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N
1
i1
ln
p
inj
p
i
ln
W h
i
W h
inj
_ _
N
1
i1
ln
W h
i
W h
inj
_ _
2
: 1
The function W(h
i
) is the ratio of the cylinder volume at any point to the clearance volume V
cl
,
Fig. 2. Firing and motoring pressure proles at a load of 200 N m and speed 2200 rpm.
J. Ghojel, D. Honnery / Applied Thermal Engineering xxx (2005) xxxxxx 5
ARTICLE IN PRESS
W h
i
V
i
V
cl
1
r 1
2
1
1
R
_ _
cos h
i
1
R
1 R
2
sin
2
h
i
_ _ _ _ _
: 2
The pressure is the absolute pressure and is taken as the sum of the measured pressure p
m
and a
reference pressure p
r
. The latter is calculated using a technique based on the method presented in
Ref. [18]. The equation of the polytropic process pv
n
0
= constant can be written for two values of
the crank angle position (h
1
and h
2
) within a narrow range during the compression stroke as
follows:
p
m
1
p
r
p
m
2
p
r
W h
2
W h
1
_ _
n
0
b; 3
from which,
p
r
bp
m
2
p
m
1
1 b
: 4
A value of n
0
in Eq. (3) is assumed and p
r
is calculated from Eq. (4). This value of p
r
is added to
the measured pressures p
inj
and p
i
and n is calculated from Eq. (1). The hot motoring pressure is
now calculated for the crank angle range h = 180540 (compressionexpansion) from Eq. (5)
below,
p
i
p
inj
W h
i
W h
inj
_ _
n
: 5
The value of n
0
is adjusted until n
0
% n and the area between the proles of the corrected mea-
sured pressure (p
m
at location the crank angle position plus p
r
) and the calculated pressure (Eq.
(5)) is minimized. The TDC is then adjusted by shifting the entire corrected pressure trace to the
right or to the left until the measured and calculated values are further reconciled.
If we assume that the compression process starts at bottom dead centre (BDC), the pressure at
that point (p
a
) can be determined by putting h
i
= 180 in Eq. (3), which yields
p
a
p
inj
r
W h
inj
_ _
n
: 6
The temperature at the start of the compression process is given by
T
a
T
0
DT aT
r
1 a
; 7
where the coecient of residual gases a % 0.04 for diesel engines and DT is the temperature rise of
the fresh charge from contact with the walls of the inlet manifold. The temperature at the start of
combustion is given by
T
c
T
a
r
W h
c
_ _
n1
: 8
6 J. Ghojel, D. Honnery / Applied Thermal Engineering xxx (2005) xxxxxx
ARTICLE IN PRESS
2.2. Ratio of specic heats
The ratio of specic heats for the combustion products c
p
of any fuel can be calculated if the
composition and average temperature of the products are known. The volumetric composition
of the DOE fuel used in this investigation is 13% H
2
O, 85% diesel fuel and 2% additives (surfac-
tant and cetane improver). This gives a molecular mass l
f
= 143.5 if the diesel fuel is assumed to
be represented by the hydrocarbon C
12
H
21.5
. The composition by mass is then 15.06%, 82.72%
and 2.22% for water, diesel fuel and additives, respectively. The stoichiometric airfuel ratio,
quantity of airfuel charge and the fractions of the products of complete combustion of a lean
mixture based on this composition can be written as follows:
A
F
_ _
stoich
1
0:21
x
c
12
x
h
4
_ _
; 9
M
a
k
A
F
_ _
stoich
1
l
f
; 10
M
CO
2
x
c
12
; M
H
2
O
x
h
2
x
w
; M
O
2
0:21k 1
A
F
_ _
stoich
;
M
N
2
0:79k
A
F
_ _
stoich
: 11
In these equations, x
c
, x
h
and x
w
are the mass fractions of carbon, hydrogen and water in one
kilogram of fuel (0.7197, 0.1075 and 0.1506, respectively). The lower heating value of the emulsi-
ed fuel can be estimated using the composition of the combustion products given by Eq. (11)
when k = 1 (stoichiometric mixture) if the enthalpy of formation of the fuel is known. Alterna-
tively, it can be estimated as follows [19]:
LHV 34:013x
c
125:6x
h
2:512 9x
h
x
w
: 12
Eq. (12) yields a value of 35.2 MJ/kg, which is about 1.3% lower than the value determined
experimentally for this fuel (35.7 MJ/kg).
The ratio of specic heats is calculated for the reference diesel fuel and diesel oil emulsion from
the constant-pressure specic heats of the products of complete combustion CO
2
, H
2
O, O
2
and N
2
[20] and their mole fractions in the products. The computed values of c
p
are shown in Fig. 3 as a
function of the relative airfuel ratio k at three average gas temperatures: 1000, 2000 and 3000 K.
The diesel fuel exhibits consistently higher c
p
than the diesel oil emulsion with the dierence
increasing directly with the temperature and inversely with the relative airfuel ratio k. The values
of c
p
for the diesel fuel are higher than for the DOE over the shown range of k by 1.52%, 3.3
6.3% and 4.28.4% at 1000, 2000 and 3000 K, respectively. These seemingly small variations in c
p
can have appreciable eect on the calculated heat release characteristics.
2.3. Apparent heat release
The combustion process is assumed to start from the moment the gas pressure separates from
the polytropic compression process. If we divide the process into small equal increments (0.1,
J. Ghojel, D. Honnery / Applied Thermal Engineering xxx (2005) xxxxxx 7
ARTICLE IN PRESS
0.2, 0.5 or 1.0 crank angle), the specic heat released over the increment (i + 1) i in units of J/
(kg mixture) will be equal to the energy required to raise the internal energy of the gas plus the
useful work done over the same increment,
q
i1i
c
vi1i
T
i1
T
i
_
v
i1
v
i
pdv; 13
where c
v(i + 1) i
is the mean specic heat at constant volume over increment from i to (i + 1), and
T
i
and T
i + 1
are the absolute temperatures of the gas at the start and end of increment. This equa-
tion can be written in terms of pressure, volume and ratio of specic heats as
q
i1i
v
a
r
p
i1
p
i
2
W h
i1
W h
i
p
i1
W h
i1
p
i
W h
i
c
i1i
1
_ _ _ _
: 14
The specic cumulative heat release can now be written as
q
i
N
2
i1
q
i1i
; 15
where N
2
in Eq. (15) is the number of increments of the combustion process from the start of the
process to the moment the exhaust valve opens. The specic volume of the products can be deter-
mined from the equation of state,
v
a
RT
a
M
a
p
a
: 16
The fraction cumulative apparent heat release is given by
v
i
q
i
DH
0
17
Fig. 3. Ratio of specic heats for the diesel and emulsied fuels as a function of the relative airfuel ratio and average
mixture temperature.
8 J. Ghojel, D. Honnery / Applied Thermal Engineering xxx (2005) xxxxxx
ARTICLE IN PRESS
and the rate of heat release by
dv
i
dh
v
i1
v
i
Dh
; 18
where Dh = 0.2 crank angle in the current study. DH
0
is the lower heating value per unit mass of
mixture (kJ/kg mixture). At the end of the heat release process,
v
i max
q
i max
DH
0
n:
The parameter n is called the coecient of combustion eectiveness and denotes the maximum
value of the apparent heat release. The temperature T
i
of the products of combustion is computed
using the equation of state from the start of combustion till the opening of the exhaust valve:
T
i
T
c
p
c
W h
i
W h
c
p
i
: 19
2.4. Heat release characteristics
Fig. 4 shows typical heat release characteristics of the test engine operating on the standard die-
sel fuel. The apparent cumulative heat release (fraction) and apparent rate of heat release (1/s) are
calculated from the measured pressure data according to the method described above. These char-
acteristics are sucient to assess the performance of an engine, eect of operating conditions on
engine performance or compare the performance of dierent engines under the same operating
conditions. In the current study, the eect of changing the fuel from CDF to DOE is given
as an example of the models capability. The maximum value of the cumulative heat release
is reached at crank angle 460 for this particular test condition. The two main phases of the
Fig. 4. Typical heat release characteristics of the test engine operating on the standard diesel fuel.
J. Ghojel, D. Honnery / Applied Thermal Engineering xxx (2005) xxxxxx 9
ARTICLE IN PRESS
combustion process, premixed and diusion, are clearly seen in the rate of heat release curve. If all
heat losses (due to heat transfer from the gases to the cylinder walls, dissociation, incomplete
combustion, gas leakage) are added to the apparent heat release characteristics, the fuel burn
characteristics are obtained. The latter are shown in Fig. 4 in bold lines and the cumulative curve
approaches unity at the end of the combustion process. The method used to estimate heat losses is
explained in the following section.
2.5. Heat losses
The apparent heat release characteristics (cumulative heat release and rate) calculated using
Eqs. (17) and (18) relate to the heat released to raise the internal energy of the gases and produce
mechanical work. The dierence between the heat energy available in the fuel and the apparent
heat release represents all losses including heat transfer from the gases to the engine cylinder walls,
incomplete combustion, gas leakage and dissociation. The heat losses due to incomplete combus-
tion, gas leakage and dissociation are usually ignored and heat transfer losses by convection and
radiation are estimated using empirical correlations. In most cases the radiation component is ig-
nored in spite of its importance, particularly in diesel engines. The reason for using empirical cor-
relations is due to the complex nature of heat transfer during combustion and expansion stages.
The complexity arises from the large number of parameters inuencing the process such as the
thermo-physical properties of the products (viscosity, density, thermal conductivity, coecient
of heat transfer, specic heat, emissivity), their physical state (pressure, temperature, velocity rel-
ative to the surfaces of the combustion chamber) and eect of the reacting uid in turbulent mo-
tion and cyclic nature of the process. The best known empirical correlations [2125] estimate the
heat losses in the form of Newtons law of cooling with the overall heat transfer coecient made
up from convective and radiative components. The convective component is usually derived from
the well known Nusselt number correlation,
Nu aRe
b
; 20
where a and b are engine- and test-specic values. The radiative component is usually based on the
StefanBoltzmann equation for black body radiation in the form,
h
r
c
T
4
g
T
4
w
T
g
T
w
; 21
where, again, c is a engine- and test-specic constant. More realistic models for the radiative com-
ponent of heat transfer in engines were proposed which accounted for the eect of the radiation
properties of the gases [26,27]. However, estimates for of the radiative component from dierent
studies vary signicantly putting the ratio of radiation to the overall heat transfer anywhere be-
tween 0% and 50% [27]. The situation with the convective component is not much better as dif-
ferent correlations yield vastly dierent values for the coecient of heat transfer. Fig. 5 shows the
convection heat transfer coecient computed for the test engine using four correlations. The max-
imum value of h
c
ranges between 1500 and 7000 W/m
2
K. Woschni [23] compared several heat
transfer correlations with his own and found that the maximum values range between 1500
and 4500 W/m
2
K. The large variations in the values of the convection heat transfer coecient
10 J. Ghojel, D. Honnery / Applied Thermal Engineering xxx (2005) xxxxxx
ARTICLE IN PRESS
predicted by dierent models and the fact that the radiation heat transfer component is often ne-
glected makes the selection of an appropriate model for the heat losses problematic.
In the current investigation, in the absence of a universally applicable heat transfer model for
diesel engines, a simple method proposed by Wiebe [28] is used as a rst approximation. This
method assumes that the cumulative apparent heat release makes up a constant fraction n of
the fraction fuel burned. The latter is then given by
v
t
v
i
n
: 22
Eq. (22) requires the knowledge of the coecient of combustion eectiveness n. This factor is
assumed at the start of computations then modied by successive iterations until the fraction fuel
burned approaches a value of 1.0. This equation can be used up to the moment when v
imax
is
reached.
The losses can then be expressed as
v
L
1
n
1
_ _
v
i
: 23
These losses are shown graphically in Fig. 4.
3. Results and discussion
Fig. 6 shows the results of sample calculations comprising the measured pressure trace, calcu-
lated average gas temperature and heat release characteristics. Two settings of the fuel injection
control system were used to produce a torque of 150 N m at 1800 rpm with both fuels. This
Fig. 5. Heat transfer coecients from dierent correlations calculated for the test engine.
J. Ghojel, D. Honnery / Applied Thermal Engineering xxx (2005) xxxxxx 11
ARTICLE IN PRESS
was feasible because the engine was operating well below its rated power. Were the engine in-
tended to produce the same power as the standard conguration, high capacity injectors and, pos-
sibly, a larger fuel injection pump would have been required. Under the current test regime, the
engine required 28.5 mg of diesel fuel and 35.86 mg of DOE per cycle, an increase of almost 26%.
This is an indication of the amount of extra fuel mass that needs to be carried by a vehicle or lo-
comotive for the same distance travelled when using diesel fuel. The decrease in pressure and tem-
perature with the DOE is due to the shift of the combustion process to the expansion stroke as a
result of retarded start of combustion (Fig. 6a) and quenching of the combustion process by the
water in the fuel. The role of water in the onset of micro-explosions of the DOE fuel droplets on
the combustion process also needs to be considered [29]. This decrease in temperature is the main
reason for the reduction in NO
x
emissions with emulsied fuels. The fuel burning rate during the
premixed phase is lower for the DOE because of the reduced amount of diesel fuel being injected
during the ignition delay phase. However, the reduction in the burning rate is not as great as was
expected due, possibly, to the higher fuel injection rate, which improves the air fuel mixing process
and accelerates the combustion process. The heat release characteristics also show that the burn-
ing rate during the diusion phase is almost the same for both fuels despite the late start of com-
bustion of the DOE. This is why the heat-to-work conversion eciencies (both indicated and
brake) remain almost unchanged when the engine is switched to DOE.
Fig. 6. Pressure, temperature and heat release characteristics of the combustion of standard diesel fuel and DOE at
150 N m and 1800 rpm.
12 J. Ghojel, D. Honnery / Applied Thermal Engineering xxx (2005) xxxxxx
ARTICLE IN PRESS
4. Conclusions
A relatively simple single-zone model has been developed to calculate heat release characteris-
tics in internal combustion engines using diesel oil emulsions and standard diesel fuel. The known
sensitivity in this type of calculation to the ratio of specic heats c
p
required use of calculated val-
ues for the two fuels tested based on the assumption of xed composition of the combustion prod-
ucts (no dissociation). These equations yield values of c
p
that better reect real processes in
engines. The model is a suitable tool for quick evaluation and interpretation of the performance
of dierent engines with dierent congurations or fuels and for the same engine under variable
operating conditions. It is also useful when used to monitor real-time engine heat release charac-
teristics for diagnostic purposes. While included in the model, a more rigorous treatment of heat
transfer losses needs to be developed for the calculation of fraction fuel burned before this preli-
minary treatment can be conrmed. Further work is planned to develop and validate a more real-
istic heat transfer module that can account for the eect of the properties of the combustion
products on the radiative component of the losses.
Acknowledgements
This work is supported by a grant from the Rail CRC. The authors wish to thank Mr. Khaled
Al-Khalee for providing the experimental engine test data.
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