gets arbitrarily close to the y axis, but does not meet or intersect it.

The present-day notion of logarithms comes from Leonhard Euler, who connected them to the exponential function in the 18th century. Logarithmic scales reduce wide-ranging quantities to smaller scopes. For example, the decibel is a logarithmic unit quantifying sound pressure and voltage ratios. In chemistry, pH is a logarithmic measure for the acidity of an aqueous solution. Logarithms are commonplace in scientific formulae, and in measurements of the complexity of algorithms and of geometric objects called fractals. They describe musical intervals, appear in formulae counting prime numbers, inform some models in psychophysics, and can aid in forensic accounting. In the same way as the logarithm reverses exponentiation, the complex logarithm is the inverse function of the exponential function applied to complex numbers. The discrete logarithm is another variant; it has applications in public-key cryptography.

Motivation and definition

The idea of logarithms is to reverse the operation of exponentiation, that is raising a number to a power. For example, the third power (or cube) of 2 is 8, because 8 is the product of three factors of 2:

It follows that the logarithm of 8 with respect to base 2 is 3, so log28=3.

Exponentiation
The third power of some number b is the product of three factors of b. More generally, raising b to the n-th power, where n is a natural number, is done by multiplying n factors of b. The n-th power of b is written bn, so that

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Exponentation may be extended to by, where b is a positive number and the exponent y is any real number. For example, b1 is the reciprocal of b, that is, 1/b.[1]

Definition
The logarithm of a number x with respect to base b is the exponent by which b must be raised to yield x. In other words, the logarithm of x to base b is the solution y to the equation[2]

The logarithm is denoted "logb(x)" (pronounced as "the logarithm of x to base b" or "the base-b logarithm of x"). In the equation y = logb(x), the value y is the answer to the question "To what power must b be raised, in order to yield x?". To define the logarithm, the base b must be a positive real number not equal to 1 and x must be a positive number.[3]

Examples
For example, log2(16) = 4, since 24 = 2 2 2 2 = 16. Logarithms can also be negative:

since

A third example: log10(150) is approximately 2.176, which lies between 2 and 3, just as 150 lies between 102 = 100 and 103 = 1000. Finally, for any base b, logb(b) = 1 and logb(1) = 0, since b1 = b and b0 = 1, respectively.

Logarithmic identities
Several important formulas, sometimes called logarithmic identities or log laws, relate logarithms to one another.[4]

Product, quotient, power, and root

The logarithm of a product is the sum of the logarithms of the numbers being multiplied; the logarithm of the ratio of two numbers is the difference of the logarithms. The logarithm of the p-th power of a number is p times the logarithm of the number itself; the logarithm of a p-th root is the logarithm of the number divided by p. The following table lists these identities with examples:
Formula product quotient Example

power root

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Change of base
The logarithm logb(x) can be computed from the logarithms of x and b with respect to an arbitrary base k using the following formula:

Typical scientific calculators calculate the logarithms to bases 10 and e.[5] Logarithms with respect to any base b can be determined using either of these two logarithms by the previous formula:

Given a number x and its logarithm logb(x) to an unknown base b, the base is given by:

Particular bases
Among all choices for the base b, three are particularly common. These are b=10, b=e (the irrational mathematical constant 2.71828), and b=2. In mathematical analysis, the logarithm to base e is widespread because of its particular analytical properties explained below. On the other hand, base-10 logarithms are easy to use for manual calculations in the decimal number system:[6]

Thus, log10(x) is related to the number of decimal digits of a positive integer x: the number of digits is the smallest integer strictly bigger than log10(x).[7] For example, log10(1430) is approximately 3.15. The next integer is 4, which is the number of digits of 1430. The logarithm to base two is used in computer science, where the binary system is ubiquitous. The following table lists common notations for logarithms to these bases and the fields where they are used. Many disciplines write log(x) instead of logb(x), when the intended base can be determined from the context. The notation b log(x) also occurs.[8] The "ISO notation" column lists designations suggested by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO 31-11).[9]
Base b 2 Name for logb(x) binary logarithm ISO notation lb(x) [10] Other notations Used in

ld(x), log(x), lg(x)

computer science, information theory, mathematics mathematical analysis, physics, chemistry, statistics, economics, and some engineering fields

natural logarithm

ln(x)

[11]

log(x) (in mathematics and many programming [12] languages ) log(x) (in engineering, biology, astronomy),

10

common logarithm

lg(x)

various engineering fields (see decibel and see below), logarithm tables, handheld calculators

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History
Predecessors
The Babylonians sometime in 20001600 BC may have invented the quarter square multiplication algorithm to multiply two numbers using only addition, subtraction and a table of squares.[13][14] However it could not be used for division without an additional table of reciprocals. Large tables of quarter squares were used to simplify the accurate multiplication of large numbers from 1817 onwards until this was superseded by the use of computers. Michael Stifel published Arithmetica integra in Nuremberg in 1544, which contains a table[15] of integers and powers of 2 that has been considered an early version of a logarithmic table.[16][17] In the 16th and early 17th centuries an algorithm called prosthaphaeresis was used to approximate multiplication and division. This used the trigonometric identity

or similar to convert the multiplications to additions and table lookups. However logarithms are more straightforward and require less work. It can be shown using complex numbers that this is basically the same technique.

From Napier to Euler

The method of logarithms was publicly propounded by John Napier in 1614, in a book entitled Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio (Description of the Wonderful Rule of Logarithms).[18] Joost Brgi independently invented logarithms but published six years after Napier.[19] Johannes Kepler, who used logarithm tables extensively to compile his Ephemeris and therefore dedicated it to John Napier,[20] remarked: ...the accent in calculation led Justus Byrgius [Joost Brgi] on the way to these very logarithms many years before Napier's system appeared; but ...instead of rearing up his child for the public benefit he deserted it in the birth. Johannes Kepler[21],Rudolphine Tables (1627) By repeated subtractions Napier calculated (1 107)L for L ranging from 1 to 100. The result for L=100 is approximately 0.99999 = 1 John Napier (15501617), the inventor of logarithms 105. Napier then calculated the products of these numbers with 107(1 5 L 10 ) for L from 1 to 50, and did similarly with 0.9998 (1 105)20 and 0.9 0.99520. These computations, which occupied 20 years, allowed him to give, for any number N from 5 to 10 million, the number L that solves the equation

Napier first called L an "artificial number", but later introduced the word "logarithm" to mean a number that indicates a ratio: (logos) meaning proportion, and (arithmos) meaning number. In modern notation, the relation to natural logarithms is: [22]

where the very close approximation corresponds to the observation that

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The invention was quickly and widely met with acclaim. The works of Bonaventura Cavalieri (Italy), Edmund Wingate (France), Xue Fengzuo (China), and Johannes Kepler's Chilias logarithmorum (Germany) helped spread the concept further.[23] In 1647 Grgoire de Saint-Vincent related logarithms to the quadrature of the hyperbola, by pointing out that the area f(t) under the hyperbola from x = 1 to x = t satisfies

The natural logarithm was first described by Nicholas Mercator in his work Logarithmotechnia published in 1668,[24] although the mathematics teacher John Speidell had already in 1619 compiled a table on the natural logarithm.[25] Around 1730, Leonhard Euler defined the exponential function and the natural logarithm by

The hyperbola y = 1/x (red curve) and the area from x = 1 to 6 (shaded in orange).

Euler also showed that the two functions are inverse to one another.[26][27][28]

Logarithm tables, slide rules, and historical applications

By simplifying difficult calculations, logarithms contributed to the advance of science, and especially of astronomy. They were critical to advances in surveying, celestial navigation, and other domains. Pierre-Simon Laplace called logarithms

The 1797 Encyclopdia Britannica explanation of logarithms

"...[a]n admirable artifice which, by reducing to a few days the labour of many months, doubles the life of the astronomer, and spares him the errors and disgust inseparable from long calculations."[29] A key tool that enabled the practical use of logarithms before calculators and computers was the table of logarithms.[30] The first such table was compiled by Henry Briggs in 1617, immediately after Napier's invention. Subsequently, tables with increasing scope and precision were written. These tables listed the values of logb(x) and bx for any number x in a certain range, at a certain precision, for a certain base b (usually b = 10). For example, Briggs' first table contained the common logarithms of all integers in the range 11000, with a precision of 8 digits. As the function f(x) = bx is the inverse function of logb(x), it has been called the antilogarithm.[31] The product and quotient of two positive numbers c and d were routinely calculated as the sum and difference of their logarithms. The product cd or quotient c/d came from looking up the antilogarithm of the sum or difference, also via the same table:

and

Logarithm For manual calculations that demand any appreciable precision, performing the lookups of the two logarithms, calculating their sum or difference, and looking up the antilogarithm is much faster than performing the multiplication by earlier methods such as prosthaphaeresis, which relies on trigonometric identities. Calculations of powers and roots are reduced to multiplications or divisions and look-ups by

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and

Many logarithm tables give logarithms by separately providing the characteristic and mantissa of x, that is to say, the integer part and the fractional part of log10(x).[32] The characteristic of 10 x is one plus the characteristic of x, and their significands are the same. This extends the scope of logarithm tables: given a table listing log10(x) for all integers x ranging from 1 to 1000, the logarithm of 3542 is approximated by

Another critical application was the slide rule, a pair of logarithmically divided scales used for calculation, as illustrated here:

Schematic depiction of a slide rule. Starting from 2 on the lower scale, add the distance to 3 on the upper scale to reach the product 6. The slide rule works because it is marked such that the distance from 1 to x is proportional to the logarithm of x.

The non-sliding logarithmic scale, Gunter's rule, was invented shortly after Napier's invention. William Oughtred enhanced it to create the slide rulea pair of logarithmic scales movable with respect to each other. Numbers are placed on sliding scales at distances proportional to the differences between their logarithms. Sliding the upper scale appropriately amounts to mechanically adding logarithms. For example, adding the distance from 1 to 2 on the lower scale to the distance from 1 to 3 on the upper scale yields a product of 6, which is read off at the lower part. The slide rule was an essential calculating tool for engineers and scientists until the 1970s, because it allows, at the expense of precision, much faster computation than techniques based on tables.[26]

Analytic properties
A deeper study of logarithms requires the concept of a function. A function is a rule that, given one number, produces another number.[33] An example is the function producing the x-th power of b from any real number x, where the base b is a fixed number. This function is written

Logarithmic function
To justify the definition of logarithms, it is necessary to show that the equation

has a solution x and that this solution is unique, provided that y is positive and that b is positive and unequal to 1. A proof of that fact requires the intermediate value theorem from elementary calculus.[34] This theorem states that a continuous function that produces two values m and n also produces any value that lies between m and n. A function

Logarithm is continuous if it does not "jump", that is, if its graph can be drawn without lifting the pen. This property can be shown to hold for the function f(x) = bx. Because f takes arbitrarily large and arbitrarily small positive values, any number y > 0 lies between f(x0) and f(x1) for suitable x0 and x1. Hence, the intermediate value theorem ensures that the equation f(x) = y has a solution. Moreover, there is only one solution to this equation, because the function f is strictly increasing (for b > 1), or strictly decreasing (for 0 < b < 1).[35] The unique solution x is the logarithm of y to base b, logb(y). The function that assigns to y its logarithm is called logarithm function or logarithmic function (or just logarithm).

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Inverse function
The formula for the logarithm of a power says in particular that for any number x,

In prose, taking the x-th power of b and then the base-b logarithm gives back x. Conversely, given a positive number y, the formula

says that first taking the logarithm and then exponentiating gives back y. Thus, the two possible ways of combining (or composing) logarithms and exponentiation give back the original number. Therefore, the logarithm to base b is the inverse function of f(x) = bx.[36] Inverse functions are closely related to the original functions. Their The graph of the logarithm function logb(x) (blue) graphs correspond to each other upon exchanging the x- and the is obtained by reflecting the graph of the function y-coordinates (or upon reflection at the diagonal line x = y), as shown bx (red) at the diagonal line (x = y). t at the right: a point (t, u = b ) on the graph of f yields a point (u, t = logbu) on the graph of the logarithm and vice versa. As a consequence, logb(x) diverges to infinity (gets bigger than any given number) if x grows to infinity, provided that b is greater than one. In that case, logb(x) is an increasing function. For b < 1, logb(x) tends to minus infinity instead. When x approaches zero, logb(x) goes to minus infinity for b > 1 (plus infinity for b < 1, respectively).

Derivative and antiderivative

Analytic properties of functions pass to their inverses.[34] Thus, as f(x) = bx is a continuous and differentiable function, so is logb(y). Roughly, a continuous function is differentiable if its graph has no sharp "corners". Moreover, as the derivative of f(x) evaluates to ln(b)bx by the properties of the exponential function, the chain rule implies that the derivative of logb(x) is given by[35][37]

The graph of the natural logarithm (green) and its tangent at x = 1.5 (black) That is, the slope of the tangent touching the graph of the base-b logarithm at the point (x, logb(x)) equals 1/(x ln(b)). In particular, the derivative of ln(x) is 1/x, which implies that the antiderivative of 1/x is ln(x) + C. The derivative with a generalised functional argument f(x) is

Logarithm The quotient at the right hand side is called the logarithmic derivative of f. Computing f'(x) by means of the derivative of ln(f(x)) is known as logarithmic differentiation.[38] The antiderivative of the natural logarithm ln(x) is:[39]

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Related formulas, such as antiderivatives of logarithms to other bases can be derived from this equation using the change of bases.[40]

Integral representation of the natural logarithm

The natural logarithm of t agrees with the integral of 1/xdx from 1 to t:

In other words, ln(t) equals the area between the x axis and the graph of the function 1/x, ranging from x = 1 to x = t (figure at the right). This is a consequence of the fundamental theorem of calculus and the fact that derivative of ln(x) is 1/x. The right hand side of this equation can serve as a definition of the natural logarithm. Product and power logarithm formulas can be derived from this definition.[41] For example, the product formula ln(tu) = ln(t) + ln(u) is deduced as:

The natural logarithm of t is the shaded area underneath the graph of the function f(x) = 1/x (reciprocal of x).

The equality (1) splits the integral into two parts, while the equality (2) is a change of variable (w = x/t). In the illustration below, the splitting corresponds to dividing the area into the yellow and blue parts. Rescaling the left hand blue area vertically by the factor t and shrinking it by the same factor horizontally does not change its size. Moving it appropriately, the area fits the graph of the function f(x) = 1/x again. Therefore, the left hand blue area, which is the integral of f(x) from t to tu is the same as the integral from 1 to u. This justifies the equality (2) with a more geometric proof.

A visual proof of the product formula of the natural logarithm

The power formula ln(tr) = r ln(t) may be derived in a similar way:

The second equality uses a change of variables (integration by substitution), w = x1/r. The sum over the reciprocals of natural numbers,

is called the harmonic series. It is closely tied to the natural logarithm: as n tends to infinity, the difference,

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converges (i.e., gets arbitrarily close) to a number known as the EulerMascheroni constant. This relation aids in analyzing the performance of algorithms such as quicksort.[42] There is also another integral representation of the logarithm that is useful in some situations.

This can be verified by showing that it has the same value at x = 1, and the same derivative.

Transcendence of the logarithm

The logarithm is an example of a transcendental function and from a theoretical point of view, the GelfondSchneider theorem asserts that logarithms usually take "difficult" values. The formal statement relies on the notion of algebraic numbers, which includes all rational numbers, but also numbers such as the square root of 2 or

Complex numbers that are not algebraic are called transcendental;[43] for example, and e are such numbers. Almost all complex numbers are transcendental. Using these notions, the GelfondScheider theorem states that given two algebraic numbers a and b, logb(a) is either a transcendental number or a rational number p / q (in which case aq = bp, so a and b were closely related to begin with).[44]

Calculation
Logarithms are easy to compute in some cases, such as log10(1,000) = 3. In general, logarithms can be calculated using power series or the arithmetic-geometric mean, or be retrieved from a precalculated logarithm table that provides a fixed precision.[45][46] Newton's method, an iterative method to solve equations approximately, can also be used to calculate the logarithm, because its inverse function, the exponential function, can be computed efficiently.[47] Using look-up tables, CORDIC-like methods can be used to compute logarithms if the only available operations are addition and bit shifts.[48][49] Moreover, the binary logarithm algorithm calculates lb(x) recursively based on repeated squarings of x, taking advantage of the relation

Power series
Taylor series For any real number z that satisfies 0 < z < 2, the following formula holds:[50][51]

This is a shorthand for saying that ln(z) can be approximated to a more and more accurate value by the following expressions:
The Taylor series ofln(z) centered atz=1. The animation shows the first10 approximations along with the 99th and 100th. The approximations do not converge beyond a distance of 1 from the center.

Logarithm For example, with z = 1.5 the third approximation yields 0.4167, which is about 0.011 greater than ln(1.5) = 0.405465. This series approximates ln(z) with arbitrary precision, provided the number of summands is large enough. In elementary calculus, ln(z) is therefore the limit of this series. It is the Taylor series of the natural logarithm at z = 1. The Taylor series of ln z provides a particularly useful approximation to ln(1+z) when z is small, |z| << 1, since then

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For example, with z = 0.1 the first-order approximation gives ln(1.1) 0.1, which is less than 5% off the correct value 0.0953. More efficient series Another series is based on the area hyperbolic tangent function:

for any real number z > 0.[52][51] Using the Sigma notation, this is also written as

This series can be derived from the above Taylor series. It converges more quickly than the Taylor series, especially if z is close to 1. For example, for z = 1.5, the first three terms of the second series approximate ln(1.5) with an error of about 3106. The quick convergence for z close to 1 can be taken advantage of in the following way: given a low-accuracy approximation y ln(z) and putting

the logarithm of z is:

The better the initial approximation y is, the closer A is to 1, so its logarithm can be calculated efficiently. A can be calculated using the exponential series, which converges quickly provided y is not too large. Calculating the logarithm of larger z can be reduced to smaller values of z by writing z = a 10b, so that ln(z) = ln(a) + b ln(10). A closely related method can be used to compute the logarithm of integers. From the above series, it follows that:

If the logarithm of a large integer n is known, then this series yields a fast converging series for log(n+1).

Arithmetic-geometric mean approximation

The arithmetic-geometric mean yields high precision approximations of the natural logarithm. ln(x) is approximated to a precision of 2p (or p precise bits) by the following formula (due to Carl Friedrich Gauss):[53][54]

Here M denotes the arithmetic-geometric mean. It is obtained by repeatedly calculating the average (arithmetic mean) and the square root of the product of two numbers (geometric mean). Moreover, m is chosen such that

Both the arithmetic-geometric mean and the constants and ln(2) can be calculated with quickly converging series.

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Applications
Logarithms have many applications inside and outside mathematics. Some of these occurrences are related to the notion of scale invariance. For example, each chamber of the shell of a nautilus is an approximate copy of the next one, scaled by a constant factor. This gives rise to a logarithmic spiral.[55] Benford's law on the distribution of leading digits can also be explained by scale invariance.[56] Logarithms are also linked to self-similarity. For example, logarithms appear in the analysis of algorithms that solve a problem by dividing it into two similar smaller problems and patching their solutions.[57] The A nautilus displaying a logarithmic spiral dimensions of self-similar geometric shapes, that is, shapes whose parts resemble the overall picture are also based on logarithms. Logarithmic scales are useful for quantifying the relative change of a value as opposed to its absolute difference. Moreover, because the logarithmic function log(x) grows very slowly for large x, logarithmic scales are used to compress large-scale scientific data. Logarithms also occur in numerous scientific formulas, such as the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation, the Fenske equation, or the Nernst equation.

Logarithmic scale
Scientific quantities are often expressed as logarithms of other quantities, using a logarithmic scale. For example, the decibel is a logarithmic unit of measurement. It is based on the common logarithm of ratios 10 times the common logarithm of a power ratio or 20 times the common logarithm of a voltage ratio. It is used to quantify the loss of voltage levels in transmitting electrical signals,[58] to describe power levels of sounds in acoustics,[59] and the absorbance of light in the fields of spectrometry and optics. The signal-to-noise ratio describing the amount of unwanted noise in relation to a (meaningful) signal is also measured in decibels.[60] In a similar vein, the peak signal-to-noise ratio is commonly used to assess the quality of sound and image compression methods using the logarithm.[61] The strength of an earthquake is measured by taking the common logarithm of the energy emitted at the quake. This is used in the A logarithmic chart depicting the value of one moment magnitude scale or the Richter scale. For example, a 5.0 Goldmark in Papiermarks during the German earthquake releases 10 times and a 6.0 releases 100 times the energy of hyperinflation in the 1920s a 4.0.[62] Another logarithmic scale is apparent magnitude. It measures the brightness of stars logarithmically.[63] Yet another example is pH in chemistry; pH is the negative of the common logarithm of the activity of hydronium ions (the form hydrogen ions H+ take in water).[64] The activity of hydronium ions in neutral water is 107molL1, hence a pH of 7. Vinegar typically has a pH of about 3. The difference of 4 corresponds to a ratio of 104 of the activity, that is, vinegar's hydronium ion activity is about 103molL1. Semilog (log-linear) graphs use the logarithmic scale concept for visualization: one axis, typically the vertical one, is scaled logarithmically. For example, the chart at the right compresses the steep increase from 1 million to 1 trillion to the same space (on the vertical axis) as the increase from 1 to 1 million. In such graphs, exponential functions of the form f(x) = a bx appear as straight lines with slope equal to the logarithm of b. Log-log graphs scale both axes logarithmically, which causes functions of the form f(x) = a xk to be depicted as straight lines with slope equal to the exponent k. This is applied in visualizing and analyzing power laws.[65]

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Psychology
Logarithms occur in several laws describing human perception:[66][67] Hick's law proposes a logarithmic relation between the time individuals take for choosing an alternative and the number of choices they have.[68] Fitts's law predicts that the time required to rapidly move to a target area is a logarithmic function of the distance to and the size of the target.[69] In psychophysics, the WeberFechner law proposes a logarithmic relationship between stimulus and sensation such as the actual vs. the perceived weight of an item a person is carrying.[70] (This "law", however, is less precise than more recent models, such as the Stevens' power law.[71]) Psychological studies found that mathematically unsophisticated individuals tend to estimate quantities logarithmically, that is, they position a number on an unmarked line according to its logarithm, so that 10 is positioned as close to 20 as 100 is to 200. Increasing mathematical understanding shifts this to a linear estimate (positioning 100 10x as far away).[72][73]

Probability theory and statistics

Logarithms arise in probability theory: the law of large numbers dictates that, for a fair coin, as the number of coin-tosses increases to infinity, the observed proportion of heads approaches one-half. The fluctuations of this proportion about one-half are described by the law of the iterated logarithm.[74] Logarithms also occur in log-normal distributions. When the logarithm of a random variable has a normal distribution, the variable is said to have a log-normal distribution.[75] Log-normal distributions are encountered in many fields, wherever a variable is formed as the product of many independent positive random variables, for example in the study of turbulence.[76] Logarithms are used for maximum-likelihood estimation of parametric statistical models. For such a model, the likelihood function depends on at least one parameter that must be estimated. A maximum of the likelihood function occurs at the same parameter-value as a maximum of the logarithm of the likelihood (the "loglikelihood"), because the logarithm is an increasing function. The log-likelihood is easier to maximize, especially for the multiplied likelihoods for independent random variables.[77] Benford's law describes the occurrence of digits in many data sets, such as heights of buildings. According to Benford's law, the probability that the first decimal-digit of an item in the data sample is d (from 1 to 9) equals log10(d + 1) log10(d), regardless of the unit of measurement.[78] Thus, about 30% of the data can be expected to have 1 as first digit, 18% start with 2, etc. Auditors examine deviations from Benford's law to detect fraudulent accounting.[79]

Three probability density functions (PDF) of random variables with log-normal distributions. The location parameter , which is zero for all three of the PDFs shown, is the mean of the logarithm of the random variable, not the mean of the variable itself.

Distribution of first digits (in %, red bars) in the population of the 237 countries of the world. Black dots indicate the distribution predicted by Benford's law.

Computational complexity
Analysis of algorithms is a branch of computer science that studies the performance of algorithms (computer programs solving a certain problem).[80] Logarithms are valuable for describing algorithms that divide a problem

Logarithm into smaller ones, and join the solutions of the subproblems.[81] For example, to find a number in a sorted list, the binary search algorithm checks the middle entry and proceeds with the half before or after the middle entry if the number is still not found. This algorithm requires, on average, log2(N) comparisons, where N is the list's length.[82] Similarly, the merge sort algorithm sorts an unsorted list by dividing the list into halves and sorting these first before merging the results. Merge sort algorithms typically require a time approximately proportional to N log(N).[83] The base of the logarithm is not specified here, because the result only changes by a constant factor when another base is used. A constant factor, is usually disregarded in the analysis of algorithms under the standard uniform cost model.[84] A function f(x) is said to grow logarithmically if f(x) is (exactly or approximately) proportional to the logarithm of x. (Biological descriptions of organism growth, however, use this term for an exponential function.[85]) For example, any natural number N can be represented in binary form in no more than log2(N) + 1 bits. In other words, the amount of memory needed to store N grows logarithmically with N.

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Entropy and chaos

Entropy is broadly a measure of the disorder of some system. In statistical thermodynamics, the entropy S of some physical system is defined as

The sum is over all possible states i of the system in question, such as Billiards on an oval billiard table. Two particles, the positions of gas particles in a container. Moreover, pi is the starting at the center with an angle differing by probability that the state i is attained and k is the Boltzmann constant. one degree, take paths that diverge chaotically Similarly, entropy in information theory measures the quantity of because of reflections at the boundary. information. If a message recipient may expect any one of N possible messages with equal likelihood, then the amount of information conveyed by any one such message is quantified as log2(N) bits.[86] Lyapunov exponents use logarithms to gauge the degree of chaoticity of a dynamical system. For example, for a particle moving on an oval billiard table, even small changes of the initial conditions result in very different paths of the particle. Such systems are chaotic in a deterministic way, because small measurement errors of the initial state predictably lead to largely different final states.[87] At least one Lyapunov exponent of a deterministically chaotic system is positive.

Fractals
Logarithms occur in definitions of the dimension of fractals.[88] Fractals are geometric objects that are self-similar: small parts reproduce, at least roughly, The Sierpinski triangle (at the right) is constructed by repeatedly replacing equilateral the entire global structure. The triangles by three smaller ones. Sierpinski triangle (pictured) can be covered by three copies of itself, each having sides half the original length. This makes the Hausdorff dimension of this structure log(3)/log(2) 1.58. Another logarithm-based notion of dimension is obtained by counting the number of boxes needed to cover the fractal in question.

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Music

Logarithms are related to musical tones and intervals. In equal temperament, the frequency ratio depends only on the interval between two tones, not on the specific frequency, or pitch, of the individual tones. For example, the note A has a frequency of 440 Hz and B-flat has a frequency of 466Hz. The interval between A and B-flat is a semitone, as is the one between B-flat and B (frequency 493Hz). Accordingly, the frequency ratios agree:

Therefore, logarithms can be used to describe the intervals: an interval is measured in semitones by taking the base-21/12 logarithm of the frequency ratio, while the base-21/1200 logarithm of the frequency ratio expresses the interval in cents, hundredths of a semitone. The latter is used for finer encoding, as it is needed for non-equal temperaments.[89]
Interval (the two tones are played at the same time) Frequency ratio r 1/12 tone play Semitone play Just major third play Major third play Tritone play Octave play

Corresponding number of semitones

Corresponding number of cents

Number theory
Natural logarithms are closely linked to counting prime numbers (2, 3, 5, 7, 11, ...), an important topic in number theory. For any integer x, the quantity of prime numbers less than or equal to x is denoted (x). The prime number theorem asserts that (x) is approximately given by

in the sense that the ratio of (x) and that fraction approaches 1 when x tends to infinity.[90] As a consequence, the probability that a randomly chosen number between 1 and x is prime is inversely proportional to the numbers of decimal digits of x. A far better estimate of (x) is given by the offset logarithmic integral function Li(x), defined by

The Riemann hypothesis, one of the oldest open mathematical conjectures, can be stated in terms of comparing (x) and Li(x).[91] The ErdsKac theorem describing the number of distinct prime factors also involves the natural logarithm. The logarithm of n factorial, n! = 1 2 ... n, is given by

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152

This can be used to obtain Stirling's formula, an approximation of n! for large n.[92]

Generalizations
Complex logarithm
The complex numbers a solving the equation

are called complex logarithms. Here, z is a complex number. A complex number is commonly represented as z = x + iy, where x and y are real numbers and i is the imaginary unit. Such a number can be visualized by a point in the complex plane, as shown at the right. The polar form encodes a non-zero complex number z by its absolute value, that is, the distance r to the origin, and an angle between the x axis and the line passing through the origin and z. This angle is called the argument of z. The absolute value r of z is

The argument is not uniquely specified by z: both and ' = + 2 arguments of z. are arguments of z because adding 2 radians or 360 degrees[93] to corresponds to "winding" around the origin counter-clock-wise by a turn. The resulting complex number is again z, as illustrated at the right. However, exactly one argument satisfies < and . It is called the principal argument, denoted Arg(z), with a capital A.[94] (An alternative normalization is 0 Arg(z) < 2.[95]) Using trigonometric functions sine and cosine, or the complex exponential, respectively, r and are such that the following identities hold:[96]

Polar form of z = x + iy. Both and ' are

This implies that the a-th power of e equals z, where

is the principal argument Arg(z) and n is an arbitrary integer. Any such a is called a complex logarithm of z. There are infinitely many of them, in contrast to the uniquely defined real logarithm. If n = 0, a is called the principal value of the logarithm, denoted Log(z). The principal argument of any positive real number x is 0; hence Log(x) is a real number and equals the real (natural) logarithm. However, the above formulas for logarithms of products and powers do not generalize to the principal value of the complex logarithm.[97]

The principal branch of the complex logarithm, Log(z). The black point at z = 1 corresponds to absolute value zero and brighter (more saturated) colors refer to bigger absolute values. The hue of the color encodes the argument of Log(z).

The illustration at the right depicts Log(z). The discontinuity, that is, the jump in the hue at the negative part of the x- or real axis, is caused by the jump of the principal argument there. This locus is called a branch cut. This behavior can only be circumvented by dropping the range restriction on . Then the argument of z and, consequently, its logarithm become multi-valued functions.

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153

Inverses of other exponential functions

Exponentiation occurs in many areas of mathematics and its inverse function is often referred to as the logarithm. For example, the logarithm of a matrix is the (multi-valued) inverse function of the matrix exponential.[98] Another example is the p-adic logarithm, the inverse function of the p-adic exponential. Both are defined via Taylor series analogous to the real case.[99] In the context of differential geometry, the exponential map maps the tangent space at a point of a manifold to a neighborhood of that point. Its inverse is also called the logarithmic (or log) map.[100] In the context of finite groups exponentiation is given by repeatedly multiplying one group element b with itself. The discrete logarithm is the integer n solving the equation

where x is an element of the group. Carrying out the exponentiation can be done efficiently, but the discrete logarithm is believed to be very hard to calculate in some groups. This asymmetry has important applications in public key cryptography, such as for example in the DiffieHellman key exchange, a routine that allows secure exchanges of cryptographic keys over unsecured information channels.[101] Zech's logarithm is related to the discrete logarithm in the multiplicative group of non-zero elements of a finite field.[102] Further logarithm-like inverse functions include the double logarithm ln(ln(x)), the super- or hyper-4-logarithm (a slight variation of which is called iterated logarithm in computer science), the Lambert W function, and the logit. They are the inverse functions of the double exponential function, tetration, of f(w) = wew,[103] and of the logistic function, respectively.[104]

Related concepts
From the perspective of pure mathematics, the identity log(cd) = log(c) + log(d) expresses a group isomorphism between positive reals under multiplication and reals under addition. Logarithmic functions are the only continuous isomorphisms between these groups.[105] By means of that isomorphism, the Haar measure (Lebesgue measure) dx on the reals corresponds to the Haar measure dx/x on the positive reals.[106] In complex analysis and algebraic geometry, differential forms of the form df/f are known as forms with logarithmic poles.[107] The polylogarithm is the function defined by

It is related to the natural logarithm by Li1(z) = ln(1 z). Moreover, Lis(1) equals the Riemann zeta function (s).[108]

Notes
[1] For further details, including the formula bm + n = bm bn, see exponentiation or Shirali, Shailesh (2002), A Primer on Logarithms (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=0b0igbb3WaQC& printsec=frontcover#v=onepage& q& f=false), Hyderabad: Universities Press, ISBN978-81-7371-414-6, , esp. section 2 for an elementary treatise. [2] Kate, S.K.; Bhapkar, H.R. (2009), Basics Of Mathematics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=v4R0GSJtEQ4C& pg=PR1#v=onepage& q& f=false), Pune: Technical Publications, ISBN978-81-8431-755-8, , chapter 1 [3] The restrictions on x and b are explained in the section "Analytic properties". [4] All statements in this section can be found in Shailesh Shirali2002, section 4, (Douglas Downing2003, p. 275), or Kate & Bhapkar2009, p. 1-1, for example. [5] Bernstein, Stephen; Bernstein, Ruth (1999), Schaum's outline of theory and problems of elements of statistics. I, Descriptive statistics and probability, Schaum's outline series, New York: McGraw-Hill, ISBN978-0-07-005023-5, p. 21 [6] Downing, Douglas (2003), Algebra the Easy Way, Barron's Educational Series, Hauppauge, N.Y.: Barron's, ISBN978-0-7641-1972-9, chapter 17, p. 275 [7] Wegener, Ingo (2005), Complexity theory: exploring the limits of efficient algorithms, Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN978-3-540-21045-0, p. 20 [8] Franz Embacher; Petra Oberhuemer (in German), Mathematisches Lexikon (http:/ / www. mathe-online. at/ mathint/ lexikon/ l. html), mathe online: fr Schule, Fachhochschule, Universitt unde Selbststudium, , retrieved 22/03/2011

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[9] B. N. Taylor (1995), Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI) (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ Pubs/ SP811/ sec10. html#10. 1. 2), US Department of Commerce, [10] Gullberg, Jan (1997), Mathematics: from the birth of numbers., New York: W. W. Norton & Co, ISBN978-0-393-04002-9 [11] Some mathematicians disapprove of this notation. In his 1985 autobiography, Paul Halmos criticized what he considered the "childish ln notation," which he said no mathematician had ever used. Paul Halmos (1985), I Want to Be a Mathematician: An Automathography, Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN978-0-387-96078-4 The notation was invented by Irving Stringham, a mathematician. Irving Stringham (1893), Uniplanar algebra: being part I of a propdeutic to the higher mathematical analysis (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=hPEKAQAAIAAJ& pg=PR13& dq="Irving+ Stringham"+ In-natural-logarithm& q=), The Berkeley Press, p.xiii, Roy S. Freedman (2006), Introduction to Financial Technology (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=APJ7QeR_XPkC& pg=PA59& dq="Irving+ Stringham"+ logarithm+ ln& q="Irving Stringham" logarithm ln), Amsterdam: Academic Press, p.59, ISBN978-0-12-370478-8, [12] For example C, Java, Haskell, and BASIC. [13] McFarland, David (2007), Quarter Tables Revisited: Earlier Tables, Division of Labor in Table Construction, and Later Implementations in Analog Computers (http:/ / escholarship. org/ uc/ item/ 5n31064n), p.1, [14] Robson, Eleanor (2008). Mathematics in Ancient Iraq: A Social History. p.227. ISBN978-0691091822. [15] Stifelio, Michaele (1544), Arithmetica Integra (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=fndPsRv08R0C& pg=RA1-PT419), London: Iohan Petreium, [16] Bukhshtab, A.A.; Pechaev, V.I. (2001), "Arithmetic" (http:/ / www. encyclopediaofmath. org/ index. php?title=A/ a013260), in Hazewinkel, Michiel, Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer, ISBN978-1-55608-010-4, [17] Vivian Shaw Groza and Susanne M. 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[104] Cherkassky, Vladimir; Cherkassky, Vladimir S.; Mulier, Filip (2007), Learning from data: concepts, theory, and methods, Wiley series on adaptive and learning systems for signal processing, communications, and control, New York: John Wiley & Sons, ISBN978-0-471-68182-3, p. 357 [105] Bourbaki, Nicolas (1998), General topology. Chapters 510, Elements of Mathematics, Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN978-3-540-64563-4, MR1726872, section V.4.1 [106] Ambartzumian, R. V. (1990), Factorization calculus and geometric probability, Cambridge University Press, ISBN978-0-521-34535-4, section 1.4 [107] Esnault, Hlne; Viehweg, Eckart (1992), Lectures on vanishing theorems, DMV Seminar, 20, Basel, Boston: Birkhuser Verlag, ISBN978-3-7643-2822-1, MR1193913, section 2 [108] Apostol, T.M. (2010), "Logarithm" (http:/ / dlmf. nist. gov/ 25. 12), in Olver, Frank W. J.; Lozier, Daniel M.; Boisvert, Ronald F. et al., NIST Handbook of Mathematical Functions, Cambridge University Press, ISBN978-0521192255, MR2723248,

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References External links

Khan Academy: Logarithms, free online micro lectures (https://www.khanacademy.org/math/algebra/ logarithms-tutorial) Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001), "Logarithmic function" (http://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index. php?title=p/l060600), Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer, ISBN978-1-55608-010-4 Colin Byfleet, Educational video on logarithms (http://mediasite.oddl.fsu.edu/mediasite/Viewer/ ?peid=003298f9a02f468c8351c50488d6c479), retrieved 12/10/2010 Edward Wright, Translation of Napier's work on logarithms (http://johnnapier.com/table_of_logarithms_001. htm), retrieved 12/10/2010

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John Napier
John Napier

John Napier (15501617) Born 1550 Merchiston Tower, Edinburgh 4 April 1617 (aged6667) Edinburgh Scottish Mathematician

Died

Nationality Fields

Alma mater University of St Andrews Knownfor Logarithms Napier's bones Decimal notation Henry Briggs

Influenced

John Napier of Merchiston (1550 4 April 1617) also signed as Neper, Nepair named Marvellous Merchiston, was a Scottish landowner known as a mathematician, physicist, astronomer and astrologer. He was the 8th Laird of Merchistoun. John Napier is best known as the discoverer of logarithms. He was also the inventor of the so-called "Napier's bones". Napier also made common the use of the decimal point in arithmetic and mathematics. Napier's birthplace, Merchiston Tower in Edinburgh, Scotland, is now part of the facilities of Edinburgh Napier University. After his death from the effects of gout, Napier's remains were buried in St Cuthbert's Church, Edinburgh.

Early life
Napier's father was Sir Archibald Napier of Merchiston Castle, and his mother was Janet Both well, daughter of the politician and judge Francis Both well, Lord of Session, and a sister of Adam Both well who became the Bishop of Orkney. Archibald Napier was 16 years old when John Napier was born. As was the common practice for members of the nobility at that time, John Napier did not enter schools until he was 13. He did not stay in school very long, however. It is believed that he dropped out of school in Scotland and perhaps traveled in mainland Europe to better continue his studies. Little is known about those years, where, when, or with whom he might have studied, although his uncle Adam Both well wrote a letter to John's father on 5 December 1560, saying "I pray you, sir, to send John to the schools either to France or Flanders, for he can learn no good at home", and it is believed that this advice was followed.

John Napier In 1571 Napier, aged 21, returned to Scotland, and bought a castle at Gartness in 1574. On the death of his father in 1608, Napier and his family moved into Merchiston Castle in Edinburgh, where he resided the remainder of his life.

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Advances in mathematics
His work, Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio (1614) contained fifty-seven pages of explanatory matter and ninety pages of tables of numbers related to natural logarithms. The book also has an excellent discussion of theorems in spherical trigonometry, usually known as Napier's Rules of Circular Parts. Modern English translations of both Napier's books on logarithms, and their description can be found on the web, as well as a discussion of Napier's Bones (see below) and Promptuary (another early calculating device).[1] His invention of logarithms was quickly taken up at Gresham College, and prominent English mathematician Henry Briggs visited Napier in 1615. Among the matters they discussed was a re-scaling of Napier's logarithms, in which the presence of the mathematical constant e (more accurately, e times a large power of 10 rounded to an integer) was a practical difficulty. Napier delegated to Briggs the computation of a revised table. The computational advance available via logarithms, the converse of powered numbers or exponential notation, was such that it made calculations by hand much quicker.[2] The way was opened to later scientific advances, in astronomy, dynamics, physics; and also in astrology. Napier made further contributions. He improved Simon Stevin's decimal notation. Arab lattice multiplication, used by Fibonacci, was made more convenient by his introduction of Napier's bones, a multiplication tool using a set of numbered rods. Napier may have worked largely in isolation, but he had contact with Tycho Brahe who corresponded with his friend John Craig. Craig certainly announced the discovery of logarithms to Brahe in the 1590s (the name itself came later); there is a story from Anthony Wood, perhaps not well substantiated, that Napier had a hint from Craig that Longomontanus, a follower of Brahe, was working in a similar direction. It has been shown that Craig had notes on a method of Paul Wittich that used trigonometric identities to reduce a multiplication formula for the sine function to additions.[3]

Bust of Napier, holding his 'bones', at the Craighouse Campus of Napier University, Edinburgh

An ivory set of Napier's Bones from around 1650

A set of Napier's calculating tables from around 1680

Theology
Napier had an interest in the Book of Revelation, from his student days at St Salvator's College, St Andrews. Under the influence of the sermons of Christopher Goodman, he developed a strongly anti-papal reading.[2] He further used the Book of Revelation for chronography, to predict the Apocalypse, in A Plaine Discovery of the Whole Revelation of St. John (1593), which he regarded as his most important work; he also applied the Sibylline Oracles, to calculate the date of the end of the world.[4] Napier believed that would occur in 1688 or 1700. He dated the seventh trumpet to 1541.[5]

John Napier In his dedication of the Plaine Discovery to James VI, dated 29 Jan 1594,[6] Napier urged the king to see "that justice be done against the enemies of God's church," and counselled the King "to reform the universal enormities of his country, and first to begin at his own house, family, and court." The volume includes nine pages of Napier's English verse. It met with success at home and abroad. In 1600 Michiel Panneel produced a Dutch translation, and this reached a second edition in 1607. In 1602 the work appeared at La Rochelle in a French version, by Georges Thomson, revised by Napier, and that also went through several editions (1603, 1605, and 1607). A new edition of the English original was called for in 1611, when it was revised and corrected by the author, and enlarged by the addition of A Resolution of certain Doubts proponed by well-affected brethren; this appeared simultaneously at Edinburgh and London. The author stated that he still intended to publish a Latin edition, but it never appeared. A German translation, by Leo de Dromna, of the first part of Napier's work appeared at Gera in 1611, and of the whole by Wolfgang Meyer at Frankfurt-am-Main, in 1615.[2] Among Napier's followers was Matthew Cotterius (Matthieu Cottire).[7]

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Astrology and the occult

In addition to his mathematical and religious interests, Napier was often perceived as a magician, and is thought to have dabbled in alchemy and necromancy. It was said that he would travel about with a black spider in a small box, and that his black rooster was his familiar spirit.[8][9] A contract still exists for a treasure hunt, made between John Napier and Robert Logan of Restalrig. Napier was to search Fast Castle for treasure allegedly hidden there, wherein it is stated that Napier should "...do his utmost diligence to search and seek out, and by all craft and ingine to find out the same, or make it sure that no such thing has been there."[2]

Influence
Among Napier's early followers were the instrument makers Edmund Gunter and John Speidell.[10][11][12] The development of logarithms is given credit as the largest single factor in the general adoption of decimal arithmetic.[13] The Trissotetras (1645) of Thomas Urquhart builds on Napier's work, in trigonometry.[14]

Memorial to John Napier in St Cuthbert's Church

Eponyms
An alternative unit to the decibel used in electrical engineering, the neper, is named after John Napier, as is Edinburgh Napier University in Edinburgh, Scotland. The crater Neper on the Moon is named after him.[15]

Family
In 1572 Napier married Elizabeth Stirling, daughter of James Stirling, the 4th Laird of Keir and of Cadder. They had two children before Elizabeth died in 1579. Napier then married Agnes Chisholm, with whom he had ten more children. His father-in-law James Chisholm of Cromlix was later mixed up in the Spanish blanks plot, over which Napier with others petitioned the king.[16]

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List of works
(1593) A Plaine Discovery of the Whole Revelation of St. John (1614) Mirifici logarithmorum canonis descriptio (Edward Wright's English translation was published in 1616). (1617) Rabdologi seu Numerationis per Virgulas libri duo [17] (published posthumously) (1619) Mirifici logarithmorum canonis constructio [18] (written before the Descriptio, but published posthumously by his son Robert) (1839) De arte logistica [19]

Notes
[1] "17th Century Maths.com" (http:/ / www. 17centurymaths. com). 17centurymaths.com. 25 March 2011. . Retrieved 29 March 2011. [2] "Napier, John". Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 18851900. [3] Molland, George, "Napier, John" (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1093/ ref:odnb/ 19758), on the website of the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (subscription or UK public library membership (http:/ / www. oup. com/ oxforddnb/ info/ freeodnb/ libraries/ ) required), [4] Crawford Gribben; David George Mullan (2009). Literature and the Scottish Reformation (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=RMZD6zBkzbcC& pg=PA15). Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.. p.15. ISBN978-0-7546-6715-5. . Retrieved 24 May 2012. [5] Allan I. MacInnes; Arthur H. Williamson (2006). Shaping the Stuart World, 1603-1714: The Atlantic Connection (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=PgdYwvIayvMC& pg=PA124). BRILL. p.124. ISBN978-90-04-14711-9. . Retrieved 23 May 2012. [6] (http:/ / www. brittanica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 462743/ Plaine-Discovery-of-the-Whole-Revelation-of-Saint-John) Encyclopdia Britannica online entry for Plaine Discovery [7] Arthur H. Williamson, Scottish National Consciousness in the Age of James VI (1979), p. 34. [8] Johnston, Ian (14 May 2005). "Scots genius who paved way for Newton's discoveries" (http:/ / news. scotsman. com/ scitech. cfm?id=523542005). The Scotsman. . Retrieved 29 March 2011. [9] Springer, Will (14 February 2005). "Napier's wizard roots article about Napier's interest in the occult" (http:/ / heritage. scotsman. com/ myths. cfm?id=41962005). Scotsman. . Retrieved 29 March 2011. [10] The London encyclopaedia: or Universal dictionary of science, art, literature, and practical mechanics, comprising a popular view of the present state of knowledge (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=u1IPAQAAMAAJ& pg=PA498). 1829. p.498. . Retrieved 23 May 2012. [11] Florian Cajori (1991). A History of Mathematics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=mGJRjIC9fZgC& pg=PA152). American Mathematical Soc.. p.152. ISBN978-0-8218-2102-2. . Retrieved 23 May 2012. [12] Ivor Grattan-Guinness (1 August 2003). Companion Encyclopedia of the History and Philosophy of the Mathematical Sciences (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=f5FqsDPVQ2MC& pg=PA1129). JHU Press. p.1129. ISBN978-0-8018-7397-3. . Retrieved 23 May 2012. [13] David Eugene Smith (1 June 1958). History of Mathematics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=uTytJGnTf1kC& pg=PA244). Courier Dover Publications. p.244. ISBN978-0-486-20430-7. . Retrieved 23 May 2012. [14] Garrett A. Sullivan; Alan Stewart (1 February 2012). The Encyclopedia of English Renaissance Literature (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=R7UeL_0Pu3oC& pg=PA995). John Wiley & Sons. p.995. ISBN978-1-4051-9449-5. . Retrieved 23 May 2012. [15] Neper (http:/ / planetarynames. wr. usgs. gov/ jsp/ FeatureNameDetail. jsp?feature=64377) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature USGS Astrogeology [16] Jeff Suzuki (27 August 2009). Mathematics in Historical Context (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=lew5IC5piCwC& pg=PA218). MAA. p.218. ISBN978-0-88385-570-6. . Retrieved 23 May 2012. [17] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Vhc1AAAAcAAJ [18] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=VukHAQAAIAAJ [19] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Iu0HAAAAQAAJ& pg=3#PRA1-PA3,M1

References
O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "John Napier" (http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/ Biographies/Napier.html), MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews. Diploudis, Alexandros. Undusting Napier's Bones. (http://www.cee.hw.ac.uk/~greg/calculators/napier/ index.html) Heriot-Watt University, 1997 "John Napier." Math & Mathematicians: The History of Math Discoveries around the World. 2 vols. U*X*L, 1999 John Napier (http://www.thocp.net/biographies/napier_john.html) The History of Computing Project John NapierShort biography and translation of work on logarithms (http://johnnapier.com/)

John Napier Intro to Spherical Trig. (http://www.rwgrayprojects.com/rbfnotes/trig/strig/strig.html) Includes discussion of The Napier circle and Napier's rules EEBO (Early English Books Online) (http://eebo.chadwyck.com/home) has electronic copies of some of his work, in facsimilies of editions of Napier's time (subscription or Athens login required) Attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:"Napier, John". Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 18851900.

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Further reading
Hodges, Jeremy (8 July 2000). "Significant Scots:John Napier" (http://www.electricscotland.com/HISTORY/ other/john_napier.htm). Daily Mail.

Tessellation
Tessellation is the process of creating a two-dimensional plane using the repetition of a geometric shape with no overlaps and no gaps. Generalizations to higher dimensions are also possible. Tessellations frequently appeared in the art of M. C. Escher, who was inspired by studying the Moorish use of symmetry in the Alhambra tiles during a visit in 1922. Tessellations are seen throughout art history, from ancient architecture to modern art. In Latin, tessella is a small cubical piece of clay, stone or glass used to make mosaics.[1] The word "tessella" means "small square" (from "tessera", square, which in its turn is from the Greek word for "four"). It corresponds with the everyday term tiling which refers to applications of tessellations, A tessellated street pavement in Zakopane, Poland. often made of glazed clay. Examples of tessellations in the real world include honeycombs and pavement tilings (see pictures at the right).

History
In 1618 Johannes Kepler made one of the first documented studies of tessellations when he wrote about regular and semiregular tessellation, which are

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coverings of a plane with regular polygons. Some two hundred years later in 1891, the Russian crystallographer Yevgraf Fyodorov proved that every periodic tiling of the plane features one of seventeen different groups of isometries. Fyodorov's work marked the unofficial beginning of the mathematical study of tessellations. Other prominent contributors include Shubnikov and Belov (1951); and Heinrich Heesch and Otto Kienzle (1963).

A honeycomb is an example of a natural tessellated structure.

Tessellations and computer models

In the subject of computer graphics, tessellation techniques are often used to manage datasets of polygons and divide them into suitable structures for rendering. Normally, at least for real-time rendering, the data is tessellated into triangles, which is sometimes referred to as triangulation. Tessellation is a staple feature of DirectX 11 and OpenGL.[2][3] In computer-aided design the constructed design is represented by a boundary representation topological model, where analytical 3D surfaces and curves, limited to faces and edges constitute a continuous boundary of a 3D body. Arbitrary 3D bodies are often too complicated to analyze directly. So they are approximated (tessellated) with a mesh of small, easy-to-analyze pieces of 3D volumeusually either irregular tetrahedra, or irregular hexahedra. The mesh is used for finite element analysis.

A tessellation of a disk used to solve a finite element problem

The mesh of a surface is usually generated per individual faces and edges (approximated to polylines) so that original limit vertices are included into mesh. To ensure that approximation of the original surface suits the needs of the further processing, three basic parameters are usually defined for the surface mesh generator: The maximum allowed distance between the planar approximation polygon and the surface (aka "sag"). This parameter ensures that mesh is similar enough to the original analytical surface (or the polyline is similar to the original curve). The maximum allowed size of the approximation polygon (for triangulations it can be maximum allowed length of triangle sides). This parameter ensures enough detail for further analysis.

Tessellation The maximum allowed angle between two adjacent approximation polygons (on the same face). This parameter ensures that even very small humps or hollows that can have significant effect to analysis will not disappear in mesh. Algorithm generating mesh is driven by the parameters. Some computer analyses require adaptive mesh, which is made finer (using stronger parameters) in regions where the analysis needs more detail. Some geodesic domes are designed by tessellating the sphere with triangles that are as close to equilateral triangles as possible.

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Wallpaper groups
Tilings with translational symmetry can be categorized by wallpaper groups, of which 17 exist.[4] All seventeen of these groups are represented in the Alhambra palace in Granada, Spain. Of the three regular tilings two are in the p6m wallpaper group and one is in p4m.

These rectangular bricks are connected in a tessellation which, considered as an edge-to-edge tiling, is topologically identical to a hexagonal tiling; each hexagon is flattened into a rectangle whose long edges are divided in two by the neighboring bricks.

This basketweave tiling is topologically identical to the Cairo pentagonal tiling, with one side of each rectangle counted as two edges, divided by a vertex on the two neighboring rectangles.

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Tessellations and color

When discussing a tiling that is displayed in colors, to avoid ambiguity one needs to specify whether the colors are part of the tiling or just part of its illustration. See also symmetry. The four color theorem states that for every tessellation of a normal Euclidean plane, with a set of four available colors, each tile can be colored in one color such that no tiles of equal color meet at a curve of positive length. Note that the coloring guaranteed by the four-color theorem will not in general respect the symmetries of the tessellation. To produce a coloring which does, as many as seven colors may be needed, as in the picture at right.

If this parallelogram pattern is colored before tiling it over a plane, seven colors are required to ensure each complete parallelogram has a consistent color that is distinct from that of adjacent areas. (This tiling can be compared to the surface of a torus.) Coloring after tiling, only four colors are needed.

Tessellations with quadrilaterals

Copies of an arbitrary quadrilateral can form a tessellation with 2-fold rotational centers at the midpoints of all sides, and translational symmetry whose basis vectors are the diagonal of the quadrilateral or, equivalently, one of these and the sum or difference of the two. For an asymmetric quadrilateral this tiling belongs to wallpaper group p2. As fundamental domain we have the quadrilateral. Equivalently, we can construct a parallelogram subtended by a minimal set of translation vectors, starting from a rotational center. We can divide this by one diagonal, and take one half (a triangle) as fundamental domain. Such a triangle has the same area as the quadrilateral and can be constructed from it by cutting and pasting.

Regular and semi-regular tessellations

A regular tessellation is a highly symmetric tessellation made up of congruent regular polygons. Only three regular tessellations exist: those made up of equilateral triangles, squares, or hexagons.[5] A semi-regular tessellation uses a variety of regular polygons, of which there are eight. The arrangement of polygons at every vertex point is identical. An edge-to-edge tessellation is even less regular: the only requirement is that adjacent tiles only share full sides, i.e., no tile shares a partial side with any other tile. Other types of tessellations exist, depending on types of figures and types of pattern. There are regular versus irregular, periodic versus nonperiodic, symmetric versus asymmetric, and fractal tessellations, as well as other classifications.

Ceramic Tiles in Marrakech, forming edge-to-edge, regular and other tessellations

Penrose tilings using two different polygons are the most famous example of tessellations that create aperiodic patterns. They belong to a general class of aperiodic tilings that can be constructed out of self-replicating sets of polygons by using recursion. A monohedral tiling is a tessellation in which all tiles are congruent. Spiral monohedral tilings include the Voderberg tiling discovered by Hans Voderberg in 1936, whose unit tile is a nonconvex enneagon; and the Hirschhorn tiling discovered by Michael Hirschhorn in the 1970s, whose unit tile is an irregular pentagon.

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Self-dual tessellations
Tilings and honeycombs can also be self-dual. All n-dimensional hypercubic honeycombs with Schlafli symbols {4,3n2,4} are self-dual.

In nature
Basaltic lava flows often display columnar jointing as a result of contraction forces causing cracks as the lava cools. The extensive crack networks that develop often produce hexagonal columns of lava. One example of such an array of columns is the Giant's Causeway in Northern Ireland. Tessellated pavement a characteristic example of which is found at Eaglehawk Neck on the Tasman Peninsula of Tasmania is a rare sedimentary rock formation where the rock has fractured into rectangular blocks. Within botany, the term "tessellate" describes a checkered pattern, for example on a flower petal, tree bark, or fruit.

Tessellate pattern in a Colchicum flower

Number of sides of a polygon versus number of sides at a vertex

For an infinite tiling, let at a vertex. Then be the average number of sides of a polygon, and the average number of sides meeting . For example, we have the combinations (3, 6), (313, 5), (334, 427), (4, 4),

(6, 3), for the tilings in the article Tilings of regular polygons. A continuation of a side in a straight line beyond a vertex is counted as a separate side. For example, the bricks in the picture are considered hexagons, and we have combination (6, 3). Similarly, for the basketweave tiling often found on bathroom floors, we have (5, 313). For a tiling which repeats itself, one can take the averages over the repeating part. In the general case the averages are taken as the limits for a region expanding to the whole plane. In cases like an infinite row of tiles, or tiles getting smaller and smaller outwardly, the outside is not negligible and should also be counted as a tile while taking the limit. In extreme cases the limits may not exist, or depend on how the region is expanded to infinity. For finite tessellations and polyhedra we have

where

is the number of faces and

the number of vertices, and

is the Euler characteristic (for the plane and

for a polyhedron without holes: 2), and, again, in the plane the outside counts as a face. The formula follows observing that the number of sides of a face, summed over all faces, gives twice the total number of sides in the entire tessellation, which can be expressed in terms of the number of faces and the number of vertices. Similarly the number of sides at a vertex, summed over all vertices, also gives twice the total number of

Tessellation sides. From the two results the formula readily follows. In most cases the number of sides of a face is the same as the number of vertices of a face, and the number of sides meeting at a vertex is the same as the number of faces meeting at a vertex. However, in a case like two square faces touching at a corner, the number of sides of the outer face is 8, so if the number of vertices is counted the common corner has to be counted twice. Similarly the number of sides meeting at that corner is 4, so if the number of faces at that corner is counted the face meeting the corner twice has to be counted twice. A tile with a hole, filled with one or more other tiles, is not permissible, because the network of all sides inside and outside is disconnected. However it is allowed with a cut so that the tile with the hole touches itself. For counting the number of sides of this tile, the cut should be counted twice. For the Platonic solids we get round numbers, because we take the average over equal numbers: for we get 1, 2, and 3. From the formula for a finite polyhedron we see that in the case that while expanding to an infinite polyhedron the number of holes (each contributing 2 to the Euler characteristic) grows proportionally with the number of faces and the number of vertices, the limit of is larger than 4. For example, consider one layer of cubes, extending in two directions, with one of every 2 2 cubes removed. This has combination (4, 5), with , corresponding to having 10 faces and 8 vertices per hole. Note that the result does not depend on the edges being line segments and the faces being parts of planes: mathematical rigor to deal with pathological cases aside, they can also be curves and curved surfaces.

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M. C. Escher, Circle Limit III (1959)

An example tessellation of the surface of a sphere by a truncated icosidodecahedron A torus can be tiled by a repeating matrix of isogonal quadrilaterals.

As well as tessellating the 2-dimensional Euclidean plane, it is also possible to tessellate other n-dimensional spaces by filling them with n-dimensional polytopes. Tessellations of other spaces are often referred to as honeycombs. Examples of tessellations of other spaces include: Tessellations of n-dimensional Euclidean space. For example, 3-dimensional Euclidean space can be filled with cubes to create the cubic honeycomb. Tessellations of n-dimensional elliptic space, either the n-sphere (spherical tiling, spherical polyhedron) or n-dimensional real projective space (elliptic tiling, projective polyhedron). For example, projecting the edges of a regular dodecahedron onto its circumsphere creates a tessellation of the 2-dimensional sphere with regular spherical pentagons, while taking the quotient by the antipodal map yields the hemi-dodecahedron, a tiling of the projective plane. Tessellations of n-dimensional hyperbolic space. For example, M. C. Escher's Circle Limit III depicts a tessellation of the hyperbolic plane (using the Poincar disk model) with congruent fish-like shapes. The hyperbolic plane admits a tessellation with regular p-gons meeting in q's whenever ; Circle Limit III may be understood as a tiling of octagons meeting in threes, with all sides replaced with jagged lines and each octagon then cut into four fish.

Tessellation See (Magnus 1974) for further non-Euclidean examples. There are also abstract polyhedra which do not correspond to a tessellation of a manifold because they are not locally spherical (locally Euclidean, like a manifold), such as the 11-cell and the 57-cell. These can be seen as tilings of more general spaces.

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Notes
[1] tessellate (http:/ / m-w. com/ dictionary/ tessellate), Merriam-Webster Online [2] MSDN: Tessellation Overview (http:/ / msdn. microsoft. com/ en-us/ library/ ff476340(v=VS. 85). aspx) [3] The OpenGL Graphics System: A Specification (Version 4.0 (Core Prole) - March 11, 2010) (http:/ / www. opengl. org/ registry/ doc/ glspec40. core. 20100311. pdf) [4] Armstrong, M.A. (1988). Groups and Symmetry. New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN978-3-540-96675-3. [5] MathWorld: Regular Tessellations (http:/ / mathworld. wolfram. com/ RegularTessellation. html)

References
Grunbaum, Branko and G. C. Shephard. Tilings and Patterns. New York: W. H. Freeman & Co., 1987. ISBN 0-7167-1193-1. Coxeter, H.S.M.. Regular Polytopes, Section IV : Tessellations and Honeycombs. Dover, 1973. ISBN 0-486-61480-8. Magnus, Wilhelm (1974), Noneuclidean tesselations and their groups, Academic Press, ISBN978-0-12-465450-1

External links
All about Tessellations: History; Types of Tessellation Symmetry; history of M. C. Escher; How to make your own. (http://www.tessellations.org/) Complex tessellation examples on multiple symmetries based on ancient Islamic patterns (http://www. nomadinception.com/gallery-arabic-patterns-islamic-patterns-research.aspx) Pattern Blocks (http://mathtoybox.com/patblocks3/patblocks3.html) (for web) and Mandalar (http:// mathtoybox.com/mandalar/readers/index.html) for mobile are easy apps for drawing tesselations.

Platonic solid

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Platonic solid
In Euclidean geometry, a Platonicsolid is aregular, convex polyhedron. Thefaces are congruent, regular polygons, withthe samenumber offaces meeting ateachvertex.There are exactly five solids which meet those criteria; each is named according to its numberoffaces.
Tetrahedron (fourfaces) Cube or hexahedron (sixfaces) Octahedron (eightfaces) Dodecahedron Icosahedron (twelvefaces) (twentyfaces)

(Animation)

(Animation)

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The aesthetic beauty and symmetry of the Platonic solids have made them a favorite subject of geometers for thousands of years. They are named for the ancient Greek philosopher Plato, who theorized that the classical elements were constructed from the regular solids.

History
The Platonic solids have been known since antiquity. Ornamented models resembling them can be found among the carved stone balls created by the late neolithic people of Scotland, although there seems to be no special attention paid to the Platonic solids over less symmetrical objects, and some of the five solids do not appear.[1] Dice go back to the dawn of civilization with shapes that augured formal charting of Platonic solids. The ancient Greeks studied the Platonic solids extensively. Some sources (such as Proclus) credit Pythagoras with their discovery. Other evidence suggests he may have only been familiar with the tetrahedron, cube, and dodecahedron, and that the discovery of the octahedron and icosahedron belong to Theaetetus, a contemporary of Plato. In any case, Theaetetus gave a mathematical description of all five and may have been responsible for the first known proof that there are no other convex regular polyhedra.

Kepler's Platonic solid model of the solar system from Mysterium Cosmographicum (1596)

The Platonic solids feature prominently in the philosophy of Plato for whom they are named. Plato wrote about them in the dialogue Timaeus c.360 B.C. in which he associated each of the four classical elements (earth, air, water, and fire) with a regular solid. Earth was associated with the cube, air with the octahedron, water with the icosahedron, and fire with the tetrahedron. There was intuitive justification for these associations: the heat of fire feels sharp and stabbing (like little tetrahedra). Air is made of the octahedron; its minuscule components are so smooth that one can barely feel it. Water, the icosahedron, flows out of one's hand when picked up, as if it is made of tiny little balls. By contrast, a highly un-spherical solid, the hexahedron (cube) represents earth. These clumsy little solids cause dirt to

Platonic solid crumble and break when picked up, in stark difference to the smooth flow of water. Moreover, the solidity of the Earth was believed to be due to the fact that the cube is the only regular solid that tesselates Euclidean space. The fifth Platonic solid, the dodecahedron, Plato obscurely remarks, "...the god used for arranging the constellations on the whole heaven". Aristotle added a fifth element, aithr (aether in Latin, "ether" in English) and postulated that the heavens were made of this element, but he had no interest in matching it with Plato's fifth solid. Euclid gave a complete mathematical description of the Platonic solids in the Elements, the last book (Book XIII) of which is devoted to their properties. Propositions 1317 in Book XIII describe the construction of the tetrahedron, octahedron, cube, icosahedron, and dodecahedron in that order. For each solid Euclid finds the ratio of the diameter of the circumscribed sphere to the edge length. In Proposition 18 he argues that there are no further convex regular polyhedra. Andreas Speiser has advocated the view that the construction of the 5 regular solids is the chief goal of the deductive system canonized in the Elements.[2] Much of the information in Book XIII is probably derived from the work of Theaetetus. In the 16th century, the German astronomer Johannes Kepler attempted to find a relation between the five extraterrestrial planets known at that time and the five Platonic solids. In Mysterium Cosmographicum, published in 1596, Kepler laid out a model of the solar system in which the five solids were set inside one another and separated by a series of inscribed and circumscribed spheres. Kepler proposed that the distance relationships between the six planets known at that time could be understood in terms of the five Platonic solids, enclosed within a sphere that represented the orbit of Saturn. The six spheres each corresponded to one of the planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn). The solids were ordered with the innermost being the octahedron, followed by the icosahedron, dodecahedron, tetrahedron, and finally the cube. In this way the structure of the solar system and the distance relationships between the planets was dictated by the Platonic solids. In the end, Kepler's original idea had to be abandoned, but out of his research came his three laws of orbital dynamics, the first of which was that the orbits of planets are ellipses rather than circles, changing the course of physics and astronomy. He also discovered the Kepler solids. In the 20th century, attempts to link Platonic solids to the physical world were expanded to the electron shell model in chemistry by Robert Moon in a theory known as the "Moon model".[3]

170

Combinatorial properties
A convex polyhedron is a Platonic solid if and only if 1. all its faces are congruent convex regular polygons, 2. none of its faces intersect except at their edges, and 3. the same number of faces meet at each of its vertices. Each Platonic solid can therefore be denoted by a symbol {p, q} where p = the number of edges of each face (or the number of vertices of each face) and q = the number of faces meeting at each vertex (or the number of edges meeting at each vertex). The symbol {p, q}, called the Schlfli symbol, gives a combinatorial description of the polyhedron. The Schlfli symbols of the five Platonic solids are given in the table below.

Platonic solid

171

Polyhedron

Vertices Edges Faces Schlfli symbol

Vertex configuration 3.3.3

tetrahedron

{3, 3}

cube / hexahedron

12

{4, 3}

4.4.4

octahedron

12

{3, 4}

3.3.3.3

dodecahedron

20

30

12

{5, 3}

5.5.5

icosahedron

12

30

20

{3, 5}

3.3.3.3.3

All other combinatorial information about these solids, such as total number of vertices (V), edges (E), and faces (F), can be determined from p and q. Since any edge joins two vertices and has two adjacent faces we must have:

The other relationship between these values is given by Euler's formula:

This nontrivial fact can be proved in a great variety of ways (in algebraic topology it follows from the fact that the Euler characteristic of the sphere is 2). Together these three relationships completely determine V, E, and F:

Note that swapping p and q interchanges F and V while leaving E unchanged (for a geometric interpretation of this fact, see the section on dual polyhedra below).

Classification
It is a classical result that there are only five convex regular polyhedra. Two common arguments are given below. Both of these arguments only show that there can be no more than five Platonic solids. That all five actually exist is a separate questionone that can be answered by an explicit construction.

Geometric proof
The following geometric argument is very similar to the one given by Euclid in the Elements: 1. Each vertex of the solid must coincide with one vertex each of at least three faces. 2. At each vertex of the solid, the total, among the adjacent faces, of the angles between their respective adjacent sides must be less than 360. 3. The angles at all vertices of all faces of a Platonic solid are identical, so each vertex of each face must contribute less than 360/3=120. 4. Regular polygons of six or more sides have only angles of 120 or more, so the common face must be the triangle, square, or pentagon. And for: Triangular faces: each vertex of a regular triangle is 60, so a shape may have 3, 4, or 5 triangles meeting at a vertex; these are the tetrahedron, octahedron, and icosahedron respectively. Square faces: each vertex of a square is 90, so there is only one arrangement possible with three faces at a vertex, the cube.

Platonic solid Pentagonal faces: each vertex is 108; again, only one arrangement, of three faces at a vertex is possible, the dodecahedron.

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Topological proof
A purely topological proof can be made using only combinatorial information about the solids. The key is Euler's observation that , and the fact that , where p stands for the number of edges of each face and q for the number of edges meeting at each vertex. Combining these equations one obtains the equation

Simple algebraic manipulation then gives

Since

is strictly positive we must have

Using the fact that p and q must both be at least 3, one can easily see that there are only five possibilities for (p, q):

Geometric properties
Angles
There are a number of angles associated with each Platonic solid. The dihedral angle is the interior angle between any two face planes. The dihedral angle, , of the solid {p,q} is given by the formula

This is sometimes more conveniently expressed in terms of the tangent by

The quantity h is 4, 6, 6, 10, and 10 for the tetrahedron, cube, octahedron, dodecahedron, and icosahedron respectively. The angular deficiency at the vertex of a polyhedron is the difference between the sum of the face-angles at that vertex and 2. The defect, , at any vertex of the Platonic solids {p,q} is

By a theorem of Descartes, this is equal to 4 divided by the number of vertices (i.e. the total defect at all vertices is 4). The 3-dimensional analog of a plane angle is a solid angle. The solid angle, , at the vertex of a Platonic solid is given in terms of the dihedral angle by

This follows from the spherical excess formula for a spherical polygon and the fact that the vertex figure of the polyhedron {p,q} is a regular q-gon.

Platonic solid The solid angle of a face subtended from the center of a platonic solid is equal to the solid angle of a full sphere (4 steradians) divided by the number of faces. Note that this is equal to the angular deficiency of its dual. The various angles associated with the Platonic solids are tabulated below. The numerical values of the solid angles are given in steradians. The constant = (1+5)/2 is the golden ratio.
Polyhedron Dihedral angle Vertex angle Defect ( ) Vertex solid angle ( ) Face solid angle

173

tetrahedron

70.53

60

cube octahedron

90 109.47

90 60, 90 108 60, 108

dodecahedron 116.57 icosahedron 138.19

Radii, area, and volume

Another virtue of regularity is that the Platonic solids all possess three concentric spheres: the circumscribed sphere which passes through all the vertices, the midsphere which is tangent to each edge at the midpoint of the edge, and the inscribed sphere which is tangent to each face at the center of the face. The radii of these spheres are called the circumradius, the midradius, and the inradius. These are the distances from the center of the polyhedron to the vertices, edge midpoints, and face centers respectively. The circumradius R and the inradius r of the solid {p, q} with edge length a are given by

where is the dihedral angle. The midradius is given by

where h is the quantity used above in the definition of the dihedral angle (h = 4, 6, 6, 10, or 10). Note that the ratio of the circumradius to the inradius is symmetric in p and q:

The surface area, A, of a Platonic solid {p, q} is easily computed as area of a regular p-gon times the number of faces F. This is:

The volume is computed as F times the volume of the pyramid whose base is a regular p-gon and whose height is the inradius r. That is,

Platonic solid The following table lists the various radii of the Platonic solids together with their surface area and volume. The overall size is fixed by taking the edge length, a, to be equal to 2.
Polyhedron (a = 2) tetrahedron Inradius (r) Midradius () Circumradius (R) Surface area (A) Volume (V)

174

cube octahedron

dodecahedron

icosahedron

The constants and in the above are given by

Among the Platonic solids, either the dodecahedron or the icosahedron may be seen as the best approximation to the sphere. The icosahedron has the largest number of faces and the largest dihedral angle, it hugs its inscribed sphere the tightest, and its surface area to volume ratio is closest to that of a sphere of the same size (i.e. either the same surface area or the same volume.) The dodecahedron, on the other hand, has the smallest angular defect, the largest vertex solid angle, and it fills out its circumscribed sphere the most.

Symmetry
Dual polyhedra
Every polyhedron has a dual (or "polar") polyhedron with faces and vertices interchanged. The dual of every Platonic solid is another Platonic solid, so that we can arrange the five solids into dual pairs. The tetrahedron is self-dual (i.e. its dual is another tetrahedron). The cube and the octahedron form a dual pair. The dodecahedron and the icosahedron form a dual pair. If a polyhedron has Schlfli symbol {p, q}, then its dual has the symbol {q, p}. Indeed every combinatorial property of one Platonic solid can be interpreted as another combinatorial property of the dual.
A dual pair: cube and octahedron. One can construct the dual polyhedron by taking the vertices of the dual to be the centers of the faces of the original figure. The edges of the dual are formed by connecting the centers of adjacent faces in the original. In this way, the number of faces and vertices is interchanged, while the number of edges stays the same.

More generally, one can dualize a Platonic solid with respect to a sphere of radius d concentric with the solid. The radii (R, , r) of a solid and those of its dual (R*, *, r*) are related by

It is often convenient to dualize with respect to the midsphere (d = ) since it has the same relationship to both polyhedra. Taking d2 = Rr gives a dual solid with the same circumradius and inradius (i.e. R* = R and r* = r).

Platonic solid

175

Symmetry groups
In mathematics, the concept of symmetry is studied with the notion of a mathematical group. Every polyhedron has an associated symmetry group, which is the set of all transformations (Euclidean isometries) which leave the polyhedron invariant. The order of the symmetry group is the number of symmetries of the polyhedron. One often distinguishes between the full symmetry group, which includes reflections, and the proper symmetry group, which includes only rotations. The symmetry groups of the Platonic solids are known as polyhedral groups (which are a special class of the point groups in three dimensions). The high degree of symmetry of the Platonic solids can be interpreted in a number of ways. Most importantly, the vertices of each solid are all equivalent under the action of the symmetry group, as are the edges and faces. One says the action of the symmetry group is transitive on the vertices, edges, and faces. In fact, this is another way of defining regularity of a polyhedron: a polyhedron is regular if and only if it is vertex-uniform, edge-uniform, and face-uniform. There are only three symmetry groups associated with the Platonic solids rather than five, since the symmetry group of any polyhedron coincides with that of its dual. This is easily seen by examining the construction of the dual polyhedron. Any symmetry of the original must be a symmetry of the dual and vice-versa. The three polyhedral groups are: the tetrahedral group T, the octahedral group O (which is also the symmetry group of the cube), and the icosahedral group I (which is also the symmetry group of the dodecahedron). The orders of the proper (rotation) groups are 12, 24, and 60 respectively precisely twice the number of edges in the respective polyhedra. The orders of the full symmetry groups are twice as much again (24, 48, and 120). See (Coxeter 1973) for a derivation of these facts. All Platonic solids except the tetrahedron are centrally symmetric, meaning they are preserved under reflection through the origin. The following table lists the various symmetry properties of the Platonic solids. The symmetry groups listed are the full groups with the rotation subgroups given in parenthesis (likewise for the number of symmetries). Wythoff's kaleidoscope construction is a method for constructing polyhedra directly from their symmetry groups. We list for reference Wythoff's symbol for each of the Platonic solids.
Polyhedron tetrahedron cube octahedron Schlfli symbol Wythoff symbol Dual polyhedron Symmetries Symmetry group {3, 3} {4, 3} {3, 4} 3|23 3|24 4|23 3|25 5|23 tetrahedron octahedron cube icosahedron dodecahedron 120 (60) Ih (I) 24 (12) 48 (24) Td (T) Oh (O)

dodecahedron {5, 3} icosahedron {3, 5}

In nature and technology

The tetrahedron, cube, and octahedron all occur naturally in crystal structures. These by no means exhaust the numbers of possible forms of crystals. However, neither the regular icosahedron nor the regular dodecahedron are amongst them. One of the forms, called the pyritohedron (named for the group of minerals of which it is typical) has twelve pentagonal faces, arranged in the same pattern as the faces of the regular dodecahedron. The faces of the pyritohedron are, however, not regular, so the pyritohedron is also not regular.

Platonic solid

176 In the early 20th century, Ernst Haeckel described (Haeckel, 1904) a number of species of Radiolaria, some of whose skeletons are shaped like various regular polyhedra. Examples include Circoporus octahedrus, Circogonia icosahedra, Lithocubus geometricus and Circorrhegma dodecahedra. The shapes of these creatures should be obvious from their names. Many viruses, such as the herpes virus, have the shape of a regular icosahedron. Viral structures are built of repeated identical protein subunits and the icosahedron is the easiest shape to assemble using these subunits. A regular polyhedron is used because it can be built from a single basic unit protein used over and over again; this saves space in the viral genome.

In meteorology and climatology, global numerical models of atmospheric flow are of increasing interest which employ grids that are based on an icosahedron (refined by triangulation) instead of the more commonly used longitude/latitude grid. This has the advantage of evenly distributed spatial resolution without singularities (i.e. the poles) at the expense of somewhat greater numerical difficulty. Geometry of space frames is often based on platonic solids. In MERO system, Platonic solids are used for naming convention of various space frame configurations. For example O+T refers to a configuration made of one half of octahedron and a tetrahedron. Several Platonic hydrocarbons have been synthesised, including cubane and dodecahedrane. Platonic solids are often used to make dice, because dice of these shapes can be made fair. 6-sided dice are very common, but the other numbers are commonly used in role-playing games. Such dice are commonly referred to as dn where n is the number of faces (d8, d20, etc.); see dice notation for more details.

Circogonia icosahedra, a species of Radiolaria, shaped like a regular icosahedron.

Polyhedral dice are often used in role-playing games.

These shapes frequently show up in other games or puzzles. Puzzles similar to a Rubik's Cube come in all five shapes see magic polyhedra.

Platonic solid

177

Liquid Crystals with symmetries of Platonic Solids

For the intermediate material phase called Liquid Crystals the existence of such symmetries was first proposed in 1981 by H. Kleinert and K. Maki and their structure was analyzed in.[4] See the review article here [5]. In aluminum the icosahedral structure was discovered three years after this by Dan Shechtman, which earned him the Nobel Prize in 2011.

Related polyhedra and polytopes

Uniform polyhedra
There exist four regular polyhedra which are not convex, called KeplerPoinsot polyhedra. These all have icosahedral symmetry and may be obtained as stellations of the dodecahedron and the icosahedron.

cuboctahedron

icosidodecahedron

The next most regular convex polyhedra after the Platonic solids are the cuboctahedron, which is a rectification of the cube and the octahedron, and the icosidodecahedron, which is a rectification of the dodecahedron and the icosahedron (the rectification of the self-dual tetrahedron is a regular octahedron). These are both quasi-regular, meaning that they are vertex- and edge-uniform and have regular faces, but the faces are not all congruent (coming in two different classes). They form two of the thirteen Archimedean solids, which are the convex uniform polyhedra with polyhedral symmetry. The uniform polyhedra form a much broader class of polyhedra. These figures are vertex-uniform and have one or more types of regular or star polygons for faces. These include all the polyhedra mentioned above together with an infinite set of prisms, an infinite set of antiprisms, and 53 other non-convex forms. The Johnson solids are convex polyhedra which have regular faces but are not uniform.

Tessellations
The three regular tessellations of the plane are closely related to the Platonic solids. Indeed, one can view the Platonic solids as the five regular tessellations of the sphere. This is done by projecting each solid onto a concentric sphere. The faces project onto regular spherical polygons which exactly cover the sphere. One can show that every regular tessellation of the sphere is characterized by a pair of integers {p, q} with 1/p + 1/q > 1/2. Likewise, a regular tessellation of the plane is characterized by the condition 1/p + 1/q = 1/2. There are three possibilities: {4, 4} which is a square tiling, {3, 6} which is a triangular tiling, and {6, 3} which is a hexagonal tiling (dual to the triangular tiling). In a similar manner one can consider regular tessellations of the hyperbolic plane. These are characterized by the condition 1/p + 1/q < 1/2. There is an infinite family of such tessellations.

Platonic solid

178

Higher dimensions
In more than three dimensions, polyhedra generalize to polytopes, with higher-dimensional convex regular polytopes being the equivalents of the three-dimensional Platonic solids. In the mid-19th century the Swiss mathematician Ludwig Schlfli discovered the four-dimensional analogues of the Platonic solids, called convex regular 4-polytopes. There are exactly six of these figures; five are analogous to the Platonic solids, while the sixth one, the 24-cell, has one lower-dimension analogue (Truncation of a simplex-faceted polyhedron that has simplices for ridges and is self-dual): the Hexagon. In all dimensions higher than four, there are only three convex regular polytopes: the simplex, the hypercube, and the cross-polytope. In three dimensions, these coincide with the tetrahedron, the cube, and the octahedron.

Notes
[1] [2] [3] [4] Hart, George. "Neolithic Carved Stone Polyhedra" (http:/ / www. georgehart. com/ virtual-polyhedra/ neolithic. html). . Weyl H. (1952). Symmetry. Princeton. p.74. Hecht & Stevens 2004 Kleinert, H. and Maki, K. (1981), "Lattice Textures in Cholesteric Liquid Crystals" (http:/ / www. physik. fu-berlin. de/ ~kleinert/ 75/ 75. pdf), Fortschritte der Physik 29 (5): 219259, doi:10.1002/prop.19810290503, [5] http:/ / chemgroups. northwestern. edu/ seideman/ Publications/ The%20liquid-crystalline%20blue%20phases. pdf

References
Atiyah, Michael; and Sutcliffe, Paul (2003). "Polyhedra in Physics, Chemistry and Geometry". Milan J. Math 71: 3358. doi:10.1007/s00032-003-0014-1. Carl, Boyer; Merzbach, Uta (1989). A History of Mathematics (2nd ed.). Wiley. ISBN0-471-54397-7. Coxeter, H. S. M. (1973). Regular Polytopes (3rd ed.). New York: Dover Publications. ISBN0-486-61480-8. Euclid (1956). Heath, Thomas L.. ed. The Thirteen Books of Euclid's Elements, Books 1013 (2nd unabr. ed.). New York: Dover Publications. ISBN0-486-60090-4. Haeckel, E. (1904). Kunstformen der Natur. Available as Haeckel, E. (1998); Art forms in nature, Prestel USA. ISBN 3-7913-1990-6, or online at (http://caliban.mpiz-koeln.mpg.de/~stueber/haeckel/kunstformen/natur. html). Weyl, Hermann (1952). Symmetry. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN0-691-02374-3. "Strena seu de nive sexangula" (On the Six-Cornered Snowflake), 1611 paper by Kepler which discussed the reason for the six-angled shape of the snow crystals and the forms and symmetries in nature. Talks about platonic solids. Hecht, Laurence; Stevens, Charles B. (Fall 2004), "New Explorations with The Moon Model" (http://www. 21stcenturysciencetech.com/Articles 2005/MoonModel_F04.pdf), 21st Century Science and Technology: p.58

External links
Weisstein, Eric W., " Platonic solid (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/PlatonicSolid.html)" from MathWorld. Book XIII (http://aleph0.clarku.edu/~djoyce/java/elements/bookXIII/propXIII13.html) of Euclid's Elements. Interactive 3D Polyhedra (http://ibiblio.org/e-notes/3Dapp/Convex.htm) in Java WebGL representation of platonic solids (http://kovacsv.hu/webgl.php) Interactive Folding/Unfolding Platonic Solids (http://www.mat.puc-rio.br/~hjbortol/mathsolid/mathsolid_en. html) in Java Paper models of the Platonic solids (http://www.software3d.com/Platonic.php) created using nets generated by Stella software Platonic Solids (http://www.korthalsaltes.com/cuadros.php?type=p) Free paper models(nets)

Platonic solid Platonic Solids for Meditation (http://www.shambhalahealingtools.com/articles.asp?ID=154) platonic solids used for meditation and healing Teaching Math with Art (http://www.ldlewis.com/Teaching-Mathematics-with-Art/Polyhedra.html) student-created models Teaching Math with Art (http://www.ldlewis.com/Teaching-Mathematics-with-Art/ instructions-for-polyhedra-project.html) teacher instructions for making models Frames of Platonic Solids (http://www.bru.hlphys.jku.at/surf/Kepler_Model.html) images of algebraic surfaces Platonic Solids (http://whistleralley.com/polyhedra/platonic.htm) with some formula derivations (http:// whistleralley.com/polyhedra/derivations.htm)

179

Mechanical calculator
A mechanical calculator, or calculating machine, was a device used to perform the basic operations of arithmetic. Most mechanical calculators were comparable in size to small desktop computers and have been rendered obsolete by the advent of the electronic calculator. The mechanical calculator was invented in 1642[1] by Blaise Pascal, it was called Pascal's Calculator or Pascaline. The first commercially successful device, Thomas' arithmometer, was manufactured from 1851. The first machine with columns of keys, the comptometer, was introduced in 1887 while 10 key calculators and electric motors appeared in 1902.[2] The use of electric motors allowed for the design of very powerful machines during the first half of the 20th century. In 1961, A full-keyboard machine, the Anita from Sumlock comptometer Ltd., became the first desktop mechanical calculator to receive an all electronic calculator engine, creating the link in between these two industries and marking the beginning of its decline. The production of mechanical calculators came to a stop in the middle of the 1970s closing an industry that had lasted for 120 years.

Various desktop mechanical calculators used in the office from 1851. Each one has a different user interface. This picture shows clockwise from top left: An Arithmometer, A Comptometer, A Dalton adding machine, a Sundstrand and an Odhner Arithmometer

The calculating engines of Charles Babbage were the first automatic mechanical calculators in the world. Babbage started work on his analytical engine in 1834, "in less than two years he had sketched out many of the salient features of the modern computer. A crucial step was the adoption of a punched card system derived from the Jacquard loom"[3] which made it the first programmable calculator.[4] Howard Aiken mentioned Babbage extensively when he convinced IBM to build the Harvard Mark I in 1937 ; when the machine was finished some hailed it as "Babbage's dream come true".[5] Babbage never built his steam powered mechanical calculators but in 1855 the swede Georg Scheutz became the first of a handful of designers to succeed at building a smaller and simpler model of his difference engine for the purpose of printing mathematical tables.[6]

Mechanical calculator

180

Ancient history
The desire to economize time and mental effort in arithmetical computations, and to eliminate human liability to error, is probably as old as the science of arithmetic itself. This desire has led to the design and construction of a variety of aids to calculation, beginning with groups of small objects, such as pebbles, first used loosely, later as counters on ruled boards, and later still as beads mounted on wires fixed in a frame, as in the Suanpan (the number represented in the picture is abacus. This instrument was probably invented by the Semitic 6,302,715,408) races and later adopted in India, whence it spread westward throughout Europe and eastward to China and Japan. After the development of the abacus, no further advances were made until John Napier devised his numbering rods, or Napier's Bones, in 1617. Various forms of the Bones appeared, some approaching the beginning of mechanical computation, but it was not until 1642 that Blaise Pascal gave us the first mechanical calculating machine in the sense that the term is used today. Howard Aiken, Proposed automatic calculating machine, presented to IBM in 1937

The 17th century

Overview
The 17th century marked the beginning of the history of mechanical calculators, as it saw the invention of the adding machine by Blaise Pascal in 1642.[1][7] Pascal would built around twenty machines in the next ten years but he wasn't successful in creating an industry. In a sense, Pascal's invention was premature, in that the mechanical arts in his time were not sufficiently advanced to enable his machine to be made at an economic price, with the accuracy and strength needed for reasonably long use. This difficulty was not overcome until well on into the nineteenth century, by which time also a renewed stimulus to invention was given by the need for many kinds of calculation more intricate than those considered by Pascal. S. Chapman[8], Pascal tercentenary celebration, London, (1942) The 17th century saw also the invention of some very powerful calculating tools like Napier's bones, logarithmic tables and the slide rule which, for their ease of use by scientists in multiplying and dividing, ruled over and impeded the use and development of mechanical calculators[9] until the production release of the arithmometer in the mid 19th century.

Four of Pascal's calculators and one machine built by Lpine in 1725,

[10]

Muse des Arts et Mtiers

Mechanical calculator

181

Invention of the mechanical calculator

Blaise Pascal invented the mechanical calculator in 1642. After three years of effort and 50 prototypes[11] he introduced his calculator to the public. He built twenty of these machines in the following ten years.[12] This machine could add and subtract two numbers directly and multiply and divide by repetition. Pascal chose the most demanding method of re-zeroing for his machine since it propagates a carry right through the machine.[13] In doing so, he proved, before each operation, that his calculator was fully functional. This is a testament to the quality of the Pascaline because none of the 17th and 18th century criticisms of the machine mentioned a problem with the carry mechanism and yet it was fully tested on all the machines, by their resets, all the time.[14] Pascal's invention of the calculating machine, just three hundred years ago, was made while he was a youth of nineteen. He was spurred to it by seeing the burden of arithmetical labor involved in his father's official work as supervisor of taxes at Rouen. He conceived the idea of doing the work mechanically, and developed a design appropriate for this purpose; showing herein the same combination of pure science and mechanical genius that characterized his whole life. But it was one thing to conceive and design the machine, and another to get it made and put into use. Here were needed those practical gifts that he displayed later in his inventions... S. Chapman[8], Pascal tercentenary celebration, London, (1942) In 1672, Gottfried Leibniz started working on adding direct multiplication to Pascal's calculator ; while first trying to simply interface with the pascaline, he eventually designed an entirely new machine called the Stepped Reckoner ; it used his Leibniz wheels, was the first two-motion calculator, the first to use cursors (creating a memory of the first operand) and the first to have a movable carriage. Leibniz built two Stepped Reckoners, one in 1694 and one in 1706.[15] Only the machine built in 1694 is known to exist, it was rediscovered at the end of the 19th century having spent 250 years forgotten in an attic in the University of Gottingen.[15] In 1893, the German calculating machine inventor Arthur Burkhardt was asked to put Leibniz machine in operating condition if possible. His report was favorable except for the sequence in the carry.[16] Leibniz had invented his namesake wheel and the principle of a two motion calculator, but after forty years of development he wasn't able to produce a machine that was fully operational; this makes Pascal's calculator the only working mechanical calculator in the 17th century. Leibniz was also the first person to describe a pinwheel calculator.[17] He once said "It is unworthy of excellent men to lose hours like slaves in the labour of calculation which could safely be relegated to anyone else if machines were used."[18]

Calculating clocks: unsuccessful mechanical calculators

Both Pascal and Leibniz tried to design some kind of calculating clock before inventing their machines. ...I devised a third which works by springs and which has a very simple design. This is the one, as I have already stated, that I used many times, hidden in the plain sight of an infinity of persons and which is still in operating order. Nevertheless, while always improving on it, I found reasons to change its design... Pascal, Advertisement Necessary to those who have curiosity to see the Arithmetic Machine, and to operate it,[19] (1645) When, several years ago, I saw for the first time an instrument which, when carried, automatically records the numbers of steps by a pedestrian, it occurred to me at once that the entire arithmetic could be subjected to a similar kind of machinery so that not only counting but also addition and subtraction, multiplication and division could be accomplished by a suitably arranged machine easily, promptly, and with sure results Leibniz,on his calculating machine,[20] (1685) The principle of a calculating clock (input wheels and display wheels added to a clock like mechanism) for a direct entry calculating machine couldn't be implemented with the technological levels of the 17th century[21] because their heavier and more numerous gears could be damaged when a carry had to be moved several places along the

Mechanical calculator accumulator. The only 17th century calculating clocks that have survived to this day do not have a machine wide carry mechanism and therefore cannot be called mechanical calculators. The first true calculating clock was built by the Italian Giovanni Poleni in the 18th century and was a two-motion calculating clock (the numbers are inscribed first and then they are processed). In 1623, Wilhelm Schickard, a German professor of Hebrew and Astronomy, designed a calculating clock which he drew on two letters that he wrote to Johannes Kepler. The first machine to be built by a professional was destroyed during its construction and Schickard abandoned his project in 1624. These drawings had appeared in various publications over the centuries, starting in 1718 with a book of Kepler's letters by Michael Hansch,[22] but in 1957 it was presented for the first time as a long lost mechanical calculator by Dr. Franz Hammer. The building of the first replica in the 1960s showed that Schickard's machine had an unfinished design and therefore wheels and springs were added to make it work.[23] The use of these replicas showed that the single tooth wheel, when used within a calculating clock, was an inadequate carry mechanism.[24] (see Pascal versus Schickard). Around 1643, a French clockmaker from Rouen, after hearing of Pascal's work, built a calculating clock of his own design. Pascal fired all his employees and stopped developing his calculator as soon as he heard of the news.[25] It is only after being assured that his invention would be protected by a royal privilege that he restarted his activity.[26] A careful examination of this calculating clock showed that it didn't work properly and Pascal called it an avorton (aborted fetus).[27][28] In 1659, the Italian Tito Livio Burattini built a machine with nine independent wheels, each one of these wheels was paired with a smaller carry wheel.[29] At the end of an operation the user had to either manually add each carry to the next digit or mentally add these numbers to create the final result. In 1666, Samuel Morland invented a machine designed to add sums of money,[30] but it was not a true adding machine since the carry was added to a small carry wheel situated above each digit and not directly to the next digit. It was very similar to Burattini's machine. Morland created also a multiplying machines with interchangeable disks based on Napier's bones.[31][32] In 1673, the French clockmaker Ren Grillet described in Curiositez mathmatiques de l'invention du Sr Grillet, horlogeur Paris a calculating machine that would be more compact than Pascal's calculator and reversible for subtraction. The only two Grillet machines known[33] have no carry mechanism, displaying three lines of nine independent dials they also have nine rotating napier's rod for multiplication and division. Contrary to Grillet's claim, it was not a mechanical calculator after all.[34]

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The 18th century

Overview
The 18th century saw the first fully functional, four operations, mechanical calculators. Both pinwheel calculators and Leibniz wheel calculators were built with a few unsuccessful attempts at their commercialization.

Prototypes and limited runs

In 1709, the Italian Giovanni Poleni was the first to build a calculator that could multiply automatically. It used a pinwheel design, was the first operational calculating clock and was made of wood;[35] he destroyed it after hearing that Antonius Braun had received 10,000 Guldens for dedicating a pinwheel machine of his own design to the emperor Charles VI of Vienna.[36]

Detail of a replica of an 18th century calculating machine, designed and built in by the German Johann Helfrich Mller, that could perform all four operations.

In 1725, the French Academy of Sciences certified a calculating machine derived from Pascal's calculator designed by Lpine, a French craftsman. The machine was a bridge in between Pascal's calculator and a calculating clock. The carry transmissions were performed simultaneously, like in a calculating clock, and therefore "the machine must have jammed beyond a few simultaneous carry transmissions".[37] In 1727, a German, Antonius Braun, presented the first fully functional four operations machine to Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor in Vienna. It was cylindrical in shape and was made of steel, silver and brass; it was finely decorated and looked like a renaissance table clock. His dedication to the emperor engraved on the top of the machine also reads "..to make easy to ignorant people, addition, subtraction, multiplication and even division".[38] In 1730, the French Academy of Sciences certified three machines designed by Hillerin de Boistissandeau. The first one used a single tooth carry mechanism which, according to Boistissandeau, wouldn't work properly if a carry had to be moved more than two places; the two other machines used springs that were gradually armed until they released their energy when a carry had to be moved forward. It was similar to Pascal's calculator but instead of using the energy of gravity Boistissandeau used the energy stored into the springs.[39] In 1770, Philipp Matthus Hahn, a German pastor, built two circular calculating machines based on Leibniz' cylinders.[40][41] J.C. Schuster, Hahn's brother in law, built a few machines of Hahn's design into the early 19th century.[42] In 1775, Lord Stanhope of the United Kingdom designed a pinwheel machine. It was set in a rectangular box with a handle on the side. He also designed a machine using Leibniz wheels in 1777.[43] "In 1777 Stanhope produced the Logic Demonstrator, a machine designed to solve problems in formal logic. This device marked the beginning of a new approach to the solution of logical problems by mechanical methods."[30] In 1784, Johann-Helfrich Mller built a machine very similar to Hahn's machine.[44]

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The 19th century

Overview
The mechanical calculator industry started in 1851 when Thomas de Colmar released his simplified Arithmomtre which was the first machine that could be used daily in an office environment. For 40 years,[45] the arithmometer was the only mechanical calculator available for sale and was sold all over the world. By then, in 1890, about 2,500 arithmometers had been sold[46] plus a few hundreds more from two licensed arithmometer clone makers (Burkhardt, Germany, 1878 and Layton, UK, 1883). Felt and Tarrant, the only other competitor in true commercial production, had sold 100 comptometers in three years.[47] The 19th century also saw the designs of Charles Babbage calculating machines, first with his difference engine, started in 1822, which was the first automatic calculator since it continuously used the results of the previous operation for the next one, and second with his analytical engine, which was the first programmable calculator, using Jacquard's cards to read program and data, that he started in 1834, and which gave the blueprint of the mainframe computers built in the middle of the 20th century.[48]

Desktop Mechanical Calculators in production during the 19th century

Desktop calculators produced

In 1851, Thomas de Colmar simplified his arithmometer by removing the one digit multiplier/divider. This made it a simple adding machine, but thanks to its moving carriage used as an indexed accumulator, it still allowed for easy multiplication and division Front panel of a Thomas Arithmometer with its movable result carriage extended under operator control. The arithmometer was now adapted to the manufacturing capabilities of the time; Thomas could therefore manufacture consistently a sturdy and reliable machine.[49] Manuals were printed and each machine was given a serial number. Its commercialization launched

Mechanical calculator the mechanical calculator industry.[50] Banks, insurance companies, government offices started to use the arithmometer in their day-to-day operations, slowly bringing mechanical desktop calculators into the office. In 1878 Burkhardt, of Germany, was the first to manufacture a clone of Thomas' arithmometer. Until then Thomas de Colmar had been the only manufacturer of desktop mechanical calculators in the world and he had manufactured about 1,500 machines.[51] Eventually twenty European companies will manufacture clones of thomas' arithmometer until WWII. Dorr E. Felt, in the U.S., patented the Comptometer in 1886. It was the first successful key-driven adding and calculating machine. ["Key-driven" refers to the fact that just pressing the keys causes the result to be calculated, no separate lever or crank has to be operated. Other machines are sometimes called "key-set".] In 1887, he joined with Robert Tarrant to form the Felt & Tarrant Manufacturing Company.[52] The comptometer-type calculator was the first machine to receive an all-electronic calculator engine in 1961 (the ANITA mark VII released by Sumlock comptometer of the UK). In 1890 W.T. Odhner got the rights to manufacture his calculator back from Knigsberger & C, which had held them since it was first patented in 1878, but had not really produced anything. Odhner used his Saint Petersburg workshop to manufacture his calculator and he built and sold 500 machines in 1890. This manufacturing operation shut down definitively in 1918 with 23,000 machines produced. The Odhner Arithmometer was a redesigned version of the Arithmometer of Thomas de Colmar with a Odhner's arithmometer pinwheel engine, which made it cheaper to manufacture and gave it a smaller footprint while keeping the advantage of having the same user interface.[53] In 1892 Odhner sold the Berlin branch of his factory, which he had opened a year earlier, to Grimme, Natalis & Co.. They moved the factory to Braunschweig and sold their machines under the brand name of Brunsviga (Brunsviga is the Latin name of the town of Braunschweig).[54] This was the first of many companies which would sell and manufacture clones of Odhner's machine all over the world; eventually millions were sold well into the 1970s.[53] In 1892, William S. Burroughs began commercial manufacture of his printing adding calculator[55] Burroughs Corporation became one of the leading companies in the accounting machine and computer businesses. The "Millionaire" calculator was introduced in 1893. It allowed direct multiplication by any digit - "one turn of the crank for each figure in the multiplier". It contained a mechanical product lookup table, providing units and tens digits by differing lengths of posts. [56] Another direct multiplier was part of the Moon-Hopkins billing machine; that company was acquired by Burroughs in the early 20th century.

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Prototypes and limited runs

The arithmometers built from 1820 to 1851 implemented all four arithmetic functions automatically. The one digit multiplier/divider cursor (ivory top) is on the left. Only prototypes of these machines were built. The machine released for production was an adding machine only.

In 1820, Thomas de Colmar patented the Arithmometer. It was a true four operation machine with a one digit multiplier/divider (the millionaire calculator released 70 years later had a similar user interface[57]). He spent the next 30 years and 300,000 Francs developing his machine.[58] This design was replaced in 1851 by the simplified arithmometer which was only an adding machine. In 1842, Timoleon Maurel invented the Arithmaurel, based on the Arithmometer, which could multiply two numbers by simply entering their values into the machine. In 1845, Izrael Abraham Staffel first exhibited a machine that was able to add, subtract, divide, multiply and obtain a square root. Around 1854, Andre-Michel Guerry invented the Ordonnateur Statistique, a cylindrical device designed to aid in summarizing the relations among data on moral variables (crime, suicide, etc.)[59] In 1872, Frank S. Baldwin in the U.S. invented a pinwheel calculator. In 1883, Edmondson of the UK patented a circular stepped drum machine[60]

Automatic mechanical calculators

In 1822, Charles Babbage presented a small cogwheel assembly that demonstrated the operation of his difference engine,[61] a mechanical calculator which would be capable of holding and manipulating seven numbers of 31 decimal digits each. It was the first time that a calculating machine could work automatically using as input results from its previous operations.[48] It was the first calculating machine to use a printer. The development of this machine, later called "Difference Engine No. 1," stopped around 1834.[62]

19th and early 20th centuries calculating machines, Muse des Arts et Mtiers

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In 1834, Babbage started to design his analytical engine, which will become the undisputed ancestor of the modern mainframe computer[63] with two separate input streams for data and program (a primitive Harvard architecture), printers for outputting results (three different kind), processing unit (mill), memory (store) and the first ever set of programming instructions. In the proposal that Howard Aiken gave IBM in 1937 while requesting funding for the Harvard Mark I which became IBM's entry machine in the computer industry, we can read: "Few calculating machines have been designed strictly for application to scientific The London Science Museum's working difference engine, investigations, the notable exceptions being those of Charles built a century and a half after Charles Babbage's design. Babbage and others who followed him. In 1812 Babbage conceived the idea of a calculating machine of a higher type than those previously constructed to be used for calculating and printing tables of mathematical functions. ....After abandoning the difference engine, Babbage devoted his energy to the design and construction of an analytical engine of far higher powers than the difference engine..."[64] In 1847, Babbage began work on an improved difference engine designhis "Difference Engine No. 2." None of these designs were completely built by Babbage. In 1991 the London Science Museum followed Babbage's plans to build a working Difference Engine No. 2 using the technology and materials available in the 19th century. In 1855, Per Georg Scheutz completed a working difference engine based on Babbage's design. The machine was the size of a piano, and was demonstrated at the Exposition Universelle in Paris in 1855. It was used to create tables of logarithms. In 1875, Martin Wiberg re-designed the Babbage/Scheutz difference engine and built a version that was the size of a sewing machine.

Cash registers
The cash register, invented by James Ritty in 1879, solved the old problems of disorganization and dishonesty in business transactions.[65] It was a pure adding machine coupled with a printer, a bell and a two sided display that showed the paying party and the store owner, if he wanted to, the amount of money exchanged for the current transaction. The cash register was easy to use and, unlike genuine mechanical calculators, was needed and quickly adopted by a great number of businesses. "Eighty four companies sold cash registers between 1888 and 1895, only three survived for any length of time".[66] In 1890, 6 years after John Patterson started NCR Corporation, 20,000 machines had been sold by his company alone against a total of roughly 3,500 for all genuine calculators combined.[67] By 1900, NCR had built 200,000 cash registers[68] and there were more companies manufacturing them, compared to the "Thomas/Payen" arithmometer company that had just sold around 3,300[69] and Burroughs had only sold 1,400 machines.[70]

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1900s to 1970s
Mechanical calculators reach their zenith
Two different classes of mechanisms had become established by this time, reciprocating and rotary. The former type of mechanism was operated typically by a limited-travel hand crank; some internal detailed operations took place on the pull, and others on the release part of a complete cycle. The illustrated 1914 machine is this type; the crank is vertical, on its right side. Later on, some of these mechanisms were operated by electric motors and reduction gearing that operated a crank and connecting rod to convert rotary motion to reciprocating. The latter, type, rotary, had at least one main shaft that made one [or more] continuous revolution[s], one addition or subtraction per turn. Numerous designs, notably European calculators, had handcranks, and locks to ensure that the cranks were returned to exact positions once a turn was complete. The first half of the 20th century saw the gradual development of the mechanical calculator mechanism. The Dalton adding-listing machine introduced in 1902 was the first of its type to use only ten keys, and became the first of many different models of "10-key add-listers" manufactured by many companies.

Mechanical calculator from 1914

Mechanical calculator

189 In 1948 the miniature Curta calculator, which was held in one hand for operation, was introduced after being developed by Curt Herzstark in 1938. This was an extreme development of the stepped-gear calculating mechanism. It subtracted by adding complements; between the teeth for addition were teeth for subtraction. From the early 1900s through the 1960s, mechanical calculators dominated the desktop computing market (see History of computing hardware). Major suppliers in the USA included Friden, Monroe, and SCM/Marchant. (Some comments about European calculators follow below.) These devices were motor-driven, and had movable carriages where results of calculations were displayed by dials. Nearly all keyboards were full each digit that could be entered had its own column of nine keys, 1..9, plus a column-clear key, permitting entry of several digits at once. (See the illustration below of a Marchant Figurematic.)One could call this parallel entry, by way of contrast with ten-key serial entry that was commonplace in mechanical adding machines, and is now universal in electronic calculators. (Nearly all Friden calculators, as well as some rotary (German) Diehls had a ten-key auxiliary keyboard for entering the multiplier when doing multiplication.) Full keyboards generally had ten columns, although some lower-cost machines had eight. Most machines made by the three companies mentioned did not print their results, although other companies, such as Olivetti, did make printing calculators.

In these machines, addition and subtraction were performed in a single operation, as on a conventional adding machine, but multiplication and division were accomplished by An Addiator could be used repeated mechanical additions and subtractions. Friden made a calculator that also for addition and provided square roots, basically by doing division, but with added mechanism that subtraction. automatically incremented the number in the keyboard in a systematic fashion. The last of the mechanical calculators were likely to have short-cut multiplication, and some ten-key, serial-entry types had decimal-point keys. However, decimal-point keys required significant internal added complexity, and were offered only in the last designs to be made. Handheld mechanical calculators such as the 1948 Curta continued to be used until they were displaced by electronic calculators in the 1970s.

Triumphator CRN1 (1958)

Walther WSR160 (one of the most common calculators in central Europe) (1960)

Dalton adding machine (1930 ca.)

Typical European four-operations machines use the Odhner mechanism, or variations of it. This kind of machine included the Original Odhner, Brunsviga and several following imitators, starting from Triumphator, Thales,

Mechanical calculator Walther, Facit up to Toshiba. Although most of these were operated by handcranks, there were motor-driven versions. Hamann calculators externally resembled pinwheel machines, but the setting lever positioned a cam that disengaged a drive pawl when the dial had moved far enough. Although Dalton introduced in 1902 first ten-key printing adding (two operations, the other being subtraction) machine, these feature were not present in computing (four operations) machines for many decades. Facit-T (1932) was the first 10-key computing machine sold in large numbers. Olivetti Divisumma-14 (1948) was the first computing machine with both printer and a 10-key keyboard. Full-keyboard machines, including motor-driven ones, were also built until the 1960s. Among the major manufacturers were Mercedes-Euklid, Archimedes, and MADAS in Europe; in the USA, Friden, Marchant, and Monroe were the principal makers of rotary calculators with carriages. Reciprocating calculators (most of which were adding machines, many with integral printers) were made by Remington Rand and Burroughs, among others. All of these were key-set. Felt & Tarrant made Comptometers, as well as Victor, which were key-driven. The basic mechanism of the Friden and Monroe, described above, was a modified Leibniz wheel (better known, perhaps informally, in the USA as a "stepped drum" or "stepped reckoner"). The Friden had an elementary reversing drive between the body of the machine and the accumulator dials, so its main shaft always rotated in the same direction. The Swiss MADAS was similar. The Monroe, however, reversed direction of its main shaft to subtract. The earliest Marchants were pinwheel machines, but most of them were remarkably-sophisticated rotary types. They ran at 1,300 addition cycles per minute if you held down the [+] bar. Others were limited to 600 cycles per minute, because their accumulator dials started and stopped for every cycle; Marchant dials moved at a steady and proportional speed for continuing cycles. Most Marchants had a row of nine keys on the extreme right, as shown in the photo of the Figurematic. These simply made the machine add for the number of cycles corresponding to the number on the key, and then shifted the carriage one place. Even nine add cycles took only a short time. In a Marchant, near the beginning of a cycle, the accumulator dials moved downward "into the dip", away from the openings in the cover. They engaged drive gears in the body of the machine, which rotated them at speeds proportional to the digit being fed to them, with added movement (reduced 10:1) from carries created by dials to their right. At the completion of the cycle, the dials would be misaligned like the pointers in a traditional watt-hour meter. However, as they came up out of the dip, a constant-lead disc cam realigned them by way of a (limited-travel) spur-gear differential. As well, carries for lower orders were added in by another, planetary differential. (The machine shown has 39 differentials in its (20-digit) accumulator!). In any mechanical calculator, in effect, a gear, sector, or some similar device moves the accumulator by the number of gear teeth that corresponds to the digit being added or subtracted three teeth changes the position by a count of three. The great majority of basic calculator mechanisms move the accumulator by starting, then moving at a constant speed, and stopping. In particular, stopping is critical, because to obtain fast operation, the accumulator needs to move quickly. Variants of Geneva drives typically block overshoot (which, of course, would create wrong results). However, two different basic mechanisms, the Mercedes-Euklid and the Marchant, move the dials at speeds corresponding to the digit being added or subtracted; a [1] moves the accumulator the slowest, and a [9], the fastest. In the Mercedes-Euklid, a long slotted lever, pivoted at one end, moves nine racks ("straight gears") endwise by distances proportional to their distance from the lever's pivot. Each rack has a drive pin that's moved by the slot. The rack for [1] is closest to the pivot, of course. For each keyboard digit, a sliding selector gear, much like that in the Leibniz wheel, engages the rack that corresponds to the digit entered. Of course, the accumulator changes either on the forward or reverse stroke, but not both. This mechanism is notably simple and relatively easy to manufacture. The Marchant, however, has, for every one of the its ten columns of keys, a nine-ratio "preselector transmission" with its output spur gear at the top of the machine's body; that gear engages the accumulator gearing. When one tries to work out the numbers of teeth in such a transmission, a straightforward approach leads one to consider a mechanism like that in mechanical gasoline pump registers, used to indicate the total price. However, this

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Mechanical calculator mechanism is seriously bulky, and utterly impractical for a calculator; 90-tooth gears are likely to be found is the gas. pump. Practical gears in the computing parts of a calculator can't have 90 teeth. They would be either too big, or too delicate. Given that nine ratios per column implies significant complexity, a Marchant contains a few hundred individual gears in all, many in its accumulator. Basically, the accumulator dial has to rotate 36 degrees (1/10 of a turn) for a [1], and 324 degrees (9/10 of a turn) for a [9], not allowing for incoming carries. At some point in the gearing, one tooth needs to pass for a [1], and nine teeth for a [9]. There's no way to develop the needed movement from a driveshaft that rotates one revolution per cycle with few gears having practical (relatively small) numbers of teeth. The Marchant, therefore, has three driveshafts to feed the little transmissions. For one cycle, they rotate 1/2, 1/4, and 1/12 of a revolution. [71]. The 1/2-turn shaft carries (for each column) gears with 12, 14, 16, and 18 teeth, corresponding to digits 6, 7, 8, and 9. The 1/4-turn shaft carries (also, each column) gears with 12, 16, and 20 teeth, for 3, 4, and 5. Digits [1] and [2] are handled by 12 and 24-tooth gears on the 1/12-revolution shaft. Practical design places the 12th-rev. shaft more distant, so the 1/4-turn shaft carries freely-rotating 24 and 12-tooth idler gears. For subtraction, the driveshafts reversed direction. In the early part of the cycle, one of five pendants moves off-center to engage the appropriate drive gear for the selected digit. If possible, see John Wolff's Web site [72] for a superb collection of photos with some accompanying explanations. He has similar sets of photos for several other notable calculators. Some machines had as many as 20 columns in their full keyboards. The monster in this field was the Duodecillion made by Burroughs for exhibit purposes. For sterling currency, /s/d (and even farthings), there were variations of the basic mechanisms, in particular with different numbers of gear teeth and accumulator dial positions. To accommodate shillings and pence, extra columns were added for the tens digit[s], 10 and 20 for shillings, and 10 for pence. Of course, these functioned as radix-20 and radix-12 mechanisms. A variant of the Marchant, called the Binary-Octal Marchant, was a radix-8 (octal) machine. It was sold to check very early vacuum-tube (valve) binary computers for accuracy. (Back then, the mechanical calculator was much more reliable than a tube/valve computer.) As well, there was a twin Marchant, comprising two pinwheel Marchants with a common drive crank and reversing gearbox.[73] The article at the link describes them and shows a twin Brunsviga (side-by-side machines). Twin machines were relatively rare, and apparently were used for surveying calculations (The CORDIC algorithm was invented later, but these machine might be able to execute it.) At least one triple machine (Brunsviga(?)) was made. It's likely that a given accumulator could be engaged with either half of the twin. The Facit calculator, and one similar to it, are basically pinwheel machines, but the array of pinwheels moves sidewise, instead of the carriage. The pinwheels are biquinary; digits 1 through 4 cause the corresponding number of sliding pins ot extend from the surface; digits 5 through 9 also extend a five-tooth sector as well as the same pins for 6 through 9. The keys operate cams that operate a swinging lever to first unlock the pin-positioning cam that's partof the pinwheel mechanism; further movement of the lever (by an amount determined by the key's cam) rotates the pin-positioning cam to extend the necessary number of pins. [74] Stylus-operated adders with circular slots for the stylus, and side-by -side wheels, as made by Sterling Plastics (USA), had an ingenious anti-overshoot mechanism to ensure accurate carries.

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Duodecillion (1915 ca.)

Marchant Figurematic (1950-52)

Friden Calculator

Facit NTK (1954)

Olivetti Divisumma 24 interior, (1964)

The end of an era

Mechanical calculators continued to be sold, though in rapidly decreasing numbers, into the early 1970s, with many of the manufacturers closing down or being taken over. Comptometer type calculators were often retained for much longer to be used for adding and listing duties, especially in accounting, since a trained and skilled operator could enter all the digits of a number in one movement of the hands on a Comptometer quicker than was possible serially with a 10-key electronic calculator. In fact, it was quicker to enter larger digits in two strokes using only the lower-numbered keys; for instance, a 9 would be entered as 4 followed by 5. Some key-driven calculators had keys for every column, but only 1 through 5; they were correspondingly compact. The spread of the computer rather than the simple electronic calculator put an end to the Comptometer. Also, by the end of the 1970s, the slide rule had become obsolete.

Operating an Odhner calculator

The Odhner arithmometer was the most produced mechanical calculator.[53] Although this is an old machine, nevertheless it represents how one operates any basic rotary calculator. Facits have a pinwheel cylinder that shifts internally, instead of a moving carriage, but the principles still hold. First, clear the result dials, and then move all setting levers to zero. Position the carriage appropriately. (Use the levers at the front.) The handcrank must be at home position, engaged with its positioning stop.
An Odhner type arithmometer Millions were built in Asia and Europe from 1890 [53] to the 1970s. It was a redesign of Thomas' Arithmometer reducing its size and cost by one order of magnitude.

Mechanical calculator To add, enter the number into the setting levers. Pull the crank handle to the right, and then toward you, so that it's going away from you when the handle is at the top. One turn will add the number into the accumulator dials, and the counter register to the left will show [1]. Multiplication: If you continue turning, you'll multiply by the number of turns you're adding repetitively. If you need to multiply by several digits, it's simplest to start with the rightmost multiplier digit, then shift the carriage to the right one position for the next digit. To subtract, pull the crank handle to the right, and push it away from you, so the handle is moving toward you when it's at its highest point. If you subtract more than the number in the accumulator dials, you'll get a complement, which you'll need to convert. Short-cut multiplication It's quite unnecessary to crank six or more times for a multiplier digit. Instead, you can shift the carriage one position to the right, add once, then back up the carriage and subtract, until the counter shows the correct digit. For instance, to multiply by 8, shift, add once, shift back, and subtract twice. (10-2 = 8) Thinking ahead, instead, you can subtract twice before adding; the calculator will keep track for you. Division Clear the machine and enter the dividend into the setting slides, starting at the left. Move the carriage to the right so the leftmost dividend digit aligns with the leftmost setting lever. Add once. Clear the counter. If you're lucky, the machine should have a counter-reverse control that will make the counter increment for subtraction and decrement for addition. (Some later, better machines do this automatically for the first turn after entering the dividend and clearing the counter.) So, now you have the dividend in the accumulator, left-justified. Change the setting levers to enter the divisor, again to the left. Be sure the counter is clear, and start subtracting. If the machine has a bell, you can crank mindlessly until the bell rings, then add once. Otherwise, you'll need to watch the accumulator contents to note (or anticipate) an "overdraft" (subtraction too many times); you have to correct it if it happens, by adding. Shift the carriage one position to the left, and resume subtracting. Repeat for each quotient digit, until you either reach the machine's limits or have enough digits. The counter cantains your quotient; the accumulator contains the remainder (if any). It's of some interest that essentially-automatic division generally appeared before automatic multiplication; as each quotient digit developed, overdraft was allowed to happen, and it triggered a single add cycle followed by a shift. Square root is possible, by the "fives method", but the description is rather more complicated. This type of machine, in particular, is quite good for this kind of calculation. Short-cut division This takes some thought, but can save time. By watching the accumulator, you can anticipate a large quotient digit, and in a fashion similar to short-cut multiplication, you can add and shift, instead of simply subtracting, to save cycles. (The Marchant calculator contains a multi-digit analog magnitude comparator that prevents overdrafts! Changing from subtraction to addition and back is messy and slow in that machine.)

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References
[1] [2] [3] [4] Jean Marguin (1994), p. 48 Ernst Martin p.23,133 (1925) Antohy Hyman, Charles Babbage, pioneer of the computer, 1982 "The introduction of punched cards into the new engine was important not only as a more convenient form of control than the drums, or because programs could now be of unlimited extent, and could be stored and repeated without the danger of introducing errors in setting the machine by hand; it was important also because it served to crystalize Babbage's feeling that he had invented something really new, something much more than a sophisticated calculating machine." Bruce Collier, 1970 [5] Brian Randell, p.187, 1975 [6] #MARG,Jean Marguin p. 171, (1994) [7] Please see Pascaline#Pascal versus Schickard [8] Magazine Nature, (1942) [9] Scripta Mathematica, p.128 (1932) [10] From the calculating machine of Pascal to the computer, p.43 (1990) [11] (fr) La Machine darithmtique, Blaise Pascal (http:/ / fr. wikisource. org/ wiki/ La_Machine_darithm-tique), Wikisource [12] Guy Mourlevat, p. 12 (1988) [13] Courrier du CIBP, N8, p.9, (1986) [14] "...et si blocage il y avait, la machine tait pratiquement inutilisable, ce qui ne fut jamais signal dans les textes du XVIIIe siecle parmi ses dfaults" Guy Mourlevat, p.30 (1988) [15] Jean Marguin, p. 64-65 (1994) [16] Scripta Mathematica, p.149 (1932) [17] David Smith, p.173-181 (1929) [18] As quoted in Smith 1929, pp.180181 [19] Translated from "j'en composai une troisime qui va par ressorts et qui est trs simple en sa construction. C'est celle de laquelle, comme j'ai dj dit, je me suis servi plusieurs fois, au vu et su d'une infinit de personnes, et qui est encore en tat de servir autant que jamais. Toutefois, en la perfectionnant toujours, je trouvai des raisons de la changer" Avis ncessaire ceux qui auront curiosit de voir la Machine d'Arithmtique et de s'en servir Wikisource: La Machine darithmtique, Blaise Pascal [20] Quoted in David Smith, p.173, (1929) [21] Michael Williams, p.124,128 (1997) for Schikard's machine and the fact that the machines built by Burattini, Morland and Grillet were calculating clocks without a complete carry mechanism. [22] History of computer (http:/ / history-computer. com/ MechanicalCalculators/ Pioneers/ Schickard. html) (retrieved on 01/02/2012) [23] Michael Williams, p.122 (1997) [24] Michael Williams, p.124,128 (1997) [25] "The appearance of this small avorton disturbed me to the utmost and it dampened the enthusiasm with which I was developing my calculator so much that I immediately let go all of my employees..." translated from the French: "L'aspect de ce petit avorton me dplut au dernier point et refroidit tellement l'ardeur avec laquelle je faisais lors travailler l'accomplissement de mon modle qu' l'instant mme je donnai cong tous les ouvriers..." [26] "But, later on, Lord Chancellor of France [...] granted me a royal privilege which is not usual, and which will suffocate before their birth all these illegitimate avortons which, by the way, could only be born of the legitimate and necessary alliance of theory and art." translated from the French: "Mais, quelque temps aprs, Monseigneur le Chancelier [...] par la grce qu'il me fit de m'accorder un privilge qui n'est pas ordinaire, et qui touffe avant leur naissance tous ces avortons illgitimes qui pourraient tre engendrs d'ailleurs que de la lgitime et ncessaire alliance de la thorie avec l'art" [27] "...a useless piece, perfectly clean, polished and well filed on the outside but so imperfect inside that it is of no use whatsoever." translated from the French: "...qu'une pice inutile, propre vritablement, polie et trs bien lime par le dehors, mais tellement imparfaite au dedans qu'elle n'est d'aucun usage" [28] All the quotes in this paragraph are found in (fr) Wikisource: Avis ncessaire ceux qui auront curiosit de voir la Machine d'Arithmtique et de s'en servir. [29] Picture of Burattini's machine (http:/ / brunelleschi. imss. fi. it/ mediciscienze/ emed. asp?c=35423) Florence, Istituto e Museo di Storia della Scienza, inv. 3179 (accessed on January, 09 2012) [30] A calculator Chronicle, 300 years of counting and reckoning tools, p. 12, IBM [31] Michael Williams, p.140 (1997) [32] Picture of Morland multiplying machine (http:/ / brunelleschi. imss. fi. it/ mediciscienze/ emed. asp?c=35418) Florence, Istituto e Museo di Storia della Scienza, inv. 679 (retrieved on January, 09 2012) [33] They belong to the Muse des Arts et Mtiers in Paris. [34] "Grillet's machine doesn't even deserve the name of machine" translated from the French "La machine de Grillet ne mrite donc pas mme le nom de machine", Jean Marguin, p.76 (1994) [35] Copy of Poleni's machine (http:/ / www. museoscienza. org/ approfondimenti/ documenti/ macchina_poleni/ replica. asp) (it) Museo Nazionale della Scienza e della Tecnologia Leonardo Da Vinci. Retrieved 2010-10-04

Mechanical calculator
[36] Jean Marguin, p. 93-94 (1994) [37] translated from the French: "De plus le report ne s'effectuant pas en cascade, la machine devait se bloquer au-del de quelques reports simultans", Jean Marguin, p.78 (1994) [38] Jean Marguin, p.94-96 (1994) [39] #MARG, Jean Marguin, pages 80-81 (1994) [40] Marguin, p.83 (1994) [41] Picture of Hahn's Calculator (http:/ / www-03. ibm. com/ ibm/ history/ exhibits/ attic/ attic_137. html) IBM Collection of mechanical calculators [42] Jean Marguin, pages 84-86 (1994) [43] Door E. Felt, p.15-16 (1916) [44] Le calcul simplifi. Maurice d'Aucagne (http:/ / cnum. cnam. fr/ CGI/ fpage. cgi?8KU54-2. 5/ 253/ 150/ 369/ 363/ 369) [45] This is one third of the 120 years that this industry lasted [46] Arithmometre.org (retrieved on 01/02/2012) (http:/ / www. arithmometre. org/ NumerosSerie/ PageNumerosSeriePayen. html) [47] Felt, Dorr E. (1916). Mechanical arithmetic, or The history of the counting machine (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ mechanicalarithm00feltrich). Chicago: Washington Institute. p.4. . [48] "The calculating engines of English mathematician Charles Babbage (1791-1871) are among the most celebrated icons in the prehistory of computing. Babbages Difference Engine No.1 was the first successful automatic calculator and remains one of the finest examples of precision engineering of the time. Babbage is sometimes referred to as "father of computing." The International Charles Babbage Society (later the Charles Babbage Institute) took his name to honor his intellectual contributions and their relation to modern computers." Charles Babbage Institute (http:/ / www. cbi. umn. edu/ about/ babbage. html) (page retrieved on 01/02/2012). [49] Ifrah G., The Universal History of Numbers, vol 3, page 127, The Harvill Press, 2000 [50] Chase G.C.: History of Mechanical Computing Machinery, Vol. 2, Number 3, July 1980, IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, p. 204 [51] Serial numbers and Years of manufacturing (http:/ / www. arithmometre. org/ NumerosSerie/ PageNumerosSerieEnglish. html) www.arithmometre.org, Valry Monnier [52] J.A.V. Turck, Origin of modern calculating machines, The Western Society of Engineers, 1921, p. 75 [53] G. Trogemann, pages: 39-45 [54] David J. Shaw: The Cathedral Libraries Catalogue, The British Library and the Bibliographical Society, 1998 [55] J.A.V. Turck, Origin of modern calculating machines, The Western Society of Engineers, 1921, p. 143 [56] http:/ / home. vicnet. net. au/ ~wolff/ calculators/ Tech/ Millionaire/ Intro. htm [57] A notable difference was that the Millionaire calculator used an internal mechanical product lookup table versus a repeated addition or subtraction until a counter was decreased down to zero and stopped the machine for the arithmometer [58] L'ami des Sciences 1856, p.301 (http:/ / www. arithmometre. org/ Bibliotheque/ BibNumerique/ AmiDesSciences1856/ AmidesSciences1856. pdf) www.arithmometre.org (page retrieved on 09/22/2010) [59] Larousse, P. (1886), Grand dictionaire universel du XIX siecle, Paris, entry for A-M Guerry [60] Patent application in french (http:/ / www. ami19. org/ BrevetsFrancais/ 1883Edmonson/ 1883Edmonson. pdf) from www.ami19.org scanned by Valry Monnier (retrieved on January 12, 2012) [61] James Essinger, p.76 (2004) [62] "The better part of my live has now been spent on that machine, and no progress whatever having been made since 1834...", Charles Babbage, quoted in Irascible Genius, 1964, p.145 [63] "It is reasonable to inquire, therefore, whether it is possible to devise a machine which will do for mathematical computation what the automatic lathe has done for engineering. The first suggestion that such a machine could be made came more than a hundred years ago from the mathematician Charles Babbage. Babbage's ideas have only been properly appreciated in the last ten years, but we now realize that he understood clearly all the fundamental principles which are embodied in modern digital computers" B. V. Bowden, 1953, pp.6,7 [64] Howard Aiken, 1937, reprinted in The origins of Digital computers, Selected Papers, Edited by Brian Randell, 1973 [65] NCR Retrospective website (http:/ / www. ncr. org. uk/ page106. html) accessed October, 02 2012 [66] History of the cash register (http:/ / www. cashregistersonline. com/ history. asp) retrieved October, 05 2012 [67] See the number of machines built in 1890 in this paragraph [68] Dick and Joan's antique (http:/ / www. brasscashregister. net/ learn_more/ articles/ how_to_date_your_national_or_ncr_cash_register/ ) accessed October, 02 2012 [69] List of serial numbers by dates (http:/ / www. arithmometre. org/ NumerosSerie/ PageNumerosSeriePayen. html) arithmometre.org retrieved October 10, 2012 [70] Before the computer, James W. Cortada, p.34 ISBN 0-691-04807-X [71] http:/ / home. vicnet. net. au/ ~wolff/ calculators/ Tech/ MarchantDRX/ Actuator. htm [72] http:/ / home. vicnet. net. au/ ~wolff/ calculators/ Tech/ MarchantDRX/ Intro. htm [73] http:/ / www. vintagecalculators. com/ html/ the_twin_marchant. html [74] http:/ / home. vicnet. net. au/ ~wolff/ calculators/ Tech/ FacitC1-13/ C113. htm#Rotor

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196

Sources
(in fr) De la machine calculer de Pascal l'ordinateur. Paris, France: Muse National des Techniques, CNAM. 1990. ISBN2-908207-07-9. Trogemann, G.; Nitussov, A. (2001). Computing in Russia. Germany: GWV-Vieweg. ISBN3-528-05757-2. Felt, Dorr E. (1916). Mechanical arithmetic, or The history of the counting machine (http://www.archive.org/ details/mechanicalarithm00feltrich). Chicago: Washington Institute. Marguin, Jean (1994) (in fr). Histoire des instruments et machines calculer, trois si cles de mcanique pensante 1642-1942. Hermann. ISBN978-2-7056-6166-3. Mourlevat, Guy (1988) (in fr). Les machines arithmtiques de Blaise Pascal. Clermont-Ferrand: La Franaise d'Edition et d'Imprimerie. Taton, Ren (1969) (in fr). Histoire du calcul. Que sais-je ? n 198. Presses universitaires de France. Turck, J.A.V. (1921). Origin of Modern Calculating Machines. The Western Society of Engineers. Reprinted by Arno Press, 1972 ISBN 0-405-04730-4. Ginsburg, Jekuthiel (2003). Scripta Mathematica (Septembre 1932-Juin 1933). Kessinger Publishing, LLC. ISBN978-0-7661-3835-3. Martin, Ernst (1992). The Charles Babbage Institute. ed. The Calculating Machines translation from Die Rechenmaschinen (1925). Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. Smith, David Eugene (1929). A Source Book in Mathematics. New York and London: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.. Moseley, Maboth (1964). Irascible Genius, Charles Babbage Inventor. London: Hutchinson & Co, Ltd. Bowden, B. V. (1953). Faster than thought. New York, Toronto, London: Pitman publishing corporation. Williams, Michael R. (1997). History of Computing Technology. Los Alamitos, California: IEEE Computer Society. ISBN0-8186-7739-2. Randell, Brian (1973). The origins of Digital computers, Selected Papers. Springer-Verlag. IBM. A calculator Chronicle, 300 years of counting and reckoning tools. New York. Collier, Bruce. The little engine that could've: The calculating machines of Charles Babbage (http://robroy. dyndns.info/collier/index.html). Garland Publishing Inc. ISBN0-8240-0043-9. Essinger, James (2004). Jacquard's Web. Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-280577-0. Prof. S. Chapman (October 31, 1942). "Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) Tercentenary of the calculating machine". Nature (London) 150: 508509. "Usage de la machine" (in fr). Courrier du centre international Blaise Pascal (Clermont-Ferrand) (8): 425. 1986.

Analytic geometry

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Analytic geometry
Analytic geometry, or analytical geometry, has two different meanings in mathematics. The modern and advanced meaning refers to the geometry of analytic varieties. This article focuses on the classical and elementary meaning. In classical mathematics, analytic geometry, also known as coordinate geometry, or Cartesian geometry, is the study of geometry using a coordinate system and the principles of algebra and analysis. This contrasts with the synthetic approach of Euclidean geometry, which treats certain geometric notions as primitive, and uses deductive reasoning based on Cartesian coordinates. axioms and theorems to derive truth. Analytic geometry is widely used in physics and engineering, and is the foundation of most modern fields of geometry, including algebraic, differential, discrete, and computational geometry. Usually the Cartesian coordinate system is applied to manipulate equations for planes, straight lines, and squares, often in two and sometimes in three dimensions. Geometrically, one studies the Euclidean plane (2 dimensions) and Euclidean space (3 dimensions). As taught in school books, analytic geometry can be explained more simply: it is concerned with defining and representing geometrical shapes in a numerical way and extracting numerical information from shapes' numerical definitions and representations. The numerical output, however, might also be a vector or a shape. That the algebra of the real numbers can be employed to yield results about the linear continuum of geometry relies on the CantorDedekind axiom.

History
The Greek mathematician Menaechmus solved problems and proved theorems by using a method that had a strong resemblance to the use of coordinates and it has sometimes been maintained that he had introduced analytic geometry.[1] Apollonius of Perga, in On Determinate Section, dealt with problems in a manner that may be called an analytic geometry of one dimension; with the question of finding points on a line that were in a ratio to the others.[2] Apollonius in the Conics further developed a method that is so similar to analytic geometry that his work is sometimes thought to have anticipated the work of Descartes by some 1800 years. His application of reference lines, a diameter and a tangent is essentially no different than our modern use of a coordinate frame, where the distances measured along the diameter from the point of tangency are the abscissas, and the segments parallel to the tangent and intercepted between the axis and the curve are the ordinates. He further developed relations between the abscissas and the corresponding ordinates that are equivalent to rhetorical equations of curves. However, although Apollonius came close to developing analytic geometry, he did not manage to do so since he did not take into account negative magnitudes and in every case the coordinate system was superimposed upon a given curve a posteriori instead of a priori. That is, equations were determined by curves, but curves were not determined by equations. Coordinates, variables, and equations were subsidiary notions applied to a specific geometric situation.[3]

Analytic geometry The eleventh century Persian mathematician Omar Khayym saw a strong relationship between geometry and algebra, and was moving in the right direction when he helped to close the gap between numerical and geometric algebra[4] with his geometric solution of the general cubic equations,[5] but the decisive step came later with Descartes.[4] Analytic geometry has traditionally been attributed to Ren Descartes[4][6][7] Descartes made significant progress with the methods in an essay entitled La Geometrie (Geometry), one of the three accompanying essays (appendices) published in 1637 together with his Discourse on the Method for Rightly Directing One's Reason and Searching for Truth in the Sciences, commonly referred to as Discourse on Method. This work, written in his native French tongue, and its philosophical principles, provided a foundation for Infinitesimal calculus in Europe. Initially the work was not well received, due, in part, to the many gaps in arguments and complicated equations. Only after the translation into Latin and the addition of commentary by van Schooten in 1649 (and further work thereafter) did Descarte's masterpiece receive due recognition.[8] Pierre Fermat also pioneered the development of analytic geometry. Although not published in his lifetime, a manuscript form of Ad locos planos et solidos isagoge (Introduction to Plane and Solid Loci) was circulating in Paris in 1637, just prior to the publication of Descartes' Discourse.[9] Clearly written and well received, the Introduction also laid the groundwork for analytical geometry. The key difference between Fermat's and Descartes' treatments is a matter of viewpoint. Fermat always started with an algebraic equation and then described the geometric curve which satisfied it, while Descartes starts with geometric curves and produces their equations as one of several properties of the curves.[8] As a consequence of this approach, Descartes had to deal with more complicated equations and he had to develop the methods to work with polynomial equations of higher degree.

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Basic principles
Coordinates
In analytic geometry, the plane is given a coordinate system, by which every point has a pair of real number coordinates. The most common coordinate system to use is the Cartesian coordinate system, where each point has an x-coordinate representing its horizontal position, and a y-coordinate representing its vertical position. These are typically written as an ordered pair (x,y). This system can also be used for three-dimensional geometry, where every point in Euclidean space is represented by an ordered triple of coordinates (x,y,z). Other coordinate systems are possible. On the plane the most common alternative is polar coordinates, where every point is represented by its radius r from the origin and its angle . In three dimensions, common alternative coordinate systems include cylindrical coordinates and spherical coordinates.

Illustration of a Cartesian coordinate plane. Four points are marked and labeled with their coordinates: (2,3) in green, (3,1) in red, (1.5,2.5) in blue, and the origin (0,0) in purple.

Equations of curves
In analytic geometry, any equation involving the coordinates specifies a subset of the plane, namely the solution set for the equation. For example, the equation y=x corresponds to the set of all the points on the plane whose

Analytic geometry x-coordinate and y-coordinate are equal. These points form a line, and y=x is said to be the equation for this line. In general, linear equations involving x and y specify lines, quadratic equations specify conic sections, and more complicated equations describe more complicated figures. Usually, a single equation corresponds to a curve on the plane. This is not always the case: the trivial equation x=x specifies the entire plane, and the equation x2+y2=0 specifies only the single point (0,0). In three dimensions, a single equation usually gives a surface, and a curve must be specified as the intersection of two surfaces (see below), or as a system of parametric equations. The equation x2+y2=r2 is the equation for any circle with a radius of r.

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Distance and angle

In analytic geometry, geometric notions such as distance and angle measure are defined using formulas. These definitions are designed to be consistent with the underlying Euclidean geometry. For example, using Cartesian coordinates on the plane, the distance between two points (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) is defined by the formula

which can be viewed as a version of the Pythagorean theorem. Similarly, the angle that a line makes with the horizontal can be defined by the formula

The distance formula on the plane follows from the Pythagorean theorem.

where m is the slope of the line.

Section of a line
In Analytical Geometry a section of a line can be given by the formula where (c,d)&(e,f) are the endpoints of the line & m:n is the ratio of division S(a,b)=(nc+me/m+n, nd+mf/m+n)

Transformations
Transformations are applied to parent functions to turn it into a new function with similar characteristics. For example, the parent function y=1/x has a horizontal and a vertical asymptote, and occupies the first and third quadrant, and all of its transformed forms have one horizontal and vertical asymptote,and occupies either the 1st and 3rd or 2nd and 4th quadrant. In general, if y=f(x), then it can be transformed into y=af(b(xk))+h. In the new transformed function, a is the factor that vertically stretches the function if it is greater than 1 or vertically compresses the function if it is less than 1, and for negative a values, the function is reflected in the x-axis. The b value compresses the graph of the function horizontally if greater than 1 and stretches the function horizontally if less than 1, and like a, reflects the function in the y-axis when it is negative. The k and h values introduce translations, h, vertical, and k horizontal. Positive h and k values mean the function is translated to the positive end of its axis and negative meaning translation towards the negative end. Transformations can be applied to any geometric equation whether or not the equation represents a function. Transformations can be considered as individual transactions or in combinations. Suppose that R(x,y) is a relation in the xy plane. For example x2+y2-1=0

Analytic geometry is the relation that describes the unit circle. The graph of R(x,y) is changed by standard transformations as follows: Changing x to x-h moves the graph to the right h units. Changing y to y-k moves the graph up k units. Changing x to x/b stretches the graph horizontally by a factor of b. (think of the x as being dilated) Changing y to y/a stretches the graph vertically. Changing x to xcosA+ ysinA and changing y to -xsinA + ycosA rotates the graph by an angle A. There are other standard transformation not typically studied in elementary analytic geometry because the transformations change the shape of objects in ways not usually considered. Skewing is an example of a transformation not usually considered. For more information, consult the Wikipedia article on affine transformations.

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Intersections
While this discussion is limited to the xy-plane, it can easily be extended to higher dimensions. For two geometric objects P and Q represented by the relations P(x,y) and Q(x,y) the intersection is the collection of all points (x,y) which are in both relations. For example, P might be the circle with radius 1 and center (0,0): P = {(x,y) | x2+y2=1} and Q might be the circle with radius 1 and center (1,0): Q = {(x,y) | (x-1)2+y2=1}. The intersection of these two circles is the collection of points which make both equations true. Does the point (0,0) make both equations true? Using (0,0) for (x,y), the equation for Q becomes (0-1)2+02=1 or (-1)2=1 which is true, so (0,0) is in the relation Q. On the other hand, still using (0,0) for (x,y) the equation for P becomes (0)2+02=1 or 0=1 which is false. (0,0) is not in P so it is not in the intersection. The intersection of P and Q can be found by solving the simultaneous equations: x2+y2 = 1 (x-1)2+y2 = 1 Traditional methods include substitution and elimination. Substitution: Solve the first equation for y in terms of x and then substitute the expression for y into the second equation. x2+y2 = 1 y2=1-x2 We then substitute this value for y2 into the other equation: (x-1)2+(1-x2)=1 and proceed to solve for x: x2 -2x +1 +1 -x2 =1 -2x = -1 x= We next place this value of x in either of the original equations and solve for y: 2+y2 = 1 y2 =

So that our intersection has two points:

Elimination: Add (or subtract) a multiple of one equation to the other equation so that one of the variables is eliminated. For our current example, If we subtract the first equation from the second we get: (x-1)2-x2=0 The y2 in the first equation is subtracted from the y2 in the second equation leaving no y term. y has been eliminated. We then

Analytic geometry solve the remaining equation for x, in the same way as in the substitution method. x2 -2x +1 +1 -x2 =1 -2x = -1 x= We next place this value of x in either of the original equations and solve for y: 2+y2 = 1 y2 =

201

So that our intersection has two points:

For conic sections, as many as 4 points might be in the intersection.

Intercepts
One type of intersection which is widely studied is the intersection of a geometric object with the x and y coordinate axes. The intersection of a geometric object and the y-axis is called the y-intercept of the object. The intersection of a geometric object and the x-axis is called the x-intercept of the object. For the line y=mx+b, the parameter b specifies the point where the line crosses the y axis. Depending on the context, either b or the point (0,b) is called the y-intercept.

Themes
Important themes of analytical geometry are vector space definition of the plane distance problems the dot product, to get the angle of two vectors the cross product, to get a perpendicular vector of two known vectors (and also their spatial volume) intersection problems conic sections depending on the class, this may include rotation of coordinates and the general quadratic problems Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 +Dx + Ey + F = 0. If the Bxy term is considered, rotations are generally used. Many of these problems involve linear algebra.

Example
Here an example of a problem from the United States of America Mathematical Talent Search that can be solved via analytic geometry: Problem: In a convex pentagon in that order. Let Let , , , and be the midpoint of segment , the sides have lengths be the midpoints of the sides , and , , . , . , and , and be located at are located at , , , , , , , , and , though not necessarily , and , respectively. is

be the midpoint of segment , , , ,

. The length of segment

an integer. Find all possible values for the length of side Solution: Without loss of generality, let , , and Using the midpoint formula, the points

Analytic geometry

202

, , and Using the distance formula,

and

Since

has to be an integer,

(see modular arithmetic) so

Modern analytic geometry

An analytic variety is defined locally as the set of common solutions of several equations involving analytic functions. It is analogous to the included concept of real or complex algebraic variety. Any complex manifold is an analytic variety. Since analytic varieties may have singular points, not all analytic varieties are manifolds. Analytic geometry is essentially equivalent to real and complex Algebraic geometry, as has been shown by Jean-Pierre Serre in his paper GAGA, the name of which is French for Algebraic geometry and analytic geometry. Nevertheless, the two fields remain distinct, as the methods of proof are quite different and algebraic geometry includes also geometry in finite characteristic.

Notes
[1] Boyer, Carl B. (1991). "The Age of Plato and Aristotle". A History of Mathematics (Second Edition ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. pp.9495. ISBN0-471-54397-7. "Menaechmus apparently derived these properties of the conic sections and others as well. Since this material has a strong resemblance to the use of coordinates, as illustrated above, it has sometimes been maintained that Menaechmus had analytic geometry. Such a judgment is warranted only in part, for certainly Menaechmus was unaware that any equation in two unknown quantities determines a curve. In fact, the general concept of an equation in unknown quantities was alien to Greek thought. It was shortcomings in algebraic notations that, more than anything else, operated against the Greek achievement of a full-fledged coordinate geometry." [2] Boyer, Carl B. (1991). "Apollonius of Perga". A History of Mathematics (Second Edition ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. pp.142. ISBN0-471-54397-7. "The Apollonian treatise On Determinate Section dealt with what might be called an analytic geometry of one dimension. It considered the following general problem, using the typical Greek algebraic analysis in geometric form: Given four points A, B, C, D on a straight line, determine a fifth point P on it such that the rectangle on AP and CP is in a given ratio to the rectangle on BP and DP. Here, too, the problem reduces easily to the solution of a quadratic; and, as in other cases, Apollonius treated the question exhaustively, including the limits of possibility and the number of solutions." [3] Boyer, Carl B. (1991). "Apollonius of Perga". A History of Mathematics (Second Edition ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. pp.156. ISBN0-471-54397-7. "The method of Apollonius in the Conics in many respects are so similar to the modern approach that his work sometimes is judged to be an analytic geometry anticipating that of Descartes by 1800 years. The application of references lines in general, and of a diameter and a tangent at its extremity in particular, is, of course, not essentially different from the use fo a coordinate frame, whether rectangular or, more generally, oblique. Distances measured along the diameter from the point of tangency are the abscissas, and segments parallel to the tangent and intercepted between the axis and the curve are the ordinates. The Apollonian relationship between these abscissas and the corresponding ordinates are nothing more nor less than rhetorical forms of the equations of the curves. However, Greek geometric algebra did not provide for negative magnitudes; moreover, the coordinate system was in every case superimposed a posteriori upon a given curve in order to study its properties. There appear to be no cases in ancient geometry in which a coordinate frame of reference was laid down a priori for purposes of graphical representation of an equation or relationship, whether symbolically or rhetorically expressed. Of Greek geometry we may say that equations are determined by curves, but not that curves are determined by equations. Coordinates, variables, and equations were subsidiary notions derived from a specific geometric situation; [...] That Apollonius, the greatest geometer of antiquity, failed to develop analytic geometry, was probably the result of a poverty of curves rather than of thought. General methods are not necessary when problems concern always one of a limited number of particular cases."

Analytic geometry
[4] Boyer (1991). "The Arabic Hegemony". pp.241242. "Omar Khayyam (ca. 10501123), the "tent-maker," wrote an Algebra that went beyond that of al-Khwarizmi to include equations of third degree. Like his Arab predecessors, Omar Khayyam provided for quadratic equations both arithmetic and geometric solutions; for general cubic equations, he believed (mistakenly, as the sixteenth century later showed), arithmetic solutions were impossible; hence he gave only geometric solutions. The scheme of using intersecting conics to solve cubics had been used earlier by Menaechmus, Archimedes, and Alhazan, but Omar Khayyam took the praiseworthy step of generalizing the method to cover all third-degree equations (having positive roots). .. For equations of higher degree than three, Omar Khayyam evidently did not envision similar geometric methods, for space does not contain more than three dimensions, ... One of the most fruitful contributions of Arabic eclecticism was the tendency to close the gap between numerical and geometric algebra. The decisive step in this direction came much later with Descartes, but Omar Khayyam was moving in this direction when he wrote, "Whoever thinks algebra is a trick in obtaining unknowns has thought it in vain. No attention should be paid to the fact that algebra and geometry are different in appearance. Algebras are geometric facts which are proved."" [5] Glen M. Cooper (2003). "Omar Khayyam, the Mathmetician", The Journal of the American Oriental Society 123. [6] Stillwell, John (2004). "Analytic Geometry". Mathematics and its History (Second Edition ed.). Springer Science + Business Media Inc.. pp.105. ISBN0-387-95336-1. "the two founders of analytic geometry, Fermat and Descartes, were both strongly influenced by these developments." [7] Cooke, Roger (1997). "The Calculus". The History of Mathematics: A Brief Course. Wiley-Interscience. pp.326. ISBN0-471-18082-3. "The person who is popularly credited with being the discoverer of analytic geometry was the philosopher Ren Descartes (15961650), one of the most influential thinkers of the modern era." [8] Katz 1998, pg. 442 [9] Katz 1998, pg. 436

203

References
Katz, Victor J. (1998), A History of Mathematics: An Introduction (2nd Ed.), Reading: Addison Wesley Longman, ISBN0-321-01618-1

External links
Coordinate Geometry topics (http://www.mathopenref.com/tocs/coordpointstoc.html) with interactive animations

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Formula for primes

In number theory, a formula for primes is a formula generating the prime numbers, exactly and without exception. No such formula which is easily computable is presently known. A number of constraints are known: what such a "formula" can and cannot be.

Prime formulas and polynomial functions

It is known that no non-constant polynomial function P(n) with integer coefficients exists that evaluates to a prime number for all integers n. The proof is: Suppose such a polynomial existed. Then P(1) would evaluate to a prime p, so . But for any k, also, so (as it is prime and divisible by p), but the only way for all k is if the polynomial function is constant. The same reasoning shows an even stronger result: no non-constant polynomial function P(n) exists that evaluates to a prime number for almost all integers n. Euler first noticed (in 1772) that the quadratic polynomial P(n) = n2 - n + 41 is prime for all positive integers less than 41. The primes for n = 1, 2, 3... are 41, 43, 47, 53, 61, 71... The differences between the terms are 2, 4, 6, 8, 10... For n = 41, it produces a square number, 1681, which is equal to 4141, the smallest composite number for this formula. If 41 divides n it divides P(n) too. The phenomenon is related to the Ulam spiral, which is also implicitly quadratic, and the class number; this polynomial is related to the Heegner number , and there are analogous polynomials for , corresponding to other Heegner numbers. It is known, based on Dirichlet's theorem on arithmetic progressions, that linear polynomial functions produce infinitely many primes as long as a and b are relatively prime (though no such function will assume prime values for all values of n). Moreover, the GreenTao theorem says that for any k there exists a pair of a and b with the property that is prime for any n from 0 to k1. However, the best known result of such type is for k = 26: 43142746595714191 + 5283234035979900n is prime for all n from 0 to 25 (Andersen 2010). It is not even known whether there exists a univariate polynomial of degree at least 2 that assumes an infinite number of values that are prime; see Bunyakovsky conjecture.

Formula based on a system of Diophantine equations

A system of 14 Diophantine equations in 26 variables can be used to obtain a Diophantine representation of the set of all primes. Jones et al. (1976) proved that a given number k+2 is prime if and only if the following system of 14 Diophantine equations has a solution in the natural numbers: 0 = 1 = 2 = 3 = 4 = 5 = 6 = 7 = =0 =0 =0 =0 =0 =0 =0 =0

Formula for primes 8 = 9 = 10 = 11 = 12 = 13 = =0 =0 =0 =0 =0 =0

205

The 14 equations 0, , 13 can be used to produce a prime-generating polynomial inequality in 26 variables: i.e.:

is a polynomial inequality in 26 variables, and the set of prime numbers is identical to the set of positive values taken on by the left-hand side as the variables a, b, , z range over the nonnegative integers. A general theorem of Matiyasevich says that if a set is defined by a system of Diophantine equations, it can also be defined by a system of Diophantine equations in only 9 variables. Hence, there is a prime-generating polynomial as above with only 10 variables. However, its degree is large (in the order of 1045). On the other hand, there also exists such a set of equations of degree only 4, but in 58 variables.(Jones 1982)

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206

Formulas using the floor function

Using the floor function (defined to be the largest integer less than or equal to the real number x), one can construct several formulas that take only prime numbers as values for all positive integers n.

Mills's formula
The first such formula known was established in 1947 by W. H. Mills, who proved that there exists a real number A such that

is a prime number for all positive integers n. If the Riemann hypothesis is true, then the smallest such A has a value of around 1.3063... and is known as Mills' constant. This formula has no practical value, because very little is known about the constant (not even whether it is rational), and there is no known way of calculating the constant without finding primes in the first place.

Converting the sieve of Eratosthenes to prime number formulas

There is another, quite different formula discovered by Sebastin Martn-Ruiz (Rivera n.d.) and proved with Jonathan Sondow (Martin-Ruiz & Sondow 2002):

Note the following equalities:

where

is the prime counting function.

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207

Converting primality tests to prime number formulas

Any primality test can be used as the basis for a prime number formula. In effect, a test for the primality of n is a computation of the function IsPrime(n), defined by:

If the primality test is given by a condition on some formula involving IsPrime(n). Using a product,

then that formula gives a formula for

For a prime

,the product above is not 0. So,

where n is more than 1. However, the product is very large or very small where n is a prime so

Moreover, we need not calculate product up to k=l=n.

Wilson's theorem states that n is prime if and only if it divides formula, two intermediate functions are introduced:

To express this by an explicit

Then Wilson's theorem says that

This can be further specified by an explicit formula for IsInteger(x). Some options are:

: formula by C. P. Willans (Bowyer n.d.) Then, for example, taking the first option gives a formula for IsPrime(n) using Wilson's theorem:

Not using the function IsInteger,

Once IsPrime(n) can be computed, the prime counting function

can as well, since by definition

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208

can then compute a function testing whether a given integer n is the mth prime:

The function IsZero(x) can likewise be expressed by a formula:

Finally, the IsNthPrime(

) function can be used to produce a formula for the nth prime:

The upper bound 2n comes from Bertrand's postulate, which implies that there is a sequence of primes where Thus, involving the arithmetic

Substituting the formulas above and applying Wilson's theorem gives a formula for operations and the floor function. Other such formulas are:

in which the following equality is important:

and

by Sebastin Martn-Ruiz and proved with Jonathan Sondow (Martin-Ruiz & Sondow 2002). A similar formula for was given earlier by Stephen Regimbal (Regimbal 1975).

Recurrence relation
Another prime generator is defined by the recurrence relation

where gcd(x, y) denotes the greatest common divisor of x and y. The sequence of differences an + 1 an starts with 1, 1, 1, 5, 3, 1, 1, 1, 1, 11, 3, 1, 1 (sequence A132199 in OEIS). Rowland (2008) proved that this sequence contains only ones and prime numbers.

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209

References
Andersen, Jens Kruse (2010), Primes in Arithmetic Progression Records [1], retrieved 2010-04-13. Bowyer, Adrian (n.d.), "Formulae for Primes" [2], Eprint arXiv:math/0611761: 11761, arXiv:math/0611761, Bibcode2006math.....11761F, retrieved 2008-07-09. Jones, James P.; Sato, Daihachiro; Wada, Hideo; Wiens, Douglas (1976), "Diophantine representation of the set of prime numbers" [3], American Mathematical Monthly (Mathematical Association of America) 83 (6): 449464, doi:10.2307/2318339, JSTOR2318339. Jones, James P. (1982), "Universal diophantine equation", Journal of Symbolic Logic 47 (3): 549571, doi:10.2307/2273588. Martin-Ruiz, Sebastian; Sondow, Jonathan (2002). "Formulas for (n) and the nth prime". arXiv:math/0210312.. Regimbal, Stephen (1975), "An explicit Formula for the k-th prime number", Mathematics Magazine (Mathematical Association of America) 48 (4): 230232, doi:10.2307/2690354, JSTOR2690354. Rivera, Carlos (n.d.), Problem 38. Sebastin Martn Ruiz- Prime formulas [4], retrieved 2008-07-09. Rowland, Eric S. (2008), "A Natural Prime-Generating Recurrence" [5], Journal of Integer Sequences 11: 08.2.8, arXiv:0710.3217, Bibcode2008JIntS..11...28R. Matiyasevich, Yuri V. (2006), "Formulas for Prime Numbers", Eprint arXiv:math/0611761: 11761, arXiv:math/0611761, Bibcode2006math.....11761F (Tabachnikov, Serge, Kvant selecta: algebra and analysis, 1, AMS Bookstore, ISBN978-0-8218-1915-9, pp 13. [6]).
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] http:/ / users. cybercity. dk/ ~dsl522332/ math/ aprecords. htm http:/ / people. bath. ac. uk/ ensab/ Primes/ http:/ / mathdl. maa. org/ mathDL/ ?pa=content& sa=viewDocument& nodeId=2967& pf=1 http:/ / www. primepuzzles. net/ problems/ prob_038. htm http:/ / www. cs. uwaterloo. ca/ journals/ JIS/ VOL11/ Rowland/ rowland21. html http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=oLKlk5o6WroC& pg=PA13

External links
Weisstein, Eric W., " Prime Formulas (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/PrimeFormulas.html)" from MathWorld. Weisstein, Eric W., " Prime-Generating Polynomial (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ Prime-GeneratingPolynomial.html)" from MathWorld. Weisstein, Eric W., " Mill's Constant (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/MillsConstant.html)" from MathWorld. A Venugopalan. Formula for primes, twinprimes, number of primes and number of twinprimes. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of SciencesMathematical Sciences, Vol. 92, No 1, September 1983, pp.4952. Page 49 (http://www.ias.ac.in/jarch/mathsci/92/00000050.pdf), 50 (http://www.ias.ac.in/jarch/mathsci/92/ 00000051.pdf), 51 (http://www.ias.ac.in/jarch/mathsci/92/00000052.pdf), 52 (http://www.ias.ac.in/ jarch/mathsci/92/00000053.pdf), errata (http://www.ias.ac.in/jarch/mathsci/93/00000068.pdf).

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Probability theory
Probability theory is the branch of mathematics concerned with probability, the analysis of random phenomena.[1] The central objects of probability theory are random variables, stochastic processes, and events: mathematical abstractions of non-deterministic events or measured quantities that may either be single occurrences or evolve over time in an apparently random fashion. If an individual coin toss or the roll of dice is considered to be a random event, then if repeated many times the sequence of random events will exhibit certain patterns, which can be studied and predicted. Two representative mathematical results describing such patterns are the law of large numbers and the central limit theorem. As a mathematical foundation for statistics, probability theory is essential to many human activities that involve quantitative analysis of large sets of data. Methods of probability theory also apply to descriptions of complex systems given only partial knowledge of their state, as in statistical mechanics. A great discovery of twentieth century physics was the probabilistic nature of physical phenomena at atomic scales, described in quantum mechanics.

History
The mathematical theory of probability has its roots in attempts to analyze games of chance by Gerolamo Cardano in the sixteenth century, and by Pierre de Fermat and Blaise Pascal in the seventeenth century (for example the "problem of points"). Christiaan Huygens published a book on the subject in 1657[2] and in the 19th century a big work was done by Laplace in what can be considered today as the classic interpretation.[3] Initially, probability theory mainly considered discrete events, and its methods were mainly combinatorial. Eventually, analytical considerations compelled the incorporation of continuous variables into the theory. This culminated in modern probability theory, on foundations laid by Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov. Kolmogorov combined the notion of sample space, introduced by Richard von Mises, and measure theory and presented his axiom system for probability theory in 1933. Fairly quickly this became the mostly undisputed axiomatic basis for modern probability theory but alternatives exist, in particular the adoption of finite rather than countable additivity by Bruno de Finetti.[4]

Treatment
Most introductions to probability theory treat discrete probability distributions and continuous probability distributions separately. The more mathematically advanced measure theory based treatment of probability covers both the discrete, the continuous, any mix of these two and more.

Motivation
Consider an experiment that can produce a number of outcomes. The collection of all results is called the sample space of the experiment. The power set of the sample space is formed by considering all different collections of possible results. For example, rolling a die produces one of six possible results. One collection of possible results corresponds to getting an odd number. Thus, the subset {1,3,5} is an element of the power set of the sample space of die rolls. These collections are called events. In this case, {1,3,5} is the event that the die falls on some odd number. If the results that actually occur fall in a given event, that event is said to have occurred. Probability is a way of assigning every "event" a value between zero and one, with the requirement that the event made up of all possible results (in our example, the event {1,2,3,4,5,6}) be assigned a value of one. To qualify as a probability distribution, the assignment of values must satisfy the requirement that if you look at a collection of mutually exclusive events (events that contain no common results, e.g., the events {1,6}, {3}, and {2,4} are all mutually exclusive), the probability that at least one of the events will occur is given by the sum of the probabilities

Probability theory of all the individual events.[5] The probability that any one of the events {1,6}, {3}, or {2,4} will occur is 5/6. This is the same as saying that the probability of event {1,2,3,4,6} is 5/6. This event encompasses the possibility of any number except five being rolled. The mutually exclusive event {5} has a probability of 1/6, and the event {1,2,3,4,5,6} has a probability of 1 absolute certainty.

211

Discrete probability distributions

Discrete probability theory deals with events that occur in countable sample spaces. Examples: Throwing dice, experiments with decks of cards, and random walk. Classical definition: Initially the probability of an event to occur was defined as number of cases favorable for the event, over the number of total outcomes possible in an equiprobable sample space: see Classical definition of probability. For example, if the event is "occurrence of an even number when a die is rolled", the probability is given by ,

since 3 faces out of the 6 have even numbers and each face has the same probability of appearing. Modern definition: The modern definition starts with a finite or countable set called the sample space, which relates to the set of all possible outcomes in classical sense, denoted by . It is then assumed that for each element , an intrinsic "probability" value 1. 2. That is, the probability function f(x) lies between zero and one for every value of x in the sample space , and the sum of f(x) over all values x in the sample space is equal to 1. An event is defined as any subset of the sample space . The probability of the event is defined as is attached, which satisfies the following properties:

So, the probability of the entire sample space is 1, and the probability of the null event is 0. The function mapping a point in the sample space to the "probability" value is called a probability mass

function abbreviated as pmf. The modern definition does not try to answer how probability mass functions are obtained; instead it builds a theory that assumes their existence.

Continuous probability distributions

Continuous probability theory deals with events that occur in a continuous sample space. Classical definition: The classical definition breaks down when confronted with the continuous case. See Bertrand's paradox. Modern definition: If the outcome space of a random variable X is the set of real numbers ( then a function called the cumulative distribution function (or cdf) That is, F(x) returns the probability that X will be less than or equal to x. The cdf necessarily satisfies the following properties. 1. 2. 3. If is absolutely continuous, i.e., its derivative exists and integrating the derivative gives us the cdf back again, then the random variable X is said to have a probability density function or pdf or simply density is a monotonically non-decreasing, right-continuous function; exists, defined by ) or a subset thereof, .

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212

For a set

, the probability of the random variable X being in

is

In case the probability density function exists, this can be written as

Whereas the pdf exists only for continuous random variables, the cdf exists for all random variables (including discrete random variables) that take values in These concepts can be generalized for multidimensional cases on and other continuous sample spaces.

Measure-theoretic probability theory

The raison d'tre of the measure-theoretic treatment of probability is that it unifies the discrete and the continuous cases, and makes the difference a question of which measure is used. Furthermore, it covers distributions that are neither discrete nor continuous nor mixtures of the two. An example of such distributions could be a mix of discrete and continuous distributionsfor example, a random variable that is 0 with probability 1/2, and takes a random value from a normal distribution with probability 1/2. It can still be studied to some extent by considering it to have a pdf of , where is the Dirac delta function. Other distributions may not even be a mix, for example, the Cantor distribution has no positive probability for any single point, neither does it have a density. The modern approach to probability theory solves these problems using measure theory to define the probability space: Given any set If , (also called sample space) and a -algebra on it, a measure defined on is called a for any cdf, probability measure if is the Borel -algebra on the set of real numbers, then there is a unique probability measure on and vice versa. The measure corresponding to a cdf is said to be induced by the cdf. This measure coincides with the pmf for discrete variables, and pdf for continuous variables, making the measure-theoretic approach free of fallacies. The probability of a set in the -algebra is defined as

where the integration is with respect to the measure

induced by

Along with providing better understanding and unification of discrete and continuous probabilities, measure-theoretic treatment also allows us to work on probabilities outside , as in the theory of stochastic processes. For example to study Brownian motion, probability is defined on a space of functions.

Probability distributions
Certain random variables occur very often in probability theory because they well describe many natural or physical processes. Their distributions therefore have gained special importance in probability theory. Some fundamental discrete distributions are the discrete uniform, Bernoulli, binomial, negative binomial, Poisson and geometric distributions. Important continuous distributions include the continuous uniform, normal, exponential, gamma and beta distributions.

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213

Convergence of random variables

In probability theory, there are several notions of convergence for random variables. They are listed below in the order of strength, i.e., any subsequent notion of convergence in the list implies convergence according to all of the preceding notions. Weak convergence: A sequence of random variables variable if their respective cumulative distribution functions of , wherever distribution function distribution. Most common short hand notation: Convergence in probability: The sequence of random variables random variable in probability if is said to converge towards the for every > 0. converges weakly to the random converge to the cumulative

is continuous. Weak convergence is also called convergence in

Most common short hand notation: Strong convergence: The sequence of random variables variable convergence. Most common short hand notation: As the names indicate, weak convergence is weaker than strong convergence. In fact, strong convergence implies convergence in probability, and convergence in probability implies weak convergence. The reverse statements are not always true. strongly if is said to converge towards the random . Strong convergence is also known as almost sure

Law of large numbers

Common intuition suggests that if a fair coin is tossed many times, then roughly half of the time it will turn up heads, and the other half it will turn up tails. Furthermore, the more often the coin is tossed, the more likely it should be that the ratio of the number of heads to the number of tails will approach unity. Modern probability provides a formal version of this intuitive idea, known as the law of large numbers. This law is remarkable because it is not assumed in the foundations of probability theory, but instead emerges out of these foundations as a theorem. Since it links theoretically derived probabilities to their actual frequency of occurrence in the real world, the law of large numbers is considered as a pillar in the history of statistical theory and has had widespread influence.[6] The law of large numbers (LLN) states that the sample average

of a sequence of independent and identically distributed random variables expectation , provided that the expectation of is finite.

converges towards their common

It is in the different forms of convergence of random variables that separates the weak and the strong law of large numbers

It follows from the LLN that if an event of probability p is observed repeatedly during independent experiments, the ratio of the observed frequency of that event to the total number of repetitions converges towards p. For example, if probability 1-p, then are independent Bernoulli random variables taking values 1 with probability p and 0 with for all i, so that converges to p almost surely.

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214

Central limit theorem

"The central limit theorem (CLT) is one of the great results of mathematics." (Chapter 18 in ubiquitous occurrence of the normal distribution in nature.
[7]

) It explains the

The theorem states that the average of many independent and identically distributed random variables with finite variance tends towards a normal distribution irrespective of the distribution followed by the original random variables. Formally, let be independent random variables with mean and variance Then the sequence of random variables

converges in distribution to a standard normal random variable.

Notes
[1] "Probability theory, Encyclopaedia Britannica" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ ebc/ article-9375936). Britannica.com. . Retrieved 2012-02-12. [2] Grinstead, Charles Miller; James Laurie Snell. "Introduction". Introduction to Probability. pp.vii. [3] Hjek, Alan. "Interpretations of Probability" (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ archives/ sum2012/ entries/ probability-interpret/ ). . Retrieved 2012-06-20. [4] ""The origins and legacy of Kolmogorov's Grundbegriffe", by Glenn Shafer and Vladimir Vovk" (http:/ / www. probabilityandfinance. com/ articles/ 04. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2012-02-12. [5] Ross, Sheldon. A First course in Probability, 8th Edition. Page 26-27. [6] "Leithner & Co Pty Ltd - Value Investing, Risk and Risk Management - Part I" (http:/ / www. leithner. com. au/ circulars/ circular17. htm). Leithner.com.au. 2000-09-15. . Retrieved 2012-02-12. [7] David Williams, "Probability with martingales", Cambridge 1991/2008

External links
Animation (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9eaOxgT5ys0) on the probability space of dice.

References
Pierre Simon de Laplace (1812). Analytical Theory of Probability. The first major treatise blending calculus with probability theory, originally in French: Thorie Analytique des Probabilits. Andrei Nikolajevich Kolmogorov (1950). Foundations of the Theory of Probability. The modern measure-theoretic foundation of probability theory; the original German version (Grundbegriffe der Wahrscheinlichkeitrechnung) appeared in 1933. Patrick Billingsley (1979). Probability and Measure. New York, Toronto, London: John Wiley and Sons. Olav Kallenberg; Foundations of Modern Probability, 2nd ed. Springer Series in Statistics. (2002). 650 pp.ISBN 0-387-95313-2 Henk Tijms (2004). Understanding Probability. Cambridge Univ. Press. A lively introduction to probability theory for the beginner. Olav Kallenberg; Probabilistic Symmetries and Invariance Principles. Springer -Verlag, New York (2005). 510 pp.ISBN 0-387-25115-4 Gut, Allan (2005). Probability: A Graduate Course. Springer-Verlag. ISBN0-387-22833-0.

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Probability
Probability (or likelihood[1]) is a measure of how likely it is that something will happen or that a statement is true. Probabilities are given a value between 0 (will not happen) and 1 (will happen).[2] The higher the probability of an event, the more certain we are that the event will happen. These concepts have been given an axiomatic mathematical derivation in probability theory, which is used widely in such areas of study as mathematics, statistics, finance, gambling, science, artificial intelligence/machine learning and philosophy to, for example, draw inferences about the expected frequency of events. Probability theory is also used to describe the underlying mechanics and regularities of complex systems.

Interpretations
When dealing with experiments that are random and well-defined in a purely theoretical setting (like tossing a fair coin), probabilities describe the statistical number of outcomes considered divided by the number of all outcomes (tossing a fair coin twice will yield HH with probability 1/4, because the four outcomes HH, HT, TH and TT are possible). When it comes to practical application, however, the word probability does not have a singular direct definition. In fact, there are two major categories of probability interpretations, whose adherents possess conflicting views about the fundamental nature of probability: 1. Objectivists assign numbers to describe some objective or physical state of affairs. The most popular version of objective probability is frequentist probability, which claims that the probability of a random event denotes the relative frequency of occurrence of an experiment's outcome, when repeating the experiment. This interpretation considers probability to be the relative frequency "in the long run" of outcomes.[3] A modification of this is propensity probability, which interprets probability as the tendency of some experiment to yield a certain outcome, even if it is performed only once. 2. Subjectivists assign numbers per subjective probability, i.e., as a degree of belief.[4] The most popular version of subjective probability is Bayesian probability, which includes expert knowledge as well as experimental data to produce probabilities. The expert knowledge is represented by some (subjective) prior probability distribution. The data is incorporated in a likelihood function. The product of the prior and the likelihood, normalized, results in a posterior probability distribution that incorporates all the information known to date.[5] Starting from arbitrary, subjective probabilities for a group of agents, some Bayesians claim that all agents will eventually have sufficiently similar assessments of probabilities, given enough evidence.

Etymology
The word Probability derives from the Latin probabilitas, which can also mean probity, a measure of the authority of a witness in a legal case in Europe, and often correlated with the witness's nobility. In a sense, this differs much from the modern meaning of probability, which, in contrast, is a measure of the weight of empirical evidence, and is arrived at from inductive reasoning and statistical inference.[6]

History
The scientific study of probability is a modern development. Gambling shows that there has been an interest in quantifying the ideas of probability for millennia, but exact mathematical descriptions arose much later. There are reasons of course, for the slow development of the mathematics of probability. Whereas games of chance provided the impetus for the mathematical study of probability, fundamental issues are still obscured by the superstitions of gamblers.[7]

Probability

216

According to Richard Jeffrey, "Before the middle of the seventeenth century, the term 'probable' (Latin probabilis) meant approvable, and was applied in that sense, univocally, to opinion and to action. A probable action or opinion was one such as sensible people would undertake or hold, in the circumstances."[8] However, in legal contexts especially, 'probable' could also apply to propositions for which there was good evidence.[9] Aside from elementary work by Girolamo Cardano in the 16th century, the doctrine of probabilities dates to the correspondence of Pierre de Fermat and Blaise Pascal (1654). Christiaan Huygens (1657) gave the earliest known scientific treatment of the subject.[10] Jakob Bernoulli's Ars Conjectandi (posthumous, 1713) and Abraham de Moivre's Doctrine of Chances (1718) treated the subject as a branch of mathematics.[11] See Ian Hacking's The Emergence of Probability[6] and James Franklin's The Science of Conjecture for histories of the early development of the very concept of mathematical probability.

Christiaan Huygens probably published the first book on probability

The theory of errors may be traced back to Roger Cotes's Opera Miscellanea (posthumous, 1722), but a memoir prepared by Thomas Simpson in 1755 (printed 1756) first applied the theory to the discussion of errors of observation. The reprint (1757) of this memoir lays down the axioms that positive and negative errors are equally probable, and that certain assignable limits define the range of all errors. Simpson also discusses continuous errors and describes a probability curve. The first two laws of error that were proposed both originated with Pierre-Simon Laplace. The first law was published in 1774 and stated that the frequency of an error could be expressed as an exponential function of the numerical magnitude of the error, disregarding sign. The second law of error was proposed in 1778 by Laplace and stated that the frequency of the error is an exponential function of the square of the error.[12] The second law of error is called the normal distribution or the Gauss law. "It is difficult historically to attribute that law to Gauss, who in spite of his well-known precocity had probably not made this discovery before he was two years old."[12] Daniel Bernoulli (1778) introduced the principle of the maximum product of the probabilities of a system of concurrent errors. Adrien-Marie Legendre (1805) developed the method of least squares, and introduced it in his Nouvelles mthodes pour la dtermination des orbites des com tes (New Methods for Determining the Orbits of Comets). In ignorance of Legendre's contribution, an Irish-American writer, Robert Adrain, editor of "The Analyst" (1808), first deduced the law of facility of error,

where

is a constant depending on precision of observation, and

is a scale

factor ensuring that the area under the curve equals 1. He gave two proofs, the second being essentially the same as John Herschel's (1850). Gauss gave the first proof that seems to have been known in Europe (the third after Adrain's) in Carl Friedrich Gauss 1809. Further proofs were given by Laplace (1810, 1812), Gauss (1823), James Ivory (1825, 1826), Hagen (1837), Friedrich Bessel (1838), W. F. Donkin (1844, 1856), and Morgan Crofton (1870). Other contributors were Ellis (1844), De Morgan (1864), Glaisher (1872), and Giovanni Schiaparelli (1875). Peters's (1856) formula for r, the probable error of a single observation, is well known. In the nineteenth century authors on the general theory included Laplace, Sylvestre Lacroix (1816), Littrow (1833), Adolphe Quetelet (1853), Richard Dedekind (1860), Helmert (1872), Hermann Laurent (1873), Liagre, Didion, and

Probability Karl Pearson. Augustus De Morgan and George Boole improved the exposition of the theory. Andrey Markov introduced the notion of Markov chains (1906), which played an important role in stochastic processes theory and its applications. The modern theory of probability based on the measure theory was developed by Andrey Kolmogorov (1931). On the geometric side (see integral geometry) contributors to The Educational Times were influential (Miller, Crofton, McColl, Wolstenholme, Watson, and Artemas Martin).

217

Theory
Like other theories, the theory of probability is a representation of probabilistic concepts in formal termsthat is, in terms that can be considered separately from their meaning. These formal terms are manipulated by the rules of mathematics and logic, and any results are interpreted or translated back into the problem domain. There have been at least two successful attempts to formalize probability, namely the Kolmogorov formulation and the Cox formulation. In Kolmogorov's formulation (see probability space), sets are interpreted as events and probability itself as a measure on a class of sets. In Cox's theorem, probability is taken as a primitive (that is, not further analyzed) and the emphasis is on constructing a consistent assignment of probability values to propositions. In both cases, the laws of probability are the same, except for technical details. There are other methods for quantifying uncertainty, such as the Dempster-Shafer theory or possibility theory, but those are essentially different and not compatible with the laws of probability as usually understood.

Applications
Probability theory is applied in everyday life in risk assessment and in trade on financial markets. Governments apply probabilistic methods in environmental regulation, where it is called pathway analysis. A good example is the effect of the perceived probability of any widespread Middle East conflict on oil priceswhich have ripple effects in the economy as a whole. An assessment by a commodity trader that a war is more likely vs. less likely sends prices up or down, and signals other traders of that opinion. Accordingly, the probabilities are neither assessed independently nor necessarily very rationally. The theory of behavioral finance emerged to describe the effect of such groupthink on pricing, on policy, and on peace and conflict.[13] The discovery of rigorous methods to assess and combine probability assessments has changed society. It is important for most citizens to understand how probability assessments are made, and how they contribute to decisions. Another significant application of probability theory in everyday life is reliability. Many consumer products, such as automobiles and consumer electronics, use reliability theory in product design to reduce the probability of failure. Failure probability may influence a manufacture's decisions on a product's warranty.[14] The cache language model and other statistical language models that are used in natural language processing are also examples of applications of probability theory.

Mathematical treatment
Consider an experiment that can produce a number of results. The collection of all results is called the sample space of the experiment. The power set of the sample space is formed by considering all different collections of possible results. For example, rolling a die can produce six possible results. One collection of possible results gives an odd number on the die. Thus, the subset {1,3,5} is an element of the power set of the sample space of die rolls. These collections are called "events." In this case, {1,3,5} is the event that the die falls on some odd number. If the results that actually occur fall in a given event, the event is said to have occurred.

Probability A probability is a way of assigning every event a value between zero and one, with the requirement that the event made up of all possible results (in our example, the event {1,2,3,4,5,6}) is assigned a value of one. To qualify as a probability, the assignment of values must satisfy the requirement that if you look at a collection of mutually exclusive events (events with no common results, e.g., the events {1,6}, {3}, and {2,4} are all mutually exclusive), the probability that at least one of the events will occur is given by the sum of the probabilities of all the individual events.[15] The probability of an event A is written as P(A), p(A) or Pr(A).[16] This mathematical definition of probability can extend to infinite sample spaces, and even uncountable sample spaces, using the concept of a measure. The opposite or complement of an event A is the event [not A] (that is, the event of A not occurring); its probability is given by P(not A) = 1 - P(A).[17] As an example, the chance of not rolling a six on a six-sided die is 1 (chance of rolling a six) . See Complementary event for a more complete treatment. If both events A and B occur on a single performance of an experiment, this is called the intersection or joint probability of A and B, denoted as .

218

Independent probability
If two events, A and B are independent then the joint probability is
[18]

for example, if two coins are flipped the chance of both being heads is Mutually exclusive

If either event A or event B or both events occur on a single performance of an experiment this is called the union of the events A and B denoted as . If two events are mutually exclusive then the probability of either occurring is

For example, the chance of rolling a 1 or 2 on a six-sided die is Not mutually exclusive If the events are not mutually exclusive then

For example, when drawing a single card at random from a regular deck of cards, the chance of getting a heart or a face card (J,Q,K) (or one that is both) is , because of the 52 cards of a deck 13 are hearts, 12 are face cards, and 3 are both: here the possibilities included in the "3 that are both" are included in each of the "13 hearts" and the "12 face cards" but should only be counted once.

Conditional probability
Conditional probability is the probability of some event A, given the occurrence of some other event B. Conditional probability is written , and is read "the probability of A, given B". It is defined by[19]

If

then

is formally undefined by this expression. However, it is possible to define a

conditional probability for some zero-probability events using a -algebra of such events (such as those arising from a continuous random variable). For example, in a bag of 2 red balls and 2 blue balls (4 balls in total), the probability of taking a red ball is ; however, when taking a second ball, the probability of it being either a red ball or a blue ball depends on the ball

Probability previously taken, such as, if a red ball was taken, the probability of picking a red ball again would be red and 2 blue balls would have been remaining.

219 since only 1

Summary of probabilities Summary of probabilities

Event A not A A or B Probability

A and B

A given B

Relation to randomness
In a deterministic universe, based on Newtonian concepts, there would be no probability if all conditions are known, (Laplace's demon). In the case of a roulette wheel, if the force of the hand and the period of that force are known, the number on which the ball will stop would be a certainty. Of course, this also assumes knowledge of inertia and friction of the wheel, weight, smoothness and roundness of the ball, variations in hand speed during the turning and so forth. A probabilistic description can thus be more useful than Newtonian mechanics for analyzing the pattern of outcomes of repeated rolls of roulette wheel. Physicists face the same situation in kinetic theory of gases, where the system, while deterministic in principle, is so complex (with the number of molecules typically the order of magnitude of Avogadro constant 6.021023) that only statistical description of its properties is feasible. Probability theory is required to describe quantum phenomena.[20] A revolutionary discovery of early 20th century physics was the random character of all physical processes that occur at sub-atomic scales and are governed by the laws of quantum mechanics. The objective wave function evolves deterministically but, according to the Copenhagen interpretation, it deals with probabilities of observing, the outcome being explained by a wave function collapse when an observation is made. However, the loss of determinism for the sake of instrumentalism did not meet with universal approval. Albert Einstein famously remarked in a letter to Max Born: "I am convinced that God does not play dice".[21] Like Einstein, Erwin Schrdinger, who discovered the wave function, believed quantum mechanics is a statistical approximation of an underlying deterministic reality.[22] In modern interpretations, quantum decoherence accounts for subjectively probabilistic behavior.

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220

Notes
[1] "Probability" (http:/ / machaut. uchicago. edu/ ?resource=Webster's& word=probability& use1913=on). Websters Revised Unabridged Dictionary. G & C Merriam, 1913 [2] Feller, W. (1968), An Introduction to Probability Theory and its Applications (Volume 1). ISBN 0-471-25708-7 [3] Hacking, Ian (1965). The Logic of Statistical Inference. Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-05165-7. [4] Finetti, Bruno de (1970). "Logical foundations and measurement of subjective probability". Acta Psychologica 34: 129145. doi:10.1016/0001-6918(70)90012-0. [5] Hogg, Robert V.; Craig, Allen; McKean, Joseph W. (2004). Introduction to Mathematical Statistics (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River: Pearson. ISBN0-13-008507-3. [6] Hacking, I. (2006) The Emergence of Probability: A Philosophical Study of Early Ideas about Probability, Induction and Statistical Inference, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-68557-3 [7] Freund, John. (1973) Introduction to Probability. Dickenson ISBN 978-0822100782 (p. 1) [8] Jeffrey, R.C., Probability and the Art of Judgment, Cambridge University Press. (1992). pp. 54-55 . ISBN 0-521-39459-7 [9] Franklin, J. (2001) The Science of Conjecture: Evidence and Probability Before Pascal, Johns Hopkins University Press. (pp. 22, 113, 127) [10] Abrams, William, A Brief History of Probability (http:/ / www. secondmoment. org/ articles/ probability. php), Second Moment, , retrieved 2008-05-23 [11] Ivancevic, Vladimir G.; Ivancevic, Tijana T. (2008). Quantum leap : from Dirac and Feynman, across the universe, to human body and mind. Singapore ; Hackensack, NJ: World Scientific. p.16. ISBN978-981-281-927-7. [12] Wilson EB (1923) "First and second laws of error". Journal of the American Statistical Association, 18, 143 [13] Singh, Laurie (2010) "Whither Efficient Markets? Efficient Market Theory and Behavioral Finance". The Finance Professionals' Post, 2010. [14] Gorman, Michael (2011) "Management Insights". Management Science [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] Ross, Sheldon. A First course in Probability, 8th Edition. Page 26-27. Olofsson (2005) Page 8. Olofsson (2005), page 9 Olofsson (2005) page 35. Olofsson (2005) page 29. Burgi, Mark (2010) "Interpretations of Negative Probabilities", p. 1. arXiv:1008.1287v1 Jedenfalls bin ich berzeugt, da der Alte nicht wrfelt. Moore, W.J. (1992). Schrdinger: Life and Thought. Cambridge University Press. p.479. ISBN0-521-43767-9.

References
Kallenberg, O. (2005) Probabilistic Symmetries and Invariance Principles. Springer -Verlag, New York. 510 pp.ISBN 0-387-25115-4 Kallenberg, O. (2002) Foundations of Modern Probability, 2nd ed. Springer Series in Statistics. 650 pp.ISBN 0-387-95313-2 Olofsson, Peter (2005) Probability, Statistics, and Stochastic Processes, Wiley-Interscience. 504 pp ISBN 0-471-67969-0.

External links
Virtual Laboratories in Probability and Statistics (Univ. of Ala.-Huntsville) (http://www.math.uah.edu/stat/) Probability (http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00bqf61) on In Our Time at the BBC. ( listen now (http:// www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/console/b00bqf61/In_Our_Time_Probability)) Probability and Statistics EBook (http://wiki.stat.ucla.edu/socr/index.php/EBook) Edwin Thompson Jaynes. Probability Theory: The Logic of Science. Preprint: Washington University, (1996). HTML index with links to PostScript files (http://omega.albany.edu:8008/JaynesBook.html) and PDF (http:// bayes.wustl.edu/etj/prob/book.pdf) (first three chapters) People from the History of Probability and Statistics (Univ. of Southampton) (http://www.economics.soton.ac. uk/staff/aldrich/Figures.htm) Probability and Statistics on the Earliest Uses Pages (Univ. of Southampton) (http://www.economics.soton.ac. uk/staff/aldrich/Probability Earliest Uses.htm)

Probability Earliest Uses of Symbols in Probability and Statistics (http://jeff560.tripod.com/stat.html) on Earliest Uses of Various Mathematical Symbols (http://jeff560.tripod.com/mathsym.html) Probability Homework Help, Definitions, Distribution Calculators and Study Guides (http://mathmajor.org/ probability-and-statistics/) A tutorial on probability and Bayes theorem devised for first-year Oxford University students (http://www. celiagreen.com/charlesmccreery/statistics/bayestutorial.pdf) pdf file of An Anthology of Chance Operations (1963) (http://ubu.com/historical/young/index.html) at UbuWeb Probability Theory Guide for Non-Mathematicians (http://probability.infarom.ro) Understanding Risk and Probability (http://www.bbc.co.uk/raw/money/express_unit_risk/) with BBC raw Introduction to Probability - eBook (http://www.dartmouth.edu/~chance/teaching_aids/books_articles/ probability_book/book.html), by Charles Grinstead, Laurie Snell Source (http://bitbucket.org/shabbychef/ numas_text/) (GNU Free Documentation License) (English)(Italian) Bruno de Finetti, Probabilit e induzione (http://amshistorica.unibo.it/35), Bologna, CLUEB, 1993. ISBN 88-8091-176-7 (digital version)

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Pascal's triangle
In mathematics, Pascal's triangle is a triangular array of the binomial coefficients. It is named after the French mathematician Blaise Pascal in much of the Western world, although other mathematicians studied it centuries before him in India, Greece, Iran, China, Germany, and Italy.[1] The rows of Pascal's triangle are conventionally enumerated starting with row n=0 at the top. The entries in each row are numbered from the left beginning with k=0 and are usually staggered relative to the numbers in the adjacent rows. A simple The first six rows of Pascal's triangle construction of the triangle proceeds in the following manner. On row 0, write only the number1. Then, to construct the elements of following rows, add the number above and to the left with the number above and to the right to find the new value. If either the number to the right or left is not present, substitute a zero in its place. For example, the first number in the first row is 0+1=1, whereas the numbers 1 and 3 in the third row are added to produce the number 4 in the fourth row. This construction is related to the binomial coefficients by Pascal's rule, which says that if

then

for any nonnegative integer n and any integer k between 0 and n.[2] Pascal's triangle has higher dimensional generalizations. The three-dimensional version is called Pascal's pyramid or Pascal's tetrahedron, while the general versions are called Pascal's simplices.

Pascal's triangle

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Each number in the triangle is the sum of the two directly above it.

History
The set of numbers that form Pascal's triangle were known before Pascal. However, Pascal developed many uses of it and was the first one to organize all the information together in his treatise, Trait du triangle arithmtique (1653). The numbers originally arose from Hindu studies of combinatorics and binomial numbers and the Greeks' study of figurate numbers.[3] The earliest explicit depictions of a triangle of binomial coefficients occur in the 10th century in commentaries on the Chandas Shastra, an Ancient Indian book on Sanskrit prosody written by Pingala in or before the 2nd century BC.[4] While Pingala's work only survives in fragments, the commentator Halayudha, around 975, used the triangle to explain obscure references to Meru-prastaara, the "Staircase of Mount Meru". It was also realised that the shallow diagonals of the triangle sum to the Fibonacci numbers. In 1068, four columns of the first sixteen rows were given by the mathematician Bhattotpala, who realized the combinatorial significance.[4] At around the same time, it was discussed in Persia (Iran) by the Yang Hui (Pascal's) triangle, as depicted by the Persian mathematician, Al-Karaji (9531029).[5] It was later repeated Chinese using rod numerals. by the Persian poet-astronomer-mathematician Omar Khayym (10481131); thus the triangle is referred to as the Khayyam-Pascal triangle or Khayyam triangle in Iran. Several theorems related to the triangle were known, including the binomial theorem. Khayyam used a method of finding nth roots based on the binomial expansion, and therefore on the binomial coefficients. Pascal's triangle was known in China in the early 11th century through the work of the Chinese mathematician Jia Xian (10101070). In 13th century, Yang Hui (12381298) presented the triangle and hence it is still called Yang Hui's triangle in China.[6]

Pascal's triangle

223

Petrus Apianus (14951552) published the triangle on the frontispiece of his book on business calculations in the 16th century. This is the first record of the triangle in Europe. In Italy, it is referred to as Tartaglia's triangle, named for the Italian algebraist Niccol Fontana Tartaglia (150077). Tartaglia is credited with the general formula for solving cubic polynomials, (which may in fact be from Scipione del Ferro but was published by Gerolamo Cardano 1545).
Blaise Pascal's version of the triangle

Pascal's Trait du triangle arithmtique (Treatise on Arithmetical Triangle) was published posthumously in 1665. In this, Pascal collected several results then known about the triangle, and employed them to solve problems in probability theory. The triangle was later named after Pascal by Pierre Raymond de Montmort (1708) who called it "Table de M. Pascal pour les combinaisons" (French: Table of Mr. Pascal for combinations) and Abraham de Moivre (1730) who called it "Triangulum Arithmeticum PASCALIANUM" (Latin: Pascal's Arithmetic Triangle), which became the modern Western name.[7]

Binomial expansions
Pascal's triangle determines the coefficients which arise in binomial expansions. For an example, consider the expansion (x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2 = 1x2y0 + 2x1y1 + 1x0y2. Notice the coefficients are the numbers in row two of Pascal's triangle: 1,2,1. In general, when a binomial like x + y is raised to a positive integer power we have: (x + y)n = a0xn + a1xn1y + a2xn2y2 + ... + an1xyn1 + anyn, where the coefficients ai in this expansion are precisely the numbers on row n of Pascal's triangle. In other words,

This is the binomial theorem. Notice that the entire right diagonal of Pascal's triangle corresponds to the coefficient of yn in these binomial expansions, while the next diagonal corresponds to the coefficient of xyn1 and so on. To see how the binomial theorem relates to the simple construction of Pascal's triangle, consider the problem of calculating the coefficients of the expansion of (x+1)n+1 in terms of the corresponding coefficients of (x+1)n (setting y = 1 for simplicity). Suppose then that

Now

The two summations can be reorganized as follows:

Pascal's triangle

224

(because of how raising a polynomial to a power works, a0 =an =1). We now have an expression for the polynomial (x+1)n+1 in terms of the coefficients of (x+1)n (these are the ais), which is what we need if we want to express a line in terms of the line above it. Recall that all the terms in a diagonal going from the upper-left to the lower-right correspond to the same power of x, and that the a-terms are the coefficients of the polynomial (x+1)n, and we are determining the coefficients of (x+1)n+1. Now, for any given i not 0 or n+1, the coefficient of the xi term in the polynomial (x+1)n+1 is equal to ai (the figure above and to the left of the figure to be determined, since it is on the same diagonal)+ai1 (the figure to the immediate right of the first figure). This is indeed the simple rule for constructing Pascal's triangle row-by-row. It is not difficult to turn this argument into a proof (by mathematical induction) of the binomial theorem. Since (a+b)n=bn(a/b+ 1)n, the coefficients are identical in the expansion of the general case. An interesting consequence of the binomial theorem is obtained by setting both variables x and y equal to one. In this case, we know that (1+1)n =2n, and so

In other words, the sum of the entries in the nth row of Pascal's triangle is the nth power of2.

Combinations
A second useful application of Pascal's triangle is in the calculation of combinations. For example, the number of combinations of n things taken k at a time (called n choose k) can be found by the equation

But this is also the formula for a cell of Pascal's triangle. Rather than performing the calculation, one can simply look up the appropriate entry in the triangle. For example, suppose a basketball team has 10 players and wants to know how many ways there are of selecting 8. Provided we have the first row and the first entry in a row numbered 0, the answer is entry 8 in row 10: 45. That is, the solution of 10 choose 8 is 45.

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225

Relation to binomial distribution and convolutions

When divided by 2n, the nth row of Pascal's triangle becomes the binomial distribution in the symmetric case where p =1/2. By the central limit theorem, this distribution approaches the normal distribution as n increases. This can also be seen by applying Stirling's formula to the factorials involved in the formula for combinations. This is related to the operation of discrete convolution in two ways. First, polynomial multiplication exactly corresponds to discrete convolution, so that repeatedly convolving the sequence {...,0,0,1,1,0,0,...} with itself corresponds to taking powers of 1+x, and hence to generating the rows of the triangle. Second, repeatedly convolving the distribution function for a random variable with itself corresponds to calculating the distribution function for a sum of n independent copies of that variable; this is exactly the situation to which the central limit theorem applies, and hence leads to the normal distribution in the limit.

Pascal's triangle

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Patterns and properties

Pascal's triangle has many properties and contains many patterns of numbers.

Rows
The sum of the elements of a single row is twice the sum of the row preceding it. For example, row0 (the first row) has a value of 1, row1 has a value of 2, row2 has a value of 4, and so forth. This is because every item in row produces two items in the next row: one left and one right. The sum of the elements of rown is equal to 2n. The value of a row, if each entry is considered a decimal place (and numbers larger than 9 carried over accordingly) is a power of 11 ( 11n, for rown). Thus, in row2, 1, 2, 1 becomes 112, while 1, 5, 10, 10, 5, 1 in rowfive becomes (after carrying) 161,051, which is 115. This property is explained by setting x = 10 in the binomial expansion of (x + 1)n, and adjusting values to the decimal system. But x can be chosen to allow rows to represent values in any base. In base 3: 1 2 13 = 42 (16) 1, 3, 3, 1 2 1 0 13 = 43 (64) In base 9: 1 2 19 = 102 (100) 1 3 3 19 = 103 (1000)

1, 5, 10, 10, 5, 1 1 6 2 1 5 19 = 105 (100000) In particular (see previous property), for x = 1 place value remains constant (1place=1). Thus entries can simply be added in interpreting the value of a row. Some of the numbers in Pascal's triangle correlate to numbers in Lozani's triangle. The sum of the squares of the elements of rown equals the middle element of row2n. For example, 12+42+62+42+12 =70. In general form:
1000th row of Pascal's triangle, arranged vertically, with grey-scale representations of decimal digits of the coefficients right-aligned. The left boundary of the dark segment-like shape corresponds roughly to the graph of the logarithm of the binomial coefficients, and illustrates that they form a log-concave sequence.

Another interesting pattern is that on any rown, where n is even, the middle term minus the term two spots to the left equals a Catalan number, specifically the (n/2 + 1) Catalan number. For example: on row4, 6 1 = 5, which is the 3rd Catalan number, and 4/2 + 1 = 3. Another interesting property of Pascal's triangle is that in a rowp where p is a prime number, all the terms in that row except the 1s are multiples ofp. This can be proven easily, since if , then p has no factors save for 1 and itself. Every entry in the triangle is an integer, so therefore by definition factors of and are . However, there is no possible way p itself can show up in the

denominator, so therefore p (or some multiple of it) must be left in the numerator, making the entire entry a multiple of p. Parity: To count odd terms in rown, convert n to binary. Let x be the number of 1s in the binary representation. Then number of odd terms will be 2x.[8]

Pascal's triangle

227

Diagonals
The diagonals of Pascal's triangle contain the figurate numbers of simplices: The diagonals going along the left and right edges contain only 1's. The diagonals next to the edge diagonals contain the natural numbers in order. Moving inwards, the next pair of diagonals contain the triangular numbers in order. The next pair of diagonals contain the tetrahedral numbers in order, and the next pair give pentatope numbers.

The symmetry of the triangle implies that the nth d-dimensional number is equal to the dth n-dimensional number. An alternative formula that does not involve recursion is as follows:

where n(d) is the rising factorial. The geometric meaning of a function Pd is: Pd(1) = 1 for all d. Construct a d-dimensional triangle (a 3-dimensional triangle is a tetrahedron) by placing additional dots below an initial dot, corresponding to Pd(1) = 1. Place these dots in a manner analogous to the placement of numbers in Pascal's triangle. To find Pd(x), have a total of x dots composing the target shape. Pd(x) then equals the total number of dots in the shape. A 0-dimensional triangle is a point and a 1-dimensional triangle is simply a line, and therefore P0(x) = 1 and P1(x) = x, which is the sequence of natural numbers. The number of dots in each layer corresponds to Pd1(x).

Calculating an individual row or diagonal by itself (Gray's Theory)

This algorithm is an alternative to the standard method of calculating individual cells with factorials. Starting at the left, the first cell's value is1. For each subsequent cell, the value is determined by multiplying the value to its left by a slowly changing fraction:

where r=row+1, starting with 0 at the top, and c = the column, starting with 0 on the left. For example, to calculate row 5, r=6. The first value is 1. The next value is 15/1 =5. The numerator decreases by one, and the denominator increases by one with each step. So 54/2 =10. Then 103/3 =10. Then 102/4 =5. Then 51/5 =1. Notice that the last cell always equals 1, the final multiplication is included for completeness of the series. A similar pattern exists on a downward diagonal. Starting with the one and the natural number in the next cell, form a fraction. To determine the next cell, increase the numerator and denominator each by one, and then multiply the previous result by the fraction. For example, the row starting with 1 and 7 form a fraction of7/1. The next cell is 78/2 =28. The next cell is 289/3 =84. (Note that for any individual row it is only necessary to calculate half (rounded up) the terms in the row due to symmetry.)

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Overall patterns and properties

The pattern obtained by coloring only the odd numbers in Pascal's triangle closely resembles the fractal called the Sierpinski triangle. This resemblance becomes more and more accurate as more rows are considered; in the limit, as the number of rows approaches infinity, the resulting pattern is the Sierpinski triangle, assuming a fixed perimeter.[9] More generally, numbers could be colored differently according to whether or not they are multiples of 3, 4, etc.; this results in other similar patterns.

Sierpinski triangle

Imagine each number in the triangle is a node in a grid which is connected to the adjacent numbers above and below it. Now for any node in the grid, count the number of paths there are in the grid (without backtracking) which connect this node to the top node (1) of the triangle. The answer is the Pascal number associated to that node. The interpretation of the number in Pascal's Triangle as the number of paths to that number from the tip means that on a Plinko game board shaped like a triangle, the probability of winning prizes nearer the center will be higher than winning prizes on the edges.

Pascal's triangle overlaid on a grid gives the number of unique paths to each square, assuming only right and down movements are considered.

Pascal's triangle One property of the triangle is revealed if the rows are left-justified. In the triangle below, the diagonal coloured bands sum to successive Fibonacci numbers.
1 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 3 6 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1

229

1 5 10 10

1 6 15 20 15

1 7 21 35 35 21

1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1

Construction as matrix exponential

Due to its simple construction by factorials, a very basic representation of Pascal's triangle in terms of the matrix exponential can be given: Pascal's triangle is the exponential of the matrix which has the sequence 1, 2, 3, 4, on its subdiagonal and zero everywhere else.

Number of elements of polytopes

Pascal's triangle can be used as a lookup table for the number of elements (such as edges and corners) within a polytope (such as a triangle, a tetrahedron, a square and a cube).

Binomial matrix as matrix exponential. All the dots represent 0.

Let's begin by considering the 3rd line of Pascal's triangle, with values 1, 3, 3, 1. A 2-dimensional triangle has one 2-dimensional element (itself), three 1-dimensional elements (lines, or edges), and three 0-dimensional elements (vertices, or corners). The meaning of the final number (1) is more difficult to explain (but see below). Continuing with our example, a tetrahedron has one 3-dimensional element (itself), four 2-dimensional elements (faces), six 1-dimensional elements (edges), and four 0-dimensional elements (vertices). Adding the final 1 again, these values correspond to the 4th row of the triangle (1, 4, 6, 4, 1). Line 1 corresponds to a point, and Line 2 corresponds to a line segment (dyad). This pattern continues to arbitrarily high-dimensioned hyper-tetrahedrons (known as simplices). To understand why this pattern exists, one must first understand that the process of building an n-simplex from an (n1)-simplex consists of simply adding a new vertex to the latter, positioned such that this new vertex lies outside of the space of the original simplex, and connecting it to all original vertices. As an example, consider the case of building a tetrahedron from a triangle, the latter of whose elements are enumerated by row 3 of Pascal's triangle: 1 face, 3 edges, and 3 vertices (the meaning of the final 1 will be explained shortly). To build a tetrahedron from a triangle, we position a new vertex above the plane of the triangle and connect this vertex to all three vertices of the original triangle. The number of a given dimensional element in the tetrahedron is now the sum of two numbers: first the number of that element found in the original triangle, plus the number of new elements, each of which is built upon elements of one fewer dimension from the original triangle. Thus, in the tetrahedron, the number of cells (polyhedral elements) is 0 (the original triangle possesses none) + 1 (built upon the single face of the original triangle) = 1; the number of faces is 1 (the original triangle itself) + 3 (the new faces, each built upon an edge of the original triangle) = 4; the number of edges is 3 (from the original triangle) + 3 (the new edges, each built upon a vertex of the original triangle) = 6; the number of new vertices is 3 (from the original triangle) + 1 (the new vertex that was added to create the

Pascal's triangle tetrahedron from the triangle) = 4. This process of summing the number of elements of a given dimension to those of one fewer dimension to arrive at the number of the former found in the next higher simplex is equivalent to the process of summing two adjacent numbers in a row of Pascal's triangle to yield the number below. Thus, the meaning of the final number (1) in a row of Pascal's triangle becomes understood as representing the new vertex that is to be added to the simplex represented by that row to yield the next higher simplex represented by the next row. This new vertex is joined to every element in the original simplex to yield a new element of one higher dimension in the new simplex, and this is the origin of the pattern found to be identical to that seen in Pascal's triangle. A similar pattern is observed relating to squares, as opposed to triangles. To find the pattern, one must construct an analog to Pascal's triangle, whose entries are the coefficients of (x+2)Row Number, instead of (x+1)Row Number. There are a couple ways to do this. The simpler is to begin with Row 0 = 1 and Row 1 = 1, 2. Proceed to construct the analog triangles according to the following rule:

230

That is, choose a pair of numbers according to the rules of Pascal's triangle, but double the one on the left before adding. This results in: 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 14 12 84 10 60 280 8 40 160 560 6 24 80 240 672 4 12 32 80 192 448 2 4 8 16 32 64 128

The other way of manufacturing this triangle is to start with Pascal's triangle and multiply each entry by 2k, where k is the position in the row of the given number. For example, the 2nd value in row 4 of Pascal's triangle is 6 (the slope of 1s corresponds to the zeroth entry in each row). To get the value that resides in the corresponding position in the analog triangle, multiply 6 by 2Position Number = 622 = 64 = 24. Now that the analog triangle has been constructed, the number of elements of any dimension that compose an arbitrarily dimensioned cube (called a hypercube) can be read from the table in a way analogous to Pascal's triangle. For example, the number of 2-dimensional elements in a 2-dimensional cube (a square) is one, the number of 1-dimensional elements (sides, or lines) is 4, and the number of 0-dimensional elements (points, or vertices) is 4. This matches the 2nd row of the table (1, 4, 4). A cube has 1 cube, 6 faces, 12 edges, and 8 vertices, which corresponds to the next line of the analog triangle (1, 6, 12, 8). This pattern continues indefinitely. To understand why this pattern exists, first recognize that the construction of an n-cube from an (n1)-cube is done by simply duplicating the original figure and displacing it some distance (for a regular n-cube, the edge length) orthogonal to the space of the original figure, then connecting each vertex of the new figure to its corresponding vertex of the original. This initial duplication process is the reason why, to enumerate the dimensional elements of an n-cube, one must double the first of a pair of numbers in a row of this analog of Pascal's triangle before summing to yield the number below. The initial doubling thus yields the number of "original" elements to be found in the next higher n-cube and, as before, new elements are built upon those of one fewer dimension (edges upon vertices, faces upon edges, etc.). Again, the last number of a row represents the number of new vertices to be added to generate the next higher n-cube. In this triangle, the sum of the elements of row m is equal to 3m1. Again, to use the elements of row 5 as an example: , which is equal to .

Pascal's triangle

231

Fourier transform of sin(x)n+1/x

As stated previously, the coefficients of (x+1)n are the nth row of the triangle. Now the coefficients of (x1)n are the same, except that the sign alternates from +1 to 1 and back again. After suitable normalization, the same pattern of numbers occurs in the Fourier transform of sin(x)n+1/x. More precisely: if n is even, take the real part of the transform, and if n is odd, take the imaginary part. Then the result is a step function, whose values (suitably normalized) are given by the nth row of the triangle with alternating signs. For example, the values of the step function that results from:

compose the 4th row of the triangle, with alternating signs. This is a generalization of the following basic result (often used in electrical engineering):

is the boxcar function. The corresponding row of the triangle is row 0, which consists of just the number1. If n is congruent to 2 or to 3 mod 4, then the signs start with1. In fact, the sequence of the (normalized) first terms corresponds to the powers of i, which cycle around the intersection of the axes with the unit circle in the complex plane:

Elementary cellular automaton

The pattern produced by an elementary cellular automaton using rule 60 is exactly Pascal's triangle of binomial coefficients reduced modulo 2 (black cells correspond to odd binomial coefficients).[10] Rule 102 also produces this pattern when trailing zeros are omitted. Rule 90 produces the same pattern but with an empty cell separating each entry in the rows.

Extensions
Pascal's Triangle can be extended to negative row numbers. First write the triangle in the following form:
m = 0 m = 1 m = 2 m = 3 m = 4 m = 5 ... n=0 1 n=1 1 n=2 1 n=3 1 n=4 1 0 1 2 3 4 0 0 1 3 6 0 0 0 1 4 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 ... ... ... ... ...

Next, extend the column of 1s upwards:

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m = 0 m = 1 m = 2 m = 3 m = 4 m = 5 ... n = 4 1 n = 3 1 n = 2 1 n = 1 1 n=0 n=1 n=2 n=3 n=4 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 2 3 4 0 0 1 3 6 0 0 0 1 4 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

Now the rule:

can be rearranged to:

which allows calculation of the other entries for negative rows:

m = 0 m = 1 m = 2 m = 3 m = 4 m = 5 ... n = 4 1 n = 3 1 n = 2 1 n = 1 1 n=0 n=1 n=2 n=3 n=4 1 1 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 10 6 3 1 0 0 1 3 6 20 10 4 1 0 0 0 1 4 35 15 5 1 0 0 0 0 1 56 21 6 1 0 0 0 0 0 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

This extension preserves the property that the values in the mth column viewed as a function of n are fit by an order m polynomial, namely . This extension also preserves the property that the values in the nth row correspond to the coefficients of :

For example:

Another option for extending Pascal's triangle to negative rows comes from extending the other line of 1s:

Pascal's triangle

233

m = 4 m = 3 m = 2 m = 1 m = 0 m = 1 m = 2 m = 3 m = 4 m = 5 ... n = 4 1 n = 3 n = 2 n = 1 n=0 n=1 n=2 n=3 n=4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

Applying the same rule as before leads to

m = 4 m = 3 m = 2 m = 1 m = 0 m = 1 m = 2 m = 3 m = 4 m = 5 ... n = 4 1 n = 3 3 n = 2 3 n = 1 1 n=0 n=1 n=2 n=3 n=4 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... ...

Note that this extension also has the properties that just as

we have

Also, just as summing along the lower-left to upper-right diagonals of the Pascal matrix yields the Fibonacci numbers, this second type of extension still sums to the Fibonacci numbers for negative index.

Pascal's triangle Either of these extensions can be reached if we define

234

and take certain limits of the Gamma function,

References
[1] Peter Fox (1998). Cambridge University Library: the great collections (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=xxlgKP5thL8C& pg=PA13). Cambridge University Press. p.13. ISBN978-0-521-62647-7. . [2] [3] [4] [5] The binomial coefficient is conventionally set to zero if k is either less than zero or greater than n. Pascal's Triangle | World of Mathematics Summary (http:/ / www. bookrags. com/ research/ pascals-triangle-wom/ ) A. W. F. Edwards. Pascal's arithmetical triangle: the story of a mathematical idea. JHU Press, 2002. Pages 3031. O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Abu Bekr ibn Muhammad ibn al-Husayn Al-Karaji" (http:/ / www-history. mcs. st-andrews. ac. uk/ Biographies/ Al-Karaji. html), MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews, . [6] Weisstein, Eric W. (2003). CRC concise encyclopedia of mathematics, p.2169. ISBN 978-1-58488-347-0. [7] Fowler, David (January 1996). "The Binomial Coefficient Function". The American Mathematical Monthly 103 (1): 117. doi:10.2307/2975209. JSTOR2975209. See in particular p. 11. [8] Fine, N. J. (1947), "Binomial coefficients modulo a prime", American Mathematical Monthly 54: 589592, doi:10.2307/2304500, MR0023257. See in particular Theorem 2, which gives a generalization of this fact for all prime moduli. [9] Wolfram, S. (1984). "Computation Theory of Cellular Automata". Comm. Math. Phys. 96: 1557. Bibcode1984CMaPh..96...15W. doi:10.1007/BF01217347. [10] Wolfram, S. (2002). A New Kind of Science. Champaign IL: Wolfram Media. pp.870, 9312.

External links
Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001), "Pascal triangle" (http://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=p/ p071790), Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer, ISBN978-1-55608-010-4 Weisstein, Eric W., " Pascal's triangle (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/PascalsTriangle.html)" from MathWorld. The Old Method Chart of the Seven Multiplying Squares (http://www.york.ac.uk/depts/maths/histstat/ images/triangle.gif) (from the Ssu Yuan Y Chien of Chu Shi-Chieh, 1303, depicting the first nine rows of Pascal's triangle) Implementation of Pascal Triangle in Java (http://pinch-hitter.livejournal.com/13183.html) with conversion of higher digits to single digits. Pascal's Treatise on the Arithmetic Triangle (http://www.lib.cam.ac.uk/RareBooks/PascalTraite) (page images of Pascal's treatise, 1655; summary (http://www.lib.cam.ac.uk/RareBooks/PascalTraite/pascalintro. pdf)) Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics (P) (http://jeff560.tripod.com/p.html) Leibniz and Pascal triangles (http://www.cut-the-knot.org/Curriculum/Combinatorics/LeibnitzTriangle. shtml) Dot Patterns, Pascal's Triangle, and Lucas' Theorem (http://www.cut-the-knot.org/Curriculum/Algebra/ DotPatterns.shtml) Omar Khayyam the mathematician (http://www.stetson.edu/~efriedma/periodictable/html/O.html) Info on Pascal's Triangle (http://ptri1.tripod.com) Explanation of Pascal's Triangle and common occurrences, including link to interactive version specifying # of rows to view (http://mathforum.org/dr.math/faq/faq.pascal.triangle.html) Interactive Implementation of Pascal Triangle in SQL (http://www.pascaltriangle.info)

Binomial distribution

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Binomial distribution
Probability mass function

Cumulative distribution function

Notation Parameters Support PMF CDF Mean Median Mode Variance Skewness Ex. kurtosis Entropy MGF

B(n, p) n N0 number of trials p [0,1] success probability in each trial k { 0, , n } number of successes

np np or np (n + 1)p or (n + 1)p 1 np(1p)

Binomial distribution

236
CF PGF Fisher information (continuous parameter only)

In probability theory and statistics, the binomial distribution is the discrete probability distribution of the number of successes in a sequence of n independent yes/no experiments, each of which yields success with probability p. Such a success/failure experiment is also called a Bernoulli experiment or Bernoulli trial; when n = 1, the binomial distribution is a Bernoulli distribution. The binomial distribution is the basis for the popular binomial test of statistical significance.
Binomial distribution for

The binomial distribution is frequently used to model the number of successes in a sample of size n drawn with replacement from a population of size N. If the sampling is carried out without replacement, the draws are not independent and so the resulting distribution is a hypergeometric distribution, not a binomial one. However, for N much larger than n, the binomial distribution is a good approximation, and widely used.

(blue),

(green) and

(red)

Specification
Probability mass function
In general, if the random variable K follows the binomial distribution with parameters n and p, we write K~B(n,p). The probability of getting exactly k successes in n trials is given by the probability mass function:

Binomial distribution for with and as in Pascal's triangle ) ends up in the . ) is The probability that a ball in a Galton box with 8 layers ( central bin (

for k=0,1,2,...,n, where

Binomial distribution

237

is the binomial coefficient (hence the name of the distribution) "nchoosek", also denoted C(n,k),nCk, or nCk. The formula can be understood as follows: we want k successes (pk) and nk failures (1p)nk. However, the k successes can occur anywhere among the n trials, and there are C(n,k) different ways of distributing k successes in a sequence of n trials. In creating reference tables for binomial distribution probability, usually the table is filled in up to n/2 values. This is because for k>n/2, the probability can be calculated by its complement as

Looking at the expression (k,n,p) as a function of k, there is a k value that maximizes it. This k value can be found by calculating

and comparing it to 1. There is always an integer M that satisfies

(k,n,p) is monotone increasing for k<M and monotone decreasing for k>M, with the exception of the case where (n+1)p is an integer. In this case, there are two values for which is maximal: (n+1)p and (n+1)p1. M is the most probable (most likely) outcome of the Bernoulli trials and is called the mode. Note that the probability of it occurring can be fairly small.

Cumulative distribution function

The cumulative distribution function can be expressed as:

where

is the "floor" under x, i.e. the greatest integer less than or equal to x.

It can also be represented in terms of the regularized incomplete beta function, as follows:

For k np, upper bounds for the lower tail of the distribution function can be derived. In particular, Hoeffding's inequality yields the bound

and Chernoff's inequality can be used to derive the bound

Moreover, these bounds are reasonably tight when p = 1/2, since the following expression holds for all k 3n/8[1]

Binomial distribution

238

Example
Suppose a biased coin comes up heads with probability 0.3 when tossed. What is the probability of achieving 0, 1,..., 6 heads after six tosses?

[2]

Mean and variance

If X ~ B(n, p) (that is, X is a binomially distributed random variable), then the expected value of X is

and the variance is

Mode and median

Usually the mode of a binomial B(n, p) distribution is equal to , where is the floor function. However when (n+1)p is an integer and p is neither 0 nor 1, then the distribution has two modes: (n+1)p and (n+1)p1. When p is equal to 0 or 1, the mode will be 0 and n correspondingly. These cases can be summarized as follows:

In general, there is no single formula to find the median for a binomial distribution, and it may even be non-unique. However several special results have been established: If np is an integer, then the mean, median, and mode coincide and equal np.[3][4] Any median m must lie within the interval npmnp.[5] A median m cannot lie too far away from the mean: |m np| min{ ln 2, max{p, 1 p} }.[6] The median is unique and equal to m=round(np) in cases when either p 1 ln 2 or p ln 2 or |mnp|min{p,1p} (except for the case when p= and n is odd).[5][6]

When p=1/2 and n is odd, any number m in the interval (n1)m(n+1) is a median of the binomial distribution. If p=1/2 and n is even, then m=n/2 is the unique median.

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Covariance between two binomials

If two binomially distributed random variables X and Y are observed together, estimating their covariance can be useful. Using the definition of covariance, in the case n=1 (thus being Bernoulli trials) we have

The first term is non-zero only when both X and Y are one, and X and Y are equal to the two probabilities. Defining pB as the probability of both happening at the same time, this gives and for n such trials again due to independence

If X and Y are the same variable, this reduces to the variance formula given above.

Relationship to other distributions

Sums of binomials
If X~B(n,p) and Y~B(m,p) are independent binomial variables with the same probability p, then X+Y is again a binomial variable; its distribution is

Conditional binomials
If X~B(n,p) and, conditional on X, Y~B(X,q), then Y is a simple binomial variable with distribution

Bernoulli distribution
The Bernoulli distribution is a special case of the binomial distribution, where n=1. Symbolically, X~B(1,p) has the same meaning as X~Bern(p). Conversely, any binomial distribution, B(n,p), is the sum of n independent Bernoulli trials, Bern(p), each with the same probability p.

Poisson binomial distribution

The binomial distribution is a special case of the Poisson binomial distribution, which is a sum of n independent non-identical Bernoulli trials Bern(pi). If X has the Poisson binomial distribution with p1==pn=p then X~B(n,p).

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Normal approximation
If n is large enough, then the skew of the distribution is not too great. In this case a reasonable approximation to B(n,p) is given by the normal distribution

and this basic approximation can be improved in a simple way by using a suitable continuity correction. The basic approximation generally improves as n increases (at least 20) and is better when p is not near to 0 or 1.[7] Various rules of thumb may be used to decide whether n is large enough, and p is far enough from the extremes of zero or one: One rule is that both x=np and n(1p) must be greater than5. However, the specific number varies from source to source, and depends on how good an Binomial PDF and normal approximation for n=6 and p=0.5 approximation one wants; some sources give 10 which gives virtually the same results as the following rule for large n until n is very large (ex: x=11, n=7752). A second rule[7] is that for n > 5 the normal approximation is adequate if

Another commonly used rule holds that the normal approximation is appropriate only if everything within 3 standard deviations of its mean is within the range of possible values, that is if

The following is an example of applying a continuity correction. Suppose one wishes to calculate Pr(X8) for a binomial random variable X. If Y has a distribution given by the normal approximation, then Pr(X8) is approximated by Pr(Y8.5). The addition of 0.5 is the continuity correction; the uncorrected normal approximation gives considerably less accurate results. This approximation, known as de MoivreLaplace theorem, is a huge time-saver when undertaking calculations by hand (exact calculations with large n are very onerous); historically, it was the first use of the normal distribution, introduced in Abraham de Moivre's book The Doctrine of Chances in 1738. Nowadays, it can be seen as a consequence of the central limit theorem since B(n,p) is a sum of n independent, identically distributed Bernoulli variables with parameterp. This fact is the basis of a hypothesis test, a "proportion z-test," for the value of p using x/n, the sample proportion and estimator of p, in a common test statistic.[8] For example, suppose one randomly samples n people out of a large population and ask them whether they agree with a certain statement. The proportion of people who agree will of course depend on the sample. If groups of n people were sampled repeatedly and truly randomly, the proportions would follow an approximate normal distribution with mean equal to the true proportion p of agreement in the population and with standard deviation =(p(1p)/n)1/2. Large sample sizes n are good because the standard deviation, as a proportion of the expected value, gets smaller, which allows a more precise estimate of the unknown parameterp.

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Poisson approximation
The binomial distribution converges towards the Poisson distribution as the number of trials goes to infinity while the product np remains fixed. Therefore the Poisson distribution with parameter = np can be used as an approximation to B(n, p) of the binomial distribution if n is sufficiently large and p is sufficiently small. According to two rules of thumb, this approximation is good if n20 and p0.05, or if n100 and np10.[9]

Limiting distributions
Poisson limit theorem: As n approaches and p approaches 0 while np remains fixed at >0 or at least np approaches >0, then the Binomial(n,p) distribution approaches the Poisson distribution with expected value . de MoivreLaplace theorem: As n approaches while p remains fixed, the distribution of

approaches the normal distribution with expected value0 and variance1. This result is sometimes loosely stated by saying that the distribution of X is asymptotically normal with expected valuenp and variancenp(1p). This result is a specific case of the central limit theorem.

Confidence intervals
Even for quite large values of n, the actual distribution of the mean is signicantly nonnormal.[10] Because of this problem several methods to estimate confidence intervals have been proposed. Let n1 be the number of successes out of n, the total number of trials, and let

be the proportion of successes. Let z/2 be the 100 ( 1 / 2 )th percentile of the standard normal distribution. Wald method

A continuity correction of 0.5/n may be added. Agresti-Coull method[11]

Here the estimate of p is modified to

ArcSine method[12]

Wilson (score) method[13]

The exact (Clopper-Pearson) method is the most conservative.[10] The Wald method although commonly recommended in the text books is the most biased.

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Generating binomial random variates

Methods for random number generation where the marginal distribution is a binomial distribution are well-established. [14][15] One way to generate random samples from a binomial distribution is to use an inversion algorithm. To do so, one must calculate the probability that P(x=k) for all values n through k. These probabilities should sum to a value close to one, in order to encompass the entire sample space. Then by using a Linear congruential generator to generate samples uniform between 0 and 1, one can transform the calculated samples U[0,1] into discrete numbers by using the probabilities calculated in step one.

References
[1] Matou ek, J, Vondrak, J: The Probabilistic Method (lecture notes) (http:/ / kam. mff. cuni. cz/ ~matousek/ prob-ln. ps. gz). [2] Hamilton Institute. "The Binomial Distribution" (http:/ / www. hamilton. ie/ ollie/ EE304/ Binom. pdf) October 20, 2010. [3] Neumann, P. (1966). "ber den Median der Binomial- and Poissonverteilung" (in German). Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der Technischen Universitt Dresden 19: 2933. [4] Lord, Nick. (July 2010). "Binomial averages when the mean is an integer", The Mathematical Gazette 94, 331-332. [5] Kaas, R.; Buhrman, J.M. (1980). "Mean, Median and Mode in Binomial Distributions". Statistica Neerlandica 34 (1): 1318. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9574.1980.tb00681.x. [6] Hamza, K. (1995). "The smallest uniform upper bound on the distance between the mean and the median of the binomial and Poisson distributions". Statistics & Probability Letters 23: 2125. doi:10.1016/0167-7152(94)00090-U. [7] Box, Hunter and Hunter (1978). Statistics for experimenters. Wiley. p.130. [8] NIST/SEMATECH, "7.2.4. Does the proportion of defectives meet requirements?" (http:/ / www. itl. nist. gov/ div898/ handbook/ prc/ section2/ prc24. htm) e-Handbook of Statistical Methods. [9] NIST/SEMATECH, "6.3.3.1. Counts Control Charts" (http:/ / www. itl. nist. gov/ div898/ handbook/ pmc/ section3/ pmc331. htm), e-Handbook of Statistical Methods. [10] Brown LD, Cai T. and DasGupta A (2001). Interval estimation for a binomial proportion (with discussion). Statist Sci 16: 101133 [11] Agresti A, Coull BA (1998) "Approximate is better than 'exact' for interval estimation of binomial proportions". The American Statistician 52:119126 [12] Pires MA () Confidence intervals for a binomial proportion: comparison of methods and software evaluation. [13] Wilson EB (1927) "Probable inference, the law of succession, and statistical inference". Journal of the American Statistical Association 22: 209212 [14] Devroye, Luc (1986) Non-Uniform Random Variate Generation, New York: Springer-Verlag. (See especially Chapter X, Discrete Univariate Distributions (http:/ / luc. devroye. org/ chapter_ten. pdf)) [15] Kachitvichyanukul, V.; Schmeiser, B. W. (1988). "Binomial random variate generation". Communications of the ACM 31 (2): 216222. doi:10.1145/42372.42381.

Bernoulli trial

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Bernoulli trial
In the theory of probability and statistics, a Bernoulli trial is an experiment whose outcome is random and can be either of two possible outcomes, "success" and "failure". The mathematical formalization of the Bernoulli trial is known as the Bernoulli process. This article offers an elementary introduction to the concept, whereas the article on the Bernoulli process offers a more advanced treatment. In practice it refers to a single experiment which can have one of two possible outcomes. These events can be phrased into "yes or no" questions: Did the coin land heads? Was the newborn child a girl? Therefore success and failure are labels for outcomes, and should not be construed literally. The term "success" in this sense consists in the result meeting specified conditions, not in any moral judgement. Examples of Bernoulli trials include Flipping a coin. In this context, obverse ("heads") conventionally denotes success and reverse ("tails") denotes failure. A fair coin has the probability of success 0.5 by definition. Rolling a die, where a six is "success" and everything else a "failure". In conducting a political opinion poll, choosing a voter at random to ascertain whether that voter will vote "yes" in an upcoming referendum.

Definition
Independent repeated trials of an experiment with two outcomes only are called Bernoulli trials. Call one of the outcomes "success" and the other outcome "failure". Let be the probability of success in a Bernoulli trial. Then the probability of failure . Random variables describing Bernoulli trials are often encoded using the convention that 1 = "success", 0 = "failure". Closely related to a Bernoulli trial is a binomial experiment, which consists of a fixed number of statistically independent Bernoulli trials, each with a probability of success , and counts the number of successes. A random variable corresponding to a binomial is denoted by probability of exactly successes in the experiment . Bernoulli trials may also lead to negative binomial distributions (which count the number of successes in a series of repeated Bernoulli trials until a specified number of failures are seen), as well as various other distributions. When multiple Bernoulli trials are performed, each with its own probability of success, these are sometimes referred to as Poisson trials.[1] , and is said to have a binomial distribution. The is given by: is given by

Bernoulli trial

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Example: Tossing Coins

Consider the simple experiment where a fair coin is tossed four times. Find the probability that exactly two of the tosses result in heads.

Solution
For this experiment, let a heads be defined as a success and a tails as a failure. Because the coin is assumed to be fair, the probability of success is . Thus the probability of failure, , is given by . Using the equation above, the probability of exactly two tosses out of four total tosses resulting in a heads is given by:

Notes
[1] Rajeev Motwani and P. Raghavan. Randomized Algorithms. Cambridge University Press, New York (NY), 1995, p.67-68

External links
Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001), "Bernoulli trials" (http://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=p/ b015690), Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer, ISBN978-1-55608-010-4 Weisstein, Eric W., " Bernoulli Trial (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/BernoulliTrial.html)" from MathWorld.

Bernoulli distribution

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Bernoulli distribution
Bernoulli Parameters Support PMF

CDF

Mean Median

Mode

Variance Skewness Ex. kurtosis Entropy MGF CF PGF Fisher information

In probability theory and statistics, the Bernoulli distribution, named after Swiss scientist Jacob Bernoulli, is a discrete probability distribution, which takes value 1 with success probability and value 0 with failure probability . So if X is a random variable with this distribution, we have:

A classical example of a Bernoulli experiment is a single toss of a coin. The coin might come up heads with probability p and tails with probability 1-p. The experiment is called fair if p=0.5, indicating the origin of the terminology in betting (the bet is fair if both possible outcomes have the same probability). The probability mass function f of this distribution is

This can also be expressed as

Bernoulli distribution The expected value of a Bernoulli random variable X is , and its variance is

246

Bernoulli distribution is a special case of the Binomial distribution with n = 1.[1] The kurtosis goes to infinity for high and low values of p, but for kurtosis than any other probability distribution, namely -2. The Bernoulli distributions for 0p1 form an exponential family. The maximum likelihood estimator of p based on a random sample is the sample mean. the Bernoulli distribution has a lower

Related distributions
If are independent, identically distributed (i.i.d.) random variables, all Bernoulli distributed with (binomial distribution). The Bernoulli success probabilityp, then

distribution is simply . The categorical distribution is the generalization of the Bernoulli distribution for variables with any constant number of discrete values. The Beta distribution is the conjugate prior of the Bernoulli distribution. The geometric distribution is the number of Bernoulli trials needed to get one success.

Notes
[1] McCullagh and Nelder (1989), Section 4.2.2.

References
McCullagh, Peter; Nelder, John (1989). Generalized Linear Models, Second Edition. Boca Raton: Chapman and Hall/CRC. ISBN0-412-31760-5. Johnson, N.L., Kotz, S., Kemp A. (1993) Univariate Discrete Distributions (2nd Edition). Wiley. ISBN 0-471-54897-9

External links
Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001), "Binomial distribution" (http://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index. php?title=p/b016420), Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer, ISBN978-1-55608-010-4 Weisstein, Eric W., " Bernoulli Distribution (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/BernoulliDistribution.html)" from MathWorld.

Pascal's Wager

247

Pascal's Wager
Pascal's Wager (also known as Pascal's Gamble) is an argument in apologetic philosophy which was devised by the seventeenth-century French philosopher, mathematician, and physicist, Blaise Pascal. It posits that there's more to be gained from wagering on the existence of God than from atheism, and that a rational person should live as though God exists, even though the truth of the matter cannot actually be known. Pascal formulated the wager within a Christian framework, and it was set out in section 233 of his posthumously published Penses. (Penses, meaning thoughts, was the name given to the collection of unpublished notes which, after Pascal's death, were assembled to form an incomplete treatise on Christian apologetics.) Historically, Pascal's Wager was groundbreaking because it charted new territory in probability theory, marked the first formal use of decision theory, and anticipated future philosophies such as existentialism, pragmatism, and voluntarism.[1]
Blaise Pascal

The wager
The philosophy uses the following logic (excerpts from Penses, part III, 233): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. "God is, or He is not" A Game is being played... where heads or tails will turn up. According to reason, you can defend either of the propositions. You must wager. (It's not optional.) Let us weigh the gain and the loss in wagering that God is. Let us estimate these two chances. If you gain, you gain all; if you lose, you lose nothing. 6. Wager, then, without hesitation that He is. (...) There is here an infinity of an infinitely happy life to gain, a chance of gain against a finite number of chances of loss, and what you stake is finite. And so our proposition is of infinite force, when there is the finite to stake in a game where there are equal risks of gain and of loss, and the infinite to gain.

Context
The wager builds on the theme of other Penses where Pascal systematically dismantles the notion that we can trust purely in reason. However, he does not consider reason to be useless or irrelevant. On the contrary, in note 273, he says, "If we submit everything to reason, our religion will have no mysterious and supernatural element. If we offend the principles of reason, our religion will be absurd and ridiculous." So, while Pascal is not precluding the use of reason, much of his notes are geared toward attacking absolute certainty, attempting to convince the reader of what he sees as the true range and limits of reason. As such, his work is often cited as one of the first works on Existentialism for thoughts like the following:

Pascal's Wager

248

Category Uncertainty in all

Quotation(s) This is what I see, and what troubles me. I look on all sides, and everywhere I see nothing but obscurity. Nature offers me [2] nothing that is not a matter of doubt and disquiet. For after all what is man in nature? A nothing in relation to infinity, all in relation to nothing, a central point between nothing [3] and all and infinitely far from understanding either. There is nothing so conformable to reason as this disavowal of reason. [4]

Uncertainty in Man's purpose Uncertainty in reason Uncertainty in science Uncertainty in religion

There no doubt exist natural laws, but once this fine reason of ours was corrupted, it corrupted everything.

[5]

If I saw no signs of a divinity, I would fix myself in denial. If I saw everywhere the marks of a Creator, I would repose peacefully in faith. But seeing too much to deny Him, and too little to assure me, I am in a pitiful state, and I would wish a [6] hundred times that if a god sustains nature it would reveal Him without ambiguity. We understand nothing of the works of God unless we take it as a principle that He wishes to blind some and to enlighten [7] others.

Uncertainty in skepticism

It is not certain that everything is uncertain.

[8]

Pascal asks the reader to analyze the position of mankind, this crisis of existence and lack of complete understanding. While Mankind can discern a great deal through reason, it is also hopelessly removed from knowing everything through it. He describes Mankind as a finite being trapped within an incomprehensible infinity. Thrust into being from non-being for a brief life only to go out again, with no explanation whatsoever of "Why?" or "What?" or "How?". The finite nature of our being constrains reason with respect to every form of knowledge. Now, assuming that reason alone cannot determine whether or not God exists, the ontological question is reduced to a coin toss. However, making a choice to live as though God exists or does not exist is unavoidable even if the ontological question is inconclusive. In Pascal's assessment, participation in this Wager is not optional because Mankind is already thrust into existence. So even if God's existence cannot be independently confirmed or denied, nevertheless the Wager is necessary and the possible scenarios must be considered and decided upon pragmatically.

Explanation
The wager is described in Penses this way: If there is a God, He is infinitely incomprehensible, since, having neither parts nor limits, He has no affinity to us. We are then incapable of knowing either what He is or if He is.... ..."God is, or He is not." But to which side shall we incline? Reason can decide nothing here. There is an infinite chaos which separated us. A game is being played at the extremity of this infinite distance where heads or tails will turn up. What will you wager? According to reason, you can do neither the one thing nor the other; according to reason, you can defend neither of the propositions. Do not, then, reprove for error those who have made a choice; for you know nothing about it. "No, but I blame them for having made, not this choice, but a choice; for again both he who chooses heads and he who chooses tails are equally at fault, they are both in the wrong. The true course is not to wager at all." Yes; but you must wager. It is not optional. You are embarked. Which will you choose then? Let us see. Since you must choose, let us see which interests you least. You have two things to lose, the true and the good; and two things to stake, your reason and your will, your knowledge and your happiness; and your nature has two things to shun, error and misery. Your reason is no more shocked in choosing one rather than the other, since you must of necessity choose. This is one point settled. But your happiness? Let us weigh the gain and the loss in wagering that God is. Let us estimate these two chances. If you gain, you gain all; if you lose, you lose

Pascal's Wager nothing. Wager, then, without hesitation that He is. "That is very fine. Yes, I must wager; but I may perhaps wager too much." Let us see. Since there is an equal risk of gain and of loss, if you had only to gain two lives, instead of one, you might still wager. But if there were three lives to gain, you would have to play (since you are under the necessity of playing), and you would be imprudent, when you are forced to play, not to chance your life to gain three at a game where there is an equal risk of loss and gain. But there is an eternity of life and happiness. And this being so, if there were an infinity of chances, of which one only would be for you, you would still be right in wagering one to win two, and you would act stupidly, being obliged to play, by refusing to stake one life against three at a game in which out of an infinity of chances there is one for you, if there were an infinity of an infinitely happy life to gain. But there is here an infinity of an infinitely happy life to gain, a chance of gain against a finite number of chances of loss, and what you stake is finite.[4] Pascal begins by painting a situation where both the existence and non-existence of God are impossible to prove by human reason. So, supposing that reason cannot determine the truth between the two options, one must "wager" by weighing the possible consequences. Pascals assumption is that, when it comes to making the decision, no one can refuse to participate; withholding assent is impossible because we are already "embarked", effectively living out the choice. We only have two things to stake, our "reason" and our "happiness". Pascal considers that if there is "equal risk of loss and gain" (i.e. a coin toss), then human reason is powerless to address the question of whether God exists or not. That being the case, then human reason can only decide the question according to possible resulting happiness of the decision, weighing the gain and loss in believing that God exists and likewise in believing that God does not exist. He points out that if a wager was between the equal chance of gaining two lifetimes of happiness and gaining nothing, then a person would be a fool to bet on the latter. The same would go if it was three lifetimes of happiness versus nothing. He then argues that it is simply unconscionable by comparison to bet against an eternal life of happiness for the possibility of gaining nothing. The wise decision is to wager that God exists, since "If you gain, you gain all; if you lose, you lose nothing", meaning one can gain eternal life if God exists, but if not, one will be no worse off in death than if one had not believed. On the other hand, if you bet against God, win or lose, you either gain nothing or lose everything. You are either unavoidably annihilated (in which case, nothing matters one way or the other) or lose the opportunity of eternal happiness. In note 194, speaking about those who live apathetically betting against God, he sums up by remarking, "It is to the glory of religion to have for enemies men so unreasonable..."

249

Inability to believe
Pascal addressed the difficulty that 'reason' and 'rationality' pose to genuine belief by proposing that "acting as if [one] believed" could "cure [one] of unbelief":
But at least learn your inability to believe, since reason brings you to this, and yet you cannot believe. Endeavour then to convince yourself, not by increase of proofs of God, but by the abatement of your passions. You would like to attain faith, and do not know the way; you would like to cure yourself of unbelief, and ask the remedy for it. Learn of those who have been bound like you, and who now stake all their possessions. These are people who know the way which you would follow, and who are cured of an ill of which you would be cured. Follow the way by which they began; by acting as if they believed, taking the holy water, having masses said, etc. Even this will naturally make you believe, and deaden your acuteness. Penses Section III note 233, Translation by W. F. Trotter

Pascal's Wager

250

Analysis with decision theory

The possibilities defined by Pascal's Wager can be thought of as a decision under uncertainty with the values of the following decision matrix. (Pascal did not mention hell, nor did he address what the outcome would be of "God exists + Living as if God does not exist," the prospect of infinite gain being sufficient to make his point.)
God exists (G) Belief (B) + (infinite gain) God does not exist (~G) -1 (finite loss) +1 (finite gain)

Disbelief (~B) (infinite loss)

Given these values, the option of living as if God exists (B) dominates the option of living as if God does not exist (~B), as long as one assumes a positive probability that God exists. In other words, the expected value gained by choosing B is greater than or equal to that of choosing ~B. In fact, according to decision theory, the only value that matters in the above matrix is the + (infinitely positive). Any matrix of the following type (where f1, f2, and f3 are all finite positive or negative numbers) results in (B) as being the only rational decision.[9]
God exists (G) God does not exist (~G) Belief (B) Disbelief (~B) + f2 f1 f3

Criticism
Criticism of Pascal's Wager began in his own day, and came from both staunch atheists (who question the 'benefits' of a deity whose 'realm' is beyond reason), and the religiously orthodox (who primarily take issue with the wager's deistic and agnostic language). It is criticized for not proving God's existence, encouragement of false belief and the problem of which religion and which God should be worshiped.[10]

Failure as proof
Voltaire (another prominent French writer of the Enlightenment) a generation after Pascal, rejected the notion that the wager was 'proof of God' as "indecent and childish", adding, "the interest I have to believe a thing is no proof that such a thing exists."[11] Pascal, however, did not advance the wager as a proof, but rather as a necessary pragmatic decision, that is 'impossible to avoid'.[12] He argued that abstaining is not an option, and 'reason is incapable of divining the truth'; thus, a decision of whether or not to believe must be made by 'considering the consequences of each possibility'. Honestly judged however, Voltaire's critique concerns not at all the character of pascalian wager as God`s existence proof, as surmised here, but the fact that the very beliefs Pascal tries to promote are not at all believable and convincing (the philosopher hints to the fact that Pascal, as a catholic jansenist, believed the doctrine that only a small - and already predestined - portion of humanity will eventually be saved by his Christian God); in this context Voltaire explains that no matter how far someone is tempted with rewards in order to believe such a Christian dogma of salvation and such a god, the results will be at best a faint belief. In his view, such a critical thinker as he is, needs some very hard proofs in order to believe in a cruel and morally defective god, some reasons other than the mere promised (but also hard-to-believe) pascalian reward.[13] As tienne Souriau explained, in order to believe in such a morally unbelievable god, the bettor needs to be sure God really means seriously to honour the bet; he says that the wager takes as guaranteed the fact that this God accepts too the bet, fact which is far from being proved; Pascal's bettor is here like the fool who seeing a leaf floating on a river's waters and quivering at some point, for few seconds, between the two sides of a stone, says: I bet a million with Rothschild that it takes finally the left path. And,

Pascal's Wager effectively, the leaf passed on the left side of the stone, but unfortunately for the fool Rothschild never said too, I bet.[14]

251

Argument from inconsistent revelations

Since there have been many religions throughout history, and therefore many conceptions of God (or gods), some assert that all of them need to be factored into the wager, in an argument known as the argument from inconsistent revelations. This, its proponents argue, would lead to a high probability of believing in "the wrong god", which, they claim, eliminates the mathematical advantage Pascal claimed with his Wager. Denis Diderot, a contemporary of Voltaire, concisely expressed this opinion when asked about the wager, saying "an Imam could reason the same way".[15] J. L. Mackie notes that "the church within which alone salvation is to be found is not necessarily the Church of Rome, but perhaps that of the Anabaptists or the Mormons or the Muslim Sunnis or the worshipers of Kali or of Odin."[16] Another version of this objection argues that for every religion that promulgates rules, there exists another religion that has rules of the opposite kind. If a certain action leads one closer to salvation in the former religion, it leads one further away from it in the latter. Therefore, the expected value of following a certain religion could be negative. Or, one could also argue that there is an infinite number of mutually exclusive religions (which is a subset of the set of all possible religions), and that the probability of any one of them being true is zero; therefore the expected value of following a certain religion is zero. Pascal considers this type of objection briefly in the notes compiled into the Penses, and dismisses it as obviously wrong and disingenuous:[17]
What say [the unbelievers] then? "Do we not see," say they, "that the brutes live and die like men, and Turks like Christians? They have their ceremonies, their prophets, their doctors, their saints, their monks, like us," etc. If you care but little to know the truth, that is enough to leave you in repose. But if you desire with all your heart to know it, it is not enough; look at it in detail. That would be sufficient for a question in philosophy; but not here, where everything is at stake. And yet, after a superficial reflection of this kind, we go to amuse ourselves, etc. Let us inquire of this same religion whether it does not give a reason for this obscurity; perhaps it will teach it to us.
[18]

This short but densely packed passage, which alludes to numerous themes discussed elsewhere in the Penses, has given rise to many pages of scholarly analysis. Pascal says that unbelievers who rest content with the many-religions objection are people whose scepticism has seduced them into a fatal "repose". If they were really bent on knowing the truth, they would be persuaded to examine "in detail" whether Christianity is like any other religion, but they just cannot be bothered.[19] Their objection might be sufficient were the subject concerned merely some "question in philosophy", but not "here, where everything is at stake". In "a matter where they themselves, their eternity, their all are concerned",[18] they can manage no better than "a superficial reflection" ("une reflexion lgre") and, thinking they have scored a point by asking a leading question, they go off to amuse themselves.[20] As Pascal scholars observe, Pascal regarded the many-religions objection as a rhetorical ploy, a "trap"[21] that he had no intention of falling into. If, however, any who raised it were sincere, they would want to examine the matter "in detail". In that case, they could get some pointers by turning to his chapter on "other religions". As David Wetsel notes, Pascal's treatment of the pagan religions is brisk: "As far as Pascal is concerned, the demise of the pagan religions of antiquity speaks for itself. Those pagan religions which still exist in the New World, in India, and in Africa are not even worth a second glance. They are obviously the work of superstition and ignorance and have nothing in them which might interest 'les gens habiles' ('clever men')[22]"[23] Islam warrants more attention, being distinguished from paganism (which for Pascal presumably includes all the other non-Christian religions) by its claim to be a revealed religion. Nevertheless, Pascal concludes that the religion founded by Mohammed can on several counts be shown to be devoid of divine authority, and that therefore, as a path to the knowledge of God, it is as much a dead end as paganism.[24] Judaism, in view of its close links to Christianity, he deals with elsewhere.[25]

Pascal's Wager The many-religions objection is taken more seriously by some later apologists of the wager, who argue that, of the rival options, only those awarding infinite happiness affect the wager's dominance. In the opinion of these apologists "finite, semi-blissful promises such as Kali's or Odin's" therefore drop out of consideration.[26] Also, the infinite bliss that the rival conception of God offers has to be mutually exclusive. If Christ's promise of bliss can be attained concurrently with Jehovah's and Allah's (all three being identified as the God of Abraham), there is no conflict in the decision matrix in the case where the cost of believing in the wrong conception of God is neutral (limbo/purgatory/spiritual death), although this would be countered with an infinite cost in the case where not believing in the correct conception of God results in punishment (hell).[26] Furthermore, ecumenical interpretations of the Wager[27] argue that it could even be suggested that believing in a generic God, or a god by the wrong name, is acceptable so long as that conception of God has similar essential characteristics of the conception of God considered in Pascal's Wager (perhaps the God of Aristotle). Proponents of this line of reasoning suggest that either all of the conceptions of God or gods throughout history truly boil down to just a small set of "genuine options",[28] or that if Pascal's Wager can simply bring a person to believe in "generic theism" it has done its job.[29]

252

Argument from inauthentic belief

Some critics argue that Pascal's Wager could only ever be an argument for feigning belief, which is dishonest. In addition, it is absurd to think that God, being just and omniscient, would not be able to see through this deceptive strategy on the part of the "believer", thus nullifying the benefits of the wager.[30] Since these criticisms are concerned not with the validity of the wager itself, but with its possible aftermath namely that a person who has been convinced of the overwhelming odds in favor of belief might still find himself unable to sincerely believe they are tangential to the thrust of the wager. What such critics are objecting to is Pascal's subsequent advice to an unbeliever who, having concluded that the only rational way to wager is in favor of God's existence, points out, reasonably enough, that this by no means makes him a believer. This hypothetical unbeliever complains, "I am so made that I cannot believe. What would you have me do?"[31] Pascal, far from suggesting that God can be deceived by outward show, says that God does not regard it at all: "God looks only at what is inward."[32] For a person who is already convinced of the odds of the wager but cannot seem to put his heart into the belief, he offers practical advice. Explicitly addressing the question of inability to believe, Pascal argues that if the wager is valid, the inability to believe is irrational, and therefore must be caused by feelings: "your inability to believe, because reason compels you to [believe] and yet you cannot, [comes] from your passions." This inability, therefore, can be overcome by diminishing these irrational sentiments: "Learn from those who were bound like you. . . . Follow the way by which they began: that is by doing everything as if they believed, by taking holy water, by having Masses said, etc. Naturally, even this will make you believe and will dull you. 'But this is what I am afraid of.' And why? What have you to lose?"[33] In a similar vein, some other critics have objected to Pascal's Wager on the grounds that he wrongly assumes what type of epistemic character God would likely value in his rational creatures if he existed. More specifically, Richard Carrier has objected by positing an alternative conception of God that prefers his creatures to be honest inquirers and disapproves of thoughtless or feigned belief:
Suppose there is a god who is watching us and choosing which souls of the deceased to bring to heaven, and this god really does want only the morally good to populate heaven. He will probably select from only those who made a significant and responsible effort to discover the truth. . .Therefore, only such people can be sufficiently moral and trustworthy to deserve a place in heaven unless God wishes to fill heaven with the morally lazy, irresponsible, or untrustworthy. The End of Pascal's Wager: Only Nontheists Go to Heaven
[34]

However, as noted above, nowhere in the establishment of the wager does Pascal appeal to feigned belief; God, being omniscient, would not succumb to such trickery and unwittingly reward the disingenuous. Rather, in the

Pascal's Wager passage following the establishment of the wager, Pascal addresses a hypothetical person who has already weighed the rationality of believing in God through the wager and is convinced by it, but remains unable to sincerely believe. Again, as noted above, Pascal offers this person a way to escape the irrational sentiment that compels him to withhold belief in God after the validity of the wager has been rationally conceded. This way consists of applying oneself to spiritual discipline, study, and community. In practical terms, therefore, this "alternative" scenario of God valuing rational belief and honest inquiry which is offered by Carrier and other critics is actually not very different from Pascal's own formulation of the scenario. Indeed, Pascal is unabashed in his criticism of people who are apathetic about considering the issue of whether God exists. In note 194, he retorts: "This carelessness in a matter which concerns themselves, their eternity, their all, moves me more to anger than pity; it astonishes and shocks me; it is to me monstrous." Far from glorifying blind irrationality, one of the chief aims of Pascal's arguments in the Penses was to shake people out of their ignorant complacency so that they could rationally approach this most crucial existential matter. Pascal says in note 225: "Atheism shows strength of mind, but only to a certain degree." Unbelievers who persistently endeavor in an honest, rational effort to search for the truth are commended by Pascal, to the exclusion of those who are dismissive and disingenuous.

253

Variations
The Sophist Protagoras had an agnostic position regarding the gods, but he nevertheless continued to worship the gods. This could be considered as an early version of the wager.[35] In the famous tragedy of Euripides Bacchae, Kadmos states an early version of Pascal's wager. It is noteworthy that at the end of the tragedy Dionysos, the god to whom Kadmos referred, appears and punishes him for thinking in this way. Euripides, quite clearly, considered and dismissed the wager in this tragedy.[36] The Christian apologist Arnobius of Sicca (d.330) stated an early version of the argument in his book Against the Pagans.[37] An instantiation of this argument, within the Islamic kalam tradition, was discussed by Imam al-Haramayn al-Juwayni (d. 478/1085) in his Kitab al-irshad ila-qawati al-adilla fi usul al-i'tiqad, or A Guide to the Conclusive Proofs for the Principles of Belief.[38] In the Sanskrit classic Srasamuccaya, Vararuci makes a similar argument to Pascal's wager.[39]

Notes
[1] Alan Hjek, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ pascal-wager/ index. html) [2] Pense #229 (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ files/ 18269/ 18269-h/ 18269-h. htm#p_229) [3] Pense #72 (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ files/ 18269/ 18269-h/ 18269-h. htm#p_72) [4] Pense #272 (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ files/ 18269/ 18269-h/ 18269-h. htm#p_272) [5] Pense #294 (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ files/ 18269/ 18269-h/ 18269-h. htm#p_294) [6] Pense #229 (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ files/ 18269/ 18269-h/ 18269-h. htm#p_565) [7] Pense #565 (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ files/ 18269/ 18269-h/ 18269-h. htm#p_565) [8] Pense #387 (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ files/ 18269/ 18269-h/ 18269-h. htm#p_387) [9] Alan Hjek, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ pascal-wager/ index. html#4) [10] http:/ / robertnielsen21. wordpress. com/ 2012/ 05/ 06/ the-flaws-of-pascals-wager/ [11] Remarques sur les Pensees de Pascal XI (http:/ / www. voltaire-integral. com/ Html/ 22/ 07_Pascal. html) [12] Durant, Will and Ariel (1965). The Age of Voltaire. pp.370. [13] Vous me promettez lempire du monde si je crois que vous avez raison: je souhaite alors, de tout mon coeur, que vous ayez raison; mais jusqu ce que vous me layez prouv, je ne puis vous croire. [] Jai intrt, sans doute, quil y ait un Dieu; mais si dans votre systme Dieu nest venu que pour si peu de personnes; si le petit nombre des lus est si effrayant; si je ne puis rien du tout par moi-mme, dites-moi, je vous prie, quel intrt jai vous croire? Nai-je pas un intrt visible tre persuad du contraire? De quel front osez-vous me montrer un bonheur infini, auquel dun million dhommes un seul peine a droit daspirer? [14] vrai dire le clbre pari de Pascal, ou plutt le pari que Pascal propose au libertin n'est pas une option dsintresse mais un pari de joueur. Si le libertin joue croix, parie que Dieu existe, il gagne (si Dieu existe) la vie ternelle et la batitude infinie, et risque seulement de perdre les misrables plaisirs de sa vie actuelle. Cette mise ne compte pas au regard du gain possible qui est infini. Seulement, l'argument suppose

Pascal's Wager
que Dieu accepte le pari, que Dieu dit je tiens. Sans quoi, nous dit Souriau, le libertin est comme ce fou : il voit une feuille au fil de l'eau, hsiter entre deux cts d'un caillou. Il dit : je parie un million avec Rothschild qu'elle passera droite. La feuille passe droite et le fou dit : j'ai gagn un million. O est sa folie? Ce n'est pas que le million n'existe pas, c'est que Rothschild n'a pas dit : je tiens. . (Cf. l'admirable analyse du pari de Pascal in Souriau, L'ombre de Dieu, p. 47 sq.) - La Philosophie, Tome 2 (La Connaissance), Denis Huisman, Andr Vergez, Marabout 1994, pp.462-63 [15] Diderot, Denis (1875-77) [1746]. J. Asszar. ed (in French). Penses philosophiques, LIX, Volume 1. pp.167. [16] Mackie, J. L. (1982). The Miracle of Theism, Oxford, pg. 203 [17] Wetsel, David (1994). Pascal and Disbelief: Catechesis and Conversion in the Penses. Washington, D. C.: The Catholic University of America Press, p. 117. ISBN 0-8132-1328-2 [18] Pense #226 (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ files/ 18269/ 18269-h/ 18269-h. htm#p_226) [19] Wetsel, Pascal and Disbelief, p. 370. [20] Wetsel, Pascal and Disbelief, p. 238. [21] Wetsel, Pascal and Disbelief, pp. 118 (quotation from Jean Mesnard), 236. [22] Pense #251 (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ files/ 18269/ 18269-h/ 18269-h. htm#p_251) [23] Wetsel, Pascal and Disbelief, p. 181. [24] Wetsel, Pascal and Disbelief, p. 182. [25] Wetsel, Pascal and Disbelief, p. 180. [26] Alan Hjek, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ pascal-wager/ notes. html#7) [27] For example: Jeff Jordan, Gambling on God: Essays on Pascal's Wager, 1994, Rowman & Littlefield. [28] Paul Saka, The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Pascal's Wager (http:/ / www. iep. utm. edu/ p/ pasc-wag. htm#SH3a) [29] Paul Saka, The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Pascal's Wager (http:/ / www. iep. utm. edu/ p/ pasc-wag. htm#SH3d) [30] The God Delusion pp. 104. [31] Pense #233 (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ files/ 18269/ 18269-h/ 18269-h. htm#p_233) [32] Pense #904 (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ files/ 18269/ 18269-h/ 18269-h. htm#p_904) [33] Pense #233. Grard Ferreyrolles, ed. Paris: Librairie Gnrale Franaise, 2000. [34] The End of Pascal's Wager: Only Nontheists Go to Heaven (http:/ / www. infidels. org/ library/ modern/ richard_carrier/ heaven. html) [35] Boyarin, Daniel (2009). Socrates & the fat rabbis. University of Chicago Press. p.48. ISBN0-226-06916-8. [36] Aleksandrovich Florenski, Pavel (1997). Plots of epiphany: prison-escape in Acts of the Apostles. Princeton University Press. pp.595. ISBN0-691-03243-2. [37] Weaver, John B. (2004). The pillar and ground of the truth. Walter de Gruyter. p.37. ISBN978-3-11-018266-8. [38] al-Juwayni A Guide to Conclusive Proofs for the Principles of Belief, 6 [39] Nicholas Ostler (2005). Empires of the Word, HarperCollins.

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References
al-Juwayni, Imam al-Haramayn; Dr. Paul E. Walker (translator) (2000). A Guide to Conclusive Proofs for the Principles of Belief. Reading, UK: Garnet Publishing. pp.67. ISBN1-85964-157-1. Leslie Armour, Infini Rien: Pascal's Wager and the Human Paradox (The Journal of the History of Philosophy Monograph Series), Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1993. James Cargile, "Pascal's Wager," in Contemporary Perspectives on Religious Epistemology, eds. R. Douglas Geivett and Brendan Sweetman, Oxford University Press, 1992. Jeff Jordan, ed. Gambling on God, Lanham MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1994. (A collection of the most recent articles on the Wager with a full bibliography.) Jeff Jordan, Pascal's Wager: Pragmatic Arguments and Belief in God, Oxford University Press, 2007 (No doubt not the "final word", but certainly the most thorough and definitive discussion thus far.) William G. Lycan and George N. Schlesinger, "You Bet Your Life: Pascal's Wager Defended," in Contemporary Perspectives on Religious Epistemology, eds. R. Douglas Geivett and Brendan Sweetman, Oxford University Press, 1992. Michael Martin, Atheism, Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990, (Pp.229238 presents the argument about a god who punishes believers.) Thomas V. Morris, "Pascalian Wagering," in Contemporary Perspectives on Religious Epistemology, eds. R. Douglas Geivett and Brendan Sweetman, Oxford University Press, 1992. Nicholas Rescher, Pascals Wager: A Study of Practical Reasoning in Philosophical Theology, University of Notre Dame Press, 1985. (The first book-length treatment of the Wager in English.)

Pascal's Wager Jamie Whyte, Crimes against Logic, McGraw-Hill, 2004, (Section with argument about Wager) Elizabeth Holowecky, "Taxes and God", KPMG Press, 2008, (Phone interview)

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External links to primary text

Pascal's Pensees Part III "The Necessity of the Wager" The wager itself is found in #233 (Trotter translation) (http://www.classicallibrary.org/pascal/pensees/pensees03.htm). Section III of Blaise Pascal's Penses, Translated by W. F. Trotter (with forward by T.S. Elliot), Project Guttenburg (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/18269/18269-h/18269-h.htm#SECTION_III) - The wager is found at note #233

Other external links

Standard references: Pascal's Wager in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (http://www.iep.utm.edu/p/pasc-wag.htm) Pascal's Wager in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pascal-wager/)

Support
Pascal's Wager: Pragmatic Arguments and Belief in God (2006) (http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/oso/ public/content/philosophy/9780199291328/toc.html) by Jordan, Jeff, University of Delaware, 2006 Ambiguity, Pessimism, and Rational Religious Choice (2010) (http://www.springerlink.com/content/ c768204032543277) by Tigran Melkonyan and Mark Pingle Theory and Decision, 2010, Volume 69, Number 3, Pages 417-438

Objections
The Empty Wager (http://newsweek.washingtonpost.com/onfaith/sam_harris/2007/04/ the_cost_of_betting_on_faith.html) by Sam Harris The Rejection of Pascal's Wager (http://www.rejectionofpascalswager.net/pascal.html) by Paul Tobin Pascal's Mugging (http://www.nickbostrom.com/papers/pascal.pdf) by Nick Bostrom

Revisions
Theistic Belief and Religious Uncertainty (http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/jeffrey_jordan/belief. html) by Jeffrey Jordan

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Derivative
In calculus, a branch of mathematics, the derivative is a measure of how a function changes as its input changes. Loosely speaking, a derivative can be thought of as how much one quantity is changing in response to changes in some other quantity; for example, the derivative of the position of a moving object with respect to time is the object's instantaneous velocity. The derivative of a function at a chosen input value describes the best linear approximation of the function near that input value. Informally, The graph of a function, drawn in black, and a the derivative is the ratio of the infinitesimal change of the output over tangent line to that function, drawn in red. The the infinitesimal change of the input producing that change of output. slope of the tangent line is equal to the derivative For a real-valued function of a single real variable, the derivative at a of the function at the marked point. point equals the slope of the tangent line to the graph of the function at that point. In higher dimensions, the derivative of a function at a point is a linear transformation called the linearization.[1] A closely related notion is the differential of a function. The process of finding a derivative is called differentiation. The reverse process is called antidifferentiation. The fundamental theorem of calculus states that antidifferentiation is the same as integration. Differentiation and integration constitute the two fundamental operations in single-variable calculus.

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Differentiation and the derivative

Differentiation is a method to compute the rate at which a dependent output y changes with respect to the change in the independent input x. This rate of change is called the derivative of y with respect to x. In more precise language, the dependence of y upon x means that y is a function of x. This functional relationship is often denoted y = f(x), where f denotes the function. If x and y are real numbers, and if the graph of y is plotted against x, the derivative measures the slope of this graph at each point. The simplest case is when y is a linear function of x, meaning that the graph of y divided by x is a straight line. In this case, y = f(x) = m x + b, for real numbers m and b, and the slope m is given by

At each point, the derivative of

is the slope of a line that is

tangent to the curve. The line is always tangent to the blue curve; its slope is the derivative. Note derivative is positive where green line appears, negative where red line appears, and zero where black line appears .

where the symbol (the uppercase form of the Greek letter Delta) is an

abbreviation for "change in." This formula is true because y + y = f(x+ x) = m (x + x) + b = m x + b + m x = y + mx. It follows that y = m x. This gives an exact value for the slope of a straight line. If the function f is not linear (i.e. its graph is not a straight line), however, then the change in y divided by the change in x varies: differentiation is a method to find an exact value for this rate of change at any given value of x.

Figure 1. The tangent line at (x, f(x))

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Figure 2. The secant to curve y= f(x) determined by points (x, f(x)) and (x+h, f(x+h))

Figure 3. The tangent line as limit of secants

The idea, illustrated by Figures 1-3, is to compute the rate of change as the limiting value of the ratio of the differences y / x as x becomes infinitely small. In Leibniz's notation, such an infinitesimal change in x is denoted by dx, and the derivative of y with respect to x is written

suggesting the ratio of two infinitesimal quantities. (The above expression is read as "the derivative of y with respect to x", "d y by d x", or "d y over d x". The oral form "d y d x" is often used conversationally, although it may lead to confusion.) The most common approach[2] to turn this intuitive idea into a precise definition uses limits, but there are other methods, such as non-standard analysis.[3]

Definition via difference quotients

Let f be a real valued function. In classical geometry, the tangent line to the graph of the function f at a real number a was the unique line through the point (a, f(a)) that did not meet the graph of f transversally, meaning that the line did not pass straight through the graph. The derivative of y with respect to x at a is, geometrically, the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at a. The slope of the tangent line is very close to the slope of the line through (a, f(a)) and a nearby point on the graph, for example (a + h, f(a + h)). These lines are called secant lines. A value of h close to zero gives a good approximation to the slope of the tangent line, and smaller values (in absolute value) of h will, in general, give better approximations. The slope m of the secant line is the difference between the y values of these points divided by the difference between the x values, that is,

This expression is Newton's difference quotient. The derivative is the value of the difference quotient as the secant lines approach the tangent line. Formally, the derivative of the function f at a is the limit

Derivative of the difference quotient as h approaches zero, if this limit exists. If the limit exists, then f is differentiable at a. Here f (a) is one of several common notations for the derivative (see below). Equivalently, the derivative satisfies the property that

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which has the intuitive interpretation (see Figure 1) that the tangent line to f at a gives the best linear approximation

to f near a (i.e., for small h). This interpretation is the easiest to generalize to other settings (see below). Substituting 0 for h in the difference quotient causes division by zero, so the slope of the tangent line cannot be found directly using this method. Instead, define Q(h) to be the difference quotient as a function of h:

Q(h) is the slope of the secant line between (a, f(a)) and (a + h, f(a + h)). If f is a continuous function, meaning that its graph is an unbroken curve with no gaps, then Q is a continuous function away from h = 0. If the limit exists, meaning that there is a way of choosing a value for Q(0) that makes the graph of Q a continuous function, then the function f is differentiable at a, and its derivative at a equals Q(0). In practice, the existence of a continuous extension of the difference quotient Q(h) to h = 0 is shown by modifying the numerator to cancel h in the denominator. Such manipulations can make the limiting value of Q for small h clear even though Q is still not defined at h = 0. This process can be long and tedious for complicated functions, and many shortcuts are commonly used to simplify the process.

Example
The squaring function f(x) = x is differentiable at x = 3, and its derivative there is 6. This result is established by calculating the limit as h approaches zero of the difference quotient of f(3):

The last expression shows that the difference quotient equals 6 + h when h 0 and is undefined when h = 0, because of the definition of the difference quotient. However, the definition of the limit says the difference quotient does not need to be defined when h = 0. The limit is the result of letting h go to zero, meaning it is the value that 6 + h tends to as h becomes very small:

Hence the slope of the graph of the squaring function at the point (3, 9) is 6, and so its derivative at x = 3 is f '(3) = 6. More generally, a similar computation shows that the derivative of the squaring function at x = a is f '(a) = 2a.

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Continuity and differentiability

If y = f(x) is differentiable at a, then f must also be continuous at a. As an example, choose a point a and let f be the step function that returns a value, say 1, for all x less than a, and returns a different value, say 10, for all x greater than or equal to a. f cannot have a derivative at a. If h is negative, then a + h is on the low part of the step, so the secant line from a to a + h is very steep, and as h tends to zero the slope tends to infinity. If h is positive, then a + h is on the high part of the step, so the secant line from a to a + h has slope zero. Consequently the secant lines do not approach any single slope, so the limit of the difference quotient does not exist.[4]

This function does not have a derivative at the marked point, as the function is not continuous there.

However, even if a function is continuous at a point, it may not be differentiable there. For example, the absolute value function y = |x| is continuous at x = 0, but it is not differentiable there. If h is positive, then the slope of the secant line from 0 to h is one, whereas if h is negative, then the slope of the secant line from 0 to h is negative one. This can be seen graphically as a "kink" or a "cusp" in the graph at x = 0. Even a function with a smooth graph is not differentiable at a point where its tangent is vertical: For instance, the function y = x1/3 is not differentiable at x = 0. In summary: for a function f to have a derivative it is necessary for the function f to be continuous, but continuity alone is not sufficient.

The absolute value function is continuous, but fails to be differentiable at x = 0 since the tangent slopes do not approach the same value from the left as they do from the right.

Most functions that occur in practice have derivatives at all points or at almost every point. Early in the history of calculus, many mathematicians assumed that a continuous function was differentiable at most points. Under mild conditions, for example if the function is a monotone function or a Lipschitz function, this is true. However, in 1872 Weierstrass found the first example of a function that is continuous everywhere but differentiable nowhere. This example is now known as the Weierstrass function. In 1931, Stefan Banach proved that the set of functions that have a derivative at some point is a meager set in the space of all continuous functions.[5] Informally, this means that hardly any continuous functions have a derivative at even one point.

The derivative as a function

Let f be a function that has a derivative at every point a in the domain of f. Because every point a has a derivative, there is a function that sends the point a to the derivative of f at a. This function is written f(x) and is called the derivative function or the derivative of f. The derivative of f collects all the derivatives of f at all the points in the domain of f. Sometimes f has a derivative at most, but not all, points of its domain. The function whose value at a equals f(a) whenever f(a) is defined and elsewhere is undefined is also called the derivative of f. It is still a function, but its domain is strictly smaller than the domain of f. Using this idea, differentiation becomes a function of functions: The derivative is an operator whose domain is the set of all functions that have derivatives at every point of their domain and whose range is a set of functions. If we

Derivative denote this operator by D, then D(f) is the function f(x). Since D(f) is a function, it can be evaluated at a point a. By the definition of the derivative function, D(f)(a) = f(a). For comparison, consider the doubling function f(x) = 2x; f is a real-valued function of a real number, meaning that it takes numbers as inputs and has numbers as outputs:

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The operator D, however, is not defined on individual numbers. It is only defined on functions:

Because the output of D is a function, the output of D can be evaluated at a point. For instance, when D is applied to the squaring function,

D outputs the doubling function,

which we named f(x). This output function can then be evaluated to get f(1) = 2, f(2) = 4, and so on.

Higher derivatives
Let f be a differentiable function, and let f(x) be its derivative. The derivative of f(x) (if it has one) is written f(x) and is called the second derivative of f. Similarly, the derivative of a second derivative, if it exists, is written f(x) and is called the third derivative of f. These repeated derivatives are called higher-order derivatives. If x(t) represents the position of an object at time t, then the higher-order derivatives of x have physical interpretations. The second derivative of x is the derivative of x(t), the velocity, and by definition this is the object's acceleration. The third derivative of x is defined to be the jerk, and the fourth derivative is defined to be the jounce. A function f need not have a derivative, for example, if it is not continuous. Similarly, even if f does have a derivative, it may not have a second derivative. For example, let

Calculation shows that f is a differentiable function whose derivative is

f(x) is twice the absolute value function, and it does not have a derivative at zero. Similar examples show that a function can have k derivatives for any non-negative integer k but no (k + 1)-order derivative. A function that has k successive derivatives is called k times differentiable. If in addition the kth derivative is continuous, then the function is said to be of differentiability class Ck. (This is a stronger condition than having k derivatives. For an example, see differentiability class.) A function that has infinitely many derivatives is called infinitely differentiable or smooth. On the real line, every polynomial function is infinitely differentiable. By standard differentiation rules, if a polynomial of degree n is differentiated n times, then it becomes a constant function. All of its subsequent derivatives are identically zero. In particular, they exist, so polynomials are smooth functions.

Derivative The derivatives of a function f at a point x provide polynomial approximations to that function near x. For example, if f is twice differentiable, then

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in the sense that

If f is infinitely differentiable, then this is the beginning of the Taylor series for f.

Inflection point
A point where the second derivative of a function changes sign is called an inflection point.[6] At an inflection point, the second derivative may be zero, as in the case of the inflection point x=0 of the function y=x3, or it may fail to exist, as in the case of the inflection point x=0 of the function y=x1/3. At an inflection point, a function switches from being a convex function to being a concave function or vice versa.

Notations for differentiation

Leibniz's notation
The notation for derivatives introduced by Gottfried Leibniz is one of the earliest. It is still commonly used when the equation y = f(x) is viewed as a functional relationship between dependent and independent variables. Then the first derivative is denoted by

and was once thought of as an infinitesimal quotient. Higher derivatives are expressed using the notation

for the nth derivative of y = f(x) (with respect to x). These are abbreviations for multiple applications of the derivative operator. For example,

With Leibniz's notation, we can write the derivative of y at the point x = a in two different ways:

Leibniz's notation allows one to specify the variable for differentiation (in the denominator). This is especially relevant for partial differentiation. It also makes the chain rule easy to remember:[7]

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Lagrange's notation
Sometimes referred to as prime notation,[8] one of the most common modern notations for differentiation is due to Joseph-Louis Lagrange and uses the prime mark, so that the derivative of a function f(x) is denoted f(x) or simply f. Similarly, the second and third derivatives are denoted and To denote the number of derivatives beyond this point, some authors use Roman numerals in superscript, whereas others place the number in parentheses: or The latter notation generalizes to yield the notation f (n) for the nth derivative of f this notation is most useful when we wish to talk about the derivative as being a function itself, as in this case the Leibniz notation can become cumbersome.

Newton's notation
Newton's notation for differentiation, also called the dot notation, places a dot over the function name to represent a time derivative. If y = f(t), then and denote, respectively, the first and second derivatives of y with respect to t. This notation is used exclusively for time derivatives, meaning that the independent variable of the function represents time. It is very common in physics and in mathematical disciplines connected with physics such as differential equations. While the notation becomes unmanageable for high-order derivatives, in practice only very few derivatives are needed.

Euler's notation
Euler's notation uses a differential operator D, which is applied to a function f to give the first derivative Df. The second derivative is denoted D2f, and the nth derivative is denoted Dnf. If y = f(x) is a dependent variable, then often the subscript x is attached to the D to clarify the independent variable x. Euler's notation is then written or ,

although this subscript is often omitted when the variable x is understood, for instance when this is the only variable present in the expression. Euler's notation is useful for stating and solving linear differential equations.

Computing the derivative

The derivative of a function can, in principle, be computed from the definition by considering the difference quotient, and computing its limit. In practice, once the derivatives of a few simple functions are known, the derivatives of other functions are more easily computed using rules for obtaining derivatives of more complicated functions from simpler ones.

Derivatives of elementary functions

Most derivative computations eventually require taking the derivative of some common functions. The following incomplete list gives some of the most frequently used functions of a single real variable and their derivatives. Derivatives of powers: if

where r is any real number, then

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wherever this function is defined. For example, if

, then

and the derivative function is defined only for positive x, not for x = 0. When r = 0, this rule implies that f(x) is zero for x 0, which is almost the constant rule (stated below). Exponential and logarithmic functions:

Trigonometric functions:

Inverse trigonometric functions:

Rules for finding the derivative

In many cases, complicated limit calculations by direct application of Newton's difference quotient can be avoided using differentiation rules. Some of the most basic rules are the following. Constant rule: if f(x) is constant, then

Sum rule: for all functions f and g and all real numbers Product rule: for all functions f and g. By extension, this means that the derivative of a constant times a function is the constant times the derivative of the function: Quotient rule: for all functions f and g at all inputs where g 0. Chain rule: If , then and .

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Example computation
The derivative of

is

Here the second term was computed using the chain rule and third using the product rule. The known derivatives of the elementary functions x2, x4, sin(x), ln(x) and exp(x) = ex, as well as the constant 7, were also used.

Derivatives in higher dimensions

Derivatives of vector valued functions
A vector-valued function y(t) of a real variable sends real numbers to vectors in some vector space Rn. A vector-valued function can be split up into its coordinate functions y1(t), y2(t), , yn(t), meaning that y(t) = (y1(t), ..., yn(t)). This includes, for example, parametric curves in R2 or R3. The coordinate functions are real valued functions, so the above definition of derivative applies to them. The derivative of y(t) is defined to be the vector, called the tangent vector, whose coordinates are the derivatives of the coordinate functions. That is,

Equivalently,

if the limit exists. The subtraction in the numerator is subtraction of vectors, not scalars. If the derivative of y exists for every value of t, then y is another vector valued function. If e1, , en is the standard basis for Rn, then y(t) can also be written as y1(t)e1 + + yn(t)en. If we assume that the derivative of a vector-valued function retains the linearity property, then the derivative of y(t) must be

because each of the basis vectors is a constant. This generalization is useful, for example, if y(t) is the position vector of a particle at time t; then the derivative y(t) is the velocity vector of the particle at time t.

Partial derivatives
Suppose that f is a function that depends on more than one variable. For instance,

f can be reinterpreted as a family of functions of one variable indexed by the other variables: In other words, every value of x chooses a function, denoted fx, which is a function of one real number.[9] That is,

Once a value of x is chosen, say a, then f(x,y) determines a function fa that sends y to a + ay + y:

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In this expression, a is a constant, not a variable, so fa is a function of only one real variable. Consequently the definition of the derivative for a function of one variable applies:

The above procedure can be performed for any choice of a. Assembling the derivatives together into a function gives a function that describes the variation of f in the y direction:

This is the partial derivative of f with respect to y. Here is a rounded d called the partial derivative symbol. To distinguish it from the letter d, is sometimes pronounced "der", "del", or "partial" instead of "dee". In general, the partial derivative of a function f(x1, , xn) in the direction xi at the point (a1 , an) is defined to be:

In the above difference quotient, all the variables except xi are held fixed. That choice of fixed values determines a function of one variable

and, by definition,

In other words, the different choices of a index a family of one-variable functions just as in the example above. This expression also shows that the computation of partial derivatives reduces to the computation of one-variable derivatives. An important example of a function of several variables is the case of a scalar-valued function f(x1,...xn) on a domain in Euclidean space Rn (e.g., on R or R). In this case f has a partial derivative f/ xj with respect to each variable xj. At the point a, these partial derivatives define the vector

This vector is called the gradient of f at a. If f is differentiable at every point in some domain, then the gradient is a vector-valued function f that takes the point a to the vector f(a). Consequently the gradient determines a vector field.

Directional derivatives
If f is a real-valued function on Rn, then the partial derivatives of f measure its variation in the direction of the coordinate axes. For example, if f is a function of x and y, then its partial derivatives measure the variation in f in the x direction and the y direction. They do not, however, directly measure the variation of f in any other direction, such as along the diagonal line y = x. These are measured using directional derivatives. Choose a vector

The directional derivative of f in the direction of v at the point x is the limit

In some cases it may be easier to compute or estimate the directional derivative after changing the length of the vector. Often this is done to turn the problem into the computation of a directional derivative in the direction of a unit vector. To see how this works, suppose that v = u. Substitute h = k/ into the difference quotient. The difference quotient becomes:

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This is times the difference quotient for the directional derivative of f with respect to u. Furthermore, taking the limit as h tends to zero is the same as taking the limit as k tends to zero because h and k are multiples of each other. Therefore Dv(f) = Du(f). Because of this rescaling property, directional derivatives are frequently considered only for unit vectors. If all the partial derivatives of f exist and are continuous at x, then they determine the directional derivative of f in the direction v by the formula:

This is a consequence of the definition of the total derivative. It follows that the directional derivative is linear in v, meaning that Dv + w(f) = Dv(f) + Dw(f). The same definition also works when f is a function with values in Rm. The above definition is applied to each component of the vectors. In this case, the directional derivative is a vector in Rm.

Total derivative, total differential and Jacobian matrix

When f is a function from an open subset of Rn to Rm, then the directional derivative of f in a chosen direction is the best linear approximation to f at that point and in that direction. But when n > 1, no single directional derivative can give a complete picture of the behavior of f. The total derivative, also called the (total) differential, gives a complete picture by considering all directions at once. That is, for any vector v starting at a, the linear approximation formula holds:

Just like the single-variable derivative, f (a) is chosen so that the error in this approximation is as small as possible. If n and m are both one, then the derivative f (a) is a number and the expression f (a)v is the product of two numbers. But in higher dimensions, it is impossible for f (a) to be a number. If it were a number, then f (a)v would be a vector in Rn while the other terms would be vectors in Rm, and therefore the formula would not make sense. For the linear approximation formula to make sense, f (a) must be a function that sends vectors in Rn to vectors in Rm, and f (a)v must denote this function evaluated at v. To determine what kind of function it is, notice that the linear approximation formula can be rewritten as

Notice that if we choose another vector w, then this approximate equation determines another approximate equation by substituting w for v. It determines a third approximate equation by substituting both w for v and a + v for a. By subtracting these two new equations, we get

If we assume that v is small and that the derivative varies continuously in a, then f (a + v) is approximately equal to f (a), and therefore the right-hand side is approximately zero. The left-hand side can be rewritten in a different way using the linear approximation formula with v + w substituted for v. The linear approximation formula implies:

This suggests that f (a) is a linear transformation from the vector space Rn to the vector space Rm. In fact, it is possible to make this a precise derivation by measuring the error in the approximations. Assume that the error in these linear approximation formula is bounded by a constant times ||v||, where the constant is independent of v but

Derivative depends continuously on a. Then, after adding an appropriate error term, all of the above approximate equalities can be rephrased as inequalities. In particular, f (a) is a linear transformation up to a small error term. In the limit as v and w tend to zero, it must therefore be a linear transformation. Since we define the total derivative by taking a limit as v goes to zero, f (a) must be a linear transformation. In one variable, the fact that the derivative is the best linear approximation is expressed by the fact that it is the limit of difference quotients. However, the usual difference quotient does not make sense in higher dimensions because it is not usually possible to divide vectors. In particular, the numerator and denominator of the difference quotient are not even in the same vector space: The numerator lies in the codomain Rm while the denominator lies in the domain Rn. Furthermore, the derivative is a linear transformation, a different type of object from both the numerator and denominator. To make precise the idea that f (a) is the best linear approximation, it is necessary to adapt a different formula for the one-variable derivative in which these problems disappear. If f : R R, then the usual definition of the derivative may be manipulated to show that the derivative of f at a is the unique number f (a) such that

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This is equivalent to

because the limit of a function tends to zero if and only if the limit of the absolute value of the function tends to zero. This last formula can be adapted to the many-variable situation by replacing the absolute values with norms. The definition of the total derivative of f at a, therefore, is that it is the unique linear transformation f (a) : Rn Rm such that

Here h is a vector in Rn, so the norm in the denominator is the standard length on Rn. However, f(a)h is a vector in Rm, and the norm in the numerator is the standard length on Rm. If v is a vector starting at a, then f (a)v is called the pushforward of v by f and is sometimes written f*v. If the total derivative exists at a, then all the partial derivatives and directional derivatives of f exist at a, and for all v, f (a)v is the directional derivative of f in the direction v. If we write f using coordinate functions, so that f = (f1, f2, ..., fm), then the total derivative can be expressed using the partial derivatives as a matrix. This matrix is called the Jacobian matrix of f at a:

The existence of the total derivative f(a) is strictly stronger than the existence of all the partial derivatives, but if the partial derivatives exist and are continuous, then the total derivative exists, is given by the Jacobian, and depends continuously on a. The definition of the total derivative subsumes the definition of the derivative in one variable. That is, if f is a real-valued function of a real variable, then the total derivative exists if and only if the usual derivative exists. The Jacobian matrix reduces to a 11 matrix whose only entry is the derivative f(x). This 11 matrix satisfies the property that f(a + h) f(a) f (a)h is approximately zero, in other words that

Up to changing variables, this is the statement that the function

is the best linear

approximation to f at a. The total derivative of a function does not give another function in the same way as the one-variable case. This is because the total derivative of a multivariable function has to record much more information than the derivative of a

Derivative single-variable function. Instead, the total derivative gives a function from the tangent bundle of the source to the tangent bundle of the target. The natural analog of second, third, and higher-order total derivatives is not a linear transformation, is not a function on the tangent bundle, and is not built by repeatedly taking the total derivative. The analog of a higher-order derivative, called a jet, cannot be a linear transformation because higher-order derivatives reflect subtle geometric information, such as concavity, which cannot be described in terms of linear data such as vectors. It cannot be a function on the tangent bundle because the tangent bundle only has room for the base space and the directional derivatives. Because jets capture higher-order information, they take as arguments additional coordinates representing higher-order changes in direction. The space determined by these additional coordinates is called the jet bundle. The relation between the total derivative and the partial derivatives of a function is paralleled in the relation between the kth order jet of a function and its partial derivatives of order less than or equal to k.

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Generalizations
The concept of a derivative can be extended to many other settings. The common thread is that the derivative of a function at a point serves as a linear approximation of the function at that point. An important generalization of the derivative concerns complex functions of complex variables, such as functions from (a domain in) the complex numbers C to C. The notion of the derivative of such a function is obtained by replacing real variables with complex variables in the definition. If C is identified with R by writing a complex number z as x + i y, then a differentiable function from C to C is certainly differentiable as a function from R to R (in the sense that its partial derivatives all exist), but the converse is not true in general: the complex derivative only exists if the real derivative is complex linear and this imposes relations between the partial derivatives called the Cauchy Riemann equations see holomorphic functions. Another generalization concerns functions between differentiable or smooth manifolds. Intuitively speaking such a manifold M is a space that can be approximated near each point x by a vector space called its tangent space: the prototypical example is a smooth surface in R. The derivative (or differential) of a (differentiable) map f: M N between manifolds, at a point x in M, is then a linear map from the tangent space of M at x to the tangent space of N at f(x). The derivative function becomes a map between the tangent bundles of M and N. This definition is fundamental in differential geometry and has many uses see pushforward (differential) and pullback (differential geometry). Differentiation can also be defined for maps between infinite dimensional vector spaces such as Banach spaces and Frchet spaces. There is a generalization both of the directional derivative, called the Gteaux derivative, and of the differential, called the Frchet derivative. One deficiency of the classical derivative is that not very many functions are differentiable. Nevertheless, there is a way of extending the notion of the derivative so that all continuous functions and many other functions can be differentiated using a concept known as the weak derivative. The idea is to embed the continuous functions in a larger space called the space of distributions and only require that a function is differentiable "on average". The properties of the derivative have inspired the introduction and study of many similar objects in algebra and topology see, for example, differential algebra. The discrete equivalent of differentiation is finite differences. The study of differential calculus is unified with the calculus of finite differences in time scale calculus. Also see arithmetic derivative.

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Notes
[1] Differential calculus, as discussed in this article, is a very well established mathematical discipline for which there are many sources. Almost all of the material in this article can be found in Apostol 1967, Apostol 1969, and Spivak 1994. [2] Spivak 1994, chapter 10. [3] See Differential (infinitesimal) for an overview. Further approaches include the RadonNikodym theorem, and the universal derivation (see Khler differential). [4] Despite this, it is still possible to take the derivative in the sense of distributions. The result is nine times the Dirac measure centered at a. [5] Banach, S. (1931), "Uber die Baire'sche Kategorie gewisser Funktionenmengen", Studia. Math. (3): 174179.. Cited by Hewitt, E and Stromberg, K (1963), Real and abstract analysis, Springer-Verlag, Theorem 17.8 [6] Apostol 1967, 4.18 [7] In the formulation of calculus in terms of limits, the du symbol has been assigned various meanings by various authors. Some authors do not assign a meaning to du by itself, but only as part of the symbol du/dx. Others define dx as an independent variable, and define du by du = dxf(x). In non-standard analysis du is defined as an infinitesimal. It is also interpreted as the exterior derivative of a function u. See differential (infinitesimal) for further information. [8] "The Notation of Differentiation" (http:/ / web. mit. edu/ wwmath/ calculus/ differentiation/ notation. html). MIT. 1998. . Retrieved 24 October 2012. [9] This can also be expressed as the adjointness between the product space and function space constructions.

References
Print
Anton, Howard; Bivens, Irl; Davis, Stephen (February 2, 2005), Calculus: Early Transcendentals Single and Multivariable (8th ed.), New York: Wiley, ISBN978-0-471-47244-5 Apostol, Tom M. (June 1967), Calculus, Vol. 1: One-Variable Calculus with an Introduction to Linear Algebra, 1 (2nd ed.), Wiley, ISBN978-0-471-00005-1 Apostol, Tom M. (June 1969), Calculus, Vol. 2: Multi-Variable Calculus and Linear Algebra with Applications, 1 (2nd ed.), Wiley, ISBN978-0-471-00007-5 Courant, Richard; John, Fritz (December 22, 1998), Introduction to Calculus and Analysis, Vol. 1, Springer-Verlag, ISBN978-3-540-65058-4 Eves, Howard (January 2, 1990), An Introduction to the History of Mathematics (6th ed.), Brooks Cole, ISBN978-0-03-029558-4 Larson, Ron; Hostetler, Robert P.; Edwards, Bruce H. (February 28, 2006), Calculus: Early Transcendental Functions (4th ed.), Houghton Mifflin Company, ISBN978-0-618-60624-5 Spivak, Michael (September 1994), Calculus (3rd ed.), Publish or Perish, ISBN978-0-914098-89-8 Stewart, James (December 24, 2002), Calculus (5th ed.), Brooks Cole, ISBN978-0-534-39339-7 Thompson, Silvanus P. (September 8, 1998), Calculus Made Easy (Revised, Updated, Expanded ed.), New York: St. Martin's Press, ISBN978-0-312-18548-0

Online books
Crowell, Benjamin (2003), Calculus (http://www.lightandmatter.com/calc/) Garrett, Paul (2004), Notes on First-Year Calculus (http://www.math.umn.edu/~garrett/calculus/), University of Minnesota Hussain, Faraz (2006), Understanding Calculus (http://www.understandingcalculus.com/) Keisler, H. Jerome (2000), Elementary Calculus: An Approach Using Infinitesimals (http://www.math.wisc. edu/~keisler/calc.html) Mauch, Sean (2004), Unabridged Version of Sean's Applied Math Book (http://www.its.caltech.edu/~sean/ book/unabridged.html) Sloughter, Dan (2000), Difference Equations to Differential Equations (http://synechism.org/drupal/de2de/) Strang, Gilbert (1991), Calculus (http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/resources/Strang/strangtext.htm)

Derivative Stroyan, Keith D. (1997), A Brief Introduction to Infinitesimal Calculus (http://www.math.uiowa.edu/ ~stroyan/InfsmlCalculus/InfsmlCalc.htm) Wikibooks, Calculus (http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Calculus)

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Web pages
Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001), "Derivative" (http://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=p/ d031260), Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer, ISBN978-1-55608-010-4 Khan Academy: Derivative lesson 1 (http://www.khanacademy.org/video/ calculus--derivatives-1--new-hd-version?playlist=Calculus) Weisstein, Eric W. " Derivative. (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Derivative.html)" From MathWorld Derivatives of Trigonometric functions (http://www.ugrad.math.ubc.ca/coursedoc/math100/notes/ derivative/trig2.html), UBC

Integral
Integration is an important concept in mathematics and, together with its inverse, differentiation, is one of the two main operations in calculus. Given a function f of a real variable x and an interval [a, b] of the real line, the definite integral

is defined informally to be the area of the region in the xy-plane bounded by the graph of f, the x-axis, and the vertical lines x = a and x = b, such that area above the x-axis adds to the total, and that below the x-axis subtracts from the total. The term integral may also refer to the notion of the antiderivative, a function F whose derivative is the given function f. In this case, it is called an indefinite integral and is written:
A definite integral of a function can be represented as the signed area of the region bounded by its graph.

The integrals discussed in this article are termed definite integrals. The principles of integration were formulated independently by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibniz in the late 17th century. Through the fundamental theorem of calculus, which they independently developed, integration is connected with differentiation: if f is a continuous real-valued function defined on a closed interval [a, b], then, once an antiderivative F of f is known, the definite integral of f over that interval is given by

Integrals and derivatives became the basic tools of calculus, with numerous applications in science and engineering. The founders of the calculus thought of the integral as an infinite sum of rectangles of infinitesimal width. A rigorous mathematical definition of the integral was given by Bernhard Riemann. It is based on a limiting procedure which approximates the area of a curvilinear region by breaking the region into thin vertical slabs. Beginning in the nineteenth century, more sophisticated notions of integrals began to appear, where the type of the function as well as the domain over which the integration is performed has been generalised. A line integral is defined for functions of two or three variables, and the interval of integration [a, b] is replaced by a certain curve connecting two points on the plane or in the space. In a surface integral, the curve is replaced by a piece of a surface in the three-dimensional

Integral space. Integrals of differential forms play a fundamental role in modern differential geometry. These generalizations of integrals first arose from the needs of physics, and they play an important role in the formulation of many physical laws, notably those of electrodynamics. There are many modern concepts of integration, among these, the most common is based on the abstract mathematical theory known as Lebesgue integration, developed by Henri Lebesgue.

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History
Pre-calculus integration
The first documented systematic technique capable of determining integrals is the method of exhaustion of the ancient Greek astronomer Eudoxus (ca. 370 BC), which sought to find areas and volumes by breaking them up into an infinite number of shapes for which the area or volume was known. This method was further developed and employed by Archimedes in the 3rd century BC and used to calculate areas for parabolas and an approximation to the area of a circle. Similar methods were independently developed in China around the 3rd century AD by Liu Hui, who used it to find the area of the circle. This method was later used in the 5th century by Chinese father-and-son mathematicians Zu Chongzhi and Zu Geng to find the volume of a sphere (Shea 2007; Katz 2004, pp.125126). The next significant advances in integral calculus did not begin to appear until the 16th century. At this time the work of Cavalieri with his method of indivisibles, and work by Fermat, began to lay the foundations of modern calculus, with Cavalieri computing the integrals of xn up to degree n = 9 in Cavalieri's quadrature formula. Further steps were made in the early 17th century by Barrow and Torricelli, who provided the first hints of a connection between integration and differentiation. Barrow provided the first proof of the fundamental theorem of calculus. Wallis generalized Cavalieri's method, computing integrals of x to a general power, including negative powers and fractional powers.

Newton and Leibniz

The major advance in integration came in the 17th century with the independent discovery of the fundamental theorem of calculus by Newton and Leibniz. The theorem demonstrates a connection between integration and differentiation. This connection, combined with the comparative ease of differentiation, can be exploited to calculate integrals. In particular, the fundamental theorem of calculus allows one to solve a much broader class of problems. Equal in importance is the comprehensive mathematical framework that both Newton and Leibniz developed. Given the name infinitesimal calculus, it allowed for precise analysis of functions within continuous domains. This framework eventually became modern calculus, whose notation for integrals is drawn directly from the work of Leibniz.

Formalizing integrals
While Newton and Leibniz provided a systematic approach to integration, their work lacked a degree of rigour. Bishop Berkeley memorably attacked the vanishing increments used by Newton, calling them "ghosts of departed quantities". Calculus acquired a firmer footing with the development of limits. Integration was first rigorously formalized, using limits, by Riemann. Although all bounded piecewise continuous functions are Riemann integrable on a bounded interval, subsequently more general functions were considered particularly in the context of Fourier analysis to which Riemann's definition does not apply, and Lebesgue formulated a different definition of integral, founded in measure theory (a subfield of real analysis). Other definitions of integral, extending Riemann's and Lebesgue's approaches, were proposed. These approaches based on the real number system are the ones most common today, but alternative approaches exist, such as a definition of integral as the standard part of an infinite Riemann sum, based on the hyperreal number system.

Integral

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Historical notation
Isaac Newton used a small vertical bar above a variable to indicate integration, or placed the variable inside a box. The vertical bar was easily confused with or , which Newton used to indicate differentiation, and the box notation was difficult for printers to reproduce, so these notations were not widely adopted. The modern notation for the indefinite integral was introduced by Gottfried Leibniz in 1675 (Burton 1988, p.359; Leibniz 1899, p.154). He adapted the integral symbol, , from the letter (long s), standing for summa (written as umma; Latin for "sum" or "total"). The modern notation for the definite integral, with limits above and below the integral sign, was first used by Joseph Fourier in Mmoires of the French Academy around 181920, reprinted in his book of 1822 (Cajori 1929, pp.249250; Fourier 1822, 231).

Terminology and notation

The simplest case, the integral over x of a real-valued function f(x), is written as

The integral sign represents integration. The dx indicates that we are integrating over x; x is called the variable of integration. In correct mathematical typography, the dx is separated from the integrand by a space (as shown). Some authors use an upright d (that is, dx instead of dx). Inside the ...dx is the expression to be integrated, called the integrand. In this case the integrand is the function f(x). Because there is no domain specified, the integral is called an indefinite integral. When integrating over a specified domain, we speak of a definite integral. Integrating over a domain D is written as or if the domain is an interval [a, b] of x;

The domain D or the interval [a, b] is called the domain of integration. If a function has an integral, it is said to be integrable. In general, the integrand may be a function of more than one variable, and the domain of integration may be an area, volume, a higher dimensional region, or even an abstract space that does not have a geometric structure in any usual sense (such as a sample space in probability theory). In the modern Arabic mathematical notation, which aims at pre-university levels of education in the Arab world and is written from right to left, a reflected integral symbol is used (W3C 2006). The variable of integration dx has different interpretations depending on the theory being used. It can be seen as strictly a notation indicating that x is a dummy variable of integration; if the integral is seen as a Riemann sum, dx is a reflection of the weights or widths d of the intervals of x; in Lebesgue integration and its extensions, dx is a measure; in non-standard analysis, it is an infinitesimal; or it can be seen as an independent mathematical quantity, a differential form. More complicated cases may vary the notation slightly. In Leibniz's notation, dx is interpreted an infinitesimal change in x, but his interpretation lacks rigour in the end. Nonetheless Leibniz's notation is the most common one today; and as few people are in need of full rigour, even his interpretation is still used in many settings.

Introduction
Integrals appear in many practical situations. If a swimming pool is rectangular with a flat bottom, then from its length, width, and depth we can easily determine the volume of water it can contain (to fill it), the area of its surface (to cover it), and the length of its edge (to rope it). But if it is oval with a rounded bottom, all of these quantities call for integrals. Practical approximations may suffice for such trivial examples, but precision engineering (of any discipline) requires exact and rigorous values for these elements.

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274

To start off, consider the curve y = f(x) between x = 0 and x = 1 with f(x) = x. We ask: What is the area under the function f, in the interval from 0 to 1? and call this (yet unknown) area the integral of f. The notation for this integral will be

As a first approximation, look at the unit square given by the sides x = 0 to x = 1 and y = f(0) = 0 and y = f(1) = 1. Its area is exactly 1. As it is, the true value of the integral must be somewhat less. Decreasing the width of the approximation rectangles shall give a better result; so Approximations to integral of x from 0 to 1, cross the interval in five steps, using the approximation points 0, 1/5, with 5 right samples (above) and 12 left 2/5, and so on to 1. Fit a box for each step using the right end height of samples (below) each curve piece, thus (15), (25), and so on to 1 = 1. Summing the areas of these rectangles, we get a better approximation for the sought integral, namely

Notice that we are taking a sum of finitely many function values of f, multiplied with the differences of two subsequent approximation points. We can easily see that the approximation is still too large. Using more steps produces a closer approximation, but will never be exact: replacing the 5 subintervals by twelve as depicted, we will get an approximate value for the area of 0.6203, which is too small. The key idea is the transition from adding finitely many differences of approximation points multiplied by their respective function values to using infinitely many fine, or infinitesimal steps. As for the actual calculation of integrals, the fundamental theorem of calculus, due to Newton and Leibniz, is the fundamental link between the operations of differentiating and integrating. Applied to the square root curve, f(x) = x1/2, it says to look at the antiderivative F(x) = (2/3)x3/2, and simply take F(1) F(0), where 0 and 1 are the boundaries of the interval [0,1]. So the exact value of the area under the curve is computed formally as

(This is a case of a general rule, that for f(x) = xq, with q 1, the related function, the so-called antiderivative is F(x) = xq + 1/(q + 1).) The notation

conceives the integral as a weighted sum, denoted by the elongated s, of function values, f(x), multiplied by infinitesimal step widths, the so-called differentials, denoted by dx. The multiplication sign is usually omitted. Historically, after the failure of early efforts to rigorously interpret infinitesimals, Riemann formally defined integrals as a limit of weighted sums, so that the dx suggested the limit of a difference (namely, the interval width). Shortcomings of Riemann's dependence on intervals and continuity motivated newer definitions, especially the Lebesgue integral, which is founded on an ability to extend the idea of "measure" in much more flexible ways. Thus the notation

refers to a weighted sum in which the function values are partitioned, with measuring the weight to be assigned to each value. Here A denotes the region of integration.

Integral Differential geometry, with its "calculus on manifolds", gives the familiar notation yet another interpretation. Now f(x) and dx become a differential form, = f(x) dx, a new differential operator d, known as the exterior derivative is introduced, and the fundamental theorem becomes the more general Stokes' theorem,

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from which Green's theorem, the divergence theorem, and the fundamental theorem of calculus follow. More recently, infinitesimals have reappeared with rigor, through modern innovations such as non-standard analysis. Not only do these methods vindicate the intuitions of the pioneers; they also lead to new mathematics. Although there are differences between these conceptions of integral, there is considerable overlap. Thus, the area of the surface of the oval swimming pool can be handled as a geometric ellipse, a sum of infinitesimals, a Riemann integral, a Lebesgue integral, or as a manifold with a differential form. The calculated result will be the same for all.

Formal definitions
There are many ways of formally defining an integral, not all of which are equivalent. The differences exist mostly to deal with differing special cases which may not be integrable under other definitions, but also occasionally for pedagogical reasons. The most commonly used definitions of integral are Riemann integrals and Lebesgue integrals.

Riemann integral
The Riemann integral is defined in terms of Riemann sums of functions with respect to tagged partitions of an interval. Let [a,b] be a closed interval of the real line; then a tagged partition of [a,b] is a finite sequence

Integral approached as Riemann sum based on tagged partition, with irregular sampling positions and widths (max in red). True value is 3.76; estimate is 3.648.

Integral

276 This partitions the interval [a,b] into n sub-intervals [xi1, xi] indexed by i, each of which is "tagged" with a distinguished point ti [xi1, xi]. A Riemann sum of a function f with respect to such a tagged partition is defined as

thus each term of the sum is the area of a rectangle with height equal to the function value at the distinguished point of the given sub-interval, and width the same as the sub-interval width. Let i = xixi1 be the width of sub-interval i; then the mesh of such a tagged partition is the width of the largest sub-interval formed by the partition, maxi=1n i. The Riemann integral of a function f over the interval [a,b] is equal to S if:
Riemann sums converging as intervals halve, whether sampled at right, minimum, maximum, or left.

For all > 0 there exists > 0 such that, for any tagged partition [a,b] with mesh less than , we

have

When the chosen tags give the maximum (respectively, minimum) value of each interval, the Riemann sum becomes an upper (respectively, lower) Darboux sum, suggesting the close connection between the Riemann integral and the Darboux integral.

Lebesgue integral
It is often of interest, both in theory and applications, to be able to pass to the limit under the integral. For instance, a sequence of functions can frequently be constructed that approximate, in a suitable sense, the solution to a problem. Then the integral of the solution function should be the limit of the integrals of the approximations. However, many functions that can be obtained as limits are not Riemann integrable, and so such limit theorems do not hold with the Riemann integral. Therefore it is of great importance to have a definition of the integral that allows a wider class of functions to be integrated (Rudin 1987).

RiemannDarboux's integration (blue) and Lebesgue integration (red).

Such an integral is the Lebesgue integral, that exploits the following fact to enlarge the class of integrable functions: if the values of a function are rearranged over the domain, the integral of a function should remain the same. Thus Henri Lebesgue introduced the integral bearing his name, explaining this integral thus in a letter to Paul Montel: I have to pay a certain sum, which I have collected in my pocket. I take the bills and coins out of my pocket and give them to the creditor in the order I find them until I have reached the total sum. This is the Riemann integral. But I can proceed differently. After I have taken all the money out of my pocket I order the bills and

Integral coins according to identical values and then I pay the several heaps one after the other to the creditor. This is my integral.
Source: (Siegmund-Schultze 2008)

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As Folland (1984, p.56) puts it, "To compute the Riemann integral of f, one partitions the domain [a,b] into subintervals", while in the Lebesgue integral, "one is in effect partitioning the range of f". The definition of the Lebesgue integral thus begins with a measure, . In the simplest case, the Lebesgue measure (A) of an interval A = [a,b] is its width, b a, so that the Lebesgue integral agrees with the (proper) Riemann integral when both exist. In more complicated cases, the sets being measured can be highly fragmented, with no continuity and no resemblance to intervals. Using the "partitioning the range of f" philosophy, the integral of a non-negative function f : R R should be the sum over t of the areas between a thin horizontal strip between y = t and y = t + dt. This area is just { x : f(x) > t} dt. Let f(t) = { x : f(x) > t}. The Lebesgue integral of f is then defined by (Lieb & Loss 2001)

where the integral on the right is an ordinary improper Riemann integral (note that f is a strictly decreasing positive function, and therefore has a well-defined improper Riemann integral). For a suitable class of functions (the measurable functions) this defines the Lebesgue integral. A general measurable function f is Lebesgue integrable if the area between the graph of f and the x-axis is finite:

In that case, the integral is, as in the Riemannian case, the difference between the area above the x-axis and the area below the x-axis:

where

Other integrals
Although the Riemann and Lebesgue integrals are the most widely used definitions of the integral, a number of others exist, including: The Darboux integral which is equivalent to a Riemann integral, meaning that a function is Darboux-integrable if and only if it is Riemann-integrable, and the values of the two integrals, if they exist, are equal. Darboux integrals have the advantage of being simpler to define than Riemann integrals. The RiemannStieltjes integral, an extension of the Riemann integral. The Lebesgue-Stieltjes integral, further developed by Johann Radon, which generalizes the RiemannStieltjes and Lebesgue integrals. The Daniell integral, which subsumes the Lebesgue integral and Lebesgue-Stieltjes integral without the dependence on measures. The Haar integral, used for integration on locally compact topological groups, introduced by Alfrd Haar in 1933. The HenstockKurzweil integral, variously defined by Arnaud Denjoy, Oskar Perron, and (most elegantly, as the gauge integral) Jaroslav Kurzweil, and developed by Ralph Henstock.

Integral The It integral and Stratonovich integral, which define integration with respect to semimartingales such as Brownian motion. The Young integral, which is a kind of RiemannStieltjes integral with respect to certain functions of unbounded variation. The rough path integral defined for functions equipped with some additional "rough path" structure, generalizing stochastic integration against both semimartingales and processes such as the fractional Brownian motion.

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Properties
Linearity
The collection of Riemann integrable functions on a closed interval [a, b] forms a vector space under the operations of pointwise addition and multiplication by a scalar, and the operation of integration

is a linear functional on this vector space. Thus, firstly, the collection of integrable functions is closed under taking linear combinations; and, secondly, the integral of a linear combination is the linear combination of the integrals,

Similarly, the set of real-valued Lebesgue integrable functions on a given measure space E with measure is closed under taking linear combinations and hence form a vector space, and the Lebesgue integral

is a linear functional on this vector space, so that

More generally, consider the vector space of all measurable functions on a measure space (E,), taking values in a locally compact complete topological vector space V over a locally compact topological field K, f : E V. Then one may define an abstract integration map assigning to each function f an element of V or the symbol ,

that is compatible with linear combinations. In this situation the linearity holds for the subspace of functions whose integral is an element of V (i.e. "finite"). The most important special cases arise when K is R, C, or a finite extension of the field Qp of p-adic numbers, and V is a finite-dimensional vector space over K, and when K=C and V is a complex Hilbert space. Linearity, together with some natural continuity properties and normalisation for a certain class of "simple" functions, may be used to give an alternative definition of the integral. This is the approach of Daniell for the case of real-valued functions on a set X, generalized by Nicolas Bourbaki to functions with values in a locally compact topological vector space. See (Hildebrandt 1953) for an axiomatic characterisation of the integral.

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Inequalities for integrals

A number of general inequalities hold for Riemann-integrable functions defined on a closed and bounded interval [a, b] and can be generalized to other notions of integral (Lebesgue and Daniell). Upper and lower bounds. An integrable function f on [a, b], is necessarily bounded on that interval. Thus there are real numbers m and M so that m f (x) M for all x in [a, b]. Since the lower and upper sums of f over [a, b] are therefore bounded by, respectively, m(b a) and M(b a), it follows that

Inequalities between functions. If f(x) g(x) for each x in [a, b] then each of the upper and lower sums of f is bounded above by the upper and lower sums, respectively, of g. Thus

This is a generalization of the above inequalities, as M(b a) is the integral of the constant function with value M over [a, b]. In addition, if the inequality between functions is strict, then the inequality between integrals is also strict. That is, if f(x) < g(x) for each x in [a, b], then

Subintervals. If [c, d] is a subinterval of [a, b] and f(x) is non-negative for all x, then

Products and absolute values of functions. If f and g are two functions then we may consider their pointwise products and powers, and absolute values:

If f is Riemann-integrable on [a, b] then the same is true for |f|, and

Moreover, if f and g are both Riemann-integrable then f 2, g 2, and fg are also Riemann-integrable, and

This inequality, known as the CauchySchwarz inequality, plays a prominent role in Hilbert space theory, where the left hand side is interpreted as the inner product of two square-integrable functions f and g on the interval [a, b]. Hlder's inequality. Suppose that p and q are two real numbers, 1 p, q with 1/p + 1/q = 1, and f and g are two Riemann-integrable functions. Then the functions |f|p and |g|q are also integrable and the following Hlder's inequality holds:

For p = q = 2, Hlder's inequality becomes the CauchySchwarz inequality. Minkowski inequality. Suppose that p 1 is a real number and f and g are Riemann-integrable functions. Then |f|p, |g|p and |f + g|p are also Riemann integrable and the following Minkowski inequality holds:

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Conventions
In this section f is a real-valued Riemann-integrable function. The integral

over an interval [a, b] is defined if a < b. This means that the upper and lower sums of the function f are evaluated on a partition a = x0 x1 . . . xn = b whose values xi are increasing. Geometrically, this signifies that integration takes place "left to right", evaluating f within intervals [x i , x i +1] where an interval with a higher index lies to the right of one with a lower index. The values a and b, the end-points of the interval, are called the limits of integration of f. Integrals can also be defined if a > b: Reversing limits of integration. If a > b then define

This, with a = b, implies: Integrals over intervals of length zero. If a is a real number then

The first convention is necessary in consideration of taking integrals over subintervals of [a, b]; the second says that an integral taken over a degenerate interval, or a point, should be zero. One reason for the first convention is that the integrability of f on an interval [a, b] implies that f is integrable on any subinterval [c, d], but in particular integrals have the property that: Additivity of integration on intervals. If c is any element of [a, b], then

With the first convention the resulting relation

is then well-defined for any cyclic permutation of a, b, and c. Instead of viewing the above as conventions, one can also adopt the point of view that integration is performed of differential forms on oriented manifolds only. If M is such an oriented m-dimensional manifold, and M' is the same manifold with opposed orientation and is an m-form, then one has:

These conventions correspond to interpreting the integrand as a differential form, integrated over a chain. In measure theory, by contrast, one interprets the integrand as a function f with respect to a measure and integrates over a subset A, without any notion of orientation; one writes Differential form: Relation with measures for details. to indicate integration over a subset A. This is a minor distinction in one dimension, but becomes subtler on higher dimensional manifolds; see

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Fundamental theorem of calculus

The fundamental theorem of calculus is the statement that differentiation and integration are inverse operations: if a continuous function is first integrated and then differentiated, the original function is retrieved. An important consequence, sometimes called the second fundamental theorem of calculus, allows one to compute integrals by using an antiderivative of the function to be integrated.

Statements of theorems
Fundamental theorem of calculus. Let f be a continuous real-valued function defined on a closed interval [a, b]. Let F be the function defined, for all x in [a, b], by

Then, F is continuous on [a, b], differentiable on the open interval (a, b), and

for all x in (a, b). Second fundamental theorem of calculus. Let f be a real-valued function defined on a closed interval [a, b] that admits an antiderivative g on [a, b]. That is, f and g are functions such that for all x in [a, b],

If f is integrable on [a, b] then

Extensions
Improper integrals
A "proper" Riemann integral assumes the integrand is defined and finite on a closed and bounded interval, bracketed by the limits of integration. An improper integral occurs when one or more of these conditions is not satisfied. In some cases such integrals may be defined by considering the limit of a sequence of proper Riemann integrals on progressively larger intervals. If the interval is unbounded, for instance at its upper end, then the improper integral is the limit as that endpoint goes to infinity.

If the integrand is only defined or finite on a half-open interval, for instance (a,b], then again a limit may provide a finite result.

The improper integral

has unbounded intervals for both domain and range. That is, the improper integral is the limit of proper integrals as one endpoint of the interval of integration approaches either a specified real number, or , or . In more complicated cases, limits are required at both endpoints, or at interior points.

Consider, for example, the function

integrated from 0 to (shown right). At the lower bound, as

x goes to 0 the function goes to , and the upper bound is itself , though the function goes to 0. Thus this is a doubly improper integral. Integrated, say, from 1 to 3, an ordinary Riemann sum suffices to produce a result of /6.

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To integrate from 1 to , a Riemann sum is not possible. However, any finite upper bound, say t (with t > 1), gives a well-defined result, . This has a finite limit as t goes to infinity, namely /2. Similarly, the integral from

allows a Riemann sum as well, coincidentally again producing /6. Replacing 1/3 by an arbitrary positive value s (with s < 1) is equally safe, giving . This, too, has a finite limit as s goes to zero, namely /2. Combining the the two fragments, the result of this improper integral is

This process does not guarantee success; a limit may fail to exist, or may be unbounded. For example, over the bounded interval 0 to 1 the integral of 1/x does not converge; and over the unbounded interval 1 to the integral of does not converge. It may also happen that an integrand is unbounded at an interior point, in which case the integral must be split at that point, and the limit integrals on both sides must exist and must be bounded. Thus

The improper integral

is unbounded internally, but both left and right limits exist.

But the similar integral

cannot be assigned a value in this way, as the integrals above and below zero do not independently converge. (However, see Cauchy principal value.)

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Multiple integration
Integrals can be taken over regions other than intervals. In general, an integral over a set E of a function f is written:

Here x need not be a real number, but can be another suitable quantity, for instance, a vector in R3. Fubini's theorem shows that such integrals can be rewritten as an iterated integral. In other words, the integral can be calculated by integrating one coordinate at a time. Just as the definite integral of a positive function of one variable represents the area of the region between the graph of the function and the x-axis, the double integral of a positive function of two variables represents the volume of the region between the surface defined by the function and the plane which contains its domain. (The same volume Double integral as volume under a surface. can be obtained via the triple integral the integral of a function in three variables of the constant function f(x, y, z) = 1 over the above mentioned region between the surface and the plane.) If the number of variables is higher, then the integral represents a hypervolume, a volume of a solid of more than three dimensions that cannot be graphed. For example, the volume of the cuboid of sides 4 6 5 may be obtained in two ways: By the double integral

of the function f(x, y) = 5 calculated in the region D in the xy-plane which is the base of the cuboid. For example, if a rectangular base of such a cuboid is given via the xy inequalities 3 x 7, 4 y 10, our above double integral now reads

From here, integration is conducted with respect to either x or y first; in this example, integration is first done with respect to x as the interval corresponding to x is the inner integral. Once the first integration is completed via the method or otherwise, the result is again integrated with respect to the other variable. The result will equate to the volume under the surface. By the triple integral

of the constant function 1 calculated on the cuboid itself.

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Line integrals
The concept of an integral can be extended to more general domains of integration, such as curved lines and surfaces. Such integrals are known as line integrals and surface integrals respectively. These have important applications in physics, as when dealing with vector fields. A line integral (sometimes called a path integral) is an integral where the function to be integrated is evaluated along a curve. Various different line integrals are in use. In the case of a closed curve it is also called a contour integral. The function to be integrated may be a scalar field or a vector field. The value of the line integral is the sum of values of the field at all A line integral sums together elements along a points on the curve, weighted by some scalar function on the curve curve. (commonly arc length or, for a vector field, the scalar product of the vector field with a differential vector in the curve). This weighting distinguishes the line integral from simpler integrals defined on intervals. Many simple formulas in physics have natural continuous analogs in terms of line integrals; for example, the fact that work is equal to force, F, multiplied by displacement, s, may be expressed (in terms of vector quantities) as:

For an object moving along a path in a vector field . This gives the line integral

such as an electric field or gravitational field, the total work to

done by the field on the object is obtained by summing up the differential work done in moving from

Surface integrals
A surface integral is a definite integral taken over a surface (which may be a curved set in space); it can be thought of as the double integral analog of the line integral. The function to be integrated may be a scalar field or a vector field. The value of the surface integral is the sum of the field at all points on the surface. This can be achieved by splitting the surface into surface elements, which provide the partitioning for Riemann sums. For an example of applications of surface integrals, consider a vector The definition of surface integral relies on field v on a surface S; that is, for each point x in S, v(x) is a vector. splitting the surface into small surface elements. Imagine that we have a fluid flowing through S, such that v(x) determines the velocity of the fluid at x. The flux is defined as the quantity of fluid flowing through S in unit amount of time. To find the flux, we need to take the dot product of v with the unit surface normal to S at each point, which will give us a scalar field, which we integrate over the surface:

The fluid flux in this example may be from a physical fluid such as water or air, or from electrical or magnetic flux. Thus surface integrals have applications in physics, particularly with the classical theory of electromagnetism.

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Integrals of differential forms

A differential form is a mathematical concept in the fields of multivariable calculus, differential topology and tensors. The modern notation for the differential form, as well as the idea of the differential forms as being the wedge products of exterior derivatives forming an exterior algebra, was introduced by lie Cartan. We initially work in an open set in Rn. A 0-form is defined to be a smooth function f. When we integrate a function f over an m-dimensional subspace S of Rn, we write it as

(The superscripts are indices, not exponents.) We can consider dx1 through dxn to be formal objects themselves, rather than tags appended to make integrals look like Riemann sums. Alternatively, we can view them as covectors, and thus a measure of "density" (hence integrable in a general sense). We call the dx1, ,dxn basic 1-forms. We define the wedge product, "", a bilinear "multiplication" operator on these elements, with the alternating property that for all indices a. Note that alternation along with linearity and associativity implies dxbdxa = dxadxb. This also ensures that the result of the wedge product has an orientation. We define the set of all these products to be basic 2-forms, and similarly we define the set of products of the form dxadxbdxc to be basic 3-forms. A general k-form is then a weighted sum of basic k-forms, where the weights are the smooth functions f. Together these form a vector space with basic k-forms as the basis vectors, and 0-forms (smooth functions) as the field of scalars. The wedge product then extends to k-forms in the natural way. Over Rn at most n covectors can be linearly independent, thus a k-form with k > n will always be zero, by the alternating property. In addition to the wedge product, there is also the exterior derivative operator d. This operator maps k-forms to (k+1)-forms. For a k-form = f dxa over Rn, we define the action of d by:

with extension to general k-forms occurring linearly. This more general approach allows for a more natural coordinate-free approach to integration on manifolds. It also allows for a natural generalisation of the fundamental theorem of calculus, called Stokes' theorem, which we may state as

where is a general k-form, and denotes the boundary of the region . Thus, in the case that is a 0-form and is a closed interval of the real line, this reduces to the fundamental theorem of calculus. In the case that is a 1-form and is a two-dimensional region in the plane, the theorem reduces to Green's theorem. Similarly, using 2-forms, and 3-forms and Hodge duality, we can arrive at Stokes' theorem and the divergence theorem. In this way we can see that differential forms provide a powerful unifying view of integration.

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Summations
The discrete equivalent of integration is summation. Summations and integrals can be put on the same foundations using the theory of Lebesgue integrals or time scale calculus.

Methods
Computing integrals
The most basic technique for computing definite integrals of one real variable is based on the fundamental theorem of calculus. Let f(x) be the function of x to be integrated over a given interval [a, b]. Then, find an antiderivative of f; that is, a function F such that F' = f on the interval. Provided the integrand and integral have no singularities on the path of integration, by the fundamental theorem of calculus, The integral is not actually the antiderivative, but the fundamental theorem provides a way to use antiderivatives to evaluate definite integrals. The most difficult step is usually to find the antiderivative of f. It is rarely possible to glance at a function and write down its antiderivative. More often, it is necessary to use one of the many techniques that have been developed to evaluate integrals. Most of these techniques rewrite one integral as a different one which is hopefully more tractable. Techniques include: Integration by substitution Integration by parts Changing the order of integration Integration by trigonometric substitution Integration by partial fractions Integration by reduction formulae Integration using parametric derivatives Integration using Euler's formula Differentiation under the integral sign Contour integration

Alternate methods exist to compute more complex integrals. Many nonelementary integrals can be expanded in a Taylor series and integrated term by term. Occasionally, the resulting infinite series can be summed analytically. The method of convolution using Meijer G-functions can also be used, assuming that the integrand can be written as a product of Meijer G-functions. There are also many less common ways of calculating definite integrals; for instance, Parseval's identity can be used to transform an integral over a rectangular region into an infinite sum. Occasionally, an integral can be evaluated by a trick; for an example of this, see Gaussian integral. Computations of volumes of solids of revolution can usually be done with disk integration or shell integration. Specific results which have been worked out by various techniques are collected in the list of integrals.

Symbolic algorithms
Many problems in mathematics, physics, and engineering involve integration where an explicit formula for the integral is desired. Extensive tables of integrals have been compiled and published over the years for this purpose. With the spread of computers, many professionals, educators, and students have turned to computer algebra systems that are specifically designed to perform difficult or tedious tasks, including integration. Symbolic integration has been one of the motivations for the development of the first such systems, like Macsyma. A major mathematical difficulty in symbolic integration is that in many cases, a closed formula for the antiderivative of a rather simple-looking function does not exist. For instance, it is known that the antiderivatives of the functions exp(x2), xx and (sin x)/x cannot be expressed in the closed form involving only rational and exponential functions,

Integral logarithm, trigonometric and inverse trigonometric functions, and the operations of multiplication and composition; in other words, none of the three given functions is integrable in elementary functions, which are the functions which may be built from rational functions, roots of a polynomial, logarithm, and exponential functions. The Risch algorithm provides a general criterion to determine whether the antiderivative of an elementary function is elementary, and, if it is, to compute it. Unfortunately, it turns out that functions with closed expressions of antiderivatives are the exception rather than the rule. Consequently, computerized algebra systems have no hope of being able to find an antiderivative for a randomly constructed elementary function. On the positive side, if the 'building blocks' for antiderivatives are fixed in advance, it may be still be possible to decide whether the antiderivative of a given function can be expressed using these blocks and operations of multiplication and composition, and to find the symbolic answer whenever it exists. The Risch algorithm, implemented in Mathematica and other computer algebra systems, does just that for functions and antiderivatives built from rational functions, radicals, logarithm, and exponential functions. Some special integrands occur often enough to warrant special study. In particular, it may be useful to have, in the set of antiderivatives, the special functions of physics (like the Legendre functions, the hypergeometric function, the Gamma function, the Incomplete Gamma function and so on see Symbolic integration for more details). Extending the Risch's algorithm to include such functions is possible but challenging and has been an active research subject. More recently a new approach has emerged, using D-finite function, which are the solutions of linear differential equations with polynomial coefficients. Most of the elementary and special functions are D-finite and the integral of a D-finite function is also a D-finite function. This provide an algorithm to express the antiderivative of a D-finite function as the solution of a differential equation. This theory allows also to compute a definite integrals of a D-function as the sum of a series given by the first coefficients and an algorithm to compute any coefficient.[1]

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Numerical quadrature
The integrals encountered in a basic calculus course are deliberately chosen for simplicity; those found in real applications are not always so accommodating. Some integrals cannot be found exactly, some require special functions which themselves are a challenge to compute, and others are so complex that finding the exact answer is too slow. This motivates the study and application of numerical methods for approximating integrals, which today use floating-point arithmetic on digital electronic computers. Many of the ideas arose much earlier, for hand calculations; but the speed of general-purpose computers like the ENIAC created a need for improvements. The goals of numerical integration are accuracy, reliability, efficiency, and generality. Sophisticated methods can vastly outperform a naive method by all four measures (Dahlquist & Bjrck 2008; Kahaner, Moler & Nash 1989; Stoer & Bulirsch 2002). Consider, for example, the integral

which has the exact answer 94/25 = 3.76. (In ordinary practice the answer is not known in advance, so an important task not explored here is to decide when an approximation is good enough.) A calculus book approach divides the integration range into, say, 16 equal pieces, and computes function values.

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Spaced function values

x 2.00 1.50 1.00 0.50 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00

f(x) 2.22800
x

2.45663 2.67200 2.32475 0.64400 0.92575 0.94000 0.16963 0.83600 1.25 0.75 0.25 0.25 0.75 1.25 1.75

1.75

f(x)

2.33041 2.58562 2.62934 1.64019 0.32444 1.09159 0.60387 0.31734

Using the left end of each piece, the rectangle method sums 16 function values and multiplies by the step width, h, here 0.25, to get an approximate value of 3.94325 for the integral. The accuracy is not impressive, but calculus formally uses pieces of infinitesimal width, so initially this may seem little cause for concern. Indeed, repeatedly doubling the number of steps eventually produces an approximation of 3.76001. However, 218 pieces are required, a great computational expense for such little accuracy; and a reach for greater accuracy can force steps so small that arithmetic precision becomes an obstacle. A better approach replaces the horizontal tops of the rectangles with slanted tops touching the function at the ends of each piece. This Numerical quadrature methods: Rectangle, trapezium rule is almost as easy to calculate; it sums all 17 function Trapezoid, Romberg, Gauss values, but weights the first and last by one half, and again multiplies by the step width. This immediately improves the approximation to 3.76925, which is noticeably more accurate. Furthermore, only 210 pieces are needed to achieve 3.76000, substantially less computation than the rectangle method for comparable accuracy. Romberg's method builds on the trapezoid method to great effect. First, the step lengths are halved incrementally, giving trapezoid approximations denoted by T(h0), T(h1), and so on, where hk+1 is half of hk. For each new step size, only half the new function values need to be computed; the others carry over from the previous size (as shown in the table above). But the really powerful idea is to interpolate a polynomial through the approximations, and extrapolate to T(0). With this method a numerically exact answer here requires only four pieces (five function values)! The Lagrange polynomial interpolating {hk,T(hk)}k = 02 = {(4.00,6.128), (2.00,4.352), (1.00,3.908)} is 3.76 + 0.148h2, producing the extrapolated value 3.76 at h = 0. Gaussian quadrature often requires noticeably less work for superior accuracy. In this example, it can compute the function values at just two x positions, 23, then double each value and sum to get the numerically exact answer. The explanation for this dramatic success lies in error analysis, and a little luck. An n-point Gaussian method is exact for polynomials of degree up to 2n1. The function in this example is a degree 3 polynomial, plus a term that cancels because the chosen endpoints are symmetric around zero. (Cancellation also benefits the Romberg method.) Shifting the range left a little, so the integral is from 2.25 to 1.75, removes the symmetry. Nevertheless, the trapezoid method is rather slow, the polynomial interpolation method of Romberg is acceptable, and the Gaussian method requires the least work if the number of points is known in advance. As well, rational interpolation can use the same trapezoid evaluations as the Romberg method to greater effect.

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Quadrature method cost comparison

Method Points Trapezoid 1048577 Romberg 257 6.31015 Rational 129 8.81015 Gauss 36 3.11015

Rel. Err. 5.31013 Value

In practice, each method must use extra evaluations to ensure an error bound on an unknown function; this tends to offset some of the advantage of the pure Gaussian method, and motivates the popular GaussKronrod quadrature formulae. Symmetry can still be exploited by splitting this integral into two ranges, from 2.25 to 1.75 (no symmetry), and from 1.75 to 1.75 (symmetry). More broadly, adaptive quadrature partitions a range into pieces based on function properties, so that data points are concentrated where they are needed most. Simpson's rule, named for Thomas Simpson (17101761), uses a parabolic curve to approximate integrals. In many cases, it is more accurate than the trapezoidal rule and others. The rule states that

with an error of

The computation of higher-dimensional integrals (for example, volume calculations) makes important use of such alternatives as Monte Carlo integration. A calculus text is no substitute for numerical analysis, but the reverse is also true. Even the best adaptive numerical code sometimes requires a user to help with the more demanding integrals. For example, improper integrals may require a change of variable or methods that can avoid infinite function values, and known properties like symmetry and periodicity may provide critical leverage.

Some important definite integrals

Mathematicians have used definite integrals as a tool to define identities. Among these identities is the definition of the EulerMascheroni constant:

the Gamma function:

and the Laplace transform which is widely used in engineering:

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Notes
[1] http:/ / algo. inria. fr/ chyzak/ mgfun. html

References
Apostol, Tom M. (1967), Calculus, Vol.1: One-Variable Calculus with an Introduction to Linear Algebra (2nd ed.), Wiley, ISBN978-0-471-00005-1 Bourbaki, Nicolas (2004), Integration I, Springer Verlag, ISBN3-540-41129-1. In particular chapters III and IV. Burton, David M. (2005), The History of Mathematics: An Introduction (6th ed.), McGraw-Hill, p.359, ISBN978-0-07-305189-5 Cajori, Florian (1929), A History Of Mathematical Notations Volume II (http://www.archive.org/details/ historyofmathema027671mbp), Open Court Publishing, pp.247252, ISBN978-0-486-67766-8 Dahlquist, Germund; Bjrck, ke (2008), "Chapter5: Numerical Integration" (http://www.mai.liu.se/~akbjo/ NMbook.html), Numerical Methods in Scientific Computing, Volume I, Philadelphia: SIAM Folland, Gerald B. (1984), Real Analysis: Modern Techniques and Their Applications (1st ed.), John Wiley & Sons, ISBN978-0-471-80958-6 Fourier, Jean Baptiste Joseph (1822), Thorie analytique de la chaleur (http://books.google.com/ books?id=TDQJAAAAIAAJ), Chez Firmin Didot, pre et fils, p.231 Available in translation as Fourier, Joseph (1878), The analytical theory of heat (http://www.archive.org/ details/analyticaltheory00fourrich), Freeman, Alexander (trans.), Cambridge University Press, pp.200201 Heath, T. L., ed. (2002), The Works of Archimedes (http://www.archive.org/details/ worksofarchimede029517mbp), Dover, ISBN978-0-486-42084-4 (Originally published by Cambridge University Press, 1897, based on J. L. Heiberg's Greek version.) Hildebrandt, T. H. (1953), "Integration in abstract spaces" (http://projecteuclid.org/euclid.bams/1183517761), Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society 59 (2): 111139, ISSN0273-0979 Kahaner, David; Moler, Cleve; Nash, Stephen (1989), "Chapter5: Numerical Quadrature", Numerical Methods and Software, Prentice Hall, ISBN978-0-13-627258-8 Katz, Victor J. (2004), A History of Mathematics, Brief Version, Addison-Wesley, ISBN978-0-321-16193-2 Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm (1899), Gerhardt, Karl Immanuel, ed., Der Briefwechsel von Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz mit Mathematikern. Erster Band (http://name.umdl.umich.edu/AAX2762.0001.001), Berlin: Mayer & Mller Lieb, Elliott; Loss, Michael (2001), Analysis (2 ed.), AMS Chelsea, ISBN978-0821827833 Miller, Jeff, Earliest Uses of Symbols of Calculus (http://jeff560.tripod.com/calculus.html), retrieved 2009-11-22 OConnor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F. (1996), A history of the calculus (http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/ HistTopics/The_rise_of_calculus.html), retrieved 2007-07-09 Rudin, Walter (1987), "Chapter1: Abstract Integration", Real and Complex Analysis (International ed.), McGraw-Hill, ISBN978-0-07-100276-9 Saks, Stanisaw (1964), Theory of the integral (http://matwbn.icm.edu.pl/kstresc.php?tom=7&wyd=10& jez=) (English translation by L. C. Young. With two additional notes by Stefan Banach. Second revised ed.), New York: Dover Shea, Marilyn (May 2007), Biography of Zu Chongzhi (http://hua.umf.maine.edu/China/astronomy/tianpage/ 0014ZuChongzhi9296bw.html), University of Maine, retrieved 9 January 2009 Siegmund-Schultze, Reinhard (2008), "Henri Lebesgue", in Timothy Gowers, June Barrow-Green, Imre Leader, Princeton Companion to Mathematics, Princeton University Press. Stoer, Josef; Bulirsch, Roland (2002), "Chapter3: Topics in Integration", Introduction to Numerical Analysis (3rd ed.), Springer, ISBN978-0-387-95452-3.

Integral W3C (2006), Arabic mathematical notation (http://www.w3.org/TR/arabic-math/)

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External links
Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001), "Integral" (http://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=p/i051340), Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer, ISBN978-1-55608-010-4 Riemann Sum (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/RiemannSum.html) by Wolfram Research Introduction to definite integrals (http://www.khanacademy.org/video/ introduction-to-definite-integrals?playlist=Calculus) by Khan Academy

Online books
Keisler, H. Jerome, Elementary Calculus: An Approach Using Infinitesimals (http://www.math.wisc.edu/ ~keisler/calc.html), University of Wisconsin Stroyan, K.D., A Brief Introduction to Infinitesimal Calculus (http://www.math.uiowa.edu/~stroyan/ InfsmlCalculus/InfsmlCalc.htm), University of Iowa Mauch, Sean, Sean's Applied Math Book (http://www.its.caltech.edu/~sean/book/unabridged.html), CIT, an online textbook that includes a complete introduction to calculus Crowell, Benjamin, Calculus (http://www.lightandmatter.com/calc/), Fullerton College, an online textbook Garrett, Paul, Notes on First-Year Calculus (http://www.math.umn.edu/~garrett/calculus/) Hussain, Faraz, Understanding Calculus (http://www.understandingcalculus.com), an online textbook Kowalk, W.P., Integration Theory (http://einstein.informatik.uni-oldenburg.de/20910.html), University of Oldenburg. A new concept to an old problem. Online textbook Sloughter, Dan, Difference Equations to Differential Equations (http://math.furman.edu/~dcs/book), an introduction to calculus Numerical Methods of Integration (http://numericalmethods.eng.usf.edu/topics/integration.html) at Holistic Numerical Methods Institute P.S. Wang, Evaluation of Definite Integrals by Symbolic Manipulation (http://www.lcs.mit.edu/publications/ specpub.php?id=660) (1972) a cookbook of definite integral techniques

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Isaac Newton
Sir Isaac Newton

Godfrey Kneller's 1689 portrait of Isaac Newton (age 46). Born 25 December 1642

[NS: 4 January 1643]

[1]

Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, Lincolnshire, England Died 20 March 1726 (aged 83)

[OS: 20 March 1726 [1] NS: 31 March 1727]

Kensington, Middlesex, England Resting place Residence Nationality Fields Westminster Abbey England English (later British) Institutions Physics Natural philosophy Mathematics Astronomy Alchemy Christian theology

University of Cambridge Royal Society Royal Mint

Alma mater

Trinity College, Cambridge [2] Isaac Barrow [3][4] Benjamin Pulleyn Roger Cotes William Whiston

Academic advisors Notable students

Isaac Newton

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Knownfor Newtonian mechanics Universal gravitation Infinitesimal calculus Influences Influenced Optics Binomial series Principia Newton's method

[5] Henry More

[6] Polish Brethren [7] Robert Boyle Nicolas Fatio de Duillier John Keill Signature

Sir Isaac Newton PRS MP (25 December 1642 20 March 1726) was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist and theologian, who has been considered by many to be the greatest and most influential scientist who ever lived.[8][9] His monograph Philosophi Naturalis Principia Mathematica, published in 1687, laid the foundations for most of classical mechanics. In this work, Newton described universal gravitation and the three laws of motion, which dominated the scientific view of the physical universe for the next three centuries. Newton showed that the motion of objects on Earth and that of celestial bodies is governed by the same set of natural laws: by demonstrating the consistency between Kepler's laws of planetary motion and his theory of gravitation he removed the last doubts about heliocentrism and advanced the scientific revolution. The Principia is generally considered to be one of the most important scientific books ever written, both due to the specific physical laws the work successfully described, and for its style, which assisted in setting standards for scientific publication down to the present time. Newton built the first practical reflecting telescope[10] and developed a theory of colour based on the observation that a prism decomposes white light into the many colours that form the visible spectrum. He also formulated an empirical law of cooling and studied the speed of sound. In mathematics, Newton shares the credit with Gottfried Leibniz for the development of differential and integral calculus. He generalised the binomial theorem to non-integer exponents, developed Newton's method for approximating the roots of a function, and contributed to the study of power series. Although an unorthodox Christian, Newton was deeply religious and his occult studies took up a substantial part of his life. He secretly rejected Trinitarianism and refused holy orders.[11]

Life
Early life
Isaac Newton was born (according to the Julian calendar in use in England at the time) on Christmas Day, 25 December 1642, (NS 4 January 1643.[1]) at Woolsthorpe Manor in Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, a hamlet in the county of Lincolnshire. He was born three months after the death of his father, a prosperous farmer also named Isaac Newton. Born prematurely, he was a small child; his mother Hannah Ayscough reportedly said that he could have fit inside a quart mug ( 1.1 litres). When Newton was three, his mother remarried and went to live with her new husband, the Reverend Barnabus Smith, leaving her son in the care of his maternal grandmother, Margery Ayscough. The young Isaac disliked his stepfather and maintained some enmity towards his mother for marrying him, as revealed by this entry in a list of sins committed up to the age of 19: "Threatening my father and mother Smith to

Isaac Newton burn them and the house over them."[12] Although it was claimed that he was once engaged,[13] Newton never married. From the age of about twelve until he was seventeen, Newton was educated at The King's School, Grantham. He was removed from school, and by October 1659, he was to be found at Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, where his mother, widowed by now for a second time, attempted to make a farmer of him. He hated farming.[14] Henry Stokes, master at the King's School, persuaded his mother to send him back to school so that he might complete his education. Motivated partly by a desire for revenge against a schoolyard bully, he became the top-ranked student.[15] The Cambridge psychologist Simon Baron-Cohen considers it "fairly certain" that Newton had Asperger syndrome.[16] In June 1661, he was admitted to Trinity College, Cambridge as a sizar a sort of work-study role.[17] At that time, the college's teachings were based on those of Aristotle, whom Newton supplemented with modern philosophers, such as Descartes, and astronomers such as Copernicus, Galileo, and Kepler. In 1665, he discovered the generalised binomial theorem and began to develop a mathematical theory that later became infinitesimal calculus. Soon after Newton had obtained his degree in August 1665, the university temporarily closed as a precaution against the Great Plague. Although he had been undistinguished as a Cambridge student,[18] Newton's private studies at his home in Woolsthorpe over the subsequent two years saw the development of his theories on calculus,[19] optics and the law of gravitation. In 1667, he returned to Cambridge as a fellow of Trinity.[20] Fellows were required to become ordained priests, something Newton desired to avoid due to his unorthodox views. Luckily for Newton, there was no specific deadline for ordination, and it could be postponed indefinitely. The problem became more severe later when Newton was elected for the prestigious Lucasian Chair. For such a significant appointment, ordaining normally could not be dodged. Nevertheless, Newton managed to avoid it by means of a special permission from Charles II (see "Middle years" section below).

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Newton in a 1702 portrait by Godfrey Kneller

Isaac Newton (Bolton, Sarah K. Famous Men of Science. NY: Thomas Y. Crowell & Co., 1889)

Middle years
Mathematics Newton's work has been said "to distinctly advance every branch of mathematics then studied".[21] His work on the subject usually referred to as fluxions or calculus, seen in a manuscript of October 1666, is now published among Newton's mathematical papers.[22] The author of the manuscript De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas, sent by Isaac Barrow to John Collins in June 1669, was identified by Barrow in a letter sent to Collins in August of that year as:[23] Mr Newton, a fellow of our College, and very young... but of an extraordinary genius and proficiency in these things. Newton later became involved in a dispute with Leibniz over priority in the development of infinitesimal calculus (the LeibnizNewton calculus controversy). Most modern historians believe that Newton and Leibniz developed infinitesimal calculus independently, although with very different notations. Occasionally it has been suggested that Newton published almost nothing about it until 1693, and did not give a full account until 1704, while Leibniz began publishing a full account of his methods in 1684. (Leibniz's notation and "differential Method", nowadays recognised

Isaac Newton as much more convenient notations, were adopted by continental European mathematicians, and after 1820 or so, also by British mathematicians.) Such a suggestion, however, fails to notice the content of calculus which critics of Newton's time and modern times have pointed out in Book 1 of Newton's Principia itself (published 1687) and in its forerunner manuscripts, such as De motu corporum in gyrum ("On the motion of bodies in orbit"), of 1684. The Principia is not written in the language of calculus either as we know it or as Newton's (later) 'dot' notation would write it. But his work extensively uses an infinitesimal calculus in geometric form, based on limiting values of the ratios of vanishing small quantities: in the Principia itself Newton gave demonstration of this under the name of 'the method of first and last ratios'[24] and explained why he put his expositions in this form,[25] remarking also that 'hereby the same thing is performed as by the method of indivisibles'. Because of this, the Principia has been called "a book dense with the theory and application of the infinitesimal calculus" in modern times[26] and "lequel est presque tout de ce calcul" ('nearly all of it is of this calculus') in Newton's time.[27] His use of methods involving "one or more orders of the infinitesimally small" is present in his De motu corporum in gyrum of 1684[28] and in his papers on motion "during the two decades preceding 1684".[29] Newton had been reluctant to publish his calculus because he feared controversy and criticism.[30] He was close to the Swiss mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier. In 1691, Duillier started to write a new version of Newton's Principia, and corresponded with Leibniz.[31] In 1693 the relationship between Duillier and Newton deteriorated, and the book was never completed. Starting in 1699, other members of the Royal Society (of which Newton was a member) accused Leibniz of plagiarism, and the dispute broke out in full force in 1711. The Royal Society proclaimed in a study that it was Newton who was the true discoverer and labelled Leibniz a fraud. This study was cast into doubt when it was later found that Newton himself wrote the study's concluding remarks on Leibniz. Thus began the bitter controversy which marred the lives of both Newton and Leibniz until the latter's death in 1716.[32] Newton is generally credited with the generalised binomial theorem, valid for any exponent. He discovered Newton's identities, Newton's method, classified cubic plane curves (polynomials of degree three in two variables), made substantial contributions to the theory of finite differences, and was the first to use fractional indices and to employ coordinate geometry to derive solutions to Diophantine equations. He approximated partial sums of the harmonic series by logarithms (a precursor to Euler's summation formula), and was the first to use power series with confidence and to revert power series. Newton's work on infinite series was inspired by Simon Stevin's decimals.[33] He was appointed Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in 1669 on Barrow's recommendation. In that day, any fellow of Cambridge or Oxford was required to become an ordained Anglican priest. However, the terms of the Lucasian professorship required that the holder not be active in the church (presumably so as to have more time for science). Newton argued that this should exempt him from the ordination requirement, and Charles II, whose permission was needed, accepted this argument. Thus a conflict between Newton's religious views and Anglican orthodoxy was averted.[34]

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Isaac Newton Optics From 1670 to 1672, Newton lectured on optics.[36] During this period he investigated the refraction of light, demonstrating that a prism could decompose white light into a spectrum of colours, and that a lens and a second prism could recompose the multicoloured spectrum into white light.[37] Modern scholarship has revealed that Newton's analysis and resynthesis of white light owes a debt to corpuscular alchemy.[38] He also showed that the coloured light does not change its properties by separating out a coloured beam and shining it on various objects. Newton noted that regardless of whether it was reflected or scattered or transmitted, it stayed the same colour. Thus, he observed that colour is the result of objects interacting with already-coloured light rather than objects generating the colour themselves. This is known as Newton's theory of colour.[39]

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A replica of Newton's second Reflecting telescope that he presented to the Royal Society [35] in 1672

From this work, he concluded that the lens of any refracting telescope would suffer from the dispersion of light into colours (chromatic aberration). As a proof of the concept, he constructed a telescope using a mirror as the objective to bypass that problem.[40] Building the design, the first known functional reflecting telescope, today known as a Newtonian telescope,[40] involved solving the problem of a suitable mirror material and shaping technique. Newton ground his own mirrors out of a custom composition of highly reflective speculum metal, using Newton's rings to judge the quality of the optics for his telescopes. In late 1668[41] he was able to produce this first reflecting telescope. In 1671, the Illustration of a dispersive prism decomposing white light into the Royal Society asked for a demonstration of his colours of the spectrum, as discovered by Newton reflecting telescope.[42] Their interest encouraged him to publish his notes On Colour, which he later expanded into his Opticks. When Robert Hooke criticised some of Newton's ideas, Newton was so offended that he withdrew from public debate. Newton and Hooke had brief exchanges in 167980, when Hooke, appointed to manage the Royal Society's correspondence, opened up a correspondence intended to elicit contributions from Newton to Royal Society transactions,[43] which had the effect of stimulating Newton to work out a proof that the elliptical form of planetary orbits would result from a centripetal force inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector (see Newton's law of universal gravitation History and De motu corporum in gyrum). But the two men remained generally on poor terms until Hooke's death.[44]

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Newton argued that light is composed of particles or corpuscles, which were refracted by accelerating into a denser medium. He verged on soundlike waves to explain the repeated pattern of reflection and transmission by thin films (Opticks Bk.II, Props. 12), but still retained his theory of 'fits' that disposed corpuscles to be reflected or transmitted (Props.13). Later physicists instead favoured a purely wavelike explanation of light to account for the interference patterns, and the general phenomenon of diffraction. Today's quantum mechanics, photons and the idea of waveparticle duality bear only a minor resemblance to Newton's understanding of light. In his Hypothesis of Light of 1675, Newton posited the existence of the ether to transmit forces between particles. The contact with the theosophist Henry More, revived his interest in alchemy. He replaced the ether with occult forces based on Hermetic ideas of attraction and repulsion between particles. John Maynard Keynes, who acquired Facsimile of a 1682 letter from Isaac Newton to many of Newton's writings on alchemy, stated that "Newton was not [45] Dr William Briggs, commenting on Briggs' "A the first of the age of reason: He was the last of the magicians." New Theory of Vision". Newton's interest in alchemy cannot be isolated from his contributions to science.[5] This was at a time when there was no clear distinction between alchemy and science. Had he not relied on the occult idea of action at a distance, across a vacuum, he might not have developed his theory of gravity. (See also Isaac Newton's occult studies.) In 1704, Newton published Opticks, in which he expounded his corpuscular theory of light. He considered light to be made up of extremely subtle corpuscles, that ordinary matter was made of grosser corpuscles and speculated that through a kind of alchemical transmutation "Are not gross Bodies and Light convertible into one another, ...and may not Bodies receive much of their Activity from the Particles of Light which enter their Composition?"[46] Newton also constructed a primitive form of a frictional electrostatic generator, using a glass globe (Optics, 8th Query). In an article entitled "Newton, prisms, and the 'opticks' of tunable lasers[47] it is indicated that Newton in his book Opticks was the first to show a diagram using a prism as a beam expander. In the same book he describes, via diagrams, the use of multiple-prism arrays. Some 278 years after Newton's discussion, multiple-prism beam expanders became central to the development of narrow-linewidth tunable lasers. Also, the use of these prismatic beam expanders led to the multiple-prism dispersion theory.[47] Mechanics and gravitation In 1679, Newton returned to his work on (celestial) mechanics, i.e., gravitation and its effect on the orbits of planets, with reference to Kepler's laws of planetary motion. This followed stimulation by a brief exchange of letters in 167980 with Hooke, who had been appointed to manage the Royal Society's correspondence, and who opened a correspondence intended to elicit contributions from Newton to Royal Society transactions.[43] Newton's reawakening interest in astronomical matters received further stimulus by the appearance of a comet in the winter of 16801681, on which he corresponded with John Flamsteed.[48] After the exchanges with Hooke, Newton worked out a proof that the elliptical form of planetary orbits would result from a

Newton's own copy of his Principia, with hand-written corrections for the second edition

Isaac Newton centripetal force inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector (see Newton's law of universal gravitation History and De motu corporum in gyrum). Newton communicated his results to Edmond Halley and to the Royal Society in De motu corporum in gyrum, a tract written on about 9 sheets which was copied into the Royal Society's Register Book in December 1684.[49] This tract contained the nucleus that Newton developed and expanded to form the Principia. The Principia was published on 5 July 1687 with encouragement and financial help from Edmond Halley. In this work, Newton stated the three universal laws of motion that enabled many of the advances of the Industrial Revolution which soon followed and were not to be improved upon for more than 200 years, and are still the underpinnings of the non-relativistic technologies of the modern world. He used the Latin word gravitas (weight) for the effect that would become known as gravity, and defined the law of universal gravitation. In the same work, Newton presented a calculus-like method of geometrical analysis by 'first and last ratios', gave the first analytical determination (based on Boyle's law) of the speed of sound in air, inferred the oblateness of the spheroidal figure of the Earth, accounted for the precession of the equinoxes as a result of the Moon's gravitational attraction on the Earth's oblateness, initiated the gravitational study of the irregularities in the motion of the moon, provided a theory for the determination of the orbits of comets, and much more. Newton made clear his heliocentric view of the solar system developed in a somewhat modern way, because already in the mid-1680s he recognised the "deviation of the Sun" from the centre of gravity of the solar system.[50] For Newton, it was not precisely the centre of the Sun or any other body that could be considered at rest, but rather "the common centre of gravity of the Earth, the Sun and all the Planets is to be esteem'd the Centre of the World", and this centre of gravity "either is at rest or moves uniformly forward in a right line" (Newton adopted the "at rest" alternative in view of common consent that the centre, wherever it was, was at rest).[51] Newton's postulate of an invisible force able to act over vast distances led to him being criticised for introducing "occult agencies" into science.[52] Later, in the second edition of the Principia (1713), Newton firmly rejected such criticisms in a concluding General Scholium, writing that it was enough that the phenomena implied a gravitational attraction, as they did; but they did not so far indicate its cause, and it was both unnecessary and improper to frame hypotheses of things that were not implied by the phenomena. (Here Newton used what became his famous expression "hypotheses non fingo"[53]). With the Principia, Newton became internationally recognised.[54] He acquired a circle of admirers, including the Swiss-born mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier, with whom he formed an intense relationship. This abruptly ended in 1693, and at the same time Newton suffered a nervous breakdown.[55]

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Classification of cubics
Besides the work of Newton and others on calculus, the first important demonstration of the power of analytic geometry was Newton's classification of cubic curves in the Euclidean plane in the late 1600s. He divided them into four types, satisfying different equations, and in 1717 Stirling, probably with Newton's help, proved that every cubic was one of these four. Newton also claimed that the four types could be obtained by plane projection from one of them, and this was proved in 1731.[56]

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Later life
In the 1690s, Newton wrote a number of religious tracts dealing with the literal interpretation of the Bible. Henry More's belief in the Universe and rejection of Cartesian dualism may have influenced Newton's religious ideas. A manuscript he sent to John Locke in which he disputed the existence of the Trinity was never published. Later works The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended (1728) and Observations Upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John (1733) were published after his death. He also devoted a great deal of time to alchemy (see above). Newton was also a member of the Parliament of England from 1689 to 1690 and in 1701, but according to some accounts his only comments were to complain about a cold draught in the chamber and request that the window be closed.[57] Newton moved to London to take up the post of warden of the Royal Mint in 1696, a position that he had obtained through the patronage of Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax, then Chancellor of the Exchequer. He took charge of England's great recoining, somewhat treading on the toes of Lord Lucas, Governor of the Tower (and securing the job of deputy comptroller of the temporary Chester branch for Edmond Halley). Newton became perhaps the best-known Master of the Mint upon the death of Thomas Neale in 1699, a position Newton held for the last 30 years of his life.[58][59] These appointments were intended as sinecures, but Newton took them seriously, retiring from his Cambridge duties in 1701, and exercising his power to reform the currency and punish clippers and counterfeiters. As Master of the Mint in 1717 in the "Law of Queen Anne" Newton moved the Pound Sterling de facto from the silver standard to the gold standard by setting the bimetallic relationship between gold coins and the silver penny in favour of gold. This caused silver sterling coin to be melted and shipped out of Britain. Newton was made President of the Royal Society in 1703 and an associate of the French Acadmie des Sciences. In his position at the Royal Society, Newton made an enemy of John Flamsteed, the Astronomer Royal, by prematurely publishing Flamsteed's Historia Coelestis Britannica, which Newton had used in his studies.[60]
Isaac Newton in old age in 1712, portrait by Sir James Thornhill

In April 1705, Queen Anne knighted Newton during a royal visit to Trinity College, Cambridge. The knighthood is likely to have been motivated by political considerations connected with the Parliamentary election in May 1705, rather than any recognition of Newton's scientific work or services as Master of the Mint.[62] Newton was the second scientist to be knighted, after Sir Francis Bacon. Towards the end of his life, Newton took up residence at Cranbury Park, near Winchester with his niece and her husband, until his death in 1726.[63] His half-niece, Catherine Barton Conduitt,[64] served as his hostess in social affairs at his house on Jermyn Street in London; he was her "very loving Uncle,"[65] according to his letter to her when she was recovering from smallpox.

Personal coat of arms of Sir Isaac [61] Newton

Newton died in his sleep in London on 20 March 1726 (OS 20 March 1726; NS 31 March 1727)[1] and was buried in Westminster Abbey. A bachelor, he had divested much of his estate to relatives during his last years, and died intestate. After his death, Newton's hair was examined and found to contain mercury, probably resulting from his alchemical pursuits. Mercury poisoning could explain Newton's eccentricity in late life.[66]

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After death
Fame French mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange often said that Newton was the greatest genius who ever lived, and once added that Newton was also "the most fortunate, for we cannot find more than once a system of the world to establish."[67] English poet Alexander Pope was moved by Newton's accomplishments to write the famous epitaph: Nature and nature's laws lay hid in night; God said "Let Newton be" and all was light. Newton himself had been rather more modest of his own achievements, famously writing in a letter to Robert Hooke in February 1676: If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of giants.[68] Two writers think that the above quote, written at a time when Newton and Hooke were in dispute over optical discoveries, was an oblique attack on Hooke (said to have been short and hunchbacked), rather than or in addition to a statement of modesty.[69][70] On the other hand, the widely known proverb about standing on the shoulders of giants published among others by 17th-century poet George Herbert (a former orator of the University of Cambridge and fellow of Trinity College) in his Jacula Prudentum (1651), had as its main point that "a dwarf on a giant's shoulders sees farther of the two", and so its effect as an analogy would place Newton himself rather than Hooke as the 'dwarf'. In a later memoir, Newton wrote: I do not know what I may appear to the world, but to myself I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the sea-shore, and diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me.[71] Albert Einstein kept a picture of Newton on his study wall alongside ones of Michael Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell.[72] Newton remains influential to today's scientists, as demonstrated by a 2005 survey of members of Britain's Royal Society (formerly headed by Newton) asking who had the greater effect on the history of science, Newton or Einstein. Royal Society scientists deemed Newton to have made the greater overall contribution.[73] In 1999, an opinion poll of 100 of today's leading physicists voted Einstein the "greatest physicist ever;" with Newton the runner-up, while a parallel survey of rank-and-file physicists by the site PhysicsWeb gave the top spot to Newton.[74] Commemorations

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Newton's monument (1731) can be seen in Westminster Abbey, at the north of the entrance to the choir against the choir screen, near his tomb. It was executed by the sculptor Michael Rysbrack (16941770) in white and grey marble with design by the architect William Kent. The monument features a figure of Newton reclining on top of a sarcophagus, his right elbow resting on several of his great books and his left hand pointing to a scroll with a mathematical design. Above him is a pyramid and a celestial globe showing the signs of the Zodiac and the path of the comet of 1680. A relief panel depicts putti using instruments such as a telescope and prism.[75] The Latin inscription on the base translates as: Here is buried Isaac Newton, Knight, who by a strength of mind almost divine, and mathematical principles peculiarly his own, Newton statue on display at the explored the course and figures of the planets, the paths of comets, Oxford University Museum of the tides of the sea, the dissimilarities in rays of light, and, what no Natural History other scholar has previously imagined, the properties of the colours thus produced. Diligent, sagacious and faithful, in his expositions of nature, antiquity and the holy Scriptures, he vindicated by his philosophy the majesty of God mighty and good, and expressed the simplicity of the Gospel in his manners. Mortals rejoice that there has existed such and so great an ornament of the human race! He was born on 25 December 1642, and died on 20 March 1726/7. Translation from G.L. Smyth, The Monuments and Genii of St. Paul's Cathedral, and of Westminster Abbey (1826), ii, 7034.[75] From 1978 until 1988, an image of Newton designed by Harry Ecclestone appeared on Series D 1 banknotes issued by the Bank of England (the last 1 notes to be issued by the Bank of England). Newton was shown on the reverse of the notes holding a book and accompanied by a telescope, a prism and a map of the Solar System.[76] A statue of Isaac Newton, looking at an apple at his feet, can be seen at the Oxford University Museum of Natural History. A large bronze statue, Newton, after William Blake, by Eduardo Paolozzi, dated 1995 and inspired by Blake's etching, dominates the piazza of the British Library in London.

Personal life
Newton never married, and no evidence has been uncovered that he had any romantic relationship. Although it is impossible to verify, it is commonly believed that he died a virgin, as has been commented on by such figures as mathematician Charles Hutton,[77] economist John Maynard Keynes,[78] and physicist Carl Sagan.[79]
Eduardo Paolozzi's Newton, after William Blake (1995), outside the British Library

French writer and philosopher Voltaire, who was in London at the time of Newton's funeral, claimed to have verified the fact, writing that "I have had that confirmed by the doctor and the surgeon who were with him when he died"[80] (allegedly he stated on his deathbed that he was a virgin[81][82]). In 1733, Voltaire publicly stated that Newton "had neither passion nor weakness; he never went near any woman".[83][84] Newton did have a close friendship with the Swiss mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier, whom he met in London around 1690.[85] Their friendship came to an unexplained end in 1693. Some of their correspondence has survived.

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Religious views
In a minority view, T.C. Pfizenmaier argues that Newton held the Eastern Orthodox view on the Trinity rather than the Western one held by Roman Catholics, Anglicans and most Protestants.[86] However, this type of view 'has lost support of late with the availability of Newton's theological papers',[87] and now most scholars identify Newton as an Antitrinitarian monotheist.[6][88] 'In Newton's eyes, worshipping Christ as God was idolatry, to him the fundamental sin'.[89] Historian Stephen D. Snobelen says of Newton, "Isaac Newton was a heretic. But... he never made a public declaration of his private faithwhich the orthodox would have deemed extremely radical. He hid his faith so well that scholars are still unravelling his personal beliefs."[6] Snobelen concludes that Newton was at least a Socinian sympathiser (he owned and had thoroughly read at least eight Socinian books), possibly an Arian and almost certainly an Newton's tomb in Westminster anti-trinitarian.[6] In an age notable for its religious intolerance, there are few Abbey public expressions of Newton's radical views, most notably his refusal to receive holy orders and his refusal, on his death bed, to receive the sacrament when it was offered to him.[6] Although the laws of motion and universal gravitation became Newton's best-known discoveries, he warned against using them to view the Universe as a mere machine, as if akin to a great clock. He said, "Gravity explains the motions of the planets, but it cannot explain who set the planets in motion. God governs all things and knows all that is or can be done."[90] Along with his scientific fame, Newton's studies of the Bible and of the early Church Fathers were also noteworthy. Newton wrote works on textual criticism, most notably An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture. He placed the crucifixion of Jesus Christ at 3 April, AD 33, which agrees with one traditionally accepted date.[91] He also tried unsuccessfully to find hidden messages within the Bible. Newton wrote more on religion than he did on natural science. He believed in a rationally immanent world, but he rejected the hylozoism implicit in Leibniz and Baruch Spinoza. The ordered and dynamically informed Universe could be understood, and must be understood, by an active reason. In his correspondence, Newton claimed that in writing the Principia "I had an eye upon such Principles as might work with considering men for the belief of a Deity".[92] He saw evidence of design in the system of the world: "Such a wonderful uniformity in the planetary system must be allowed the effect of choice". But Newton insisted that divine intervention would eventually be required to reform the system, due to the slow growth of instabilities.[93] For this, Leibniz lampooned him: "God Almighty wants to wind up his watch from time to time: otherwise it would cease to move. He had not, it seems, sufficient foresight to make it a perpetual motion."[94] Newton's position was vigorously defended by his follower Samuel Clarke in a famous correspondence. A century later, Pierre-Simon Laplace's work "Celestial Mechanics" had a natural explanation for why the planet orbits don't require periodic divine intervention.[95]

Effect on religious thought

Newton and Robert Boyle's mechanical philosophy was promoted by rationalist pamphleteers as a viable alternative to the pantheists and enthusiasts, and was accepted hesitantly by orthodox preachers as well as dissident preachers like the latitudinarians.[96] The clarity and simplicity of science was seen as a way to combat the emotional and metaphysical superlatives of both superstitious enthusiasm and the threat of atheism,[97] and at the same time, the second wave of English deists used Newton's discoveries to demonstrate the possibility of a "Natural Religion".

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303 The attacks made against pre-Enlightenment "magical thinking", and the mystical elements of Christianity, were given their foundation with Boyle's mechanical conception of the Universe. Newton gave Boyle's ideas their completion through mathematical proofs and, perhaps more importantly, was very successful in popularising them.[98] Newton refashioned the world governed by an interventionist God into a world crafted by a God that designs along rational and universal principles.[99] These principles were available for all people to discover, allowed people to pursue their own aims fruitfully in this life, not the next, and to perfect themselves with their own rational powers.[100]

Newton, by William Blake; here, Newton is depicted critically as a "divine geometer".

Newton saw God as the master creator whose existence could not be denied in the face of the grandeur of all creation.[101][102][103] His spokesman, Clarke, rejected Leibniz' theodicy which cleared God from the responsibility for l'origine du mal by making God removed from participation in his creation, since as Clarke pointed out, such a deity would be a king in name only, and but one step away from atheism.[104] But the unforeseen theological consequence of the success of Newton's system over the next century was to reinforce the deist position advocated by Leibniz.[105] The understanding of the world was now brought down to the level of simple human reason, and humans, as Odo Marquard argued, became responsible for the correction and elimination of evil.[106]

End of the world

In a manuscript he wrote in 1704 in which he describes his attempts to extract scientific information from the Bible, he estimated that the world would end no earlier than 2060. In predicting this he said, "This I mention not to assert when the time of the end shall be, but to put a stop to the rash conjectures of fanciful men who are frequently predicting the time of the end, and by doing so bring the sacred prophesies into discredit as often as their predictions fail."[107]

Enlightenment philosophers
Enlightenment philosophers chose a short history of scientific predecessors Galileo, Boyle, and Newton principally as the guides and guarantors of their applications of the singular concept of Nature and Natural Law to every physical and social field of the day. In this respect, the lessons of history and the social structures built upon it could be discarded.[108] It was Newton's conception of the Universe based upon Natural and rationally understandable laws that became one of the seeds for Enlightenment ideology.[109] Locke and Voltaire applied concepts of Natural Law to political systems advocating intrinsic rights; the physiocrats and Adam Smith applied Natural conceptions of psychology and self-interest to economic systems; and sociologists criticised the current social order for trying to fit history into Natural models of progress. Monboddo and Samuel Clarke resisted elements of Newton's work, but eventually rationalised it to conform with their strong religious views of nature.

Counterfeiters
As warden of the Royal Mint, Newton estimated that 20 percent of the coins taken in during The Great Recoinage of 1696 were counterfeit. Counterfeiting was high treason, punishable by the felon's being hanged, drawn and quartered. Despite this, convicting the most flagrant criminals could be extremely difficult. However, Newton proved to be equal to the task.[110] Disguised as a habitu of bars and taverns, he gathered much of that evidence himself.[111] For all the barriers placed to prosecution, and separating the branches of government, English law still had ancient and formidable customs of authority. Newton had himself made a justice of the peace in all the home

Isaac Newton countiesthere is a draft of a letter regarding this matter stuck into Newton's personal first edition of his Philosophi Naturalis Principia Mathematica which he must have been amending at the time.[112] Then he conducted more than 100 cross-examinations of witnesses, informers, and suspects between June 1698 and Christmas 1699. Newton successfully prosecuted 28 coiners.[113] One of Newton's cases as the King's attorney was against William Chaloner.[114] Chaloner's schemes included setting up phony conspiracies of Catholics and then turning in the hapless conspirators whom he had entrapped. Chaloner made himself rich enough to posture as a gentleman. Petitioning Parliament, Chaloner accused the Mint of providing tools to counterfeiters (a charge also made by others). He proposed that he be allowed to inspect the Mint's processes in order to improve them. He petitioned Parliament to adopt his plans for a coinage that could not be counterfeited, while at the same time striking false coins.[115] Newton put Chaloner on trial for counterfeiting and had him sent to Newgate Prison in September 1697. But Chaloner had friends in high places, who helped him secure an acquittal and his release.[114] Newton put him on trial a second time with conclusive evidence. Chaloner was convicted of high treason and hanged, drawn and quartered on 23 March 1699 at Tyburn gallows.[116]

304

Laws of motion
In the Principia, Newton gives the famous three laws of motion, stated here in modern form. Newton's First Law (also known as the Law of Inertia) states that an object at rest tends to stay at rest and that an object in uniform motion tends to stay in uniform motion unless acted upon by a net external force. The meaning of this law is the existence of reference frames (called inertial frames) where objects not acted upon by forces move in uniform motion (in particular, they may be at rest). Newton's Second Law states that an applied force, with time. Mathematically, this is expressed as , on an object equals the rate of change of its momentum, ,

Since the law applies only to systems of constant mass,[117] m can be brought out of the derivative operator. By substitution using the definition of acceleration, the equation can be written in the iconic form

The first and second laws represent a break with the physics of Aristotle, in which it was believed that a force was necessary in order to maintain motion. They state that a force is only needed in order to change an object's state of motion. The SI unit of force is the newton, named in Newton's honour. Newton's Third Law states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. This means that any force exerted onto an object has a counterpart force that is exerted in the opposite direction back onto the first object. A common example is of two ice skaters pushing against each other and sliding apart in opposite directions. Another example is the recoil of a firearm, in which the force propelling the bullet is exerted equally back onto the gun and is felt by the shooter. Since the objects in question do not necessarily have the same mass, the resulting acceleration of the two objects can be different (as in the case of firearm recoil). Unlike Aristotle's, Newton's physics is meant to be universal. For example, the second law applies both to a planet and to a falling stone. The vector nature of the second law addresses the geometrical relationship between the direction of the force and the manner in which the object's momentum changes. Before Newton, it had typically been assumed that a planet orbiting the Sun would need a forward force to keep it moving. Newton showed instead that all that was needed was an inward attraction from the Sun. Even many decades after the publication of the Principia, this counterintuitive idea was not universally accepted, and many scientists preferred Descartes' theory of vortices.[118]

Isaac Newton

305

Apple incident

Reputed descendants of Newton's apple tree, at the Cambridge University Botanic Garden and the Instituto Balseiro library garden

Newton himself often told the story that he was inspired to formulate his theory of gravitation by watching the fall of an apple from a tree.[119] Although it has been said that the apple story is a myth and that he did not arrive at his theory of gravity in any single moment,[120] acquaintances of Newton (such as William Stukeley, whose manuscript account of 1752 has been made available by the Royal Society)[121] do in fact confirm the incident, though not the cartoon version that the apple actually hit Newton's head. Stukeley recorded in his Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton's Life a conversation with Newton in Kensington on 15 April 1726:[122] ... We went into the garden, & drank tea under the shade of some appletrees, only he, & myself. amidst other discourse, he told me, he was just in the same situation, as when formerly, the notion of gravitation came into his mind. "why should that apple always descend perpendicularly to the ground," thought he to him self: occasion'd by the fall of an apple, as he sat in a comtemplative mood: "why should it not go sideways, or upwards? but constantly to the earths centre? assuredly, the reason is, that the earth draws it. there must be a drawing power in matter. & the sum of the drawing power in the matter of the earth must be in the earths centre, not in any side of the earth. therefore dos this apple fall perpendicularly, or toward the centre. if matter thus draws matter; it must be in proportion of its quantity. therefore the apple draws the earth, as well as the earth draws the apple." John Conduitt, Newton's assistant at the Royal Mint and husband of Newton's niece, also described the event when he wrote about Newton's life:[123] In the year 1666 he retired again from Cambridge to his mother in Lincolnshire. Whilst he was pensively meandering in a garden it came into his thought that the power of gravity (which brought an apple from a tree to the ground) was not limited to a certain distance from earth, but that this power must extend much further than was usually thought. Why not as high as the Moon said he to himself & if so, that must influence her motion & perhaps retain her in her orbit, whereupon he fell a calculating what would be the effect of that supposition. In similar terms, Voltaire wrote in his Essay on Epic Poetry (1727), "Sir Isaac Newton walking in his gardens, had the first thought of his system of gravitation, upon seeing an apple falling from a tree." It is known from his notebooks that Newton was grappling in the late 1660s with the idea that terrestrial gravity extends, in an inverse-square proportion, to the Moon; however it took him two decades to develop the full-fledged theory.[124] The question was not whether gravity existed, but whether it extended so far from Earth that it could also be the force holding the Moon to its orbit. Newton showed that if the force decreased as the inverse square of the

Isaac Newton distance, one could indeed calculate the Moon's orbital period, and get good agreement. He guessed the same force was responsible for other orbital motions, and hence named it "universal gravitation". Various trees are claimed to be "the" apple tree which Newton describes. The King's School, Grantham, claims that the tree was purchased by the school, uprooted and transported to the headmaster's garden some years later. The staff of the [now] National Trust-owned Woolsthorpe Manor dispute this, and claim that a tree present in their gardens is the one described by Newton. A descendant of the original tree[125] can be seen growing outside the main gate of Trinity College, Cambridge, below the room Newton lived in when he studied there. The National Fruit Collection at Brogdale[126] can supply grafts from their tree, which appears identical to Flower of Kent, a coarse-fleshed cooking variety.[127]

306

Writings
Method of Fluxions (1671) Of Natures Obvious Laws & Processes in Vegetation (unpublished, c. 167175)[128] De motu corporum in gyrum (1684) Philosophi Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687) Opticks (1704) Reports as Master of the Mint [129] (170125)

Arithmetica Universalis (1707) The System of the World, Optical Lectures, The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms, (Amended) and De mundi systemate (published posthumously in 1728) Observations on Daniel and The Apocalypse of St. John (1733) An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture (1754)

References
[1] During Newton's lifetime, two calendars were in use in Europe: the Julian ("Old Style") calendar in protestant and Orthodox regions, including Britain; and the Gregorian ("New Style") calendar in Roman Catholic Europe. At Newton's birth, Gregorian dates were ten days ahead of Julian dates: thus his birth is recorded as taking place on 25 December 1642 Old Style, but can be converted to a New Style (modern) date of 4 January 1643. By the time of his death, the difference between the calendars had increased to eleven days: moreover, he died in the period after the start of the New Style year on 1 January, but before that of the Old Style new year on 25 March. His death occurred on 20 March 1726 according to the Old Style calendar, but the year is usually adjusted to 1727. A full conversion to New Style gives the date 31 March 1727. [2] Mordechai Feingold, Barrow, Isaac (16301677) (http:/ / www. oxforddnb. com/ view/ article/ 1541), Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, September 2004; online edn, May 2007. Retrieved 24 February 2009; explained further in Mordechai Feingold's " Newton, Leibniz, and Barrow Too: An Attempt at a Reinterpretation (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 236236)" in Isis, Vol. 84, No. 2 (June 1993), pp. 310338. [3] "Newton, Isaac" (http:/ / www. chlt. org/ sandbox/ lhl/ dsb/ page. 50. a. php) in the Dictionary of Scientific Biography, n.4. [4] Gjersten, Derek (1986). The Newton Handbook. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. [5] Westfall, Richard S. (1983) [1980]. Never at Rest: A Biography of Isaac Newton. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp.5301. ISBN978-0-521-27435-7. [6] Snobelen, Stephen D. (1999). "Isaac Newton, heretic: the strategies of a Nicodemite" (http:/ / www. isaac-newton. org/ heretic. pdf) (PDF). British Journal for the History of Science 32 (4): 381419. doi:10.1017/S0007087499003751. . [7] Stokes, Mitch (2010). Isaac Newton (http:/ / books. google. gr/ books?id=zpsoSXCeg5gC& pg=PA97& lpg=PA97& dq=#v=onepage& q="Boyle influenced Newton"& f=false). Thomas Nelson. p.97. ISBN1595553037. . Retrieved 17 October 2012. [8] See below, under Fame. [9] Burt, Daniel S. (2001). The biography book: a reader's guide to nonfiction, fictional, and film biographies of more than 500 of the most fascinating individuals of all time (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=jpFrgSAaKAUC). Greenwood Publishing Group. p.315. ISBN1-57356-256-4. ., Extract of page 315 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=jpFrgSAaKAUC& pg=PA315) [10] "The Early Period (16081672)" (http:/ / etoile. berkeley. edu/ ~jrg/ TelescopeHistory/ Early_Period. html). James R. Graham's Home Page. . Retrieved 3 February 2009. [11] Christianson, Gale E. (1996). Isaac Newton and the scientific revolution (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=O61ypNXvNkUC& pg=PA74). Oxford University Press. p.74. ISBN0-19-509224-4. . [12] Cohen, I.B. (1970). Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Vol. 11, p.43. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons

Isaac Newton
[13] This claim was made Dr. Stukeley in 1727, in a letter about Newton written to Dr. Richard Mead. Charles Hutton, who in the late 18th century collected oral traditions about earlier scientists, declares that there "do not appear to be any sufficient reason for his never marrying, if he had an inclination so to do. It is much more likely that he had a constitutional indifference to the state, and even to the sex in general." Charles Hutton "A Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary" (1795/6) II p.100. [14] Westfall 1994, pp 1619 [15] White 1997, p. 22 [16] James, Ioan (January 2003). "Singular scientists". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 96 (1): 3639. doi:10.1258/jrsm.96.1.36. PMC539373. PMID12519805. [17] Michael White, Isaac Newton (1999) page 46 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=l2C3NV38tM0C& pg=PA24& dq=storer+ intitle:isaac+ intitle:newton& lr=& num=30& as_brr=0& as_pt=ALLTYPES#PPA46,M1) [18] ed. Michael Hoskins (1997). Cambridge Illustrated History of Astronomy, p.159. Cambridge University Press [19] Newton, Isaac. "Waste Book" (http:/ / cudl. lib. cam. ac. uk/ view/ MS-ADD-04004/ ). Cambridge University Digital Library. . Retrieved 10 January 2012. [20] Venn, J.; Venn, J. A., eds. (19221958). " Newton, Isaac (http:/ / venn. lib. cam. ac. uk/ cgi-bin/ search. pl?sur=& suro=c& fir=& firo=c& cit=& cito=c& c=all& tex=RY644J& sye=& eye=& col=all& maxcount=50)". Alumni Cantabrigienses (10 vols) (online ed.). Cambridge University Press. [21] W W Rouse Ball (1908), "A short account of the history of mathematics", at page 319. [22] D T Whiteside (ed.), The Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton (Volume 1), (Cambridge University Press, 1967), part 7 "The October 1666 Tract on Fluxions", at page 400, in 2008 reprint (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=1ZcYsNBptfYC& pg=PA400). [23] D Gjertsen (1986), "The Newton handbook", (London (Routledge & Kegan Paul) 1986), at page 149. 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[30] Stewart 2009, p.107 [31] Westfall 1980, pp 538539 [32] Ball 1908, p. 356ff [33] Baszczyk, Piotr; Katz, Mikhail; Sherry, David (2012), "Ten misconceptions from the history of analysis and their debunking", Foundations of Science, arXiv:1202.4153, doi:10.1007/s10699-012-9285-8 [34] White 1997, p. 151 [35] King, Henry C (2003). ''The History of the Telescope'' By Henry C. King, Page 74 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=KAWwzHlDVksC& dq=history+ of+ the+ telescope& printsec=frontcover). Google Books. ISBN978-0-486-43265-6. . Retrieved 16 January 2010. [36] Newton, Isaac. "Hydrostatics, Optics, Sound and Heat" (http:/ / cudl. lib. cam. ac. uk/ view/ MS-ADD-03970/ ). Cambridge University Digital Library. . Retrieved 10 January 2012. [37] Ball 1908, p. 324 [38] William R. Newman, "Newton's Early Optical Theory and its Debt to Chymistry," in Danielle Jacquart and Michel Hochmann, eds., Lumi re et vision dans les sciences et dans les arts (Geneva: Droz, 2010), pp. 283-307. A free access online version of this article can be found at the Chymistry of Isaac Newton project (http:/ / webapp1. dlib. indiana. edu/ newton/ html/ Newton_optics-alchemy_Jacquart_paper. pdf) [39] Ball 1908, p. 325 [40] White 1997, p170 [41] Hall, Alfred Rupert (1996). '''Isaac Newton: adventurer in thought''', by Alfred Rupert Hall, page 67 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=32IDpTdthm4C& pg=PA67& lpg=PA67& dq=newton+ reflecting+ telescope+ + 1668+ letter+ 1669& q=newton reflecting telescope 1668 letter 1669). Google Books. ISBN978-0-521-56669-8. . Retrieved 16 January 2010. [42] White 1997, p168 [43] See 'Correspondence of Isaac Newton, vol.2, 16761687' ed. H W Turnbull, Cambridge University Press 1960; at page 297, document No. 235, letter from Hooke to Newton dated 24 November 1679. [44] Iliffe, Robert (2007) Newton. A very short introduction, Oxford University Press 2007 [45] Keynes, John Maynard (1972). "Newton, The Man". The Collected Writings of John Maynard Keynes Volume X. 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[50] See Curtis Wilson, "The Newtonian achievement in astronomy", pages 233274 in R Taton & C Wilson (eds) (1989) The General History of Astronomy, Volume, 2A', at page 233 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=rkQKU-wfPYMC& pg=PA233). [51] Text quotations are from 1729 translation of Newton's Principia, Book 3 (1729 vol.2) at pages 232233 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=6EqxPav3vIsC& pg=PA233). [52] Edelglass et al., Matter and Mind, ISBN 0-940262-45-2. p. 54 [53] On the meaning and origins of this expression, see Kirsten Walsh, Does Newton feign an hypothesis? (https:/ / blogs. otago. ac. nz/ emxphi/ 2010/ 10/ does-newton-feign-an-hypothesis/ ), Early Modern Experimental Philosophy (https:/ / blogs. otago. ac. nz/ emxphi/ ), 18 October 2010. [54] Westfall 1980. Chapter 11. [55] Westfall 1980. pp 493497 on the friendship with Fatio, pp 531540 on Newton's breakdown. [56] Conics and Cubics, Robert Bix, Springer Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics, 2nd edition, 2006, Springer Verlag. [57] White 1997, p. 232 [58] "[ Newton: Physicist And ... Crime Fighter? (http:/ / www. npr. org/ templates/ story/ story. php?storyId=105012144|Isaac)]". Science Friday. 5 June 2009. NPR. [59] Thomas Levenson (2009). Newton and the counterfeiter : the unknown detective career of the world's greatest scientist. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN978-0-15-101278-7. OCLC276340857. [60] White 1997, p.317 [61] Gerard Michon. "Coat of arms of Isaac Newton" (http:/ / www. numericana. com/ arms/ index. htm#newton). Numericana.com. . Retrieved 16 January 2010. [62] "The Queen's 'great Assistance' to Newton's election was his knighting, an honor bestowed not for his contributions to science, nor for his service at the Mint, but for the greater glory of party politics in the election of 1705." Westfall 1994 p.245 [63] Yonge, Charlotte M. (1898). "Cranbury and Brambridge" (http:/ / www. online-literature. com/ charlotte-yonge/ john-keble/ 6/ ). John Keble's Parishes Chapter 6. www.online-literature.com. . Retrieved 23 September 2009. [64] Westfall 1980, p. 44. [65] Westfall 1980, p. 595 [66] "Newton, Isaac (16421726)" (http:/ / scienceworld. wolfram. com/ biography/ Newton. html). Eric Weisstein's World of Biography. . Retrieved 30 August 2006. [67] Fred L. Wilson, History of Science: Newton citing: Delambre, M. "Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de M. le comte J. L. Lagrange," Oeuvres de Lagrange I. Paris, 1867, p. xx. [68] Letter from Isaac Newton to Robert Hooke, 5 February 1676, as transcribed in Jean-Pierre Maury (1992) Newton: Understanding the Cosmos, New Horizons [69] John Gribbin (2002) Science: A History 15432001, p 164. [70] White 1997, p187. [71] Memoirs of the Life, Writings, and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton (1855) by Sir David Brewster (Volume II. 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"Isaac Newton, heretic: the strategies of a Nicodemite" (http:/ / www. isaac-newton. org/ heretic. pdf) (PDF). British Journal for the History of Science 32 (4): 381419. doi:10.1017/S0007087499003751. . [88] Avery Cardinal Dulles. The Deist Minimum (http:/ / www. firstthings. com/ print. php?type=article& year=2008& month=08& title_link=the-deist-minimum--28). January 2005. [89] Westfall, Richard S. (1994). The Life of Isaac Newton. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-47737-9. [90] Tiner, J.H. (1975). Isaac Newton: Inventor, Scientist and Teacher. Milford, Michigan, U.S.: Mott Media. ISBN0-915134-95-0. [91] John P. Meier, A Marginal Jew, v. 1, pp. 382402 after narrowing the years to 30 or 33, provisionally judges 30 most likely. [92] Newton to Richard Bentley 10 December 1692, in Turnbull et al. (195977), vol 3, p. 233. [93] Opticks, 2nd Ed 1706. Query 31. [94] H. G. Alexander (ed) The Leibniz-Clarke correspondence, Manchester University Press, 1998, p. 11. [95] Neil Degrasse Tyson (November 2005). "The Perimeter of Ignorance" (http:/ / www. haydenplanetarium. org/ tyson/ read/ 2005/ 11/ 01/ the-perimeter-of-ignorance). Natural History Magazine. . [96] Jacob, Margaret C. (1976). The Newtonians and the English Revolution: 16891720. Cornell University Press. pp.37, 44. ISBN0-85527-066-7. [97] Westfall, Richard S. (1958). Science and Religion in Seventeenth-Century England. New Haven: Yale University Press. p.200. ISBN0-208-00843-8. [98] Haakonssen, Knud. "The Enlightenment, politics and providence: some Scottish and English comparisons". In Martin Fitzpatrick ed.. Enlightenment and Religion: Rational Dissent in eighteenth-century Britain. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.64. ISBN0-521-56060-8. [99] Frankel, Charles (1948). The Faith of Reason: The Idea of Progress in the French Enlightenment. New York: King's Crown Press. p.1. [100] Germain, Gilbert G.. A Discourse on Disenchantment: Reflections on Politics and Technology. p.28. ISBN0-7914-1319-5. [101] Principia, Book III; cited in; Newton's Philosophy of Nature: Selections from his writings, p. 42, ed. H.S. Thayer, Hafner Library of Classics, NY, 1953. [102] A Short Scheme of the True Religion, manuscript quoted in Memoirs of the Life, Writings and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton by Sir David Brewster, Edinburgh, 1850; cited in; ibid, p. 65. [103] Webb, R.K. ed. Knud Haakonssen. "The emergence of Rational Dissent." Enlightenment and Religion: Rational Dissent in eighteenth-century Britain. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 1996. p19. [104] H. G. Alexander (ed) The Leibniz-Clarke correspondence, Manchester University Press, 1998, p. 14. [105] Westfall, 1958 p201. [106] Marquard, Odo. "Burdened and Disemburdened Man and the Flight into Unindictability," in Farewell to Matters of Principle. Robert M. Wallace trans. London: Oxford UP, 1989. [107] "Papers Show Isaac Newton's Religious Side, Predict Date of Apocalypse" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070813033620/ http:/ / www. christianpost. com/ article/ 20070619/ 28049_Papers_Show_Isaac_Newton's_Religious_Side,_Predict_Date_of_Apocalypse. htm). Associated Press. 19 June 2007. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. christianpost. com/ article/ 20070619/ 28049_Papers_Show_Isaac_Newton's_Religious_Side,_Predict_Date_of_Apocalypse. htm) on 13 August 2007. . Retrieved 1 August 2007. [108] Cassels, Alan. Ideology and International Relations in the Modern World. p2. [109] "Although it was just one of the many factors in the Enlightment, the success of Newtonian physics in providing a mathematical description of an ordered world clearly played a big part in the flowering of this movement in the eighteenth century" John Gribbin (2002) Science: A History 15432001, p 241 [110] White 1997, p. 259 [111] White 1997, p. 267 [112] Newton, Isaac. "Philosophi Naturalis Principia Mathematica" (http:/ / cudl. lib. cam. ac. uk/ view/ PR-ADV-B-00039-00001/ ). Cambridge University Digital Library. pp.265266. . Retrieved 10 January 2012. [113] Westfall 2007, p.73 [114] White 1997, p 269 [115] Westfall 1994, p 229 [116] Westfall 1980, pp. 5715 [117] Halliday; Resnick. Physics. 1. pp.199. ISBN0-471-03710-9. "It is important to note that we cannot derive a general expression for Newton's second law for variable mass systems by treating the mass in F = dP/dt = d(Mv) as a variable. [...] We can use F = dP/dt to analyze variable mass systems only if we apply it to an entire system of constant mass having parts among which there is an interchange of mass."

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[Emphasis as in the original] [118] Ball 1908, p. 337 [119] White 1997, p. 86 [120] Scott Berkun (27 August 2010). The Myths of Innovation (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=kPCgnc70MSgC& pg=PA4). O'Reilly Media, Inc.. p.4. ISBN978-1-4493-8962-8. . Retrieved 7 September 2011. [121] Newton's apple: The real story (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ blogs/ culturelab/ 2010/ 01/ newtons-apple-the-real-story. php). New Scientist. 18 January 2010. . Retrieved 10 May 2010 [122] Hamblyn, Richard (2011). " Newtonian Apples: William Stukeley (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=1xKFSqsDj0MC& pg=PT57)". The Art of Science. Pan Macmillan. ISBN978-1-4472-0415-2. [123] Conduitt, John. "Keynes Ms. 130.4:Conduitt's account of Newton's life at Cambridge" (http:/ / www. newtonproject. sussex. ac. uk/ view/ texts/ normalized/ THEM00167). Newtonproject. Imperial College London. . Retrieved 30 August 2006. [124] I. Bernard Cohen and George E. Smith, eds. The Cambridge Companion to Newton (2002) p. 6 [125] Alberto A. Martinez Science Secrets: The Truth about Darwin's Finches, Einstein's Wife, and Other Myths, page 69 (University of Pittsburgh Press, 2011). ISBN 978-0-8229-4407-2 [126] "Brogdale Home of the National Fruit Collection" (http:/ / www. brogdale. org/ ). Brogdale.org. . Retrieved 20 December 2008. [127] "From the National Fruit Collection: Isaac Newton's Tree" (http:/ / www. brogdale. org. uk/ image1. php?varietyid=1089). . Retrieved 10 January 2009. [128] Newton's alchemical works (http:/ / webapp1. dlib. indiana. edu/ newton/ index. jsp) transcribed and online at Indiana University. Retrieved 11 January 2007. [129] http:/ / www. pierre-marteau. com/ editions/ 1701-25-mint-reports. html

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Bibliography
Ball, W.W. Rouse (1908). A Short Account of the History of Mathematics. New York: Dover. ISBN0-486-20630-0. Christianson, Gale (1984). In the Presence of the Creator: Isaac Newton & His Times. New York: Free Press. ISBN0-02-905190-8. This well documented work provides, in particular, valuable information regarding Newton's knowledge of Patristics Craig, John (1958). "Isaac Newton Crime Investigator". Nature 182 (4629): 149152. Bibcode1958Natur.182..149C. doi:10.1038/182149a0. Craig, John (1963). "Isaac Newton and the Counterfeiters". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London 18 (2): 136145. doi:10.1098/rsnr.1963.0017. Levenson, Thomas (2010). Newton and the Counterfeiter: The Unknown Detective Career of the World's Greatest Scientist. Mariner Books. ISBN978-0-547-33604-6. Stewart, James (2009). Calculus: Concepts and Contexts. Cengage Learning. ISBN978-0-495-55742-5. Westfall, Richard S. (1980, 1998). Never at Rest. Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-27435-4. Westfall, Richard S. (2007). Isaac Newton. Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-19-921355-9. Westfall, Richard S. (1994). The Life of Isaac Newton. Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-47737-9. White, Michael (1997). Isaac Newton: The Last Sorcerer. Fourth Estate Limited. ISBN1-85702-416-8.

Further reading
Andrade, E. N. De C. (1950). Isaac Newton. New York: Chanticleer Press. ISBN0-8414-3014-4. Bardi, Jason Socrates. The Calculus Wars: Newton, Leibniz, and the Greatest Mathematical Clash of All Time. 2006. 277 pp. excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.com/dp/1560259922) Bechler, Zev (1991). Newton's Physics and the Conceptual Structure of the Scientific Revolution. Springer. ISBN0-7923-1054-3.. Berlinski, David. Newton's Gift: How Sir Isaac Newton Unlocked the System of the World. (2000). 256 pages. excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.com/dp/0743217764) ISBN 0-684-84392-7 Buchwald, Jed Z. and Cohen, I. Bernard, eds. Isaac Newton's Natural Philosophy. MIT Press, 2001. 354 pages. excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.com/dp/0262524252)

Isaac Newton Casini, P (1988). "Newton's Principia and the Philosophers of the Enlightenment". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London 42 (1): 3552. doi:10.1098/rsnr.1988.0006. ISSN00359149. JSTOR531368. Christianson, Gale E (1996). Isaac Newton and the Scientific Revolution. Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-530070-X. See this site (http://www.amazon.com/dp/019530070X) for excerpt and text search. Christianson, Gale (1984). In the Presence of the Creator: Isaac Newton & His Times. New York: Free Press. ISBN0-02-905190-8. Cohen, I. Bernard and Smith, George E., ed. The Cambridge Companion to Newton. (2002). 500 pp. focuses on philosophical issues only; excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.com/dp/0521656966); complete edition online (http://www.questia.com/read/105054986) Cohen, I. B (1980). The Newtonian Revolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-22964-2. Craig, John (1946). Newton at the Mint. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Dampier, William C; Dampier, M. (1959). Readings in the Literature of Science. New York: Harper & Row. ISBN0-486-42805-2. de Villamil, Richard (1931). Newton, the Man. London: G.D. Knox. Preface by Albert Einstein. Reprinted by Johnson Reprint Corporation, New York (1972). Dobbs, B. J. T (1975). The Foundations of Newton's Alchemy or "The Hunting of the Greene Lyon". Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Gjertsen, Derek (1986). The Newton Handbook. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN0-7102-0279-2. Gleick, James (2003). Isaac Newton. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN0-375-42233-1. Halley, E (1687). "Review of Newton's Principia". Philosophical Transactions 186: 291297. Hawking, Stephen, ed. On the Shoulders of Giants. ISBN 0-7624-1348-4 Places selections from Newton's Principia in the context of selected writings by Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and Einstein Herivel, J. W. (1965). The Background to Newton's Principia. A Study of Newton's Dynamical Researches in the Years 166484. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Keynes, John Maynard (1963). Essays in Biography. W. W. Norton & Co. ISBN0-393-00189-X. Keynes took a close interest in Newton and owned many of Newton's private papers. Koyr, A (1965). Newtonian Studies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Newton, Isaac. Papers and Letters in Natural Philosophy, edited by I. Bernard Cohen. Harvard University Press, 1958,1978. ISBN 0-674-46853-8. Newton, Isaac (16421726). The Principia: a new Translation, Guide by I. Bernard Cohen ISBN 0-520-08817-4 University of California (1999) Pemberton, H (1728). A View of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophy. London: S. Palmer. Shamos, Morris H. (1959). Great Experiments in Physics. New York: Henry Holt and Company, Inc.. ISBN0-486-25346-5. Shapley, Harlow, S. Rapport, and H. Wright. A Treasury of Science; "Newtonia" pp.1479; "Discoveries" pp.1504. Harper & Bros., New York, (1946). Simmons, J (1996). The Giant Book of Scientists The 100 Greatest Minds of all Time. Sydney: The Book Company. Stukeley, W. (1936). Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton's Life. London: Taylor and Francis. (edited by A. H. White; originally published in 1752) Westfall, R. S (1971). Force in Newton's Physics: The Science of Dynamics in the Seventeenth Century. London: Macdonald. ISBN0-444-19611-0.

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Religion Dobbs, Betty Jo Tetter. The Janus Faces of Genius: The Role of Alchemy in Newton's Thought. (1991), links the alchemy to Arianism Force, James E., and Richard H. Popkin, eds. Newton and Religion: Context, Nature, and Influence. (1999), 342pp . Pp. xvii + 325. 13 papers by scholars using newly opened manuscripts

Isaac Newton Ramati, Ayval. "The Hidden Truth of Creation: Newton's Method of Fluxions" British Journal for the History of Science 34: 417438. in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/4028372), argues that his calculus had a theological basis Snobelen, Stephen "'God of Gods, and Lord of Lords': The Theology of Isaac Newton's General Scholium to the Principia," Osiris, 2nd Series, Vol. 16, (2001), pp.169208 in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/301985) Snobelen, Stephen D. (1999). "Isaac Newton, Heretic: The Strategies of a Nicodemite". British Journal for the History of Science 32 (4): 381419. doi:10.1017/S0007087499003751. JSTOR4027945. Pfizenmaier, Thomas C. (January 1997). "Was Isaac Newton an Arian?". Journal of the History of Ideas 58 (1): 5780. JSTOR3653988. Wiles, Maurice. Archetypal Heresy. Arianism through the Centuries. (1996) 214 pages, with chapter 4 on 18th century England; pp.7793 on Newton, excerpt and text search (http://books.google.com/ books?id=DGksMzk37hMC&printsec=frontcover&dq="Arianism+through+the+Centuries"). Primary sources Newton, Isaac. The Principia: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. University of California Press, (1999). 974 pp. Brackenridge, J. Bruce. The Key to Newton's Dynamics: The Kepler Problem and the Principia: Containing an English Translation of Sections 1, 2, and 3 of Book One from the First (1687) Edition of Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. University of California Press, 1996. 299 pp. Newton, Isaac. The Optical Papers of Isaac Newton. Vol. 1: The Optical Lectures, 16701672. Cambridge U. Press, 1984. 627 pp. Newton, Isaac. Opticks (4th ed. 1730) online edition (http://books.google.com/ books?id=GnAFAAAAQAAJ&dq=newton+opticks&pg=PP1&ots=Nnl345oqo_& sig=0mBTaXUI_K6w-JDEu_RvVq5TNqc&prev=http://www.google.com/search?q=newton+opticks& rls=com.microsoft:en-us:IE-SearchBox&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&sourceid=ie7&rlz=1I7GGLJ&sa=X& oi=print&ct=title&cad=one-book-with-thumbnail) Newton, I. (1952). Opticks, or A Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflections & Colours of Light. New York: Dover Publications. Newton, I. Sir Isaac Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy and His System of the World, tr. A. Motte, rev. Florian Cajori. Berkeley: University of California Press. (1934). Whiteside, D. T (196782). The Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-07740-0. 8 volumes. Newton, Isaac. The correspondence of Isaac Newton, ed. H. W. Turnbull and others, 7 vols. (195977). Newton's Philosophy of Nature: Selections from His Writings edited by H. S. Thayer, (1953), online edition (http:/ /www.questia.com/read/5876270). Isaac Newton, Sir; J Edleston; Roger Cotes, Correspondence of Sir Isaac Newton and Professor Cotes, including letters of other eminent men (http://books.google.com/books?as_brr=1&id=OVPJ6c9_kKgC& vid=OCLC14437781&dq="isaac+newton"&jtp=I), London, John W. Parker, West Strand; Cambridge, John Deighton, 1850 (Google Books). Maclaurin, C. (1748). An Account of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophical Discoveries, in Four Books. London: A. Millar and J. Nourse. Newton, I. (1958). Isaac Newton's Papers and Letters on Natural Philosophy and Related Documents, eds. I. B. Cohen and R. E. Schofield. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

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Newton, I. (1962). The Unpublished Scientific Papers of Isaac Newton: A Selection from the Portsmouth Collection in the University Library, Cambridge, ed. A. R. Hall and M. B. Hall. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Newton, I. (1975). Isaac Newton's 'Theory of the Moon's Motion' (1702). London: Dawson.

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External links
Newton's Scholar Google profile (http://scholar.google.com.au/citations?user=xJaxiEEAAAAJ&hl=en) ScienceWorld biography (http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Newton.html) by Eric Weisstein Dictionary of Scientific Biography (http://www.chlt.org/sandbox/lhl/dsb/page.50.a.php) "The Newton Project" (http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/prism.php?id=1) "The Newton Project Canada" (http://www.isaacnewton.ca/) "Rebuttal of Newton's astrology" (http://web.archive.org/web/20080629021908/http://www.skepticreport. com/predictions/newton.htm) (via archive.org) "Newton's Religious Views Reconsidered" (http://www.galilean-library.org/snobelen.html) "Newton's Royal Mint Reports" (http://www.pierre-marteau.com/editions/1701-25-mint-reports.html) "Newton's Dark Secrets" (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/newton/) - NOVA TV programme from The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Isaac Newton" (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/newton/), by George Smith "Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica" (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ newton-principia/), by George Smith "Newton's Philosophy" (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/newton-philosophy/), by Andrew Janiak "Newton's views on space, time, and motion" (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/newton-stm/), by Robert Rynasiewicz "Newton's Castle" (http://www.tqnyc.org/NYC051308/index.htm) - educational material "The Chymistry of Isaac Newton" (http://www.dlib.indiana.edu/collections/newton), research on his alchemical writings "FMA Live!" (http://www.fmalive.com/) - program for teaching Newton's laws to kids Newton's religious position (http://www.adherents.com/people/pn/Isaac_Newton.html) The "General Scholium" to Newton's Principia (http://hss.fullerton.edu/philosophy/GeneralScholium.htm) Kandaswamy, Anand M. "The Newton/Leibniz Conflict in Context" (http://www.math.rutgers.edu/courses/ 436/Honors02/newton.html) Newton's First ODE (http://www.phaser.com/modules/historic/newton/index.html) A study by on how Newton approximated the solutions of a first-order ODE using infinite series O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Isaac Newton" (http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/ Biographies/Newton.html), MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews. Isaac Newton (http://genealogy.math.ndsu.nodak.edu/id.php?id=74313) at the Mathematics Genealogy Project "The Mind of Isaac Newton" (http://www.ltrc.mcmaster.ca/newton/) - images, audio, animations and interactive segments Enlightening Science (http://www.enlighteningscience.sussex.ac.uk/home) Videos on Newton's biography, optics, physics, reception, and on his views on science and religion Newton biography (University of St Andrews) (http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Mathematicians/ Newton.html) Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Newton, Sir Isaac". Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. and see at s:Author:Isaac Newton for the following works about him: "Newton, Sir Isaac" in A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature by John William Cousin, London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1910. "Newton, Isaac," in Dictionary of National Biography, London: Smith, Elder, & Co., (18851900) Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton's life by William Stukeley, 1752 Writings by Newton

Isaac Newton Newton's works full texts, at the Newton Project (http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/prism. php?id=43) The Newton Manuscripts at the National Library of Israel - the collection of all his religious writings (http://web. nli.org.il/sites/NLI/English/collections/Humanities/Pages/newton.aspx) Works by Isaac Newton (http://www.gutenberg.org/author/Isaac_Newton) at Project Gutenberg "Newton's Principia" (http://rack1.ul.cs.cmu.edu/is/newton/) read and search Descartes, Space, and Body and A New Theory of Light and Colour (http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/), modernised readable versions by Jonathan Bennett Opticks, or a Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflexions and Colours of Light (http://www.archive.org/ stream/opticksoratreat00newtgoog#page/n6/mode/2up), full text on archive.org "Newton Papers" (http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/collections/newton) - Cambridge Digital Library See Wikisource at s:Author:Isaac Newton for the following works by him: Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica Opticks: or, a Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflections and Colours of Light Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John New Theory About Light and Colour An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture
Related navpages:

314

Lucasian Professors of Mathematics (over 20 topics) Royal Society presidents 1700s (over 15 topics) Age of Enlightenment (over 60 topics) Metaphysics (over 130 topics) Philosophy of science (over 130 topics) Scientists whose names are used as SI units (over 20 topics)

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Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Born July 1, 1646 Leipzig, Electorate of Saxony, Holy Roman Empire November 14, 1716 (aged70) Hanover, Electorate of Hanover, Holy Roman Empire German 17th-/18th-century philosophy Western Philosophy

Died

Nationality Era Region

Maininterests Mathematics, metaphysics, logic, theodicy, universal language Notableideas Infinitesimal calculus Monads Best of all possible worlds Leibniz formula for Leibniz harmonic triangle Leibniz formula for determinants Leibniz integral rule Principle of sufficient reason Diagrammatic reasoning Notation for differentiation Proof of Fermat's little theorem Kinetic energy Entscheidungsproblem AST Law of Continuity Transcendental Law of Homogeneity Characteristica universalis Ars combinatoria Calculus ratiocinator [2] Universalwissenschaft

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Signature

Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (German: [tfit vlhlm fn labnts][3] or [lapnts][4]) (July 1, 1646 November 14, 1716) was a German mathematician and philosopher. He occupies a prominent place in the history of mathematics and the history of philosophy. Leibniz developed the infinitesimal calculus independently of Isaac Newton, and Leibniz's mathematical notation has been widely used ever since it was published. His visionary Law of Continuity and Transcendental Law of Homogeneity only found mathematical implementation in the 20th century. He became one of the most prolific inventors in the field of mechanical calculators. While working on adding automatic multiplication and division to Pascal's calculator, he was the first to describe a pinwheel calculator in 1685[5] and invented the Leibniz wheel, used in the arithmometer, the first mass-produced mechanical calculator. He also refined the binary number system, which is at the foundation of virtually all digital computers. In philosophy, Leibniz is mostly noted for his optimism, e.g., his conclusion that our Universe is, in a restricted sense, the best possible one that God could have created. Leibniz, along with Ren Descartes and Baruch Spinoza, was one of the three great 17th century advocates of rationalism. The work of Leibniz anticipated modern logic and analytic philosophy, but his philosophy also looks back to the scholastic tradition, in which conclusions are produced by applying reason to first principles or prior definitions rather than to empirical evidence. Leibniz made major contributions to physics and technology, and anticipated notions that surfaced much later in philosophy, probability theory, biology, medicine, geology, psychology, linguistics, and information science. He wrote works on philosophy, politics, law, ethics, theology, history, and philology. Leibniz's contributions to this vast array of subjects were scattered in various learned journals, in tens of thousands of letters, and in unpublished manuscripts. He wrote in several languages, but primarily in Latin, French, and German.[6] As of 2013, there is no complete gathering of the writings of Leibniz.[7]

Biography
Early life
Gottfried Leibniz was born on July 1, 1646 in Leipzig, Saxony (at the end of the Thirty Years' War), to Friedrich Leibniz and Catharina Schmuck. Friedrich noted in his family journal: "On Sunday 21 June [NS: 1 July] 1646, my son Gottfried Wilhelm is born into the world after six in the evening, to seven [ein Viertel uff sieben], Aquarius rising."[8] His father (a German of Sorbian ancestry[9]) died when Leibniz was six years old, and from that point on he was raised by his mother. Her teachings influenced Leibniz's philosophical thoughts in his later life. Leibniz's father had been a Professor of Moral Philosophy at the University of Leipzig and Leibniz inherited his father's personal library. He was given free access to this from the age of seven. While Leibniz's schoolwork focused on a small canon of authorities, his father's library enabled him to study a wide variety of advanced philosophical and theological works ones that he would not have otherwise been able to read until his college years.[10] Access to his father's library, largely written in Latin, also led to his proficiency in the Latin language. Leibniz was proficient in Latin by the age of 12, and he composed three hundred hexameters of Latin verse in a single morning for a special event at school at the age of 13.[11] He enrolled in his father's former university at age 15,[12] and he completed his bachelor's degree in philosophy in December 1662. He defended his Disputatio Metaphysica de Principio Individui, which addressed the principle of individuation, on June 9, 1663. Leibniz earned his master's degree in philosophy on February 7, 1664. He published and defended a dissertation Specimen Quaestionum Philosophicarum ex Jure collectarum, arguing for both a theoretical and a pedagogical relationship between philosophy and law, in December 1664. After one year of legal studies, he was awarded his bachelor's degree in Law on September 28, 1665.

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz In 1666, at age 20, Leibniz published his first book, On the Art of Combinations, the first part of which was also his habilitation thesis in philosophy. His next goal was to earn his license and doctorate in Law, which normally required three years of study then. In 1666, the University of Leipzig turned down Leibniz's doctoral application and refused to grant him a doctorate in law, most likely due to his relative youth (he was 21 years old at the time).[13] Leibniz subsequently left Leipzig.[14] Leibniz then enrolled in the University of Altdorf, and almost immediately he submitted a thesis, which he had probably been working on earlier in Leipzig.[15] The title of his thesis was Disputatio Inauguralis De Casibus Perplexis In Jure. Leibniz earned his license to practice law and his Doctorate in Law in November 1666. He next declined the offer of an academic appointment at Altdorf, saying that "my thoughts were turned in an entirely different direction.[16] As an adult, Leibniz often introduced himself as "Gottfried von Leibniz". Also many posthumously published editions of his writings presented his name on the title page as "Freiherr G. W. von Leibniz." However, no document has ever been found from any contemporary government that stated his appointment to any form of nobility.[17]

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Leibniz's first position was as a salaried alchemist in Nuremberg, though he may have only known fairly little about the subject at that time.[18] He soon met Johann Christian von Boyneburg (16221672), the dismissed chief minister of the Elector of Mainz, Johann Philipp von Schnborn.[19] Von Boyneburg hired Leibniz as an assistant, and shortly thereafter reconciled with the Elector and introduced Leibniz to him. Leibniz then dedicated an essay on law to the Elector in the hope of obtaining employment. The stratagem worked; the Elector asked Leibniz to assist with the redrafting of the legal code for his Electorate.[20] In 1669, Leibniz was appointed Assessor in the Court of Appeal. Although von Boyneburg died late in 1672, Leibniz remained under the employment of his widow until she dismissed him in 1674. Von Boyneburg did much to promote Leibniz's reputation, and the latter's memoranda and letters began to attract favorable notice. Leibniz's service to the Elector soon followed a diplomatic role. He published an essay, under the pseudonym of a fictitious Polish nobleman, arguing (unsuccessfully) for the German candidate for the Polish crown. The main force in European geopolitics during Leibniz's adult life was the ambition of Louis XIV of France, backed by French military and economic might. Meanwhile, the Thirty Years' War had left German-speaking Europe exhausted, fragmented, and economically backward. Leibniz proposed to protect German-speaking Europe by distracting Louis as follows. France would be invited to take Egypt as a stepping stone towards an eventual conquest of the Dutch East Indies. In return, France would agree to leave Germany and the Netherlands undisturbed. This plan obtained the Elector's cautious support. In 1672, the French government invited Leibniz to Paris for discussion,[21] but the plan was soon overtaken by the outbreak of the Franco-Dutch War and became irrelevant. Napoleon's failed invasion of Egypt in 1798 can be seen as an unwitting implementation of Leibniz's plan. Thus Leibniz began several years in Paris. Soon after arriving, he met Dutch physicist and mathematician Christiaan Huygens and realised that his own knowledge of mathematics and physics was patchy. With Huygens as mentor, he began a program of self-study that soon pushed him to making major contributions to both subjects, including inventing his version of the differential and integral calculus. He met Nicolas Malebranche and Antoine Arnauld, the leading French philosophers of the day, and studied the writings of Descartes and Pascal, unpublished as well as published. He befriended a German mathematician, Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus; they corresponded for the rest of their lives. In 1675 he was admitted by the French Academy of Sciences as a foreign honorary member, despite his lack of attention to the academy.

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When it became clear that France would not implement its part of Leibniz's Egyptian plan, the Elector sent his nephew, escorted by Leibniz, on a related mission to the English government in London, early in 1673.[22] There Leibniz came into acquaintance of Henry Oldenburg and John Collins. He met with the Royal Society where he demonstrated a calculating machine that he had designed and had been building since 1670. The machine was able to execute all four basic operations (adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing), and the Society quickly made him an external member. The mission ended abruptly when news reached it of the Elector's death, whereupon Leibniz promptly returned to Paris and not, as had been planned, to Mainz.[23]

Stepped Reckoner

The sudden deaths of Leibniz's two patrons in the same winter meant that Leibniz had to find a new basis for his career. In this regard, a 1669 invitation from the Duke of Brunswick to visit Hanover proved fateful. Leibniz declined the invitation, but began corresponding with the Duke in 1671. In 1673, the Duke offered him the post of Counsellor which Leibniz very reluctantly accepted two years later, only after it became clear that no employment in Paris, whose intellectual stimulation he relished, or with the Habsburg imperial court was forthcoming.

House of Hanover, 16761716

Leibniz managed to delay his arrival in Hanover until the end of 1676 after making one more short journey to London, where he was later accused by Newton of being shown some of Newton's unpublished work on the calculus.[24] This fact was deemed evidence supporting the accusation, made decades later, that he had stolen the calculus from Newton. On the journey from London to Hanover, Leibniz stopped in The Hague where he met Leeuwenhoek, the discoverer of microorganisms. He also spent several days in intense discussion with Spinoza, who had just completed his masterwork, the Ethics.[25] Leibniz respected Spinoza's powerful intellect, but was dismayed by his conclusions that contradicted both Christian and Jewish orthodoxy. In 1677, he was promoted, at his request, to Privy Counselor of Justice, a post he held for the rest of his life. Leibniz served three consecutive rulers of the House of Brunswick as historian, political adviser, and most consequentially, as librarian of the ducal library. He thenceforth employed his pen on all the various political, historical, and theological matters involving the House of Brunswick; the resulting documents form a valuable part of the historical record for the period. Among the few people in north Germany to accept Leibniz were the Electress Sophia of Hanover (16301714), her daughter Sophia Charlotte of Hanover (16681705), the Queen of Prussia and his avowed disciple, and Caroline of Ansbach, the consort of her grandson, the future George II. To each of these women he was correspondent, adviser, and friend. In turn, they all approved of Leibniz more than did their spouses and the future king George I of Great Britain.[26] The population of Hanover was only about 10,000, and its provinciality eventually grated on Leibniz. Nevertheless, to be a major courtier to the House of Brunswick was quite an honor, especially in light of the meteoric rise in the prestige of that House during Leibniz's association with it. In 1692, the Duke of Brunswick became a hereditary Elector of the Holy Roman Empire. The British Act of Settlement 1701 designated the Electress Sophia and her descent as the royal family of England, once both King William III and his sister-in-law and successor, Queen Anne, were dead. Leibniz played a role in the initiatives and negotiations leading up to that Act, but not always an effective one. For example, something he published anonymously in England, thinking to promote the Brunswick cause, was

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz formally censured by the British Parliament. The Brunswicks tolerated the enormous effort Leibniz devoted to intellectual pursuits unrelated to his duties as a courtier, pursuits such as perfecting the calculus, writing about other mathematics, logic, physics, and philosophy, and keeping up a vast correspondence. He began working on the calculus in 1674; the earliest evidence of its use in his surviving notebooks is 1675. By 1677 he had a coherent system in hand, but did not publish it until 1684. Leibniz's most important mathematical papers were published between 1682 and 1692, usually in a journal which he and Otto Mencke founded in 1682, the Acta Eruditorum. That journal played a key role in advancing his mathematical and scientific reputation, which in turn enhanced his eminence in diplomacy, history, theology, and philosophy. The Elector Ernest Augustus commissioned Leibniz to write a history of the House of Brunswick, going back to the time of Charlemagne or earlier, hoping that the resulting book would advance his dynastic ambitions. From 1687 to 1690, Leibniz traveled extensively in Germany, Austria, and Italy, seeking and finding archival materials bearing on this project. Decades went by but no history appeared; the next Elector became quite annoyed at Leibniz's apparent dilatoriness. Leibniz never finished the project, in part because of his huge output on many other fronts, but also because he insisted on writing a meticulously researched and erudite book based on archival sources, when his patrons would have been quite happy with a short popular book, one perhaps little more than a genealogy with commentary, to be completed in three years or less. They never knew that he had in fact carried out a fair part of his assigned task: when the material Leibniz had written and collected for his history of the House of Brunswick was finally published in the 19th century, it filled three volumes. In 1708, John Keill, writing in the journal of the Royal Society and with Newton's presumed blessing, accused Leibniz of having plagiarized Newton's calculus.[27] Thus began the calculus priority dispute which darkened the remainder of Leibniz's life. A formal investigation by the Royal Society (in which Newton was an unacknowledged participant), undertaken in response to Leibniz's demand for a retraction, upheld Keill's charge. Historians of mathematics writing since 1900 or so have tended to acquit Leibniz, pointing to important differences between Leibniz's and Newton's versions of the calculus. In 1711, while traveling in northern Europe, the Russian Tsar Peter the Great stopped in Hanover and met Leibniz, who then took some interest in Russian matters for the rest of his life. In 1712, Leibniz began a two-year residence in Vienna, where he was appointed Imperial Court Councillor to the Habsburgs. On the death of Queen Anne in 1714, Elector George Louis became King George I of Great Britain, under the terms of the 1701 Act of Settlement. Even though Leibniz had done much to bring about this happy event, it was not to be his hour of glory. Despite the intercession of the Princess of Wales, Caroline of Ansbach, George I forbade Leibniz to join him in London until he Leibniz's correspondence, papers and notes from 1669-1704, completed at least one volume of the history of the National Library of Poland. Brunswick family his father had commissioned nearly 30 years earlier. Moreover, for George I to include Leibniz in his London court would have been deemed insulting to Newton, who was seen as having won the calculus priority dispute and whose standing in British official circles could not have been higher. Finally, his dear friend and defender, the Dowager Electress Sophia, died in 1714.

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Death
Leibniz died in Hanover in 1716: at the time, he was so out of favor that neither George I (who happened to be near Hanover at the time) nor any fellow courtier other than his personal secretary attended the funeral. Even though Leibniz was a life member of the Royal Society and the Berlin Academy of Sciences, neither organization saw fit to honor his passing. His grave went unmarked for more than 50 years. Leibniz was eulogized by Fontenelle, before the Academie des Sciences in Paris, which had admitted him as a foreign member in 1700. The eulogy was composed at the behest of the Duchess of Orleans, a niece of the Electress Sophia.

Personal life
Leibniz never married. He complained on occasion about money, but the fair sum he left to his sole heir, his sister's stepson, proved that the Brunswicks had, by and large, paid him well. In his diplomatic endeavors, he at times verged on the unscrupulous, as was all too often the case with professional diplomats of his day. On several occasions, Leibniz backdated and altered personal manuscripts, actions which put him in a bad light during the calculus controversy. On the other hand, he was charming, well-mannered, and not without humor and imagination.[28] He had many friends and admirers all over Europe. On Leibniz's religious views, although he is considered by some biographers as a deist since he did not believe in miracles and believed that Jesus Christ has no real role in the universe, he was nonetheless a theist.[29][30][31][32]

Philosopher
Leibniz's philosophical thinking appears fragmented, because his philosophical writings consist mainly of a multitude of short pieces: journal articles, manuscripts published long after his death, and many letters to many correspondents. He wrote only two book-length philosophical treatises, of which only the Thodice of 1710 was published in his lifetime. Leibniz dated his beginning as a philosopher to his Discourse on Metaphysics, which he composed in 1686 as a commentary on a running dispute between Nicolas Malebranche and Antoine Arnauld. This led to an extensive and valuable correspondence with Arnauld;[33] it and the Discourse were not published until the 19th century. In 1695, Leibniz made his public entre into European philosophy with a journal article titled "New System of the Nature and Communication of Substances".[34] Between 1695 and 1705, he composed his New Essays on Human Understanding, a lengthy commentary on John Locke's 1690 An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, but upon learning of Locke's 1704 death, lost the desire to publish it, so that the New Essays were not published until 1765. The Monadologie, composed in 1714 and published posthumously, consists of 90 aphorisms. Leibniz met Spinoza in 1676, read some of his unpublished writings, and has since been suspected of appropriating some of Spinoza's ideas. While Leibniz admired Spinoza's powerful intellect, he was also forthrightly dismayed by Spinoza's conclusions,[35] especially when these were inconsistent with Christian orthodoxy. Unlike Descartes and Spinoza, Leibniz had a thorough university education in philosophy. He was influenced by his Leipzig professor Jakob Thomasius, who also supervised his BA thesis in philosophy. Leibniz also eagerly read Francisco Surez, a Spanish Jesuit respected even in Lutheran universities. Leibniz was deeply interested in the new methods and conclusions of Descartes, Huygens, Newton, and Boyle, but viewed their work through a lens heavily tinted by scholastic notions. Yet it remains the case that Leibniz's methods and concerns often anticipate the logic, and analytic and linguistic philosophy of the 20th century.

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The Principles
Leibniz variously invoked one or another of seven fundamental philosophical Principles:[36] Identity/contradiction. If a proposition is true, then its negation is false and vice versa. Identity of indiscernibles. Two distinct things cannot have all their properties in common. If every predicate possessed by x is also possessed by y and vice versa, then entities x and y are identical; to suppose two things indiscernible is to suppose the same thing under two names. Frequently invoked in modern logic and philosophy. The "identity of indiscernibles" is often referred to as Leibniz's Law. It has attracted the most controversy and criticism, especially from corpuscular philosophy and quantum mechanics. Sufficient reason. "There must be a sufficient reason [often known only to God] for anything to exist, for any event to occur, for any truth to obtain."[37] Pre-established harmony.[38] "[T]he appropriate nature of each substance brings it about that what happens to one corresponds to what happens to all the others, without, however, their acting upon one another directly." (Discourse on Metaphysics, XIV) A dropped glass shatters because it "knows" it has hit the ground, and not because the impact with the ground "compels" the glass to split. Law of Continuity. Natura non saltum facit. Optimism. "God assuredly always chooses the best."[39] Plenitude. "Leibniz believed that the best of all possible worlds would actualize every genuine possibility, and argued in Thodice that this best of all possible worlds will contain all possibilities, with our finite experience of eternity giving no reason to dispute nature's perfection." Leibniz would on occasion give a rational defense of a specific principle, but more often took them for granted.[40]

The monads
Leibniz's best known contribution to metaphysics is his theory of monads, as exposited in Monadologie. According to Leibniz, monads are elementary particles with blurred perception of each other. Monads can also be compared to the corpuscles of the Mechanical Philosophy of Ren Descartes and others. Monads are the ultimate elements of the universe. The monads are "substantial forms of being" with the following properties: they are eternal, indecomposable, individual, subject to their own laws, un-interacting, and each reflecting the entire universe in a pre-established harmony (a historically important example of panpsychism). Monads are centers of force; substance is force, while space, matter, and motion are merely phenomenal. The ontological essence of a monad is its irreducible simplicity. Unlike atoms, monads possess no material or spatial character. They also differ from atoms by their complete mutual independence, so that interactions among monads are only apparent. Instead, by virtue of the principle of pre-established harmony, each monad follows a preprogrammed set of "instructions" peculiar to itself, so that a monad "knows" what to do at each moment. (These "instructions" may be seen as analogs of the scientific laws governing subatomic particles.) By virtue of these intrinsic instructions, each monad is like a little mirror of the universe. Monads need not be "small"; e.g., each human being constitutes a monad, in which case free will is problematic. God, too, is a monad, and the existence of God can be inferred from the harmony prevailing among all other monads; God wills the pre-established harmony. Monads are purported to have gotten rid of the problematic: Interaction between mind and matter arising in the system of Descartes; Lack of individuation inherent to the system of Spinoza, which represents individual creatures as merely accidental.

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Theodicy and optimism

(Note that the word "optimism" here is used in the classic sense of optimal, not in the mood-related sense, as being positively hopeful.) The Theodicy[41] tries to justify the apparent imperfections of the world by claiming that it is optimal among all possible worlds. It must be the best possible and most balanced world, because it was created by an all powerful and all knowing God, who would not choose to create an imperfect world if a better world could be known to him or possible to exist. In effect, apparent flaws that can be identified in this world must exist in every possible world, because otherwise God would have chosen to create the world that excluded those flaws. Leibniz asserted that the truths of theology (religion) and philosophy cannot contradict each other, since reason and faith are both "gifts of God" so that their conflict would imply God contending against himself. The Theodicy is Leibniz's attempt to reconcile his personal philosophical system with his interpretation of the tenets of Christianity.[42] This project was motivated in part by Leibniz's belief, shared by many conservative philosophers and theologians during the Enlightenment, in the rational and enlightened nature of the Christian religion, at least as this was defined in tendentious comparisons between Christian and non Western or "primitive" religious practices and beliefs. It was also shaped by Leibniz's belief in the perfectibility of human nature (if humanity relied on correct philosophy and religion as a guide), and by his belief that metaphysical necessity must have a rational or logical foundation, even if this metaphysical causality seemed inexplicable in terms of physical necessity (the natural laws identified by science). Because reason and faith must be entirely reconciled, any tenet of faith which could not be defended by reason must be rejected. Leibniz then approached one of the central criticisms of Christian theism:[43] if God is all good, all wise and all powerful, how did evil come into the world? The answer (according to Leibniz) is that, while God is indeed unlimited in wisdom and power, his human creations, as creations, are limited both in their wisdom and in their will (power to act). This predisposes humans to false beliefs, wrong decisions and ineffective actions in the exercise of their free will. God does not arbitrarily inflict pain and suffering on humans; rather he permits both moral evil (sin) and physical evil (pain and suffering) as the necessary consequences of metaphysical evil (imperfection), as a means by which humans can identify and correct their erroneous decisions, and as a contrast to true good. Further, although human actions flow from prior causes that ultimately arise in God, and therefore are known as a metaphysical certainty to God, an individual's free will is exercised within natural laws, where choices are merely contingently necessary, to be decided in the event by a "wonderful spontaneity" that provides individuals an escape from rigorous predestination. This theory drew controversy and refutations, that are collected in the article Best of all possible worlds.

Symbolic thought
Leibniz believed that much of human reasoning could be reduced to calculations of a sort, and that such calculations could resolve many differences of opinion: The only way to rectify our reasonings is to make them as tangible as those of the Mathematicians, so that we can find our error at a glance, and when there are disputes among persons, we can simply say: Let us calculate [calculemus], without further ado, to see who is right.[44] Leibniz's calculus ratiocinator, which resembles symbolic logic, can be viewed as a way of making such calculations feasible. Leibniz wrote memoranda[45] that can now be read as groping attempts to get symbolic logicand thus his calculusoff the ground. But Gerhard and Couturat did not publish these writings until modern formal logic had emerged in Frege's Begriffsschrift and in writings by Charles Sanders Peirce and his students in the 1880s, and hence well after Boole and De Morgan began that logic in 1847. Leibniz thought symbols were important for human understanding. He attached so much importance to the invention of good notations that he attributed all his discoveries in mathematics to this. His notation for the infinitesimal

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz calculus is an example of his skill in this regard. C.S. Peirce, a 19th-century pioneer of semiotics, shared Leibniz's passion for symbols and notation, and his belief that these are essential to a well-running logic and mathematics. But Leibniz took his speculations much further. Defining a character as any written sign, he then defined a "real" character as one that represents an idea directly and not simply as the word embodying the idea. Some real characters, such as the notation of logic, serve only to facilitate reasoning. Many characters well known in his day, including Egyptian hieroglyphics, Chinese characters, and the symbols of astronomy and chemistry, he deemed not real.[46] Instead, he proposed the creation of a characteristica universalis or "universal characteristic", built on an alphabet of human thought in which each fundamental concept would be represented by a unique "real" character: It is obvious that if we could find characters or signs suited for expressing all our thoughts as clearly and as exactly as arithmetic expresses numbers or geometry expresses lines, we could do in all matters insofar as they are subject to reasoning all that we can do in arithmetic and geometry. For all investigations which depend on reasoning would be carried out by transposing these characters and by a species of calculus.[47] Complex thoughts would be represented by combining characters for simpler thoughts. Leibniz saw that the uniqueness of prime factorization suggests a central role for prime numbers in the universal characteristic, a striking anticipation of Gdel numbering. Granted, there is no intuitive or mnemonic way to number any set of elementary concepts using the prime numbers. Leibniz's idea of reasoning through a universal language of symbols and calculations however remarkably foreshadows great 20th century developments in formal systems, such as Turing completeness, where computation was used to define equivalent universal languages (see Turing degree). Because Leibniz was a mathematical novice when he first wrote about the characteristic, at first he did not conceive it as an algebra but rather as a universal language or script. Only in 1676 did he conceive of a kind of "algebra of thought", modeled on and including conventional algebra and its notation. The resulting characteristic included a logical calculus, some combinatorics, algebra, his analysis situs (geometry of situation), a universal concept language, and more. What Leibniz actually intended by his characteristica universalis and calculus ratiocinator, and the extent to which modern formal logic does justice to the calculus, may never be established.[48]

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Formal logic
Leibniz is the most important logician between Aristotle and 1847, when George Boole and Augustus De Morgan each published books that began modern formal logic. Leibniz enunciated the principal properties of what we now call conjunction, disjunction, negation, identity, set inclusion, and the empty set. The principles of Leibniz's logic and, arguably, of his whole philosophy, reduce to two: 1. All our ideas are compounded from a very small number of simple ideas, which form the alphabet of human thought. 2. Complex ideas proceed from these simple ideas by a uniform and symmetrical combination, analogous to arithmetical multiplication. The formal logic that emerged early in the 20th century also requires, at minimum, unary negation and quantified variables ranging over some universe of discourse. Leibniz published nothing on formal logic in his lifetime; most of what he wrote on the subject consists of working drafts. In his book History of Western Philosophy, Bertrand Russell went so far as to claim that Leibniz had developed logic in his unpublished writings to a level which was reached only 200 years later.

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Mathematician
Although the mathematical notion of function was implicit in trigonometric and logarithmic tables, which existed in his day, Leibniz was the first, in 1692 and 1694, to employ it explicitly, to denote any of several geometric concepts derived from a curve, such as abscissa, ordinate, tangent, chord, and the perpendicular.[49] In the 18th century, "function" lost these geometrical associations. Leibniz was the first to see that the coefficients of a system of linear equations could be arranged into an array, now called a matrix, which can be manipulated to find the solution of the system, if any. This method was later called Gaussian elimination. Leibniz's discoveries of Boolean algebra and of symbolic logic, also relevant to mathematics, are discussed in the preceding section. The best overview of Leibniz's writings on the calculus may be found in Bos (1974).[50]

Calculus
Leibniz is credited, along with Sir Isaac Newton, with the invention of infinitesimal calculus (that comprises differential and integral calculus). According to Leibniz's notebooks, a critical breakthrough occurred on November 11, 1675, when he employed integral calculus for the first time to find the area under the graph of a function y=(x). He introduced several notations used to this day, for instance the integral sign representing an elongated S, from the Latin word summa and the d used for differentials, from the Latin word differentia. This cleverly suggestive notation for the calculus is probably his most enduring mathematical legacy. Leibniz did not publish anything about his calculus until 1684.[51] The product rule of differential calculus is still called "Leibniz's law". In addition, the theorem that tells how and when to differentiate under the integral sign is called the Leibniz integral rule. Leibniz exploited infinitesimals in developing the calculus, manipulating them in ways suggesting that they had paradoxical algebraic properties. George Berkeley, in a tract called The Analyst and also in De Motu, criticized these. A recent study argues that Leibnizian calculus was free of contradictions, and was better grounded than Berkeley's empiricist criticisms.[52] From 1711 until his death, Leibniz was engaged in a dispute with John Keill, Newton and others, over whether Leibniz had invented the calculus independently of Newton. This subject is treated at length in the article Leibniz-Newton controversy. Infinitesimals were officially banned from mathematics by the followers of Karl Weierstrass, but survived in science and engineering, and even in rigorous mathematics, via the fundamental computational device known as the differential. Beginning in 1960, Abraham Robinson worked out a rigorous foundation for Leibniz's infinitesimals, using model theory, in the context of a field of hyperreal numbers. The resulting non-standard analysis can be seen as a belated vindication of Leibniz's mathematical reasoning. Robinson's transfer principle is a mathematical implementation of Leibniz's heuristic law of continuity, while the standard part function implements the Leibnizian transcendental law of homogeneity.

Topology
Leibniz was the first to use the term analysis situs,[53] later used in the 19th century to refer to what is now known as topology. There are two takes on this situation. On the one hand, Mates, citing a 1954 paper in German by Jacob Freudenthal, argues: Although for Leibniz the situs of a sequence of points is completely determined by the distance between them and is altered if those distances are altered, his admirer Euler, in the famous 1736 paper solving the Knigsberg Bridge Problem and its generalizations, used the term geometria situs in such a sense that the situs remains unchanged under topological deformations. He mistakenly credits Leibniz with originating this concept. ...it is sometimes not realized that Leibniz used the term in an entirely different sense and hence can hardly be considered the founder of that part of mathematics.[54]

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz But Hideaki Hirano argues differently, quoting Mandelbrot:[55] To sample Leibniz' scientific works is a sobering experience. Next to calculus, and to other thoughts that have been carried out to completion, the number and variety of premonitory thrusts is overwhelming. We saw examples in 'packing,'...My Leibniz mania is further reinforced by finding that for one moment its hero attached importance to geometric scaling. In "Euclidis Prota"..., which is an attempt to tighten Euclid's axioms, he states,...: 'I have diverse definitions for the straight line. The straight line is a curve, any part of which is similar to the whole, and it alone has this property, not only among curves but among sets.' This claim can be proved today.[56] Thus the fractal geometry promoted by Mandelbrot drew on Leibniz's notions of self-similarity and the principle of continuity: natura non facit saltus. We also see that when Leibniz wrote, in a metaphysical vein, that "the straight line is a curve, any part of which is similar to the whole", he was anticipating topology by more than two centuries. As for "packing", Leibniz told to his friend and correspondent Des Bosses to imagine a circle, then to inscribe within it three congruent circles with maximum radius; the latter smaller circles could be filled with three even smaller circles by the same procedure. This process can be continued infinitely, from which arises a good idea of self-similarity. Leibniz's improvement of Euclid's axiom contains the same concept.

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Scientist and engineer

Leibniz's writings are currently discussed, not only for their anticipations and possible discoveries not yet recognized, but as ways of advancing present knowledge. Much of his writing on physics is included in Gerhardt's Mathematical Writings.

Physics
Leibniz contributed a fair amount to the statics and dynamics emerging about him, often disagreeing with Descartes and Newton. He devised a new theory of motion (dynamics) based on kinetic energy and potential energy, which posited space as relative, whereas Newton was thoroughly convinced that space was absolute. An important example of Leibniz's mature physical thinking is his Specimen Dynamicum of 1695.[57] Until the discovery of subatomic particles and the quantum mechanics governing them, many of Leibniz's speculative ideas about aspects of nature not reducible to statics and dynamics made little sense. For instance, he anticipated Albert Einstein by arguing, against Newton, that space, time and motion are relative, not absolute. Leibniz's rule is an important, if often overlooked, step in many proofs in diverse fields of physics. The principle of sufficient reason has been invoked in recent cosmology, and his identity of indiscernibles in quantum mechanics, a field some even credit him with having anticipated in some sense. Those who advocate digital philosophy, a recent direction in cosmology, claim Leibniz as a precursor. The vis viva Leibniz's vis viva (Latin for living force) is mv2, twice the modern kinetic energy. He realized that the total energy would be conserved in certain mechanical systems, so he considered it an innate motive characteristic of matter.[58] Here too his thinking gave rise to another regrettable nationalistic dispute. His vis viva was seen as rivaling the conservation of momentum championed by Newton in England and by Descartes in France; hence academics in those countries tended to neglect Leibniz's idea. In reality, both energy and momentum are conserved, so the two approaches are equally valid.

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Other natural science

By proposing that the earth has a molten core, he anticipated modern geology. In embryology, he was a preformationist, but also proposed that organisms are the outcome of a combination of an infinite number of possible microstructures and of their powers. In the life sciences and paleontology, he revealed an amazing transformist intuition, fueled by his study of comparative anatomy and fossils. One of his principal works on this subject, Protogaea, unpublished in his lifetime, has recently been published in English for the first time. He worked out a primal organismic theory.[59] In medicine, he exhorted the physicians of his timewith some resultsto ground their theories in detailed comparative observations and verified experiments, and to distinguish firmly scientific and metaphysical points of view.

Social science
In psychology,[60] he anticipated the distinction between conscious and unconscious states. In public health, he advocated establishing a medical administrative authority, with powers over epidemiology and veterinary medicine. He worked to set up a coherent medical training programme, oriented towards public health and preventive measures. In economic policy, he proposed tax reforms and a national insurance program, and discussed the balance of trade. He even proposed something akin to what much later emerged as game theory. In sociology he laid the ground for communication theory.

Technology
In 1906, Garland published a volume of Leibniz's writings bearing on his many practical inventions and engineering work. To date, few of these writings have been translated into English. Nevertheless, it is well understood that Leibniz was a serious inventor, engineer, and applied scientist, with great respect for practical life. Following the motto theoria cum praxis, he urged that theory be combined with practical application, and thus has been claimed as the father of applied science. He designed wind-driven propellers and water pumps, mining machines to extract ore, hydraulic presses, lamps, submarines, clocks, etc. With Denis Papin, he invented a steam engine. He even proposed a method for desalinating water. From 1680 to 1685, he struggled to overcome the chronic flooding that afflicted the ducal silver mines in the Harz Mountains, but did not succeed.[61] Computation Leibniz may have been the first computer scientist and information theorist.[62] Early in life, he documented the binary numeral system (base 2), then revisited that system throughout his career.[63] He anticipated Lagrangian interpolation and algorithmic information theory. His calculus ratiocinator anticipated aspects of the universal Turing machine. In 1934, Norbert Wiener claimed to have found in Leibniz's writings a mention of the concept of feedback, central to Wiener's later cybernetic theory. In 1671, Leibniz began to invent a machine that could execute all four arithmetical operations, gradually improving it over a number of years. This "Stepped Reckoner" attracted fair attention and was the basis of his election to the Royal Society in 1673. A number of such machines were made during his years in Hanover, by a craftsman working under Leibniz's supervision. It was not an unambiguous success because it did not fully mechanize the operation of carrying. Couturat reported finding an unpublished note by Leibniz, dated 1674, describing a machine capable of performing some algebraic operations.[64] Leibniz also devised a (now reproduced) cipher machine, recovered by Nicholas Rescher in 2010.[65] Leibniz was groping towards hardware and software concepts worked out much later by Charles Babbage and Ada Lovelace. In 1679, while mulling over his binary arithmetic, Leibniz imagined a machine in which binary numbers were represented by marbles, governed by a rudimentary sort of punched cards.[66] Modern electronic digital computers replace Leibniz's marbles moving by gravity with shift registers, voltage gradients, and pulses of electrons, but otherwise they run roughly as Leibniz envisioned in 1679.

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Librarian
While serving as librarian of the ducal libraries in Hanover and Wolfenbuettel, Leibniz effectively became one of the founders of library science. The latter library was enormous for its day, as it contained more than 100,000 volumes, and Leibniz helped design a new building for it, believed to be the first building explicitly designed to be a library. He also designed a book indexing system in ignorance of the only other such system then extant, that of the Bodleian Library at Oxford University. He also called on publishers to distribute abstracts of all new titles they produced each year, in a standard form that would facilitate indexing. He hoped that this abstracting project would eventually include everything printed from his day back to Gutenberg. Neither proposal met with success at the time, but something like them became standard practice among English language publishers during the 20th century, under the aegis of the Library of Congress and the British Library. He called for the creation of an empirical database as a way to further all sciences. His characteristica universalis, calculus ratiocinator, and a "community of minds"intended, among other things, to bring political and religious unity to Europecan be seen as distant unwitting anticipations of artificial languages (e.g., Esperanto and its rivals), symbolic logic, even the World Wide Web.

Advocate of scientific societies

Leibniz emphasized that research was a collaborative endeavor. Hence he warmly advocated the formation of national scientific societies along the lines of the British Royal Society and the French Academie Royale des Sciences. More specifically, in his correspondence and travels he urged the creation of such societies in Dresden, Saint Petersburg, Vienna, and Berlin. Only one such project came to fruition; in 1700, the Berlin Academy of Sciences was created. Leibniz drew up its first statutes, and served as its first President for the remainder of his life. That Academy evolved into the German Academy of Sciences, the publisher of the ongoing critical edition of his works.[67]

Lawyer, moralist
With the possible exception of Marcus Aurelius, no philosopher has ever had as much experience with practical affairs of state as Leibniz. Leibniz's writings on law, ethics, and politics[68] were long overlooked by English-speaking scholars, but this has changed of late.[69] While Leibniz was no apologist for absolute monarchy like Hobbes, or for tyranny in any form, neither did he echo the political and constitutional views of his contemporary John Locke, views invoked in support of democracy, in 18th-century America and later elsewhere. The following excerpt from a 1695 letter to Baron J. C. Boyneburg's son Philipp is very revealing of Leibniz's political sentiments: As for.. the great question of the power of sovereigns and the obedience their peoples owe them, I usually say that it would be good for princes to be persuaded that their people have the right to resist them, and for the people, on the other hand, to be persuaded to obey them passively. I am, however, quite of the opinion of Grotius, that one ought to obey as a rule, the evil of revolution being greater beyond comparison than the evils causing it. Yet I recognize that a prince can go to such excess, and place the well-being of the state in such danger, that the obligation to endure ceases. This is most rare, however, and the theologian who authorizes violence under this pretext should take care against excess; excess being infinitely more dangerous than deficiency.[70] In 1677, Leibniz called for a European confederation, governed by a council or senate, whose members would represent entire nations and would be free to vote their consciences;[71] this is sometimes tendentiously considered an anticipation of the European Union. He believed that Europe would adopt a uniform religion. He reiterated these proposals in 1715.

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Ecumenism
Leibniz devoted considerable intellectual and diplomatic effort to what would now be called ecumenical endeavor, seeking to reconcile first the Roman Catholic and Lutheran churches, later the Lutheran and Reformed churches. In this respect, he followed the example of his early patrons, Baron von Boyneburg and the Duke John Frederickboth cradle Lutherans who converted to Catholicism as adultswho did what they could to encourage the reunion of the two faiths, and who warmly welcomed such endeavors by others. (The House of Brunswick remained Lutheran because the Duke's children did not follow their father.) These efforts included corresponding with the French bishop Jacques-Bnigne Bossuet, and involved Leibniz in a fair bit of theological controversy. He evidently thought that the thoroughgoing application of reason would suffice to heal the breach caused by the Reformation.

Philologist
Leibniz the philologist was an avid student of languages, eagerly latching on to any information about vocabulary and grammar that came his way. He refuted the belief, widely held by Christian scholars in his day, that Hebrew was the primeval language of the human race. He also refuted the argument, advanced by Swedish scholars in his day, that a form of proto-Swedish was the ancestor of the Germanic languages. He puzzled over the origins of the Slavic languages, was aware of the existence of Sanskrit, and was fascinated by classical Chinese. He published the princeps editio (first modern edition) of the late medieval Chronicon Holtzatiae, a Latin chronicle of the County of Holstein.

Sinophile
Leibniz was perhaps the first major European intellect to take a close interest in Chinese civilization, which he knew by corresponding with, and reading other works by, European Christian missionaries posted in China. Having read Confucius Sinicus Philosophus on the first year of its publication,[72] he concluded that Europeans could learn much from the Confucian ethical tradition. He mulled over the possibility that the Chinese characters were an unwitting form of his universal characteristic. He noted with fascination how the I Ching hexagrams correspond to the binary numbers from 0 to 111111, and concluded that this mapping was evidence of major Chinese accomplishments in the sort of philosophical mathematics he admired.[73] Leibniz's attraction to Chinese philosophy originates from his perception that Chinese philosophy was similar to his own.[72] The historian E.R. Hughes suggests that Leibniz's ideas of "simple substance" and "pre-established harmony" were directly influenced by Confucianism, pointing to the fact that they were conceived during the period that he was reading Confucius Sinicus Philosophus.[72]

As polymath
While making his grand tour of European archives to research the Brunswick family history that he never completed, Leibniz stopped in Vienna between May 1688 and February 1689, where he did much legal and diplomatic work for the Brunswicks. He visited mines, talked with mine engineers, and tried to negotiate export contracts for lead from the ducal mines in the Harz mountains. His proposal that the streets of Vienna be lit with lamps burning rapeseed oil was implemented. During a formal audience with the Austrian Emperor and in subsequent memoranda, he advocated reorganizing the Austrian economy, reforming the coinage of much of central Europe, negotiating a Concordat between the Habsburgs and the Vatican, and creating an imperial research library, official archive, and public insurance fund. He wrote and published an important paper on mechanics. Leibniz also wrote a short paper, first published by Louis Couturat in 1903,[74] summarizing his views on metaphysics. The paper is undated; that he wrote it while in Vienna was determined only in 1999, when the ongoing critical edition finally published Leibniz's philosophical writings for the period 167790. Couturat's reading of this paper was the launching point for much 20th-century thinking about Leibniz, especially among analytic

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz philosophers. But after a meticulous study of all of Leibniz's philosophical writings up to 1688a study the 1999 additions to the critical edition made possibleMercer (2001) begged to differ with Couturat's reading; the jury is still out.

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Posthumous reputation
As a mathematician and philosopher
When Leibniz died, his reputation was in decline. He was remembered for only one book, the Thodice, whose supposed central argument Voltaire lampooned in his Candide. Voltaire's depiction of Leibniz's ideas was so influential that many believed it to be an accurate description. Thus Voltaire and his Candide bear some of the blame for the lingering failure to appreciate and understand Leibniz's ideas. Leibniz had an ardent disciple, Christian Wolff, whose dogmatic and facile outlook did Leibniz's reputation much harm. He also influenced David Hume who read his Thodice and used some of his ideas.[75] In any event, philosophical fashion was moving away from the rationalism and system building of the 17th century, of which Leibniz had been such an ardent proponent. His work on law, diplomacy, and history was seen as of ephemeral interest. The vastness and richness of his correspondence went unrecognized. Much of Europe came to doubt that Leibniz had discovered the calculus independently of Newton, and hence his whole work in mathematics and physics was neglected. Voltaire, an admirer of Newton, also wrote Candide at least in part to discredit Leibniz's claim to having discovered the calculus and Leibniz's charge that Newton's theory of universal gravitation was incorrect. The rise of relativity and subsequent work in the history of mathematics has put Leibniz's stance in a more favorable light. Leibniz's long march to his present glory began with the 1765 publication of the Nouveaux Essais, which Kant read closely. In 1768, Dutens edited the first multi-volume edition of Leibniz's writings, followed in the 19th century by a number of editions, including those edited by Erdmann, Foucher de Careil, Gerhardt, Gerland, Klopp, and Mollat. Publication of Leibniz's correspondence with notables such as Antoine Arnauld, Samuel Clarke, Sophia of Hanover, and her daughter Sophia Charlotte of Hanover, began. In 1900, Bertrand Russell published a critical study of Leibniz's metaphysics.[76] Shortly thereafter, Louis Couturat published an important study of Leibniz, and edited a volume of Leibniz's heretofore unpublished writings, mainly on logic. They made Leibniz somewhat respectable among 20th-century analytical and linguistic philosophers in the English-speaking world (Leibniz had already been of great influence to many Germans such as Bernhard Riemann). For example, Leibniz's phrase salva veritate, meaning interchangeability without loss of or compromising the truth, recurs in Willard Quine's writings. Nevertheless, the secondary English-language literature on Leibniz did not really blossom until after World War II. This is especially true of English speaking countries; in Gregory Brown's bibliography fewer than 30 of the English language entries were published before 1946. American Leibniz studies owe much to Leroy Loemker (190485) through his translations and his interpretive essays in LeClerc (1973). Nicholas Jolley has surmised that Leibniz's reputation as a philosopher is now perhaps higher than at any time since he was alive.[77] Analytic and contemporary philosophy continue to invoke his notions of identity, individuation, and possible worlds, while the doctrinaire contempt for metaphysics, characteristic of analytic and linguistic philosophy, has faded. Work in the history of 17th- and 18th-century ideas has revealed more clearly the 17th-century "Intellectual Revolution" that preceded the better-known Industrial and commercial revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries. The 17th- and 18th-century belief that natural science, especially physics, differs from philosophy mainly in degree and not in kind, is no longer dismissed out of hand. That modern science includes a "scholastic" as well as a "radical empiricist" element is more accepted now than in the early 20th century. Leibniz's thought is now seen as a major prolongation of the mighty endeavor begun by Plato and Aristotle: the universe and man's place in it are amenable to human reason.

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz In 1985, the German government created the Leibniz Prize, offering an annual award of 1.55 million euros for experimental results and 770,000 euros for theoretical ones. It is the world's largest prize for scientific achievement. The collection of manuscript papers of Leibniz at the Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Bibliothek Niederschische Landesbibliothek were inscribed on UNESCO's Memory of the World Register in 2007.[78]

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Leibniz biscuits
Leibniz-Keks, a popular brand of biscuits, are named after Gottfried Leibniz. These biscuits honour Leibniz because he was a resident of Hanover, where the company is based.[79]

Writings and edition

Leibniz mainly wrote in three languages: scholastic Latin, French and German. During his lifetime, he published many pamphlets and scholarly articles, but only two "philosophical" books, the Combinatorial Art and the Thodice. (He published numerous pamphlets, often anonymous, on behalf of the House of Brunswick-Lneburg, most notably the "De jure suprematum" a major consideration of the nature of sovereignty.) One substantial book appeared posthumously, his Nouveaux essais sur l'entendement humain, which Leibniz had withheld from publication after the death of John Locke. Only in 1895, when Bodemann completed his catalogues of Leibniz's manuscripts and correspondence, did the enormous extent of Leibniz's Nachlass become clear: about 15,000 letters to more than 1000 recipients plus more than 40,000 other items. Moreover, quite a few of these letters are of essay length. Much of his vast correspondence, especially the letters dated after 1685, remains unpublished, and much of what is published has been so only in recent decades. The amount, variety, and disorder of Leibniz's writings are a predictable result of a situation he described in a letter as follows: I cannot tell you how extraordinarily distracted and spread out I am. I am trying to find various things in the archives; I look at old papers and hunt up unpublished documents. From these I hope to shed some light on the history of the [House of] Brunswick. I receive and answer a huge number of letters. At the same time, I have so many mathematical results, philosophical thoughts, and other literary innovations that should not be allowed to vanish that I often do not know where to begin.[80] The extant parts of the critical edition[81] of Leibniz's writings are organized as follows: Series 1. Political, Historical, and General Correspondence. 21 vols., 16661701. Series 2. Philosophical Correspondence. 1 vol., 166385. Series 3. Mathematical, Scientific, and Technical Correspondence. 6 vols., 167296. Series 4. Political Writings. 6 vols., 166798. Series 5. Historical and Linguistic Writings. Inactive. Series 6. Philosophical Writings. 7 vols., 166390, and Nouveaux essais sur l'entendement humain. Series 7. Mathematical Writings. 3 vols., 167276. Series 8. Scientific, Medical, and Technical Writings. In preparation.

The systematic cataloguing of all of Leibniz's Nachlass began in 1901. It was hampered by two world wars, the Nazi dictatorship (with the Holocaust, which affected a Jewish employee of the project, and other personal consequences), and decades of German division (two states with the cold war's "iron curtain" in between, separating scholars and also scattering portions of his literary estates). The ambitious project has had to deal with seven languages contained in some 200,000 pages of written and printed paper. In 1985 it was reorganized and included in a joint program of German federal and state (Lnder) academies. Since then the branches in Potsdam, Mnster, Hanover and Berlin have jointly published 25 volumes of the critical edition, with an average of 870 pages, and prepared index and concordance works.

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

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Selected works
The year given is usually that in which the work was completed, not of its eventual publication. 1666. De Arte Combinatoria (On the Art of Combination); partially translated in Loemker 1 and Parkinson (1966). 1671. Hypothesis Physica Nova (New Physical Hypothesis); Loemker 8.I (partial). 1673 Confessio philosophi (A Philosopher's Creed); an English translation is available. 1684. Nova methodus pro maximis et minimis (New method for maximums and minimums); translated in Struik, D. J., 1969. A Source Book in Mathematics, 12001800. Harvard University Press: 27181. 1686. Discours de mtaphysique; Martin and Brown (1988), Ariew and Garber 35, Loemker 35, Wiener III.3, Woolhouse and Francks 1. An online translation [82] by Jonathan Bennett is available. 1703. Explication de l'Arithmtique Binaire (Explanation of Binary Arithmetic); Gerhardt, Mathematical Writings VII.223. An online translation [83] by Lloyd Strickland is available. 1710. Thodice; Farrer, A.M., and Huggard, E.M., trans., 1985 (1952). Wiener III.11 (part). An online translation [84] is available at Project Gutenberg. 1714. Monadologie; translated by Nicholas Rescher, 1991. The Monadology: An Edition for Students. University of Pittsburg Press. Ariew and Garber 213, Loemker 67, Wiener III.13, Woolhouse and Francks 19. Online translations: Jonathan Bennett's translation [82]; Latta's translation [85]; French, Latin and Spanish edition, with facsimile of Leibniz's manuscript. [86] 1765. Nouveaux essais sur l'entendement humain; completed in 1704. Remnant, Peter, and Bennett, Jonathan, trans., 1996. New Essays on Human Understanding. Cambridge University Press. Wiener III.6 (part). An online translation [87] by Jonathan Bennett is available.

Collections
Five important collections of English translations are Wiener (1951), Loemker (1969), Ariew and Garber (1989), Woolhouse and Francks (1998), and Strickland (2006). The ongoing critical edition of all of Leibniz's writings is Smtliche Schriften und Briefe.[81]

Notes
[1] The History of Philosophy, Vol. IV: Modern Philosophy: From Descartes to Leibniz by Frederick C. Copleston (1958) [2] Franz Exner, "ber Leibnitz'ens Universal-Wissenschaft", 1843; "Universalwissenschaft" (http:/ / www. zeno. org/ Meyers-1905/ A/ Universalwissenschaft) in the Meyers Groes Konversations-Lexikon; Stanley Burris, "Leibniz's Influence on 19th Century Logic" (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ leibniz-logic-influence/ ), Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy [3] Max Mangold (ed.), ed. (2005) (in German). Duden-Aussprachewrterbuch (Duden Pronunciation Dictionary) (7th ed.). Mannheim: Bibliographisches Institut GmbH. ISBN978-3-411-04066-7. [4] Eva-Maria Krech et al. (ed.), ed. (2010) (in German). Deutsches Aussprachewrterbuch (German Pronunciation Dictionary) (1st ed.). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG. ISBN978-3-11-018203-3. [5] David Smith, p.173-181 (1929) [6] Roughly 40%, 30%, and 15%, respectively. www.gwlb.de (http:/ / www. gwlb. de/ Leibniz/ Leibniz-Nachlass/ index. htm). Leibniz-Nachlass (i.e. Legacy of Leibniz), Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Bibliothek (one of the three Official Libraries of the German state Lower Saxony). [7] Baird, Forrest E.; Walter Kaufmann (2008). From Plato to Derrida. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN0-13-158591-6. [8] Leibnitiana (http:/ / www. gwleibniz. com/ friedrich_leibniz/ friedrich_leibniz. html) [9] Johann Amos Comenius, Comenius in England, Oxford University Press, 1932, p. 6 [10] Mackie (1845), 21 [11] Mackie (1845), 22 [12] Mackie (1845), 26 [13] Jolley, Nicholas (1995). The Cambridge Companion to Leibniz. Cambridge University Press.:20 [14] [15] [16] [17] Mackie (1845), 38 Mackie (1845), 39 Mackie (1845), 40 Aiton 1985: 312

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

[18] Mackie (1845), 41-42 [19] Mackie (1845), 43 [20] Mackie (1845), 44-45 [21] Mackie (1845), 58-61 [22] Mackie (1845), 69-70 [23] Mackie (1845), 73-74 [24] On the encounter between Newton and Leibniz and a review of the evidence, see Alfred Rupert Hall, Philosophers at War: The Quarrel Between Newton and Leibniz (Cambridge, 2002), pp. 4469. [25] Mackie (1845), 117-118 [26] For a recent study of Leibniz's correspondence with Sophia Charlotte, see MacDonald Ross (http:/ / www. philosophy. leeds. ac. uk/ GMR/ homepage/ sophiec. html) (1998). [27] Mackie (1845), 109 [28] See Wiener IV.6 and Loemker 40. Also see a curious passage titled "Leibniz's Philosophical Dream," first published by Bodemann in 1895 and translated on p. 253 of Morris, Mary, ed. and trans., 1934. Philosophical Writings. Dent & Sons Ltd. [29] Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (2012). Peter Loptson. ed. Discourse on Metaphysics and Other Writings. Broadview Press. pp.2324. ISBN9781554810116. "The answer is unknowable, but it may not be unreasonable to see him, at least in theological terms, as essentially a deist. He is a determinist: there are no miracles (the events so called being merely instances of infrequently occurring natural laws); Christ has no real role in the system; we live forever, and hence we carry on after our deaths, but then everything every individual substance carries on forever. Nonetheless, Leibniz is a theist. His system is generated from, and needs, the postulate of a creative god. In fact, though, despite Leibniz's protestations, his God is more the architect and engineer of the vast complex world-system than the embodiment of love of Christian orthodoxy." [30] Christopher Ernest Cosans (2009). Owen's Ape & Darwin's Bulldog: Beyond Darwinism and Creationism. Indiana University Press. pp.102103. ISBN9780253220516. "In advancing his system of mechanics, Newton claimed that collisions of celestial objects would cause a loss of energy that would require God to intervene from time to time to maintain order in the solar system (Vailati 1997, 3742). In criticizing this implication, Leibniz remarks: "Sir Isaac Newton and his followers have also a very odd opinion concerning the work of God. According to their doctrine, God Almighty wants to wind up his watch from time to time; otherwise it would cease to move." (Leibniz 1715, 675) Leibniz argues that any scientific theory that relies on God to perform miracles after He had first made the universe indicates that God lacked sufficient foresight or power to establish adequate natural laws in the first place. In defense of Newton's theism, Clarke is unapologetic: "'tis not a diminution but the true glory of his workmanship that nothing is done without his continual government and inspection"' (Leibniz 1715, 676677). Clarke is believed to have consulted closely with Newton on how to respond to Leibniz. He asserts that Leibniz's deism leads to "the notion of materialism and fate" (1715, 677), because it excludes God from the daily workings of nature." [31] Andreas Sofroniou (2007). Moral Philosophy, from Hippocrates to the 21st Aeon. Lulu.com. ISBN9781847534637. "In a commentary on Shaftesbury published in 1720, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, a Rationalist philosopher and mathematician, accepted the Deist conception of God as an intelligent Creator but refused the contention that a god who metes out punishments is evil." [32] Shelby D. Hunt (2003). Controversy in Marketing Theory: For Reason, Realism, Truth, and Objectivity. M.E. Sharpe. p.33. ISBN9780765609311. "Consistent with the liberal views of the Enlightenment, Leibniz was an optimist with respect to human reasoning and scientific progress (Popper 1963, p.69). Although he was a great reader and admirer of Spinoza, Leibniz, being a confirmed deist, rejected emphatically Spinoza's pantheism: God and nature, for Leibniz, were not simply two different "labels" for the same "thing"." [33] Ariew & Garber, 69; Loemker, 36, 38 [34] Ariew & Garber, 138; Loemker, 47; Wiener, II.4 [35] Ariew & Garber, 27284; Loemker, 14, 20, 21; Wiener, III.8 [36] Mates (1986), chpts. 7.3, 9 [37] Loemker 717 [38] See Jolley (1995: 12931), Woolhouse and Francks (1998), and Mercer (2001). [39] Loemker 311 [40] For a precis of what Leibniz meant by these and other Principles, see Mercer (2001: 47384). For a classic discussion of Sufficient Reason and Plenitude, see Lovejoy (1957). [41] Rutherford (1998) is a detailed scholarly study of Leibniz's theodicy. [42] Magill, Frank (ed.). Masterpieces of World Philosophy. New York: Harper Collins (1990). [43] Magill, Frank (ed.) (1990) [44] The Art of Discovery 1685, Wiener 51 [45] Many of his memoranda are translated in Parkinson 1966. [46] Loemker, however, who translated some of Leibniz's works into English, said that the symbols of chemistry were real characters, so there is disagreement among Leibniz scholars on this point. [47] Preface to the General Science, 1677. Revision of Rutherford's translation in Jolley 1995: 234. Also Wiener I.4 [48] A good introductory discussion of the "characteristic" is Jolley (1995: 22640). An early, yet still classic, discussion of the "characteristic" and "calculus" is Couturat (1901: chpts. 3,4). [49] Struik (1969), 367

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[50] Jesseph, Douglas M. (1998). "Leibniz on the Foundations of the Calculus: The Question of the Reality of Infinitesimal Magnitudes" (http:/ / muse. jhu. edu/ journals/ perspectives_on_science/ v006/ 6. 1jesseph. html). Perspectives on Science 6.1&2: 640. . Retrieved 31 December 2011. [51] For an English translation of this paper, see Struik (1969: 27184), who also translates parts of two other key papers by Leibniz on the calculus. [52] Katz, Mikhail; Sherry, David (2012), "Leibniz's Infinitesimals: Their Fictionality, Their Modern Implementations, and Their Foes from Berkeley to Russell and Beyond", Erkenntnis, arXiv:1205.0174, doi:10.1007/s10670-012-9370-y [53] Loemker 27 [54] Mates (1986), 240 [55] HIRANO, Hideaki. "Leibniz's Cultural Pluralism And Natural Law" (http:/ / www. t. hosei. ac. jp/ ~hhirano/ academia/ leibniz. htm). . Retrieved March 10, 2010. [56] Mandelbrot (1977), 419. Quoted in Hirano (1997). [57] Ariew and Garber 117, Loemker 46, W II.5. On Leibniz and physics, see the chapter by Garber in Jolley (1995) and Wilson (1989). [58] See Ariew and Garber 15586, Loemker 5355, W II.67a [59] On Leibniz and biology, see Loemker (1969a: VIII). [60] On Leibniz and psychology, see Loemker (1969a: IX). [61] Aiton (1985), 107114, 136 [62] Davis (2000) discusses Leibniz's prophetic role in the emergence of calculating machines and of formal languages. [63] See Couturat (1901): 47378. [64] Couturat (1901), 115 [65] See N. Rescher, Leibniz and Cryptography (Pittsburgh, University Library Systems, University of Pittsburgh, 2012). [66] The Reality Club: Wake Up Call for Europe Tech (http:/ / www. edge. org/ discourse/ schirrmacher_eurotech. html) [67] On Leibniz's projects for scientific societies, see Couturat (1901), App. IV. [68] See, for example, Ariew and Garber 19, 94, 111, 193; Riley 1988; Loemker 2, 7, 20, 29, 44, 59, 62, 65; W I.1, IV.13 [69] See (in order of difficulty) Jolley (2005: chpt. 7), Gregory Brown's chapter in Jolley (1995), Hostler (1975), and Riley (1996). [70] Loemker: 59, fn 16. Translation revised. [71] Loemker: 58, fn 9 [72] Mungello, David E. (1971). "Leibniz's Interpretation of Neo-Confucianism". Philosophy East and West 21 (1): 322. doi:10.2307/1397760. [73] On Leibniz, the I Ching, and binary numbers, see Aiton (1985: 24548). Leibniz's writings on Chinese civilization are collected and translated in Cook and Rosemont (1994), and discussed in Perkins (2004). [74] Later translated as Loemker 267 and Woolhouse and Francks 30 [75] Vasilyev, 1993 (http:/ / www. humesociety. org/ hs/ issues/ v19n1/ vasilyeu/ vasilyeu-v19n1. pdf) [76] Russell, 1900 [77] Jolley, 21719 [78] "Letters from and to Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz within the collection of manuscript papers of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" (http:/ / portal. unesco. org/ ci/ en/ ev. php-URL_ID=22464& URL_DO=DO_TOPIC& URL_SECTION=201. html). UNESCO Memory of the World Programme. 2008-05-16. . Retrieved 2009-12-15. [79] "Bahlsen products FAQ" (http:/ / www. bahlsen. de/ root_bahlsen_anim/ index. php). . [80] 1695 letter to Vincent Placcius in Gerhardt. [81] www.leibniz-edition.de (http:/ / www. leibniz-edition. de/ ). See photograph there. [82] http:/ / www. earlymoderntexts. com [83] http:/ / www. leibniz-translations. com/ binary. htm [84] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ etext/ 17147 [85] http:/ / www. rbjones. com/ rbjpub/ philos/ classics/ leibniz/ monad. htm [86] http:/ / www. helicon. es/ dig/ 8542205. pdf [87] http:/ / www. earlymoderntexts. com/ f_leibniz. html

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References
Primary literature
Alexander, H G (ed) The Leibniz-Clarke Correspondence. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1956. Ariew, R & D Garber, 1989. Leibniz: Philosophical Essays. Hackett. Arthur, Richard, 2001. The Labyrinth of the Continuum: Writings on the Continuum Problem, 16721686. Yale University Press. Cohen, Claudine and Wakefield, Andre, 2008. Protogaea. University of Chicago Press. Cook, Daniel, and Rosemont, Henry Jr., 1994. Leibniz: Writings on China. Open Court. Loemker, Leroy, 1969 (1956). Leibniz: Philosophical Papers and Letters. Reidel. Remnant, Peter, and Bennett, Jonathan, 1996 (1981). Leibniz: New Essays on Human Understanding. Cambridge University Press. Riley, Patrick, 1988. Leibniz: Political Writings. Cambridge University Press. Sleigh, Robert C., Look, Brandon, and Stam, James, 2005. Confessio Philosophi: Papers Concerning the Problem of Evil, 16711678. Yale University Press. Strickland, Lloyd, 2006. The Shorter Leibniz Texts: A Collection of New Translations. Continuum. Ward, A. W. Leibniz as a Politician (lecture, 1911) Wiener, Philip, 1951. Leibniz: Selections. Scribner. Woolhouse, R.S., and Francks, R., 1998. Leibniz: Philosophical Texts. Oxford University Press.

Secondary literature
Adams, Robert Merrihew. Lebniz: Determinist, Theist, Idealist. New York: Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1994. Aiton, Eric J., 1985. Leibniz: A Biography. Hilger (UK). Antognazza, M.R.(2008) Leibniz: An Intellectual Biography. Cambridge Univ. Press. [ Editthisreference (http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:BarrowTipler1986&action=edit)] Barrow, John D.; Tipler, Frank J. (19 May 1988). The Anthropic Cosmological Principle (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=uSykSbXklWEC& printsec=frontcover). foreword by John A. Wheeler. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN9780192821478. LC 87-28148 (http://lccn.loc.gov/87028148). Retrieved 31 December 2009. Albeck-Gidron, Rachel, The Century of the Monads: Leibniz's Metaphysics and 20th-Century Modernity, Bar-Ilan University Press. Bos, H. J. M. (1974) "Differentials, higher-order differentials and the derivative in the Leibnizian calculus," Arch. History Exact Sci. 14: 190. Couturat, Louis, 1901. La Logique de Leibniz. Paris: Felix Alcan. Davis, Martin, 2000. The Universal Computer: The Road from Leibniz to Turing. WW Norton. Deleuze, Gilles, 1993. The Fold: Leibniz and the Baroque. University of Minnesota Press. Du Bois-Reymond, Paul, 18nn. "Leibnizian Thoughts in Modern Science". Finster, Reinhard & Gerd van den Heuvel. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. Mit Selbstzeugnissen und Bilddokumenten. 4. Auflage. Rowohlt, Reinbek bei Hamburg 2000 (Rowohlts Monographien, 50481), ISBN 3-499-50481-2. Grattan-Guinness, Ivor, 1997. The Norton History of the Mathematical Sciences. W W Norton. Hall, A. R., 1980. Philosophers at War: The Quarrel between Newton and Leibniz. Cambridge University Press. Heidegger, Martin, 1983. The Metaphysical Foundations of Logic. Indiana University Press. Hirano, Hideaki, 1997. "Cultural Pluralism And Natural Law." Unpublished. Hostler, J., 1975. Leibniz's Moral Philosophy. UK: Duckworth. Jolley, Nicholas, ed., 1995. The Cambridge Companion to Leibniz. Cambridge University Press. LeClerc, Ivor, ed., 1973. The Philosophy of Leibniz and the Modern World. Vanderbilt University Press.

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Lovejoy, Arthur O., 1957 (1936) "Plenitude and Sufficient Reason in Leibniz and Spinoza" in his The Great Chain of Being. Harvard University Press: 14482. Reprinted in Frankfurt, H. G., ed., 1972. Leibniz: A Collection of Critical Essays. Anchor Books. Mandelbrot, Benot, 1977. The Fractal Geometry of Nature. Freeman. Mackie, John Milton; Guhrauer, Gottschalk Eduard, 1845. Life of Godfrey William von Leibnitz. Gould, Kendall and Lincoln. Mates, Benson, 1986. The Philosophy of Leibniz: Metaphysics and Language. Oxford University Press. Mercer, Christia, 2001. Leibniz's metaphysics: Its Origins and Development. Cambridge University Press. Morris, Simon Conway, 2003. Life's Solution: Inevitable Humans in a Lonely Universe. Cambridge University Press. Perkins, Franklin, 2004. Leibniz and China: A Commerce of Light. Cambridge University Press. Rensoli, Lourdes, 2002. El problema antropologico en la concepcion filosofica de G. W. Leibniz. Leibnitius Politechnicus. Universidad Politecnica de Valencia. Riley, Patrick, 1996. Leibniz's Universal Jurisprudence: Justice as the Charity of the Wise. Harvard University Press. Rutherford, Donald, 1998. Leibniz and the Rational Order of Nature. Cambridge University Press. Struik, D. J., 1969. A Source Book in Mathematics, 12001800. Harvard University Press. Ward, P. D., and Brownlee, D., 2000. Rare Earth: Why Complex Life is Uncommon in the Universe. Springer Verlag. Wilson, Catherine, 1989. 'Leibniz's Metaphysics. Princeton University Press. Zalta, E. N., 2000. " A (Leibnizian) Theory of Concepts (http://mally.stanford.edu/Papers/leibniz.pdf)", Philosophiegeschichte und logische Analyse / Logical Analysis and History of Philosophy 3: 137183. Smith, David Eugene (1929). A Source Book in Mathematics. New York and London: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc..

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External links
An extensive bibliography (http://www.worldcat.org/profiles/mciocchi/lists/1786513) Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: " Leibniz (http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/l/leib-met.htm)" Douglas Burnham. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Articles on Leibniz (http://plato.stanford.edu/search/searcher. py?query=Leibniz). O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" (http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews. ac.uk/Biographies/Leibniz.html), MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews. George MacDonald Ross, Leibniz (http://etext.leeds.ac.uk/leibniz/leibniz.htm), Originally published: Oxford University Press (Past Masters) 1984; Electronic edition: Leeds Electronic Text Centre July 2000 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (http://genealogy.math.ndsu.nodak.edu/id.php?id=60985) at the Mathematics Genealogy Project Works by Gottfried Leibniz (http://www.gutenberg.org/author/Leibniz+Gottfried+Wilhelm+Freiherr+von) at Project Gutenberg Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (http://www.dmoz.org/Society/Philosophy/Philosophers/L/ Leibniz,_Gottfried_Wilhelm/) at the Open Directory Project translations (http://www.earlymoderntexts.com) by Jonathan Bennett, of the New Essays, the exchanges with Bayle, Arnauld and Clarke, and about 15 shorter works. Leibnitiana (http://www.gwleibniz.com/) Gregory Brown. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz: Texts and Translations (http://philosophyfaculty.ucsd.edu/faculty/rutherford/ Leibniz/index.html), compiled by Donald Rutherford, UCSD Leibniz-translations.com (http://www.leibniz-translations.com/) Scroll down for many Leibniz links.

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Leibniz Prize. (http://www.dfg.de/en/news/scientific_prizes/leibniz_preis/index.html) Philosophical Works of Leibniz translated by G.M. Duncan (http://www.archive.org/details/ philosophicalwor00leibuoft) Leibnitiana (http://www.gwleibniz.com/), links and resources compiled by Gregory Brown, University of Houston. Leibnizian Resources (http://www.helsinki.fi/~mroinila/leibniz1.htm), many links organized by Markku Roinila, University of Helsinki. Leibniz Bibliography (http://www.leibniz-bibliographie.de/DB=1.95/LNG=EN/ ?COOKIE=U8000,K8000,I0,B1999++++++,SY,NVZG,D1.95,E0ed05df2-2e89,A,H,R194.95.154.1,FY) at the Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Library.

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Fundamental theorem of calculus

The fundamental theorem of calculus is a theorem that links the concept of the derivative of a function with the concept of the integral. The first part of the theorem, sometimes called the first fundamental theorem of calculus, shows that an indefinite integration[1] can be reversed by a differentiation. This part of the theorem is also important because it guarantees the existence of antiderivatives for continuous functions.[2] The second part, sometimes called the second fundamental theorem of calculus, allows one to compute the definite integral of a function by using any one of its infinitely many antiderivatives. This part of the theorem has invaluable practical applications, because it markedly simplifies the computation of definite integrals. The first published statement and proof of a restricted version of the fundamental theorem was by James Gregory (16381675).[3] Isaac Barrow (16301677) proved a more generalized version of the theorem[4] while Barrow's student Isaac Newton (16431727) completed the development of the surrounding mathematical theory. Gottfried Leibniz (16461716) systematized the knowledge into a calculus for infinitesimal quantities and introduced the notation used today.

Physical intuition
Intuitively, the theorem simply states that the sum of infinitesimal changes in a quantity over time (or over some other quantity) adds up to the net change in the quantity. In the case of a particle traveling in a straight line, its position, means that is a function of , per infinitesimal change in time, , is given by where is time and

. The derivative of this function is equal to the infinitesimal change in quantity, (of course, the derivative itself is dependent on time). This change in of the particle. In Leibniz's notation:

displacement per change in time is the velocity

Rearranging this equation,[5] it follows that:

By the logic above, a change in

(or

) is the sum of the infinitesimal changes

. It is also equal to the sum

of the infinitesimal products of the derivative and time. This infinite summation is integration; hence, the integration operation allows the recovery of the original function from its derivative. It can be concluded that this operation works in reverse; the result of the integral can be differentiated to recover the original function.

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Geometric intuition
For a continuous function y = f(x) whose graph is plotted as a curve, each value of x has a corresponding area function A(x), representing the area beneath the curve between 0 and x. The function A(x) may not be known, but it is given that it represents the area under the curve. The area under the curve between x and x + h could be computed by finding the area between 0 and x + h, then subtracting the area between 0 and x. In other words, the area of this sliver would be A(x + h) A(x).

The area shaded in red stripes can be estimated as h times f(x). Alternatively, if the function A(x) were known, it could be computed as A(x + h) A(x). These two values are approximately equal, particularly for small h.

There is another way to estimate the area of this same sliver. h is multiplied by f(x) to find the area of a rectangle that is approximately the same size as this sliver. It is intuitive that the approximation improves as h becomes smaller. At this point, it is true A(x + h) A(x) is approximately equal to f(x)h. In other words,

with this approximation becoming an equality as h approaches 0 in the limit. When both sides of the equation are divided by h:

As h approaches 0, it can be seen that the right hand side of this equation is simply the derivative A(x) of the area function A(x). The left-hand side of the equation simply remains f(x), since no h is present. It can thus be shown, in an informal way, that f(x) = A(x). That is, the derivative of the area function A(x) is the original function f(x); or, the area function is simply an antiderivative of the original function. Computing the derivative of a function and finding the area under its curve are "opposite" operations. This is the crux of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. Most of the theorem's proof is devoted to showing that the area function A(x) exists in the first place, under the right conditions.

Formal statements
There are two parts to the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. Loosely put, the first part deals with the derivative of an antiderivative, while the second part deals with the relationship between antiderivatives and definite integrals.

First part
This part is sometimes referred to as the First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.[6] Let f be a continuous real-valued function defined on a closed interval [a, b]. Let F be the function defined, for all x in [a, b], by

Then, F is continuous on [a, b], differentiable on the open interval (a, b), and

Fundamental theorem of calculus

338

for all x in (a, b).

Corollary
The fundamental theorem is often employed to compute the definite integral of a function f for which an antiderivative F is known. Specifically, if f is a real-valued continuous function on [a, b], and F is an antiderivative of f in [a, b], then

The corollary assumes continuity on the whole interval. This result is strengthened slightly in the following part of the theorem.

Second part
This part is sometimes referred to as the Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus[7] or the NewtonLeibniz Axiom. Let f and F be real-valued functions defined on a closed interval [a, b] such that the derivative of F is f. That is, f and F are functions such that for all x in [a, b],

If f is Riemann integrable on [a, b] then

The Second part is somewhat stronger than the Corollary because it does not assume that f is continuous. When an antiderivative F exists, then there are infinitely many antiderivatives for f, obtained by adding to F an arbitrary constant. Also, by the first part of the theorem, antiderivatives of f always exist when f is continuous.

Proof of the first part

For a given f(t), define the function F(x) as

For any two numbers x1 and x1 + x in [a, b], we have

and

Subtracting the two equations gives

It can be shown that

(The sum of the areas of two adjacent regions is equal to the area of both regions combined.) Manipulating this equation gives

Fundamental theorem of calculus

339

Substituting the above into (1) results in

According to the mean value theorem for integration, there exists a c in [x1, x1 + x] such that

Substituting the above into (2) we get

Dividing both sides by x gives

The expression on the left side of the equation is Newton's difference quotient for F at x1. Take the limit as x 0 on both sides of the equation.

The expression on the left side of the equation is the definition of the derivative of F at x1. To find the other limit, we use the squeeze theorem. The number c is in the interval [x1, x1 + x], so x1 c x1 + x. Also, and Therefore, according to the squeeze theorem,

Substituting into (3), we get

The function f is continuous at c, so the limit can be taken inside the function. Therefore, we get

which completes the proof.

(Leithold et al., 1996)

Proof of the corollary

Suppose F is an antiderivative of f, with f continuous on [a, b]. Let . By the first part of the theorem, we know G is also an antiderivative of f. It follows by the mean value theorem that there is a number c such that G(x) = F(x) + c, for all x in [a, b]. Letting x = a, we have

which means c = F(a). In other words G(x) = F(x) F(a), and so

Fundamental theorem of calculus

340

Proof of the second part

This is a limit proof by Riemann sums. Let f be (Riemann) integrable on the interval [a, b], and let f admit an antiderivative F on [a, b]. Begin with the quantity F(b) F(a). Let there be numbers x1, ..., xn such that It follows that

Now, we add each F(xi) along with its additive inverse, so that the resulting quantity is equal:

The above quantity can be written as the following sum:

Next, we employ the mean value theorem. Stated briefly, Let F be continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and differentiable on the open interval (a, b). Then there exists some c in (a, b) such that

It follows that

The function F is differentiable on the interval [a, b]; therefore, it is also differentiable and continuous on each interval [xi1, xi]. According to the mean value theorem (above), Substituting the above into (1), we get

The assumption implies

Also,

can be expressed as

of partition

We are describing the area of a rectangle, with the width times the height, and we are adding the areas together. Each rectangle, by virtue of the Mean Value Theorem, describes an approximation of the curve section it is drawn over. Also need not be the same for all values of i, or in other words that the width of the rectangles can differ. What we have to do is approximate the curve with n rectangles. Now, as the size of the partitions get smaller and n increases, resulting in more partitions to cover the space, we get closer and closer to the actual area of the curve.

A converging sequence of Riemann sums. The number in the upper left is the total area of the blue rectangles. They converge to the integral of the function.

By taking the limit of the expression as the norm of the partitions approaches zero, we arrive at the Riemann integral. We know that this limit exists because f was assumed to be integrable. That is, we take the limit as the largest of the partitions approaches zero in size, so that all other partitions are smaller and the number of partitions approaches infinity. So, we take the limit on both sides of (2). This gives us

Fundamental theorem of calculus

341

Neither F(b) nor F(a) is dependent on

, so the limit on the left side remains F(b) F(a).

The expression on the right side of the equation defines the integral over f from a to b. Therefore, we obtain

which completes the proof. It almost looks like the first part of the theorem follows directly from the second. That is, suppose G is an antiderivative of f. Then by the second theorem, . Now, suppose

. Then F has the same derivative as G, and therefore F = f. This argument only works, however, if we already know that f has an antiderivative, and the only way we know that all continuous functions have antiderivatives is by the first part of the Fundamental Theorem.[8] For example if f(x) = ex2, then f has an antiderivative, namely

and there is no simpler expression for this function. It is therefore important not to interpret the second part of the theorem as the definition of the integral. Indeed, there are many functions that are integrable but lack antiderivatives that can be written as an elementary function. Conversely, many functions that have antiderivatives are not Riemann integrable (see Volterra's function).

Examples
As an example, suppose the following is to be calculated:

Here,

and we can use

as the antiderivative. Therefore:

Or, more generally, that

is to be calculated. Here,

and

can be used as the antiderivative. Therefore:

Or, equivalently,

Fundamental theorem of calculus

342

Generalizations
We don't need to assume continuity of f on the whole interval. Part I of the theorem then says: if f is any Lebesgue integrable function on [a, b] and x0 is a number in [a, b] such that f is continuous at x0, then

is differentiable for x = x0 with F(x0) = f(x0). We can relax the conditions on f still further and suppose that it is merely locally integrable. In that case, we can conclude that the function F is differentiable almost everywhere and F(x) = f(x) almost everywhere. On the real line this statement is equivalent to Lebesgue's differentiation theorem. These results remain true for the HenstockKurzweil integral, which allows a larger class of integrable functions (Bartle 2001, Thm. 4.11). In higher dimensions Lebesgue's differentiation theorem generalizes the Fundamental theorem of calculus by stating that for almost every x, the average value of a function f over a ball of radius r centered at x tends to f(x) as r tends to 0. Part II of the theorem is true for any Lebesgue integrable function f, which has an antiderivative F (not all integrable functions do, though). In other words, if a real function F on [a, b] admits a derivative f(x) at every point x of [a, b] and if this derivative f is Lebesgue integrable on [a, b], then
[9]

This result may fail for continuous functions F that admit a derivative f(x) at almost every point x, as the example of the Cantor function shows. But the result remains true if F is absolutely continuous: in that case, F admits a derivative f(x) at almost every point x and, as in the formula above, F(b) F(a) is equal to the integral of f on [a, b]. The conditions of this theorem may again be relaxed by considering the integrals involved as HenstockKurzweil integrals. Specifically, if a continuous function F(x) admits a derivative f(x) at all but countably many points, then f(x) is HenstockKurzweil integrable and F(b) F(a) is equal to the integral of f on [a, b]. The difference here is that the integrability of f does not need to be assumed. (Bartle 2001, Thm. 4.7) The version of Taylor's theorem, which expresses the error term as an integral, can be seen as a generalization of the Fundamental Theorem. There is a version of the theorem for complex functions: suppose U is an open set in C and f : U C is a function that has a holomorphic antiderivative F on U. Then for every curve : [a, b] U, the curve integral can be computed as

The fundamental theorem can be generalized to curve and surface integrals in higher dimensions and on manifolds. One such generalization offered by the calculus of moving surfaces is the time evolution of integrals. The most familiar extensions of the Fundamental theorem of calculus in two dimensions are Green's theorem and the two-dimensional case of the Gradient theorem. One of the most powerful statements in this direction is Stokes' theorem: Let M be an oriented piecewise smooth manifold of dimension n and let be an n1 form that is a compactly supported differential form on M of class C1. If M denotes the boundary of M with its induced orientation, then

Here d is the exterior derivative, which is defined using the manifold structure only. The theorem is often used in situations where M is an embedded oriented submanifold of some bigger manifold on which the form is defined.

Fundamental theorem of calculus

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Notes
[1] More exactly, the theorem deals with definite integration with variable upper limit and arbitrarily selected lower limit. This particular kind of definite integration allows us to compute one of the infinitely many antiderivatives of a function (except for those that do not have a zero). Hence, it is almost equivalent to indefinite integration, defined by most authors as an operation that yields any one of the possible antiderivatives of a function, including those without a zero. [2] Spivak, Michael (1980), Calculus (2nd ed.), Houstan, Texas: Publish or Perish Inc. [3] See, e.g., Marlow Anderson, Victor J. Katz, Robin J. Wilson, Sherlock Holmes in Babylon and Other Tales of Mathematical History, Mathematical Association of America, 2004, p. 114 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?vid=ISBN0883855461& id=BKRE5AjRM3AC& pg=PA114& lpg=PA114& ots=Z01TZKrQXY& dq="james+ gregory"+ "fundamental+ theorem"& sig=6xDqL0oNAhWw66IqPdI5fQX7euA). [4] http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ geometricallectu00barruoft [5] Note that the quantity [6] [7] [8] [9] is not actually a fraction, however for well-behaved functions we can pretend it is to get intuitive results.

Apostol 1967, 5.1 Apostol 1967, 5.3 Spivak, Michael (1980), Calculus (2nd ed.), Houston, Texas: Publish or Perish Inc. Rudin 1987, th. 7.21

References
Apostol, Tom M. (1967), Calculus, Vol. 1: One-Variable Calculus with an Introduction to Linear Algebra (2nd ed.), New York: John Wiley & Sons, ISBN978-0-471-00005-1. Bartle, Robert (2001), A Modern Theory of Integration, AMS, ISBN0-8218-0845-1. Larson, Ron; Edwards, Bruce H.; Heyd, David E. (2002), Calculus of a single variable (7th ed.), Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, ISBN978-0-618-14916-2. Leithold, L. (1996), The calculus of a single variable (6th ed.), New York: HarperCollins College Publishers. Malet, A, Studies on James Gregorie (1638-1675) (PhD Thesis, Princeton, 1989). Rudin, Walter (1987), Real and Complex Analysis (third ed.), New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., ISBN0-07-054234-1 Stewart, J. (2003), "Fundamental Theorem of Calculus", Calculus: early transcendentals, Belmont, California: Thomson/Brooks/Cole. Turnbull, H. W., ed. (1939), The James Gregory Tercentenary Memorial Volume, London. Spivak, Michael (1980), Calculus (2nd ed.), Houston, Texas: Publish or Perish Inc.. Courant, Richard; John, Fritz (1965), Introduction to Calculus and Analysis, Springer.

External links
James Gregory's Euclidean Proof of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (http://mathdl.maa.org/ convergence/1/?pa=content&sa=viewDocument&nodeId=388&bodyId=343) at Convergence (http://mathdl. maa.org/convergence/1/) Isaac Barrow's proof of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (http://school.maths.uwa.edu.au/~schultz/ L18Barrow.html)

Newton's laws of motion

344

Newton's laws of motion

Newton's laws of motion are three physical laws that form the basis for classical mechanics. They describe the relationship between the forces acting on a body and its motion due to those forces. They have been expressed in several different ways over nearly three centuries,[1] and can be summarized as follows: 1. First law: If an object experiences no net force, then its velocity is constant: the object is either at rest (if its velocity is zero), or it moves in a straight line with constant speed (if its velocity is nonzero).[2][3][3] 2. Second law: The acceleration a of a body is parallel and directly proportional to the net force F acting on the body, is in the direction of the net force, and is inversely proportional to the mass m of the body, i.e., F=ma. 3. Third law: When a first body exerts a force F1 on a second body, the second body simultaneously exerts a force F2= F1 on the first body. This means that F1 and F2 are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. The three laws of motion were first compiled by Sir Isaac Newton in his work Philosophi Naturalis Principia Mathematica, first Newton's First and Second laws, in Latin, from the published in 1687.[4] Newton used them to explain and investigate original 1687 Principia Mathematica. [5] the motion of many physical objects and systems. For example, in the third volume of the text, Newton showed that these laws of motion, combined with his law of universal gravitation, explained Kepler's laws of planetary motion.

Overview
Newton's laws are applied to bodies (objects) which are considered or idealized as a particle,[6] in the sense that the extent of the body is neglected in the evaluation of its motion, i.e., the object is small compared to the distances involved in the analysis, or the deformation and rotation of the body is of no importance in the analysis. Therefore, a planet can be idealized as a particle for analysis of its orbital motion around a star. In their original form, Newton's laws of motion are not adequate to characterize the motion of rigid bodies and deformable bodies. Leonard Euler in 1750 introduced a generalization of Newton's laws of motion for rigid bodies called the Euler's laws of motion, later applied as well for deformable bodies assumed as a continuum. If a body is represented as an assemblage of discrete particles, each governed by Newtons laws of motion, then Eulers laws can be derived from Newtons laws. Eulers laws can, however, be taken as axioms describing the laws of motion for extended bodies, independently

Isaac Newton (1643-1727), the physicist who formulated the laws

of any particle structure.[7] Newton's laws hold only with respect to a certain set of frames of reference called Newtonian or inertial reference frames. Some authors interpret the first law as defining what an inertial reference frame is; from this point of view,

Newton's laws of motion the second law only holds when the observation is made from an inertial reference frame, and therefore the first law cannot be proved as a special case of the second. Other authors do treat the first law as a corollary of the second.[8][9] The explicit concept of an inertial frame of reference was not developed until long after Newton's death. In the given interpretation mass, acceleration, momentum, and (most importantly) force are assumed to be externally defined quantities. This is the most common, but not the only interpretation of the way one can consider the laws to be a definition of these quantities. Newtonian mechanics has been superseded by special relativity, but it is still useful as an approximation when the speeds involved are much slower than the speed of light.[10]

345

Newton's first law

The first law law states that if the net force (the vector sum of all forces acting on an object) is zero, then the velocity of the object is constant. Velocity is a vector quantity which expresses both the object's speed and the direction of its motion; therefore, the statement that the object's velocity is constant is a statement that both its speed and the direction of its motion are constant. The first law can be stated mathematically as

Consequently, An object that is at rest will stay at rest unless an unbalanced force acts upon it. An object that is in motion will not change its velocity unless an unbalanced force acts upon it. This is known as uniform motion. An object continues to do whatever it happens to be doing unless a force is exerted upon it. If it is at rest, it continues in a state of rest (demonstrated when a tablecloth is skillfully whipped from under dishes on a tabletop and the dishes remain in their initial state of rest). If an object is moving, it continues to move without turning or changing its speed. This is evident in space probes that continually move in outer space. Changes in motion must be imposed against the tendency of an object to retain its state of motion. In the absence of net forces, a moving object tends to move along a straight line path indefinitely. Newton placed the first law of motion to establish frames of reference for which the other laws are applicable. The first law of motion postulates the existence of at least one frame of reference called a Newtonian or inertial reference frame, relative to which the motion of a particle not subject to forces is a straight line at a constant speed.[8][11] Newton's first law is often referred to as the law of inertia. Thus, a condition necessary for the uniform motion of a particle relative to an inertial reference frame is that the total net force acting on it is zero. In this sense, the first law can be restated as: In every material universe, the motion of a particle in a preferential reference frame is determined by the action of forces whose total vanished for all times when and only when the velocity of the particle is constant in . That is, a particle initially at rest or in uniform motion in the preferential frame continues in that state unless compelled by forces to change it.[12] Newton's laws are valid only in an inertial reference frame. Any reference frame that is in uniform motion with respect to an inertial frame is also an inertial frame, i.e. Galilean invariance or the principle of Newtonian relativity.[13]

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History
From the original Latin of Newton's Principia:

Lex I: Corpus omne perseverare in statu suo quiescendi vel movendi uniformiter in directum, nisi quatenus a viribus impressis cogitur statum illum mutare.

Translated to English, this reads:

Law I: Every body persists in its state of being at rest or of moving uniformly straight forward, except insofar as it is compelled to change its [14] state by force impressed.

Aristotle had the view that all objects have a natural place in the universe: that heavy objects (such as rocks) wanted to be at rest on the Earth and that light objects like smoke wanted to be at rest in the sky and the stars wanted to remain in the heavens. He thought that a body was in its natural state when it was at rest, and for the body to move in a straight line at a constant speed an external agent was needed to continually propel it, otherwise it would stop moving. Galileo Galilei, however, realized that a force is necessary to change the velocity of a body, i.e., acceleration, but no force is needed to maintain its velocity. In other words, Galileo stated that, in the absence of a force, a moving object will continue moving. The tendency of objects to resist changes in motion was what Galileo called inertia. This insight was refined by Newton, who made it into his first law, also known as the "law of inertia"no force means no acceleration, and hence the body will maintain its velocity. As Newton's first law is a restatement of the law of inertia which Galileo had already described, Newton appropriately gave credit to Galileo. The law of inertia apparently occurred to several different natural philosophers and scientists independently, including Thomas Hobbes in his Leviathan.[15] The 17th century philosopher Ren Descartes also formulated the law, although he did not perform any experiments to confirm it.

Newton's second law

Explanation
The second law states that the net force on an object is equal to the rate of change (that is, the derivative) of its linear momentum p in an inertial reference frame:

The second law can also be stated in terms of an object's acceleration. Since the law is valid only for constant-mass systems,[16][17][18] the mass can be taken outside the differentiation operator by the constant factor rule in differentiation. Thus,

where F is the net force applied, m is the mass of the body, and a is the body's acceleration. Thus, the net force applied to a body produces a proportional acceleration. In other words, if a body is accelerating, then there is a force on it. Consistent with the first law, the time derivative of the momentum is non-zero when the momentum changes direction, even if there is no change in its magnitude; such is the case with uniform circular motion. The relationship also implies the conservation of momentum: when the net force on the body is zero, the momentum of the body is constant. Any net force is equal to the rate of change of the momentum. Any mass that is gained or lost by the system will cause a change in momentum that is not the result of an external force. A different equation is necessary for variable-mass systems (see below).

Newton's laws of motion Newton's second law requires modification if the effects of special relativity are to be taken into account, because at high speeds the approximation that momentum is the product of rest mass and velocity is not accurate.

347

Impulse
An impulse J occurs when a force F acts over an interval of time t, and it is given by[19][20]

Since force is the time derivative of momentum, it follows that This relation between impulse and momentum is closer to Newton's wording of the second law.[21] Impulse is a concept frequently used in the analysis of collisions and impacts.[22]

Variable-mass systems
Variable-mass systems, like a rocket burning fuel and ejecting spent gases, are not closed and cannot be directly treated by making mass a function of time in the second law;[17] that is, the following formula is wrong:[18]

The falsehood of this formula can be seen by noting that it does not respect Galilean invariance: a variable-mass object with F= 0 in one frame will be seen to have F 0 in another frame.[16] The correct equation of motion for a body whose mass m varies with time by either ejecting or accreting mass is obtained by applying the second law to the entire, constant-mass system consisting of the body and its ejected/accreted mass; the result is[16]

where u is the relative velocity of the escaping or incoming mass as seen by the body. From this equation one can derive the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation. Under some conventions, the quantity u dm/dt on the left-hand side, known as the thrust, is defined as a force (the force exerted on the body by the changing mass, such as rocket exhaust) and is included in the quantity F. Then, by substituting the definition of acceleration, the equation becomes F= ma.

History
Newton's original Latin reads:

Lex II: Mutationem motus proportionalem esse vi motrici impressae, et fieri secundum lineam rectam qua vis illa imprimitur.

This was translated quite closely in Motte's 1729 translation as:

Law II: The alteration of motion is ever proportional to the motive force impress'd; and is made in the direction of the right line in which that force is impress'd.

According to modern ideas of how Newton was using his terminology,[23] this is understood, in modern terms, as an equivalent of: The change of momentum of a body is proportional to the impulse impressed on the body, and happens along the straight line on which that impulse is impressed. Motte's 1729 translation of Newton's Latin continued with Newton's commentary on the second law of motion, reading: If a force generates a motion, a double force will generate double the motion, a triple force triple the

Newton's laws of motion motion, whether that force be impressed altogether and at once, or gradually and successively. And this motion (being always directed the same way with the generating force), if the body moved before, is added to or subtracted from the former motion, according as they directly conspire with or are directly contrary to each other; or obliquely joined, when they are oblique, so as to produce a new motion compounded from the determination of both. The sense or senses in which Newton used his terminology, and how he understood the second law and intended it to be understood, have been extensively discussed by historians of science, along with the relations between Newton's formulation and modern formulations.[24]

348

Newton's third law

The third law states that all forces exist in pairs: if one object A exerts a force FA on a second object B, then B simultaneously exerts a force FB on A, and the two forces are equal and opposite: FA = FB.[25] The third law means that all forces are interactions between different bodies,[26][27] and thus that there is no such thing as a unidirectional force or a force that acts on only one body. This law is sometimes referred to as the action-reaction law, with FA called the "action" and FB the "reaction". The action and the reaction are simultaneous, and it does not matter which is called the action and which is called reaction; both forces are part of a single interaction, and neither force exists without the other.[25] The two forces in Newton's third law are of the same type (e.g., if the road exerts a forward frictional force on an accelerating car's tires, then it is also a frictional force that Newton's third law predicts for the tires pushing backward on the road).

An illustration of Newton's third law in which two skaters push against each other. The skater on the left exerts a force F on the skater on the right, and the skater on the right exerts a force F on the skater on the right. Although the forces are equal, the accelerations are not: the less massive skater will have a greater acceleration due to Newton's second law.

From a conceptual standpoint, Newton's third law is seen when a person walks: they push against the floor, and the floor pushes against the person. Similarly, the tires of a car push against the road while the road pushes back on the tiresthe tires and road simultaneously push against each other. In swimming, a person interacts with the water, pushing the water backward, while the water simultaneously pushes the person forwardboth the person and the water push against each other. The reaction forces account for the motion in these examples. These forces depend on friction; a person or car on ice, for example, may be unable to exert the action force to produce the needed reaction force.[28]

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History

Lex III: Actioni contrariam semper et qualem esse reactionem: sive corporum duorum actiones in se mutuo semper esse quales et in partes contrarias dirigi.

Law III: To every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction: or the forces of two bodies on each other are always equal and are directed in opposite directions.

A more direct translation than the one just given above is: LAW III: To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction: or the mutual actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal, and directed to contrary parts. Whatever draws or presses another is as much drawn or pressed by that other. If you press a stone with your finger, the finger is also pressed by the stone. If a horse draws a stone tied to a rope, the horse (if I may so say) will be equally drawn back towards the stone: for the distended rope, by the same endeavour to relax or unbend itself, will draw the horse as much towards the stone, as it does the stone towards the horse, and will obstruct the progress of the one as much as it advances that of the other. If a body impinges upon another, and by its force changes the motion of the other, that body also (because of the equality of the mutual pressure) will undergo an equal change, in its own motion, toward the contrary part. The changes made by these actions are equal, not in the velocities but in the motions of the bodies; that is to say, if the bodies are not hindered by any other impediments. For, as the motions are equally changed, the changes of the velocities made toward contrary parts are reciprocally proportional to the bodies. This law takes place also in attractions, as will be proved in the next scholium.[29] In the above, as usual, motion is Newton's name for momentum, hence his careful distinction between motion and velocity. Newton used the third law to derive the law of conservation of momentum;[30] however from a deeper perspective, conservation of momentum is the more fundamental idea (derived via Noether's theorem from Galilean invariance), and holds in cases where Newton's third law appears to fail, for instance when force fields as well as particles carry momentum, and in quantum mechanics.

Importance and range of validity

Newton's laws were verified by experiment and observation for over 200 years, and they are excellent approximations at the scales and speeds of everyday life. Newton's laws of motion, together with his law of universal gravitation and the mathematical techniques of calculus, provided for the first time a unified quantitative explanation for a wide range of physical phenomena. These three laws hold to a good approximation for macroscopic objects under everyday conditions. However, Newton's laws (combined with universal gravitation and classical electrodynamics) are inappropriate for use in certain circumstances, most notably at very small scales, very high speeds (in special relativity, the Lorentz factor must be included in the expression for momentum along with rest mass and velocity) or very strong gravitational fields. Therefore, the laws cannot be used to explain phenomena such as conduction of electricity in a semiconductor, optical properties of substances, errors in non-relativistically corrected GPS systems and superconductivity. Explanation of these phenomena requires more sophisticated physical theories, including general relativity and quantum field theory. In quantum mechanics concepts such as force, momentum, and position are defined by linear operators that operate on the quantum state; at speeds that are much lower than the speed of light, Newton's laws are just as exact for these operators as they are for classical objects. At speeds comparable to the speed of light, the second law holds in the original form F=dp/dt, where F and p are four-vectors.

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Relationship to the conservation laws

In modern physics, the laws of conservation of momentum, energy, and angular momentum are of more general validity than Newton's laws, since they apply to both light and matter, and to both classical and non-classical physics. This can be stated simply, "Momentum, energy and angular momentum cannot be created or destroyed." Because force is the time derivative of momentum, the concept of force is redundant and subordinate to the conservation of momentum, and is not used in fundamental theories (e.g., quantum mechanics, quantum electrodynamics, general relativity, etc.). The standard model explains in detail how the three fundamental forces known as gauge forces originate out of exchange by virtual particles. Other forces such as gravity and fermionic degeneracy pressure also arise from the momentum conservation. Indeed, the conservation of 4-momentum in inertial motion via curved space-time results in what we call gravitational force in general relativity theory. Application of space derivative (which is a momentum operator in quantum mechanics) to overlapping wave functions of pair of fermions (particles with half-integer spin) results in shifts of maxima of compound wavefunction away from each other, which is observable as "repulsion" of fermions. Newton stated the third law within a world-view that assumed instantaneous action at a distance between material particles. However, he was prepared for philosophical criticism of this action at a distance, and it was in this context that he stated the famous phrase "I feign no hypotheses". In modern physics, action at a distance has been completely eliminated, except for subtle effects involving quantum entanglement. However in modern engineering in all practical applications involving the motion of vehicles and satellites, the concept of action at a distance is used extensively. The discovery of the Second Law of Thermodynamics by Carnot in the 19th century showed that every physical quantity is not conserved over time, thus disproving the validity of inducing the opposite metaphysical view from Newton's laws. Hence, a "steady-state" worldview based solely on Newton's laws and the conservation laws does not take entropy into account.

References and notes

[1] For explanations of Newton's laws of motion by Newton in the early 18th century, by the physicist William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) in the mid-19th century, and by a modern text of the early 21st century, see: Newton's "Axioms or Laws of Motion" starting on page 19 of volume 1 of the 1729 translation (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Tm0FAAAAQAAJ& pg=PA19#v=onepage& q=& f=false) of the "Principia"; Section 242, Newton's laws of motion (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=wwO9X3RPt5kC& pg=PA178) in Thomson, W (Lord Kelvin), and Tait, P G, (1867), Treatise on natural philosophy, volume 1; and Benjamin Crowell (2000), Newtonian Physics. Halliday Browne, Michael E. (1999-07) (Series: Schaum's Outline Series). Schaum's outline of theory and problems of physics for engineering and science (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=5gURYN4vFx4C& pg=PA58& dq=newton's+ first+ law+ of+ motion& q=newton's first law of motion). McGraw-Hill Companies. pp.58. ISBN978-0-07-008498-8. . See the Principia on line at Andrew Motte Translation (http:/ / ia310114. us. archive. org/ 2/ items/ newtonspmathema00newtrich/ newtonspmathema00newtrich. pdf) Andrew Motte translation of Newton's Principia (1687) Axioms or Laws of Motion (http:/ / members. tripod. com/ ~gravitee/ axioms. htm) [...]while Newton had used the word 'body' vaguely and in at least three different meanings, Euler realized that the statements of Newton are generally correct only when applied to masses concentrated at isolated points;Truesdell, Clifford A.; Becchi, Antonio; Benvenuto, Edoardo (2003). Essays on the history of mechanics: in memory of Clifford Ambrose Truesdell and Edoardo Benvenuto (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=6LO_U6T-HvsC& printsec=frontcover& dq=essays+ in+ the+ History& cd=9#v=snippet& q="isolated points"). New York: Birkhuser. p.207. ISBN3-7643-1476-1. . Lubliner, Jacob (2008). Plasticity Theory (Revised Edition) (http:/ / www. ce. berkeley. edu/ ~coby/ plas/ pdf/ book. pdf). Dover Publications. ISBN0-486-46290-0. .

[2] [3]

[4] [5] [6]

[7]

[8] Galili, I.; Tseitlin, M. (2003). "Newton's First Law: Text, Translations, Interpretations and Physics Education" (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ j42866672t863506/ ). Science & Education 12 (1): 4573. Bibcode2003Sc&Ed..12...45G. doi:10.1023/A:1022632600805. .

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[9] Benjamin Crowell. "4. Force and Motion" (http:/ / www. lightandmatter. com/ html_books/ 1np/ ch04/ ch04. html). Newtonian Physics. ISBN0-9704670-1-X. . [10] In making a modern adjustment of the second law for (some of) the effects of relativity, m would be treated as the relativistic mass, producing the relativistic expression for momentum, and the third law might be modified if possible to allow for the finite signal propagation speed between distant interacting particles. [11] NMJ Woodhouse (2003). Special relativity (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=ggPXQAeeRLgC& printsec=frontcover& dq=isbn=1852334266#PPA6,M1). London/Berlin: Springer. p.6. ISBN1-85233-426-6. . [12] Beatty, Millard F. (2006). Principles of engineering mechanics Volume 2 of Principles of Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics-The Analysis of Motion, (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=wr2QOBqOBakC& lpg=PP1& pg=PA24#v=onepage& q). Springer. p.24. ISBN0-387-23704-6. . [13] Thornton, Marion (2004). Classical dynamics of particles and systems (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=HOqLQgAACAAJ& dq=classical dynamics of particles and systems) (5th ed.). Brooks/Cole. p.53. ISBN0-534-40896-6. . [14] Isaac Newton, The Principia, A new translation by I.B. Cohen and A. Whitman, University of California press, Berkeley 1999. [15] Thomas Hobbes wrote in Leviathan:

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That when a thing lies still, unless somewhat else stir it, it will lie still forever, is a truth that no man doubts. But [the proposition] that when a thing is in motion it will eternally be in motion unless somewhat else stay it, though the reason be the same (namely that nothing can change itself), is not so easily assented to. For men measure not only other men but all other things by themselves. And because they find themselves subject after motion to pain and lassitude, [they] think every thing else grows weary of motion and seeks repose of its own accord, little considering whether it be not some other motion wherein that desire of rest they find in themselves, consists.
[16] Plastino, Angel R.; Muzzio, Juan C. (1992). "On the use and abuse of Newton's second law for variable mass problems". Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy (Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers) 53 (3): 227232. Bibcode1992CeMDA..53..227P. doi:10.1007/BF00052611. ISSN0923-2958. "We may conclude emphasizing that Newton's second law is valid for constant mass only. When the mass varies due to accretion or ablation, [an alternate equation explicitly accounting for the changing mass] should be used." [17] Halliday; Resnick. Physics. 1. pp.199. ISBN0-471-03710-9. "It is important to note that we cannot derive a general expression for Newton's second law for variable mass systems by treating the mass in F = dP/dt = d(Mv) as a variable. [...] We can use F = dP/dt to analyze variable mass systems only if we apply it to an entire system of constant mass having parts among which there is an interchange of mass." [Emphasis as in the original] [18] Kleppner, Daniel; Robert Kolenkow (1973). An Introduction to Mechanics. McGraw-Hill. pp.133134. ISBN0-07-035048-5. "Recall that F = dP/dt was established for a system composed of a certain set of particles[. ... I]t is essential to deal with the same set of particles throughout the time interval[. ...] Consequently, the mass of the system can not change during the time of interest." [19] Hannah, J, Hillier, M J, Applied Mechanics, p221, Pitman Paperbacks, 1971 [20] Raymond A. Serway, Jerry S. Faughn (2006). College Physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=wDKD4IggBJ4C& pg=PA247& dq=impulse+ momentum+ "rate+ of+ change"). Pacific Grove CA: Thompson-Brooks/Cole. p.161. ISBN0-534-99724-4. . [21] I Bernard Cohen (Peter M. Harman & Alan E. Shapiro, Eds) (2002). The investigation of difficult things: essays on Newton and the history of the exact sciences in honour of D.T. Whiteside (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=oYZ-0PUrjBcC& pg=PA353& dq=impulse+ momentum+ "rate+ of+ change"+ -angular+ date:2000-2009). Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press. p.353. ISBN0-521-89266-X. . [22] WJ Stronge (2004). Impact mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=nHgcS0bfZ28C& pg=PA12& dq=impulse+ momentum+ "rate+ of+ change"+ -angular+ date:2000-2009). Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press. p.12 ff. ISBN0-521-60289-0. . [23] According to Maxwell in Matter and Motion, Newton meant by motion "the quantity of matter moved as well as the rate at which it travels" and by impressed force he meant "the time during which the force acts as well as the intensity of the force". See Harman and Shapiro, cited below. [24] See for example (1) I Bernard Cohen, "Newtons Second Law and the Concept of Force in the Principia", in "The Annus Mirabilis of Sir Isaac Newton 16661966" (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1967), pages 143185; (2) Stuart Pierson, "'Corpore cadente. . .': Historians Discuss Newtons Second Law", Perspectives on Science, 1 (1993), pages 627658; and (3) Bruce Pourciau, "Newton's Interpretation of Newton's Second Law", Archive for History of Exact Sciences, vol.60 (2006), pages 157207; also an online discussion by G E Smith, in 5. Newton's Laws of Motion (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ newton-principia/ index. html#NewLawMot), s.5 of "Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica" in (online) Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2007. [25] Resnick; Halliday; Krane (1992). Physics, Volume 1 (4th ed.). p.83. [26] C Hellingman (1992). "Newtons third law revisited". Phys. Educ. 27 (2): 112115. Bibcode1992PhyEd..27..112H. doi:10.1088/0031-9120/27/2/011. "Quoting Newton in the Principia: It is not one action by which the Sun attracts Jupiter, and another by which Jupiter attracts the Sun; but it is one action by which the Sun and Jupiter mutually endeavour to come nearer together." [27] Resnick and Halliday (1977). "Physics". John Wiley & Sons. pp.7879. "Any single force is only one aspect of a mutual interaction between two bodies." [28] Hewitt (2006), p. 75

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[29] This translation of the third law and the commentary following it can be found in the "Principia" on page 20 of volume 1 of the 1729 translation (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Tm0FAAAAQAAJ& pg=PA20#v=onepage& q=& f=false). [30] Newton, Principia, Corollary III to the laws of motion

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Further reading and works referred to

Crowell, Benjamin, (2011), Light and Matter (http://www.lightandmatter.com/lm/), (2011, Light and Matter), especially at Section 4.2, Newton's First Law (http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/lm/ch04/ch04. html#Section4.2), Section 4.3, Newton's Second Law (http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/lm/ ch04/ch04.html#Section4.3), and Section 5.1, Newton's Third Law (http://www.lightandmatter.com/ html_books/lm/ch05/ch05.html#Section5.1). Feynman, R. P.; Leighton, R. B.; Sands, M. (2005). The Feynman Lectures on Physics. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). Pearson/Addison-Wesley. ISBN0-8053-9049-9. Fowles, G. R.; Cassiday, G. L. (1999). Analytical Mechanics (6th ed.). Saunders College Publishing. ISBN0-03-022317-2. Likins, Peter W. (1973). Elements of Engineering Mechanics. McGraw-Hill Book Company. ISBN0-07-037852-5. Marion, Jerry; Thornton, Stephen (1995). Classical Dynamics of Particles and Systems. Harcourt College Publishers. ISBN0-03-097302-3. Newton, Isaac, "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy", 1729 English translation based on 3rd Latin edition (1726), volume 1, containing Book 1 (http://books.google.com/books?id=Tm0FAAAAQAAJ), especially at the section Axioms or Laws of Motion starting page 19 (http://books.google.com/ books?id=Tm0FAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA19). Newton, Isaac, "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy", 1729 English translation based on 3rd Latin edition (1726), volume 2, containing Books 2 & 3 (http://books.google.com/books?id=6EqxPav3vIsC). Thomson, W (Lord Kelvin), and Tait, P G, (1867), Treatise on natural philosophy (http://books.google.com/ books?id=wwO9X3RPt5kC), volume 1, especially at Section 242, Newton's laws of motion (http://books. google.com/books?id=wwO9X3RPt5kC&pg=PA178). NMJ Woodhouse (2003). Special relativity (http://books.google.com/?id=ggPXQAeeRLgC& printsec=frontcover&dq=isbn=1852334266#PPA6,M1). London/Berlin: Springer. p.6. ISBN1-85233-426-6.

External links
MIT Physics video lecture (http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Physics/8-01Physics-IFall1999/VideoLectures/ detail/Video-Segment-Index-for-L-6.htm) on Newton's three laws Light and Matter (http://www.lightandmatter.com/lm/) an on-line textbook Motion Mountain (http://www.motionmountain.net) an on-line textbook Simulation on Newton's first law of motion (http://phy.hk/wiki/englishhtm/firstlaw.htm) " Newton's Second Law (http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/NewtonsSecondLaw/)" by Enrique Zeleny, Wolfram Demonstrations Project. Newton's 3rd Law demonstrated in a vacuum (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9gFMObYCccU)

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Gravitation
Gravitation, or gravity, is the natural phenomenon by which physical bodies appear to attract each other with a force proportional to their masses. It is most commonly experienced as the agent that gives weight to objects with mass and causes them to fall to the ground when dropped. The phenomenon of gravitation itself, however, is a byproduct of a more fundamental phenomenon described by general relativity, which suggests that spacetime is curved according to the presence of matter through a yet-to-be discovered mechanism. Gravitation is one of the four fundamental interactions of nature, along with electromagnetism, and the nuclear strong force and weak force. In modern physics, the phenomenon of gravitation is most accurately described by the general theory of relativity by Einstein, in which the phenomenon itself is a consequence of the curvature of spacetime governing the motion of inertial objects. The simpler Newton's law of universal gravitation provides an accurate approximation for most physical situations including calculations as critical as spacecraft trajectory. From a cosmological perspective, gravitation causes dispersed matter to coalesce, and coalesced matter to remain intact, thus accounting for the existence of planets, stars, galaxies and most of the macroscopic objects in the universe. It is responsible for keeping the Earth and the other planets in their orbits around the Sun; for keeping the Moon in its orbit around the Earth; for the formation of tides; for natural convection, by which fluid flow occurs under the influence of a density gradient and gravity; for heating the interiors of forming stars and planets to very high temperatures; and for various other phenomena observed on Earth and throughout the universe.

History of gravitational theory

Scientific revolution
Modern work on gravitational theory began with the work of Galileo Galilei in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. In his famous (though possibly apocryphal[1]) experiment dropping balls from the Tower of Pisa, and later with careful measurements of balls rolling down inclines, Galileo showed that gravitation accelerates all objects at the same rate. This was a major departure from Aristotle's belief that heavier objects accelerate faster.[2] Galileo correctly postulated air resistance as the reason that lighter objects may fall more slowly in an atmosphere. Galileo's work set the stage for the formulation of Newton's theory of gravity.

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Newton's theory of gravitation

In 1687, English mathematician Sir Isaac Newton published Principia, which hypothesizes the inverse-square law of universal gravitation. In his own words, I deduced that the forces which keep the planets in their orbs must [be] reciprocally as the squares of their distances from the centers about which they revolve: and thereby compared the force requisite to keep the Moon in her Orb with the force of gravity at the surface of the Earth; and found them answer pretty nearly.[3] Newton's theory enjoyed its greatest success when it was used to predict the existence of Neptune based on motions of Uranus that could not be accounted for by the actions of the other planets. Calculations by both John Couch Adams and Urbain Le Verrier predicted the general position of the planet, and Le Verrier's calculations are what led Johann Gottfried Galle to the discovery of Neptune.
Sir Isaac Newton, an English physicist who lived from 1642 to 1727 A discrepancy in Mercury's orbit pointed out flaws in Newton's theory. By the end of the 19th century, it was known that its orbit showed slight perturbations that could not be accounted for entirely under Newton's theory, but all searches for another perturbing body (such as a planet orbiting the Sun even closer than Mercury) had been fruitless. The issue was resolved in 1915 by Albert Einstein's new theory of general relativity, which accounted for the small discrepancy in Mercury's orbit.

Although Newton's theory has been superseded, most modern non-relativistic gravitational calculations are still made using Newton's theory because it is a much simpler theory to work with than general relativity, and gives sufficiently accurate results for most applications involving sufficiently small masses, speeds and energies.

Equivalence principle
The equivalence principle, explored by a succession of researchers including Galileo, Lornd Etvs, and Einstein, expresses the idea that all objects fall in the same way. The simplest way to test the weak equivalence principle is to drop two objects of different masses or compositions in a vacuum, and see if they hit the ground at the same time. These experiments demonstrate that all objects fall at the same rate when friction (including air resistance) is negligible. More sophisticated tests use a torsion balance of a type invented by Etvs. Satellite experiments, for example STEP, are planned for more accurate experiments in space.[4] Formulations of the equivalence principle include: The weak equivalence principle: The trajectory of a point mass in a gravitational field depends only on its initial position and velocity, and is independent of its composition.[5] The Einsteinian equivalence principle: The outcome of any local non-gravitational experiment in a freely falling laboratory is independent of the velocity of the laboratory and its location in spacetime.[6] The strong equivalence principle requiring both of the above.

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General relativity
In general relativity, the effects of gravitation are ascribed to spacetime curvature instead of a force. The starting point for general relativity is the equivalence principle, which equates free fall with inertial motion, and describes free-falling inertial objects as being accelerated relative to non-inertial observers on the ground.[7][8] In Newtonian physics, however, no such acceleration can occur unless at least one of the objects is being operated on by a force. Einstein proposed that spacetime is curved by matter, and that free-falling objects are moving along locally straight paths in Two-dimensional analogy of spacetime distortion generated by the mass of an curved spacetime. These straight paths are object. Matter changes the geometry of spacetime, this (curved) geometry being interpreted as gravity. White lines do not represent the curvature of space but called geodesics. Like Newton's first law of instead represent the coordinate system imposed on the curved spacetime, which motion, Einstein's theory states that if a would be rectilinear in a flat spacetime. force is applied on an object, it would deviate from a geodesic. For instance, we are no longer following geodesics while standing because the mechanical resistance of the Earth exerts an upward force on us, and we are non-inertial on the ground as a result. This explains why moving along the geodesics in spacetime is considered inertial. Einstein discovered the field equations of general relativity, which relate the presence of matter and the curvature of spacetime and are named after him. The Einstein field equations are a set of 10 simultaneous, non-linear, differential equations. The solutions of the field equations are the components of the metric tensor of spacetime. A metric tensor describes a geometry of spacetime. The geodesic paths for a spacetime are calculated from the metric tensor. Notable solutions of the Einstein field equations include: The Schwarzschild solution, which describes spacetime surrounding a spherically symmetric non-rotating uncharged massive object. For compact enough objects, this solution generated a black hole with a central singularity. For radial distances from the center which are much greater than the Schwarzschild radius, the accelerations predicted by the Schwarzschild solution are practically identical to those predicted by Newton's theory of gravity. The Reissner-Nordstrm solution, in which the central object has an electrical charge. For charges with a geometrized length which are less than the geometrized length of the mass of the object, this solution produces black holes with two event horizons. The Kerr solution for rotating massive objects. This solution also produces black holes with multiple event horizons. The Kerr-Newman solution for charged, rotating massive objects. This solution also produces black holes with multiple event horizons. The cosmological Friedmann-Lemaitre-Robertson-Walker solution, which predicts the expansion of the universe. The tests of general relativity included the following:[9] General relativity accounts for the anomalous perihelion precession of Mercury.2 The prediction that time runs slower at lower potentials has been confirmed by the PoundRebka experiment, the HafeleKeating experiment, and the GPS.

Gravitation The prediction of the deflection of light was first confirmed by Arthur Stanley Eddington from his observations during the Solar eclipse of May 29, 1919.[10][11] Eddington measured starlight deflections twice those predicted by Newtonian corpuscular theory, in accordance with the predictions of general relativity. However, his interpretation of the results was later disputed.[12] More recent tests using radio interferometric measurements of quasars passing behind the Sun have more accurately and consistently confirmed the deflection of light to the degree predicted by general relativity.[13] See also gravitational lens. The time delay of light passing close to a massive object was first identified by Irwin I. Shapiro in 1964 in interplanetary spacecraft signals. Gravitational radiation has been indirectly confirmed through studies of binary pulsars. Alexander Friedmann in 1922 found that Einstein equations have non-stationary solutions (even in the presence of the cosmological constant). In 1927 Georges Lematre showed that static solutions of the Einstein equations, which are possible in the presence of the cosmological constant, are unstable, and therefore the static universe envisioned by Einstein could not exist. Later, in 1931, Einstein himself agreed with the results of Friedmann and Lematre. Thus general relativity predicted that the Universe had to be non-staticit had to either expand or contract. The expansion of the universe discovered by Edwin Hubble in 1929 confirmed this prediction.[14] The theory's prediction of frame dragging was consistent with the recent Gravity Probe B results.[15] General relativity predicts that light should lose its energy when travelling away from the massive bodies. The group of Radek Wojtak of the Niels Bohr Institute at the University of Copenhagen collected data from 8000 galaxy clusters and found that the light coming from the cluster centers tended to be red-shifted compared to the cluster edges, confirming the energy loss due to gravity.[16]

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Gravity and quantum mechanics

In the decades after the discovery of general relativity it was realized that general relativity is incompatible with quantum mechanics.[17] It is possible to describe gravity in the framework of quantum field theory like the other fundamental forces, such that the attractive force of gravity arises due to exchange of virtual gravitons, in the same way as the electromagnetic force arises from exchange of virtual photons.[18][19] This reproduces general relativity in the classical limit. However, this approach fails at short distances of the order of the Planck length,[17] where a more complete theory of quantum gravity (or a new approach to quantum mechanics) is required.

Specifics
Earth's gravity
Every planetary body (including the Earth) is surrounded by its own gravitational field, which exerts an attractive force on all objects. Assuming a spherically symmetrical planet, the strength of this field at any given point is proportional to the planetary body's mass and inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the center of the body. The strength of the gravitational field is numerically equal to the acceleration of objects under its influence, and its value at the Earth's surface, denoted g, is approximately expressed below as the standard average. g = 9.81m/s2 = 32.2ft/s2 This means that, ignoring air resistance, an object falling freely near the Earth's surface increases its velocity by 9.81m/s (32.2ft/s or 22mph) for each second of its descent. Thus, an object starting from rest will attain a velocity of 9.81m/s (32.2ft/s) after one second, 19.62m/s (64.4ft/s) after two seconds, and so on, adding 9.81m/s (32.2ft/s) to each resulting velocity. Also, again ignoring air resistance, any and all objects, when dropped from the same height, will hit the ground at the same time.

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According to Newton's 3rd Law, the Earth itself experiences a force equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to that which it exerts on a falling object. This means that the Earth also accelerates towards the object until they collide. Because the mass of the Earth is huge, however, the acceleration imparted to the Earth by this opposite force is negligible in comparison to the object's. If the object doesn't bounce after it has collided with the Earth, each of them then exerts a repulsive contact force on the other which effectively balances the attractive force of gravity and prevents further acceleration.

If an object with comparable mass to that of the Earth were to fall towards it, then the corresponding acceleration of the Earth really would be observable.

Equations for a falling body near the surface of the Earth

Under an assumption of constant gravity, Newton's law of universal gravitation simplifies to F = mg, where m is the mass of the body and g is a constant vector with an average magnitude of 9.81m/s2. The acceleration due to gravity is equal to this g. An initially stationary object which is allowed to fall freely under gravity drops a distance which is proportional to the square of the elapsed time. The image on the right, spanning half a second, was captured with a stroboscopic flash at 20 flashes per second. During the first 120 of a second the ball drops one unit of distance (here, a unit is about 12mm); by 220 it has dropped at total of 4 units; by 320, 9 units and so on. Under the same constant gravity assumptions, the potential energy, Ep, of a body at height h is given by Ep = mgh (or Ep = Wh, with W meaning weight). This expression is valid only over small distances h from the surface of the Earth. Similarly, the expression for the maximum height reached by a vertically projected body with initial velocity v is useful for small heights and small initial velocities only.

Gravity and astronomy

The discovery and application of Newton's law of gravity accounts for the detailed information we have about the planets in our solar system, the mass of the Sun, the distance to stars, quasars and even the theory of dark matter. Although we have not traveled to all the planets nor to the Sun, we know their masses. These masses are obtained by applying the laws of gravity to the measured characteristics of the orbit. In Ball falling freely under space an object maintains its orbit because of the force of gravity acting upon it. Planets gravity. See text for description. orbit stars, stars orbit Galactic Centers, galaxies orbit a center of mass in clusters, and clusters orbit in superclusters. The force of gravity exerted on one object by another is directly proportional to the product of those objects' masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

Gravitational radiation
In general relativity, gravitational radiation is generated in situations where the curvature of spacetime is oscillating, such as is the case with co-orbiting objects. The gravitational radiation emitted by the Solar System is far too small to measure. However, gravitational radiation has been indirectly observed as an energy loss over time in binary pulsar systems such as PSR B1913+16. It is believed that neutron star mergers and black hole formation may create detectable amounts of gravitational radiation. Gravitational radiation observatories such as the Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory (LIGO) have been created to study the problem. No confirmed detections have been made of this hypothetical radiation, but as the science behind LIGO is refined and as the instruments themselves are

Gravitation endowed with greater sensitivity over the next decade, this may change.

358

Speed of gravity
In December 2012, a research team in China announced that it had produced findings which seem to prove that the the speed of gravity is equal to the speed of light. The team's findings were due to be released in a journal in 2013.
[20]

Anomalies and discrepancies

There are some observations that are not adequately accounted for, which may point to the need for better theories of gravity or perhaps be explained in other ways. Extra fast stars: Stars in galaxies follow a distribution of velocities where stars on the outskirts are moving faster than they should according to the observed distributions of normal matter. Galaxies within galaxy clusters show a similar pattern. Dark matter, which would interact gravitationally but not electromagnetically, would account for the discrepancy. Various modifications to Newtonian dynamics have also been proposed. Flyby anomaly: Various spacecraft have experienced greater acceleration than expected during gravity assist maneuvers.
Rotation curve of a typical spiral galaxy: predicted (A) and observed (B). The discrepancy between the curves is attributed to dark matter.

Accelerating expansion: The metric expansion of space seems to be speeding up. Dark energy has been proposed to explain this. A recent alternative explanation is that the geometry of space is not homogeneous (due to clusters of galaxies) and that when the data are reinterpreted to take this into account, the expansion is not speeding up after all,[21] however this conclusion is disputed.[22] Anomalous increase of the astronomical unit: Recent measurements indicate that planetary orbits are widening faster than if this were solely through the sun losing mass by radiating energy. Extra energetic photons: Photons travelling through galaxy clusters should gain energy and then lose it again on the way out. The accelerating expansion of the universe should stop the photons returning all the energy, but even taking this into account photons from the cosmic microwave background radiation gain twice as much energy as expected. This may indicate that gravity falls off faster than inverse-squared at certain distance scales.[23] Dark flow: Surveys of galaxy motions have detected a mystery dark flow towards an unseen mass. Such a large mass is too large to have accumulated since the Big Bang using current models and may indicate that gravity falls off slower than inverse-squared at certain distance scales.[23] Extra massive hydrogen clouds: The spectral lines of the Lyman-alpha forest suggest that hydrogen clouds are more clumped together at certain scales than expected and, like dark flow, may indicate that gravity falls off slower than inverse-squared at certain distance scales.[23]

Gravitation

359

Alternative theories
Historical alternative theories
Aristotelian theory of gravity Le Sage's theory of gravitation (1784) also called LeSage gravity, proposed by Georges-Louis Le Sage, based on a fluid-based explanation where a light gas fills the entire universe. Ritz's theory of gravitation, Ann. Chem. Phys. 13, 145, (1908) pp.267271, Weber-Gauss electrodynamics applied to gravitation. Classical advancement of perihelia. Nordstrm's theory of gravitation (1912, 1913), an early competitor of general relativity. Whitehead's theory of gravitation (1922), another early competitor of general relativity.

Recent alternative theories

BransDicke theory of gravity (1961) Induced gravity (1967), a proposal by Andrei Sakharov according to which general relativity might arise from quantum field theories of matter In the modified Newtonian dynamics (MOND) (1981), Mordehai Milgrom proposes a modification of Newton's Second Law of motion for small accelerations The self-creation cosmology theory of gravity (1982) by G.A. Barber in which the Brans-Dicke theory is modified to allow mass creation Nonsymmetric gravitational theory (NGT) (1994) by John Moffat Tensorvectorscalar gravity (TeVeS) (2004), a relativistic modification of MOND by Jacob Bekenstein Gravity as an entropic force, gravity arising as an emergent phenomenon from the thermodynamic concept of entropy. In the superfluid vacuum theory the gravity and curved space-time arise as a collective excitation mode of non-relativistic background superfluid.

Notes
Proposition 75, Theorem 35: p.956 - I.Bernard Cohen and Anne Whitman, translators: Isaac Newton, The Principia: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. Preceded by A Guide to Newton's Principia, by I. Bernard Cohen. University of California Press 1999 ISBN 0-520-08816-6 ISBN 0-520-08817-4 Max Born (1924), Einstein's Theory of Relativity (The 1962 Dover edition, page 348 lists a table documenting the observed and calculated values for the precession of the perihelion of Mercury, Venus, and Earth.)

Footnotes
[1] Ball, Phil (06 2005). "Tall Tales". Nature News. doi:10.1038/news050613-10. [2] Galileo (1638), Two New Sciences, First Day (http:/ / oll. libertyfund. org/ ?option=com_staticxt& staticfile=show. php?title=753& chapter=109891& layout=html& Itemid=27) Salviati speaks: "If this were what Aristotle meant you would burden him with another error which would amount to a falsehood; because, since there is no such sheer height available on earth, it is clear that Aristotle could not have made the experiment; yet he wishes to give us the impression of his having performed it when he speaks of such an effect as one which we see." [3] *Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan (2003). Newton's Principia for the common reader. Oxford: Oxford University Press. (pp.12). The quotation comes from a memorandum thought to have been written about 1714. As early as 1645 Ismal Bullialdus had argued that any force exerted by the Sun on distant objects would have to follow an inverse-square law. However, he also dismissed the idea that any such force did exist. See, for example, Linton, Christopher M. (2004). From Eudoxus to EinsteinA History of Mathematical Astronomy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.225. ISBN978-0-521-82750-8. [4] M.C.W.Sandford (2008). "STEP: Satellite Test of the Equivalence Principle" (http:/ / www. sstd. rl. ac. uk/ fundphys/ step/ ). Rutherford Appleton Laboratory. . Retrieved 2011-10-14. [5] Paul S Wesson (2006). Five-dimensional Physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=dSv8ksxHR0oC& printsec=frontcover& dq=intitle:Five+ intitle:Dimensional+ intitle:Physics). World Scientific. p.82. ISBN981-256-661-9. .

Gravitation
[6] Haugen, Mark P.; C. Lmmerzahl (2001). Principles of Equivalence: Their Role in Gravitation Physics and Experiments that Test Them. Springer. arXiv:gr-qc/0103067. ISBN978-3-540-41236-6. [7] "Gravity and Warped Spacetime" (http:/ / www. black-holes. org/ relativity6. html). black-holes.org. . Retrieved 2010-10-16. [8] Dmitri Pogosyan. "Lecture 20: Black HolesThe Einstein Equivalence Principle" (http:/ / www. ualberta. ca/ ~pogosyan/ teaching/ ASTRO_122/ lect20/ lecture20. html). University of Alberta. . Retrieved 2011-10-14. [9] Pauli, Wolfgang Ernst (1958). "Part IV. General Theory of Relativity". Theory of Relativity. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN978-0-486-64152-2. [10] Dyson, F.W.; Eddington, A.S.; Davidson, C.R. (1920). "A Determination of the Deflection of Light by the Sun's Gravitational Field, from Observations Made at the Total Eclipse of May 29, 1919". Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. A 220 (571581): 291333. Bibcode1920RSPTA.220..291D. doi:10.1098/rsta.1920.0009.. Quote, p. 332: "Thus the results of the expeditions to Sobral and Principe can leave little doubt that a deflection of light takes place in the neighbourhood of the sun and that it is of the amount demanded by Einstein's generalised theory of relativity, as attributable to the sun's gravitational field." [11] Weinberg, Steven (1972). Gravitation and cosmology. John Wiley & Sons.. Quote, p. 192: "About a dozen stars in all were studied, and yielded values 1.98 0.11" and 1.61 0.31", in substantial agreement with Einstein's prediction = 1.75"." [12] Earman, John; Glymour, Clark (1980). "Relativity and Eclipses: The British eclipse expeditions of 1919 and their predecessors". Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences 11: 4985. [13] Weinberg, Steven (1972). Gravitation and cosmology. John Wiley & Sons. p.194. [14] See W.Pauli, 1958, pp.219220 [15] NASA's Gravity Probe B Confirms Two Einstein Space-Time Theories (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ home/ hqnews/ 2011/ may/ HQ_11-134_Gravity_Probe_B. html) [16] Galaxy Clusters Validate Einstein's Theory (http:/ / news. sciencemag. org/ sciencenow/ 2011/ 09/ galaxy-clusters-validate-einstei. html) [17] Randall, Lisa (2005). Warped Passages: Unraveling the Universe's Hidden Dimensions. Ecco. ISBN0-06-053108-8. [18] Feynman, R. P.; Morinigo, F. B., Wagner, W. G., & Hatfield, B. (1995). Feynman lectures on gravitation. Addison-Wesley. ISBN0-201-62734-5. [19] Zee, A. (2003). Quantum Field Theory in a Nutshell. Princeton University Press. ISBN0-691-01019-6. [20] Chinese scientists find evidence for speed of gravity (http:/ / www. astrowatch. net/ 2012/ 12/ chinese-scientists-find-evidence-for. html), astrowatch.com, 12/28/12. [21] Dark energy may just be a cosmic illusion (http:/ / space. newscientist. com/ channel/ astronomy/ cosmology/ mg19726461. 600-dark-energy-may-just-be-a-cosmic-illusion. html), New Scientist, issue 2646, 7th March 2008. [22] Swiss-cheese model of the cosmos is full of holes (http:/ / space. newscientist. com/ article/ mg20026783. 800-swisscheese-model-of-the-cosmos-is-full-of-holes. html), New Scientist, issue 2678, 18th October 2008. [23] "Gravity may venture where matter fears to tread", Marcus Chown, New Scientist issue 2669, 16 March 2009. Original site, charges money to read it: http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ mg20126990. 400-gravity-may-venture-where-matter-fears-to-tread. html . Mirror site, free to read article: http:/ / www. es. sott. net/ articles/ show/ 179189-Gravity-may-venture-where-matter-fears-to-tread

360

References
Halliday, David; Robert Resnick; Kenneth S. Krane (2001). Physics v. 1. New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN0-471-32057-9. Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers (6th ed.). Brooks/Cole. ISBN0-534-40842-7. Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics (5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN0-7167-0809-4.

Further reading
Thorne, Kip S.; Misner, Charles W.; Wheeler, John Archibald (1973). Gravitation. W.H. Freeman. ISBN0-7167-0344-0.

Axial precession

361

Axial precession
In astronomy, axial precession is a gravity-induced, slow and continuous change in the orientation of an astronomical body's rotational axis. In particular, it refers to the gradual shift in the orientation of Earth's axis of rotation, which, like a wobbling top, traces out a pair of cones joined at their apices in a cycle of approximately 26,000 years [1] (called a Great or Platonic Year in astrology). The term "precession" typically refers only to this largest secular motion; other changes in the alignment of Earth's axis nutation and polar motion are much smaller in magnitude. Earth's precession was historically called precession of the equinoxes because the equinoxes moved westward along the ecliptic relative to the fixed stars, opposite to the motion of the Sun along the ecliptic. This term is still used in non-technical discussions, that is, when Precessional movement of the Earth. The Earth detailed mathematics are absent. Historically,[2] Hipparchus has been rotates (white arrows) once a day about its axis of rotation (red). This axis itself rotates slowly credited with discovering precession of the equinoxes, though evidence (white circle), completing a rotation in from cunieform tablets suggest that his statements and mathematics approximately 26,000 years. relied heavily on Babylonian astronomical materials that had existed for many centuries prior. The exact dates of his life are not known, but astronomical observations attributed to him by Ptolemy date from 147 BC to 127 BC. With improvements in the ability to calculate the gravitational force between planets during the first half of the 19th century, it was recognized that the ecliptic itself moved slightly, which was named planetary precession as early as 1863, while the dominant component was named lunisolar precession.[3] Their combination was named general precession instead of precession of the equinoxes. Lunisolar precession is caused by the gravitational forces of the Moon and Sun on Earth's equatorial bulge, causing Earth's axis to move with respect to inertial space. Planetary precession (actually an advance) is due to the small angle between the gravitational force of the other planets on Earth and its orbital plane (the ecliptic), causing the plane of the ecliptic to shift slightly relative to inertial space. Lunisolar precession is about 500 times larger than planetary precession.[4] In addition to the Moon and Sun, the other planets also cause a small movement of Earth's axis in inertial space, making the contrast in the terms lunisolar versus planetary misleading, so in 2006 the International Astronomical Union recommended that the dominant component be renamed the precession of the equator and the minor component be renamed precession of the ecliptic, but their combination is still named general precession.[5]

Precession Nomenclature
Etymologically, precession and procession are terms that relate to motion (derived from the Latin processio, a marching forward, an advance). Generally the term procession is used to describe a group of objects moving forward whereas the term precession is used to describe a group of objects moving backwards. The stars viewed from earth are seen to proceed in a procession from east to west on a daily basis, due to the earths diurnal motion, and on a yearly basis, due to the earths revolution around the sun. At the same time the stars can be observed to move slightly retrograde, at the rate of about 50 arc seconds per year, a phenomenon known as the precession of the equinox". In describing this motion astronomers have generally shortened the term to simply precession. And in describing the cause of the motion physicists have also used the term precession, which has led to some confusion between the observable phenomenon and its cause, which matters because in astronomy some precessions are real and others

Axial precession are apparent. This issue is further obfuscated by the fact that many astronomers are physicists or astrophysicists. It should be noted that the term "precession" used in astronomy generally describes the observable precession of the equinox (the stars moving retrograde across the sky), whereas the term "precession" as used in physics generally describes a mechanical process.

362

Effects
The precession of the Earth's axis has a number of observable effects. First, the positions of the south and north celestial poles appear to move in circles against the space-fixed backdrop of stars, completing one circuit in 25,772 Julian years (2000 rate). Thus, while today the star Polaris lies approximately at the north celestial pole, this will change over time, and other stars will become the "north star".[2] The south celestial pole currently lacks a bright star to mark its position, but over time precession will also cause bright stars to become south stars. As the celestial poles shift, there is a corresponding gradual shift in the apparent orientation of the whole star field, as viewed from a particular position on Earth. Secondly, the position of the Earth in its orbit around the Sun at the solstices, equinoxes, or other time defined relative to the seasons, slowly changes.[2] For example, suppose that the Earth's orbital position is marked at the summer solstice, when the Earth's axial tilt is pointing directly towards the Sun. One full orbit later, when the Sun has returned to the same apparent position relative to the background stars, the Earth's axial tilt is not now directly towards the Sun: because of the effects of precession, it is a little way "beyond" this. In other words, the solstice occurred a little earlier in the orbit. Thus, the tropical year, measuring the cycle of seasons (for example, the time from solstice to solstice, or equinox to equinox), is about 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year, which is measured by the Sun's apparent position relative to the stars. Note that 20 minutes per year is approximately equivalent to one year per 25,772 years, so after one full cycle of 25,772 years the positions of the seasons relative to the orbit are "back where they started". (In actuality, other effects also slowly change the shape and orientation of the Earth's orbit, and these, in combination with precession, create various cycles of differing periods; see also Milankovitch cycles. The magnitude of the Earth's tilt, as opposed to merely its orientation, also changes slowly over time, but this effect is not attributed directly to precession.) For identical reasons, the apparent position of the Sun relative to the backdrop of the stars at some seasonally fixed time, say the vernal equinox, slowly regresses a full 360 through all twelve traditional constellations of the zodiac, at the rate of about 50.3 seconds of arc per year (approximately 360 degrees divided by 25,772), or 1 degree every 71.6 years. For further details, see Changing pole stars and Polar shift and equinoxes shift, below.

History
Hellenistic world
Hipparchus Though there is still-controversial evidence that Aristarchus of Samos possessed distinct values for the sidereal and tropical years as early as c. 280 BC,[6] the discovery of precession is usually attributed to Hipparchus (190120 BC) of Rhodes or Nicaea, a Greek astronomer. According to Ptolemy's Almagest, Hipparchus measured the longitude of Spica and other bright stars. Comparing his measurements with data from his predecessors, Timocharis (320260 BC) and Aristillus (~280 BC), he concluded that Spica had moved 2 relative to the autumnal equinox. He also compared the lengths of the tropical year (the time it takes the Sun to return to an equinox) and the sidereal year (the time it takes the Sun to return to a fixed star), and found a slight discrepancy. Hipparchus concluded that the equinoxes were moving ("precessing") through the zodiac, and that the rate of precession was not less than 1 in a century, in other words completing a full cycle in no more than 36000 years.

Axial precession Virtually all Hipparchus' writings are lost, including his work on precession. They are mentioned by Ptolemy, who explains precession as the rotation of the celestial sphere around a motionless Earth. It is reasonable to assume that Hipparchus, like Ptolemy, thought of precession in geocentric terms as a motion of the heavens. Ptolemy The first astronomer known to have continued Hipparchus' work on precession is Ptolemy in the 2nd century. Ptolemy measured the longitudes of Regulus, Spica, and other bright stars with a variation of Hipparchus' lunar method that did not require eclipses. Before sunset, he measured the longitudinal arc separating the Moon from the Sun. Then, after sunset, he measured the arc from the Moon to the star. He used Hipparchus' model to calculate the Sun's longitude, and made corrections for the Moon's motion and its parallax (Evans 1998, pp.251255). Ptolemy compared his own observations with those made by Hipparchus, Menelaus of Alexandria, Timocharis, and Agrippa. He found that between Hipparchus' time and his own (about 265 years), the stars had moved 240', or 1 in 100 years (36" per year; the rate accepted today is about 50" per year or 1 in 72 years). He also confirmed that precession affected all fixed stars, not just those near the ecliptic, and his cycle had same period of 36000 years as found by Hipparchus. Other authors Most ancient authors did not mention precession and perhaps did not know of it. Besides Ptolemy, the list includes Proclus, who rejected precession, and Theon of Alexandria, a commentator on Ptolemy in the 4th century, who accepted Ptolemy's explanation. Theon also reports an alternate theory: According to certain opinions ancient astrologers believe that from a certain epoch the solstitial signs have a motion of 8 in the order of the signs, after which they go back the same amount. . . . (Dreyer 1958, p. 204) Instead of proceeding through the entire sequence of the zodiac, the equinoxes "trepidated" back and forth over an arc of 8. The theory of trepidation is presented by Theon as an alternative to precession.

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Alternative discovery theories

Babylonians Various assertions have been made that other cultures discovered precession independent of Hipparchus. According to Al-Battani, the Chaldean astronomers had distinguished the tropical and sidereal year so that by around 330 BC, they would have been in a position to describe of precession, if inaccurately. But such claims are generally regarded as unsupported.[7] Ancient Egyptians Similar claims have been made that precession was known in Ancient Egypt prior to the time of Hipparchus, but these remain controversial. Some buildings in the Karnak temple complex, for instance, were allegedly oriented towards the point on the horizon where certain stars rose or set at key times of the year. A few centuries later, when precession made the orientations obsolete, the temples would be rebuilt. However, the observation that a stellar alignment has grown wrong does not mean that the Egyptians understood that the stars moved across the sky at the rate of about one degree per 72 years. Nonetheless, they kept accurate calendars and if they recorded the date of the temple reconstructions it would be a fairly simple matter to plot the rough precession rate. The Dendera Zodiac, a star-map from the Hathor temple at Dendera from a late (Ptolemaic) age, supposedly records precession of the equinoxes (Tompkins 1971). In any case, if the ancient Egyptians knew of precession, their knowledge is not recorded in surviving astronomical texts. Michael Rice wrote in his Egypt's Legacy, "Whether or not the ancients knew of the mechanics of the Precession before its definition by Hipparchos the Bithynian in the second century BC is uncertain, but as dedicated watchers of the night sky they could not fail to be aware of its effects." (p.128) Rice believes that "the Precession is fundamental

Axial precession to an understanding of what powered the development of Egypt" (p.10), to the extent that "in a sense Egypt as a nation-state and the king of Egypt as a living god are the products of the realisation by the Egyptians of the astronomical changes effected by the immense apparent movement of the heavenly bodies which the Precession implies." (p.56) Following Carl Gustav Jung, Rice says that "the evidence that the most refined astronomical observation was practised in Egypt in the third millennium BC (and probably even before that date) is clear from the precision with which the Pyramids at Giza are aligned to the cardinal points, a precision which could only have been achieved by their alignment with the stars. This fact alone makes Jung's belief in the Egyptians' knowledge of the Precession a good deal less speculative than once it seemed." (p.31) The Egyptians also, says Rice, were "to alter the orientation of a temple when the star on whose position it had originally been set moved its position as a consequence of the Precession, something which seems to have happened several times during the New Kingdom." (p.170) The notion that an ancient Egyptian priestly elite tracked the precessional cycle over many thousands of years plays a central role in the theories expounded by Robert Bauval and Graham Hancock in their 1996 book Keeper of Genesis. The authors claim that the ancient Egyptians' monumental building projects functioned as a map of the heavens, and that associated rituals were an elaborate earthly acting-out of celestial events. In particular, the rituals symbolised the "turning back" of the precessional cycle to a remote ancestral time known as Zep Tepi ("first time") which, the authors calculate, dates to around 10,500 BC. Maya There has been speculation that the Mesoamerican Long Count calendar is somehow calibrated against the precession, but this view is not held by professional scholars of Mayan civilization. However, Milbrath states that "a long cycle 30,000 years involving the Pleiades ... may have been an effort to calculate the precession of the equinox."[8]

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Indian views
A 12th century text by Bhskara II[9] says: "sampt revolves negatively 30000 times in a Kalpa of 4320 million years according to Suryasiddhanta, while Munjla and others say ayana moves forward 199669 in a Kalpa, and one should combine the two, before ascertaining declension, ascensional difference, etc."[10] Lancelot Wilkinson translated the last of these three verses in a too concise manner to convey the full meaning, and skipped the portion combine the two which the modern Hindi commentary has brought to the fore. According to the Hindi commentary, the final value of period of precession should be obtained by combining +199669 revolutions of ayana with 30000 revolutions of sampaat to get +169669 per Kalpa, i.e. one revolution in 25461 years, which is near the modern value of 25771 years. Moreover, Munjla's value gives a period of 21636 years for ayana's motion, which is the modern value of precession when anomalistic precession is also taken into account. The latter has a period of 136000 years now, but Bhskar-II gives its value at 144000 years (30000 in a Kalpa), calling it sampt. Bhskar-II did not give any name of the final term after combining the negative sampt with the positive ayana. But the value he gave indicates that by ayana he meant precession on account of the combined influence of orbital and anomalistic precessions, and by sampt he meant the anomalistic period, but defined it as equinox. His language is a bit confused, which he clarified in his own Vsanbhshya commentary Siddhnta Shiromani[11] by saying that Suryasiddhanta was not available and he was writing on the basis of hearsay. Bhskar-II did not give his own opinion, he merely cited Suryasiddhanta, Munjla and unnamed "others". Extant Suryasiddhanta supports the notion of trepidation within a range of 27 at the rate of 54" per year according to traditional commentators, but Burgess opined that the original meaning must have been of a cyclical motion, for which he quoted the Suryasiddhanta mentioned by Bhskar II.[12]

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Yu Xi
Yu Xi (4th century CE) was the first Chinese astronomer to mention precession. He estimated the rate of precession as 1 in 50 years (Pannekoek 1961, p.92).

Middle Ages and Renaissance

In medieval Islamic astronomy, the Zij-i Ilkhani compiled at the Maragheh observatory set the precession of the equinoxes at 51 arc seconds per annum, which is very close to the modern value of 50.2 arc seconds.[13] In the Middle Ages, Islamic and Latin Christian astronomers treated "trepidation" as a motion of the fixed stars to be added to precession. This theory is commonly attributed to the Arab astronomer Thabit ibn Qurra, but the attribution has been contested in modern times. Nicolaus Copernicus published a different account of trepidation in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (1543). This work makes the first definite reference to precession as the result of a motion of the Earth's axis. Copernicus characterized precession as the third motion of the earth.

Modern period
Over a century later precession was explained in Isaac Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687) to be a consequence of gravitation (Evans 1998, p.246). However, Newton's original precession equations did not work and were revised considerably by Jean le Rond d'Alembert and subsequent scientists.

Hipparchus' discovery
Hipparchus gave an account of his discovery in On the Displacement of the Solsticial and Equinoctial Points (described in Almagest III.1 and VII.2). He measured the ecliptic longitude of the star Spica during lunar eclipses and found that it was about 6 west of the autumnal equinox. By comparing his own measurements with those of Timocharis of Alexandria (a contemporary of Euclid who worked with Aristillus early in the 3rd century BC), he found that Spica's longitude had decreased by about 2 in about 150 years. He also noticed this motion in other stars. He speculated that only the stars near the zodiac shifted over time. Ptolemy called this his "first hypothesis" (Almagest VII.1), but did not report any later hypothesis Hipparchus might have devised. Hipparchus apparently limited his speculations because he had only a few older observations, which were not very reliable. Why did Hipparchus need a lunar eclipse to measure the position of a star? The equinoctial points are not marked in the sky, so he needed the Moon as a reference point. Hipparchus had already developed a way to calculate the longitude of the Sun at any moment. A lunar eclipse happens during Full moon, when the Moon is in opposition. At the midpoint of the eclipse, the Moon is precisely 180 from the Sun. Hipparchus is thought to have measured the longitudinal arc separating Spica from the Moon. To this value, he added the calculated longitude of the Sun, plus 180 for the longitude of the Moon. He did the same procedure with Timocharis' data (Evans 1998, p.251). Observations like these eclipses, incidentally, are the main source of data about when Hipparchus worked, since other biographical information about him is minimal. The lunar eclipses he observed, for instance, took place on April 21, 146 BC, and March 21, 135 BC (Toomer 1984, p.135 n. 14). Hipparchus also studied precession in On the Length of the Year. Two kinds of year are relevant to understanding his work. The tropical year is the length of time that the Sun, as viewed from the Earth, takes to return to the same position along the ecliptic (its path among the stars on the celestial sphere). The sidereal year is the length of time that the Sun takes to return to the same position with respect to the stars of the celestial sphere. Precession causes the stars to change their longitude slightly each year, so the sidereal year is longer than the tropical year. Using observations of the equinoxes and solstices, Hipparchus found that the length of the tropical year was 365+1/41/300 days, or 365.24667 days (Evans 1998, p.209). Comparing this with the length of the sidereal year, he calculated that the rate of precession was not less than 1 in a century. From this information, it is possible to calculate that his value for the sidereal year was 365+1/4+1/144 days (Toomer 1978, p.218). By giving a minimum

Axial precession rate he may have been allowing for errors in observation. To approximate his tropical year Hipparchus created his own lunisolar calendar by modifying those of Meton and Callippus in On Intercalary Months and Days (now lost), as described by Ptolemy in the Almagest III.1 (Toomer 1984, p.139). The Babylonian calendar used a cycle of 235 lunar months in 19 years since 499 BC (with only three exceptions before 380 BC), but it did not use a specified number of days. The Metonic cycle (432 BC) assigned 6,940 days to these 19 years producing an average year of 365+1/4+1/76 or 365.26316 days. The Callippic cycle (330 BC) dropped one day from four Metonic cycles (76 years) for an average year of 365+1/4 or 365.25 days. Hipparchus dropped one more day from four Callipic cycles (304 years), creating the Hipparchic cycle with an average year of 365+1/41/304 or 365.24671 days, which was close to his tropical year of 365+1/41/300 or 365.24667 days. The three Greek cycles were never used to regulate any civil calendarthey only appear in the Almagest in an astronomical context. We find Hipparchus' mathematical signatures in the Antikythera Mechanism, an ancient astronomical computer of the 2nd century BC. The mechanism is based on a solar year, the Metonic Cycle, which is the period the Moon reappears in the same star in the sky with the same phase (full Moon appears at the same position in the sky approximately in 19 years), the Callipic cycle (which is four Metonic cycles and more accurate), the Saros cycle and the Exeligmos cycles (three Saros cycles for the accurate eclipse prediction). The study of the Antikythera Mechanism proves that the ancients have been using very accurate calendars based on all the aspects of solar and lunar motion in the sky. In fact the Lunar Mechanism which is part of the Antikythera Mechanism depicts the motion of the Moon and its phase, for a given time, using a train of four gears with a pin and slot device which gives a variable lunar velocity that is very close to the second law of Kepler, i.e. it takes into account the fast motion of the Moon at perigee and slower motion at apogee. This discovery proves that Hipparchus mathematics were much more advanced than Ptolemy describes in his books, as it is evident that he developed a good approximation of Keplers second law.

366

Mithraic question
Mithraism was a mystery religion or school based on the worship of the god Mithras. Many underground temples were built in the Roman Empire from about the 1st century BC to the 5th century AD. Understanding Mithraism has been made difficult by the near-total lack of written descriptions or scripture; the teachings must be reconstructed from iconography found in mithraea (a mithraeum was a cave or underground meeting place that often contained bas reliefs of Mithras, the zodiac and associated symbols). Until the 1970s most scholars followed Franz Cumont in identifying Mithras with the Persian god Mithra. Cumont's thesis was re-examined in 1971, and Mithras is now believed to be a syncretic deity only slightly influenced by Persian religion. Mithraism is recognized as having pronounced astrological elements, but the details are debated. One scholar of Mithraism, David Ulansey, has interpreted Mithras (Mithras Sol Invictus the unconquerable sun) as a second sun or star that is responsible for precession. He suggests the cult may have been inspired by Hipparchus' discovery of precession. Part of his analysis is based on the tauroctony, an image of Mithras sacrificing a bull, found in most of the temples. According to Ulansey, the tauroctony is a star chart. Mithras is a second sun or hyper-cosmic sun and/or the constellation Perseus, and the bull is Taurus, a constellation of the zodiac. In an earlier astrological age, the vernal equinox had taken place when the Sun was in Taurus. The tauroctony, by this reasoning, commemorated Mithras-Perseus ending the "Age of Taurus" (about 2000 BC based on the Vernal Equinox or about 11,500 BC based on the Autumnal Equinox). The iconography also contains two torch bearing boys (Cautes and Cautopates) on each side of the zodiac. Ulansey, and Walter Cruttenden in his book Lost Star of Myth and Time, interpret these to mean ages of growth and decay, or enlightenment and darkness; primal elements of the cosmic progression. Thus Mithraism is thought to have something to do with the changing ages within the precession cycle or Great Year (Plato's term for one complete precession of the equinox).

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Changing pole stars

A consequence of the precession is a changing pole star. Currently Polaris is extremely well suited to mark the position of the north celestial pole, as Polaris is a moderately bright star with a visual magnitude of 2.1 (variable), and it is located about one degree from the pole.[14] On the other hand, Thuban in the constellation Draco, which was the pole star in 3000 BC, is much less conspicuous at magnitude 3.67 (one-fifth as bright as Polaris); today it is invisible in light-polluted urban skies. The brilliant Vega in the constellation Lyra is often touted as the best north star (it fulfilled that role around 12,000 BC and will do so again around the year 14,000); however, it never comes closer than 5 to the pole. When Polaris becomes the north star again around 27,800, due to its proper motion it then will be farther away from the pole than it is now, while in 23,600 BC it came closer to the pole. It is more difficult to find the south celestial pole in the sky at this moment, as that area is a particularly bland portion of the sky, and the nominal south pole star is Sigma Octantis, which with magnitude 5.5 is barely visible to the naked eye even under ideal conditions. That will change from the 80th to the 90th centuries, however, when the south celestial pole travels through the False Cross. This situation also is seen on a star map. The orientation of the south pole is moving toward the Southern Cross Precession of Earth's axis around the south ecliptical pole constellation. For the last 2,000 years or so, the Southern Cross has nicely pointed to the south pole. By consequence, the constellation is no longer visible from subtropical northern latitudes, as it was in the time of the ancient Greeks.

Precession of Earth's axis around the north ecliptical pole

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Polar shift and equinoxes shift

The images above attempt to explain the relation between the precession of the Earth's axis and the shift in the equinoxes. These images show the position of the Earth's axis on the celestial sphere, a fictitious sphere which places the stars according to their position as seen from Earth, regardless of their actual distance. The first image shows the celestial sphere from the outside, with the constellations in mirror image. The second image shows the perspective of a near-Earth position as seen through a very wide angle lens (from which the apparent distortion arises). The rotation axis of the Earth describes, over a period of 25,700 years, a small circle (blue) among the stars, centered on the ecliptic north Precessional movement as seen from 'outside' the celestial sphere pole (the blue E) and with an angular radius of about 23.4, an angle known as the obliquity of the ecliptic. The direction of precession is opposite to the daily rotation of the Earth on its axis. The orange axis was the Earth's rotation axis 5,000 years ago, when it pointed to the star Thuban. The yellow axis, pointing to Polaris, marks the axis now. The equinoxes occur where the celestial equator intersects the ecliptic (red line), that is, where the Earth's axis is perpendicular to the line connecting the centers of the Sun and Earth. (Note that the term "equinox" here refers to a point on the celestial sphere so defined, rather than the moment in time when the Sun is overhead at the Equator, though the two meanings are related.) When the axis precesses from one orientation to

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another, the equatorial plane of the Earth (indicated by the circular grid around the equator) moves. The celestial equator is just the Earth's equator projected onto the celestial sphere, so it moves as the Earth's equatorial plane moves, and the intersection with the ecliptic moves with it. The positions of the poles and equator on Earth do not change, only the orientation of the Earth against the fixed stars. As seen from the orange grid, 5,000 years ago, the vernal equinox was close to the star Aldebaran of Taurus. Now, as seen from the yellow grid, it has shifted (indicated by the red arrow) to somewhere in the constellation of Pisces.
The 26,000-year cycle of precession as seen from near the Earth. The current north pole Still pictures like these are only first star is Polaris (top). In about 8,000 years it will be the bright star Deneb (left), and in approximations, as they do not take about 12,000 years, Vega (left center). The Earth's rotation is not depicted to scale - in into account the variable speed of the this span of time, it should rotate over 9 million times. precession, the variable obliquity of the ecliptic, the planetary precession (which is a slow rotation of the ecliptic plane itself, presently around an axis located on the plane, with longitude 174.8764) and the proper motions of the stars.

The precessional eras of each constellation, often known as Great Months, are approximately:[15]

Diagram showing the westward shift of the vernal equinox among the stars over the past six millennia

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Constellation Year entering Year exiting Taurus Aries Pisces 4500 BC 2000 BC 100 BC 2000 BC 100 BC 2700 AD

Cause
The precession of the equinoxes is caused by the gravitational forces of the Sun and the Moon, and to a lesser extent other bodies, on the Earth. It was first explained by Sir Isaac Newton.[16] Axial precession is similar to the precession of a spinning top. In both cases, the applied force is due to gravity. For a spinning top, this force tends to be almost parallel to the rotation axis. For the Earth, however, the applied forces of the Sun and the Moon are nearly perpendicular to the axis of rotation. The Earth is not a perfect sphere but an oblate spheroid, with an equatorial diameter about 43 kilometers larger than its polar diameter. Because of the Earth's axial tilt, during most of the year the half of this bulge that is closest to the Sun is off-center, either to the north or to the south, and the far half is off-center on the opposite side. The gravitational pull on the closer half is stronger, since gravity decreases with distance, so this creates a small torque on the Earth as the Sun pulls harder on one side of the Earth than the other. The axis of this torque is roughly perpendicular to the axis of the Earth's rotation so the axis of rotation precesses. If the Earth were a perfect sphere, there would be no precession. This average torque is perpendicular to the direction in which the rotation axis is tilted away from the ecliptic pole, so that it does not change the axial tilt itself. The magnitude of the torque from the Sun (or the Moon) varies with the gravitational object's alignment with the Earth's spin axis and approaches zero when it is orthogonal. Although the above explanation involved the Sun, the same explanation holds true for any object moving around the Earth, along or close to the ecliptic, notably, the Moon. The combined action of the Sun and the Moon is called the lunisolar precession. In addition to the steady progressive motion (resulting in a full circle in about 25,700 years) the Sun and Moon also cause small periodic variations, due to their changing positions. These oscillations, in both precessional speed and axial tilt, are known as the nutation. The most important term has a period of 18.6 years and an amplitude of less than 20 seconds of arc. In addition to lunisolar precession, the actions of the other planets of the Solar System cause the whole ecliptic to rotate slowly around an axis which has an ecliptic longitude of about 174 measured on the instantaneous ecliptic. This so-called planetary precession shift amounts to a rotation of the ecliptic plane of 0.47 seconds of arc per year (more than a hundred times smaller than lunisolar precession). The sum of the two precessions is known as the general precession.

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Equations
The tidal force on Earth due a perturbing body (Sun, Moon or planet) is the result of the inverse-square law of gravity, whereby the gravitational force of the perturbing body on the side of Earth nearest it is greater than the gravitational force on the far side. If the gravitational force of the perturbing body at the center of Earth (equal to the centrifugal force) is subtracted from the gravitational force of the perturbing body everywhere on the surface of Earth, only the tidal force remains. For precession, this tidal force takes the form of two Tidal force on Earth due to the Sun, Moon, or a forces which only act on the equatorial bulge outside of a pole-to-pole planet sphere. This couple can be decomposed into two pairs of components, one pair parallel to Earth's equatorial plane toward and away from the perturbing body which cancel each other, and another pair parallel to Earth's rotational axis, both toward the ecliptic plane.[17] The latter pair of forces creates the following torque vector on Earth's equatorial bulge:[4]

where Gm = standard gravitational parameter of the perturbing body r = geocentric distance to the perturbing body C = moment of inertia around Earth's axis of rotation A = moment of inertia around any equatorial diameter of Earth C A = moment of inertia of Earth's equatorial bulge (C > A) = declination of the perturbing body (north or south of equator) = right ascension of the perturbing body (east from vernal equinox). The three unit vectors of the torque at the center of the Earth (top to bottom) are x on a line within the ecliptic plane (the intersection of Earth's equatorial plane with the ecliptic plane) directed toward the vernal equinox, y on a line in the ecliptic plane directed toward the summer solstice (90 east of x), and z on a line directed toward the north pole of the ecliptic. The value of the three sinusoidal terms in the direction of x (sin cos sin) for the Sun is a sine squared waveform varying from zero at the equinoxes (0, 180) to 0.36495 at the solstices (90, 270). The value in the direction of y (sin cos (cos)) for the Sun is a sine wave varying from zero at the four equinoxes and solstices to 0.19364 (slightly more than half of the sine squared peak) halfway between each equinox and solstice with peaks slightly skewed toward the equinoxes (43.37(), 136.63(+), 223.37(), 316.63(+)). Both solar waveforms have about the same peak-to-peak amplitude and the same period, half of a revolution or half of a year. The value in the direction of z is zero. The average torque of the sine wave in the direction of y is zero for the Sun or Moon, so this component of the torque does not affect precession. The average torque of the sine squared waveform in the direction of x for the Sun or Moon is:

where = semimajor axis of Earth's (Sun's) orbit or Moon's orbit

Axial precession e = eccentricity of Earth's (Sun's) orbit or Moon's orbit and 1/2 accounts for the average of the sine squared waveform, accounts for the average distance cubed of the Sun or Moon from Earth over the entire elliptical orbit,[18] and (the angle between the equatorial plane and the ecliptic plane) is the maximum value of for the Sun and the average maximum value for the Moon over an entire 18.6 year cycle. Precession is:

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where is Earth's angular velocity and C is Earth's angular momentum. Thus the first order component of precession due to the Sun is:[4]

whereas that due to the Moon is:

where i is the angle between the plane of the Moon's orbit and the ecliptic plane. In these two equations, the Sun's parameters are within square brackets labeled S, the Moon's parameters are within square brackets labeled L, and the Earth's parameters are within square brackets labeled E. The term accounts for the inclination of the Moon's orbit relative to the ecliptic. The term (CA)/C is Earth's dynamical ellipticity or flattening, which is adjusted to the observed precession because Earth's internal structure is not known with sufficient detail. If Earth were homogeneous the term would equal its third eccentricity squared,[19]

where a is the equatorial radius (6378137 m) and c is the polar radius (6356752 m), so e''2 = 0.003358481. Applicable parameters for J2000.0 rounded to seven significant digits (excluding leading 1) are:[20][21]
Sun Moon Earth

Gm = 1.32712441020 m3/s2 Gm = 4.9027991012 m3/s2 (C A)/C = 0.003273763 a = 1.49598021011 m e = 0.016708634 a = 3.833978108 m e = 0.05554553 i= 5.156690 = 7.292115105 rad/s = 23.43928

which yield d-S/dt = 2.4501831012 /s d-L/dt = 5.3345291012 /s both of which must be converted to "/a (arcseconds/annum) by the number of arcseconds in 2 radians (1.296106"/2) and the number of seconds in one annum (a Julian year) (3.15576107s/a): d-S/dt = 15.948788"/a vs 15.948870"/a from Williams[4] d-L/dt = 34.723638"/a vs 34.457698"/a from Williams. The solar equation is a good representation of precession due the Sun because Earth's orbit is close to an ellipse, being only slightly perturbed by the other planets. The lunar equation is not as good a representation of precession due to the Moon because its orbit is greatly distorted by the Sun.

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Values
Simon Newcomb's calculation at the end of the 19th century for general precession (p) in longitude gave a value of 5,025.64 arcseconds per tropical century, and was the generally accepted value until artificial satellites delivered more accurate observations and electronic computers allowed more elaborate models to be calculated. Lieske developed an updated theory in 1976, where p equals 5,029.0966 arcseconds per Julian century. Modern techniques such as VLBI and LLR allowed further refinements, and the International Astronomical Union adopted a new constant value in 2000, and new computation methods and polynomial expressions in 2003 and 2006; the accumulated precession is:[22] pA = 5,028.796195T + 1.1054348T2 + higher order terms, in arcseconds, with T, the time in Julian centuries (that is, 36,525 days) since the epoch of 2000. The rate of precession is the derivative of that: p = 5,028.796195 + 2.2108696T + higher order terms. The constant term of this speed corresponds to one full precession circle in 25,772 years. The precession rate is not a constant, but is (at the moment) slowly increasing over time, as indicated by the linear (and higher order) terms in T. In any case it must be stressed that this formula is only valid over a limited time period. It is clear that if T gets large enough (far in the future or far in the past), the T term will dominate and p will go to very large values. In reality, more elaborate calculations on the numerical model of the Solar System show that the precessional constants have a period of about 41,000 years, the same as the obliquity of the ecliptic. Note that the constants mentioned here are the linear and all higher terms of the formula above, not the precession itself. That is, p = A + BT + CT2 + is an approximation of p = a + b sin (2T/P), where P is the 410-century period. Theoretical models may calculate the proper constants (coefficients) corresponding to the higher powers of T, but since it is impossible for a (finite) polynomial to match a periodic function over all numbers, the error in all such approximations will grow without bound as T increases. In that respect, the International Astronomical Union chose the best-developed available theory. For up to a few centuries in the past and the future, all formulas do not diverge very much. For up to a few thousand years in the past and the future, most agree to some accuracy. For eras farther out, discrepancies become too large the exact rate and period of precession may not be computed using these polynomials even for a single whole precession period. The precession of Earth's axis is a very slow effect, but at the level of accuracy at which astronomers work, it does need to be taken into account on a daily basis. Note that although the precession and the tilt of Earth's axis (the obliquity of the ecliptic) are calculated from the same theory and thus, are related to each other, the two movements act independently of each other, moving in mutually perpendicular directions. Precession exhibits a secular decrease due to tidal dissipation from 59"/a to 45"/a (a = annum = Julian year) during the 500 million year period centered on the present. After short-term fluctuations (tens of thousands of years) are averaged out, the long-term trend can be approximated by the following polynomials for negative and positive time from the present in "/a, where T is in milliards of Julian years (Ga):[23] p = 50.475838 26.368583T + 21.890862T2 p+ = 50.475838 27.000654T + 15.603265T2 Precession will be greater than p+ by the small amount of +0.135052"/a between +30 Ma and +130 Ma. The jump to this excess over p+ will occur in only 20 Ma beginning now because the secular decrease in precession is beginning to cross a resonance in Earth's orbit caused by the other planets. According to Ward, when, in about 1,500 million years, the distance of the Moon, which is continuously increasing from tidal effects, has increased from the current 60.3 to approximately 66.5 Earth radii, resonances from planetary

Axial precession effects will push precession to 49,000 years at first, and then, when the Moon reaches 68 Earth radii in about 2,000 million years, to 69,000 years. This will be associated with wild swings in the obliquity of the ecliptic as well. Ward, however, used the abnormally large modern value for tidal dissipation. Using the 620-million year average provided by tidal rhythmites of about half the modern value, these resonances will not be reached until about 3,000 and 4,000 million years, respectively. However, due to the gradually increasing luminosity of the Sun, the oceans of the Earth will have vaporized long before that time (about 2,100 million years from now).

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References
[1] Hohenkerk, C.Y., Yallop, B.D., Smith, C.A., & Sinclair, A.T. "Celestial Reference Systems" in Seidelmann, P.K. (ed.) Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac. Sausalito: University Science Books. p. 99. [2] Astro 101 Precession of the Equinox (http:/ / www. wwu. edu/ depts/ skywise/ a101_precession. html), Western Washington University Planetarium, accessed 30 December 2008 [3] Robert Main, Practical and Spherical Astronomy (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=rlZAAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA204#PPA203,M1) (Cambridge: 1863) pp.2034. [4] James G. Williams, " Contributions to the Earth's obliquity rate, precession, and nutation (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1994AJ. . . . 108. . 711W)", Astronomical Journal 108 (1994) 711724, pp.712&716. All equations are from Williams. [5] IAU 2006 Resolution B1: Adoption of the P03 Precession Theory and Definition of the Ecliptic (http:/ / www. iau. org/ static/ resolutions/ IAU2006_Resol1. pdf) [6] Dennis Rawlins, Continued fraction decipherment: the Aristarchan ancestry of Hipparchos' yearlength & precession (http:/ / www. dioi. org/ vols/ w91. pdf) DIO (1999) 3042. [7] Neugebauer, O. "The Alleged Babylonian Discovery of the Precession of the Equinoxes", Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 70, No. 1. (Jan. Mar., 1950), pp. 18. [8] Milbrath, S. "Just How Precise is Maya Astronomy?", Institute of Maya Studies newsletter, December 2007. (http:/ / www. instituteofmayastudies. org/ Milbrath2012. pdf) [9] Siddhnta-shiromani, Goldhyya, section-VI, verses 1719 [10] Translation of the Surya Siddhnta by Pundit Bpu Deva Sstri and of the Siddhnta Siromani by the Late Lancelot Wilkinson revised by Pundit Bpu Deva Sstri, printed by C B Lewis at Baptist Mission Press, Calcutta, 1861; Siddhnta Shiromani Hindi commentary by Pt Satyadeva Sharm, Chowkhamb Surbhrati Prakshan, Varanasi, India. [11] Vsanbhshya commentary Siddhnta Shiromani (published by Chowkhamba) [12] cf. Suryasiddhanta, commentary by E. Burgess, ch.iii, verses 9-12. [13] Rufus, W. C. (May 1939). "The Influence of Islamic Astronomy in Europe and the Far East". Popular Astronomy 47 (5): 233238 [236]. Bibcode1939PA.....47..233R.. [14] van Leeuwen, F. (2007). "HIP 11767" (http:/ / webviz. u-strasbg. fr/ viz-bin/ VizieR-5?-out. add=. & -source=I/ 311/ hip2& recno=11739). Hipparcos, the New Reduction. . Retrieved 2011-03-01. [15] Kaler, James B. (Reprint 2002). The ever-changing sky: a guide to the celestial sphere (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=KYLSMsduNqcC& pg=PA152). Cambridge University Press. p.152. ISBN978-0521499187. . [16] The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed., 2007 (http:/ / www. infoplease. com/ ce6/ sci/ A0840032. html) [17] Ivan I. Mueller, Spherical and practical astronomy as applied to geodesy (New York: Frederick Unger, 1969) 59. [18] G. Bou & J. Laskar, "Precession of a planet with a satellite", Icarus 185 (2006) 312330, p.329. [19] George Biddel Airy, Mathematical tracts on the lunar and planetary theories, the figure of the earth, precession and nutation, the calculus of variations, and the undulatory theory of optics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=XzItTXdnqrsC& printsec=frontcover#PPA200,M1) (third edititon, 1842) 200. [20] J.L. Simon et al., " Numerical expressions for precession formulae and mean elements for the Moon and the planets (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1994A& A. . . 282. . 663S)", Astronomy and Astrophyics 282 (1994) 663683. [21] Dennis D. McCarthy, IERS Technical Note 13 IERS Standards (1992) (http:/ / ilrs. gsfc. nasa. gov/ docs/ iers_1996_conventions. ps) (Postscript, use PS2PDF (http:/ / ps2pdf. com)). [22] N. Capitaine et al. (2003), "Expressions for IAU 2000 precession quantities" (http:/ / syrte. obspm. fr/ iau2006/ aa03_412_P03. pdf) 685KB, Astronomy & Astrophysics 412, 567586. [23] J. Laskar et al., " A long-term numerical solution for the insolation quantities of the Earth (http:/ / www. aanda. org/ index. php?option=article& access=standard& Itemid=129& url=/ articles/ aa/ abs/ 2004/ 46/ aa1335/ aa1335. html)", Astronomy and Astrophysics 428 (2004) 261285, pp.276 & 278.

Explanatory supplement to the Astronomical ephemeris and the American ephemeris and nautical almanac Precession and the Obliquity of the Ecliptic (http://www.tenspheres.com/researches/precession.htm) has a comparison of values predicted by different theories A.L. Berger (1976), "Obliquity & precession for the last 5 million years", Astronomy & astrophysics 51, 127

Axial precession J.H. Lieske et al. (1977), " Expressions for the Precession Quantities Based upon the IAU (1976) System of Astronomical Constants (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=1977A&A....58.... 1L&amp;db_key=AST&amp;data_type=HTML&amp;format=&amp;high=46303c7cf308007)". Astronomy & Astrophysics 58, 1..16 W.R. Ward (1982), "Comments on the long-term stability of the earth's obliquity", Icarus 50, 444 J.L. Simon et al. (1994), " Numerical expressions for precession formulae and mean elements for the Moon and the planets (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=1994A&A...282..663S& amp;db_key=AST&amp;data_type=HTML&amp;format=&amp;high=46303c7cf308007)", Astronomy & Astrophysics 282, 663..683 J.L. Hilton et al. (2006), " Report of the International Astronomical Union Division I Working Group on Precession and the Ecliptic (http://syrte.obspm.fr/iau2006/cm06_94_PEWG.pdf)" (pdf, 174KB). Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy (2006) 94: 351..367 Rice, Michael (1997), Egypt's Legacy: The archetypes of Western civilization, 300030 BC, London and New York. Dreyer, J. L. E.. A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler. 2nd ed. New York: Dover, 1953. Evans, James. The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. Pannekoek, A. A History of Astronomy. New York: Dover, 1961. Parker, Richard A. "Egyptian Astronomy, Astrology, and Calendrical Reckoning." Dictionary of Scientific Biography 15:706727. Tomkins, Peter. Secrets of the Great Pyramid. With an appendix by Livio Catullo Stecchini. New York: Harper Colophon Books, 1971. Toomer, G. J. "Hipparchus." Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 15:207224. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1978. Toomer, G. J. Ptolemy's Almagest. London: Duckworth, 1984. Ulansey, David. The Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries: Cosmology and Salvation in the Ancient World. New York: Oxford University Press, 1989. Schtz, Michael: Hipparch und die Entdeckung der Przession. Bemerkungen zu David Ulansey, Die Ursprnge des Mithraskultes, in: ejms = Electronic Journal of Mithraic Studies, www.uhu.es/ejms/Papers/Volume1Papers/ulansey.doc

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External links
D'Alembert and Euler's Debate on the Solution of the Precession of the Equinoxes (http://mathdl.maa.org/ convergence/1/?pa=content&sa=viewDocument&nodeId=962&bodyId=1147) at Convergence (http://mathdl. maa.org/convergence/1/)

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Law of large numbers

In probability theory, the law of large numbers (LLN) is a theorem that describes the result of performing the same experiment a large number of times. According to the law, the average of the results obtained from a large number of trials should be close to the expected value, and will tend to become closer as more trials are performed. For example, a single roll of a six-sided die produces one of the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6, each with equal probability. Therefore, the expected value of a single die roll is
An illustration of the law of large numbers using a particular run of rolls of a single die. As the number of rolls in this run increases, the average of the values of all the results approaches 3.5. While different runs would show a different shape over a small number of throws (at the left), over a large number of rolls (to the right) they would be extremely similar.

According to the law of large numbers, if a large number of six-sided dice are rolled, the average of their values (sometimes called the sample mean) is likely to be close to 3.5, with the accuracy increasing as more dice are rolled.

It follows from the law of large numbers that the empirical probability of success in a series of Bernoulli trials will converge to the theoretical probability. For a Bernoulli random variable, the expected value is the theoretical probability of success, and the average of n such variables (assuming they are independent and identically distributed (i.i.d.)) is precisely the relative frequency. For example, a fair coin toss is a Bernoulli trial. When a fair coin is flipped once, the theoretical probability that the outcome will be heads is equal to 1/2. Therefore, according to the law of large numbers, the proportion of heads in a "large" number of coin flips "should be" roughly 1/2. In particular, the proportion of heads after n flips will almost surely converge to 1/2 as n approaches infinity. Though the proportion of heads (and tails) approaches 1/2, almost surely the absolute (nominal) difference in the number of heads and tails will become large as the number of flips becomes large. That is, the probability that the absolute difference is a small number, approaches zero as the number of flips becomes large. Also, almost surely the ratio of the absolute difference to the number of flips will approach zero. Intuitively, expected absolute difference grows, but at a slower rate than the number of flips, as the number of flips grows. The LLN is important because it "guarantees" stable long-term results for random events. For example, while a casino may lose money in a single spin of the roulette wheel, its earnings will tend towards a predictable percentage over a large number of spins. Any winning streak by a player will eventually be overcome by the parameters of the game. It is important to remember that the LLN only applies (as the name indicates) when a large number of observations are considered. There is no principle that a small number of observations will converge to the expected value or that a streak of one value will immediately be "balanced" by the others. See the Gambler's fallacy.

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History
The Italian mathematician Gerolamo Cardano (15011576) stated without proof that the accuracies of empirical statistics tend to improve with the number of trials.[1] This was then formalized as a law of large numbers. A special form of the LLN (for a binary random variable) was first proved by Jacob Bernoulli.[2] It took him over 20 years to develop a sufficiently rigorous mathematical proof which was published in his Ars Conjectandi (The Art of Conjecturing) in 1713. He named this his "Golden Theorem" but it became generally known as "Bernoulli's Theorem". This should not be confused with the principle in physics with the same name, named after Jacob Bernoulli's nephew Daniel Bernoulli. In 1837, S.D. Poisson further described it under the name "la loi des grands nombres" ("The law of large numbers").[3][4] Thereafter, it was known under both names, but the "Law of large numbers" is most frequently used.

After Bernoulli and Poisson published their efforts, other mathematicians also contributed to refinement of the law, including Chebyshev,[5] Markov, Borel, Cantelli and Kolmogorov and Khinchin, who finally provided a complete proof of the LLN for arbitrary random variables. These further studies have given rise to two prominent forms of the LLN. One is called the "weak" law and the other the "strong" law. These forms do not describe different laws but instead refer to different ways of describing the mode of convergence of the cumulative sample means to the expected value, and the strong form implies the weak.

Diffusion is an example of the law of large numbers, applied to chemistry. Initially, there are solute molecules on the left side of a barrier (purple line) and none on the right. The barrier is removed, and the solute diffuses to fill the whole container.Top: With a single molecule, the motion appears to be quite random.Middle: With more molecules, there is clearly a trend where the solute fills the container more and more uniformly, but there are also random fluctuations.Bottom: With an enormous number of solute molecules (too many to see), the randomness is essentially gone: The solute appears to move smoothly and systematically from high-concentration areas to low-concentration areas. In realistic situations, chemists can describe diffusion as a deterministic macroscopic phenomenon (see Fick's laws), despite its underlying random nature.

Forms
Two different versions of the Law of Large Numbers are described below; they are called the Strong Law of Large Numbers, and the Weak Law of Large Numbers. Both versions of the law state that with virtual certainty the sample average

converges to the expected value

where X1, X2, ... is an infinite sequence of i.i.d. integrable random variables with expected value E(X1) = E(X2) = ...= . Integrability means that E(|Xj|) < for j=1,2,.... An assumption of finite variance Var(X1) = Var(X2) = ... = 2 < is not necessary. Large or infinite variance will make the convergence slower, but the LLN holds anyway. This assumption is often used because it makes the proofs easier and shorter.

Law of large numbers The difference between the strong and the weak version is concerned with the mode of convergence being asserted. For interpretation of these modes, see Convergence of random variables.

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Weak law
The weak law of large numbers states that the sample average converges in probability towards the expected value[6][proof]

That is to say that for any positive number ,

Interpreting this result, the weak law essentially states that for any nonzero margin specified, no matter how small, with a sufficiently large sample there will be a very high probability that the average of the observations will be close to the expected value, that is, within the margin. Convergence in probability is also called weak convergence of random variables. This version is called the weak law because random variables may converge weakly (in probability) as above without converging strongly (almost surely) as below.
Simulation illustrating the Law of Large Numbers. Each frame, you flip a coin that is red on one side and blue on the other, and put a dot in the corresponding column. A pie chart shows the proportion of red and blue so far. Notice that the proportion varies a lot at first, but gradually approaches 50%.

Strong law
The strong law of large numbers states that the sample average converges almost surely to the expected value[7]

That is,

The proof is more complex than that of the weak law.[8] This law justifies the intuitive interpretation of the expected value of a random variable as the "long-term average when sampling repeatedly". Almost sure convergence is also called strong convergence of random variables. This version is called the strong law because random variables which converge strongly (almost surely) are guaranteed to converge weakly (in probability). The strong law implies the weak law. The strong law of large numbers can itself be seen as a special case of the pointwise ergodic theorem. Moreover, if the summands are independent but not identically distributed, then

provided that each Xk has a finite second moment and

This statement is known as Kolmogorov's strong law, see e.g. Sen & Singer (1993, Theorem 2.3.10).

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Differences between the weak law and the strong law

The weak law states that for a specified large n, the average is likely to be near . Thus, it leaves open the possibility that happens an infinite number of times, although at infrequent intervals. The strong law shows that this almost surely will not occur. In particular, it implies that with probability 1, we have that for any > 0 the inequality holds for all large enough n.[9]

Uniform law of large numbers

Suppose f(x,) is some function defined for , and continuous in . Then for any fixed , the sequence {f(X1,), f(X2,), } will be a sequence of independent and identically distributed random variables, such that the sample mean of this sequence converges in probability to E[f(X,)]. This is the pointwise (in ) convergence. The uniform law of large numbers states the conditions under which the convergence happens uniformly in . If[10][11] 1. is compact, 2. f(x,) is continuous at each for almost all xs, and measurable function of x at each . 3. there exists a dominating function d(x) such that E[d(X)] < , and

Then E[f(X,)] is continuous in , and

Borel's law of large numbers

Borel's law of large numbers, named after mile Borel, states that if an experiment is repeated a large number of times, independently under identical conditions, then the proportion of times that any specified event occurs approximately equals the probability of the event's occurrence on any particular trial; the larger the number of repetitions, the better the approximation tends to be. More precisely, if E denotes the event in question, p its probability of occurrence, and Nn(E) the number of times E occurs in the first n trials, then with probability one,

Chebyshev's Lemma. Let X be a random variable with finite expected value and finite non-zero variance 2. Then for any real number k > 0,

This theorem makes rigorous the intuitive notion of probability as the long-run relative frequency of an event's occurrence. It is a special case of any of several more general laws of large numbers in probability theory.

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Proof
Given X1, X2, ... an infinite sequence of i.i.d. random variables with finite expected value E(X1) = E(X2) = ... = < , we are interested in the convergence of the sample average

The weak law of large numbers states: Theorem:

Proof using Chebyshev's inequality

This proof uses the assumption of finite variance variables implies no correlation between them, and we have that (for all ). The independence of the random

The common mean of the sequence is the mean of the sample average:

Using Chebyshev's inequality on

results in

This may be used to obtain the following:

As n approaches infinity, the expression approaches 1. And by definition of convergence in probability, we have obtained

Proof using convergence of characteristic functions

By Taylor's theorem for complex functions, the characteristic function of any random variable, X, with finite mean , can be written as

All X1, X2, ... have the same characteristic function, so we will simply denote this X. Among the basic properties of characteristic functions there are if X and Y are independent. These rules can be used to calculate the characteristic function of in terms of X:

The limit eit is the characteristic function of the constant random variable , and hence by the Lvy continuity theorem, converges in distribution to :

is a constant, which implies that convergence in distribution to and convergence in probability to are equivalent (see Convergence of random variables.) Therefore,

Law of large numbers This shows that the sample mean converges in probability to the derivative of the characteristic function at the origin, as long as the latter exists.

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Notes
[1] Mlodinow, L. The Drunkard's Walk. New York: Random House, 2008. p. 50. [2] Jakob Bernoulli, Ars Conjectandi: Usum & Applicationem Praecedentis Doctrinae in Civilibus, Moralibus & Oeconomicis, 1713, Chapter 4, (Translated into English by Oscar Sheynin) [3] Poisson names the "law of large numbers" (la loi des grands nombres) in: S.D. Poisson, Probabilit des jugements en mati re criminelle et en mati re civile, prcdes des r gles gnrales du calcul des probabilitis (Paris, France: Bachelier, 1837), page 7 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=uovoFE3gt2EC& pg=PA7#v=onepage& q& f=false). He attempts a two-part proof of the law on pages 139-143 and pages 277 ff. [4] Hacking, Ian. (1983) "19th-century Cracks in the Concept of Determinism", Journal of the History of Ideas, 44 (3), 455-475 JSTOR2709176 [5] P. Tchebichef (1846) "Dmonstration lmentaire d'une proposition gnrale de la thorie des probabilits," (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=I6FGAAAAcAAJ& pg=PA259#v=onepage& q& f=false) Journal fr die reine und angewandte Mathematik, vol. 33, pages 259-267. [6] Love 1977, Chapter 1.4, page 14 [7] Love 1977, Chapter 17.3, page 251 [8] "The strong law of large numbers Whats new" (http:/ / terrytao. wordpress. com/ 2008/ 06/ 18/ the-strong-law-of-large-numbers/ ). Terrytao.wordpress.com. . Retrieved 2012-06-09. [9] Ross (2009) [10] Newey & McFadden 1994, Lemma 2.4 [11] Robert I. Jennrich, Asymptotic Properties of Non-Linear Least Squares Estimators, Ann. Math. Statist. Volume 40, Number 2 (1969), 633-643.

References
Grimmett, G. R. and Stirzaker, D. R. (1992). Probability and Random Processes, 2nd Edition. Clarendon Press, Oxford. ISBN0-19-853665-8. Richard Durrett (1995). Probability: Theory and Examples, 2nd Edition. Duxbury Press. Martin Jacobsen (1992). Videregende Sandsynlighedsregning (Advanced Probability Theory) 3rd Edition. HC-tryk, Copenhagen. ISBN87-91180-71-6. Love, Michel (1977). Probability theory 1 (4th ed.). Springer Verlag. Newey, Whitney K.; McFadden, Daniel (1994). Large sample estimation and hypothesis testing. Handbook of econometrics, vol.IV, Ch.36. Elsevier Science. pp.21112245. Ross, Sheldon (2009). A first course in probability (8th ed.). Prentice Hall press. ISBN978-0-13-603313-4. Sen, P. K; Singer, J. M. (1993). Large sample methods in statistics. Chapman & Hall, Inc.

External links
Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001), "Law of large numbers" (http://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index. php?title=p/l057720), Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer, ISBN978-1-55608-010-4 Weisstein, Eric W., " Weak Law of Large Numbers (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ WeakLawofLargeNumbers.html)" from MathWorld. Weisstein, Eric W., " Strong Law of Large Numbers (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ StrongLawofLargeNumbers.html)" from MathWorld. Animations for the Law of Large Numbers (http://animation.yihui.name/prob:law_of_large_numbers) by Yihui Xie using the R package animation (http://cran.r-project.org/package=animation)

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Normal distribution
Probability density function

The red curve is the standard normal distribution Cumulative distribution function

Notation Parameters R mean (location) 2 > 0 variance (squared scale) xR

Support PDF CDF Mean Median Mode Variance Skewness Ex. kurtosis Entropy MGF CF Fisher information

0 0

In probability theory, the normal (or Gaussian) distribution is a continuous probability distribution, defined on the entire real line. It has a bell-shaped probability density function, known as the Gaussian function or informally as the bell curve:[1]

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The parameter is the mean or expectation (location of the peak) and 2 is the variance. is known as the standard deviation. The distribution with = 0 and 2 = 1 is called the standard normal distribution or the unit normal distribution. A normal distribution is often used as a first approximation to describe real-valued random variables that cluster around a single mean value. The normal distribution is considered the most prominent probability distribution in statistics. There are several reasons for this:[2] First, the normal distribution arises from the central limit theorem, which states that under mild conditions, the mean of a large number of random variables independently drawn from the same distribution is distributed approximately normally, irrespective of the form of the original distribution. This gives it exceptionally wide application in, for example, sampling. Secondly, the normal distribution is very tractable analytically, that is, a large number of results involving this distribution can be derived in explicit form. For these reasons, the normal distribution is commonly encountered in practice, and is used throughout statistics, the natural sciences, and the social sciences[3] as a simple model for complex phenomena. For example, the observational error in an experiment is usually assumed to follow a normal distribution, and the propagation of uncertainty is computed using this assumption. Note that a normally distributed variable has a symmetric distribution about its mean. Quantities that grow exponentially, such as prices, incomes or populations, are often skewed to the right, and hence may be better described by other distributions, such as the log-normal distribution or the Pareto distribution. In addition, the probability of seeing a normally distributed value that is far (i.e. more than a few standard deviations) from the mean drops off extremely rapidly. As a result, statistical inference using a normal distribution is not robust to the presence of outliers (data that are unexpectedly far from the mean, due to exceptional circumstances, observational error, etc.). When outliers are expected, data may be better described using a heavy-tailed distribution such as the Student's t-distribution. From a technical perspective, alternative characterizations are possible, for example: The normal distribution is the only absolutely continuous distribution all of whose cumulants beyond the first two (i.e. other than the mean and variance) are zero. For a given mean and variance, the corresponding normal distribution is the continuous distribution with the maximum entropy.[4][5] The normal distributions are a subclass of the elliptical distributions.

Definition
The simplest case of a normal distribution is known as the standard normal distribution, described by this probability density function:

The factor in this expression ensures that the total area under the curve (x) is equal to one[proof], and 12 in the exponent makes the "width" of the curve (measured as half the distance between the inflection points) also equal to one. It is traditional in statistics to denote this function with the Greek letter (phi), whereas density functions for all other distributions are usually denoted with letters f orp.[6] The alternative glyph is also used quite often, however within this article "" is reserved to denote characteristic functions. Every normal distribution is the result of exponentiating a quadratic function (just as an exponential distribution results from exponentiating a linear function):

This yields the classic "bell curve" shape, provided that a < 0 so that the quadratic function is concave for x close to 0. f(x) > 0 everywhere. One can adjust a to control the "width" of the bell, then adjust b to move the central peak of

Normal distribution the bell along the x-axis, and finally one must choose c such that (which is only possible

384

whena<0). Rather than using a, b, and c, it is far more common to describe a normal distribution by its mean = b2a and variance 2 = 12a. Changing to these new parameters allows one to rewrite the probability density function in a convenient standard form:

For a standard normal distribution, = 0 and 2 = 1. The last part of the equation above shows that any other normal distribution can be regarded as a version of the standard normal distribution that has been stretched horizontally by a factor and then translated rightward by a distance . Thus, specifies the position of the bell curve's central peak, and specifies the "width" of the bell curve. The parameter is at the same time the mean, the median and the mode of the normal distribution. The parameter 2 is called the variance; as for any random variable, it describes how concentrated the distribution is around its mean. The square root of 2 is called the standard deviation and is the width of the density function. The normal distribution is usually denoted by N(, 2).[7] Thus when a random variable X is distributed normally with mean and variance 2, we write

Alternative formulations
Some authors advocate using the precision instead of the variance. The precision is normally defined as the reciprocal of the variance ( = 2), although it is occasionally defined as the reciprocal of the standard deviation ( = 1).[8] This parametrization has an advantage in numerical applications where 2 is very close to zero and is more convenient to work with in analysis as is a natural parameter of the normal distribution, with known mean and unknown variance. This parametrization is common in Bayesian statistics, as it simplifies the Bayesian analysis of the normal distribution. Another advantage of using this parametrization is in the study of conditional distributions in the multivariate normal case. The form of the normal distribution with the more common definition = 2 is as follows:

The question of which normal distribution should be called the "standard" one is also answered differently by various authors. Starting from the works of Gauss the standard normal was considered to be the one with variance 2 = 12 :

Stigler (1982) goes even further and insists the standard normal to be with the variance 2 = 12 :

According to the author, this formulation is advantageous because of a much simpler and easier-to-remember formula, the fact that the pdf has unit height at zero, and simple approximate formulas for the quantiles of the distribution.

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Characterization
In the previous section the normal distribution was defined by specifying its probability density function. However there are other ways to characterize a probability distribution. They include: the cumulative distribution function, the moments, the cumulants, the characteristic function, the moment-generating function, etc.

Probability density function

The probability density function (pdf) of a random variable describes the relative frequencies of different values for that random variable. The pdf of the normal distribution is given by the formula explained in detail in the previous section:

This is a proper function only when the variance 2 is not equal to zero. In that case this is a continuous smooth function, defined on the entire real line, and which is called the "Gaussian function". Properties: Function f(x) is unimodal and symmetric around the point x = , which is at the same time the mode, the median and the mean of the distribution.[9] The inflection points of the curve occur one standard deviation away from the mean (i.e., at x = and x = + ).[9] Function f(x) is log-concave.[9] The standard normal density (x) is an eigenfunction of the Fourier transform in that if is a normalized Gaussian function with variance 2, centered at zero, then its Fourier transform is a Gaussian function with variance 1/2. The function is supersmooth of order 2, implying that it is infinitely differentiable.[10] The first derivative of (x) is (x) = x(x); the second derivative is (x) = (x2 1)(x). More generally, the n-th derivative is given by (n)(x) = (1)nHn(x)(x), where Hn is the Hermite polynomial of order n.[11] When 2 = 0, the density function doesn't exist. However a generalized function that defines a measure on the real line, and it can be used to calculate, for example, expected value is

where (x) is the Dirac delta function which is equal to infinity at x = and is zero elsewhere.

Cumulative distribution function

The cumulative distribution function (CDF) describes probability of a random variable falling in the interval (, x]. The CDF of the standard normal distribution is denoted with the capital Greek letter (phi), and can be computed as an integral of the probability density function:

This integral cannot be expressed in terms of elementary functions, so is simply called a transformation of the error function, or erf, a special function. Numerical methods for calculation of the standard normal CDF are discussed below. For a generic normal random variable with mean and variance 2>0 the CDF will be equal to

The complement of the standard normal CDF, Q(x) = 1 (x), is referred to as the Q-function, especially in engineering texts.[12][13] This represents the upper tail probability of the Gaussian distribution: that is, the probability that a standard normal random variable X is greater than the number x. Other definitions of the Q-function, all of which are simple transformations of , are also used occasionally.[14]

Normal distribution Properties: The standard normal CDF is 2-fold rotationally symmetric around point (0,): (x) = 1 (x). The derivative of (x) is equal to the standard normal pdf (x): (x) = (x). The antiderivative of (x) is: (x) dx = x (x) + (x). For a normal distribution with zero variance, the CDF is the Heaviside step function (with H(0) = 1 convention):

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Quantile function
The quantile function of a distribution is the inverse of the CDF. The quantile function of the standard normal distribution is called the probit function, and can be expressed in terms of the inverse error function:

Quantiles of the standard normal distribution are commonly denoted as zp. The quantile zp represents such a value that a standard normal random variable X has the probability of exactly p to fall inside the (, zp] interval. The quantiles are used in hypothesis testing, construction of confidence intervals and Q-Q plots. The most "famous" normal quantile is 1.96 = z0.975. A standard normal random variable is greater than 1.96 in absolute value in 5% of cases. For a normal random variable with mean and variance 2, the quantile function is

Characteristic function and moment generating function

The characteristic function X(t) of a random variable X is defined as the expected value of eitX, where i is the imaginary unit, and tR is the argument of the characteristic function. Thus the characteristic function is the Fourier transform of the density (x). For a normally distributed X with mean and variance 2, the characteristic function is[15]

The characteristic function can be analytically extended to the entire complex plane: one defines (z) = eiz 122z2 for allzC.[16] The moment generating function is defined as the expected value of etX. For a normal distribution, the moment generating function exists and is equal to

The cumulant generating function is the logarithm of the moment generating function:

Since this is a quadratic polynomial in t, only the first two cumulants are nonzero.

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Moments
The normal distribution has moments of all orders. That is, for a normally distributed X with mean and variance 2, the expectation E[|X|p] exists and is finite for all p such that Re[p] > 1. Usually we are interested only in moments of integer orders: p = 1, 2, 3, . Central moments are the moments of X around its mean . Thus, a central moment of order p is the expected value of (X )p. Using standardization of normal random variables, this expectation will be equal to p E[Zp], where Z is standard normal.

Here n!! denotes the double factorial, that is the product of every odd number from n to1. Central absolute moments are the moments of |X|. They coincide with regular moments for all even orders, but are nonzero for all odd p's.

The last formula is true for any non-integer p > 1. Raw moments and raw absolute moments are the moments of X and |X| respectively. The formulas for these moments are much more complicated, and are given in terms of confluent hypergeometric functions 1F1 and U.

These expressions remain valid even if p is not integer. See also generalized Hermite polynomials. First two cumulants are equal to and 2 respectively, whereas all higher-order cumulants are equal to zero.
Order 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Raw moment 2 + 2 3 + 32 4 + 622 + 34 5 + 1032 + 154 6 + 1542 + 4524 + 156 7 + 2152 + 10534 + 1056 8 + 2862 + 21044 + 42026 + 1058 Central moment Cumulant 0 2 0 3 4 0 15 6 0 105 8 2 0 0 0 0 0 0

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Properties
Standardizing normal random variables
Because the normal distribution is a location-scale family, it is possible to relate all normal random variables to the standard normal. For example if X is normal with mean and variance 2, then

has mean zero and unit variance, that is Z has the standard normal distribution. Conversely, having a standard normal random variable Z we can always construct another normal random variable with specific mean and variance 2:

This "standardizing" transformation is convenient as it allows one to compute the PDF and especially the CDF of a normal distribution having the table of PDF and CDF values for the standard normal. They will be related via

Standard deviation and tolerance intervals

About 68% of values drawn from a normal distribution are within one standard deviation away from the mean; about 95% of the values lie within two standard deviations; and about 99.7% are within three standard deviations. This fact is known as the 68-95-99.7 rule, or the empirical rule, or the 3-sigma rule. To be more precise, the area under the bell curve between n and + n is given by

where erf is the error function. To 12 decimal places, the values for the 1-, 2-, up to 6-sigma points are:[17]

Dark blue is less than one standard deviation away from the mean. For the normal distribution, this accounts for about 68% of the set, while two standard deviations from the mean (medium and dark blue) account for about 95%, and three standard deviations (light, medium, and dark blue) account for about 99.7%.

i.e. 1 minus ... 1 0682689492137 0317310507863 2 0954499736104 0045500263896 3 0997300203937 0002699796063 4 0999936657516 0000063342484

or 1 in ... 315148718753 219778945080 370398347345 15,7871927673

5 0999999426697 0000000573303 1.74428e+0689362 6 0999999998027 0000000001973 5.06797e+08897

The next table gives the reverse relation of sigma multiples corresponding to a few often used values for the area under the bell curve. These values are useful to determine (asymptotic) tolerance intervals of the specified levels based on normally distributed (or asymptotically normal) estimators:[18]

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n 0.80 0.90 0.95 0.98 0.99 0.995 0.998 1281551565545 1644853626951 1959963984540 2326347874041 2575829303549 2807033768344 3090232306168 0.999 0.9999 0.99999 0.999999 0.9999999 0.99999999

n 3290526731492 3890591886413 4417173413469 4891638475699 5326723886384 5730728868236

0.999999999 6109410204869

where the value on the left of the table is the proportion of values that will fall within a given interval and n is a multiple of the standard deviation that specifies the width of the interval.

Central limit theorem

The theorem states that under certain (fairly common) conditions, the sum of a large number of random variables will have an approximately normal distribution. For example if (x1, , xn) is a sequence of iid random variables, each having mean and variance 2, then the central limit theorem states that

The theorem will hold even if the summands xi are not iid, although some constraints on the degree of dependence and the growth rate of moments still have to be imposed.

As the number of discrete events increases, the function begins to resemble a normal distribution

The importance of the central limit theorem cannot be overemphasized. A great number of test statistics, scores, and estimators encountered in practice contain sums of certain random variables in them, even more estimators can be represented as sums of random variables through the use of influence functions all of these quantities are governed by the central limit theorem and will have asymptotically normal distribution as a result. Another practical consequence of the central limit theorem is that certain other distributions can be approximated by the normal distribution, for example: The binomial distribution B(n, p) is approximately normal N(np, np(1p)) for large n and for p not too close to zero or one. The Poisson() distribution is approximately normal N(, ) for large values of.

Normal distribution The chi-squared distribution 2(k) is approximately normal N(k, 2k) for large k. The Student's t-distribution t() is approximately normal N(0, 1) when is large. Whether these approximations are sufficiently accurate depends on the purpose for which they are needed, and the rate of convergence to the normal distribution. It is typically the case that such approximations are less accurate in the tails of the distribution. A general upper bound for the approximation error in the central limit theorem is given by the BerryEsseen theorem, improvements of the approximation are given by the Edgeworth expansions.

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Comparison of probability density functions, p(k) for the sum of n fair 6-sided dice to show their convergence to a normal distribution with increasing n, in accordance to the central limit theorem. In the bottom-right graph, smoothed profiles of the previous graphs are rescaled, superimposed and compared with a normal distribution (black curve).

Miscellaneous
1. The family of normal distributions is closed under linear transformations. That is, if X is normally distributed with mean and variance2, then a linear transform aX + b (for some real numbers a and b) is also normally distributed:

Also if X1, X2 are two independent normal random variables, with means 1, 2 and standard deviations 1, 2, then their linear combination will also be normally distributed: [proof] 2. The converse of (1) is also true: if X1 and X2 are independent and their sum X1 + X2 is distributed normally, then both X1 and X2 must also be normal.[19] This is known as Cramr's decomposition theorem. The interpretation of this property is that a normal distribution is only divisible by other normal distributions. Another application of this property is in connection with the central limit theorem: although the CLT asserts that the distribution of a sum of arbitrary non-normal iid random variables is approximately normal, the Cramr's theorem shows that it can never become exactly normal.[20] 3. If the characteristic function X of some random variable X is of the form X(t) = eQ(t), where Q(t) is a polynomial, then the Marcinkiewicz theorem (named after Jzef Marcinkiewicz) asserts that Q can be at most a quadratic polynomial, and therefore X a normal random variable.[20] The consequence of this result is that the normal distribution is the only distribution with a finite number (two) of non-zero cumulants. 4. If X and Y are jointly normal and uncorrelated, then they are independent. The requirement that X and Y should be jointly normal is essential, without it the property does not hold.[proof] For non-normal random variables

Normal distribution uncorrelatedness does not imply independence. 5. If X and Y are independent N(, 2) random variables, then X + Y and X Y are also independent and identically distributed (this follows from the polarization identity).[21] This property uniquely characterizes normal distribution, as can be seen from the Bernstein's theorem: if X and Y are independent and such that X + Y and X Y are also independent, then both X and Y must necessarily have normal distributions. More generally, if X1, ..., Xn are independent random variables, then two linear combinations akXk and bkXk will be independent if and only if all Xk's are normal and akbk2 k = 0, where 2 [22] k denotes the variance of X . k 6. The normal distribution is infinitely divisible:[23] for a normally distributed X with mean and variance2 we can find n independent random variables {X1, , Xn} each distributed normally with means/n and variances2/n such that 7. The normal distribution is stable (with exponent = 2): if X1, X2 are two independent N(, 2) random variables and a, b are arbitrary real numbers, then where X3 is also N(, 2). This relationship directly follows from property (1).

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8. The KullbackLeibler divergence of one normal distributions X2 N(2, 21 )from another X1 N(1, 22 )is given by:[24]

The Hellinger distance between the same distributions is equal to

9. The Fisher information matrix for a normal distribution is diagonal and takes the form

10. Normal distributions belongs to an exponential family with natural parameters

2

and
2

, and natural

statistics x and x . The dual, expectation parameters for normal distribution are 1 = and 2 = + 2. 11. The conjugate prior of the mean of a normal distribution is another normal distribution.[25] Specifically, if x1, , xn are iid N(, 2) and the prior is ~ N(0, ), then the posterior distribution for the estimator of will be

12. Of all probability distributions over the reals with mean and variance2, the normal distribution N(, 2) is the one with the maximum entropy.[26] 13. The family of normal distributions forms a manifold with constant curvature 1. The same family is flat with respect to the (1)-connections (e) and (m).[27]

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Related distributions
Operations on a single random variable
If X is distributed normally with mean and variance 2, then The exponential of X is distributed log-normally: eX ~ ln(N (, 2)). The absolute value of X has folded normal distribution: |X| ~ Nf (, 2). If = 0 this is known as the half-normal distribution. The square of X/ has the noncentral chi-squared distribution with one degree of freedom: X2/2 ~ 21(2/2). If = 0, the distribution is called simply chi-squared. The distribution of the variable X restricted to an interval [a, b] is called the truncated normal distribution. (X )2 has a Lvy distribution with location 0 and scale 2.

Combination of two independent random variables

If X1 and X2 are two independent standard normal random variables with mean 0 and variance 1, then Their sum and difference is distributed normally with mean zero and variance two: X1 X2 N(0, 2). Their product Z = X1X2 follows the "product-normal" distribution[28] with density function fZ(z) = 1K0(|z|), where K0 is the modified Bessel function of the second kind. This distribution is symmetric around zero, unbounded at z = 0, and has the characteristic function Z(t) = (1 + t 2)1/2. Their ratio follows the standard Cauchy distribution: X1 X2 Cauchy(0, 1). Their Euclidean norm of freedom. has the Rayleigh distribution, also known as the chi distribution with 2 degrees

Combination of two or more independent random variables

If X1, X2, , Xn are independent standard normal random variables, then the sum of their squares has the chi-squared distribution with n degrees of freedom . If X1, X2, , Xn are independent normally distributed random variables with means and variances 2, then their sample mean is independent from the sample standard deviation,[29] which can be demonstrated using Basu's theorem or Cochran's theorem.[30] The ratio of these two quantities will have the Student's t-distribution with n 1 degrees of freedom:

If X1, , Xn, Y1, , Ym are independent standard normal random variables, then the ratio of their normalized sums of squares will have the F-distribution with (n, m) degrees of freedom:[31]

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Operations on the density function

The split normal distribution is most directly defined in terms of joining scaled sections of the density functions of different normal distributions and rescaling the density to integrate to one. The truncated normal distribution results from rescaling a section of a single density function.

Extensions
The notion of normal distribution, being one of the most important distributions in probability theory, has been extended far beyond the standard framework of the univariate (that is one-dimensional) case (Case 1). All these extensions are also called normal or Gaussian laws, so a certain ambiguity in names exists. Multivariate normal distribution describes the Gaussian law in the k-dimensional Euclidean space. A vector X Rk is multivariate-normally distributed if any linear combination of its components aj Xj has a (univariate) normal distribution. The variance of X is a kk symmetric positive-definite matrixV. Rectified Gaussian distribution a rectified version of normal distribution with all the negative elements reset to 0 Complex normal distribution deals with the complex normal vectors. A complex vector X Ck is said to be normal if both its real and imaginary components jointly possess a 2k-dimensional multivariate normal distribution. The variance-covariance structure of X is described by two matrices: the variance matrix, and the relation matrixC. Matrix normal distribution describes the case of normally distributed matrices. Gaussian processes are the normally distributed stochastic processes. These can be viewed as elements of some infinite-dimensional Hilbert spaceH, and thus are the analogues of multivariate normal vectors for the case k = . A random element h H is said to be normal if for any constant a H the scalar product (a, h) has a (univariate) normal distribution. The variance structure of such Gaussian random element can be described in terms of the linear covariance operator K: H H. Several Gaussian processes became popular enough to have their own names: Brownian motion, Brownian bridge, OrnsteinUhlenbeck process. Gaussian q-distribution is an abstract mathematical construction which represents a "q-analogue" of the normal distribution. the q-Gaussian is an analogue of the Gaussian distribution, in the sense that it maximises the Tsallis entropy, and is one type of Tsallis distribution. Note that this distribution is different from the Gaussian q-distribution above. One of the main practical uses of the Gaussian law is to model the empirical distributions of many different random variables encountered in practice. In such case a possible extension would be a richer family of distributions, having more than two parameters and therefore being able to fit the empirical distribution more accurately. The examples of such extensions are: Pearson distribution a four-parametric family of probability distributions that extend the normal law to include different skewness and kurtosis values.

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Normality tests
Normality tests assess the likelihood that the given data set {x1, , xn} comes from a normal distribution. Typically the null hypothesis H0 is that the observations are distributed normally with unspecified mean and variance 2, versus the alternative Ha that the distribution is arbitrary. A great number of tests (over 40) have been devised for this problem, the more prominent of them are outlined below: "Visual" tests are more intuitively appealing but subjective at the same time, as they rely on informal human judgement to accept or reject the null hypothesis. Q-Q plot is a plot of the sorted values from the data set against the expected values of the corresponding quantiles from the standard normal distribution. That is, it's a plot of point of the form (1(pk), x(k)), where plotting points pk are equal to pk=(k)/(n+12) and is an adjustment constant which can be anything between 0 and1. If the null hypothesis is true, the plotted points should approximately lie on a straight line. P-P plot similar to the Q-Q plot, but used much less frequently. This method consists of plotting the points ((z(k)), pk), where . For normally distributed data this plot should lie on a 45 line between (0,0) and(1,1). WilkShapiro test employs the fact that the line in the Q-Q plot has the slope of . The test compares the least squares estimate of that slope with the value of the sample variance, and rejects the null hypothesis if these two quantities differ significantly. Normal probability plot (rankit plot) Moment tests: D'Agostino's K-squared test JarqueBera test Empirical distribution function tests: Lilliefors test (an adaptation of the KolmogorovSmirnov test) AndersonDarling test

Estimation of parameters
It is often the case that we don't know the parameters of the normal distribution, but instead want to estimate them. That is, having a sample (x1, , xn) from a normal N(, 2) population we would like to learn the approximate values of parameters and 2. The standard approach to this problem is the maximum likelihood method, which requires maximization of the log-likelihood function:

Taking derivatives with respect to and 2 and solving the resulting system of first order conditions yields the maximum likelihood estimates:

Estimator is called the sample mean, since it is the arithmetic mean of all observations. The statistic is complete and sufficient for , and therefore by the LehmannScheff theorem, is the uniformly minimum variance unbiased (UMVU) estimator.[32] In finite samples it is distributed normally:

The variance of this estimator is equal to the -element of the inverse Fisher information matrix . This implies that the estimator is finite-sample efficient. Of practical importance is the fact that the standard error of is proportional to , that is, if one wishes to decrease the standard error by a factor of 10, one must increase the number of points in the sample by a factor of 100. This fact is widely used in determining sample sizes for opinion

Normal distribution polls and the number of trials in Monte Carlo simulations. From the standpoint of the asymptotic theory, is consistent, that is, it converges in probability to as n . The estimator is also asymptotically normal, which is a simple corollary of the fact that it is normal in finite samples:

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The estimator is called the sample variance, since it is the variance of the sample (x1, , xn). In practice, another estimator is often used instead of the . This other estimator is denoted s2, and is also called the sample variance, which represents a certain ambiguity in terminology; its square root s is called the sample standard deviation. The estimator s2 differs from by having (n 1) instead ofn in the denominator (the so called Bessel's correction):

The difference between s2 and becomes negligibly small for large n's. In finite samples however, the motivation behind the use of s2 is that it is an unbiased estimator of the underlying parameter 2, whereas is biased. Also, by the LehmannScheff theorem the estimator s2 is uniformly minimum variance unbiased (UMVU),[32] which makes it the "best" estimator among all unbiased ones. However it can be shown that the biased estimator is "better" than the s2 in terms of the mean squared error (MSE) criterion. In finite samples both s2 and have scaled chi-squared distribution with (n 1) degrees of freedom:

The first of these expressions shows that the variance of s2 is equal to 24/(n1), which is slightly greater than the -element of the inverse Fisher information matrix . Thus, s2 is not an efficient estimator for 2, and moreover, 2 since s is UMVU, we can conclude that the finite-sample efficient estimator for 2 does not exist. Applying the asymptotic theory, both estimators s2 and are consistent, that is they converge in probability to 2 as the sample size n . The two estimators are also both asymptotically normal: In particular, both estimators are asymptotically efficient for 2. By Cochran's theorem, for normal distributions the sample mean and the sample variance s2 are independent, which means there can be no gain in considering their joint distribution. There is also a reverse theorem: if in a sample the sample mean and sample variance are independent, then the sample must have come from the normal distribution. The independence between and s can be employed to construct the so-called t-statistic:

This quantity t has the Student's t-distribution with (n 1) degrees of freedom, and it is an ancillary statistic (independent of the value of the parameters). Inverting the distribution of this t-statistics will allow us to construct the confidence interval for ;[33] similarly, inverting the 2 distribution of the statistic s2 will give us the confidence interval for 2:[34]

where tk,p and 2 th 2 k,p are the p quantiles of the t- and -distributions respectively. These confidence intervals are of the level 1 , 2 meaning that the true values and fall outside of these intervals with probability . In practice people usually take = 5%, resulting in the 95% confidence intervals. The approximate formulas in the display above were derived from

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the asymptotic distributions of and s2. The approximate formulas become valid for large values of n, and are more convenient for the manual calculation since the standard normal quantiles z/2 do not depend on n. In particular, the most popular value of = 5%, results in |z0.025| = 1.96.

Bayesian analysis of the normal distribution

Bayesian analysis of normally distributed data is complicated by the many different possibilities that may be considered: Either the mean, or the variance, or neither, may be considered a fixed quantity. When the variance is unknown, analysis may be done directly in terms of the variance, or in terms of the precision, the reciprocal of the variance. The reason for expressing the formulas in terms of precision is that the analysis of most cases is simplified. Both univariate and multivariate cases need to be considered. Either conjugate or improper prior distributions may be placed on the unknown variables. An additional set of cases occurs in Bayesian linear regression, where in the basic model the data is assumed to be normally distributed, and normal priors are placed on the regression coefficients. The resulting analysis is similar to the basic cases of independent identically distributed data, but more complex. The formulas for the non-linear-regression cases are summarized in the conjugate prior article.

The sum of two quadratics

Scalar form The following auxiliary formula is useful for simplifying the posterior update equations, which otherwise become fairly tedious.

This equation rewrites the sum of two quadratics in x by expanding the squares, grouping the terms in x, and completing the square. Note the following about the complex constant factors attached to some of the terms: 1. The factor 2. has the form of a weighted average of y and z. This shows that this factor can be thought of as resulting from a situation where the reciprocals of quantities a and b add directly, so to combine a and b themselves, it's necessary to reciprocate, add, and reciprocate the result again to get back into the original units. This is exactly the sort of operation performed by the harmonic mean, so it is not surprising that and b. is one-half the harmonic mean of a

Normal distribution Vector form A similar formula can be written for the sum of two vector quadratics: If x, y, z are vectors of length k, and A and B are symmetric, invertible matrices of size , then

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where

Note that the form x A x is called a quadratic form and is a scalar:

In other words, it sums up all possible combinations of products of pairs of elements from x, with a separate coefficient for each. In addition, since , only the sum matters for any off-diagonal elements of A, and there is no loss of generality in assuming that A is symmetric. Furthermore, if A is symmetric, then the form .

The sum of differences from the mean

Another useful formula is as follows:

where

With known variance

For a set of i.i.d. normally distributed data points X of size n where each individual point x follows with known variance 2, the conjugate prior distribution is also normally distributed. This can be shown more easily by rewriting the variance as the precision, i.e. using = 1/2. Then if and we proceed as follows. First, the likelihood function is (using the formula above for the sum of differences from the mean):

Then, we proceed as follows:

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In the above derivation, we used the formula above for the sum of two quadratics and eliminated all constant factors not involving . The result is the kernel of a normal distribution, with mean i.e. and precision ,

This can be written as a set of Bayesian update equations for the posterior parameters in terms of the prior parameters:

That is, to combine n data points with total precision of n (or equivalently, total variance of n/2) and mean of values , derive a new total precision simply by adding the total precision of the data to the prior total precision, and form a new mean through a precision-weighted average, i.e. a weighted average of the data mean and the prior mean, each weighted by the associated total precision. This makes logical sense if the precision is thought of as indicating the certainty of the observations: In the distribution of the posterior mean, each of the input components is weighted by its certainty, and the certainty of this distribution is the sum of the individual certainties. (For the intuition of this, compare the expression "the whole is (or is not) greater than the sum of its parts". In addition, consider that the knowledge of the posterior comes from a combination of the knowledge of the prior and likelihood, so it makes sense that we are more certain of it than of either of its components.) The above formula reveals why it is more convenient to do Bayesian analysis of conjugate priors for the normal distribution in terms of the precision. The posterior precision is simply the sum of the prior and likelihood precisions, and the posterior mean is computed through a precision-weighted average, as described above. The same formulas can be written in terms of variance by reciprocating all the precisions, yielding the more ugly formulas

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With known mean

For a set of i.i.d. normally distributed data points X of size n where each individual point x follows with known mean , the conjugate prior of the variance has an inverse gamma distribution or a scaled inverse chi-squared distribution. The two are equivalent except for having different parameterizations. The use of the inverse gamma is more common, but the scaled inverse chi-squared is more convenient, so we use it in the following derivation. The prior for 2 is as follows:

The likelihood function from above, written in terms of the variance, is:

where

Then:

This is also a scaled inverse chi-squared distribution, where

or equivalently

Normal distribution Reparameterizing in terms of an inverse gamma distribution, the result is:

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With unknown mean and variance

For a set of i.i.d. normally distributed data points X of size n where each individual point x follows with unknown mean and variance 2, a combined (multivariate) conjugate prior is placed over the mean and variance, consisting of a normal-inverse-gamma distribution. Logically, this originates as follows: 1. From the analysis of the case with unknown mean but known variance, we see that the update equations involve sufficient statistics computed from the data consisting of the mean of the data points and the total variance of the data points, computed in turn from the known variance divided by the number of data points. 2. From the analysis of the case with unknown variance but known mean, we see that the update equations involve sufficient statistics over the data consisting of the number of data points and sum of squared deviations. 3. Keep in mind that the posterior update values serve as the prior distribution when further data is handled. Thus, we should logically think of our priors in terms of the sufficient statistics just described, with the same semantics kept in mind as much as possible. 4. To handle the case where both mean and variance are unknown, we could place independent priors over the mean and variance, with fixed estimates of the average mean, total variance, number of data points used to compute the variance prior, and sum of squared deviations. Note however that in reality, the total variance of the mean depends on the unknown variance, and the sum of squared deviations that goes into the variance prior (appears to) depend on the unknown mean. In practice, the latter dependence is relatively unimportant: Shifting the actual mean shifts the generated points by an equal amount, and on average the squared deviations will remain the same. This is not the case, however, with the total variance of the mean: As the unknown variance increases, the total variance of the mean will increase proportionately, and we would like to capture this dependence. 5. This suggests that we create a conditional prior of the mean on the unknown variance, with a hyperparameter specifying the mean of the pseudo-observations associated with the prior, and another parameter specifying the number of pseudo-observations. This number serves as a scaling parameter on the variance, making it possible to control the overall variance of the mean relative to the actual variance parameter. The prior for the variance also has two hyperparameters, one specifying the sum of squared deviations of the pseudo-observations associated with the prior, and another specifying once again the number of pseudo-observations. Note that each of the priors has a hyperparameter specifying the number of pseudo-observations, and in each case this controls the relative variance of that prior. These are given as two separate hyperparameters so that the variance (aka the confidence) of the two priors can be controlled separately. 6. This leads immediately to the normal-inverse-gamma distribution, which is defined as the product of the two distributions just defined, with conjugate priors used (an inverse gamma distribution over the variance, and a normal distribution over the mean, conditional on the variance) and with the same four parameters just defined. The priors are normally defined as follows:

The update equations can be derived, and look as follows:

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The respective numbers of pseudo-observations just add the number of actual observations to them. The new mean hyperparameter is once again a weighted average, this time weighted by the relative numbers of observations. Finally, the update for is similar to the case with known mean, but in this case the sum of squared deviations is taken with respect to the observed data mean rather than the true mean, and as a result a new "interaction term" needs to be added to take care of the additional error source stemming from the deviation between prior and data mean. Proof is as follows.

Occurrence
The occurrence of normal distribution in practical problems can be loosely classified into three categories: 1. Exactly normal distributions; 2. Approximately normal laws, for example when such approximation is justified by the central limit theorem; and 3. Distributions modeled as normal the normal distribution being the distribution with maximum entropy for a given mean and variance.

Exact normality
Certain quantities in physics are distributed normally, as was first demonstrated by James Clerk Maxwell. Examples of such quantities are: Velocities of the molecules in the ideal gas. More generally, velocities of the particles in any system in thermodynamic equilibrium will have normal distribution, due to the maximum entropy principle. Probability density function of a ground state in a quantum harmonic oscillator. The position of a particle which experiences diffusion. If initially the The ground state of a quantum harmonic oscillator has the Gaussian distribution. particle is located at a specific point (that is its probability distribution is the dirac delta function), then after time t its location is described by a normal distribution with variance t, which satisfies the diffusion equation t f(x,t) = 12 2 x2 f(x,t). If the initial location is given by a certain density function g(x), then the density at time t is the convolution of g and the normal PDF.

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Approximate normality
Approximately normal distributions occur in many situations, as explained by the central limit theorem. When the outcome is produced by a large number of small effects acting additively and independently, its distribution will be close to normal. The normal approximation will not be valid if the effects act multiplicatively (instead of additively), or if there is a single external influence which has a considerably larger magnitude than the rest of the effects. In counting problems, where the central limit theorem includes a discrete-to-continuum approximation and where infinitely divisible and decomposable distributions are involved, such as Binomial random variables, associated with binary response variables; Poisson random variables, associated with rare events; Thermal light has a BoseEinstein distribution on very short time scales, and a normal distribution on longer timescales due to the central limit theorem.

Assumed normality
I can only recognize the occurrence of the normal curve the Laplacian curve of errors as a very abnormal phenomenon. It is roughly approximated to in certain distributions; for this reason, and on account for its beautiful simplicity, we may, perhaps, use it as a first approximation, particularly in theoretical investigations. Pearson (1901) There are statistical methods to empirically test that assumption, see the above Normality tests section.
Histogram of sepal widths for Iris versicolor from Fisher's Iris flower data set, with superimposed best-fitting normal distribution.

In biology, the logarithm of various variables tend to have a normal distribution, that is, they tend to have a log-normal distribution (after separation on male/female subpopulations), with examples including: Measures of size of living tissue (length, height, skin area, weight);[35]

The length of inert appendages (hair, claws, nails, teeth) of biological specimens, in the direction of growth; presumably the thickness of tree bark also falls under this category; Certain physiological measurements, such as blood pressure of adult humans. In finance, in particular the BlackScholes model, changes in the logarithm of exchange rates, price indices, and stock market indices are assumed normal (these variables behave like compound interest, not like simple interest, and so are multiplicative). Some mathematicians such as Benot Mandelbrot have argued that log-Levy distributions which possesses heavy tails would be a more appropriate model, in particular for the analysis for stock market crashes. Measurement errors in physical experiments are often modeled by a normal distribution. This use of a normal distribution does not imply that one is assuming the measurement errors are normally distributed, rather using the normal distribution produces the most conservative predictions possible given only knowledge about the mean and variance of the errors.[36]

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In standardized testing, results can be made to have a normal distribution. This is done by either selecting the number and difficulty of questions (as in the IQ test), or by transforming the raw test scores into "output" scores by fitting them to the normal distribution. For example, the SAT's traditional range of 200800 is based on a normal distribution with a mean of 500 and a standard deviation of 100. Many scores are derived from the normal distribution, including percentile ranks ("percentiles" or "quantiles"), normal curve equivalents, stanines, z-scores, and T-scores. Fitted cumulative normal distribution to October rainfalls, see distribution fitting Additionally, a number of behavioral statistical procedures are based on the assumption that scores are normally distributed; for example, t-tests and ANOVAs. Bell curve grading assigns relative grades based on a normal distribution of scores. In hydrology the distribution of long duration river discharge or rainfall, e.g. monthly and yearly totals, is often thought to be practically normal according to the central limit theorem.[37] The blue picture illustrates an example of fitting the normal distribution to ranked October rainfalls showing the 90% confidence belt based on the binomial distribution. The rainfall data are represented by plotting positions as part of the cumulative frequency analysis.

Generating values from normal distribution

In computer simulations, especially in applications of the Monte-Carlo method, it is often desirable to generate values that are normally distributed. The algorithms listed below all generate the standard normal deviates, since a N(, 2) can be generated as X = + Z, where Z is standard normal. All these algorithms rely on the availability of a random number generator U capable of producing uniform random variates. The most straightforward method is based on the probability integral transform property: if U is distributed uniformly on (0,1), then 1(U) will have the standard normal distribution. The drawback The bean machine, a device invented by Francis Galton, can be of this method is that it relies on calculation of the called the first generator of normal random variables. This machine probit function 1, which cannot be done consists of a vertical board with interleaved rows of pins. Small balls are dropped from the top and then bounce randomly left or right as analytically. Some approximate methods are they hit the pins. The balls are collected into bins at the bottom and described in Hart (1968) and in the erf article. settle down into a pattern resembling the Gaussian curve. Wichura[38] gives a fast algorithm for computing this function to 16 decimal places, which is used by R to compute random variates of the normal distribution. An easy to program approximate approach, that relies on the central limit theorem, is as follows: generate 12 uniform U(0,1) deviates, add them all up, and subtract 6 the resulting random variable will have approximately standard normal distribution. In truth, the distribution will be IrwinHall, which is a 12-section eleventh-order

Normal distribution polynomial approximation to the normal distribution. This random deviate will have a limited range of (6,6).[39] The BoxMuller method uses two independent random numbers U and V distributed uniformly on (0,1). Then the two random variables X and Y

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will both have the standard normal distribution, and will be independent. This formulation arises because for a bivariate normal random vector (X Y) the squared norm X2 + Y2 will have the chi-squared distribution with two degrees of freedom, which is an easily generated exponential random variable corresponding to the quantity 2ln(U) in these equations; and the angle is distributed uniformly around the circle, chosen by the random variable V. Marsaglia polar method is a modification of the BoxMuller method algorithm, which does not require computation of functions sin() and cos(). In this method U and V are drawn from the uniform (1,1) distribution, and then S = U2 + V2 is computed. If S is greater or equal to one then the method starts over, otherwise two quantities

are returned. Again, X and Y will be independent and standard normally distributed. The Ratio method[40] is a rejection method. The algorithm proceeds as follows: Generate two independent uniform deviates U and V; Compute X = 8/e (V 0.5)/U; If X2 5 4e1/4U then accept X and terminate algorithm; If X2 4e1.35/U + 1.4 then reject X and start over from step 1; If X2 4 / lnU then accept X, otherwise start over the algorithm. The ziggurat algorithm Marsaglia & Tsang (2000) is faster than the BoxMuller transform and still exact. In about 97% of all cases it uses only two random numbers, one random integer and one random uniform, one multiplication and an if-test. Only in 3% of the cases where the combination of those two falls outside the "core of the ziggurat" a kind of rejection sampling using logarithms, exponentials and more uniform random numbers has to be employed. There is also some investigation into the connection between the fast Hadamard transform and the normal distribution, since the transform employs just addition and subtraction and by the central limit theorem random numbers from almost any distribution will be transformed into the normal distribution. In this regard a series of Hadamard transforms can be combined with random permutations to turn arbitrary data sets into a normally distributed data.

Numerical approximations for the normal CDF

The standard normal CDF is widely used in scientific and statistical computing. The values (x) may be approximated very accurately by a variety of methods, such as numerical integration, Taylor series, asymptotic series and continued fractions. Different approximations are used depending on the desired level of accuracy. Zelen & Severo (1964) give the approximation for (x) for x > 0 with the absolute error |(x)|<7.5108 (algorithm 26.2.17 [41]):

where (x) is the standard normal PDF, and b0 = 0.2316419, b1 = 0.319381530, b2 = 0.356563782, b3 = 1.781477937, b4 = 1.821255978, b5 = 1.330274429.

Normal distribution Hart (1968) lists almost a hundred of rational function approximations for the erfc() function. His algorithms vary in the degree of complexity and the resulting precision, with maximum absolute precision of 24 digits. An algorithm by West (2009) combines Hart's algorithm 5666 with a continued fraction approximation in the tail to provide a fast computation algorithm with a 16-digit precision. Cody (1969) after recalling Hart68 solution is not suited for erf, gives a solution for both erf and erfc, with maximal relative error bound, via Rational Chebyshev Approximation. Marsaglia (2004) suggested a simple algorithm[42] based on the Taylor series expansion

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for calculating (x) with arbitrary precision. The drawback of this algorithm is comparatively slow calculation time (for example it takes over 300 iterations to calculate the function with 16 digits of precision when x = 10). The GNU Scientific Library calculates values of the standard normal CDF using Hart's algorithms and approximations with Chebyshev polynomials.

History
Development
Some authors[43][44] attribute the credit for the discovery of the normal distribution to de Moivre, who in 1738[45] published in the second edition of his "The Doctrine of Chances" the study of the coefficients in the binomial expansion of (a + b)n. De Moivre proved that the middle term in this expansion has the approximate magnitude of , and that "If m or n be a Quantity infinitely great, then the Logarithm of the Ratio, which a Term distant from the middle by the Interval , has to the middle Term, is ."[46] Although this theorem can be interpreted as the first obscure expression for the normal probability law, Stigler points out that de Moivre himself did not interpret his results as anything more than the approximate rule for the binomial coefficients, and in particular de Moivre lacked the concept of the probability density function.[47] In 1809 Gauss published his monograph "Theoria motus corporum coelestium in sectionibus conicis solem ambientium" where among other things he introduces several important statistical concepts, such as the method of least squares, the method of maximum likelihood, and the normal distribution. Gauss used M, M, M, to denote the measurements of some unknown quantityV, and sought the "most probable" estimator: the one which maximizes the probability (MV) (MV) (MV) of obtaining the observed experimental results. In his notation is the probability law of the measurement errors of magnitude . Not knowing what the function is, Gauss requires that his method should reduce to the well-known answer: the arithmetic mean of the measured values.[48] Starting from these principles, Gauss demonstrates that the only law which rationalizes the choice of arithmetic mean as an estimator of the location parameter, is the normal law of errors:[49]

Carl Friedrich Gauss discovered the normal distribution in 1809 as a way to rationalize the method of least squares.

where h is "the measure of the precision of the observations". Using this normal law as a generic model for errors in the experiments, Gauss formulates what is now known as the non-linear weighted least squares (NWLS) method.[50]

Normal distribution

406

Although Gauss was the first to suggest the normal distribution law, Laplace made significant contributions.[51] It was Laplace who first posed the problem of aggregating several observations in 1774,[52] although his own solution led to the Laplacian distribution. It was Laplace who first calculated the value of the integral et dt = in 1782, providing the normalization constant for the normal distribution.[53] Finally, it was Laplace who in 1810 proved and presented to the Academy the fundamental central limit theorem, which emphasized the theoretical importance of the normal distribution.[54] It is of interest to note that in 1809 an American mathematician Adrain published two derivations of the normal probability law, simultaneously and independently from Gauss.[55] His works remained largely unnoticed by the scientific community, until in 1871 they were "rediscovered" by Abbe.[56] In the middle of the 19th century Maxwell demonstrated that the normal distribution is not just a convenient mathematical tool, but may also occur in natural phenomena:[57] "The number of particles whose velocity, resolved in a certain direction, lies between x and x+dx is

Marquis de Laplace proved the central limit theorem in 1810, consolidating the importance of the normal distribution in statistics.

Naming
Since its introduction, the normal distribution has been known by many different names: the law of error, the law of facility of errors, Laplace's second law, Gaussian law, etc. Gauss himself apparently coined the term with reference to the "normal equations" involved in its applications, with normal having its technical meaning of orthogonal rather than "usual".[58] However, by the end of the 19th century some authors[59] had started using the name normal distribution, where the word "normal" was used as an adjective the term now being seen as a reflection of the fact that this distribution was seen as typical, common and thus "normal". Peirce (one of those authors) once defined "normal" thus: "...the 'normal' is not the average (or any other kind of mean) of what actually occurs, but of what would, in the long run, occur under certain circumstances."[60] Around the turn of the 20th century Pearson popularized the term normal as a designation for this distribution.[61] Many years ago I called the LaplaceGaussian curve the normal curve, which name, while it avoids an international question of priority, has the disadvantage of leading people to believe that all other distributions of frequency are in one sense or another 'abnormal'. Pearson (1920) Also, it was Pearson who first wrote the distribution in terms of the standard deviation as in modern notation. Soon after this, in year 1915, Fisher added the location parameter to the formula for normal distribution, expressing it in the way it is written nowadays:

The term "standard normal" which denotes the normal distribution with zero mean and unit variance came into general use around 1950s, appearing in the popular textbooks by P.G. Hoel (1947) "Introduction to mathematical statistics" and A.M. Mood (1950) "Introduction to the theory of statistics".[62]

Normal distribution When the name is used, the "Gaussian distribution" was named after Carl Friedrich Gauss, who introduced the distribution in 1809 as a way of rationalizing the method of least squares as outlined above. The related work of Laplace, also outlined above has led to the normal distribution being sometimes called Laplacian, especially in French-speaking countries. Among English speakers, both "normal distribution" and "Gaussian distribution" are in common use, with different terms preferred by different communities.

407

Notes
[1] The designation "bell curve" is ambiguous: many other distributions are "bell"-shaped: the Cauchy distribution, Student's t-distribution, the generalized normal, the logistic, etc. [2] Casella & Berger (2001, p.102) [3] Normal Distribution (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_g2699/ is_0002/ ai_2699000241), Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology [4] Cover, Thomas M.; Thomas, Joy A. (2006). Elements of Information Theory. John Wiley and Sons. p.254. [5] Park, Sung Y.; Bera, Anil K. (2009). "Maximum Entropy Autoregressive Conditional Heteroskedasticity Model" (http:/ / www. wise. xmu. edu. cn/ Master/ Download/ . . \. . \UploadFiles\paper-masterdownload\2009519932327055475115776. pdf). Journal of Econometrics (Elsevier): 219230. . Retrieved 2011-06-02. [6] Halperin, Hartley & Hoel (1965, item 7) [7] McPherson (1990, p.110) [8] Bernardo & Smith (2000, p.121) [9] Patel & Read (1996, [2.1.4]) [10] Fan (1991, p.1258) [11] Patel & Read (1996, [2.1.8]) [12] Scott, Clayton; Nowak, Robert (August 7, 2003). "The Q-function" (http:/ / cnx. org/ content/ m11537/ 1. 2/ ). Connexions. . [13] Barak, Ohad (April 6, 2006). "Q Function and Error Function" (http:/ / www. eng. tau. ac. il/ ~jo/ academic/ Q. pdf). Tel Aviv University. . [14] Weisstein, Eric W., " Normal Distribution Function (http:/ / mathworld. wolfram. com/ NormalDistributionFunction. html)" from MathWorld. [15] Bryc (1995, p.23) [16] Bryc (1995, p.24) [17] WolframAlpha.com (http:/ / www. wolframalpha. com/ input/ ?i=Table[{N(Erf(n/ Sqrt(2)),+ 12),+ N(1-Erf(n/ Sqrt(2)),+ 12),+ N(1/ (1-Erf(n/ Sqrt(2))),+ 12)},+ {n,1,6}]) [18] part 1 (http:/ / www. wolframalpha. com/ input/ ?i=Table[Sqrt(2)*InverseErf(x),+ {x,+ N({8/ 10,+ 9/ 10,+ 19/ 20,+ 49/ 50,+ 99/ 100,+ 995/ 1000,+ 998/ 1000},+ 13)}]), part 2 (http:/ / www. wolframalpha. com/ input/ ?i=Table[{N(1-10^(-x),9),N(Sqrt(2)*InverseErf(1-10^(-x)),13)},{x,3,9}]) [19] Galambos & Simonelli (2004, Theorem3.5) [20] Bryc (1995, p.35) [21] Bryc (1995, p.27) [22] Lukacs & King (1954) [23] Patel & Read (1996, [2.3.6]) [24] http:/ / www. allisons. org/ ll/ MML/ KL/ Normal/ [25] Jordan, Michael I. (February 8, 2010). "Stat260: Bayesian Modeling and Inference: The Conjugate Prior for the Normal Distribution" (http:/ / www. cs. berkeley. edu/ ~jordan/ courses/ 260-spring10/ lectures/ lecture5. pdf). . [26] Cover & Thomas (2006, p.254) [27] Amari & Nagaoka (2000) [28] Normal Product Distribution (http:/ / mathworld. wolfram. com/ NormalProductDistribution. html), Mathworld [29] Eugene Lukacs (1942). "A Characterization of the Normal Distribution" (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 2236166). The Annals of Mathematical Statistics 13 (1): 9193. . [30] D. Basu and R. G. Laha (1954). "On Some Characterizations of the Normal Distribution" (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 25048183). Sankhy 13 (4): 359362. . [31] Lehmann, E. L. (1997). Testing Statistical Hypotheses (2nd ed.). Springer. p.199. ISBN0-387-94919-4. [32] Krishnamoorthy (2006, p.127) [33] Krishnamoorthy (2006, p.130) [34] Krishnamoorthy (2006, p.133) [35] Huxley (1932) [36] Jaynes, Edwin T. (2003). Probability Theory: The Logic of Science. Cambridge University Press. pp.592593. [37] Oosterbaan, Roland J. (1994). "Chapter 6: Frequency and Regression Analysis of Hydrologic Data" (http:/ / www. waterlog. info/ pdf/ freqtxt. pdf). In Ritzema, Henk P.. Drainage Principles and Applications, Publication 16 (second revised ed.). Wageningen, The Netherlands: International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI). pp.175224. ISBN90-70754-33-9. .

Normal distribution
[38] Wichura, Michael J. (1988). "Algorithm AS241: The Percentage Points of the Normal Distribution". Applied Statistics (Blackwell Publishing) 37 (3): 477484. doi:10.2307/2347330. JSTOR2347330. [39] Johnson, Kotz & Balakrishnan (1995, Equation (26.48)) [40] Kinderman & Monahan (1977) [41] http:/ / www. math. sfu. ca/ ~cbm/ aands/ page_932. htm [42] For example, this algorithm is given in the article Bc programming language. [43] Johnson, Kotz & Balakrishnan (1994, p.85) [44] Le Cam & Lo Yang (2000, p.74) [45] De Moivre first published his findings in 1733, in a pamphlet "Approximatio ad Summam Terminorum Binomii (a + b)n in Seriem Expansi" that was designated for private circulation only. But it was not until the year 1738 that he made his results publicly available. The original pamphlet was reprinted several times, see for example Walker (1985). [46] De Moivre, Abraham (1733), Corollary I see Walker (1985, p.77) [47] Stigler (1986, p.76) [48] "It has been customary certainly to regard as an axiom the hypothesis that if any quantity has been determined by several direct observations, made under the same circumstances and with equal care, the arithmetical mean of the observed values affords the most probable value, if not rigorously, yet very nearly at least, so that it is always most safe to adhere to it." Gauss (1809, section 177) [49] Gauss (1809, section 177) [50] Gauss (1809, section 179) [51] "My custom of terming the curve the GaussLaplacian or normal curve saves us from proportioning the merit of discovery between the two great astronomer mathematicians." quote from Pearson (1905, p.189) [52] Laplace (1774, Problem III) [53] Pearson (1905, p.189) [54] Stigler (1986, p.144) [55] Stigler (1978, p.243) [56] Stigler (1978, p.244) [57] Maxwell (1860, p.23) [58] Jaynes, Edwin J.; Probability Theory: The Logic of Science, Ch 7 (http:/ / www-biba. inrialpes. fr/ Jaynes/ cc07s. pdf) [59] Besides those specifically referenced here, such use is encountered in the works of Peirce, Galton (Galton (1889, chapter V)) and Lexis (Lexis (1878), Rohrbasser & Vron (2003)) approximately around 1875. [60] Peirce, Charles S. (c. 1909 MS), Collected Papers v. 6, paragraph 327 [61] Kruskal & Stigler (1997) [62] "Earliest uses (entry STANDARD NORMAL CURVE)" (http:/ / jeff560. tripod. com/ s. html). .

408

Citations References
Aldrich, John; Miller, Jeff. "Earliest Uses of Symbols in Probability and Statistics" (http://jeff560.tripod.com/ stat.html). Aldrich, John; Miller, Jeff. "Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics" (http://jeff560.tripod. com/mathword.html). In particular, the entries for "bell-shaped and bell curve" (http://jeff560.tripod.com/b. html), "normal (distribution)" (http://jeff560.tripod.com/n.html), "Gaussian" (http://jeff560.tripod.com/g. html), and "Error, law of error, theory of errors, etc." (http://jeff560.tripod.com/e.html). Amari, Shun-ichi; Nagaoka, Hiroshi (2000). Methods of Information Geometry. Oxford University Press. ISBN0-8218-0531-2. Bernardo, Jos M.; Smith, Adrian F. M. (2000). Bayesian Theory. Wiley. ISBN0-471-49464-X. Bryc, Wlodzimierz (1995). The Normal Distribution: Characterizations with Applications. Springer-Verlag. ISBN0-387-97990-5. Casella, George; Berger, Roger L. (2001). Statistical Inference (2nd ed.). Duxbury. ISBN0-534-24312-6. Cody, William J. (1969). "Rational Chebyshev Approximations for the Error Function". Mathematics of Computation: 631638. Cover, Thomas M.; Thomas, Joy A. (2006). Elements of Information Theory. John Wiley and Sons. de Moivre, Abraham (1738). The Doctrine of Chances. ISBN0-8218-2103-2.

Normal distribution Fan, Jianqing (1991). "On the optimal rates of convergence for nonparametric deconvolution problems". The Annals of Statistics 19 (3): 12571272. doi:10.1214/aos/1176348248. JSTOR2241949. Galton, Francis (1889). Natural Inheritance (http://galton.org/books/natural-inheritance/pdf/ galton-nat-inh-1up-clean.pdf). London, UK: Richard Clay and Sons. Galambos, Janos; Simonelli, Italo (2004). Products of Random Variables: Applications to Problems of Physics and to Arithmetical Functions. Marcel Dekker, Inc.. ISBN0-8247-5402-6. Gauss, Carolo Friderico (1809) (in Latin). Theoria motvs corporvm coelestivm in sectionibvs conicis Solem ambientivm [Theory of the Motion of the Heavenly Bodies Moving about the Sun in Conic Sections]. English translation (http://books.google.com/books?id=1TIAAAAAQAAJ). Gould, Stephen Jay (1981). The Mismeasure of Man (first ed.). W. W. Norton. ISBN0-393-01489-4. Halperin, Max; Hartley, Herman O.; Hoel, Paul G. (1965). "Recommended Standards for Statistical Symbols and Notation. COPSS Committee on Symbols and Notation". The American Statistician 19 (3): 1214. doi:10.2307/2681417. JSTOR2681417. Hart, John F.; et al. (1968). Computer Approximations. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. ISBN0-88275-642-7. Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001), "Normal Distribution" (http://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index. php?title=p/n067460), Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer, ISBN978-1-55608-010-4 Herrnstein, Richard J.; Murray, Charles (1994). The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life. Free Press. ISBN0-02-914673-9. Huxley, Julian S. (1932). Problems of Relative Growth. London. ISBN0-486-61114-0. OCLC476909537. Johnson, Norman L.; Kotz, Samuel; Balakrishnan, Narayanaswamy (1994). Continuous Univariate Distributions, Volume 1. Wiley. ISBN0-471-58495-9. Johnson, Norman L.; Kotz, Samuel; Balakrishnan, Narayanaswamy (1995). Continuous Univariate Distributions, Volume 2. Wiley. ISBN0-471-58494-0. Kinderman, Albert J.; Monahan, John F. (1977). "Computer Generation of Random Variables Using the Ratio of Uniform Deviates". ACM Transactions on Mathematical Software 3: 257260. Krishnamoorthy, Kalimuthu (2006). Handbook of Statistical Distributions with Applications. Chapman & Hall/CRC. ISBN1-58488-635-8. Kruskal, William H.; Stigler, Stephen M. (1997). Spencer, Bruce D.. ed. Normative Terminology: 'Normal' in Statistics and Elsewhere. Statistics and Public Policy. Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-852341-6. Laplace, Pierre-Simon de (1774). "Mmoire sur la probabilit des causes par les vnements" (http://gallica.bnf. fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k77596b/f32). Mmoires de l'Acadmie royale des Sciences de Paris (Savants trangers), tome 6: 621656. Translated by Stephen M. Stigler in Statistical Science 1 (3), 1986: JSTOR2245476. Laplace, Pierre-Simon (1812). Thorie analytique des probabilits [Analytical theory of probabilities]. Le Cam, Lucien; Lo Yang, Grace (2000). Asymptotics in Statistics: Some Basic Concepts (second ed.). Springer. ISBN0-387-95036-2. Lexis, Wilhelm (1878). "Sur la dure normale de la vie humaine et sur la thorie de la stabilit des rapports statistiques". Annales de dmographie internationale (Paris) II: 447462. Lukacs, Eugene; King, Edgar P. (1954). "A Property of Normal Distribution". The Annals of Mathematical Statistics 25 (2): 389394. doi:10.1214/aoms/1177728796. JSTOR2236741. McPherson, Glen (1990). Statistics in Scientific Investigation: Its Basis, Application and Interpretation. Springer-Verlag. ISBN0-387-97137-8. Marsaglia, George; Tsang, Wai Wan (2000). "The Ziggurat Method for Generating Random Variables" (http:// www.jstatsoft.org/v05/i08/paper). Journal of Statistical Software 5 (8). Marsaglia, George (2004). "Evaluating the Normal Distribution" (http://www.jstatsoft.org/v11/i05/paper). Journal of Statistical Software 11 (4).

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Normal distribution Maxwell, James Clerk (1860). "V. Illustrations of the dynamical theory of gases. Part I: On the motions and collisions of perfectly elastic spheres". Philosophical Magazine, series 4 19 (124): 1932. doi:10.1080/14786446008642818. Patel, Jagdish K.; Read, Campbell B. (1996). Handbook of the Normal Distribution (2nd ed.). CRC Press. ISBN0-8247-9342-0. Pearson, Karl (1905). "'Das Fehlergesetz und seine Verallgemeinerungen durch Fechner und Pearson'. A rejoinder". Biometrika 4 (1): 169212. JSTOR2331536. Pearson, Karl (1920). "Notes on the History of Correlation". Biometrika 13 (1): 2545. doi:10.1093/biomet/13.1.25. JSTOR2331722. Rohrbasser, Jean-Marc; Vron, Jacques (2003). "Wilhelm Lexis: The Normal Length of Life as an Expression of the "Nature of Things"" (http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/ pop_1634-2941_2003_num_58_3_18444). Population 58 (3): 303322. Stigler, Stephen M. (1978). "Mathematical Statistics in the Early States". The Annals of Statistics 6 (2): 239265. doi:10.1214/aos/1176344123. JSTOR2958876. Stigler, Stephen M. (1982). "A Modest Proposal: A New Standard for the Normal". The American Statistician 36 (2): 137138. doi:10.2307/2684031. JSTOR2684031. Stigler, Stephen M. (1986). The History of Statistics: The Measurement of Uncertainty before 1900. Harvard University Press. ISBN0-674-40340-1. Stigler, Stephen M. (1999). Statistics on the Table. Harvard University Press. ISBN0-674-83601-4. Walker, Helen M. (1985). "De Moivre on the Law of Normal Probability" (http://www.york.ac.uk/depts/ maths/histstat/demoivre.pdf). In Smith, David Eugene. A Source Book in Mathematics. Dover. ISBN0-486-64690-4. Weisstein, Eric W.. "Normal Distribution" (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/NormalDistribution.html). MathWorld. West, Graeme (2009). "Better Approximations to Cumulative Normal Functions" (http://www.wilmott.com/ pdfs/090721_west.pdf). Wilmott Magazine: 7076. Zelen, Marvin; Severo, Norman C. (1964). Probability Functions (chapter 26) (http://www.math.sfu.ca/~cbm/ aands/page_931.htm). Handbook of mathematical functions with formulas, graphs, and mathematical tables, by Abramowitz, M.; and Stegun, I. A.: National Bureau of Standards. New York, NY: Dover. ISBN0-486-61272-4.

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External links
Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001), "Normal distribution" (http://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index. php?title=p/n067460), Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer, ISBN978-1-55608-010-4 Normal Distribution Video Tutorial Part 1-2 (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kB_kYUbS_ig) An 8-foot-tall (2.4m) Probability Machine (named Sir Francis) comparing stock market returns to the randomness of the beans dropping through the quincunx pattern. (http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=AUSKTk9ENzg) YouTube link originating from Index Funds Advisors (http://www.ifa.com) An interactive Normal (Gaussian) distribution plot (http://peter.freeshell.org/gaussian/)

Seven Bridges of Knigsberg

411

Seven Bridges of Knigsberg

The Seven Bridges of Knigsberg is a historically notable problem in mathematics. Its negative resolution by Leonhard Euler in 1735 laid the foundations of graph theory and prefigured the idea of topology. The city of Knigsberg in Prussia (now Kaliningrad, Russia) was set on both sides of the Pregel River, and included two large islands which were connected to each other and the mainland by seven bridges. The problem was to find a walk through the city that would cross each bridge once and only once. The islands could not be reached by any route other than the bridges, and every bridge must have been crossed Map of Knigsberg in Euler's time showing the completely every time; one could not walk halfway onto the bridge and actual layout of the seven bridges, highlighting then turn around and later cross the other half from the other side. The the river Pregel and the bridges walk need not start and end at the same spot. Euler proved that the problem has no solution. There could be no non-retracing the bridges. The difficulty was the development of a technique of analysis and of subsequent tests that established this assertion with mathematical rigor.

Euler's analysis
First, Euler pointed out that the choice of route inside each land mass is irrelevant. The only important feature of a route is the sequence of bridges crossed. This allowed him to reformulate the problem in abstract terms (laying the foundations of graph theory), eliminating all features except the list of land masses and the bridges connecting them. In modern terms, one replaces each land mass with an abstract "vertex" or node, and each bridge with an abstract connection, an "edge", which only serves to record which pair of vertices (land masses) is connected by that bridge. The resulting mathematical structure is called a graph.

Since only the connection information is relevant, the shape of pictorial representations of a graph may be distorted in any way, without changing the graph itself. Only the existence (or absence) of an edge between each pair of nodes is significant. For example, it does not matter whether the edges drawn are straight or curved, or whether one node is to the left or right of another. Next, Euler observed that (except at the endpoints of the walk), whenever one enters a vertex by a bridge, one leaves the vertex by a bridge. In other words, during any walk in the graph, the number of times one enters a non-terminal vertex equals the number of times one leaves it. Now, if every bridge has been traversed exactly once, it follows that, for each land mass (except for the ones chosen for the start and finish), the number of bridges touching that land mass must be even (half of them, in the particular traversal, will be traversed "toward" the landmass; the other half, "away" from it). However, all four of the land masses in the original problem are touched by an odd number of bridges (one is touched by 5 bridges, and each of the other three is touched by 3). Since, at most, two land masses can serve as the endpoints of a putative walk, the proposition of a walk traversing each bridge once leads to a contradiction.

Seven Bridges of Knigsberg In modern language, Euler shows that the possibility of a walk through a graph, traversing each edge exactly once, depends on the degrees of the nodes. The degree of a node is the number of edges touching it. Euler's argument shows that a necessary condition for the walk of the desired form is that the graph be connected and have exactly zero or two nodes of odd degree. This condition turns out also to be sufficienta result stated by Euler and later proven by Carl Hierholzer. Such a walk is now called an Eulerian path or Euler walk in his honor. Further, if there are nodes of odd degree, then any Eulerian path will start at one of them and end at the other. Since the graph corresponding to historical Knigsberg has four nodes of odd degree, it cannot have an Eulerian path. An alternative form of the problem asks for a path that traverses all bridges and also has the same starting and ending point. Such a walk is called an Eulerian circuit or an Euler tour. Such a circuit exists if, and only if, the graph is connected, and there are no nodes of odd degree at all. All Eulerian circuits are also Eulerian paths, but not all Eulerian paths are Eulerian circuits. Euler's work was presented to the St. Petersburg Academy on August 26, 1735, and published as Solutio problematis ad geometriam situs pertinentis (The solution of a problem relating to the geometry of position) in the journal Commentarii academiae scientiarum Petropolitanae in 1741.[1] It is available in English in The World of Mathematics.

412

Significance in the history of mathematics

In the history of mathematics, Euler's solution of the Knigsberg bridge problem is considered to be the first theorem of graph theory, a subject now generally regarded as a branch of combinatorics. Combinatorial problems of other types had been considered since antiquity. In addition, Euler's recognition that the key information was the number of bridges and the list of their endpoints (rather than their exact positions) presaged the development of topology. The difference between the actual layout and the graph schematic is a good example of the idea that topology is not concerned with the rigid shape of objects.

Variations
The classic statement of the problem, given above, uses unidentified nodesthat is, they are all alike except for the way in which they are connected. There is a variation in which the nodes are identifiedeach node is given a unique name or color. The northern bank of the river is occupied by the Schlo, or castle, of the Blue Prince; the southern by that of the Red Prince. The east bank is home to the Bishop's Kirche, or church; and on the small island in the center is a Gasthaus, or inn. It is understood that the problems to follow should be taken in order, and begin with a statement of the original problem: It being customary among the townsmen, after some hours in the Gasthaus, to attempt to walk the bridges, many have returned for more refreshment claiming success. However, none have been able to repeat the feat by the light of day.

A variant with red and blue castles, a church and an inn.

Seven Bridges of Knigsberg Bridge 8: The Blue Prince, having analyzed the town's bridge system by means of graph theory, concludes that the bridges cannot be walked. He contrives a stealthy plan to build an eighth bridge so that he can begin in the evening at his Schlo, walk the bridges, and end at the Gasthaus to brag of his victory. Of course, he wants the Red Prince to be unable to duplicate the feat from the Red Castle. Where does the Blue Prince build the eighth bridge? Bridge 9: The Red Prince, infuriated by his brother's Gordian solution to the problem, wants to build a ninth bridge, enabling him to begin at his Schlo, walk the bridges, and end at the Gasthaus to rub dirt in his brother's face. As an extra bit of revenge, his brother should then no longer be able to walk the bridges starting and ending at his Schloss as before. Where does the Red Prince build the ninth bridge? Bridge 10: The Bishop has watched this furious bridge-building with dismay. It upsets the town's Weltanschauung and, worse, contributes to excessive drunkenness. He wants to build a tenth bridge that allows all the inhabitants to walk the bridges and return to their own beds. Where does the Bishop build the tenth bridge?

413

Solutions
Reduce the city, as before, to a graph. Color each node. As in the classic problem, no Euler walk is possible; coloring does not affect this. All four nodes have an odd number of edges. Bridge 8: Euler walks are possible if exactly zero or two nodes have an odd number of edges. If we have 2 nodes with an odd number of edges, the walk must begin at one such node and end at the other. Since there are only 4 nodes in the puzzle, the solution is simple. The walk desired must begin at the blue node and end at the orange node. Thus, a new edge is drawn between the other two nodes. Since they each formerly had an odd number of edges, they must now have an even number of edges, fulfilling all conditions. This is a change in parity from an odd to even degree.
The colored graph

The 8th edge

Seven Bridges of Knigsberg

414 Bridge 9: The 9th bridge is easy once the 8th is solved. The desire is to enable the red castle and forbid the blue castle as a starting point; the orange node remains the end of the walk and the white node is unaffected. To change the parity of both red and blue nodes, draw a new edge between them. Bridge 10: The 10th bridge takes us in a slightly different direction. The Bishop wishes every citizen to return to his starting point. This is an Euler circuit and requires that all nodes be of even degree. After the solution of the 9th bridge, the red and the orange nodes have odd degree, so their parity must be changed by adding a new edge between them.

The 9th edge

The 10th edge

8th, 9th, and 10th bridges

Seven Bridges of Knigsberg

415

Present state of the bridges

Two of the seven original bridges did not survive the bombing of Knigsberg in World War II. Two others were later demolished and replaced by a modern highway. The three other bridges remain, although only two of them are from Euler's time (one was rebuilt in 1935).[2] Thus, as of 2000, there are now five bridges in Kaliningrad. In terms of graph theory, two of the nodes now have degree 2, and the other two have degree 3. Therefore, an Eulerian path is now possible, but since it must begin on one island and end on the other, it is impractical for tourists.[3] Canterbury University in Christchurch, New Zealand, has incorporated a model of the bridges into a grass area between the old Physical Sciences Library and the Erskine Building, housing the Departments of Mathematics, Statistics and Computer Science.[4]

References
[1] The Euler Archive (http:/ / www. math. dartmouth. edu/ ~euler/ pages/ E053. html), commentary on publication, and original text, in Latin. [2] Taylor, Peter (December 2000). "What Ever Happened to Those Bridges?" (http:/ / www. amt. canberra. edu. au/ koenigs. html). Australian Mathematics Trust. . Retrieved 2006-11-11. [3] Stallmann, Matthias (July 2006). "The 7/5 Bridges of Koenigsberg/Kaliningrad" (http:/ / www. csc. ncsu. edu/ faculty/ stallmann/ SevenBridges/ ). . Retrieved 2006-11-11. [4] "About Mathematics and Statistics University of Canterbury" (http:/ / www. math. canterbury. ac. nz/ php/ about/ ). math.canterbury.ac.nz. . Retrieved November 4, 2010.

External links
Kaliningrad and the Konigsberg Bridge Problem (http://mathdl.maa.org/convergence/1/?pa=content& sa=viewDocument&nodeId=1310&bodyId=1452) at Convergence (http://mathdl.maa.org/convergence/1/) Euler's original publication (http://math.dartmouth.edu/~euler/docs/originals/E053.pdf) (in Latin) The Bridges of Knigsberg (http://www.jimloy.com/puzz/konigs.htm) How the bridges of Knigsberg help to understand the brain (http://www.nonlinearbiomedphys.com/content/ 1/1/3) Euler's Knigsberg's Bridges Problem (http://www.contracosta.edu/legacycontent/math/konig.htm) at Math Dept. Contra Costa College (http://www.contracosta.edu/math/) Pregel A Google graphing tool named after this problem (http://googleresearch.blogspot.com/2009/06/ large-scale-graph-computing-at-google.html) The count of Knigsberg (http://web.inter.nl.net/users/pauline/Koenigsberg.htm)

Goldbach's conjecture

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Goldbach's conjecture

Goldbach's conjecture is one of the oldest and best-known unsolved problems in number theory and in all of mathematics. It states: Every even integer greater than 2 can be expressed as the sum of two primes.[1] The conjecture has been shown to hold up through 41018 unproven despite considerable effort.
[2]

and is generally assumed to be true, but remains

Goldbach number
A Goldbach number is an even positive integer that can be expressed as the sum of two primes. Therefore, another statement of Goldbach's conjecture is that all even integers greater than or equal to 4 are Goldbach numbers. The expression of a given even number as a sum of two primes is called a Goldbach partition of that number. The following are examples of Goldbach partitions for some even numbers: 4=2+2 6=3+3 8=3+5 10 = 3 + 7 = 5 + 5 ... 100 = 3 + 97 = 11 + 89 = 17 + 83 = 29 + 71 = 41 + 59 = 47 + 53 ...
The number of ways an even number can be represented as the sum of two [3] primes.

Goldbach's conjecture The number of unordered ways in which 2n can be written as the sum of two primes (for n starting at 1) is: 0, 1, 1, 1, 2, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2, 3, 2, 4, 4, 2, 3, ... ( A045917).

417

Origins
On 7 June 1742, the German mathematician Christian Goldbach (originally of Brandenburg-Prussia) wrote a letter to Leonhard Euler (letter XLIII)[4] in which he proposed the following conjecture: Every integer which can be written as the sum of two primes, can also be written as the sum of as many primes as one wishes, until all terms are units. He then proposed a second conjecture in the margin of his letter: Every integer greater than 2 can be written as the sum of three primes. He considered 1 to be a prime number, a convention subsequently abandoned.[5] The two conjectures are now known to be equivalent, but this did not seem to be an issue at the time. A modern version of Goldbach's marginal conjecture is: Every integer greater than 5 can be written as the sum of three primes. Euler replied in a letter dated 30 June 1742, and reminded Goldbach of an earlier conversation they had ("so Ew vormals mit mir communicirt haben"), in which Goldbach remarked his original (and not marginal) conjecture followed from the following statement Every even integer greater than 2 can be written as the sum of two primes, which is thus also a conjecture of Goldbach. In the letter dated 30 June 1742, Euler stated: Dass ein jeder numerus par eine summa duorum primorum sey, halte ich fr ein ganz gewisses theorema, ungeachtet ich dasselbe necht demonstriren kann. ("every even integer is a sum of two primes. I regard this as a completely certain theorem, although I cannot prove it.")[6][7] Goldbach's third version (equivalent to the two other versions) is the form in which the conjecture is usually expressed today. It is also known as the "strong", "even", or "binary" Goldbach conjecture, to distinguish it from a weaker corollary. The strong Goldbach conjecture implies the conjecture that all odd numbers greater than 7 are the sum of three odd primes, which is known today variously as the "weak" Goldbach conjecture, the "odd" Goldbach conjecture, or the "ternary" Goldbach conjecture. Both questions have remained unsolved ever since, although the weak form of the conjecture appears to be much closer to resolution than the strong one. If the strong Goldbach conjecture is true, the weak Goldbach conjecture will be true by implication.[7]

Verified results
For small values of n, the strong Goldbach conjecture (and hence the weak Goldbach conjecture) can be verified directly. For instance, Nils Pipping in 1938 laboriously verified the conjecture up to n105.[8] With the advent of computers, many more values of n have been checked; T. Oliveira e Silva is running a distributed computer search that has verified the conjecture for n41018 (and double-checked up to 31017).[9]

Heuristic justification
Statistical considerations which focus on the probabilistic distribution of prime numbers present informal evidence in favour of the conjecture (in both the weak and strong forms) for sufficiently large integers: the greater the integer, the more ways there are available for that number to be represented as the sum of two or three other numbers, and the more "likely" it becomes that at least one of these representations consists entirely of primes.

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A very crude version of the heuristic probabilistic argument (for the strong form of the Goldbach conjecture) is as follows. The prime number theorem asserts that an integer m selected at random has roughly a chance of being prime. Thus if n is a large even integer and m is a number between 3 and n/2, then one might expect the probability of m and nm simultaneously being prime to be . If one pursues this heuristic, one might expect the total number of ways to write a large even integer n as the sum of two odd primes to be roughly

Number of ways to write an even number n as the sum of two primes (4n1,000)

Since this quantity goes to infinity as n increases, we expect that every large even integer has not just one representation as the sum of two primes, but in fact has very many such representations. This heuristic argument is actually somewhat inaccurate, because it assumes that the events of m and nm being prime are statistically independent of each other. For instance, if m is odd then nm is also odd, and if m is even, then nm is even, a non-trivial relation because (besides 2) only odd numbers can be prime. Similarly, if n is divisible by 3, and m Number of ways to write an even number n as the sum of two primes (4n1,000,000) was already a prime distinct from 3, then nm would also be coprime to 3 and thus be slightly more likely to be prime than a general number. Pursuing this type of analysis more carefully, Hardy and Littlewood in 1923 conjectured (as part of their famous HardyLittlewood prime tuple conjecture) that for any fixed c2, the number of representations of a large integer n as the sum of c primes with should be asymptotically equal to

where the product is over all primes p, and

is the number of solutions to the equation . This

in modular arithmetic, subject to the constraints

formula has been rigorously proven to be asymptotically valid for c3 from the work of Vinogradov, but is still only a conjecture when . In the latter case, the above formula simplifies to 0 when n is odd, and to

when n is even, where

is the twin prime constant

Goldbach's conjecture

419

This is sometimes known as the extended Goldbach conjecture. The strong Goldbach conjecture is in fact very similar to the twin prime conjecture, and the two conjectures are believed to be of roughly comparable difficulty. The Goldbach partition functions shown here can be displayed as histograms which informatively illustrate the above equations. See Goldbach's comet.[10]

Rigorous results
Considerable work has been done on the weak Goldbach conjecture. The strong Goldbach conjecture is much more difficult. Using Vinogradov's method, Chudakov,[11] van der Corput,[12] and Estermann[13] showed that almost all even numbers can be written as the sum of two primes (in the sense that the fraction of even numbers which can be so written tends towards 1). In 1930, Lev Schnirelmann proved that every even number n4 can be written as the sum of at most 20 primes. This result was subsequently enhanced by many authors; currently, the best known result is due to Olivier Ramar, who in 1995 showed that every even number n 4 is in fact the sum of at most six primes. In fact, resolving the weak Goldbach conjecture will also directly imply that every even number n 4 is the sum of at most four primes.[14] Chen Jingrun showed in 1973 using the methods of sieve theory that every sufficiently large even number can be written as the sum of either two primes, or a prime and a semiprime (the product of two primes)[15]e.g., 100=23+711. See Chen's theorem. In 1975, Hugh Montgomery and Robert Charles Vaughan showed that "most" even numbers were expressible as the sum of two primes. More precisely, they showed that there existed positive constants c and C such that for all sufficiently large numbers N, every even number less than N is the sum of two primes, with at most exceptions. In particular, the set of even integers which are not the sum of two primes has density zero. Linnik proved in 1951 the existence of a constant K such that every sufficiently large even number is the sum of two primes and at most K powers of 2. Roger Heath-Brown and Jan-Christoph Schlage-Puchta in 2002 found that K=13 works.[16] This was improved to K=8 by Pintz and Ruzsa in 2003.[17] As with many famous conjectures in mathematics, there are a number of purported proofs of the Goldbach conjecture, none accepted by the mathematical community.

Similar questions
One can pose similar questions when primes are replaced by other special sets of numbers, such as the squares. It was proven by Lagrange that every positive integer is the sum of four squares. See Waring's problem and the related WaringGoldbach problem on sums of powers of primes. Hardy and Littlewood listed as their Conjecture I: "Every large odd number (n > 5) is the sum of a prime and the double of a prime." Mathematics Magazine, 66.1 (1993): 45-47. This conjecture is known as Lemoine's conjecture (also called Levy's conjecture). The Goldbach conjecture for practical numbers, a prime-like sequence of integers, was stated by Margenstern in 1984,[18] and proved by Melfi in 1996: every even number is a sum of two practical numbers.

Goldbach's conjecture

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In popular culture
To generate publicity for the novel Uncle Petros and Goldbach's Conjecture by Apostolos Doxiadis, British publisher Tony Faber offered a $1,000,000 prize if a proof was submitted before April 2002. The prize was not claimed. The television drama Lewis featured a mathematics professor who had won the Fields medal for his work on Goldbach's conjecture. Isaac Asimov's short story "Sixty Million Trillion Combinations" featured a mathematician who suspected that his work on Goldbach's conjecture had been stolen. In the Spanish movie La habitacin de Fermat (2007), a young mathematician claims to have proved the conjecture. A reference is made to the conjecture in the Futurama straight-to-DVD film The Beast with a Billion Backs, in which multiple elementary proofs are found in a Heaven-like scenario. In the cartoon The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius (2003), Jimmy stated that he was in the middle of proving Goldbach's prime number conjecture. In the movie The Calculus of Love (2011), a mathematics professor is obsessed with solving the Goldbach conjecture.[19] In her Geek & Sundry show The Flog, Felicia Day jokingly mentions that she dedicates nine percent of her mind to computing Goldbach's conjecture.[20]

References
Notes
[1] Weisstein, Eric W., " Goldbach Number (http:/ / mathworld. wolfram. com/ GoldbachNumber. html)" from MathWorld. [2] Goldbach conjecture verification" (http:/ / www. ieeta. pt/ ~tos/ goldbach. html) [3] Goldbach's Conjecture" (http:/ / demonstrations. wolfram. com/ GoldbachConjecture/ ) by Hector Zenil, Wolfram Demonstrations Project, 2007. [4] http:/ / www. math. dartmouth. edu/ ~euler/ correspondence/ letters/ OO0765. pdf [5] Weisstein, Eric W., " Goldbach Conjecture (http:/ / mathworld. wolfram. com/ GoldbachConjecture. html)" from MathWorld. [6] Ingham, AE. "Popular Lectures" (http:/ / www. claymath. org/ Popular_Lectures/ U_Texas/ Riemann_1. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2009-09-23. [7] Caldwell, Chris (2008). "Goldbach's conjecture" (http:/ / primes. utm. edu/ glossary/ page. php?sort=goldbachconjecture). . Retrieved 2008-08-13. [8] Pipping, Nils (1890-1982), "Die Goldbachsche Vermutung und der Goldbach-Vinogradovsche Satz." Acta. Acad. Aboensis, Math. Phys. 11, 425, 1938. [9] Toms Oliveira e Silva, Goldbach conjecture verification (http:/ / www. ieeta. pt/ ~tos/ goldbach. html). Retrieved 21 December 2012. [10] Fliegel, Henry F.; Robertson, Douglas S.; "Goldbach's Comet: the numbers related to Goldbach's Conjecture; Journal of Recreational Mathematics, v21(1) 17, 1989. [11] Chudakov, Nikolai G. (1937). "[On the Goldbach problem]". Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR 17: 335338. [12] Van der Corput, J. G. (1938). "Sur l'hypothse de Goldbach". Proc. Akad. Wet. Amsterdam 41: 7680. [13] Estermann, T. (1938). "On Goldbach's problem: proof that almost all even positive integers are sums of two primes". Proc. London Math. Soc.. 2 44: 307314. doi:10.1112/plms/s2-44.4.307. [14] Sinisalo, Matti K. (Oct., 1993). "Checking the Goldbach Conjecture up to 4 1011". Mathematics of Computation 61 (204): 931934. doi:10.2307/2153264. [15] Chen, J. R. (1973). "On the representation of a larger even integer as the sum of a prime and the product of at most two primes". Sci. Sinica 16: 157176. [16] Heath-Brown, D. R.; Puchta, J. C. (2002). "Integers represented as a sum of primes and powers of two". Asian Journal of Mathematics 6 (3): 535565. arXiv:math.NT/0201299. [17] Pintz, J.; Ruzsa, I. Z. (2003). "On Linnik's approximation to Goldbach's problem, I". Acta Arithmetica 109 (2): 169194. doi:10.4064/aa109-2-6. [18] Margenstern, M. (1984). "Results and conjectures about practical numbers". Comptes-Rendus de l'Acadmie des Sciences Paris 299: 895898. [19] The Calculus of Love (http:/ / www. thecalculusoflove. com/ ) [20] Day, Felicia. "The Flog" (http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=vAYabYc_2Jc& t=8m30s). Geek & Sundry. Youtube. . Retrieved 5 November 2012.

Goldbach's conjecture Further reading Deshouillers, J.-M.; Effinger, G.; te Riele, H. & Zinoviev, D. (1997). "A complete Vinogradov 3-primes theorem under the Riemann hypothesis" (http://www.ams.org/era/1997-03-15/S1079-6762-97-00031-0/ S1079-6762-97-00031-0.pdf). Electronic Research Announcements of the American Mathematical Society 3 (15): 99104. doi:10.1090/S1079-6762-97-00031-0 Doxiadis, Apostolos (2001). Uncle Petros and Goldbach's Conjecture. New York: Bloomsbury. ISBN1-58234-128-1 Montgomery, H. L. & Vaughan, R. C. (1975). "The exceptional set in Goldbach's problem. Collection of articles in memory of Jurii Vladimirovich Linnik". Acta arithmetica 27: 353370 Cornell's Math Journal, by Agostino Prstaro v7 12/2/2012 [http://www.i-programmer.info/news/112-theory/4211-goldbach-conjecture-closer-to-solved.html Terence Tao proved at all odd numbers are at most the sum of five primes (http://arxiv.org/abs/1208.2473) State of the art (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GoldbachConjecture.html)

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External links
Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001), "Goldbach problem" (http://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index. php?title=p/g044550), Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer, ISBN978-1-55608-010-4 Goldbach's original letter to Euler PDF format (in German and Latin) (http://www.math.dartmouth.edu/ ~euler/correspondence/letters/OO0765.pdf) Goldbach's conjecture (http://primes.utm.edu/glossary/page.php?sort=GoldbachConjecture), part of Chris Caldwell's Prime Pages. Goldbach conjecture verification (http://www.ieeta.pt/~tos/goldbach.html), Toms Oliveira e Silva's distributed computer search.

Leonhard Euler

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Leonhard Euler
Leonhard Euler

Portrait by Johann Georg Brucker (1756) Born 15 April 1707 Basel, Switzerland 18 September 1783 (aged76) [OS: 7 September 1783] Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire Kingdom of Prussia, Russian Empire Switzerland Swiss Mathematics and physics Imperial Russian Academy of Sciences Berlin Academy University of Basel Johann Bernoulli Nicolas Fuss Johann Hennert Joseph Louis Lagrange Stepan Rumovsky See full list Signature

Died

Residence

Nationality Fields Institutions

Alma mater Doctoral advisor Doctoral students

Knownfor

Notes He is the father of the mathematician Johann Euler He is listed by academic genealogy authorities as the equivalent to the doctoral advisor of Joseph Louis Lagrange.

Leonhard Euler (German pronunciation: [l], Swiss German pronunciation, Standard German pronunciation, English approximation, "Oiler";[1] 15 April 1707 18 September 1783) was a pioneering Swiss mathematician and physicist. He made important discoveries in fields as diverse as infinitesimal calculus and graph theory. He also introduced much of the modern mathematical terminology and notation, particularly for mathematical analysis, such as the notion of a mathematical function.[2] He is also renowned for his work in mechanics, fluid dynamics, optics, and astronomy. Euler spent most of his adult life in St. Petersburg, Russia, and in Berlin, Prussia. He is considered to be the preeminent mathematician of the 18th century, and one of the greatest mathematicians to have ever lived. He is also one of the most prolific mathematicians ever; his collected works fill 6080 quarto volumes.[3] A statement attributed to Pierre-Simon Laplace expresses Euler's influence on mathematics: "Read Euler, read Euler, he is the

Leonhard Euler master of us all."[4]

423

Life
Early years
Euler was born on April 15, 1707, in Basel to Paul Euler, a pastor of the Reformed Church. His mother was Marguerite Brucker, a pastor's daughter. He had two younger sisters named Anna Maria and Maria Magdalena. Soon after the birth of Leonhard, the Eulers moved from Basel to the town of Riehen, where Euler spent most of his childhood. Paul Euler was a friend of the Bernoulli familyJohann Bernoulli, Old Swiss 10 Franc banknote honoring Euler who was then regarded as Europe's foremost mathematician, would eventually be the most important influence on young Leonhard. Euler's early formal education started in Basel, where he was sent to live with his maternal grandmother. At the age of thirteen he enrolled at the University of Basel, and in 1723, received his Master of Philosophy with a dissertation that compared the philosophies of Descartes and Newton. At this time, he was receiving Saturday afternoon lessons from Johann Bernoulli, who quickly discovered his new pupil's incredible talent for mathematics.[5] Euler was at this point studying theology, Greek, and Hebrew at his father's urging, in order to become a pastor, but Bernoulli convinced Paul Euler that Leonhard was destined to become a great mathematician. In 1726, Euler completed a dissertation on the propagation of sound with the title De Sono.[6] At that time, he was pursuing an (ultimately unsuccessful) attempt to obtain a position at the University of Basel. In 1727, he entered the Paris Academy Prize Problem competition, where the problem that year was to find the best way to place the masts on a ship. He won second place, losing only to Pierre Bouguera man now known as "the father of naval architecture". Euler subsequently won this coveted annual prize twelve times in his career.[7]

St. Petersburg
Around this time Johann Bernoulli's two sons, Daniel and Nicolas, were working at the Imperial Russian Academy of Sciences in St Petersburg. On July 10, 1726, Nicolas died of appendicitis after spending a year in Russia, and when Daniel assumed his brother's position in the mathematics/physics division, he recommended that the post in physiology that he had vacated be filled by his friend Euler. In November 1726 Euler eagerly accepted the offer, but delayed making the trip to St Petersburg while he unsuccessfully applied for a physics professorship at the University of Basel.[8] Euler arrived in the Russian capital on 17 May 1727. He was promoted from his junior post in the medical department of the academy to a position in the mathematics department. He lodged with Daniel Bernoulli with whom he often worked in close collaboration. Euler mastered Russian and settled into life in St Petersburg. He also took on an additional job as a medic in the Russian Navy.[9] The Academy at St. Petersburg, established by Peter the Great, was intended to improve education in Russia and to close the scientific gap with Western Europe. As a result, it was made especially attractive to foreign scholars like Euler. The academy possessed ample financial resources and a comprehensive library drawn from the private libraries

1957 stamp of the former Soviet Union commemorating the 250th birthday of Euler. The text says: 250 years from the birth of the great mathematician, academician Leonhard Euler.

Leonhard Euler of Peter himself and of the nobility. Very few students were enrolled in the academy in order to lessen the faculty's teaching burden, and the academy emphasized research and offered to its faculty both the time and the freedom to pursue scientific questions.[7] The Academy's benefactress, Catherine I, who had continued the progressive policies of her late husband, died on the day of Euler's arrival. The Russian nobility then gained power upon the ascension of the twelve-year-old Peter II. The nobility were suspicious of the academy's foreign scientists, and thus cut funding and caused other difficulties for Euler and his colleagues. Conditions improved slightly upon the death of Peter II, and Euler swiftly rose through the ranks in the academy and was made professor of physics in 1731. Two years later, Daniel Bernoulli, who was fed up with the censorship and hostility he faced at St. Petersburg, left for Basel. Euler succeeded him as the head of the mathematics department.[10] On 7 January 1734, he married Katharina Gsell (17071773), a daughter of Georg Gsell, a painter from the Academy Gymnasium.[11] The young couple bought a house by the Neva River. Of their thirteen children, only five survived childhood.[12]

424

Berlin
Concerned about the continuing turmoil in Russia, Euler left St. Petersburg on 19 June 1741 to take up a post at the Berlin Academy, which he had been offered by Frederick the Great of Prussia. He lived for twenty-five years in Berlin, where he wrote over 380 articles. In Berlin, he published the two works which he would be most renowned for: the Introductio in analysin infinitorum, a text on functions published in 1748, and the Institutiones calculi differentialis,[13] published in 1755 on differential calculus.[14] In 1755, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.

In addition, Euler was asked to tutor the Princess of Anhalt-Dessau, Frederick's niece. Euler wrote over 200 letters to her in the early 1760s, which were later compiled into a best-selling volume entitled Letters of Euler on different Subjects in Natural Philosophy Addressed to a German Princess. This work contained Euler's exposition on various subjects pertaining to physics and mathematics, as well as offering valuable insights into Euler's personality and religious beliefs. This book became more widely read than any of his mathematical works, and it was published across Europe and in the United States. The popularity of the 'Letters' testifies to Euler's ability to communicate scientific matters effectively to a lay audience, a rare ability for a dedicated research scientist.[14] Despite Euler's immense contribution to the Academy's prestige, he was eventually forced to leave Berlin. This was partly because of a conflict of personality with Frederick, who came to regard Euler as unsophisticated, especially in comparison to the circle of philosophers the German king brought to the Academy. Voltaire was among those in Frederick's employ, and the Frenchman enjoyed a prominent position in the king's social circle. Euler, a simple religious man and a hard worker, was very conventional in his beliefs and tastes. He was in many ways the direct opposite of Voltaire. Euler had limited training in rhetoric, and tended to debate matters that he knew little about, making him a frequent target of Voltaire's wit.[14] Frederick also expressed disappointment with Euler's practical engineering abilities: I wanted to have a water jet in my garden: Euler calculated the force of the wheels necessary to raise the water to a reservoir, from where it should fall back through channels, finally spurting out in Sanssouci. My mill was carried out geometrically and could not raise a mouthful of water closer than fifty paces to the reservoir. Vanity of vanities! Vanity of geometry![15]

Stamp of the former German Democratic Republic honoring Euler on the 200th anniversary of his death. In the middle, it shows his polyhedral formula .

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Eyesight deterioration
Euler's eyesight worsened throughout his mathematical career. Three years after suffering a near-fatal fever in 1735 he became nearly blind in his right eye, but Euler rather blamed his condition on the painstaking work on cartography he performed for the St. Petersburg Academy. Euler's sight in that eye worsened throughout his stay in Germany, so much so that Frederick referred to him as "Cyclops". Euler later suffered a cataract in his good left eye, rendering him almost totally blind a few weeks after its discovery in 1766. Even so, his condition appeared to have little effect on his productivity, as he compensated for it with his mental calculation skills and photographic memory. For example, Euler could repeat the Aeneid of Virgil from beginning to end without hesitation, and for every page in the edition he could indicate which line was the first and which the last. With the aid of his scribes, Euler's productivity on many areas of study actually increased. He produced on average one mathematical paper every week in the year 1775.[3]

A 1753 portrait by Emanuel Handmann. This portrayal suggests problems of the right eyelid, and possible strabismus. The left eye, which here appears healthy, was later affected by a [16] cataract.

Return to Russia
The situation in Russia had improved greatly since the accession to the throne of Catherine the Great, and in 1766 Euler accepted an invitation to return to the St. Petersburg Academy and spent the rest of his life in Russia. His second stay in the country was marred by tragedy. A fire in St. Petersburg in 1771 cost him his home, and almost his life. In 1773, he lost his wife Katharina after 40 years of marriage. Three years after his wife's death, Euler married her half-sister, Salome Abigail Gsell (17231794).[17] This marriage lasted until his death. In St. Petersburg on 18 September 1783, after a lunch with his family, during a conversation with a fellow academician Anders Johan Lexell about the newly discovered Uranus and its orbit, Euler suffered a brain hemorrhage and died a few hours later.[18] A short obituary for the Russian Academy of Sciences was written by Jacob von Staehlin-Storcksburg and a more detailed eulogy[19] was written and delivered at a memorial meeting by Russian mathematician Nicolas Fuss, one of Euler's disciples. In the eulogy written for the French Academy by the French mathematician and philosopher Marquis de Condorcet, he commented, ...il cessa de calculer et de vivre... he ceased to calculate and to live.[20] He was buried next to Katharina at the Smolensk Lutheran Cemetery on Vasilievsky Island. In 1785, the Russian Academy of Sciences put a marble bust of Leonhard Euler on a pedestal next to the Director's seat and, in 1837, placed a headstone on Euler's grave. To commemorate the 250th anniversary of Euler's birth, the headstone was moved in 1956, together with his remains, to the 18th-century necropolis at the Alexander Nevsky Monastery.[21]

Euler's grave at the Alexander Nevsky Monastery

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Contributions to mathematics and physics

Part of a series of articles on

The mathematical constant e

Natural logarithm Exponential function Applications in: compound interest Euler's identity & Euler's formula half-lives & exponential growth/decay Defining e: proof that e is irrational representations of e LindemannWeierstrass theorem People John Napier Leonhard Euler Schanuel's conjecture

Euler worked in almost all areas of mathematics: geometry, infinitesimal calculus, trigonometry, algebra, and number theory, as well as continuum physics, lunar theory and other areas of physics. He is a seminal figure in the history of mathematics; if printed, his works, many of which are of fundamental interest, would occupy between 60 and 80 quarto volumes.[3] Euler's name is associated with a large number of topics. Euler is the only mathematician to have two numbers named after him: the immensely important Euler's Number in calculus, e, approximately equal to 2.71828, and the Euler-Mascheroni Constant (gamma) sometimes referred to as just "Euler's constant", approximately equal to 0.57721. It is not known whether is rational or irrational.[22]

Mathematical notation
Euler introduced and popularized several notational conventions through his numerous and widely circulated textbooks. Most notably, he introduced the concept of a function[2] and was the first to write f(x) to denote the function f applied to the argument x. He also introduced the modern notation for the trigonometric functions, the letter e for the base of the natural logarithm (now also known as Euler's number), the Greek letter for summations and the letter i to denote the imaginary unit.[23] The use of the Greek letter to denote the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter was also popularized by Euler, although it did not originate with him.[24]

Analysis
The development of infinitesimal calculus was at the forefront of 18th Century mathematical research, and the Bernoullisfamily friends of Euler were responsible for much of the early progress in the field. Thanks to their influence, studying calculus became the major focus of Euler's work. While some of Euler's proofs are not acceptable by modern standards of mathematical rigour[25] (in particular his reliance on the principle of the generality of algebra), his ideas led to many great advances. Euler is well known in analysis for his frequent use and development of power series, the expression of functions as sums of infinitely many terms, such as

Notably, Euler directly proved the power series expansions for e and the inverse tangent function. (Indirect proof via the inverse power series technique was given by Newton and Leibniz between 1670 and 1680.) His daring use of

Leonhard Euler power series enabled him to solve the famous Basel problem in 1735 (he provided a more elaborate argument in 1741):[25]

427

Euler introduced the use of the exponential function and logarithms in analytic proofs. He discovered ways to express various logarithmic functions using power series, and he successfully defined logarithms for negative and complex numbers, thus greatly expanding the scope of mathematical applications of logarithms.[23] He also defined the exponential function for complex numbers, and discovered its relation to the trigonometric functions. For any real number , Euler's formula states that the complex exponential function satisfies

A special case of the above formula is known as Euler's identity,

A geometric interpretation of Euler's formula

called "the most remarkable formula in mathematics" by Richard P. Feynman, for its single uses of the notions of addition, multiplication, exponentiation, and equality, and the single uses of the important constants 0, 1, e, i and .[26] In 1988, readers of the Mathematical Intelligencer voted it "the Most Beautiful Mathematical Formula Ever".[27] In total, Euler was responsible for three of the top five formulae in that poll.[27] De Moivre's formula is a direct consequence of Euler's formula. In addition, Euler elaborated the theory of higher transcendental functions by introducing the gamma function and introduced a new method for solving quartic equations. He also found a way to calculate integrals with complex limits, foreshadowing the development of modern complex analysis. He also invented the calculus of variations including its best-known result, the EulerLagrange equation. Euler also pioneered the use of analytic methods to solve number theory problems. In doing so, he united two disparate branches of mathematics and introduced a new field of study, analytic number theory. In breaking ground for this new field, Euler created the theory of hypergeometric series, q-series, hyperbolic trigonometric functions and the analytic theory of continued fractions. For example, he proved the infinitude of primes using the divergence of the harmonic series, and he used analytic methods to gain some understanding of the way prime numbers are distributed. Euler's work in this area led to the development of the prime number theorem.[28]

Number theory
Euler's interest in number theory can be traced to the influence of Christian Goldbach, his friend in the St. Petersburg Academy. A lot of Euler's early work on number theory was based on the works of Pierre de Fermat. Euler developed some of Fermat's ideas, and disproved some of his conjectures. Euler linked the nature of prime distribution with ideas in analysis. He proved that the sum of the reciprocals of the primes diverges. In doing so, he discovered the connection between the Riemann zeta function and the prime numbers; this is known as the Euler product formula for the Riemann zeta function. Euler proved Newton's identities, Fermat's little theorem, Fermat's theorem on sums of two squares, and he made distinct contributions to Lagrange's four-square theorem. He also invented the totient function (n) which is the number of positive integers less than or equal to the integer n that are coprime to n. Using properties of this function, he generalized Fermat's little theorem to what is now known as Euler's theorem. He contributed significantly to the theory of perfect numbers, which had fascinated mathematicians since Euclid. Euler also conjectured the law of

Leonhard Euler quadratic reciprocity. The concept is regarded as a fundamental theorem of number theory, and his ideas paved the way for the work of Carl Friedrich Gauss.[29] By 1772 Euler had proved that 2311 = 2,147,483,647 is a Mersenne prime. It may have remained the largest known prime until 1867.[30]

428

Graph theory
In 1736, Euler solved the problem known as the Seven Bridges of Knigsberg.[31] The city of Knigsberg, Prussia was set on the Pregel River, and included two large islands which were connected to each other and the mainland by seven bridges. The problem is to decide whether it is possible to follow a path that crosses each bridge exactly once and returns to the starting point. It is not possible: there is no Eulerian circuit. This solution is considered to be the first theorem of graph theory, specifically of planar graph theory.[31] Euler also discovered the formula VE+F=2 relating the number of Map of Knigsberg in Euler's time showing the vertices, edges, and faces of a convex polyhedron,[32] and hence of a actual layout of the seven bridges, highlighting planar graph. The constant in this formula is now known as the Euler the river Pregel and the bridges. characteristic for the graph (or other mathematical object), and is related to the genus of the object.[33] The study and generalization of this formula, specifically by Cauchy[34] and L'Huillier,[35] is at the origin of topology.

Applied mathematics
Some of Euler's greatest successes were in solving real-world problems analytically, and in describing numerous applications of the Bernoulli numbers, Fourier series, Venn diagrams, Euler numbers, the constants e and , continued fractions and integrals. He integrated Leibniz's differential calculus with Newton's Method of Fluxions, and developed tools that made it easier to apply calculus to physical problems. He made great strides in improving the numerical approximation of integrals, inventing what are now known as the Euler approximations. The most notable of these approximations are Euler's method and the EulerMaclaurin formula. He also facilitated the use of differential equations, in particular introducing the EulerMascheroni constant:

One of Euler's more unusual interests was the application of mathematical ideas in music. In 1739 he wrote the Tentamen novae theoriae musicae, hoping to eventually incorporate musical theory as part of mathematics. This part of his work, however, did not receive wide attention and was once described as too mathematical for musicians and too musical for mathematicians.[36]

Physics and astronomy

Euler helped develop the EulerBernoulli beam equation, which became a cornerstone of engineering. Aside from successfully applying his analytic tools to problems in classical mechanics, Euler also applied these techniques to celestial problems. His work in astronomy was recognized by a number of Paris Academy Prizes over the course of his career. His accomplishments include determining with great accuracy the orbits of comets and other celestial bodies, understanding the nature of comets, and calculating the parallax of the sun. His calculations also contributed to the development of accurate longitude tables.[37] In addition, Euler made important contributions in optics. He disagreed with Newton's corpuscular theory of light in the Opticks, which was then the prevailing theory. His 1740s papers on optics helped ensure that the wave theory of

Leonhard Euler light proposed by Christian Huygens would become the dominant mode of thought, at least until the development of the quantum theory of light.[38] In 1757 he published an important set of equations for inviscid flow, that are now known as the Euler equations.

429

Logic
Euler is also credited with using closed curves to illustrate syllogistic reasoning (1768). These diagrams have become known as Euler diagrams.[39]

Personal philosophy and religious beliefs

Euler and his friend Daniel Bernoulli were opponents of Leibniz's monadism and the philosophy of Christian Wolff. Euler insisted that knowledge is founded in part on the basis of precise quantitative laws, something that monadism and Wolffian science were unable to provide. Euler's religious leanings might also have had a bearing on his dislike of the doctrine; he went so far as to label Wolff's ideas as "heathen and atheistic".[40] Much of what is known of Euler's religious beliefs can be deduced from his Letters to a German Princess and an earlier work, Rettung der Gttlichen Offenbahrung Gegen die Einwrfe der Freygeister (Defense of the Divine Revelation against the Objections of the Freethinkers). These works show that Euler was a devout Christian who believed the Bible to be inspired; the Rettung was primarily an argument for the divine inspiration of scripture.[41] There is a famous legend,[42] inspired by Euler's arguments with secular philosophers over religion, which is set during Euler's second stint at the St. Petersburg academy. The French philosopher Denis Diderot was visiting Russia on Catherine the Great's invitation. However, the Empress was alarmed that the philosopher's atheism was influencing members of her court, and so Euler was asked to confront the Frenchman. Diderot was later informed that a learned mathematician had produced a proof of the existence of God: he agreed to view the proof as it was presented in court. Diderot, to whom (says the legend[43]) all mathematics was supposed to be gibberish, would stand dumbstruck as peals of laughter would have erupted from the court.

Leonhard Euler

430

Commemorations
Euler was featured on the sixth series of the Swiss 10-franc banknote and on numerous Swiss, German, and Russian postage stamps. The asteroid 2002 Euler was named in his honor. He is also commemorated by the Lutheran Church on their Calendar of Saints on 24 Mayhe was a devout Christian (and believer in biblical inerrancy) who wrote apologetics and argued forcefully against the prominent atheists of his time.[41]

Selected bibliography
Euler has an extensive bibliography. His best known books include: Elements of Algebra. This elementary algebra text starts with a discussion of the nature of numbers and gives a comprehensive introduction to algebra, including formulae for solutions of polynomial equations. Introductio in analysin infinitorum (1748). English translation Introduction to Analysis of the Infinite by John Blanton (Book I, ISBN 0-387-96824-5, Springer-Verlag 1988; Book II, ISBN 0-387-97132-7, Springer-Verlag 1989). Two influential textbooks on calculus: Institutiones calculi differentialis (1755) and Institutionum calculi integralis (17681770). Lettres une Princesse d'Allemagne (Letters to a German Princess) (17681772). Available online [44] (in French). English translation, with notes, and a life of Euler, available online from Google Books: Volume 1 [45], Volume 2 [46]

Methodus inveniendi lineas curvas maximi minimive proprietate gaudentes, sive solutio problematis isoperimetrici latissimo sensu accepti (1744). The Latin title translates as a method for finding curved lines enjoying properties of maximum or minimum, or solution of isoperimetric problems in the broadest accepted sense.[47] A definitive collection of Euler's works, entitled Opera Omnia, has been published since 1911 by the Euler Commission of the Swiss Academy of Sciences. A complete chronological list of Euler's works is available at the following page: The Enestrm Index [48] (PDF).

The title page of Euler's Methodus inveniendi lineas curvas.

References and notes

[1] The pronunciation /julr/ is incorrect. "Euler", Oxford English Dictionary, second edition, Oxford University Press, 1989 "Euler" (http:/ / www. merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/ Euler), MerriamWebster's Online Dictionary, 2009. "Euler, Leonhard" (http:/ / www. bartleby. com/ 61/ 71/ E0237100. html), The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, fourth edition, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 2000. Peter M. Higgins (2007). Nets, Puzzles, and Postmen: An Exploration of Mathematical Connections. Oxford University Press. p.43. [2] Dunham, William (1999). Euler: The Master of Us All. The Mathematical Association of America. p.17. [3] Finkel, B.F. (1897). "Biography- Leonard Euler". The American Mathematical Monthly 4 (12): 297302. doi:10.2307/2968971. JSTOR2968971. [4] Dunham, William (1999). Euler: The Master of Us All. The Mathematical Association of America. xiii. "Lisez Euler, lisez Euler, c'est notre matre tous." [5] James, Ioan (2002). Remarkable Mathematicians: From Euler to von Neumann. Cambridge. p.2. ISBN0-521-52094-0. [6] Euler's Dissertation De Sono : E002. Translated & Annotated by Ian Bruce (http:/ / www. 17centurymaths. com/ contents/ euler/ e002tr. pdf). (PDF) . 17centurymaths.com. Retrieved on 2011-09-14. [7] Calinger, Ronald (1996). "Leonhard Euler: The First St. Petersburg Years (17271741)". Historia Mathematica 23 (2): 156. doi:10.1006/hmat.1996.0015.

Leonhard Euler
[8] Calinger, Ronald (1996). "Leonhard Euler: The First St. Petersburg Years (17271741)". Historia Mathematica 23 (2): 125. doi:10.1006/hmat.1996.0015. [9] Calinger, Ronald (1996). "Leonhard Euler: The First St. Petersburg Years (17271741)". Historia Mathematica 23 (2): 127. doi:10.1006/hmat.1996.0015. [10] Calinger, Ronald (1996). "Leonhard Euler: The First St. Petersburg Years (17271741)". Historia Mathematica 23 (2): 128129. doi:10.1006/hmat.1996.0015. [11] Gekker, I.R.; Euler, A.A. (2007). "Leonhard Euler's family and descendants". In Bogoliubov, N.N.; Mikhalov, G.K.; Yushkevich, A.P.. Euler and modern science. Mathematical Association of America. ISBN0-88385-564-X., p. 402. [12] Fuss, Nicolas. "Eulogy of Euler by Fuss" (http:/ / www-history. mcs. st-and. ac. uk/ ~history/ Extras/ Euler_Fuss_Eulogy. html). . Retrieved 30 August 2006. [13] "E212 Institutiones calculi differentialis cum eius usu in analysi finitorum ac doctrina serierum" (http:/ / www. math. dartmouth. edu/ ~euler/ pages/ E212. html). Dartmouth. . [14] Dunham, William (1999). Euler: The Master of Us All. The Mathematical Association of America. xxivxxv. [15] Frederick II of Prussia (1927). Letters of Voltaire and Frederick the Great, Letter H 7434, 25 January 1778. Richard Aldington. New York: Brentano's. [16] Calinger, Ronald (1996). "Leonhard Euler: The First St. Petersburg Years (17271741)". Historia Mathematica 23 (2): 154155. doi:10.1006/hmat.1996.0015. [17] Gekker, I.R.; Euler, A.A. (2007). "Leonhard Euler's family and descendants". In Bogoliubov, N.N.; Mikhalov, G.K.; Yushkevich, A.P.. Euler and modern science. Mathematical Association of America. ISBN0-88385-564-X., p. 405. [18] A. Ya. Yakovlev (1983). Leonhard Euler. M.: Prosvesheniye. [19] "Eloge de M. Leonhard Euler. Par M. Fuss". Nova Acta Academia Scientarum Imperialis Petropolitanae 1: 159212. 1783. [20] Marquis de Condorcet. "Eulogy of Euler Condorcet" (http:/ / www. math. dartmouth. edu/ ~euler/ historica/ condorcet. html). . Retrieved 30 August 2006. [21] Leonhard Euler (http:/ / www. findagrave. com/ cgi-bin/ fg. cgi?page=gr& GRid=15567379) at Find a Grave [22] Derbyshire, John (2003). Prime Obsession: Bernhard Riemann and the Greatest Unsolved Problem in Mathematics. Washington, D.C.: Joseph Henry Press. pp.422. [23] Boyer, Carl B.; Uta C. Merzbach (1991). A History of Mathematics. John Wiley & Sons. pp.439445. ISBN0-471-54397-7. [24] Wolfram, Stephen. "Mathematical Notation: Past and Future" (http:/ / www. stephenwolfram. com/ publications/ talks/ mathml/ mathml2. html). . Retrieved August 2006. [25] Wanner, Gerhard; Harrier, Ernst (March 2005). Analysis by its history (1st ed.). Springer. p.62. [26] Feynman, Richard (June 1970). "Chapter 22: Algebra". The Feynman Lectures on Physics: Volume I. p.10. [27] Wells, David (1990). "Are these the most beautiful?". Mathematical Intelligencer 12 (3): 3741. doi:10.1007/BF03024015. Wells, David (1988). "Which is the most beautiful?". Mathematical Intelligencer 10 (4): 3031. doi:10.1007/BF03023741. See also: Peterson, Ivars. "The Mathematical Tourist" (http:/ / www. maa. org/ mathtourist/ mathtourist_03_12_07. html). . Retrieved March 2008. [28] Dunham, William (1999). "3,4". Euler: The Master of Us All. The Mathematical Association of America. [29] Dunham, William (1999). "1,4". Euler: The Master of Us All. The Mathematical Association of America. [30] Caldwell, Chris. The largest known prime by year (http:/ / primes. utm. edu/ notes/ by_year. html) [31] Alexanderson, Gerald (July 2006). "Euler and Knigsberg's bridges: a historical view". Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society 43 (4): 567. doi:10.1090/S0273-0979-06-01130-X. [32] Peter R. Cromwell (1997). Polyhedra. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp.189190. [33] Alan Gibbons (1985). Algorithmic Graph Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.72. [34] Cauchy, A.L. (1813). "Recherche sur les polydrespremier mmoire". Journal de l'cole Polytechnique 9 (Cahier 16): 6686. [35] L'Huillier, S.-A.-J. (1861). "Mmoire sur la polydromtrie". Annales de Mathmatiques 3: 169189. [36] Calinger, Ronald (1996). "Leonhard Euler: The First St. Petersburg Years (17271741)". Historia Mathematica 23 (2): 144145. doi:10.1006/hmat.1996.0015. [37] Youschkevitch, A P; Biography in Dictionary of Scientific Biography (New York 19701990). [38] Home, R.W. (1988). "Leonhard Euler's 'Anti-Newtonian' Theory of Light". Annals of Science 45 (5): 521533. doi:10.1080/00033798800200371. [39] Baron, M. E.; A Note on The Historical Development of Logic Diagrams. The Mathematical Gazette: The Journal of the Mathematical Association. Vol LIII, no. 383 May 1969. [40] Calinger, Ronald (1996). "Leonhard Euler: The First St. Petersburg Years (17271741)". Historia Mathematica 23 (2): 153154. doi:10.1006/hmat.1996.0015. [41] Euler, Leonhard (1960). Orell-Fussli. ed. "Rettung der Gttlichen Offenbahrung Gegen die Einwrfe der Freygeister". Leonhardi Euleri Opera Omnia (series 3) 12. [42] Brown, B.H. (May 1942). "The Euler-Diderot Anecdote". The American Mathematical Monthly 49 (5): 302303. doi:10.2307/2303096. JSTOR2303096.; Gillings, R.J. (February 1954). "The So-Called Euler-Diderot Incident". The American Mathematical Monthly 61 (2): 7780. doi:10.2307/2307789. JSTOR2307789.

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Leonhard Euler
[43] Marty, Jacques. "Quelques aspects des travaux de Diderot en Mathematiques Mixtes." (http:/ / www. persee. fr/ web/ revues/ home/ prescript/ article/ rde_0769-0886_1988_num_4_1_954). . [44] http:/ / perso. club-internet. fr/ nielrowclub-internet. fr/ nielrowbooks/ euler. tif [45] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?vid=09-Fi9xi6pUzqBOnQzlnRS& id=hAm5VsEeu1EC& printsec=titlepage& dq=%22Leonhard+ Euler%22 [46] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?vid=OCLC00826569& id=CZLPNtEnFRcC& printsec=titlepage& dq=%22Leonhard+ Euler%22 [47] E65 Methodus... entry at Euler Archives (http:/ / math. dartmouth. edu/ ~euler/ pages/ E065. html). Math.dartmouth.edu. Retrieved on 2011-09-14. [48] http:/ / www. math. dartmouth. edu/ ~euler/ docs/ translations/ enestrom/ Enestrom_Index. pdf

432

Further reading
Lexikon der Naturwissenschaftler, (2000), Heidelberg: Spektrum Akademischer Verlag. Bogolyubov, Mikhailov, and Yushkevich, (2007), Euler and Modern Science, Mathematical Association of America. ISBN 0-88385-564-X. Translated by Robert Burns. Bradley, Robert E., D'Antonio, Lawrence A., and C. Edward Sandifer (2007), Euler at 300: An Appreciation, Mathematical Association of America. ISBN 0-88385-565-8 Demidov, S.S., (2005), "Treatise on the differential calculus" in Grattan-Guinness, I., ed., Landmark Writings in Western Mathematics. Elsevier: 19198. Dunham, William (1999) Euler: The Master of Us All, Washington: Mathematical Association of America. ISBN 0-88385-328-0 Dunham, William (2007), The Genius of Euler: Reflections on his Life and Work, Mathematical Association of America. ISBN 0-88385-558-5 Fraser, Craig G., (2005), "Leonhard Euler's 1744 book on the calculus of variations" in Grattan-Guinness, I., ed., Landmark Writings in Western Mathematics. Elsevier: 16880. Gladyshev, Georgi, P. (2007), " Leonhard Eulers methods and ideas live on in the thermodynamic hierarchical theory of biological evolution, (http://ceser.in/ceserp/index.php/ijamas/article/view/1014)" International Journal of Applied Mathematics & Statistics (IJAMAS) 11 (N07), Special Issue on Leonhard Paul Eulers: Mathematical Topics and Applications (M. T. A.). Gautschi, Walter (2008). "Leonhard Euler: his life, the man, and his works" (http://www.cs.purdue.edu/ homes/wxg/EulerLect.pdf). SIAM Review 50 (1): 333. Bibcode2008SIAMR..50....3G. doi:10.1137/070702710. Heimpell, Hermann, Theodor Heuss, Benno Reifenberg (editors). 1956. Die groen Deutschen, volume 2, Berlin: Ullstein Verlag. Krus, D.J. (2001). "Is the normal distribution due to Gauss? Euler, his family of gamma functions, and their place in the history of statistics" (http://www.visualstatistics.net/Statistics/Euler/Euler.htm). Quality and Quantity: International Journal of Methodology 35: 44546. Nahin, Paul (2006), Dr. Euler's Fabulous Formula, New Jersey: Princeton, ISBN 978-0-691-11822-2 du Pasquier, Louis-Gustave, (2008) Leonhard Euler And His Friends, CreateSpace, ISBN 1-4348-3327-5. Translated by John S.D. Glaus. Reich, Karin, (2005), " 'Introduction' to analysis" in Grattan-Guinness, I., ed., Landmark Writings in Western Mathematics. Elsevier: 18190. Richeson, David S. (2008), Euler's Gem: The Polyhedron Formula and the Birth of Topology. Princeton University Press. Sandifer, Edward C. (2007), The Early Mathematics of Leonhard Euler, Mathematical Association of America. ISBN 0-88385-559-3 Sandifer, Edward C. (2007), How Euler Did It, Mathematical Association of America. ISBN 0-88385-563-1 Simmons, J. (1996) The giant book of scientists: The 100 greatest minds of all time, Sydney: The Book Company. Singh, Simon. (1997). Fermat's last theorem, Fourth Estate: New York, ISBN 1-85702-669-1

Leonhard Euler Thiele, Rdiger. (2005). The mathematics and science of Leonhard Euler, in Mathematics and the Historian's Craft: The Kenneth O. May Lectures, G. Van Brummelen and M. Kinyon (eds.), CMS Books in Mathematics, Springer Verlag. ISBN 0-387-25284-3. "A Tribute to Leohnard Euler 17071783". Mathematics Magazine 56 (5). November 1983.

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External links
LeonhardEuler.com (http://www.leonhardeuler.com/) Weisstein, Eric W., Euler, Leonhard (17071783) (http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Euler.html) from ScienceWorld. Encyclopdia Britannica article (http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9033216/Leonhard-Euler) Leonhard Euler (http://genealogy.math.ndsu.nodak.edu/id.php?id=38586) at the Mathematics Genealogy Project How Euler did it (http://www.maa.org/news/howeulerdidit.html) contains columns explaining how Euler solved various problems Euler Archive (http://www.eulerarchive.org/) Leonhard Euler uvres compltes (http://portail.mathdoc.fr/cgi-bin/oetoc?id=OE_EULER_1_2) Gallica-Math Euler Committee of the Swiss Academy of Sciences (http://www.leonhard-euler.ch/) References for Leonhard Euler (http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/References/Euler.html) Euler Tercentenary 2007 (http://www.euler-2007.ch/en/index.htm) The Euler Society (http://www.eulersociety.org/) Leonhard Euler Congress 2007 (http://www.pdmi.ras.ru/EIMI/2007/AG/)St. Petersburg, Russia Project Euler (http://www.projecteuler.net) Euler Family Tree (http://www.math.dartmouth.edu/~euler/historica/family-tree.html) Euler's Correspondence with Frederick the Great, King of Prussia (http://friedrich.uni-trier.de/oeuvres/20/ 219/) "Euler 300th anniversary lecture" (http://www.gresham.ac.uk/event.asp?PageId=45&EventId=518), given by Robin Wilson at Gresham College, 9 May 2007 (can download as video or audio files) O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Leonhard Euler" (http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/ Biographies/Euler.html), MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews. Euler Quartic Conjecture (http://euler413.narod.ru/)

Euler characteristic

434

Euler characteristic
In mathematics, and more specifically in algebraic topology and polyhedral combinatorics, the Euler characteristic (or EulerPoincar characteristic) is a topological invariant, a number that describes a topological space's shape or structure regardless of the way it is bent. It is commonly denoted by (Greek letter chi). The Euler characteristic was originally defined for polyhedra and used to prove various theorems about them, including the classification of the Platonic solids. Leonhard Euler, for whom the concept is named, was responsible for much of this early work. In modern mathematics, the Euler characteristic arises from homology and connects to many other invariants.

Polyhedra
The Euler characteristic was classically defined for the surfaces of polyhedra, according to the formula

where V, E, and F are respectively the numbers of vertices (corners), edges and faces in the given polyhedron. Any convex polyhedron's surface has Euler characteristic

This result is known as Euler's polyhedron formula or theorem. It corresponds to the Euler characteristic of the sphere (i.e. = 2), and applies identically to spherical polyhedra. An illustration of the formula on some polyhedra is given below.
Name Image Vertices Edges Faces V E F Euler characteristic: VE+F 2

Tetrahedron

Hexahedron or cube

12

Octahedron

12

Dodecahedron

20

30

12

Icosahedron

12

30

20

The surfaces of nonconvex polyhedra can have various Euler characteristics;

Euler characteristic

435

Name

Image

Vertices Edges Faces V E F

Euler characteristic: VE+F 1

Tetrahemihexahedron

12

Octahemioctahedron

12

24

12

Cubohemioctahedron

12

24

10

Great icosahedron

12

30

20

For regular polyhedra, Arthur Cayley derived a modified form of Euler's formula using the densities of the polyhedron D, vertex figures and faces :

This version holds both for convex polyhedra (where the densities are all 1), and the non-convex KeplerPoinsot polyhedrons: Projective polyhedra all have Euler characteristic 1, corresponding to the real projective plane, while toroidal polyhedra all have Euler characteristic 0, corresponding to the torus.

Planar graphs
The Euler characteristic can be defined for connected planar graphs by the same polyhedral surfaces, where F is the number of faces in the graph, including the exterior face. The Euler characteristic of any planar connected graph G is 2. This is easily proved by induction on the number of faces determined by G, starting with a tree as the base case. For trees, E = V-1 and F = 1. If G has C components, the same argument by induction on F shows that . One of the few graph theory papers of Cauchy also proves this result. Via stereographic projection the plane maps to the two-dimensional sphere, such that a connected graph maps to a polygonal decomposition of the sphere, which has Euler characteristic 2. This viewpoint is implicit in Cauchy's proof of Euler's formula given below. formula as for

Proof of Euler's formula

There are many proofs of Euler's formula. One was given by Cauchy in 1811, as follows. It applies to any convex polyhedron, and more generally to any polyhedron whose boundary is topologically equivalent to a sphere and whose faces are topologically equivalent to disks.

First steps of the proof in the case of a cube

Remove one face of the polyhedral surface. By pulling the edges of the missing face away from each other, deform all the rest into a planar graph of points and curves, as illustrated by the first of the three graphs for the special case of the cube. (The assumption that the polyhedral surface is homeomorphic to the sphere at the beginning is what makes this possible.) After this deformation, the regular faces are generally not regular anymore. The number of

Euler characteristic vertices and edges has remained the same, but the number of faces has been reduced by 1. Therefore, proving Euler's formula for the polyhedron reduces to proving V E + F =1 for this deformed, planar object. If there is a face with more than three sides, draw a diagonalthat is, a curve through the face connecting two vertices that aren't connected yet. This adds one edge and one face and does not change the number of vertices, so it does not change the quantity V E + F. (The assumption that all faces are disks is needed here, to show via the Jordan curve theorem that this operation increases the number of faces by one.) Continue adding edges in this manner until all of the faces are triangular. Apply repeatedly either of the following two transformations, maintaining the invariant that the exterior boundary is always a simple cycle: 1. Remove a triangle with only one edge adjacent to the exterior, as illustrated by the second graph. This decreases the number of edges and faces by one each and does not change the number of vertices, so it preserves V E + F. 2. Remove a triangle with two edges shared by the exterior of the network, as illustrated by the third graph. Each triangle removal removes a vertex, two edges and one face, so it preserves V E + F. These transformations eventually reduce the planar graph to a single triangle. (Without the simple-cycle invariant, removing a triangle might disconnect the remaining triangles, invalidating the rest of the argument. A valid removal order is an elementary example of a shelling.) At this point the lone triangle has V = 3, E = 3, and F = 1, so that V E + F = 1. Since each of the two above transformation steps preserved this quantity, we have shown V E + F = 1 for the deformed, planar object thus demonstrating V E + F = 2 for the polyhedron. This proves the theorem. For additional proofs, see Nineteen Proofs of Euler's Formula [1] by David Eppstein. Multiple proofs, including their flaws and limitations, are used as examples in Proofs and Refutations by Imre Lakatos.[2]

436

Topological definition
The polyhedral surfaces discussed above are, in modern language, two-dimensional finite CW-complexes. (When only triangular faces are used, they are two-dimensional finite simplicial complexes.) In general, for any finite CW-complex, the Euler characteristic can be defined as the alternating sum

where kn denotes the number of cells of dimension n in the complex. Similarly, for a simplicial complex, the Euler characteristic equals the alternating sum

where kn denotes the number of n-simplexes in the complex. More generally still, for any topological space, we can define the nth Betti number bn as the rank of the n-th singular homology group. The Euler characteristic can then be defined as the alternating sum

This quantity is well-defined if the Betti numbers are all finite and if they are zero beyond a certain indexn0. For simplicial complexes, this is not the same definition as in the previous paragraph but a homology computation shows that the two definitions will give the same value for .

Euler characteristic

437

Properties
The Euler characteristic of any closed odd-dimensional manifold is zero.[3] The case for orientable examples is a corollary of Poincar duality. This property applies more generally to any compact stratified space all of whose strata are odd-dimensional. Furthermore, the Euler characteristic behaves well with respect to many basic operations on topological spaces, as follows.

Homotopy invariance
Since the homology is a topological invariant (in fact, a homotopy invariant two topological spaces that are homotopy equivalent have isomorphic homology groups), so is the Euler characteristic. For example, any convex polyhedron is homeomorphic to the three-dimensional ball, so its surface is homeomorphic (hence homotopy equivalent) to the two-dimensional sphere, which has Euler characteristic2. This explains why convex polyhedra have Euler characteristic 2.

Inclusion-exclusion principle
If M and N are any two topological spaces, then the Euler characteristic of their disjoint union is the sum of their Euler characteristics, since homology is additive under disjoint union:

More generally, if M and N are subspaces of a larger space X, then so are their union and intersection. In some cases, the Euler characteristic obeys a version of the inclusion-exclusion principle:

This is true in the following cases: if M and N are an excisive couple. In particular, if the interiors of M and N inside the union still cover the union.[4] if X is a locally compact space, and one uses Euler characteristics with compact supports, no assumptions on M or N are needed. if X is a stratified space all of whose strata are even dimensional, the inclusion-exclusion principle holds if M and N are unions of strata. This applies in particular if M and N are subvarieties of a complex algebraic variety.[5] In general, the inclusion-exclusion principle is false. A counterexample is given by taking X to be the real line, M a subset consisting of one point and N the complement of M.

Product property
Also, the Euler characteristic of any product space M N is

These addition and multiplication properties are also enjoyed by cardinality of sets. In this way, the Euler characteristic can be viewed as a generalisation of cardinality; see [6].

Covering spaces
Similarly, for an k-sheeted covering space one has

More generally, for a ramified covering space, the Euler characteristic of the cover can be computed from the above, with a correction factor for the ramification points, which yields the RiemannHurwitz formula.

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Fibration property
The product property holds much more generally, for fibrations with certain conditions. If is a fibration with fiber F, with the base B path-connected, and the fibration is orientable over a field K, then the Euler characteristic with coefficients in the field K satisfies the product property:[7] This includes product spaces and covering spaces as special cases, and can be proven by the Serre spectral sequence on homology of a fibration. For fiber bundles, this can also be understood in terms of a transfer map lifting and goes "the wrong way" whose composition with the projection map multiplication by the Euler class of the fiber:
[8]

note that this is a is

Relations to other invariants

The Euler characteristic of a closed orientable surface can be calculated from its genus g (the number of tori in a connected sum decomposition of the surface; intuitively, the number of "handles") as

The Euler characteristic of a closed non-orientable surface can be calculated from its non-orientable genus k (the number of real projective planes in a connected sum decomposition of the surface) as

For closed smooth manifolds, the Euler characteristic coincides with the Euler number, i.e., the Euler class of its tangent bundle evaluated on the fundamental class of a manifold. The Euler class, in turn, relates to all other characteristic classes of vector bundles. For closed Riemannian manifolds, the Euler characteristic can also be found by integrating the curvature; see the GaussBonnet theorem for the two-dimensional case and the generalized GaussBonnet theorem for the general case. A discrete analog of the GaussBonnet theorem is Descartes' theorem that the "total defect" of a polyhedron, measured in full circles, is the Euler characteristic of the polyhedron; see defect (geometry). Hadwiger's theorem characterizes the Euler characteristic as the unique (up to scalar multiplication) translation-invariant, finitely additive, not-necessarily-nonnegative set function defined on finite unions of compact convex sets in Rn that is "homogeneous of degree 0".

Examples
The Euler characteristic can be calculated easily for general surfaces by finding a polygonization of the surface (that is, a description as a CW-complex) and using the above definitions.

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Name Interval

Image

Euler characteristic 1

Circle

Disk

Sphere

Torus (Product of two circles)

Double torus

Triple torus

Real projective plane

Mbius strip

Klein bottle

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2+2=4

Two spheres (not connected) (Disjoint union of two spheres)

Three spheres (not connected) (Disjoint union of three spheres)

2+2+2=6

Any contractible space (that is, one homotopy equivalent to a point) has trivial homology, meaning that the 0th Betti number is 1 and the others 0. Therefore its Euler characteristic is 1. This case includes Euclidean space of any dimension, as well as the solid unit ball in any Euclidean space the one-dimensional interval, the two-dimensional disk, the three-dimensional ball, etc. The n-dimensional sphere has Betti number 1 in dimensions 0 and n, and all other Betti numbers 0. Hence its Euler characteristic is that is, either 0 or 2. The n-dimensional real projective space is the quotient of the n-sphere by the antipodal map. It follows that its Euler characteristic is exactly half that of the corresponding sphere either 0 or 1. The n-dimensional torus is the product space of n circles. Its Euler characteristic is 0, by the product property.

Soccer ball example

How many pentagons and hexagons does it take to make a soccer ball? Assume we use pentagons; then we have shared between 3 faces, hence we have characteristic is hexagons and faces. Every pentagon (hexagon) has 5 vertices (6 vertices), and each one is vertices. Similarly, every pentagon (hexagon) has 5 edges. The Euler thus . Since the sphere has Euler characteristic 2, it follows that . The result is that we always need 12 pentagons on a

edges (6 edges), and each one is shared between 2 faces, hence we have

football/soccer ball; the number of hexagons is in principle unconstrained (but for a real football/soccer ball one obviously chooses a number that makes the ball as spherical as possible). This result is also applicable to fullerenes.

Generalizations
For every combinatorial cell complex, one defines the Euler characteristic as the number of 0-cells, minus the number of 1-cells, plus the number of 2-cells, etc., if this alternating sum is finite. In particular, the Euler characteristic of a finite set is simply its cardinality, and the Euler characteristic of a graph is the number of vertices minus the number of edges.[9] More generally, one can define the Euler characteristic of any chain complex to be the alternating sum of the ranks of the homology groups of the chain complex. A version used in algebraic geometry is as follows. For any sheaf characteristic on a projective scheme X, one defines its Euler

where

is the dimension of the i-th sheaf cohomology group of

Another generalization of the concept of Euler characteristic on manifolds comes from orbifolds. While every manifold has an integer Euler characteristic, an orbifold can have a fractional Euler characteristic. For example, the

Euler characteristic teardrop orbifold has Euler characteristic 1+1/p, where p is a prime number corresponding to the cone angle 2/p. The concept of Euler characteristic of a bounded finite poset is another generalization, important in combinatorics. A poset is "bounded" if it has smallest and largest elements; call them 0 and 1. The Euler characteristic of such a poset is defined as the integer (0,1), where is the Mbius function in that poset's incidence algebra. This can be further generalized by defining a Q-valued Euler characteristic for certain finite categories, a notion compatible with the Euler characteristics of graphs, orbifolds and posets mentioned above. In this setting, the Euler characteristic of a finite group or monoid G is 1/|G|, and the Euler characteristic of a finite groupoid is the sum of 1/|Gi|, where we picked one representative group Gi for each connected component of the groupoid.[10]

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Notes
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] http:/ / www. ics. uci. edu/ ~eppstein/ junkyard/ euler/ Imre Lakatos: Proofs and Refutations, Cambridge Technology Press, 1976 Richeson, D., Euler's Gem, Princeton, 2008 (p. 261) Edwin Spanier: Algebraic Topology, Springer 1966, p. 205. William Fulton: Introduction to toric varieties, 1993, Princeton University Press, p. 141. http:/ / math. ucr. edu/ home/ baez/ counting/ Spanier, Edwin Henry (1982), Algebraic Topology (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=h-wc3TnZMCcC), Springer, ISBN978-0-387-94426-5, , Applications of the homology spectral sequence, p. 481 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=h-wc3TnZMCcC& pg=PA481)

[8] Gottlieb, Daniel Henry (1975), "Fibre bundles and the Euler characteristic" (http:/ / www. math. purdue. edu/ ~gottlieb/ Bibliography/ 17FibreBundlesAndtheEulerCharacteristic. pdf), Journal of Differential Geometry 10 (1): 3948, [9] Olaf Post calls this a "well-known formula": Post, Olaf (2009), "Spectral analysis of metric graphs and related spaces", Limits of graphs in group theory and computer science, Lausanne, Switzerland: EPFL Press, pp.109140, arXiv:0712.1507. [10] Tom Leinster, " The Euler characteristic of a category (http:/ / www. math. uiuc. edu/ documenta/ vol-13/ 02. pdf)", Documenta Mathematica, 13 (2008), pp. 2149

Further reading
Richeson, David S. (2008) Euler's Gem: The Polyhedron Formula and the Birth of Topology. Princeton University Press. H. Graham Flegg: From Geometry to Topology. Dover 2001, p.40

External links
Weisstein, Eric W., " Euler characteristic (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/EulerCharacteristic.html)" from MathWorld. Weisstein, Eric W., " Polyhedral formula (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/PolyhedralFormula.html)" from MathWorld. Matveev, S.V. (2001), "Euler characteristic" (http://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index. php?title=Euler_characteristic), in Hazewinkel, Michiel, Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer, ISBN978-1-55608-010-4

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Gambler's fallacy
The Gambler's fallacy, also known as the Monte Carlo fallacy (because its most famous example happened in a Monte Carlo Casino in 1913),[1][2] and also referred to as the fallacy of the maturity of chances, is the belief that if deviations from expected behaviour are observed in repeated independent trials of some random process, future deviations in the opposite direction are then more likely.

An example: coin-tossing
The gambler's fallacy can be illustrated by considering the repeated toss of a fair coin. With a fair coin, the outcomes in different tosses are statistically independent and the probability of getting heads on a single toss is exactly 12 (one in two). It follows that the probability of getting two heads in two tosses is 14 (one in four) and the probability of getting three heads in three tosses is 18 (one in eight). In general, if we let Ai be the event that toss i of a fair coin comes up heads, then we have, . Now suppose that we have just tossed four heads in a row, so that if the next coin toss were also to come up heads, it would complete a run of five successive heads. Since the probability of a run of five successive heads is only 132 (one in thirty-two), a believer in the gambler's fallacy might believe that this next flip is less likely to be heads than to be tails. However, this is not correct, and is a manifestation of the gambler's fallacy; the event of 5 heads in a row and the event of "first 4 heads, then a tails" are equally likely, each having probability 132. Given the first four rolls turn up heads, the probability that the next toss is a head is in fact, . While a run of five heads is only 132 = 0.03125, it is only that before the coin is first tossed. After the first four tosses the results are no longer unknown, so their probabilities are 1. Reasoning that it is more likely that the next toss will be a tail than a head due to the past tosses, that a run of luck in the past somehow influences the odds in the future, is the fallacy.

Simulation of coin tosses: Each frame, a coin is flipped which is red on one side and blue on the other. The result of each flip is added as a colored dot in the corresponding column. As the pie chart shows, the proportion of red versus blue approaches 50-50 (the Law of Large Numbers). But the difference between red and blue does not systematically decrease to zero.

Explaining why the probability is 1/2 for a fair coin

We can see from the above that, if one flips a fair coin 21 times, then the probability of 21 heads is 1 in 2,097,152. However, the probability of flipping a head after having already flipped 20 heads in a row is simply 12. This is an application of Bayes' theorem. This can also be seen without knowing that 20 heads have occurred for certain (without applying of Bayes' theorem). Consider the following two probabilities, assuming a fair coin: probability of 20 heads, then 1 tail = 0.520 0.5 = 0.521 probability of 20 heads, then 1 head = 0.520 0.5 = 0.521 The probability of getting 20 heads then 1 tail, and the probability of getting 20 heads then another head are both 1 in 2,097,152. Therefore, it is equally likely to flip 21 heads as it is to flip 20 heads and then 1 tail when flipping a fair coin 21 times. Furthermore, these two probabilities are equally as likely as any other 21-flip combinations that can

Gambler's fallacy be obtained (there are 2,097,152 total); all 21-flip combinations will have probabilities equal to 0.521, or 1 in 2,097,152. From these observations, there is no reason to assume at any point that a change of luck is warranted based on prior trials (flips), because every outcome observed will always have been as likely as the other outcomes that were not observed for that particular trial, given a fair coin. Therefore, just as Bayes' theorem shows, the result of each trial comes down to the base probability of the fair coin: 12.

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Other examples
There is another way to emphasize the fallacy. As already mentioned, the fallacy is built on the notion that previous failures indicate an increased probability of success on subsequent attempts. This is, in fact, the inverse of what actually happens, even on a fair chance of a successful event, given a set number of iterations. Assume a fair 16-sided die, where a win is defined as rolling a 1. Assume a player is given 16 rolls to obtain at least one win (1p(rolling no ones)). The low winning odds are just to make the change in probability more noticeable. The probability of having at least one win in the 16 rolls is:

However, assume now that the first roll was a loss (93.75% chance of that, 1516). The player now only has 15 rolls left and, according to the fallacy, should have a higher chance of winning since one loss has occurred. His chances of having at least one win are now:

Simply by losing one toss the player's probability of winning dropped by 2 percentage points. By the time this reaches 5 losses (11 rolls left), his probability of winning on one of the remaining rolls will have dropped to ~50%. The player's odds for at least one win in those 16 rolls has not increased given a series of losses; his odds have decreased because he has fewer iterations left to win. In other words, the previous losses in no way contribute to the odds of the remaining attempts, but there are fewer remaining attempts to gain a win, which results in a lower probability of obtaining it. The player becomes more likely to lose in a set number of iterations as he fails to win, and eventually his probability of winning will again equal the probability of winning a single toss, when only one toss is left: 6.25% in this instance. Some lottery players will choose the same numbers every time, or intentionally change their numbers, but both are equally likely to win any individual lottery draw. Copying the numbers that won the previous lottery draw gives an equal probability, although a rational gambler might attempt to predict other players' choices and then deliberately avoid these numbers. Low numbers (below 31 and especially below 12) are popular because people play birthdays as their so-called lucky numbers; hence a win in which these numbers are over-represented is more likely to result in a shared payout. A joke told among mathematicians demonstrates the nature of the fallacy. When flying on an aircraft, a man decides to always bring a bomb with him. "The chances of an aircraft having a bomb on it are very small," he reasons, "and certainly the chances of having two are almost none!" A similar example is in the book The World According to Garp when the hero Garp decides to buy a house a moment after a small plane crashes into it, reasoning that the chances of another plane hitting the house have just dropped to zero.

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Reverse fallacy
The reversal is also a fallacy (not to be confused with the inverse gambler's fallacy) in which a gambler may instead decide that tails are more likely out of some mystical preconception that fate has thus far allowed for consistent results of tails. Believing the odds to favor tails, the gambler sees no reason to change to heads. Again, the fallacy is the belief that the "universe" somehow carries a memory of past results which tend to favor or disfavor future outcomes.

Caveats
In most illustrations of the gambler's fallacy and the reversed gambler's fallacy, the trial (e.g. flipping a coin) is assumed to be fair. In practice, this assumption may not hold. For example, if one flips a fair coin 21 times, then the probability of 21 heads is 1 in 2,097,152 (above). If the coin is fair, then the probability of the next flip being heads is 1/2. However, because the odds of flipping 21 heads in a row is so slim, it may well be that the coin is somehow biased towards landing on heads, or that it is being controlled by hidden magnets, or similar.[3] In this case, the smart bet is "heads" because the empirical evidence21 "heads" in a rowsuggests that the coin is likely to be biased toward "heads", contradicting the general assumption that the coin is fair.

Childbirth
Instances of the gamblers fallacy when applied to childbirth can be traced all the way back to 1796, in Pierre-Simon Laplaces A Philosophical Essay on Probabilities. Laplace wrote of the ways men calculated their probability of having sons: "I have seen men, ardently desirous of having a son, who could learn only with anxiety of the births of boys in the month when they expected to become fathers. Imagining that the ratio of these births to those of girls ought to be the same at the end of each month, they judged that the boys already born would render more probable the births next of girls." In short, the expectant fathers feared that if more sons were born in the surrounding community, then they themselves would be more likely to have a daughter.[4] Some expectant parents believe that, after having multiple children of the same sex, they are "due" to have a child of the opposite sex. While the TriversWillard hypothesis predicts that birth sex is dependent on living conditions (i.e. more male children are born in "good" living conditions, while more female children are born in poorer living conditions), the probability of having a child of either gender is still regarded as 50/50.

Monte Carlo Casino

The most famous example happened in a game of roulette at the Monte Carlo Casino in the summer of 1913, when the ball fell in black 26 times in a row, an extremely uncommon occurrence (but not more nor less common than any of the other 67,108,863 sequences of 26 red or black, neglecting the 0 slot on the wheel), and gamblers lost millions of francs betting against black after the black streak happened. Gamblers reasoned incorrectly that the streak was causing an "imbalance" in the randomness of the wheel, and that it had to be followed by a long streak of red.[1]

Non-examples of the fallacy

There are many scenarios where the gambler's fallacy might superficially seem to apply, but actually does not. When the probability of different events is not independent, the probability of future events can change based on the outcome of past events (see statistical permutation). Formally, the system is said to have memory. An example of this is cards drawn without replacement. For example, if an ace is drawn from a deck and not reinserted, the next draw is less likely to be an ace and more likely to be of another rank. The odds for drawing another ace, assuming that it was the first card drawn and that there are no jokers, have decreased from 452 (7.69%) to 351 (5.88%), while the odds for

Gambler's fallacy each other rank have increased from 452 (7.69%) to 451 (7.84%). This type of effect is what allows card counting systems to work (for example in the game of blackjack). Meanwhile, the reversed gambler's fallacy may appear to apply in the story of Joseph Jagger, who hired clerks to record the results of roulette wheels in Monte Carlo. He discovered that one wheel favored nine numbers and won large sums of money until the casino started rebalancing the roulette wheels daily. In this situation, the observation of the wheel's behavior provided information about the physical properties of the wheel rather than its "probability" in some abstract sense, a concept which is the basis of both the gambler's fallacy and its reversal. Even a biased wheel's past results will not affect future results, but the results can provide information about what sort of results the wheel tends to produce. However, if it is known for certain that the wheel is completely fair, then past results provide no information about future ones. The outcome of future events can be affected if external factors are allowed to change the probability of the events (e.g., changes in the rules of a game affecting a sports team's performance levels). Additionally, an inexperienced player's success may decrease after opposing teams discover his weaknesses and exploit them. The player must then attempt to compensate and randomize his strategy. (See Game theory). Many riddles trick the reader into believing that they are an example of the gambler's fallacy, such as the Monty Hall problem.

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Non-example: unknown probability of event

When the probability of repeated events are not known, outcomes may not be equally probable. In the case of coin tossing, as a run of heads gets longer and longer, the likelihood that the coin is biased towards heads increases. If one flips a coin 21 times in a row and obtains 21 heads, one might rationally conclude a high probability of bias towards heads, and hence conclude that future flips of this coin are also highly likely to be heads. In fact, Bayesian inference can be used to show that when the long-run proportion of different outcomes are unknown but exchangeable (meaning that the random process from which they are generated may be biased but is equally likely to be biased in any direction) previous observations demonstrate the likely direction of the bias, such that the outcome which has occurred the most in the observed data is the most likely to occur again.[5]

Psychology behind the fallacy

Origins
Gambler's fallacy arises out of a belief in the law of small numbers, or the erroneous belief that small samples must be representative of the larger population. According to the fallacy, "streaks" must eventually even out in order to be representative.[6] Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman first proposed that the gambler's fallacy is a cognitive bias produced by a psychological heuristic called the representativeness heuristic, which states that people evaluate the probability of a certain event by assessing how similar it is to events they have experienced before, and how similar the events surrounding those two processes are.[7][8] According to this view, "after observing a long run of red on the roulette wheel, for example, most people erroneously believe that black will result in a more representative sequence than the occurrence of an additional red",[9] so people expect that a short run of random outcomes should share properties of a longer run, specifically in that deviations from average should balance out. When people are asked to make up a random-looking sequence of coin tosses, they tend to make sequences where the proportion of heads to tails stays closer to 0.5 in any short segment than would be predicted by chance (insensitivity to sample size);[10] Kahneman and Tversky interpret this to mean that people believe short sequences of random events should be representative of longer ones.[11] The representativeness heuristic is also cited behind the related phenomenon of the clustering illusion, according to which people see streaks of random events as being non-random when such streaks are actually much more likely to occur in small samples than people expect.[12]

Gambler's fallacy The gambler's fallacy can also be attributed to the mistaken belief that gambling (or even chance itself) is a fair process that can correct itself in the event of streaks, otherwise known as the just-world hypothesis.[13] Other researchers believe that individuals with an internal locus of control - that is, people who believe that the gambling outcomes are the result of their own skill - are more susceptible to the gambler's fallacy because they reject the idea that chance could overcome skill or talent.[14]

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Variations of the gambler's fallacy

Some researchers believe that there are actually two types of gambler's fallacy: Type I and Type II. Type I is the "classic" gambler's fallacy, when individuals believe that a certain outcome is "due" after a long streak of another outcome. Type II gambler's fallacy, as defined by Gideon Keren and Charles Lewis, occurs when a gambler underestimates how many observations are needed to detect a favorable outcome (such as watching a roulette wheel for a length of time and then betting on the numbers that appear most often). Detecting a bias that will lead to a favorable outcome takes an impractically large amount of time and is very difficult, if not impossible, to do, therefore people fall prey to the Type II gambler's fallacy.[15] The two types are different in that Type I wrongly assumes that gambling conditions are fair and perfect, while Type II assumes that the conditions are biased, and that this bias can be detected after a certain amount of time. Another variety, known as the retrospective gambler's fallacy, occurs when individuals judge that a seemingly rare event must come from a longer sequence than a more common event does. For example, people believe that an imaginary sequence of die rolls is more than three times as long when a set of three 6's is observed as opposed to when there are only two 6's. This effect can be observed in isolated instances, or even sequentially. A real world example is when a teenager becomes pregnant after having unprotected sex, people assume that she has been engaging in unprotected sex for longer than someone who has been engaging in unprotected sex and is not pregnant.[16]

Relationship to hot-hand fallacy

Another psychological perspective states that gambler's fallacy can be seen as the counterpart to basketball's Hot-hand fallacy. In the hot-hand fallacy, people tend to predict the same outcome of the last event (positive recency) - that a high scorer will continue to score. In gambler's fallacy, however, people predict the opposite outcome of the last event (negative recency) - that, for example, since the roulette wheel has landed on black the last six times, it is due to land on red the next. Ayton and Fischer have theorized that people display positive recency for the hot-hand fallacy because the fallacy deals with human performance, and that people do not believe that an inanimate object can become "hot."[17] Human performance is not perceived as "random," and people are more likely to continue streaks when they believe that the process generating the results is nonrandom.[6] Usually, when a person exhibits the gambler's fallacy, they are more likely to exhibit the hot-hand fallacy as well, suggesting that one construct is responsible for the two fallacies.[18] The difference between the two fallacies is also represented in economic decision-making. A study by Huber, Kirchler, and Stockl (2010) examined how the hot hand and the gambler's fallacy are exhibited in the financial market. The researchers gave their participants a choice: they could either bet on the outcome of a series of coin tosses, use an "expert" opinion to sway their decision, or choose a risk-free alternative instead for a smaller financial reward. Participants turned to the "expert" opinion to make their decision 24% of the time based on their past experience of success, which exemplifies the hot-hand. If the expert was correct, 78% of the participants chose the expert's opinion again, as opposed to 57% doing so when the expert was wrong. The participants also exhibited the gambler's fallacy, with their selection of either heads or tails decreasing after noticing a streak of that outcome. This experiment helped bolster Ayton and Fischer's theory that people put more faith in human performance than they do in seemingly random processes.[19]

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Neurophysiology
While the representativeness heuristic and other cognitive biases are the most commonly cited cause of the gambler's fallacy, research suggests that there may be a neurological component to it as well. Functional magnetic resonance imaging has revealed that, after losing a bet or gamble ("riskloss"), the frontoparietal network of the brain is activated, resulting in more risk-taking behavior. In contrast, there is decreased activity in the amygdala, caudate and ventral striatum after a riskloss. Activation in the amygdala is negatively correlated with gambler's fallacy - the more activity exhibited in the amygdala, the less likely an individual is to fall prey to the gambler's fallacy. These results suggest that gambler's fallacy relies more on the prefrontal cortex (responsible for executive, goal-directed processes) and less on the brain areas that control affective decision-making. The desire to continue gambling or betting is controlled by the striatum, which supports a choice-outcome contingency learning method. The striatum processes the errors in prediction and the behavior changes accordingly. After a win, the positive behavior is reinforced and after a loss, the behavior is conditioned to be avoided. In individuals exhibiting the gambler's fallacy, this choice-outcome contingency method is impaired, and they continue to make risks after a series of losses.[20]

Possible solutions
The gambler's fallacy is a deep-seated cognitive bias and therefore very difficult to eliminate. For the most part, educating individuals about the nature of randomness has not proven effective in reducing or eliminating any manifestation of the gambler's fallacy. Participants in an early study by Beach and Swensson (1967) were shown a shuffled deck of index cards with shapes on them, and were told to guess which shape would come next in a sequence. The experimental group of participants was informed about the nature and existence of the gambler's fallacy, and were explicitly instructed not to rely on "run dependency" to make their guesses. The control group was not given this information. Even so, the response styles of the two groups were similar, indicating that the experimental group still based their choices on the length of the run sequence. Clearly, instructing individuals about randomness is not sufficient in lessening the gambler's fallacy.[21] It does appear, however, that an individual's susceptibility to the gambler's fallacy decreases with age. Fischbein and Schnarch (1997) administered a questionnaire to five groups: students in grades 5, 7, 9, 11, and college students specializing in teaching mathematics. None of the participants had received any prior education regarding probability. The question was, "Ronni flipped a coin three times and in all cases heads came up. Ronni intends to flip the coin again. What is the chance of getting heads the fourth time?" The results indicated that as the older the students got, the less likely they were to answer with "smaller than the chance of getting tails," which would indicate a negative recency effect. 35% of the 5th graders, 35% of the 7th graders, and 20% of the 9th graders exhibited the negative recency effect. Only 10% of the 11th graders answered this way, however, and none of the college students did. Fischbein and Schnarch therefore theorized that an individual's tendency to rely on the representativeness heuristic and other cognitive biases can be overcome with age.[22] Another possible solution that could be seen as more proactive comes from Roney and Trick, Gestalt psychologists who suggest that the fallacy may be eliminated as a result of grouping. When a future event (ex: a coin toss) is described as part of a sequence, no matter how arbitrarily, a person will automatically consider the event as it relates to the past events, resulting in the gambler's fallacy. When a person considers every event as independent, however, the fallacy can be greatly reduced.[23] In their experiment, Roney and Trick told participants that they were betting on either two blocks of six coin tosses, or on two blocks of seven coin tosses. The fourth, fifth, and sixth tosses all had the same outcome, either three heads or three tails. The seventh toss was grouped with either the end of one block, or the beginning of the next block. Participants exhibited the strongest gambler's fallacy when the seventh trial was part of the first block, directly after the sequence of three heads or tails. Additionally, the researchers pointed out how insidious the fallacy can be - the participants that did not show the gambler's fallacy showed less confidence in their bets and bet fewer times than the

Gambler's fallacy participants who picked "with" the gambler's fallacy. However, when the seventh trial was grouped with the second block (and was therefore perceived as not being part of a streak), the gambler's fallacy did not occur. Roney and Trick argue that a solution to gambler's fallacy could be, instead of teaching individuals about the nature of randomness, training people to treat each event as if it is a beginning and not a continuation of previous events. This would prevent people from gambling when they are losing in the vain hope that their chances of winning are due to increase.

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References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] Lehrer, Jonah (2009). How We Decide. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p.66. ISBN978-0-618-62011-1. Blog - "Fallacy Files" (http:/ / www. fallacyfiles. org/ gamblers. html) What happened at Monte Carlo in 1913. Martin Gardner, Entertaining Mathematical Puzzles, Dover Publications, 69-70. Barron, G. and Leider, S. (2010). The role of experience in the gambler's fallacy. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 23, 117-129. O'Neill, B. and Puza, B.D. (2004) Dice have no memories but I do: A defence of the reverse gambler's belief. (http:/ / cbe. anu. edu. au/ research/ papers/ pdf/ STAT0004WP. pdf). Reprinted in abridged form as O'Neill, B. and Puza, B.D. (2005) In defence of the reverse gambler's belief. The Mathematical Scientist 30(1), pp. 1316. [6] Burns, B.D. and Corpus, B. (2004). Randomness and inductions from streaks: "Gambler's fallacy" versus "hot hand." Psychonomic Bulletin and Review. 11, 179-184 [7] Tversky, Amos; Daniel Kahneman (1974). "Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases". Science 185 (4157): 11241131. doi:10.1126/science.185.4157.1124. PMID17835457. [8] Tversky, Amos; Daniel Kahneman (1971). "Belief in the law of small numbers". Psychological Bulletin 76 (2): 105110. doi:10.1037/h0031322. [9] Tversky & Kahneman, 1974. [10] Tune, G.S. (1964). "Response preferences: A review of some relevant literature". Psychological Bulletin 61 (4): 286302. doi:10.1037/h0048618. PMID14140335. [11] Tversky & Kahneman, 1971. [12] Gilovich, Thomas (1991). How we know what isn't so. New York: The Free Press. pp.1619. ISBN0-02-911706-2. [13] Rogers, P. (1998). The cognitive psychology of lottery gambling: A theoretical review. Journal of Gambling Studies, 14, 111-134 [14] Sundali, J. and Croson, R. (2006). Biases in casino betting: The hot hand and the gambler's fallacy. Judgment and Decision Making, 1, 1-12. [15] Keren, G. and Lewis, C. (1994). The two fallacies of gamblers: Type I and Type II. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 60, 75-89. [16] Oppenheimer, D.M. and Monin, B. (2009). The retrospective gambler's fallacy: Unlikely events, constructing the past, and multiple universes. Judgment and Decision Making, 4, 326-334. [17] Ayton, P.; Fischer, I. (2004). "The hot hand fallacy and the gambler's fallacy: Two faces of subjective randomness?". Memory and Cognition 32: 13691378. [18] Sundali, J.; Croson, R. (2006). "Biases in casino betting: The hot hand and the gambler's fallacy". Judgment and Decision Making 1: 112. [19] Huber, J.; Kirchler, M.; Stockl, T. (2010). "The hot hand belief and the gambler's fallacy in investment decisions under risk". Theory and Decision 68: 445462. [20] Xue, G.; Lu, Z.; Levin, I.P.; Bechara, A. (2011). "An fMRI study of risk-taking following wins and losses: Implications for the gambler's fallacy". Human Brain Mapping 32: 271281. [21] Beach, L.R.; Swensson, R.G. (1967). "Instructions about randomness and run dependency in two-choice learning". Journal of Experimental Psychology 75: 279282. [22] Fischbein, E.; Schnarch, D. (1997). "The evolution with age of probabilistic, intuitively based misconceptions". Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 28: 96105. [23] Roney, C.J.; Trick, L.M. (2003). "Grouping and gambling: A gestalt approach to understanding the gambler's fallacy". Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology 57: 6975.

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Complex number
A complex number is a number that can be put in the form a + bi, where a and b are real numbers and i is called the imaginary unit, where i2 = 1.[1] In this expression, a is called the real part and b the imaginary part of the complex number. Complex numbers extend the idea of the one-dimensional number line to the two-dimensional complex plane by using the horizontal axis for the real part and the vertical axis for the imaginary part. The complex number a + bi can be identified with the point (a, b) in the complex plane. A complex number whose real part is zero is said to be purely imaginary, whereas a complex number whose imaginary part is zero is a real number. In this way the complex numbers contain the ordinary real numbers while extending them in order to solve problems that cannot be solved with real numbers alone.

Complex numbers are used in many scientific and engineering fields, including physics, chemistry, biology, economics, electrical engineering, mathematics, and statistics. The Italian mathematician Gerolamo Cardano is the first known to have introduced complex numbers. He called them "fictitious" during his attempts to find solutions to cubic equations in the 16th century,[2] but complex numbers are no more or less "fictitious" or "imaginary" than any other kind of number.

A complex number can be visually represented as a pair of numbers (a,b) forming a vector on a diagram called an Argand diagram, representing the complex plane. Re is the real axis, Im is the imaginary axis, and i is the imaginary unit, satisfying i2 = 1.

Overview
Complex numbers allow for solutions to certain equations that have no real solution: the equation

has no real solution, since the square of a real number is either 0 or positive. Complex numbers provide a solution to this problem. The idea is to extend the real numbers with the imaginary unit i where , so that solutions to equations like the preceding one can be found. In this case the solutions are 1 3i. In fact not only quadratic equations, but all polynomial equations in a single variable can be solved using complex numbers.

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Definition
A complex number is a number that can be expressed in the form where a and b are real numbers and i is the imaginary unit, satisfying i2 = 1. For example, 3.5 + 2i is a complex number. It is common to write a for a + 0i and bi for 0 + bi. Moreover, when the imaginary part is negative, it is common to write a bi with b > 0 instead of a + (b)i, for example 3 4i instead of 3 + (4)i. The set of all complex numbers is denoted by , or .

The real number a of the complex number z = a + bi is called the real part of z, and the real number b is often called the imaginary part. By this convention the imaginary part is a real number not including the imaginary unit: hence b, not bi, is the imaginary part.[3][4] The real part is denoted by Re(z) or -(z), and the imaginary part b is denoted by Im(z) or (z). For example,

An illustration of the complex plane. The real part of a complex number z = x + iy is x, and its imaginary part is y.

Some authors write a+ib instead of a+bi (scalar multiplication between b and i is commutative). In some disciplines, in particular electromagnetism and electrical engineering, j is used instead of i, since i is frequently used for electric current. In these cases complex numbers are written as a + bj or a + jb. A real number a can usually be regarded as a complex number with an imaginary part of zero, that is to say, a + 0i. However the sets are defined differently and have slightly different operations defined, for instance comparison operations are not defined for complex numbers. A pure imaginary number is a complex number whose real part is zero, that is to say, of the form 0 + bi.

Complex plane
A complex number can be viewed as a point or position vector in a two-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system called the complex plane or Argand diagram (see Pedoe 1988 and Solomentsev 2001), named after Jean-Robert Argand. The numbers are conventionally plotted using the real part as the horizontal component, and imaginary part as vertical (see Figure 1). These two values used to identify a given complex number are therefore called its Cartesian, rectangular, or algebraic form. The defining characteristic of a position vector is that it has magnitude Figure 1: A complex number plotted as a point (red) and position vector (blue) on an Argand and direction. These are emphasised in a complex number's polar form diagram; is the rectangular expression and it turns out notably that the operations of addition and of the point. multiplication take on a very natural geometric character when complex numbers are viewed as position vectors: addition corresponds to vector addition while multiplication corresponds to multiplying their magnitudes and adding their arguments (i.e. the angles they make with the x axis). Viewed in this way the multiplication of a complex number by i corresponds to rotating a complex number counterclockwise through 90 about the origin: .

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History in brief
Main section: History The solution in radicals (without trigonometric functions) of a general cubic equation contains the square roots of negative numbers when all three roots are real numbers, a situation that cannot be rectified by factoring aided by the rational root test if the cubic is irreducible (the so-called casus irreducibilis). This conundrum led Italian mathematician Gerolamo Cardano to conceive of complex numbers in around 1545, though his understanding was rudimentary. Work on the problem of general polynomials ultimately led to the fundamental theorem of algebra, which shows that with complex numbers, a solution exists to every polynomial equation of degree one or higher. Complex numbers thus form an algebraically closed field, where any polynomial equation has a root. Many mathematicians contributed to the full development of complex numbers. The rules for addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of complex numbers were developed by the Italian mathematician Rafael Bombelli.[5] A more abstract formalism for the complex numbers was further developed by the Irish mathematician William Rowan Hamilton, who extended this abstraction to the theory of quaternions.

Elementary operations
Conjugation
The complex conjugate of the complex number z = x + yi is defined to be x yi. It is denoted or . Geometrically, is the "reflection" of z about the real axis. In particular, conjugating twice gives the original complex number: . The real and imaginary parts of a complex number can be extracted using the conjugate:

Moreover, a complex number is real if and only if it equals its conjugate. Conjugation distributes over the standard arithmetic operations:

The reciprocal of a nonzero complex number z = x + yi is given by

Geometric representation of and its conjugate in the complex plane

This formula can be used to compute the multiplicative inverse of a complex number if it is given in rectangular coordinates. Inversive geometry, a branch of geometry studying more general reflections than ones about a line, can also be expressed in terms of complex numbers.

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Addition and subtraction

Complex numbers are added by adding the real and imaginary parts of the summands. That is to say:

Similarly, subtraction is defined by

Using the visualization of complex numbers in the complex plane, the addition has the following geometric interpretation: the sum of two complex numbers A and B, interpreted as points of the complex plane, is the point X obtained by building a parallelogram three of whose vertices are O, A and B. Equivalently, X is the point such that the triangles with vertices O, A, B, and X, B, A, are congruent.
Addition of two complex numbers can be done geometrically by constructing a parallelogram.

Multiplication and division

The multiplication of two complex numbers is defined by the following formula:

In particular, the square of the imaginary unit is 1:

The preceding definition of multiplication of general complex numbers follows naturally from this fundamental property of the imaginary unit. Indeed, if i is treated as a number so that di means d times i, the above multiplication rule is identical to the usual rule for multiplying two sums of two terms. (distributive law) (commutative law of additionthe order of the summands can be changed) (commutative multiplicands can be changed) (fundamental property of the imaginary unit). The division of two complex numbers is defined in terms of complex multiplication, which is described above, and real division. Where at least one of and is non-zero: law of multiplicationthe order of the

Division can be defined in this way because of the following observation:

As shown earlier,

is the complex conjugate of the denominator

. The real part c and the imaginary

part d of the denominator must not both be zero for division to be defined.

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Square root
The square roots of a + bi (with b 0) are , where

and

where sgn is the signum function. This can be seen by squaring

to obtain a + bi.[6][7] Here

is called the modulus of a + bi, and the square root with non-negative real part is called the principal square root.

Polar form
Absolute value and argument
An alternative way of defining points in the complex plane, other than using the x- and y-coordinates, is to use the distance of a point P from O, the point whose coordinates are (0, 0) (the origin), together with the angle between the line through P and O and the (horizontal) line which is the positive part of the real axis. This idea leads to the polar form of complex numbers. The absolute value (or modulus or magnitude) of a complex number z = x + yi is

If z is a real number (i.e., y = 0), then r = |x|. In general, by Pythagoras' theorem, r is the distance of the point P representing the complex number z to the origin. The argument or phase of z is the angle of the radius OP with the positive real axis, and is written as . As with the modulus, the argument can be found from the rectangular form :[8]

Figure 2: The argument and modulus r locate a point on an Argand diagram; or are polar expressions of the point.

The value of must always be expressed in radians. It can change by any multiple of 2 and still give the same angle. Hence, the arg function is sometimes considered as multivalued. Normally, as given above, the principal value in the interval is chosen. Values in the range are obtained by adding if the value is negative. The polar angle for the complex number 0 is undefined, but arbitrary choice of the angle0 is common. The value of equals the result of atan2: . Together, r and give another way of representing complex numbers, the polar form, as the combination of modulus and argument fully specify the position of a point on the plane. Recovering the original rectangular co-ordinates from the polar form is done by the formula called trigonometric form

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Using Euler's formula this can be written as

Using the cis function, this is sometimes abbreviated to In angle notation, often used in electronics to represent a phasor with amplitude r and phase , it is written as[9]

Multiplication, division and exponentiation in polar form

Formulas for multiplication, division and exponentiation are simpler in polar form than the corresponding formulas in Cartesian coordinates. Given two complex numbers z1 = r1(cos 1 + isin 1) and z2 =r2(cos 2 + isin 2) the formula for multiplication is In other words, the absolute values are multiplied and the arguments are added to yield the polar form of the product. For example, multiplying by i corresponds to a quarter-rotation counter-clockwise, which gives back i2=1. The picture at the right illustrates the multiplication of
Multiplication of 2+i (blue triangle) and 3+i (red triangle). The red triangle is rotated to match the vertex of the blue one and stretched by 5, the length of the hypotenuse of the blue triangle.

Since the real and imaginary part of 5+5i are equal, the argument of that number is 45 degrees, or /4 (in radian). On the other hand, it is also the sum of the angles at the origin of the red and blue triangle are arctan(1/3) and arctan(1/2), respectively. Thus, the formula

holds. As the arctan function can be approximated highly efficiently, formulas like thisknown as Machin-like formulasare used for high-precision approximations of . Similarly, division is given by

This also implies de Moivre's formula for exponentiation of complex numbers with integer exponents:

The n-th roots of z are given by

for any integer k satisfying 0 k n 1. Here

is the usual (positive) nth root of the positive real number r.

While the nth root of a positive real number r is chosen to be the positive real number c satisfying cn = x there is no natural way of distinguishing one particular complex nth root of a complex number. Therefore, the nth root of z is considered as a multivalued function (in z), as opposed to a usual function f, for which f(z) is a uniquely defined number. Formulas such as (which holds for positive real numbers), do in general not hold for complex numbers.

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Properties
Field structure
The set C of complex numbers is a field. Briefly, this means that the following facts hold: first, any two complex numbers can be added and multiplied to yield another complex number. Second, for any complex number z, its negative z is also a complex number; and third, every nonzero complex number has a reciprocal complex number. Moreover, these operations satisfy a number of laws, for example the law of commutativity of addition and multiplication for any two complex numbers z1 and z2:

These two laws and the other requirements on a field can be proven by the formulas given above, using the fact that the real numbers themselves form a field. Unlike the reals, C is not an ordered field, that is to say, it is not possible to define a relation z1 < z2 that is compatible with the addition and multiplication. In fact, in any ordered field, the square of any element is necessarily positive, so i2 = 1 precludes the existence of an ordering on C. When the underlying field for a mathematical topic or construct is the field of complex numbers, the thing's name is usually modified to reflect that fact. For example: complex analysis, complex matrix, complex polynomial, and complex Lie algebra.

Solutions of polynomial equations

Given any complex numbers (called coefficients) a0, ..., an, the equation has at least one complex solution z, provided that at least one of the higher coefficients, a1, ..., an, is nonzero. This is the statement of the fundamental theorem of algebra. Because of this fact, C is called an algebraically closed field. This property does not hold for the field of rational numbers Q (the polynomial x2 2 does not have a rational root, since 2 is not a rational number) nor the real numbers R (the polynomial x2 + a does not have a real root for a > 0, since the square of x is positive for any real number x). There are various proofs of this theorem, either by analytic methods such as Liouville's theorem, or topological ones such as the winding number, or a proof combining Galois theory and the fact that any real polynomial of odd degree has at least one root. Because of this fact, theorems that hold "for any algebraically closed field", apply to C. For example, any complex matrix has at least one (complex) eigenvalue.

Algebraic characterization
The field C has the following three properties: first, it has characteristic 0. This means that 1 + 1 + ... + 1 0 for any number of summands (all of which equal one). Second, its transcendence degree over Q, the prime field of C, is the cardinality of the continuum. Third, it is algebraically closed (see above). It can be shown that any field having these properties is isomorphic (as a field) to C. For example, the algebraic closure of Qp also satisfies these three properties, so these two fields are isomorphic. Also, C is isomorphic to the field of complex Puiseux series. However, specifying an isomorphism requires the axiom of choice. Another consequence of this algebraic characterization is that C contains many proper subfields that are isomorphic to C.

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Characterization as a topological field

The preceding characterization of C describes the algebraic aspects of C, only. That is to say, the properties of nearness and continuity, which matter in areas such as analysis and topology, are not dealt with. The following description of C as a topological field (that is, a field that is equipped with a topology, which allows the notion of convergence) does take into account the topological properties. C contains a subset P (namely the set of positive real numbers) of nonzero elements satisfying the following three conditions: P is closed under addition, multiplication and taking inverses. If x and y are distinct elements of P, then either x y or y x is in P. If S is any nonempty subset of P, then S + P = x + P for some x in C. Moreover, C has a nontrivial involutive automorphism in P for any nonzero x in C. Any field F with these properties can be endowed with a topology by taking the sets B(x, p) = { y | p (y x)(y x) P} as a base, where x ranges over the field and p ranges over P. With this topology F is isomorphic as a topological field to C. The only connected locally compact topological fields are R and C. This gives another characterization of C as a topological field, since C can be distinguished from R because the nonzero complex numbers are connected, while the nonzero real numbers are not. (namely the complex conjugation), such that xx is

Formal construction
Formal development
Above, complex numbers have been defined by introducing i, the imaginary unit, as a symbol. More rigorously, the set C of complex numbers can be defined as the set R2 of ordered pairs (a, b) of real numbers. In this notation, the above formulas for addition and multiplication read

It is then just a matter of notation to express (a, b) as a + bi. Though this low-level construction does accurately describe the structure of the complex numbers, the following equivalent definition reveals the algebraic nature of C more immediately. This characterization relies on the notion of fields and polynomials. A field is a set endowed with an addition, subtraction, multiplication and division operations that behave as is familiar from, say, rational numbers. For example, the distributive law

must hold for any three elements x, y and z of a field. The set R of real numbers does form a field. A polynomial p(X) with real coefficients is an expression of the form

where the a0, ..., an are real numbers. The usual addition and multiplication of polynomials endows the set R[X] of all such polynomials with a ring structure. This ring is called polynomial ring. The quotient ring R[X]/(X2+1) can be shown to be a field. This extension field contains two square roots of 1, namely (the cosets of) X and X, respectively. (The cosets of) 1 and X form a basis of R[X]/(X2+1) as a real vector space, which means that each element of the extension field can be uniquely written as a linear combination in these two elements. Equivalently, elements of the extension field can be written as ordered pairs (a,b) of real numbers. Moreover, the above formulas for addition etc. correspond to the ones yielded by this abstract algebraic approach the two definitions of the field C are said to be isomorphic (as fields). Together with the above-mentioned fact that C is algebraically closed, this also shows that C is an algebraic closure of R.

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Matrix representation of complex numbers

Complex numbers a+ib can also be represented by 22 matrices that have the following form:

Here the entries a and b are real numbers. The sum and product of two such matrices is again of this form, and the sum and product of complex numbers corresponds to the sum and product of such matrices. The geometric description of the multiplication of complex numbers can also be phrased in terms of rotation matrices by using this correspondence between complex numbers and such matrices. Moreover, the square of the absolute value of a complex number expressed as a matrix is equal to the determinant of that matrix:

The conjugate

corresponds to the transpose of the matrix.

Though this representation of complex numbers with matrices is the most common, many other representations arise from matrices other than that square to the negative of the identity matrix. See the article on 2 2 real

matrices for other representations of complex numbers.

Complex analysis
The study of functions of a complex variable is known as complex analysis and has enormous practical use in applied mathematics as well as in other branches of mathematics. Often, the most natural proofs for statements in real analysis or even number theory employ techniques from complex analysis (see prime number theorem for an example). Unlike real functions, which are commonly represented as two-dimensional graphs, complex functions have four-dimensional graphs and may usefully be illustrated by color coding a three-dimensional graph to suggest four dimensions, or by animating the complex function's dynamic transformation of the complex plane.

Complex exponential and related functions

Color wheel graph of sin(1/z). Black parts inside refer to numbers having large absolute values.

The notions of convergent series and continuous functions in (real) analysis have natural analogs in complex analysis. A sequence of complex numbers is said to converge if and only if its real and imaginary parts do. This is equivalent to the (, )-definition of limits, where the absolute value of real numbers is replaced by the one of complex numbers. From a more abstract point of view, C, endowed with the metric

is a complete metric space, which notably includes the triangle inequality

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for any two complex numbers z1 and z2. Like in real analysis, this notion of convergence is used to construct a number of elementary functions: the exponential function exp(z), also written ez, is defined as the infinite series

and the series defining the real trigonometric functions sine and cosine, as well as hyperbolic functions such as sinh also carry over to complex arguments without change. Euler's identity states:

for any real number , in particular

Unlike in the situation of real numbers, there is an infinitude of complex solutions z of the equation

for any complex number w 0. It can be shown that any such solution zcalled complex logarithm of asatisfies

where arg is the argument defined above, and ln the (real) natural logarithm. As arg is a multivalued function, unique only up to a multiple of 2, log is also multivalued. The principal value of log is often taken by restricting the imaginary part to the interval (,]. Complex exponentiation z is defined as

Consequently, they are in general multi-valued. For = 1 / n, for some natural number n, this recovers the non-unicity of n-th roots mentioned above. Complex numbers, unlike real numbers, do not in general satisfy the unmodified power and logarithm identities, particularly when navely treated as single-valued functions; see failure of power and logarithm identities. For example they do not satisfy

Both sides of the equation are multivalued by the definition of complex exponentiation given here, and the values on the left are a subset of those on the right.

Holomorphic functions
A function f : C C is called holomorphic if it satisfies the CauchyRiemann equations. For example, any R-linear map C C can be written in the form

with complex coefficients a and b. This map is holomorphic if and only if b = 0. The second summand real-differentiable, but does not satisfy the CauchyRiemann equations.

is

Complex analysis shows some features not apparent in real analysis. For example, any two holomorphic functions f and g that agree on an arbitrarily small open subset of C necessarily agree everywhere. Meromorphic functions, functions that can locally be written as f(z)/(z z0)n with a holomorphic function f(z), still share some of the features of holomorphic functions. Other functions have essential singularities, such as sin(1/z) at z = 0.

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Applications
Some applications of complex numbers are:

Control theory
In control theory, systems are often transformed from the time domain to the frequency domain using the Laplace transform. The system's poles and zeros are then analyzed in the complex plane. The root locus, Nyquist plot, and Nichols plot techniques all make use of the complex plane. In the root locus method, it is especially important whether the poles and zeros are in the left or right half planes, i.e. have real part greater than or less than zero. If a system has poles that are in the right half plane, it will be unstable, all in the left half plane, it will be stable, on the imaginary axis, it will have marginal stability. If a system has zeros in the right half plane, it is a nonminimum phase system.

Improper integrals
In applied fields, complex numbers are often used to compute certain real-valued improper integrals, by means of complex-valued functions. Several methods exist to do this; see methods of contour integration.

Fluid dynamics
In fluid dynamics, complex functions are used to describe potential flow in two dimensions.

Dynamic equations
In differential equations, it is common to first find all complex roots r of the characteristic equation of a linear differential equation or equation system and then attempt to solve the system in terms of base functions of the form f(t) = ert. Likewise, in difference equations, the complex roots r of the characteristic equation of the difference equation system are used, to attempt to solve the system in terms of base functions of the form f(t) = r t.

Electromagnetism and electrical engineering

In electrical engineering, the Fourier transform is used to analyze varying voltages and currents. The treatment of resistors, capacitors, and inductors can then be unified by introducing imaginary, frequency-dependent resistances for the latter two and combining all three in a single complex number called the impedance. This approach is called phasor calculus. In electrical engineering, the imaginary unit is denoted by j, to avoid confusion with I which is generally in use to denote electric current. Since the voltage in an AC circuit is oscillating, it can be represented as

To obtain the measurable quantity, the real part is taken: See for example.[10]

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Signal analysis
Complex numbers are used in signal analysis and other fields for a convenient description for periodically varying signals. For given real functions representing actual physical quantities, often in terms of sines and cosines, corresponding complex functions are considered of which the real parts are the original quantities. For a sine wave of a given frequency, the absolute value |z| of the corresponding z is the amplitude and the argument arg(z) the phase. If Fourier analysis is employed to write a given real-valued signal as a sum of periodic functions, these periodic functions are often written as complex valued functions of the form

where represents the angular frequency and the complex number z encodes the phase and amplitude as explained above. This use is also extended into digital signal processing and digital image processing, which utilize digital versions of Fourier analysis (and wavelet analysis) to transmit, compress, restore, and otherwise process digital audio signals, still images, and video signals. Another example, relevant to the two side bands of amplitude modulation of AM radio, is:

Quantum mechanics
The complex number field is intrinsic to the mathematical formulations of quantum mechanics, where complex Hilbert spaces provide the context for one such formulation that is convenient and perhaps most standard. The original foundation formulas of quantum mechanics the Schrdinger equation and Heisenberg's matrix mechanics make use of complex numbers.

Relativity
In special and general relativity, some formulas for the metric on spacetime become simpler if one takes the time variable to be imaginary. (This is no longer standard in classical relativity, but is used in an essential way in quantum field theory.) Complex numbers are essential to spinors, which are a generalization of the tensors used in relativity.

Geometry
Fractals Certain fractals are plotted in the complex plane, e.g. the Mandelbrot set and Julia sets. Triangles Every triangle has a unique Steiner inellipsean ellipse inside the triangle and tangent to the midpoints of the three sides of the triangle. The foci of a triangle's Steiner inellipse can be found as follows, according to Marden's theorem:[11][12] Denote the triangle's vertices in the complex plane as a=xA+yAi, b=xB+yBi, and c=xC+yCi. Write the cubic equation , take its derivative, and equate the (quadratic) derivative to zero. Marden's Theorem says that the solutions of this equation are the complex numbers denoting the locations of the two foci of the Steiner inellipse.

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Algebraic number theory

As mentioned above, any nonconstant polynomial equation (in complex coefficients) has a solution in C. A fortiori, the same is true if the equation has rational coefficients. The roots of such equations are called algebraic numbers they are a principal object of study in algebraic number theory. Compared to Q, the algebraic closure of Q, which also contains all algebraic numbers, C has the advantage of being easily understandable in geometric terms. In this way, algebraic methods can be used to study geometric questions and vice versa. With algebraic methods, more specifically applying the machinery of field theory to the number field containing roots of unity, it can be shown that it is not possible to construct a regular nonagon using only compass and straightedge a purely geometric problem. Another example are Pythagorean triples (a, b, c), that is to say integers satisfying

Construction of a regular polygon using straightedge and compass.

(which implies that the triangle having sidelengths a, b, and c is a right triangle). They can be studied by considering Gaussian integers, that is, numbers of the form x + iy, where x and y are integers.

Analytic number theory

Analytic number theory studies numbers, often integers or rationals, by taking advantage of the fact that they can be regarded as complex numbers, in which analytic methods can be used. This is done by encoding number-theoretic information in complex-valued functions. For example, the Riemann zeta-function (s) is related to the distribution of prime numbers.

History
The earliest fleeting reference to square roots of negative numbers can perhaps be said to occur in the work of the Greek mathematician Heron of Alexandria in the 1st century AD, where in his Stereometrica he considers, apparently in error, the volume of an impossible frustum of a pyramid to arrive at the term in his calculations, although negative quantities were not conceived of in Hellenistic mathematics and Heron merely replaced it by its positive.[13] The impetus to study complex numbers proper first arose in the 16th century when algebraic solutions for the roots of cubic and quartic polynomials were discovered by Italian mathematicians (see Niccolo Fontana Tartaglia, Gerolamo Cardano). It was soon realized that these formulas, even if one was only interested in real solutions, sometimes required the manipulation of square roots of negative numbers. As an example, Tartaglia's formula for a [14] cubic equation of the form gives the solution to the equation x3=x as

At first glance this looks like nonsense. However formal calculations with complex numbers show that the equation z3=i has solutions i, and . Substituting these in turn for in Tartaglia's cubic formula and simplifying, one gets 0, 1 and 1 as the solutions of x3x=0. Of course this particular equation can be solved at sight but it does illustrate that when general formulas are used to solve cubic equations with real roots then, as later mathematicians showed rigorously, the use of complex numbers is unavoidable. Rafael Bombelli was the first to explicitly address these seemingly paradoxical solutions of cubic equations and developed the rules for complex

Complex number arithmetic trying to resolve these issues. The term "imaginary" for these quantities was coined by Ren Descartes in 1637, although he was at pains to stress their imaginary nature[15] [...] quelquefois seulement imaginaires cest--dire que lon peut toujours en imaginer autant que j'ai dit en chaque quation, mais quil ny a quelquefois aucune quantit qui corresponde celle quon imagine. ([...] sometimes only imaginary, that is one can imagine as many as I said in each equation, but sometimes there exists no quantity that matches that which we imagine.) A further source of confusion was that the equation inconsistent with the algebraic identity seemed to be capriciously , which is valid for non-negative real numbers a and b,

462

and which was also used in complex number calculations with one of a, b positive and the other negative. The incorrect use of this identity (and the related identity ) in the case when both a and b are negative even bedeviled Euler. This difficulty eventually led to the convention of using the special symbol i in place of to guard against this mistake . Even so Euler considered it natural to introduce students to complex numbers much earlier than we do today. In his elementary algebra text book, Elements of Algebra [16], he introduces these numbers almost at once and then uses them in a natural way throughout. In the 18th century complex numbers gained wider use, as it was noticed that formal manipulation of complex expressions could be used to simplify calculations involving trigonometric functions. For instance, in 1730 Abraham de Moivre noted that the complicated identities relating trigonometric functions of an integer multiple of an angle to powers of trigonometric functions of that angle could be simply re-expressed by the following well-known formula which bears his name, de Moivre's formula:

In 1748 Leonhard Euler went further and obtained Euler's formula of complex analysis:

by formally manipulating complex power series and observed that this formula could be used to reduce any trigonometric identity to much simpler exponential identities. The idea of a complex number as a point in the complex plane (above) was first described by Caspar Wessel in 1799, although it had been anticipated as early as 1685 in Wallis's De Algebra tractatus. Wessel's memoir appeared in the Proceedings of the Copenhagen Academy but went largely unnoticed. In 1806 Jean-Robert Argand independently issued a pamphlet on complex numbers and provided a rigorous proof of the fundamental theorem of algebra. Gauss had earlier published an essentially topological proof of the theorem in 1797 but expressed his doubts at the time about "the true metaphysics of the square root of 1". It was not until 1831 that he overcame these doubts and published his treatise on complex numbers as points in the plane, largely establishing modern notation and terminology. The English mathematician G. H. Hardy remarked that Gauss was the first mathematician to use complex numbers in 'a really confident and scientific way' although mathematicians such as Niels Henrik Abel and Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi were necessarily using them routinely before Gauss published his 1831 treatise.[17] Augustin Louis Cauchy and Bernhard Riemann together brought the fundamental ideas of complex analysis to a high state of completion, commencing around 1825 in Cauchy's case. The common terms used in the theory are chiefly due to the founders. Argand called factor, and the modulus; Cauchy (1828) called
2 2

the direction

the reduced form (l'expression , introduced the term complex

rduite) and apparently introduced the term argument; Gauss used i for

number for a+bi, and called a +b the norm. The expression direction coefficient, often used for , is due to Hankel (1867), and absolute value, for modulus, is due to Weierstrass. Later classical writers on the general theory include Richard Dedekind, Otto Hlder, Felix Klein, Henri Poincar, Hermann Schwarz, Karl Weierstrass and many others.

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Generalizations and related notions

The process of extending the field R of reals to C is known as Cayley-Dickson construction. It can be carried further to higher dimensions, yielding the quaternions H and octonions O which (as a real vector space) are of dimension4 and 8, respectively. However, with increasing dimension, the algebraic properties familiar from real and complex numbers vanish: the quaternions are only a skew field, i.e. xyyx for two quaternions, the multiplication of octonions fails (in addition to not being commutative) to be associative: (xy)zx(yz). However, all of these are normed division algebras over R. By Hurwitz's theorem they are the only ones. The next step in the Cayley-Dickson construction, the sedenions fail to have this structure. The Cayley-Dickson construction is closely related to the regular representation of C, thought of as an R-algebra (an R-vector space with a multiplication), with respect to the basis 1, i. This means the following: the R-linear map

for some fixed complex number w can be represented by a 22 matrix (once a basis has been chosen). With respect to the basis 1, i, this matrix is

i.e., the one mentioned in the section on matrix representation of complex numbers above. While this is a linear representation of C in the 2 2 real matrices, it is not the only one. Any matrix

has the property that its square is the negative of the identity matrix: J2 = I. Then is also isomorphic to the field C, and gives an alternative complex structure on R2. This is generalized by the notion of a linear complex structure. Hypercomplex numbers also generalize R, C, H, and O. For example this notion contains the split-complex numbers, which are elements of the ring R[x]/(x2 1) (as opposed to R[x]/(x2 + 1)). In this ring, the equation a2 = 1 has four solutions. The field R is the completion of Q, the field of rational numbers, with respect to the usual absolute value metric. Other choices of metrics on Q lead to the fields Qp of p-adic numbers (for any prime number p), which are thereby analogous to R. There are no other nontrivial ways of completing Q than R and Qp, by Ostrowski's theorem. The algebraic closure of Qp still carry a norm, but (unlike C) are not complete with respect to it. The completion of turns out to be algebraically closed. This field is called p-adic complex numbers by analogy. The fields R and Qp and their finite field extensions, including C, are local fields.

Notes
[1] Charles P. McKeague (2011). Elementary Algebra (http:/ / books. google. de/ books?id=etTbP0rItQ4C& printsec=frontcover& dq=editions:q0hGn6PkOxsC& hl=de& sa=X& ei=PcYBT8XmDImq8APA9OC5Bg& redir_esc=y#v=onepage& q& f=false). Brooks/Cole. p.524. ISBN978-0-8400-6421-9. . [2] Burton (1995, p.294) [3] Complex Variables (2nd Edition), M.R. Spiegel, S. Lipschutz, J.J. Schiller, D. Spellman, Schaum's Outline Series, Mc Graw Hill (USA), ISBN 978-0-07-161569-3 [4] Aufmann, Richard N.; Barker, Vernon C.; Nation, Richard D. (2007), College Algebra and Trigonometry (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=g5j-cT-vg_wC) (6 ed.), Cengage Learning, p.66, ISBN0-618-82515-0, , Chapter P, p. 66 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=g5j-cT-vg_wC& pg=PA66) [5] Katz (2004, 9.1.4) [6] Abramowitz, Milton; Stegun, Irene A. (1964), Handbook of mathematical functions with formulas, graphs, and mathematical tables (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=MtU8uP7XMvoC), Courier Dover Publications, p.17, ISBN0-486-61272-4, , Section 3.7.26, p. 17 (http:/ /

Complex number
www. math. sfu. ca/ ~cbm/ aands/ page_17. htm) [7] Cooke, Roger (2008), Classical algebra: its nature, origins, and uses (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=lUcTsYopfhkC), John Wiley and Sons, p.59, ISBN0-470-25952-3, , Extract: page 59 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=lUcTsYopfhkC& pg=PA59) [8] Kasana, H.S. (2005), Complex Variables: Theory And Applications (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=rFhiJqkrALIC) (2nd ed.), PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd, p.14, ISBN81-203-2641-5, , Extract of chapter 1, page 14 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=rFhiJqkrALIC& pg=PA14) [9] Nilsson, James William; Riedel, Susan A. (2008), Electric circuits (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=sxmM8RFL99wC) (8th ed.), Prentice Hall, p.338, ISBN0-13-198925-1, , Chapter 9, page 338 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=sxmM8RFL99wC& pg=PA338) [10] Electromagnetism (2nd edition), I.S. Grant, W.R. Phillips, Manchester Physics Series, 2008 ISBN 0-471-92712-0 [11] Kalman, Dan (2008a), "An Elementary Proof of Marden's Theorem" (http:/ / mathdl. maa. org/ mathDL/ 22/ ?pa=content& sa=viewDocument& nodeId=3338& pf=1), The American Mathematical Monthly 115: 330338, ISSN0002-9890, [12] Kalman, Dan (2008b), "The Most Marvelous Theorem in Mathematics" (http:/ / mathdl. maa. org/ mathDL/ 4/ ?pa=content& sa=viewDocument& nodeId=1663), Journal of Online Mathematics and its Applications (http:/ / mathdl. maa. org/ mathDL/ 4/ ), [13] Nahin, Paul J. (2007). An Imaginary Tale: The Story of (http:/ / mathforum. org/ kb/ thread. jspa?forumID=149& threadID=383188& messageID=1181284). Princeton University Press. ISBN978-0-691-12798-9. . Retrieved 20 April 2011. [14] In modern notation, Tartaglia's solution is based on expanding the cube of the sum of two cube roots: With can be expressed in terms of p and q as respectively. Therefore, and . When is negative (casus irreducibilis), the second cube root should be regarded as the complex conjugate of the first one. [15] Descartes, Ren (1954) [1637], La Gomtrie | The Geometry of Rene Descartes with a facsimile of the first edition (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ ebooks/ 26400), Dover Publications, ISBN0-486-60068-8, , retrieved 20 April 2011 [16] http:/ / web. mat. bham. ac. uk/ C. J. Sangwin/ euler/ [17] Hardy, G. H.; Wright, E. M. (2000) [1938], An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers, OUP Oxford, p.189 (fourth edition), ISBN0-19-921986-9 , , , u and v ,

464

References
Mathematical references
Ahlfors, Lars (1979), Complex analysis (3rd ed.), McGraw-Hill, ISBN978-0-07-000657-7 Conway, John B. (1986), Functions of One Complex Variable I, Springer, ISBN0-387-90328-3 Joshi, Kapil D. (1989), Foundations of Discrete Mathematics, New York: John Wiley & Sons, ISBN978-0-470-21152-6 Pedoe, Dan (1988), Geometry: A comprehensive course, Dover, ISBN0-486-65812-0 Press, WH; Teukolsky, SA; Vetterling, WT; Flannery, BP (2007), "Section 5.5 Complex Arithmetic" (http:// apps.nrbook.com/empanel/index.html?pg=225), Numerical Recipes: The Art of Scientific Computing (3rd ed.), New York: Cambridge University Press, ISBN978-0-521-88068-8 Solomentsev, E.D. (2001), "Complex number" (http://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=c/ c024140), in Hazewinkel, Michiel, Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer, ISBN978-1-55608-010-4

Complex number

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Historical references
Burton, David M. (1995), The History of Mathematics (3rd ed.), New York: McGraw-Hill, ISBN978-0-07-009465-9 Katz, Victor J. (2004), A History of Mathematics, Brief Version, Addison-Wesley, ISBN978-0-321-16193-2 Nahin, Paul J. (1998), An Imaginary Tale: The Story of (hardcover ed.), Princeton University Press, ISBN0-691-02795-1 A gentle introduction to the history of complex numbers and the beginnings of complex analysis. H.-D. Ebbinghaus ... (1991), Numbers (hardcover ed.), Springer, ISBN0-387-97497-0 An advanced perspective on the historical development of the concept of number.

Further reading
The Road to Reality: A Complete Guide to the Laws of the Universe, by Roger Penrose; Alfred A. Knopf, 2005; ISBN 0-679-45443-8. Chapters 4-7 in particular deal extensively (and enthusiastically) with complex numbers. Unknown Quantity: A Real and Imaginary History of Algebra, by John Derbyshire; Joseph Henry Press; ISBN 0-309-09657-X (hardcover 2006). A very readable history with emphasis on solving polynomial equations and the structures of modern algebra. Visual Complex Analysis, by Tristan Needham; Clarendon Press; ISBN 0-19-853447-7 (hardcover, 1997). History of complex numbers and complex analysis with compelling and useful visual interpretations. Conway, John B., Functions of One Complex Variable I (Graduate Texts in Mathematics), Springer; 2 edition (September 12, 2005). ISBN 0-387-90328-3.

External links
Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001), "Complex number" (http://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=p/ c024140), Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer, ISBN978-1-55608-010-4 Introduction to Complex Numbers from Khan Academy (http://www.khanacademy.org/math/algebra/ complex-numbers) Imaginary Numbers (http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00tt6b2) on In Our Time at the BBC. Euler's work on Complex Roots of Polynomials (http://mathdl.maa.org/convergence/1/?pa=content& sa=viewDocument&nodeId=640&bodyId=1038) at Convergence. MAA Mathematical Sciences Digital Library. John and Betty's Journey Through Complex Numbers (http://mathforum.org/johnandbetty/) Dimensions: a math film. (http://www.dimensions-math.org/Dim_regarder_E.htm) Chapter 5 presents an introduction to complex arithmetic and stereographic projection. Chapter 6 discusses transformations of the complex plane, Julia sets, and the Mandelbrot set.

Natural logarithm

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Natural logarithm
The natural logarithm is the logarithm to the base e, where e is an irrational and transcendental constant approximately equal to 2.718281828. The natural logarithm is generally written as ln x , loge x or sometimes, if the base of e is implicit, as simply log x.[1] Parentheses are sometimes added for clarity, giving ln(x), loge(x) or log(x). This is done in particular when the argument to the logarithm is not a single symbol, in order to prevent ambiguity. The natural logarithm of a number x is the power to which e would have to be raised to equal x. For example, ln(7.389...) is 2, because e2=7.389.... The natural log of e itself (ln(e)) is 1 because e1 = e, while the natural logarithm of 1 (ln(1)) is 0, since e0 = 1. The natural logarithm can be defined for any infinity as x increases and rapidly goes to negative infinity as x approaches 0 positive real number a as the area under the ("slowly" and "rapidly" as compared to any power law of x); the y-axis is an curve y = 1/x from 1 to a. The simplicity of asymptote. this definition, which is matched in many other formulas involving the natural logarithm, leads to the term "natural." The definition can be extended to non-zero complex numbers, as explained below. The natural logarithm function, if considered as a real-valued function of a real variable, is the inverse function of the exponential function, leading to the identities:
Graph of the natural logarithm function. The function slowly grows to positive

Like all logarithms, the natural logarithm maps multiplication into addition:

Thus, the logarithm function is an isomorphism from the group of positive real numbers under multiplication to the group of real numbers under addition, represented as a function:

Logarithms can be defined to any positive base other than 1, not just e; however logarithms in other bases differ only by a constant multiplier from the natural logarithm, and are usually defined in terms of the latter. Logarithms are useful for solving equations in which the unknown appears as the exponent of some other quantity. For example, logarithms are used to solve for the half-life, decay constant, or unknown time in exponential decay problems. They are important in many branches of mathematics and the sciences and are used in finance to solve problems involving compound interest.

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Natural Logarithm Representation Inverse Derivative Indefinite Integral

Part of a series of articles on

The mathematical constant e

Natural logarithm Exponential function Applications in: compound interest Euler's identity & Euler's formula half-lives & exponential growth/decay Defining e: proof that e is irrational representations of e LindemannWeierstrass theorem People John Napier Leonhard Euler Schanuel's conjecture

History
The first mention of the natural logarithm was by Nicholas Mercator in his work Logarithmotechnia published in 1668,[2] although the mathematics teacher John Speidell had already in 1619 compiled a table on the natural logarithm.[3] It was formerly also called hyperbolic logarithm,[4] as it corresponds to the area under a hyperbola. It is also sometimes referred to as the Napierian logarithm, although the original meaning of this term is slightly different.

Notational conventions
The notations "ln x" and "loge x" both refer unambiguously to the natural logarithm of x. "log x" without an explicit base may also refer to the natural logarithm. This usage is common in mathematics and some scientific contexts as well as in many programming languages.[5] "log x" is frequently used to denote the common (base 10) logarithm, however.

Natural logarithm

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Origin of the term natural logarithm

Initially, it might seem that since the common numbering system is base 10, this base would be more "natural" than base e. But mathematically, the number 10 is not particularly significant. Its use culturallyas the basis for many societies numbering systemslikely arises from humans typical number of fingers.[6] Other cultures have based their counting systems on such choices as 5, 8, 12, 20, and 60.[7][8][9] loge is a "natural" log because it automatically springs from, and appears so often in, mathematics. For example, consider the problem of differentiating a logarithmic function:[10]

If the base b equals e, then the derivative is simply 1/x, and at x=1 this derivative equals 1. Another sense in which the base-e-logarithm is the most natural is that it can be defined quite easily in terms of a simple integral or Taylor series and this is not true of other logarithms. Further senses of this naturalness make no use of calculus. As an example, there are a number of simple series involving the natural logarithm. Pietro Mengoli and Nicholas Mercator called it logarithmus naturalis a few decades before Newton and Leibniz developed calculus.[11]

Definitions
Formally, ln(a) may be defined as the integral,

This function is a logarithm because it satisfies the fundamental property of a logarithm:

ln(a) illustrated as the area under the curve f(x) = 1/x from 1 to a. If a is less than 1, the area from a to 1 is counted as negative.

This can be demonstrated by splitting the integral that defines ln(ab) into two parts and then making the variable substitution x = ta in the second part, as follows:

The number e can then be defined as the unique real number a such that ln(a)=1. Alternatively, if the exponential function has been defined first, say by using an infinite series, the natural logarithm may be defined as its inverse function, i.e., ln is that function such that exp(ln(x))=x. Since the range of the exponential function on real arguments is all positive real numbers and since the exponential function is strictly increasing, this is well-defined for all positive x.

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Properties
(see complex logarithm)
Proof The statement is true for , and we now show that for all , which completes the proof by the fundamental

theorem of calculus. Hence, we want to show that

(Note that we have not yet proved that this statement is true.) If this is true, then by multiplying the middle statement by the positive quantity and subtracting we would obtain

This statement is trivially true for less than 1 (recall that for all

since the left hand side is negative or zero. For . This completes the proof.

it is still true since both factors on the left are

). Thus this last statement is true and by repeating our steps in reverse order we find that

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Derivative, Taylor series

The derivative of the natural logarithm is given by

This leads to the Taylor series for ln(1+x) around 0; also known as the Mercator series

(Leonhard Euler[12] nevertheless boldly applied this series to x= -1, in order to show that the harmonic series equals the (natural) logarithm of 1/(1-1), that is the logarithm of infinity. Nowadays, more formally but perhaps less vividly, we prove that the harmonic series truncated at N is close to the logarithm of N, when N is large). At right is a picture of ln(1+x) and some of The Taylor polynomials for ln(1+x) only provide accurate approximations in the its Taylor polynomials around 0. These range 1<x1. Note that, for x>1, the Taylor polynomials of higher degree are approximations converge to the function worse approximations. only in the region 1<x1; outside of this region the higher-degree Taylor polynomials are worse approximations for the function. Substituting x1 for x, we obtain an alternative form for ln(x) itself, namely

[13]

By using the Euler transform on the Mercator series, one obtains the following, which is valid for any x with absolute value greater than 1:

This series is similar to a BBP-type formula. Also note that in for x. is its own inverse function, so to yield the natural logarithm of a certain number y, simply put

Natural logarithm

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The natural logarithm in integration

The natural logarithm allows simple integration of functions of the form g(x) = f'(x)/f(x): an antiderivative of g(x) is given by ln(|f(x)|). This is the case because of the chain rule and the following fact:

In other words,

and

Here is an example in the case of g(x) = tan(x):

Letting f(x) = cos(x) and f'(x)= sin(x):

where C is an arbitrary constant of integration. The natural logarithm can be integrated using integration by parts:

Numerical value
To calculate the numerical value of the natural logarithm of a number, the Taylor series expansion can be rewritten as:

To obtain a better rate of convergence, the following identity can be used.

provided that y = (x1)/(x+1) and x > 0. For ln(x) where x > 1, the closer the value of x is to 1, the faster the rate of convergence. The identities associated with the logarithm can be leveraged to exploit this:

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472

Such techniques were used before calculators, by referring to numerical tables and performing manipulations such as those above.

Natural logarithm of 10
The natural logarithm of 10 ( A002392) plays a role for example in computation of natural logarithms of numbers represented in the scientific notation, a mantissa multiplied by a power of 10:

By this scaling, the algorithm may reduce the logarithm of all positive real numbers to an algorithm for natural logarithms in the range .

High precision
To compute the natural logarithm with many digits of precision, the Taylor series approach is not efficient since the convergence is slow. An alternative is to use Newton's method to invert the exponential function, whose series converges more quickly. An alternative for extremely high precision calculation is the formula[14] [15]

where M denotes the arithmetic-geometric mean of 1 and 4/s, and

with m chosen so that p bits of precision is attained. (For most purposes, the value of 8 for m is sufficient.) In fact, if this method is used, Newton inversion of the natural logarithm may conversely be used to calculate the exponential function efficiently. (The constants ln 2 and can be pre-computed to the desired precision using any of several known quickly converging series.)

Computational complexity
The computational complexity of computing the natural logarithm (using the arithmetic-geometric mean) is O(M(n) ln n). Here n is the number of digits of precision at which the natural logarithm is to be evaluated and M(n) is the computational complexity of multiplying two n-digit numbers.

Continued fractions
While no simple continued fractions are available, several generalized continued fractions are, including:

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Complex logarithms
The exponential function can be extended to a function which gives a complex number as ex for any arbitrary complex number x; simply use the infinite series with x complex. This exponential function can be inverted to form a complex logarithm that exhibits most of the properties of the ordinary logarithm. There are two difficulties involved: no x has ex = 0; and it turns out that e2i = 1 = e0. Since the multiplicative property still works for the complex exponential function, ez = ez+2ni, for all complex z and integers n. So the logarithm cannot be defined for the whole complex plane, and even then it is multi-valued any complex logarithm can be changed into an "equivalent" logarithm by adding any integer multiple of 2i at will. The complex logarithm can only be single-valued on the cut plane. For example, ln i = 1/2 i or 5/2 i or 3/2 i, etc.; and although i4 = 1, 4 log i can be defined as 2i, or 10i or 6 i, and so on.

Plots of the natural logarithm function on the complex plane ([[principal branch]])

z = Re(ln(x+iy))

Superposition of the previous 3 graphs

References
[1] Mortimer, Robert G. (2005). Mathematics for physical chemistry (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=nGoSv5tmATsC) (3rd ed.). Academic Press. p.9. ISBN0-12-508347-5. ., Extract of page 9 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=nGoSv5tmATsC& pg=PA9) [2] J J O'Connor and E F Robertson (2001-09). "The number e" (http:/ / www-history. mcs. st-and. ac. uk/ HistTopics/ e. html). The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive. . Retrieved 2009-02-02. [3] Cajori, Florian (1991). A History of Mathematics, 5th ed (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=mGJRjIC9fZgC& dq="Cajori"+ "A+ History+ of+ Mathematics"+ ). AMS Bookstore. pp.152. ISBN0-8218-2102-4. . [4] Flashman, Martin. "Estimating Integrals using Polynomials" (http:/ / users. humboldt. edu/ flashman/ Presentations/ Estimations. html). . Retrieved 2008-03-23. [5] Including C, C++, SAS, MATLAB, Mathematica, Fortran, and BASIC [6] Boyers, Carl (1968). A History of Mathematics. Wiley. [7] Harris, John (1987). "Australian Aboriginal and Islander mathematics" (http:/ / www1. aiatsis. gov. au/ exhibitions/ e_access/ serial/ m0005975_v_a. pdf) (PDF). Australian Aboriginal Studies 2: 2937. . Retrieved 2008-02-12. [8] Large, J.J. (1902). "The vigesimal system of enumeration" (http:/ / www. jps. auckland. ac. nz/ document/ ?wid=636). Journal of the Polynesian Society 11 (4): 260261. . Retrieved 30 March 2011. [9] Cajori, Florian (1922). "Sexagesimal fractions among the Babylonians". American Mathematical Monthly 29 (1): 810. doi:10.2307/2972914. JSTOR2972914. [10] Larson, Ron (2007). Calculus: An Applied Approach (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=rbDG7V0OV34C) (8th ed.). Cengage Learning. p.331. ISBN0-618-95825-8. ., Section 4.5, page 331 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=rbDG7V0OV34C& pg=PA331) [11] Ballew, Pat. "Math Words, and Some Other Words, of Interest" (http:/ / www. pballew. net/ arithme1. html#ln). . Retrieved 2007-09-16.

Natural logarithm
[12] Leonhard Euler, Introductio in Analysin Infinitorum. Tomus Primus. Bousquet, Lausanne 1748. Exemplum 1, p. 228; quoque in: Opera Omnia, Series Prima, Opera Mathematica, Volumen Octavum, Teubner 1922 [13] "Logarithmic Expansions" at Math2.org (http:/ / www. math2. org/ math/ expansion/ log. htm) [14] Sasaki, T.; Kanada, Y. (1982). "Practically fast multiple-precision evaluation of log(x)" (http:/ / ci. nii. ac. jp/ naid/ 110002673332). Journal of Information Processing 5 (4): 247250. . Retrieved 30 March 2011. [15] Ahrendt, Timm (1999). "Fast Computations of the Exponential Function". Stacs 99. Lecture notes in computer science. 1564. pp.302312. doi:10.1007/3-540-49116-3_28. ISBN978-3-540-65691-3

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External links
Demystifying the Natural Logarithm (ln) | BetterExplained (http://betterexplained.com/articles/ demystifying-the-natural-logarithm-ln/)

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Heptadecagon
Regular heptadecagon

A regular heptadecagon Type Edges and vertices Schlfli symbol CoxeterDynkin diagram Symmetry group Internal angle (degrees) Dual polygon Properties self convex, cyclic, equilateral, isogonal, isotoxal Dihedral (D17), order 217 Regular polygon 17 {17}

In geometry, a heptadecagon (or 17-gon) is a seventeen-sided polygon.

Regular heptadecagon construction

The regular heptadecagon is a constructible polygon (that is, one that can be constructed using a compass and unmarked straightedge), as was shown by Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1796 at the age of 19.[1] This proof represented the first progress in regular polygon construction in over 2000 years.[1] Gauss's proof relies firstly on the fact that constructibility is equivalent to expressibility of the trigonometric functions of the common angle in terms of arithmetic operations and square root extractions, and secondly on his proof that this can be done if the odd prime factors of n are distinct Fermat primes, which are of the form . Constructing a regular heptadecagon thus involves finding the cosine of in terms of square roots, which involves an equation of degree 17a Fermat prime. Gauss' book Disquisitiones Arithmeticae gives this as (in modern notation):

Constructions for the regular triangle, square, pentagon, and polygons with 2h times as many sides had been given by Euclid, but constructions based on the Fermat primes other than 3 and 5 were unknown to the ancients. (The only known Fermat primes are Fn for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4. They are 3, 5, 17, 257, and 65537.) The first explicit construction of a heptadecagon was given by Johannes Erchinger in 1825. Another method of construction uses Carlyle circles, as shown below. Based on the construction of the regular 17-gon, one can readily construct n-gons with n being the product of 17 with 3 or 5 (or both) and any power of 2: a regular 51-gon, 85-gon or 255-gon and any regular n-gon with 2h times as many sides.

Heptadecagon

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Petrie polygons
The regular heptadecagon is the Petrie polygon for one higher-dimensional polytope, projected in a skew orthogonal projection:

16-simplex (16D)

Heptadecagon

477

References
[1] Arthur Jones, Sidney A. Morris, Kenneth R. Pearson, Abstract Algebra and Famous Impossibilities, Springer, 1991, ISBN 0387976612, p. 178. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=6dSIBBW87b8C& pg=PA178)

Further reading
Dunham, William (September 1996). "1996a triple anniversary" (http://mathdl.maa.org/mathDL/22/ ?pa=content&sa=viewDocument&nodeId=3057). Math Horizons: 813. Retrieved 2009-12-06. Klein, Felix et al. Famous Problems and Other Monographs. Describes the algebraic aspect, by Gauss.

External links
Weisstein, Eric W., " Heptadecagon (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Heptadecagon.html)" from MathWorld. Contains a description of the construction. "Constructing the Heptadecagon" (http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath487.htm) at MathPages.com. Heptadecagon trigonometric functions (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/TrigonometryAnglesPi17.html) heptadecagon building (http://www.SolarUK.net) New R&D center for SolarUK BBC video (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/7911406.stm) of New R&D center for SolarUK

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Carl Friedrich Gauss

Carl Friedrich Gauss

Carl Friedrich Gauss (17771855), painted by Christian Albrecht Jensen Born 30 April 1777 Braunschweig, Duchy of Brunswick-Wolfenbttel, Holy Roman Empire 23 February 1855 (aged77) Gttingen, Kingdom of Hanover Kingdom of Hanover German Mathematics and physics University of Gttingen University of Helmstedt Johann Friedrich Pfaff

Died

Residence Nationality Fields Institutions Alma mater Doctoral advisor

Other academicadvisors Johann Christian Martin Bartels Doctoral students Friedrich Bessel Christoph Gudermann Christian Ludwig Gerling Richard Dedekind Johann Encke Johann Listing Bernhard Riemann Christian Peters Moritz Cantor Johann Dirichlet Gotthold Eisenstein Carl Wolfgang Benjamin Goldschmidt Gustav Kirchhoff Ernst Kummer August Ferdinand Mbius L. C. Schnrlein Julius Weisbach See full list

Other notablestudents

Knownfor

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Influenced Notable awards Sophie Germain Copley Medal (1838) Signature

Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss (pron.: /as/; German: Gau, pronounced [as]( listen); Latin: Carolus Fridericus Gauss) (30 April 1777 23 February 1855) was a German mathematician and physical scientist who contributed significantly to many fields, including number theory, statistics, analysis, differential geometry, geodesy, geophysics, electrostatics, astronomy and optics. Sometimes referred to as the Princeps mathematicorum[1] (Latin, "the Prince of Mathematicians" or "the foremost of mathematicians") and "greatest mathematician since antiquity", Gauss had a remarkable influence in many fields of mathematics and science and is ranked as one of history's most influential mathematicians.[2] He referred to mathematics as "the queen of sciences".[3]

Early years (17771798)

Carl Friedrich Gauss was born on 30 April 1777 in Braunschweig (Brunswick), in the Duchy of Braunschweig-Wolfenbttel, now part of Lower Saxony, Germany, as the son of poor working-class parents.[4] Indeed, his mother was illiterate and never recorded the date of his birth, remembering only that he had been born on a Wednesday, eight days before the Feast of the Ascension, which itself occurs 40 days after Easter. Gauss would later solve this puzzle about his birthdate in the context of finding the date of Easter, deriving methods to compute the date in both past and future years.[5] He was christened and confirmed in a church near the school he attended as a child.[6]

Statue of Gauss at his birthplace, Braunschweig

Gauss was a child prodigy. There are many anecdotes about his precocity while a toddler, and he made his first ground-breaking mathematical discoveries while still a teenager. He completed Disquisitiones Arithmeticae, his magnum opus, in 1798 at the age of 21, though it was not published until 1801. This work was fundamental in consolidating number theory as a discipline and has shaped the field to the present day. Gauss's intellectual abilities attracted the attention of the Duke of Braunschweig,[2] who sent him to the Collegium Carolinum (now Technische Universitt Braunschweig), which he attended from 1792 to 1795, and to the University of Gttingen from 1795 to 1798. While at university, Gauss independently rediscovered several important theorems;[7] his breakthrough occurred in 1796 when he showed that any regular polygon with a number of sides which is a Fermat prime (and, consequently, those polygons with any number of sides which is the product of distinct Fermat primes and a power of 2) can be constructed by compass and straightedge. This was a major discovery in an important field of mathematics; construction problems had occupied mathematicians since the days of the Ancient Greeks, and the discovery ultimately led Gauss to choose mathematics instead of philology as a career. Gauss was so pleased by this result that he requested that a regular heptadecagon be inscribed on his tombstone. The stonemason declined, stating that the difficult construction would essentially look like a circle.[8] The year 1796 was most productive for both Gauss and number theory. He discovered a construction of the heptadecagon on 30 March.[9] He further advanced modular arithmetic, greatly simplifying manipulations in number

Carl Friedrich Gauss theory. On 8 April he became the first to prove the quadratic reciprocity law. This remarkably general law allows mathematicians to determine the solvability of any quadratic equation in modular arithmetic. The prime number theorem, conjectured on 31May, gives a good understanding of how the prime numbers are distributed among the integers. Gauss also discovered that every positive integer is representable as a sum of at most three triangular numbers on 10 July and then jotted down in his diary the famous note: "! num=++". On October1 he published a result on the number of solutions of polynomials with coefficients in finite fields, which 150 years later led to the Weil conjectures.

480

Middle years (17991830)

In his 1799 doctorate in absentia, A new proof of the theorem that every integral rational algebraic function of one variable can be resolved into real factors of the first or second degree, Gauss proved the fundamental theorem of algebra which states that every non-constant single-variable polynomial with complex coefficients has at least one complex root. Mathematicians including Jean le Rond d'Alembert had produced false proofs before him, and Gauss's dissertation contains a critique of d'Alembert's work. Ironically, by today's standard, Gauss's own attempt is not acceptable, owing to implicit use of the Jordan curve theorem. However, he subsequently produced three other proofs, the last one in 1849 being generally rigorous. His attempts clarified the concept of complex numbers considerably along the way. Gauss also made important contributions to number theory with his 1801 book Disquisitiones Arithmeticae (Latin, Arithmetical Investigations), which, among things, introduced the symbol for congruence and used it in a clean presentation of modular arithmetic, contained the first two proofs of the law of quadratic reciprocity, developed the theories of binary and ternary quadratic forms, stated the class number problem for them, and showed that a regular heptadecagon (17-sided polygon) can be constructed with straightedge and compass. In that same year, Italian astronomer Giuseppe Piazzi discovered the dwarf planet Ceres. Piazzi could only track Ceres for a few months, following it for three degrees across the night sky. Then it disappeared temporarily behind the glare of the Sun. Several months later, when Ceres should have reappeared, Piazzi could not locate it: the mathematical tools of the time were not able to extrapolate a position from such a scant amount of datathree degrees represent less than 1% of the total orbit. Gauss, who was 23 at the time, heard about the problem and tackled it. After three months of intense work, he predicted a position for Ceres in December 1801just about a year after its first sightingand this turned out to be accurate within a half-degree when it was rediscovered by Franz Xaver von Zach on 31 December at Gotha, and one day later by Heinrich Olbers in Bremen. Gauss's method involved determining a conic section in space, given one focus (the Sun) and the conic's intersection with three given lines (lines of sight from the Earth, which is itself moving on an ellipse, to the planet) and given the time it takes the planet to traverse the arcs Title page of Gauss's Disquisitiones Arithmeticae determined by these lines (from which the lengths of the arcs can be calculated by Kepler's Second Law). This problem leads to an equation of the eighth degree, of which one solution, the Earth's orbit, is known. The solution sought is then separated from the remaining six based on physical conditions. In this work Gauss used comprehensive approximation methods which he created for that purpose.[10]

Carl Friedrich Gauss One such method was the fast Fourier transform. While this method is traditionally attributed to a 1965 paper by J. W. Cooley and J. W. Tukey, Gauss developed it as a trigonometric interpolation method. His paper, Theoria Interpolationis Methodo Nova Tractata [11], was only published posthumously in Volume 3 of his collected works. This paper predates the first presentation by Joseph Fourier on the subject in 1807.[12] Zach noted that "without the intelligent work and calculations of Doctor Gauss we might not have found Ceres again". Though Gauss had up to that point been financially supported by his stipend from the Duke, he doubted the security of this arrangement, and also did not believe pure mathematics to be important enough to deserve support. Thus he sought a position in astronomy, and in 1807 was appointed Professor of Astronomy and Director of the astronomical observatory in Gttingen, a post he held for the remainder of his life. The discovery of Ceres led Gauss to his work on a theory of the motion of planetoids disturbed by large planets, eventually published in 1809 as Theoria motus corporum coelestium in sectionibus conicis solem ambientum (Theory of motion of the celestial bodies moving in conic sections around the Sun). In the process, he so streamlined the cumbersome mathematics of 18th century orbital prediction that his work remains a cornerstone of astronomical computation. It introduced the Gaussian gravitational constant, and contained an influential treatment of the method of least squares, a procedure used in all sciences to this day to minimize the impact of measurement error. Gauss proved the method under the assumption of normally distributed errors (see GaussMarkov theorem; see also Gaussian). The method had been described earlier by Adrien-Marie Legendre in 1805, but Gauss claimed that he had been using it since 1795. In 1818 Gauss, putting his calculation skills to practical use, carried out a geodesic survey of the Kingdom of Hanover, linking up with previous Danish surveys. To aid the survey, Gauss invented the heliotrope, an instrument that uses a mirror to reflect sunlight over great distances, to measure positions. Gauss also claimed to have discovered the possibility of non-Euclidean geometries but never published it. This discovery was a major paradigm shift in mathematics, as it freed mathematicians from the mistaken belief that Euclid's axioms were the only way to make geometry consistent and non-contradictory. Research on these geometries led to, among other things, Einstein's theory of general relativity, which describes the universe as non-Euclidean. His friend Farkas Wolfgang Bolyai with whom Gauss had sworn "brotherhood Gauss' portrait published in Astronomische and the banner of truth" as a student, had tried in vain for many years Nachrichten 1828 to prove the parallel postulate from Euclid's other axioms of geometry. Bolyai's son, Jnos Bolyai, discovered non-Euclidean geometry in 1829; his work was published in 1832. After seeing it, Gauss wrote to Farkas Bolyai: "To praise it would amount to praising myself. For the entire content of the work... coincides almost exactly with my own meditations which have occupied my mind for the past thirty or thirty-five years."

481

Carl Friedrich Gauss

482 This unproved statement put a strain on his relationship with Jnos Bolyai (who thought that Gauss was "stealing" his idea), but it is now generally taken at face value. Letters from Gauss years before 1829 reveal him obscurely discussing the problem of parallel lines. Waldo Dunnington, a biographer of Gauss, argues in Gauss, Titan of Science that Gauss was in fact in full possession of non-Euclidean geometry long before it was published by Jnos Bolyai, but that he refused to publish any of it because of his fear of controversy.

The survey of Hanover fueled Gauss's interest in differential geometry, a field of mathematics dealing with curves and surfaces. Among other things he came up with the notion of Gaussian curvature. This led in 1828 to an important theorem, the Theorema Egregium (remarkable theorem), establishing an important property of the notion of curvature. Informally, the theorem says that the curvature of a surface can be determined entirely by measuring angles and distances on the surface. That is, curvature does not depend on how the surface might be embedded in 3-dimensional space or 2-dimensional space.
Four Gaussian distributions in statistics

In 1821, he was made a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.

Later years and death (18311855)

In 1831 Gauss developed a fruitful collaboration with the physics professor Wilhelm Weber, leading to new knowledge in magnetism (including finding a representation for the unit of magnetism in terms of mass, length and time) and the discovery of Kirchhoff's circuit laws in electricity. It was during this time that he formulated his namesake law. They constructed the first electromechanical telegraph in 1833, which connected the observatory with the institute for physics in Gttingen. Gauss ordered a magnetic observatory to be built in the garden of the observatory, and with Weber founded the "Magnetischer Verein" (magnetic club in German), which supported measurements of Earth's magnetic field in many regions of the world. He developed a method of measuring the horizontal intensity of the magnetic field which was in use well into the second half of the 20th century, and worked out the mathematical theory for separating the inner and outer (magnetospheric) sources of Earth's magnetic field. In 1840, Gauss published his influential Dioptrische [13] Untersuchungen, in which he gave the first systematic analysis on the formation of images under a paraxial approximation (Gaussian optics).[14] Among his results, Gauss showed that under a paraxial approximation an optical system can be characterized by its cardinal points[15] and he derived the Gaussian lens formula.[16]

Daguerreotype of Gauss on his deathbed, 1855.

Grave of Gauss at Albanifriedhof in Gttingen, Germany.

In 1854, Gauss notably selected the topic for Bernhard Riemann's now famous Habilitationvortrag, ber die Hypothesen, welche der Geometrie zu Grunde liegen.[17] On the way home from Riemann's lecture, Weber reported that Gauss was full of praise and excitement.[13] Gauss died in Gttingen, in the Kingdom of Hannover (now part of Lower Saxony, Germany) in 1855 and is interred in the Albanifriedhof cemetery there. Two individuals gave eulogies at his funeral: Gauss's son-in-law Heinrich

Carl Friedrich Gauss Ewald and Wolfgang Sartorius von Waltershausen, who was Gauss's close friend and biographer. His brain was preserved and was studied by Rudolf Wagner who found its mass to be 1,492grams and the cerebral area equal to 219,588 square millimeters[18] (340.362 square inches). Highly developed convolutions were also found, which in the early 20th century was suggested as the explanation of his genius.[2]

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Religion
Bhler writes that, according to correspondence with Rudolf Wagner, Gauss did not appear to believe in a personal god.[19] He was said to be a deist.[20] He further asserts that although Gauss firmly believed in the immortality of the soul and in some sort of life after death, it was not in a fashion that could be interpreted as Christian.[19][21][22][23] According to Dunnington, Gauss's religion was based upon the search for truth. He believed in "the immortality of the spiritual individuality, in a personal permanence after death, in a last order of things, in an eternal, righteous, omniscient and omnipotent God". Gauss also upheld religious tolerance, believing it wrong to disturb others who were at peace with their own beliefs.[2]

Family
Gauss's personal life was overshadowed by the early death of his first wife, Johanna Osthoff, in 1809, soon followed by the death of one child, Louis. Gauss plunged into a depression from which he never fully recovered. He married again, to Johanna's best friend named Friederica Wilhelmine Waldeck but commonly known as Minna. When his second wife died in 1831 after a long illness,[24] one of his daughters, Therese, took over the household and cared for Gauss until the end of his life. His mother lived in his house from 1817 until her death in 1839.[2] Gauss had six children. With Johanna (17801809), his children were Joseph (18061873), Wilhelmina (18081846) and Louis (18091810). Of all of Gauss's children, Wilhelmina was said to have come closest to his talent, but she died young. With Minna Waldeck he also had three children: Eugene (18111896), Wilhelm (18131879) and Therese (18161864). Eugene shared a good measure of Gauss' talent in languages and computation.[25] Therese kept house for Gauss until his death, after which she married.

Gauss' daughter Therese (18161864)

Gauss eventually had conflicts with his sons. He did not want any of his sons to enter mathematics or science for "fear of lowering the family name".[25] Gauss wanted Eugene to become a lawyer, but Eugene wanted to study languages. They had an argument over a party Eugene held, which Gauss refused to pay for. The son left in anger and, in about 1832, emigrated to the United States, where he was quite successful. Wilhelm also settled in Missouri, starting as a farmer and later becoming wealthy in the shoe business in St. Louis. It took many years for Eugene's success to counteract his reputation among Gauss's friends and colleagues. See also the letter from Robert Gauss to Felix Klein on 3 September 1912.

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Personality
Gauss was an ardent perfectionist and a hard worker. He was never a prolific writer, refusing to publish work which he did not consider complete and above criticism. This was in keeping with his personal motto pauca sed matura ("few, but ripe"). His personal diaries indicate that he had made several important mathematical discoveries years or decades before his contemporaries published them. Mathematical historian Eric Temple Bell estimated that, had Gauss published all of his discoveries in a timely manner, he would have advanced mathematics by fifty years.[26] Though he did take in a few students, Gauss was known to dislike teaching. It is said that he attended only a single scientific conference, which was in Berlin in 1828. However, several of his students became influential mathematicians, among them Richard Dedekind, Bernhard Riemann, and Friedrich Bessel. Before she died, Sophie Germain was recommended by Gauss to receive her honorary degree. Gauss usually declined to present the intuition behind his often very elegant proofshe preferred them to appear "out of thin air" and erased all traces of how he discovered them. This is justified, if unsatisfactorily, by Gauss in his "Disquisitiones Arithmeticae", where he states that all analysis (i.e., the paths one travelled to reach the solution of a problem) must be suppressed for sake of brevity. Gauss supported monarchy and opposed Napoleon, whom he saw as an outgrowth of revolution.

Anecdotes
There are several stories of his early genius. According to one, his gifts became very apparent at the age of three when he corrected, mentally and without fault in his calculations, an error his father had made on paper while calculating finances. Another famous story has it that in primary school after the young Gauss misbehaved, his teacher, J.G. Bttner, gave him a task : add a list of integers in arithmetic progression; as the story is most often told, these were the numbers from 1 to 100. The young Gauss reputedly produced the correct answer within seconds, to the astonishment of his teacher and his assistant Martin Bartels. Gauss's presumed method was to realize that pairwise addition of terms from opposite ends of the list yielded identical intermediate sums: 1+100=101, 2+99=101, 3+98=101, and so on, for a total sum of 50101=5050. However, the details of the story are at best uncertain (see[27] for discussion of the original Wolfgang Sartorius von Waltershausen source and the changes in other versions); some authors, such as Joseph Rotman in his book A first course in Abstract Algebra, question whether it ever happened. According to Isaac Asimov, Gauss was once interrupted in the middle of a problem and told that his wife was dying. He is purported to have said, "Tell her to wait a moment till I'm done."[28] This anecdote is briefly discussed in G. Waldo Dunnington's Gauss, Titan of Science where it is suggested that it is an apocryphal story.

Commemorations
From 1989 through 2001, Gauss's portrait, a normal distribution curve and some prominent Gttingen buildings were featured on the German ten-mark banknote. The reverse featured the heliotrope and a triangulation approach for Hannover. Germany has also issued three postage stamps honoring Gauss. One (no. 725) appeared in 1955 on the hundredth anniversary of his death; two others, nos. 1246 and 1811, in 1977, the 200th anniversary of his birth.

German 10-Deutsche Mark banknote (1993; discontinued) featuring Gauss

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Daniel Kehlmann's 2005 novel Die Vermessung der Welt, translated into English as Measuring the World (2006), explores Gauss's life and work through a lens of historical fiction, contrasting them with those of the German explorer Alexander von Humboldt. In 2007 a bust of Gauss was placed in the Walhalla temple.[29] Things named in honor of Gauss include: Degaussing, the process of eliminating a magnetic field. The CGS unit for magnetic field was named gauss in his honour, The crater Gauss on the Moon,[30] Asteroid 1001 Gaussia, The ship Gauss, used in the Gauss expedition to the Antarctic, Gaussberg, an extinct volcano discovered by the above mentioned expedition, Gauss Tower, an observation tower in Dransfeld, Germany, In Canadian junior high schools, an annual national mathematics competition (Gauss Mathematics Competition) administered by the Centre for Education in Mathematics and Computing is named in honour of Gauss, In University of California, Santa Cruz, in Crown College, a dormitory building is named after him, The Gauss Haus, an NMR center at the University of Utah, The Carl-Friedrich-Gau School for Mathematics, Computer Science, Business Administration, Economics, and Social Sciences of University of Braunschweig, The Gauss Building - University of Idaho (College of Engineering). In 1929 the Polish mathematician Marian Rejewski, who would solve the German Enigma cipher machine in December 1932, began studying actuarial statistics at Gttingen. At the request of his Pozna University professor, Zdzisaw Krygowski, on arriving at Gttingen Rejewski laid flowers on Gauss's grave.[31]
Gauss (aged about 26) on East German stamp produced in 1977. Next to him: heptadecagon, compass and straightedge.

Writings
1799: Doctoral dissertation on the Fundamental theorem of algebra, with the title: Demonstratio nova theorematis omnem functionem algebraicam rationalem integram unius variabilis in factores reales primi vel secundi gradus resolvi posse ("New proof of the theorem that every integral algebraic function of one variable can be resolved into real factors (i.e., polynomials) of the first or second degree") 1801: Disquisitiones Arithmeticae [32]. German translation by H. Maser Untersuchungen ber hhere Arithmetik (Disquisitiones Arithmeticae & other papers on number theory) (Second edition). New York: Chelsea. 1965. ISBN0-8284-0191-8, pp.1453. English translation by Arthur A. Clarke Disquisitiones Arithemeticae (Second, corrected edition). New York: Springer. 1986. ISBN0-387-96254-9. 1808: Theorematis arithmetici demonstratio nova. Gttingen: Comment. Soc. regiae sci, Gttingen XVI. German translation by H. Maser Untersuchungen ber hhere Arithmetik (Disquisitiones Arithmeticae & other papers on number theory) (Second edition). New York: Chelsea. 1965. ISBN0-8284-0191-8, pp.457462 [Introduces Gauss's lemma, uses it in the third proof of quadratic reciprocity] 1809: Theoria Motus Corporum Coelestium in sectionibus conicis solem ambientium [33] (Theorie der Bewegung der Himmelskrper, die die Sonne in Kegelschnitten umkreisen), English translation by C. H. Davis, reprinted 1963, Dover, New York. 1811: Summatio serierun quarundam singularium. Gttingen: Comment. Soc. regiae sci, Gttingen. German translation by H. Maser Untersuchungen ber hhere Arithmetik (Disquisitiones Arithmeticae & other papers on number theory) (Second edition). New York: Chelsea. 1965. ISBN0-8284-0191-8, pp.463495 [Determination of the sign of the quadratic Gauss sum, uses this to give the fourth proof of quadratic reciprocity]

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1812: Disquisitiones Generales Circa Seriem Infinitam 1818: Theorematis fundamentallis in doctrina de residuis quadraticis demonstrationes et amplicationes novae. Gttingen: Comment. Soc. regiae sci, Gttingen. German translation by H. Maser Untersuchungen ber hhere Arithmetik (Disquisitiones Arithmeticae & other papers on number theory) (Second edition). New York: Chelsea. 1965. ISBN0-8284-0191-8, pp.496510 [Fifth and sixth proofs of quadratic reciprocity] 1821, 1823 and 1826: Theoria combinationis observationum erroribus minimis obnoxiae. Drei Abhandlungen betreffend die Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechnung als Grundlage des Gau'schen Fehlerfortpflanzungsgesetzes. (Three essays concerning the calculation of probabilities as the basis of the Gaussian law of error propagation) English translation by G. W. Stewart, 1987, Society for Industrial Mathematics. 1827: Disquisitiones generales circa superficies curvas [34], Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingesis Recentiores. Volume VI, pp.99146. "General Investigations of Curved Surfaces [35]" (published 1965) Raven Press, New York, translated by A.M.Hiltebeitel and J.C.Morehead. 1828: Theoria residuorum biquadraticorum, Commentatio prima. Gttingen: Comment. Soc. regiae sci, Gttingen 6. German translation by H. Maser Untersuchungen ber hhere Arithmetik (Disquisitiones Arithmeticae & other papers on number theory) (Second edition). New York: Chelsea. 1965. ISBN0-8284-0191-8, pp.511533 [Elementary facts about biquadratic residues, proves one of the supplements of the law of biquadratic reciprocity (the biquadratic character of 2)] 1832: Theoria residuorum biquadraticorum, Commentatio secunda. Gttingen: Comment. Soc. regiae sci, Gttingen 7. German translation by H. Maser Untersuchungen ber hhere Arithmetik (Disquisitiones Arithmeticae & other papers on number theory) (Second edition). New York: Chelsea. 1965. ISBN0-8284-0191-8, pp.534586 [Introduces the Gaussian integers, states (without proof) the law of biquadratic reciprocity, proves the supplementary law for 1 + i] 1843/44: Untersuchungen ber Gegenstnde der Hheren Geodsie. Erste Abhandlung [36], Abhandlungen der Kniglichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften in Gttingen. Zweiter Band [37], pp.346 1846/47: Untersuchungen ber Gegenstnde der Hheren Geodsie. Zweite Abhandlung [38], Abhandlungen der Kniglichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften in Gttingen. Dritter Band [39], pp.344 Mathematisches Tagebuch 17961814, Ostwaldts Klassiker, Harri Deutsch Verlag 2005, mit Anmerkungen von Neumamn, ISBN 978-3-8171-3402-1 (English translation with annotations by Jeremy Gray: Expositiones Math. 1984) Gauss' collective works are online here [40] This includes German translations of Latin texts and commentaries by various authorities

Notes
[1] Zeidler, Eberhard (2004). Oxford User's Guide to Mathematics. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p.1188. ISBN0-19-850763-1. [2] Dunnington, G. Waldo. (May, 1927). " The Sesquicentennial of the Birth of Gauss (http:/ / www. mathsong. com/ cfgauss/ Dunnington/ 1927/ )". Scientific Monthly XXIV: 402414. Retrieved on 29 June 2005. Comprehensive biographical article. [3] Quoted in Waltershausen, Wolfgang Sartorius von (1856, repr. 1965). Gauss zum Gedchtniss. Sndig Reprint Verlag H. R. Wohlwend. ISBN 3-253-01702-8. ISSN B0000BN5SQ ASIN: B0000BN5SQ. [4] "Carl Friedrich Gauss" (http:/ / www. math. wichita. edu/ history/ men/ gauss. html). Wichita State University. . [5] "Gauss Birthday Problem" (http:/ / american_almanac. tripod. com/ gauss. htm). . [6] Susan Chambless (2000-03-11). "Letter:WORTHINGTON, Helen to Carl F. Gauss - 1911-07-26" (http:/ / www. gausschildren. org/ genwiki/ index. php?title=Letter:WORTHINGTON,_Helen_to_Carl_F. _Gauss_-_1911-07-26). Susan D. Chambless. . Retrieved 2011-09-14. [7] O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Carl Friedrich Gauss" (http:/ / www-history. mcs. st-andrews. ac. uk/ Biographies/ Gauss. html), MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews, . [8] Pappas, Theoni: Mathematical Snippets, Page 42. Pgw 2008 [9] Carl Friedrich Gauss 365366 in Disquisitiones Arithmeticae. Leipzig, Germany, 1801. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1965. [10] Klein, Felix; Hermann, Robert (1979). Development of mathematics in the 19th century. Math Sci Press. ISBN978-0-915692-28-6.

Carl Friedrich Gauss

[11] http:/ / lseet. univ-tln. fr/ ~iaroslav/ Gauss_Theoria_interpolationis_methodo_nova_tractata. php [12] Heideman, M.; Johnson, D., Burrus, C. (1984). "Gauss and the history of the fast fourier transform". IEEE ASSP Magazine 1 (4): 1421. doi:10.1109/MASSP.1984.1162257. [13] Bhler, Walter Kaufmann (1987). Gauss: a biographical study. Springer-Verlag. pp.144145. ISBN0-387-10662-6. [14] Hecht, Eugene (1987). Optics. Addison Wesley. p.134. ISBN0-201-11609-X. [15] Bass, Michael; DeCusatis, Casimer; Enoch, Jay; Lakshminarayanan, Vasudevan (2009). Handbook of Optics. McGraw Hill Professional. p.17.7. ISBN0-07-149889-3. [16] Ostdiek, Vern J.; Bord, Donald J. (2007). Inquiry Into Physics. Cengage Learning. p.381. ISBN0-495-11943-1. [17] Monastyrsky, Michael (1987). Riemann, Topology, and Physics. Birkhuser. pp.2122. ISBN0-8176-3262-X. [18] This reference from 1891 (Donaldson, Henry H. (1891). "Anatomical Observations on the Brain and Several Sense-Organs of the Blind Deaf-Mute, Laura Dewey Bridgman". The American Journal of Psychology (E. C. Sanford) 4 (2): 248294. doi:10.2307/1411270. JSTOR1411270.) says: "Gauss, 1492 grm. 957 grm. 219588. sq. mm."; i.e. the unit is square mm. In the later reference: Dunnington (1927), the unit is erroneously reported as square cm, which gives an unreasonably large area; the 1891 reference is more reliable. [19] Bhler, Walter Kaufmann (1987). Gauss: a biographical study. Springer-Verlag. p.153. ISBN0-387-10662-6. [20] Gerhard Falk (1995). American Judaism in Transition: The Secularization of a Religious Community. University Press of America. p.121. ISBN9780761800163. "Evidently, Gauss was a Deist with a good deal of skepticism concerning religion but incorporating a great deal of philosophical interests in the Big Questions, that is. the immortality of the soul, the afterlife and the meaning of man's existence." [21] "Gauss, Carl Friedrich" (http:/ / www. encyclopedia. com/ topic/ Carl_Friedrich_Gauss. aspx). Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 2008. . Retrieved 29 July 2012. "In seeming contradiction, his religious and philosophical views leaned toward those of his political opponents. He was an uncompromising believer in the priority of empiricism in science. He did not adhere to the views of Kant, Hegel and other idealist philosophers of the day. He was not a churchman and kept his religious views to himself. Moral rectitude and the advancement of scientific knowledge were his avowed principles." [22] Carl Friedrich Gauss: Titan of Science. MAA. 2004. p.300. ISBN9780883855478. "Gauss' religious consciousness was based on an insatiable thirst for truth and a deep feeling of justice extending to intellectual as well as material goods. He conceived spiritual life in the whole universe as a great system of law penetrated by eternal truth, and from this source he gained the firm confidence that death does not end all." [23] Morris Kline (1982). Mathematics: The Loss of Certainty. Oxford University Press. p.73. ISBN9780195030853. [24] "Gauss biography" (http:/ / www-groups. dcs. st-and. ac. uk/ ~history/ Biographies/ Gauss. html). Groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk. . Retrieved 2008-09-01. [25] "Letter:GAUSS, Charles Henry to Florian Cajori - 1898-12-21" (http:/ / www. gausschildren. org/ genwiki/ index. php?title=Letter:GAUSS,_Charles_Henry_to_Florian_Cajori_-_1898-12-21). Susan D. Chambless. 2000-03-11. . Retrieved 2011-09-14. [26] Bell, E. T. (2009). "Ch. 14: The Prince of Mathematicians: Gauss". Men of Mathematics: The Lives and Achievements of the Great Mathematicians from Zeno to Poincar. New York: Simon and Schuster. pp.218269. ISBN0-671-46400-0. [27] Brian Hayes (14 November 2009). "Gauss's Day of Reckoning " (http:/ / www. americanscientist. org/ issues/ pub/ gausss-day-of-reckoning/ 2). American Scientist. doi:10.1511/2006.3.200. . Retrieved 30 October 2012. [28] Asimov, I. (1972). Biographical Encyclopedia of Science and Technology; the Lives and Achievements of 1195 Great Scientists from Ancient Times to the Present, Chronologically Arranged.. New York: Doubleday. [29] "Bayerisches Staatsministerium fr Wissenschaft, Forschung und Kunst: Startseite" (http:/ / www. stmwfk. bayern. de/ downloads/ aviso/ 2004_1_aviso_48-49. pdf). Stmwfk.bayern.de. . Retrieved 2009-07-19. [30] Andersson, L. E.; Whitaker, E. A., (1982). NASA Catalogue of Lunar Nomenclature. NASA RP-1097. [31] Wadysaw Kozaczuk, Enigma: How the German Machine Cipher Was Broken, and How It Was Read by the Allies in World War Two, Frederick, Maryland, University Publications of America, 1984, p. 7, note 6. [32] http:/ / resolver. sub. uni-goettingen. de/ purl?PPN235993352 [33] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ORUOAAAAQAAJ& dq=Theoria+ Motus+ Corporum+ Coelestium+ in+ sectionibus+ conicis+ solem+ ambientium& cad=0 [34] http:/ / www-gdz. sub. uni-goettingen. de/ cgi-bin/ digbib. cgi?PPN35283028X_0006_2NS [35] http:/ / quod. lib. umich. edu/ cgi/ t/ text/ text-idx?c=umhistmath;idno=ABR1255 [36] http:/ / dz-srv1. sub. uni-goettingen. de/ contentserver/ contentserver?command=docconvert& docid=D39018 [37] http:/ / www-gdz. sub. uni-goettingen. de/ cgi-bin/ digbib. cgi?PPN250442582_0002 [38] http:/ / dz-srv1. sub. uni-goettingen. de/ contentserver/ contentserver?command=docconvert& docid=D39036 [39] http:/ / www-gdz. sub. uni-goettingen. de/ cgi-bin/ digbib. cgi?PPN250442582_0003 [40] http:/ / dz-srv1. sub. uni-goettingen. de/ cache/ toc/ D38910. html

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Carl Friedrich Gauss

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Further reading
Dunnington, G. Waldo. (2003). Carl Friedrich Gauss: Titan of Science. The Mathematical Association of America. ISBN0-88385-547-X. OCLC53933110. Gauss, Carl Friedrich (1965). Disquisitiones Arithmeticae. tr. Arthur A. Clarke. Yale University Press. ISBN0-300-09473-6. Hall, Tord (1970). Carl Friedrich Gauss: A Biography. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN0-262-08040-0. OCLC185662235. Kehlmann, Daniel (2005). Die Vermessung der Welt. Rowohlt. ISBN3-498-03528-2. OCLC144590801. Sartorius von Waltershausen, Wolfgang (1966). Gauss: A Memorial (http://www.archive.org/details/ gauss00waltgoog). Simmons, J. (1996). The Giant Book of Scientists: The 100 Greatest Minds of All Time. Sydney: The Book Company. Tent, Margaret (2006). The Prince of Mathematics: Carl Friedrich Gauss. A K Peters. ISBN1-56881-455-0.

External links
Carl Friedrich Gauss (http://planetmath.org/?op=getobj&amp;from=objects&amp;id=5594), PlanetMath.org. Complete works (http://www-gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/cgi-bin/digbib.cgi?PPN235957348) Works by or about Carl Friedrich Gauss (http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n79-38533) in libraries (WorldCat catalog) Gauss and his children (http://www.gausschildren.org) Gauss biography (http://www.corrosion-doctors.org/Biographies/GaussBio.htm) Carl Friedrich Gauss (http://genealogy.math.ndsu.nodak.edu/id.php?id=18231) at the Mathematics Genealogy Project Carl Friedrich Gauss (http://fermatslasttheorem.blogspot.com/2005/06/carl-friedrich-gauss.html), Biography at Fermat's Last Theorem Blog. Gauss: mathematician of the millennium (http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/gauss.html), by Jrgen Schmidhuber English translation of Waltershausen's 1862 biography (http://books.google.com/books?id=yh0PAAAAIAAJ) Gauss (http://www.gauss.info) general website on Gauss MNRAS 16 (1856) 80 (http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/MNRAS/0016//0000080.000.html) Obituary Carl Friedrich Gauss on the 10 Deutsche Mark banknote (http://www-personal.umich.edu/~jbourj/money1. htm) O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Carl Friedrich Gauss" (http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/ Biographies/Gauss.html), MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews. Carl Friedrich Gauss at Wikiquote "Carl Friedrich Gauss" (http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00ss0lf) in the series A Brief History of Mathematics on BBC 4

Arithmetic progression

489

Arithmetic progression
In mathematics, an arithmetic progression (AP) or arithmetic sequence is a sequence of numbers such that the difference between the consecutive terms is constant. For instance, the sequence 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, is an arithmetic progression with common difference of 2. If the initial term of an arithmetic progression is nth term of the sequence ( ) is given by: and the common difference of successive members is d, then the

and in general

A finite portion of an arithmetic progression is called a finite arithmetic progression and sometimes just called an arithmetic progression. The sum of a finite arithmetic progression is called an arithmetic series. The behavior of the arithmetic progression depends on the common difference d. If the common difference is: Positive, the members (terms) will grow towards positive infinity. Negative, the members (terms) will grow towards negative infinity.

Sum
The sum of the members of a finite arithmetic progression is called an arithmetic series. Expressing the arithmetic series in two different ways:

Adding both sides of the two equations, all terms involving d cancel:

Dividing both sides by 2 produces a common form of the equation:

An alternate form results from re-inserting the substitution:

In 499 AD Aryabhata, a prominent mathematician-astronomer from the classical age of Indian mathematics and Indian astronomy, gave this method in the Aryabhatiya (section 2.18).[1] So, for example, the sum of the terms of the arithmetic progression given by an = 3 + (n-1)(5) up to the 50th term is

Arithmetic progression

490

Product
The product of the members of a finite arithmetic progression with an initial element a1, common differences d, and n elements in total is determined in a closed expression

where

denotes the rising factorial and

denotes the Gamma function. (Note however that the formula is not is given by the factorial

valid when

is a negative integer or zero.)

This is a generalization from the fact that the product of the progression and that the product

for positive integers

and

is given by

Taking the example from above, the product of the terms of the arithmetic progression given by an = 3 + (n-1)(5) up to the 50th term is

References
[1] Aryabhatiya (http:/ / www. flipkart. com/ aryabhatiya-mohan-apte-book-8174344802) Marathi: , Mohan Apte, Pune, India, Rajhans Publications, 2009, p.95, ISBN 978-81-7434-480-9

Sigler, Laurence E. (trans.) (2002). Fibonacci's Liber Abaci. Springer-Verlag. pp.259260. ISBN0-387-95419-8.

External links
Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001), "Arithmetic series" (http://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=p/ a013370), Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer, ISBN978-1-55608-010-4 Weisstein, Eric W., " Arithmetic progression (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ArithmeticProgression.html)" from MathWorld. Weisstein, Eric W., " Arithmetic series (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ArithmeticSeries.html)" from MathWorld.

Geometric progression

491

Geometric progression
In mathematics, a geometric progression, also known as a geometric sequence, is a sequence of numbers where each term after the first is found by multiplying the previous one by a fixed non-zero number called the common ratio. For example, the sequence 2, 6, 18, 54, ... is a geometric progression with common ratio 3. Similarly 10, 5, 2.5, 1.25, ... is a geometric sequence with common ratio 1/2. The sum of the terms of a geometric progression, or of an initial segment of a geometric progression, is known as a geometric series. Thus, the general form of a geometric sequence is
Diagram illustrating three basic geometric sequences of the pattern 1(rn-1) up to 6 iterations deep. The first block is a unit block and the dashed line represents the infinite sum of the sequence, a number that it will forever approach but never touch: , , and , respectively.

and that of a geometric series is

where r 0 is the common ratio and a is a scale factor, equal to the sequence's start value.

Elementary properties
The n-th term of a geometric sequence with initial value a and common ratio r is given by

Such a geometric sequence also follows the recursive relation for every integer Generally, to check whether a given sequence is geometric, one simply checks whether successive entries in the sequence all have the same ratio. The common ratio of a geometric series may be negative, resulting in an alternating sequence, with numbers switching from positive to negative and back. For instance 1, 3, 9, 27, 81, 243, ... is a geometric sequence with common ratio 3. The behaviour of a geometric sequence depends on the value of the common ratio. If the common ratio is: Positive, the terms will all be the same sign as the initial term. Negative, the terms will alternate between positive and negative. Greater than 1, there will be exponential growth towards positive infinity. 1, the progression is a constant sequence. Between 1 and 1 but not zero, there will be exponential decay towards zero.

1, the progression is an alternating sequence (see alternating series)

Geometric progression Less than 1, for the absolute values there is exponential growth towards positive and negative infinity (due to the alternating sign). Geometric sequences (with common ratio not equal to 1,1 or 0) show exponential growth or exponential decay, as opposed to the Linear growth (or decline) of an arithmetic progression such as 4, 15, 26, 37, 48, (with common difference 11). This result was taken by T.R. Malthus as the mathematical foundation of his Principle of Population. Note that the two kinds of progression are related: exponentiating each term of an arithmetic progression yields a geometric progression, while taking the logarithm of each term in a geometric progression with a positive common ratio yields an arithmetic progression. An interesting result of the definition of a geometric progression is that for any value of the common ratio, any three consecutive terms a, b and c will satisfy the following equation:

492

Geometric series
A geometric series is the sum of the numbers in a geometric progression:

We can find a simpler formula for this sum by multiplying both sides of the above equation by 1 r, and we'll see that

since all the other terms cancel. If r 1, we can rearrange the above to get the convenient formula for a geometric series:

If one were to begin the sum not from k=0, but from a higher term, say m, then

Differentiating this formula with respect to r allows us to arrive at formulae for sums of the form

For example:

For a geometric series containing only even powers of r multiply by 1 r2 :

Then

Geometric progression Equivalently, take r2 as the common ratio and use the standard formulation. For a series with only odd powers of r

493

and

Infinite geometric series

An infinite geometric series is an infinite series whose successive terms have a common ratio. Such a series converges if and only if the absolute value of the common ratio is less than one (|r|<1). Its value can then be computed from the finite sum formulae

Since:

Then:

For a series containing only even powers of ,

and for odd powers only,

Diagram showing the geometric series 1 + 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + ... which converges to 2.

In cases where the sum does not start at k = 0,

The formulae given above are valid only for |r|<1. The latter formula is valid in every Banach algebra, as long as the norm of r is less than one, and also in the field of p-adic numbers if |r|p<1. As in the case for a finite sum, we can differentiate to calculate formulae for related sums. For example,

This formula only works for |r|<1 as well. From this, it follows that, for |r|<1,

Also, the infinite series 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + 1/16 + is an elementary example of a series that converges absolutely. It is a geometric series whose first term is 1/2 and whose common ratio is 1/2, so its sum is

Geometric progression The inverse of the above series is 1/2 1/4 + 1/8 1/16 + is a simple example of an alternating series that converges absolutely. It is a geometric series whose first term is 1/2 and whose common ratio is 1/2, so its sum is

494

Complex numbers
The summation formula for geometric series remains valid even when the common ratio is a complex number. In this case the condition that the absolute value of r be less than 1 becomes that the modulus of r be less than 1. It is possible to calculate the sums of some non-obvious geometric series. For example, consider the proposition

The proof of this comes from the fact that

which is a consequence of Euler's formula. Substituting this into the original series gives . This is the difference of two geometric series, and so it is a straightforward application of the formula for infinite geometric series that completes the proof.

Product
The product of a geometric progression is the product of all terms. If all terms are positive, then it can be quickly computed by taking the geometric mean of the progression's first and last term, and raising that mean to the power given by the number of terms. (This is very similar to the formula for the sum of terms of an arithmetic sequence: take the arithmetic mean of the first and last term and multiply with the number of terms.) (if Proof: Let the product be represented by P: . Now, carrying out the multiplications, we conclude that . Applying the sum of arithmetic series, the expression will yield . . We raise both sides to the second power: . Consequently and , ).

Geometric progression which concludes the proof.

495

Relationship to geometry and Euclid's work

Books VIII and IX of Euclid's Elements analyze geometric progressions and give several of their properties. A geometric progression is given this name because each term is the geometric mean of the two adjacent terms.

Elements, Book IX
The geometric progression 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, (or, in the binary numeral system, 1, 10, 100, 1000, 10000, 100000, ) is important in number theory. Book IX, Proposition 36 of Elements proves that if the sum of the first n terms of this progression is a prime number, then this sum times the nth term is a perfect number. For example, the sum of the first 5 terms of the series 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 = 31, which is a prime number. The sum 31 multiplied by 16 (the 5th term in the series) equals 496, which is a perfect number. Book IX, Proposition 35, proves that in a geometric series if the first term is subtracted from the second and last term in the sequence then as the excess of the second is to the first, so will the excess of the last be to all of those before it. (This is a restatement of our formula for geometric series from above.) Applying this to the geometric progression 31, 62, 124, 248, 496 (which results from 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 by multiplying all terms by 31), we see that 62 minus 31 is to 31 as 496 minus 31 is to the sum of 31, 62, 124, 248. Therefore the numbers 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 31, 62, 124 and 248 add up to 496 and further these are all the numbers which divide 496. For suppose that p divides 496 and it is not amongst these numbers. Assume pq equals 16 31, or 31 is to q as p is to 16. Now p cannot divide 16 or it would be amongst the numbers 1, 2, 4, 8 or 16. Therefore 31 cannot divide q. And since 31 does not divide q and q measures 496, the fundamental theorem of arithmetic implies that q must divide 16 and be amongst the numbers 1, 2, 4, 8 or 16. Let q be 4, then p must be 124, which is impossible since by hypothesis p is not amongst the numbers 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 31, 62, 124 or 248.

References
Hall & Knight, Higher Algebra, p.39, ISBN 81-8116-000-2

External links
Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001), "Geometric progression" [1], Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer, ISBN978-1-55608-010-4 Derivation of formulas for sum of finite and infinite geometric progression [2] at Mathalino.com Geometric Progression Calculator [3] Nice Proof of a Geometric Progression Sum [4] at sputsoft.com [5] Weisstein, Eric W., "Geometric Series [6]" from MathWorld.

Geometric progression

496

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] http:/ / www. encyclopediaofmath. org/ index. php?title=p/ g044290 http:/ / www. mathalino. com/ reviewer/ derivation-of-formulas/ sum-of-finite-and-infinite-geometric-progression http:/ / www. calculadoraonline. com. br/ en/ view/ geometric-progression. php http:/ / sputsoft. com/ blog/ 2008/ 10/ nice-geometric-progression-proof. html http:/ / sputsoft. com http:/ / mathworld. wolfram. com/ GeometricSeries. html

Fundamental theorem of algebra

The fundamental theorem of algebra states that every non-constant single-variable polynomial with complex coefficients has at least one complex root. This includes polynomials with real coefficients, since every real number is a complex number with zero imaginary part. Equivalently (by definition), the theorem states that the field of complex numbers is algebraically closed. The theorem is also stated as follows: every non-zero, single-variable, degree n polynomial with complex coefficients has, counted with multiplicity, exactly n roots. The equivalence of the two statements can be proven through the use of successive polynomial division. In spite of its name, there is no purely algebraic proof of the theorem, since any proof must use the completeness of the reals (or some other equivalent formulation of completeness), which is not an algebraic concept. Additionally, it is not fundamental for modern algebra; its name was given at a time when the study of algebra was mainly concerned with the solutions of polynomial equations with real or complex coefficients.

History
Peter Rothe, in his book Arithmetica Philosophica (published in 1608), wrote that a polynomial equation of degree n (with real coefficients) may have n solutions. Albert Girard, in his book L'invention nouvelle en l'Alg bre (published in 1629), asserted that a polynomial equation of degree n has n solutions, but he did not state that they had to be real numbers. Furthermore, he added that his assertion holds unless the equation is incomplete, by which he meant that no coefficient is equal to 0. However, when he explains in detail what he means, it is clear that he actually believes that his assertion is always true; for instance, he shows that the equation x4=4x3, although incomplete, has four solutions (counting multiplicities): 1 (twice), 1+i2, and 1i2. As will be mentioned again below, it follows from the fundamental theorem of algebra that every non-constant polynomial with real coefficients can be written as a product of polynomials with real coefficients whose degree is either 1 or 2. However, in 1702 Leibniz said that no polynomial of the type x4+a4 (with a real and distinct from 0) can be written in such a way. Later, Nikolaus Bernoulli made the same assertion concerning the polynomial x4 4x3+2x2+4x+4, but he got a letter from Euler in 1742[1] in which he was told that his polynomial happened to be equal to

where is the square root of 4+27. Also, Euler mentioned that

A first attempt at proving the theorem was made by d'Alembert in 1746, but his proof was incomplete. Among other problems, it assumed implicitly a theorem (now known as Puiseux's theorem) which would not be proved until more than a century later, and furthermore the proof assumed the fundamental theorem of algebra. Other attempts were made by Euler (1749), de Foncenex (1759), Lagrange (1772), and Laplace (1795). These last four attempts assumed implicitly Girard's assertion; to be more precise, the existence of solutions was assumed and all that remained to be proved was that their form was a+bi for some real numbers a and b. In modern terms, Euler, de Foncenex,

Fundamental theorem of algebra Lagrange, and Laplace were assuming the existence of a splitting field of the polynomial p(z). At the end of the 18th century, two new proofs were published which did not assume the existence of roots. One of them, due to James Wood and mainly algebraic, was published in 1798 and it was totally ignored. Wood's proof had an algebraic gap.[2] The other one was published by Gauss in 1799 and it was mainly geometric, but it had a topological gap, filled by Alexander Ostrowski in 1920, as discussed in Smale 1981 [3] (Smale writes, "...I wish to point out what an immense gap Gauss' proof contained. It is a subtle point even today that a real algebraic plane curve cannot enter a disk without leaving. In fact even though Gauss redid this proof 50 years later, the gap remained. It was not until 1920 that Gauss' proof was completed. In the reference Gauss, A. Ostrowski has a paper which does this and gives an excellent discussion of the problem as well..."). A rigorous proof was published by Argand in 1806; it was here that, for the first time, the fundamental theorem of algebra was stated for polynomials with complex coefficients, rather than just real coefficients. Gauss produced two other proofs in 1816 and another version of his original proof in 1849. The first textbook containing a proof of the theorem was Cauchy's Cours d'analyse de l'cole Royale Polytechnique (1821). It contained Argand's proof, although Argand is not credited for it. None of the proofs mentioned so far is constructive. It was Weierstrass who raised for the first time, in the middle of the 19th century, the problem of finding a constructive proof of the fundamental theorem of algebra. He presented his solution, that amounts in modern terms to a combination of the DurandKerner method with the homotopy continuation principle, in 1891. Another proof of this kind was obtained by Hellmuth Kneser in 1940 and simplified by his son Martin Kneser in 1981. Without using countable choice, it is not possible to constructively prove the fundamental theorem of algebra for complex numbers based on the Dedekind real numbers (which are not constructively equivalent to the Cauchy real numbers without countable choice[4]). However, Fred Richman proved a reformulated version of the theorem that does work.[5]

497

Proofs
All proofs below involve some analysis, or at least the topological concept of continuity of real or complex functions. Some also use differentiable or even analytic functions. This fact has led some to remark that the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra is neither fundamental, nor a theorem of algebra. Some proofs of the theorem only prove that any non-constant polynomial with real coefficients has some complex root. This is enough to establish the theorem in the general case because, given a non-constant polynomial p(z) with complex coefficients, the polynomial

has only real coefficients and, if z is a zero of q(z), then either z or its conjugate is a root of p(z). A large number of non-algebraic proofs of the theorem use the fact (sometimes called growth lemma) that an n-th degree polynomial function p(z) whose dominant coefficient is 1 behaves like zn when |z| is large enough. A more precise statement is: there is some positive real number R such that:

when |z|>R.

Fundamental theorem of algebra

498

Complex-analytic proofs
Find a closed disk D of radius r centered at the origin such that |p(z)|>|p(0)| whenever |z|r. The minimum of |p(z)| on D, which must exist since D is compact, is therefore achieved at some point z0 in the interior of D, but not at any point of its boundary. The Maximum modulus principle (applied to 1/p(z)) implies then that p(z0)=0. In other words, z0 is a zero of p(z). A variation of this proof that does not require the use of the maximum modulus principle (in fact, the same argument with minor changes also gives a proof of the maximum modulus principle for holomorphic functions). More precisely, if we assume by contradiction that a := p(z0) 0, then, expanding p(z) in powers of zz0 we can write

Here, the cj are simply the coefficients of the polynomial z p(z+z0), and we let k be the index of the first coefficient following the constant term that is non-zero. But now we see that for z sufficiently close to z0 this has behavior asymptotically similar to the simpler polynomial , in the sense that (as is easy to check) the function Therefore if we define is bounded by some positive constant M in some neighborhood of z0. and let , then for any sufficiently

small positive number r (so that the bound M mentioned above holds), using the triangle inequality we see that

When r is sufficiently close to 0 this upper bound for |p(z)| is strictly smaller than |a|, in contradiction to the definition of z0. (Geometrically, we have found an explicit direction 0 such that if one approaches z0 from that direction one can obtain values p(z) smaller in absolute value than |p(z0)|.) Another analytic proof can be obtained along this line of thought observing that, since |p(z)|>|p(0)| outside D, the minimum of |p(z)| on the whole complex plane is achieved at z0. If |p(z0)|>0, then 1/p is a bounded holomorphic function in the entire complex plane since, for each complex number z, |1/p(z)||1/p(z0)|. Applying Liouville's theorem, which states that a bounded entire function must be constant, this would imply that 1/p is constant and therefore that p is constant. This gives a contradiction, and hence p(z0)=0. Yet another analytic proof uses the argument principle. Let R be a positive real number large enough so that every root of p(z) has absolute value smaller than R; such a number must exist because every non-constant polynomial function of degree n has at most n zeros. For each r>R, consider the number

where c(r) is the circle centered at 0 with radius r oriented counterclockwise; then the argument principle says that this number is the number N of zeros of p(z) in the open ball centered at 0 with radius r, which, since r>R, is the total number of zeros of p(z). On the other hand, the integral of n/z along c(r) divided by 2i is equal to n. But the difference between the two numbers is

The numerator of the rational expression being integrated has degree at most n1 and the degree of the denominator is n+1. Therefore, the number above tends to 0 as r +. But the number is also equal to Nn and so N=n.

Fundamental theorem of algebra Still another complex-analytic proof can be given by combining linear algebra with the Cauchy theorem. To establish that every complex polynomial of degree n>0 has a zero, it suffices to show that every complex square matrix of size n>0 has a (complex) eigenvalue.[6] The proof of the latter statement is by contradiction. Let A be a complex square matrix of size n>0 and let In be the unit matrix of the same size. Assume A has no eigenvalues. Consider the resolvent function

499

which is a meromorphic function on the complex plane with values in the vector space of matrices. The eigenvalues of A are precisely the poles of R(z). Since, by assumption, A has no eigenvalues, the function R(z) is an entire function and Cauchy theorem implies that

On the other hand, R(z) expanded as a geometric series gives:

This formula is valid outside the closed disc of radius ||A|| (the operator norm of A). Let r>||A||. Then

(in which only the summand k=0 has a nonzero integral). This is a contradiction, and so A has an eigenvalue. Finally, Rouch's theorem gives perhaps the shortest proof of the theorem.

Topological proofs
Let z0C be such that the minimum of |p(z)| on the whole complex plane is achieved at z0; it was seen at the proof which uses Liouville's theorem that such a number must exist. We can write p(z) as a polynomial in zz0: there is some natural number k and there are some complex numbers ck, ck+1, ..., cn such that ck0 and that It follows that if a is a kth root of p(z0)/ck and if t is positive and sufficiently small, then |p(z0+ta)|<|p(z0)|, which is impossible, since |p(z0)| is the minimum of |p| on D. For another topological proof by contradiction, suppose that p(z) has no zeros. Choose a large positive number R such that, for |z|=R, the leading term zn of p(z) dominates all other terms combined; in other words, such that |z|n>|an1zn1++a0|. As z traverses the circle given by the equation |z|=R once counter-clockwise, p(z), like zn, winds n times counter-clockwise around 0. At the other extreme, with |z|=0, the curve p(z) is simply the single (nonzero) point p(0), whose winding number is clearly 0. If the loop followed by z is continuously deformed between these extremes, the path of p(z) also deforms continuously. We can explicitly write such a deformation as where t is greater than or equal to 0 and less than or equal to 1. If one views the variable t as time, then at time zero the curve is p(z) and at time one the curve is p(0). Clearly at every point t, p(z) cannot be zero by the original assumption, therefore during the deformation, the curve never crosses zero. Therefore the winding number of the curve around zero should never change. However, given that the winding number started as n and ended as 0, this is absurd. Therefore, p(z) has at least one zero.

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Algebraic proofs
These proofs use two facts about real numbers that require only a small amount of analysis (more precisely, the intermediate value theorem): every polynomial with odd degree and real coefficients has some real root; every non-negative real number has a square root. The second fact, together with the quadratic formula, implies the theorem for real quadratic polynomials. In other words, algebraic proofs of the fundamental theorem actually show that if R is any real-closed field, then its extension C = R(1) is algebraically closed. As mentioned above, it suffices to check the statement every non-constant polynomial p(z) with real coefficients has a complex root. This statement can be proved by induction on the greatest non-negative integer k such that 2k divides the degree n of p(z). Let a be the coefficient of zn in p(z) and let F be a splitting field of p(z) over C; in other words, the field F contains C and there are elements z1, z2, ..., zn in F such that If k=0, then n is odd, and therefore p(z) has a real root. Now, suppose that n=2km (with m odd and k>0) and that the theorem is already proved when the degree of the polynomial has the form 2k1m with m odd. For a real number t, define:

Then the coefficients of qt(z) are symmetric polynomials in the zi's with real coefficients. Therefore, they can be expressed as polynomials with real coefficients in the elementary symmetric polynomials, that is, in a1, a2, ..., (1)nan. So qt(z) has in fact real coefficients. Furthermore, the degree of qt(z) is n(n1)/2=2k1m(n1), and m(n1) is an odd number. So, using the induction hypothesis, qt has at least one complex root; in other words, zi+zj+tzizj is complex for two distinct elements i and j from {1, ..., n}. Since there are more real numbers than pairs (i, j), one can find distinct real numbers t and s such that zi+zj+tzizj and zi+zj+szizj are complex (for the same i and j). So, both zi+zj and zizj are complex numbers. It is easy to check that every complex number has a complex square root, thus every complex polynomial of degree 2 has a complex root by the quadratic formula. It follows that zi and zj are complex numbers, since they are roots of the quadratic polynomial z2 (zi+zj)z+zizj. J. Shipman showed in 2007 that the assumption that odd degree polynomials have roots is stronger than necessary; any field in which polynomials of prime degree have roots is algebraically closed (so "odd" can be replaced by "odd prime" and furthermore this holds for fields of all characteristics). For axiomatization of algebraically closed fields, this is the best possible, as there are counterexamples if a single prime is excluded. However, these counterexamples rely on 1 having a square root. If we take a field where 1 has no square root, and every polynomial of degree nI has a root, where I is any fixed infinite set of odd numbers, then every polynomial f(x) of odd degree has a root (since (x2 + 1)kf(x) has a root, where k is chosen so that deg(f) + 2k I). Another algebraic proof of the fundamental theorem can be given using Galois theory. It suffices to show that C has no proper finite field extension.[7] Let K/C be a finite extension. Since the normal closure of K over R still has a finite degree over C (or R), we may assume without loss of generality that K is a normal extension of R (hence it is a Galois extension, as every algebraic extension of a field of characteristic 0 is separable). Let G be the Galois group of this extension, and let H be a Sylow 2-group of G, so that the order of H is a power of 2, and the index of H in G is odd. By the fundamental theorem of Galois theory, there exists a subextension L of K/R such that Gal(K/L)=H. As [L:R]=[G:H] is odd, and there are no nonlinear irreducible real polynomials of odd degree, we must have L= R, thus [K:R] and [K:C] are powers of 2. Assuming for contradiction [K:C]>1, the 2-group Gal(K/C) contains a subgroup of index 2, thus there exists a subextension M of C of degree2. However, C has no extension of degree2, because every quadratic complex polynomial has a complex root, as mentioned above.

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Geometric proof
There exists still another way to approach the fundamental theorem of algebra, due to J. M. Almira and A. Romero: by Riemannian Geometric arguments. The main idea here is to prove that the existence of a non-constant polynomial p(z) without zeroes implies the existence of a flat Riemannian metric over the sphere S2. This leads to a contradiction, since the sphere is not flat. Recall that a Riemannian surface (M, g) is said to be flat if its Gaussian curvature, which we denote by Kg, is identically null. Now, Gauss-Bonnet theorem, when applied to the sphere S2, claims that , which proves that the sphere is not flat. Let us now assume that n > 0 and p(z)= a0+a1z++anzn 0 for each complex number z. Let us define p*(z)= znp(1/z)= a0zn+a1zn1++an. Obviously, p*(z) 0 for all z in C. Consider the polynomial f(z)=p(z)p*(z). Then f(z) 0 for each z in C. Furthermore, . We can use this functional equation to prove that g, given by

for w in C, and

for wS2\{0}, is a well defined Riemannian metric over the sphere S2 (which we identify with the extended complex plane C{}). Now, a simple computation shows that , since the real part of an analytic function is harmonic. This proves that Kg=0.

Corollaries
Since the fundamental theorem of algebra can be seen as the statement that the field of complex numbers is algebraically closed, it follows that any theorem concerning algebraically closed fields applies to the field of complex numbers. Here are a few more consequences of the theorem, which are either about the field of real numbers or about the relationship between the field of real numbers and the field of complex numbers: The field of complex numbers is the algebraic closure of the field of real numbers. Every polynomial in one variable x with real coefficients is the product of a constant, polynomials of the form x+a with a real, and polynomials of the form x2+ax+b with a and b real and a24b<0 (which is the same thing as saying that the polynomial x2+ax+b has no real roots). Every rational function in one variable x, with real coefficients, can be written as the sum of a polynomial function with rational functions of the form a/(xb)n (where n is a natural number, and a and b are real numbers), and rational functions of the form (ax+b)/(x2+cx+d)n (where n is a natural number, and a, b, c, and d are real numbers such that c24d<0). A corollary of this is that every rational function in one variable and real coefficients has an elementary primitive. Every algebraic extension of the real field is isomorphic either to the real field or to the complex field.

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Bounds on the zeroes of a polynomial

While the fundamental theorem of algebra states a general existence result, it is of some interest, both from the theoretical and from the practical point of view, to have information on the location of the zeroes of a given polynomial. The simpler result in this direction is a bound on the modulus: all zeroes of a monic polynomial satisfy an inequality || R, where Notice that, as stated, this is not yet an existence result but rather an example of what is called an a priori bound: it says that if there are solutions then they lie inside the closed disk of center the origin and radius R. However, once coupled with the fundamental theorem of algebra it says that the disk contains in fact at least one solution. More generally, a bound can be given directly in terms of any p-norm of the n-vector of coefficients , that is || Rp, where Rp is precisely the q-norm of the 2-vector , q being the conjugate exponent of p, 1/p + 1/q = 1, for any 1 p . Thus, the modulus of any solution is also bounded by

for 1 < p < , and in particular

(where we define an to mean 1, which is reasonable since 1 is indeed the n-th coefficient of our polynomial). The case of a generic polynomial of degree n, , is of course reduced to the case of a monic, dividing all coefficients by an 0. Also, in case that 0 is not a root, i.e. a0 0., bounds from below on the roots follow immediately as bounds from above on , that is, the roots of . Finally, the distance from the roots to any point can be estimated from below and above, seeing as zeroes of the polynomial , whose coefficients are the Taylor expansion of P(z) at We report here the proof of the above bounds, which is short and elementary. Let be a root of the polynomial ; in order to prove the inequality || Rp we can assume, of course, || > 1. Writing the equation as if p = 1, this is , and using the Hlder's inequality we find , thus . Now, . In the case 1 < p , taking into

account the summation formula for a geometric progression, we have

thus

and simplifying,

. Therefore

holds, for all 1 p .

Fundamental theorem of algebra

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Notes
[1] [2] [3] [4] See section Le rle d'Euler in C. Gilain's article Sur l'histoire du thor me fondamental de l'alg bre: thorie des quations et calcul intgral. Concerning Wood's proof, see the article A forgotten paper on the fundamental theorem of algebra, by Frank Smithies. http:/ / projecteuclid. org/ DPubS?service=UI& version=1. 0& verb=Display& handle=euclid. bams/ 1183547848 For the minimum necessary to prove their equivalence, see Bridges, Schuster, and Richman; 1998; A weak countable choice principle; available from (http:/ / www. math. fau. edu/ richman/ HTML/ DOCS. HTM). [5] See Fred Richman; 1998; The fundamental theorem of algebra: a constructive development without choice; available from (http:/ / www. math. fau. edu/ richman/ HTML/ DOCS. HTM). [6] A proof of the fact that this suffices can be seen here. [7] A proof of the fact that this suffices can be seen here.

References
Historic sources
Cauchy, Augustin Louis (1821), Cours d'Analyse de l'cole Royale Polytechnique, 1 re partie: Analyse Algbrique (http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k29058v), Paris: ditions Jacques Gabay (published 1992), ISBN2-87647-053-5 (tr. Course on Analysis of the Royal Polytechnic Academy, part 1: Algebraic Analysis) Euler, Leonhard (1751), "Recherches sur les racines imaginaires des quations" (http://bibliothek.bbaw.de/ bbaw/bibliothek-digital/digitalequellen/schriften/anzeige/index_html?band=02-hist/1749&seite:int=228), Histoire de l'Acadmie Royale des Sciences et des Belles-Lettres de Berlin (Berlin) 5: 222288. English translation: Euler, Leonhard (1751), "Investigations on the Imaginary Roots of Equations" (http://www. mathsym.org/euler/e170.pdf) (PDF), Histoire de l'Acadmie Royale des Sciences et des Belles-Lettres de Berlin (Berlin) 5: 222288 Gauss, Carl Friedrich (1799), Demonstratio nova theorematis omnem functionem algebraicam rationalem integram unius variabilis in factores reales primi vel secundi gradus resolvi posse, Helmstedt: C.G.Fleckeisen (tr. New proof of the theorem that every integral rational algebraic function of one variable can be resolved into real factors of the first or second degree). C. F. Gauss, Another new proof of the theorem that every integral rational algebraic function of one variable can be resolved into real factors of the first or second degree (http://www.paultaylor.eu/misc/gauss-web.php), 1815 Kneser, Hellmuth (1940), "Der Fundamentalsatz der Algebra und der Intuitionismus" (http://www-gdz.sub. uni-goettingen.de/cgi-bin/digbib.cgi?PPN266833020_0046), Mathematische Zeitschrift 46: 287302, doi:10.1007/BF01181442, ISSN0025-5874 (The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra and Intuitionism). Kneser, Martin (1981), "Ergnzung zu einer Arbeit von Hellmuth Kneser ber den Fundamentalsatz der Algebra" (http://www-gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/cgi-bin/digbib.cgi?PPN266833020_0177), Mathematische Zeitschrift 177 (2): 285287, doi:10.1007/BF01214206, ISSN0025-5874 (tr. An extension of a work of Hellmuth Kneser on the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra). Ostrowski, Alexander (1920), "ber den ersten und vierten Gauschen Beweis des Fundamental-Satzes der Algebra" (http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/dms/load/img/?PPN=PPN236019856&DMDID=dmdlog53), Carl Friedrich Gauss Werke Band X Abt. 2 (tr. On the first and fourth Gaussian proofs of the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra). Weierstra, Karl (1891). "Neuer Beweis des Satzes, dass jede ganze rationale Function einer Vernderlichen dargestellt werden kann als ein Product aus linearen Functionen derselben Vernderlichen". Sitzungsberichte der kniglich preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin. pp.10851101. (tr. New proof of the theorem that every integral rational function of one variable can be represented as a product of linear functions of the same variable).

Fundamental theorem of algebra

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Recent literature
Almira, J.M.; Romero, A. (2007), "Yet another application of the Gauss-Bonnet Theorem for the sphere" (http:// projecteuclid.org/DPubS/Repository/1.0/Disseminate?handle=euclid.bbms/1179839226&view=body& content-type=pdf_1), Bull. Belg. Math. Soc. Simon Stevin 14: 341342 Almira, J.M.; Romero, A. (2012), "Some Riemannian geometric proofs of the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra" (http://www.mathem.pub.ro/dgds/v14/D14-al.pdf), Differential Geometry - Dynamical Systems 14: 14 Fine, Benjamin; Rosenberger, Gerhard (1997), The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics, Berlin: Springer-Verlag, ISBN978-0-387-94657-3 Gersten, S.M.; Stallings, John R. (1988), "On Gauss's First Proof of the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra", Proceedings of the AMS 103 (1): 331332, doi:10.2307/2047574, ISSN0002-9939, JSTOR2047574 Gilain, Christian (1991), "Sur l'histoire du thorme fondamental de l'algbre: thorie des quations et calcul intgral", Archive for History of Exact Sciences 42 (2): 91136, doi:10.1007/BF00496870, ISSN0003-9519 (tr. On the history of the fundamental theorem of algebra: theory of equations and integral calculus.) Netto, Eugen; Le Vavasseur, Raymond (1916), "Les fonctions rationnelles 8088: Le thorme fondamental", in Meyer, Franois; Molk, Jules, Encyclopdie des Sciences Mathmatiques Pures et Appliques, tomeI, vol.2, ditions Jacques Gabay, 1992, ISBN2-87647-101-9 (tr. The rational functions 8088: the fundamental theorem). Remmert, Reinhold (1991), "The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra", in Ebbinghaus, Heinz-Dieter; Hermes, Hans; Hirzebruch, Friedrich, Numbers, Graduate Texts in Mathematics 123, Berlin: Springer-Verlag, ISBN978-0-387-97497-2 Shipman, Joseph (2007), "Improving the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra", Mathematical Intelligencer 29 (4): 914, doi:10.1007/BF02986170, ISSN0343-6993 Smale, Steve (1981), "The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra and Complexity Theory", Bulletin (new series) of the American Mathematical Society 4 (1) (http://projecteuclid.org/DPubS?service=UI&version=1.0& verb=Display&handle=euclid.bams/1183547848) Smith, David Eugene (1959), A Source Book in Mathematics, Dover, ISBN0-486-64690-4 Smithies, Frank (2000), "A forgotten paper on the fundamental theorem of algebra", Notes & Records of the Royal Society 54 (3): 333341, doi:10.1098/rsnr.2000.0116, ISSN0035-9149 van der Waerden, Bartel Leendert (2003), Algebra, I (7th ed.), Springer-Verlag, ISBN0-387-40624-7

External links
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra (http://www.cut-the-knot.org/do_you_know/fundamental2.shtml) a collection of proofs D. J. Velleman: The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra: A Visual Approach, PDF (unpublished paper) (http:// www.cs.amherst.edu/~djv/), visualisation of d'Alembert's, Gauss's and the winding number proofs Fundamental Theorem of Algebra Module by John H. Mathews (http://math.fullerton.edu/mathews/c2003/ FunTheoremAlgebraMod.html) Bibliography for the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra (http://math.fullerton.edu/mathews/c2003/ FunTheoremAlgebraBib/Links/FunTheoremAlgebraBib_lnk_2.html) From the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra to Astrophysics: A "Harmonious" Path (http://www.ams.org/ notices/200806/tx080600666p.pdf)

Article Sources and Contributors

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Article Sources and Contributors

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Anderson, Stigin, Stpasha, Supergroupiejoy, TakuyaMurata, Talgalili, Tayste, Tedtoal, The Thing That Should Not Be, Tim1357, Timwi, Toll booth, Tomi, Tyw7, VectorPosse, Vincent Semeria, Wa03, Welhaven, Westm, Wikid77, WillKitch, Wjastle, Xiao Fei, Ylloh, Youandme, ZantTrang, Zmoboros, 393 anonymous edits Bernoulli trial Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=528957373 Contributors: 16@r, Andrzej5335, AxelBoldt, Ayda D, BenMcLean, Benwing, Bgeelhoed, Bkell, Calvin 1998, Charles Matthews, Creidieki, Darrel francis, Dekart, Eramesan, False vacuum, Flavio Guitian, Fredrik, Gengizkhan, Giftlite, Huntnb, Jason Quinn, JeanM, Jiejunkong, Jugander, Kondormari, LimoWreck, Linas, Mackseem, Matt Kovacs, Melcombe, Michael Hardy, Michael miceli, Policron, RDBury, Ram einstein, Robinh, Shishir0610, Sigma0 1, Stijn Vermeeren, TedPavlic, Weialawaga, 57 anonymous edits Bernoulli distribution Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=530059638 Contributors: Adriaan Joubert, Albmont, AlekseyP, Alex.j.flint, Amonet, Andreas27krause, Aquae, Aziz1005, Bando26, Bgeelhoed, Bryan Derksen, Btyner, Camkego, Cburnett, Charles Matthews, Complex01, Deepakazad, Discospinster, Dr. J. Rodal, El C, Eric Kvaalen, FilipeS, Flatland1, Giftlite, Herix, ILikeHowMuch, Iwaterpolo, Jitse Niesen, Jowa fan, Jpk, Jt, Kyng, Lilac Soul, Lothar von Richthofen, MarkSweep, Melcombe, Michael Hardy, Miguel, MrOllie, Olivier, Ozob, PAR, Pabristow, Policron, Poor Yorick, Qwfp, RDBury, Rdsmith4, Schmock, Sharmistha1, TakuyaMurata, Theyshallbow, Tomash, Tomi, Typofier, Urhixidur, User3000, Weialawaga, Whkoh, Wikid77, Wjastle, Wtanaka, Zven, 56 anonymous edits Pascal's Wager Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=531909113 Contributors: 0o0o0ok, 1aperrino, 777sms, A3RO, ALargeElk, Abhishikt, Adamfinmo, Adriaan, Aethrun72, Alansohn, Alanswindoll, Alex.tan, AlphaGamma100, Anaxial, AndrewWTaylor, Andycjp, Angiotensinogen, Angr, Anomalocaris, AnonMoos, Anonymous Dissident, Another Philosopher, Antaeus Feldspar, Antonio Lopez, Aplomado, Apv, Aqwis, Arb, Archiesteel, ArglebargleIV, Art LaPella, Artrush, Ashmoo, Atfyfe, Avb, AzraelUK, BD2412, Babajobu, Barbara Shack, Barticus88, Beagley, Beland, Ben@liddicott.com, BenC7, Benjamin james weston, Bigbluefish, Bihco, Black.jeff, Bloodofox, Boing! said Zebedee, Boldra, Bondegezou, BonsaiViking, Bordello, Bossrat, Bowei Huang 2, BrettAllen, Brianski, Brickfield, Bryan Derksen, CPRice, Carinemily, Cfenton, Chaojoker, Charles Matthews, Chensiyuan, Chhajjusandeep, Chief zoo keeper, Chieron,

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Connolley, Wine Guy, Wompa99, Wonglkd, Woohookitty, Wstomv, XIconox, XJamRastafire, XTayax, Xeno, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yamla, Yanksox, Yelyos, Zickzack, Zundark, Zylinder, ;:.Brownie.:;, , , , 1343 anonymous edits Arithmetic progression Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=531817539 Contributors: .:Ajvol:., 16@r, 9258fahsflkh917fas, Aleenf1, Altenmann, Andres, Anonymous Dissident, Arpitkjain, Attys, AxelBoldt, Bgwhite, Bill-on-the-Hill, Bobo192, Brad7777, C S, Catapult, Charles Matthews, Chas zzz brown, Ciphers, Ckatz, Closedmouth, Cornince, CryptoDerk, DR23, Daniel5Ko, DarwinPeacock, David Eppstein, Delaszk, Denisarona, Donanayath, Dougofborg, Dude1818, Euphrates, Flewis, Fredrik, Giftlite, Goldencako, Gonzonoir, Goochelaar, Googl, GregorB, Haham hanuka, Hairy Dude, Hyacinth, Hyperfusion, Icedemon, InverseHypercube, JNW, Jackol, Johan1298, John254, Jowa fan, KSmrq, Kbk, Kingsbrook, Krenair, KurtSchwitters, Loren.wilton, LuisVillegas, Macarse, Marek69, Maschen, Masgatotkaca, McKay, Melchoir, Michael Hardy, Mild Bill Hiccup, Milogardner, Mmxx, Msh210, Murtasa, Nguy<n H=u Dung, Nick, Nikitadanilov, Nikunj Pandya, Octahedron80, Oleg Alexandrov, Patrick, Petter Strandmark, Pinethicket, Policron, PrimeHunter, Princetct.007, RDBury, RTFVerterra, RandomStringOfCharacters, Ravig sagi, Rh, Ricardo sandoval, Rlendog, Robo37, Rrburke, ST47, Salvatore Ingala, Sanjaymjoshi, Sebo.PL, Selfworm, Shreevatsa, Siddhant, Snowolf, Sohail555, Sophus Bie, SpaceFlight89, Sparkie82, Tai Chi Tech, Tarquin, Tbjablin, Tbone, Terrible tony, Tide rolls, Ulfalizer, UserGoogol, William Avery, Writer on wiki, Xhackeranywhere, Zzuuzz, >ncel Acar, , 285 anonymous edits

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Geometric progression Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=526098315 Contributors: 01001, 1Minow, 9258fahsflkh917fas, Advance512, Aetheling, Af648, Aisaac, Allefant, Amgc56, Amirki, Anbu121, Andylatto, Aranel, Arpitkjain, Arthena, Arthur Rubin, Awmorp, AxelBoldt, Banus, Brad7777, BradBeattie, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Charles Matthews, Chrisalvino, Conti, DR23, Dantheox, DarthVader, David Eppstein, DavidCBryant, Delirium, Dennis at Empa Media, Divyesikka, Dugwiki, EAderhold, Fattyjwoods, Felix Hoffmann, Fieldday-sunday, Finell, Fredrik, Gaeddal, Gas Panic42, Gerbrant, Ghostsarememories, Giftlite, Goldencako, Gp4rts, Graham87, Haifadude, Haihe, Hearth, Helder.wiki, Henri.vanliempt, Henrygb, Hyacinth, Icedemon, Ichiroo, Ixtli, JForget, JJ Harrison, JabberWok, JamesBWatson, Jcw69, Jeff G., Jim.belk, Jmr, Joeyfox10, Johan1298, Journeyman, Jowa fan, Jratt, Justin W Smith, Knutux, Krishano, Laubpatr, Leuko, Lmatt, LokiClock, LuisVillegas, Mark Wolfe, MarkSweep, Maschen, Mathwizkid, Matt me, Mayooranathan, Meissmart, Melchoir, Metagraph, Mets501, Michael Hardy, Mike Rosoft, Mike1024, Mosesofmason, Moxfyre, Msh210, MuDavid, Nakon, NellieBly, Nemu, Nereus124, Netnubie, Octahedron80, Odder, Olethros, PAR, Patrick, Paul August, Pepper, Pjrm, Plamka, Policron, Pred, Quanticle, R3m0t, RDBury, RTFVerterra, Redde, Resident Mario, Rh, Rpchase, ST47, Sango123, Sbrools, Siddhant, Skittlestastegood, Sparkie82, Staffwaterboy, Starwiz, Stefano85, Tahdah, Tarquin, The Parting Glass, Thelema418, Thorney??, Timeastor, Tobias Bergemann, Touriste, Turian, Vertciel, Wikipelli, Yulu, Yurik, Zundark, @A B2C, , 292 anonymous edits Fundamental theorem of algebra Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=531636707 Contributors: .:Ajvol:., 2620:0:1000:2002:3ED9:2BFF:FE5B:6796, 64.12.102.xxx, Abovechief, Adam majewski, Ahoerstemeier, Alansohn, Alexb@cut-the-knot.com, Algebraist, Alink, Andy Fugard, Archelon, Arthena, Arthur Rubin, Arved, Aude, AugPi, AxelBoldt, BeteNoir, Bidabadi, BigJohnHenry, Blindsuperhero, Bob o Shiska, Bob.v.R, Brad7777, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Charles Matthews, Charleswallingford, Conversion script, Cybercobra, Daran, Darij, Deineka, Dfeldmann, Dfeuer, Dmn, DonSiano, Doradus, Dratman, Drilnoth, Dtremenak, Dysprosia, EmilJ, Epsilonball, Evil saltine, Fly by Night, Fredrik, Furrykef, Gaius Cornelius, Gene Ward Smith, Geometry guy, Giftlite, Graham87, Greg Kuperberg, Hede2000, Helix84, Henning Makholm, Hesam7, Holger Blasum, Huddlebum, Icairns, JCSantos, Jacobolus, JdH, Jimbreed, Jimbryho, Jimp, Jmalmira, Jna runn, Kartik J, Lakinekaki, Lambiam, Li-sung, LkNsngth, Lunchscale, Lupin, LutzL, MathMartin, MathsIsFun, Mav, Meni Rosenfeld, Michael Hardy, Michael Larsen, Michael Slone, Mike Segal, Monamip, Mpatel, Nic bor, Nsh, Nuno Tavares, Obradovic Goran, Ortonmc, Oxy86, PMajer, Paul D. Anderson, Paul Taylor, Philologer, Primalbeing, Pt, Qmwne235, Randomblue, Rgdboer, Rholton, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, RobHar, Robinh, Romanm, Schauspieler, Shishir0610, Skomorokh, Slawekb, Smcinerney, Smimram, Snoyes, SoroSuub1, Spartan S58, Syp, TakuyaMurata, Tobias Bergemann, Toby Bartels, Toh, Trovatore, Tulcod, Unyoyega, Vincenthuang75025, Vladkornea, WikiUserPedia, Wmahan, Woohookitty, Wshun, XJamRastafire, Xantharius, Zfr, Zundark, Zvika, 120 anonymous edits

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File:FibonacciBlocks.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FibonacciBlocks.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Borb, 1 anonymous edits File:Fibonacci spiral 34.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fibonacci_spiral_34.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Dicklyon Image:Liber abbaci magliab f124r.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Liber_abbaci_magliab_f124r.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: G.dallorto, Karl.Kirst, Mdd, Otfried Lieberknecht, Sailko, Warburg, 1 anonymous edits File:PascalTriangleFibanacci.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PascalTriangleFibanacci.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: RDBury File:FibonacciChamomile.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FibonacciChamomile.PNG License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Alvesgaspar: derivative work: RDBury (talk) File:SunflowerModel.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SunflowerModel.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Doron Image:Desargues theorem alt.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Desargues_theorem_alt.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Jujutacular Image:Sharpened Pencil.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sharpened_Pencil.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Infratec, Ra'ike, WikipediaMaster File:Railroad-Tracks-Perspective.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Railroad-Tracks-Perspective.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:MikKBDFJKGeMalak File:LasseterHighway.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LasseterHighway.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Toby Hudson Image:Polynomialdeg4.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Polynomialdeg4.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: Geek3 File:Quartic Formula.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Quartic_Formula.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Cliff12345 File:Jerme Cardan.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jerme_Cardan.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Prosopee File:Gerolamo Cardano (colour).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gerolamo_Cardano_(colour).jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Frazzydee, Nikthestunned, Stefan2 Image:ArsMagna.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ArsMagna.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: JCSantos File:Nikolaus Kopernikus.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: ArsniureDeGallium, ArtMechanic, Ausir, Craigboy, Editor at Large, J.delanoy, Kyro, Manuelt15, Matthead, Mikkalai, Pko, Samuel Grant, TarmoK, ThomasPusch, 6 anonymous edits File:Autograph-MikolajKopernik.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Autograph-MikolajKopernik.svg License: unknown Contributors: File:CopernicusHouse.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CopernicusHouse.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Stephen McCluskey File:ukasz Watzenrode.jpeg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ukasz_Watzenrode.jpeg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ekpah, MARCIN N, Mathiasrex, Serdelll, 1 anonymous edits File:Copernicus-an-Herzog-Albrecht.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Copernicus-an-Herzog-Albrecht.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Nicolaus Copernicus File:Collegium Maius 07.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Collegium_Maius_07.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Cancre File:Krakw - 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