INTERNATIONAL SERIESOF MONOGRAPHS ON PHYSICS

109-A.Aharoni: IntroductlontheJ/zdory to ofjkrronlnnetigmzle 10s.R.Dobbs: Helum three 107.R. Wignans: Calormetry 106.1.Kubler: Theor.y electron ofitbterant ZZCJPTIIJILCZZI 105.Y Kuzamotoa Y Kitaoka: electtons Znamics ofheapy 104.D. Bardin, Passarino: s'ltzrldzprtf.ftltftl/l G. The themaking 103.G.C-Branco. Lavoura, R Silva: violation L. J. CP 102.T. C.Choy: zne?.f?n Effective theory 101.H.Arnkl-: Mathematical t//gaznflwl-/iel theory 100. M. Pismen: L. Vorticesnonlnearhelh fzl 99. L.Mcstd: Stellar magnetism 98. K. H.Bennemann:aNbn/fnelrizz optics metals 97. D.Snlzrnann: Atomicphysicz inhotplnmas 96. M-Brambilla:AAetj/ ofplnma dteory waves 95. M. Wakatani: Stellarator andhelotron (fevfce..g 94. S. Cbt-kmznrn'- offerromagnetsm : Physics 93. A.Aharoni: Introduct>n the to theo6' offerromagnetism t/zeoF.)? 92.l Zinn-lustin: Quanutmfeld andcriticalphenomena 91.R. A.Bertlmann:-dnozna/ie. /W quantumfddtbeory 90. P. Gosh: traps K. Ion 89. E.Siml' Inhomogeneous nek; superconductors 88.S. Adler: L. quantum Quaternionic mechanics crzdflgtznr?zra//f 87. RS.Joshi: Globalaapects j;zgravitation cosmolov tzz?zf 86. E.R.Pikez Sarkar: gzzm/?zrzl ofradiation S. The theor.y Merhmn-vnn 84.MZ.Kresin, Morawilas. Wolft H. A. tl/ctpnpe/ztz'ilzitz/r-z?fkg Trsuperconductipity Thephysica crystall 83.P. deGenncl Prost: G. ofliqud 82.B.H. Bransden, R.C.McDowell; M. Charge exchangeand the Jeory of ion-atom cof/gfon 81. J.Jensen, R. Mackintosh: earth A. Rare magnetism 80.R.Gasuans, T-Wu:The T. ubiquitousphoton 79. P. Luchini, Motz:Undulators H. Jtzvcr,g andfkee-electron 78. RWeinbergenflclron scatterq theoy Thephysies 76. H.Aoki,H-Kamimm'a: electrons (Kln/dmclfzlg fadisorderedsystems 75. j. D.Lawson: Tlzephysica beams ofchargedparticle 73..M. Doi,S.E Edwards: Jeo?:y dynamks TM ofpolymer 71.E.L.Wolf: tunnelq Princles ofeleetron spectroscopy 70. H-lri-l-lcnischrseznfconlzlcror contacts 69.S. Chandrasekhar:mathematcal ofblack The theoty holes 68.G.R. Satchler: nuclear Direct reactiomg 51 C.Mzller: Jeor.p . The ofrelativity 46.H. E. Stanley: Introduction tophase rrlrl-Wzo?z. andcrticalphenomena ' 32.A. Ab lmgndl?:'zzz J'r/rlclle: ofnurlrmr 27.E A.M. Dirac: mechanics Princles ofquantum 23.R. E.peieris: theoty Quantm o-f-ozkt

lntroduction to the Theory of Ferromagnetism

SecondEdition
AMIKAM AHARONI
The Aic/lardfrorl-fefn Maznelg?zz Professor ofTheoretical Emeritus lttstitute Weizmann ofscience Israel

OXFO

UNIVERSITY IAKESS

N bookha Jdntcd been dgstazy lzrolluced s'tand'd and $n c syccscue in crdt'r t'Jbntre ctlrzirxgtgtTvnolnl? &) fts

00 IJNIVXMITY Pltv
Great Clarendon Oxford OP Street, OM O,dbrd Univezsity isa depavtzntm Univey'sity Press oftlze ofOHord. 1tftmhers Univcsity's tlle ofexcellence in researhy scholarship, objective and eeducation bypublishing worldwide En New Oxibrd York Auckland Town e.s Cape Dar Salaam KongKarachi Hong Kuala Lumpur Madrld Melboume Mexio Nairobi City New Delhi Shanghai Toronto Taipei With olees in A'rgentina Auia Brazil Chilt Chzech Republic Greeoe Fruce Guatemala Hnngmy Jaqatt Korea Ikly South Pol=dPortug;l fin>pore Swlerland X'bazland Ukaine Turkey Vietrram Oxford a registered mmrk Oidbrd is tmde of Univemity Press in theUK in certasn countries and other PublishedtheUnited ilz States byOAord University lnc.. York Press New
ArnsumAharoni ((8 1996

ne moral rights theauthor been bave asserted of Crown copyngh' t material reproduced is under wS:.N permissionIWSO theQueen's forScothnd the of and Printer Daobase OAord Hght Unheersity (mlker) Press keprinted 2007 A1l right.s resewed.No ofeB-!t publimdon maybe reyroduced. part stored a retrieval i:l or in form meanq. systemaeansmitted.azzy or bqany witlhour priorpermiqsin Universzty Press, tlle jnwridng Ogdbrd of or aseexsslypermitted law. under by or termsagreed theappropriatt W:.h Tepromphics o ' don.Enquides dghts concprnl'ng reproduction outside scope theabove the of should senttothekights be Depar%ent, OJCCOM University attheaddrerhs Press, above You must drculate book any not this in otherbinding cover or Andyou mustimpose same this condidon any on acquirer

Class Ucence Number CO1P0O00148

1S3N 97$-0-19450809*

PREFACE THE FIRSTEDITION TO

Thisbook mainlyintended beused a textbook fzst-year is to as by graduatestudents advanced aad seniors physi en#neering.built, in and lt is however, suc,h waythat it em.nalsoserveas a reference for proin a book fessiolals workon advanced of magnetism, want to relesh who topics but their previous studies, lookmore deeply thebasis whattheyare or 1to of doing. isbased a coursethat 1used teac.h the F'einberg It on to in Graduate Scool the Weizmann of lnstitute Science, hms widened of which been here, maixlyin te part denlng micromagnetics. with The. emphasis on explaining bmsic is the principles, withoutgoing too deeply anyofthespecial which normally into elds are discusseddiFerent in in the conferences. idea to Tve prallelsessions magnetism The ks beginners size as much as withina reasonable of one book,and coverage is possible at to have matureresearcersone Zeld in have leasta glimpse what into otherEelds a11 are about.Onlyin the particular feld of micromagnetics into did 1 allowmyself go somewat the state-of-the-art some more to of advanced topics,mainly because is no comprehemsive which there treatise tkis bookis nisxn coversthis sublect, even anypart of it. 1zt or some ways, meactto besuc.h advanced an review micromagnetics. even for 'this of But I tried on and most subject to concentrate theb'msis, avoid of the technical details whic.h belong suc,htreatise. more advanced are usuzly in a The parts to which help v-ithout as #ven referencesthelkterature) should reseircAers confusing students. the This book theoretical, it is by no meansmeantto bereadolly is but bythosewhowast to become theorists. have I tried to keep minda11 in those practising and phydcists onlytoo oflen who en#neers experimental dogood expedmental withoutuderstanding theorybehsnd work, ihe it. Theyusually lookup, andwith too highrespect, the theozists to whose theyare unable read., to mainly because papers writtenin these are papers ac incomprehensible lMguage. hope 1 theywill beableto readthks book, that obscure asdto flndout that in manycasesthereis nothin.g behind presentation, thetheorists pretend theyknowwhattheyaze acd only that doing- ths purpose, emphasis always thedisadvantages For the is on and the drawbackseach of theory, more thanon its advantages, whichin my mind self-eddent. particular,keep are In T pointing the appvowimations out whic,h theorists some ignore, even.try to Mde, or clalmlng a particular that calculation, a prticular resui, ermet. is or that Ttismssumed thereader already has taken undergraduate an course on elds, is fnmliar and with Maxwell's equations, thewaythey are and

PREPACE

dedved. Some desnitdy a11)that subjed not of matterksrepeated (bat here, pr-nted 1oma de'erentangle, whha more mature aad and pointof q'iew. iope thatthisrepetition helpestablishbetterunderstanding I will a of the ma>etostatics ksposWble a typicaluadergraduate than in course, wlkich rushes cove'rtNemzrriclzlum, no time leftto understand to with it. However, in ths mostilask mavetostatics, = mostTy even I tryiag to a foundation buildthethecay rathertlun to to givethestudent good om cocer a lot of ground, to gointo teEne or detus of particular problems. M%t of this bookus chssiGphysics oaly,because LsHprwsa-ble it to dott otherwise. spiteof somecblmqbysomeenthusasts, is no In thue quantum-mehanical of magnetsqm coversmore thana minor theory which little cozmer the subject, even tlat is doneby usagver.rrough of and I 1pointto discuss Bohr-van tlle appremations.made spem.a Leeuwen in it quoted too theorem, section because Ls 1.3, much often quantumby mechani spedl-les, lookdown everybody andclpl'm who else, on tttat theirsis the onlytmle physics. Thox maaetidans who do not develop a.a Oerioritycomplex fromtese aTgttmenis sldpthe details that of mar section. Nobody tellsthequantum-mechaaical to avoid ever certain experts appremations used their theozy, if told,theycouldnot care less. ia and. I am tryingto eatourage classical-mechani the theorists have same to the a:tude. Ia theFeberg Graduate School, students rmuired takea.a atl are to I dvanced in Qaantum course Mebanics, which could on baildmy course. is mostly TMscmse, howevez,aiypical, ix othe pla- manystadents, a'nd in ensneezlng, a graduate school wtthout tm-ac ever being exposed aay to For quantummehanics. the beneftof these students,collectuall the 1 quantlzm-meehnm'cal dismeoninto chapter3. Tke rest of the bookis writtenwitkout anyessential referencethisGapter, e.xn befollowed to and evem nhxpter is omitted. if 3 Tkose How sometkiag who 'about quantum mechanics shoald ableto beneft from thepreenutioaof the lumic be principles that Gapter. those donotknowquantum in But who mechanics can easGy 'witkout do it. 1have aa unonventional of thesubject IZSH order matter,startingfrom excxaage, addingto theauisotropy, induding eects, tken it aad tlme wlzie.k aze usually studied withoutany refereace te magnetostatics to aayway. Themagnetostalk interactions onlyafterthesuperparmagndism. come I wkich believe thisorder pnqier follow students theorder that is to by than mostof my colleagues have wottld recommended,that R eelpsgrasp aad to theprindplebekndtheequations. the Thereferen- are onlymeaatto indicate where reuer maynd more informatiol which relevant somepoints. is to They not meaat are to althoug sometimes 1 mentioa who hebwrite the Mstoryof the subjed, strted that lineofresearch. Therefore, older the are papeze not mentioned if they are quoted newer one, unless olderones contain(='tG in the

PREFACB

information c=not befound newer ones.1never could which in understand thepointofthose dtetheoriginal who work Maxwell, exnmple, of for which nobody bothers look up anmay.I havealsorestdcted citations to a1l to in only. ago-all students required have were to at papers English Some years leasta workng knowledgeotherlpmaages, these are passed, of but days andI see no reason to put a list whic,h nobody even lookat. It is will ratherstrange discuss works Nel to the of without citinganyofhisorigiaal works, even to discuss Dringmassin section with no mention or the 10-4 ofDring. 1prefer doit tkis way,andaaybody wapts read But to wko to thepapers Nel Frenc,h easily the necessary of in can fnd referencesthe ia whic,hdte. Afterall,I xrn not dtingall tkeolderpapers English I in papers either,whic,h couldeasily make list of manythousands.was tempted a I izz model eqn to make Gception the case ofthe Dietze Thomas a,n and of wilic,k in detail)butthenI dedded against it. (8.1.1) 1 discuss much It maynot seemso to those are used textbooks hardlz who to with any referencesall, but 1tlied to keep at theirnumber small possible, as as and it is,after also aide to resecllers. muc,h po>ible, nlncj a11, a Iu as as I tried to refer reviews broader to for aspects the topicdiscussedthetext, or of in whic,h rathe.r to beread to semi-popular artides Physics i.n Today, are eas'y to, by beginners- nzleis not always This adhered aadin manycasesthere is nothing besides ozi#nal, dicult-to-read, the and aiticles.Occasionally 1mayhaveaISO carried been and articles; away, dtedsomemore advanced wkickare denitely on theintended ofthe book. it should not level But be borne mindthat the beginner not eoectedto reada11 izt is thosearticles, andsomeoftlwmare onlyintended practising for researchers want to who gointo somemore detail. I tried to avoidcitiz.gconference proceedings a2enot part of a which and wich available manylibraries, in journal, alsojoulmals are not easily unless lothing more appropriate available. examplea is For before Brown the of to hepublished a published full account what1 refer hereas (171)1 shortversion 2963 Appl..JW:>., 1319-20in Z 34, There nothing the is in latter which cannotbe found (171), thereLsno reason to mention in and it. 'Phen Browndid the s=e with (508), a short versionof whic,h was frst published (50z4. in this case, the h!11 as But in paperis published an in obscure wick dted journal, not manyhave.Therefore, this case1 also the skortversion so caa (50:1,that thosewho Onnot :nd (5081 at least readsomething.

&''l!7Wm
Rehqcoih, Jsrc:l Decembe.r 1995

TO EDITION PREFACE THE SECOND

Research nowadays advances 1st, and onlya fewyearsafter this vez'y book been had published, ofthepresentation micromagnetics of had parts alreadybecome obsolete, called a revision. major and for The chaages, however, azemostly conceatratedtwosections chaptersand11. part izl of 9 The that is intended beused a te-xtbook Mmostalt thedismzssions to a,s and of theolder, more established, and theoretical magnetism remain essentially 'a unchanged. of therevision thispart consists correcting few Most in of typographical that1have preparing secerrors failedto noticeeven'in the ondpratingof thefrst edition, some minorrephrasing. are also or There several mostly updates revised and discussions of somenew references, in of topics, such resonaacesr were on theborder thescope thefrst as that of ' edition. Ofthetwo major changes micromagnetics, addresses search in one the for a Qhirdmode'' nudeation a perfect of in prolate spheroid. was a,n It unsolved problem thetime, andits presentation theprgdous at in Mition s'zas necessarily cautious unbinding. zeader warned the and The was that popular search such tstllird for a mcde': mostprobably was futile,butlhad to admitthat therewas no proofthat it could efst. The proofwas not published 1997, now thepresentation section is single-valtted, in and in 9.4 with a clearer condusion: is no point ilz looking sucha 'fthird there for mode''becausecaanotpossibly it efstThe second change deals with theproblem usingsharp of coMers in computational micromagnetics. even more dramatic thefrst one, lt s than because this'question been has highlycontroversial more than40years. for lt wmsfnally settled yearin a satisfactozy last muner, by tke late Ale,x Eubertandhis collaborators. new formof section 11.3-5 reects tllss The drastic c'hange Lsgoingto infuence that stronglyall micromagnetics rein search thecomhg years.

Rehmmthv zmcl July2000

AmiumAharoni

CONTENTS
1 Iutroduction g:t.:L Nomenclature Domains l,2 Weiss Leeuwen Theorem 1.3 TheBohr-van i,.4 Diamagnesism
1 1 3 6 8

MolecularField Approxmation

2.1 Paramagnetism k.2 Ferromagnetism 2.3 Antiferromagnetism 2.4 TheCurie-Weiss Law 2.5 Ferrimagnetism 2.6 Other Cases

12 12 16 20 22 27 32 35 35 36 43 48 60 60 63 66 70 76 80

3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5

4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6

The Heisenberg Hnrniltonian SpinandOrbit Exchange Interaction lhtegrals Fuxckanje Delocalzzed Electrons Spin Waves

Magnetlzatlon Temperature vs. Magnetic Domnsns TheLandau Theory Critical Exponents IsingModel LowDimensionality Arrott Plots

5 Anisotropy aud Time EFects 5.1 Anisotropy 5.1.1 Uniafal Anisotropy 5.1.2 Cubic Anisotropy 5.1.3 Magnetostriction 5.1.4 Otker Cases 5.1.5 Surface Anisotropy, . 5.1.6 Expermental Methods 5.2 Superparamagnetism 5.3 Magnetic Vkseosity

8
83 85 86 87 88 89 90 92 100

CONTBNTS

TLeStoner-s7ohlfarth lfodel
6 Another Ene'rr Teerm 6.1 Basic Magnetostatics 6.1.1 Uniqueness 6.1.2 Triviaz Ex=ples 6.1.3 Uniformly MagnetizW Ellipsoid 6.2 0rigi.aof Domains 6.2.1 Domain Wall 6.2.2 LongandShort Range 6.3 Magnetic Charge 6.3.1 Geae'ral DemMnetizatioa 6.4 T/zdts
7 7.1 7.2 7.3

705

109 109 I1l 112 114 116 120 122 125 128 131
133 133 138 141 142 145 148 149 152
157 157 165 171 173 179 181

Basic Micromngnetics Iclassical' Kxchaage TheLandau Izifshitz and Wall Magnetostatic Energy Physieally Small Sphere ' 7.3.1. 7.3.1 Pole Avoidaace Prindple 7.3.3 RHprocity 7.3.4 UpperandLower Bounds 7.3.5 Planar Rectrgle

8 EnergyMlnlml'zation 8.1 Bloch Nel and Walls 8.2 Two-dimensional Walls 8.2.1 Bulk Matfm-nqK 8.3 Brown's Static Equations 8.4 Self-consistency 8.5 TheDyn=ic Equation
9 The NucleationProblem 9.1 Deinition 9.2 TwoEigenmodes 9.2.1 Coherent Rotadon . 9.2.2 Maretization Curling 9.3 InfniteSlab 9.4 TheThirdMode 9-5 Brown's Paradox 9.5.1 Eazd Materials 9.5.2 SoftMaterials 9.5.3 Small Particles

183 183 188 188 189 194 200 204 207 209 212 215

3.0 Analytic Mkromagnetics

CONTENTS

X4

10 AnalykicMicromagnetics 10.1 F erromagnetic Raonance 10.2 FirstJntegral 10.3 Voundary Conditions 10.4 WaIIMass 10.5 TheRemauent State 10.5.1Sphere 10.5.2Prolate Spheroid 10.5.3Cube 11 Numerical Mictomagnetics A1.1 Magnetostatic Enera 112 Energy Minl'mization 11.3 Comptltational Results 11.3.1Domain Walls 11.3.2Sphere 11.3.3Prolate Spheroid 11.3-4 Tln-n Films 11.3.5Prism 11.3.6Cylinder

215
215 217 221 222 225 226 231 232

238 238 243 250 250 252 255 256 260 266
268 315

References
Author Iudex
Index Subject

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION
)1t Nomenclature $1 It 'idMown experiment everymaterial from that which put in a magnetic is feld,H, acquizesmaretic moment. dipole a The moment unit volume per defned and here 11b as themagnetization, vdll bedenoted by thevectorMV mostmaterials is proportional the applied ) H. Therelation M to freld
'

thenwritten as

M = xH, andx kscalled magnetic the awuscegtfdltp material. of the Maxw-ell's equations usually are wrttenfor thevector
B = Jzc + %M), (H

instead M. Here is a notationintroduced BrownI1) include of by to rtn dlfferent systems units.ln pariicular, = 1 for theS1 of uztits, whch aa.e % popular textbooksr % = 47 for titeGaussian, units,which in while are cgs .most popular magneticians: forwhichp,o= 1. If ecn (1.1.1) and is among 'Vllilled,is also it possible revite eqn(1.1.2) to as
B = ;&n,

where
= + p = p*(1 '/BX) Jttp,r (1.1.4) ib knoqqz the magnetic as germeclt:?. material clx--fledmsCparar The is magnedc' x > 0, f.6.ys > 1, andas4diamagnetic' < 0, i.e. p. < 1. if if x There howmrerj mateziats are, some whichdonot ft this classif.cation, in the becausethese materials mawetization is not proporkonal tie M to feld, xpplied H. lt maybe,forexmple,non-zero at H = 0.Actually, in L6,1 materials not even a one-valued is of jhese fmnction H, andits value depends on thehistory the applied of eld. typicalcaseis shown Fig. 1.1,which A in plots$he of of feld, MJJ,as a component M in the direction the applied 'function themagnitude that feld-Theoutermost is known the of of as loop limitingpstereyf.s andis obtained applying suEciently c'u'rt)c, by a Iarge deldin one direction, decreasing zero, andthenincremsingto a large it to it valuein the opposite direction. curve is reproducible.consecutive The in cycles the applied of eld.

DITRODUCTION alplf';rdr
S T
z'

l
I i
I

Htt

FIG- 1-1. SGematic representation the limitinghysteresis of curve (or of a typicalferromagnetc matezial, displaying the virgin also loop) cuz've(dashed), one minorloop.Also shown the remanence, acd are Mrt the saturation Ms? Hc. maaetization, andthe coercivity, Thecurve which startsat theoriginisknown theuivgin as znc-kn6tzction e-anonlybetraced curne,and once aler demagnetizingswple,nxmely the bringing to a stateiztwhichM = 0 at H = 0. Thisdemagnetization it may be acMeved heating snmple a hightemperature, cooling the by to and it in zero Eeldjor by cyclingthe applied feld with steadilydecrea-sing

then before amplitudes. the feld is increased, decwreased the limiting I hysteresis is reaGed, thenthe eldis reversed,so-called cuz've ar.d a rrnor hysteresis Lstraced. Je@J Oneexaapleof mzc,b cuzve is shown Fig. a in 1.1,but there actually whole is a continuum them.With an appropriate of history the applied of feld, one can therdore at aay point inside end the ltmitinghysteresis J.n loop. particular, is possible reach = 0 with it to H of Mr of -l% any p-alue MH betweea and mMr,where i.sthe value MH on tke ll-msting hysteresis cuzwe,at H = O (see 1.1). is called Fig. It the or rncgnetfzcttm. remanmcethe remanent It is possible) although rtuxy necessary, defnepfarrne-ability not to for ferromagnetic materials, order pretend theyare similaz some to that in in mateaiisxay to panmagnetic thereqn(1.1.1) eqn(1-1-2) nor is G'l6lled fenomagnetic in materials. Nevit is quite permeability at eohezless, mlstomary introduce 6.Tctin6 to some a particular wlueof the applied Eeld, as H,

'Wrslss DOMATNS

OBHI8II, of of or, over a certain range Nalues Ih a,s

= Jzqff

(1.$.5)
(1.1.6)

ltes =

LBHILII.

J.u eithercase:it is possible a certain to approfmation applyMaxwell's to equations ferromagnetic to materials the same way theyare nsed in for materials, tidseFective with here paramagnetic permeabzityHowever, Mis not a constant it is in paramagnetic materiaks thewhole ai formulation ) and is at bestusable a particular at applied feld. Twootherimportant termsare azso defned the limitinghystercis on curve in Fk.1.1.One the coerci6sy coertbt)e is or Hct Ls jbrce, whic,h the value H for whic,h = 0: andis actually magnetlc aadnot a of Ms a fe-ld force- otheris the satnration The mcpnetzcfon, spontane@'as or t'ncgnezationtMs,whick bedeined themeantime thevalue Ms , or will for as of the magnitude M, ja a vezylarge of feld. Thisdefnition not accurate, is andw'illbemodifed section but it should for nowin 4.1, do Thks satm-ation magnetizationan htrinslc propertyof the material, is of lf It andis independentthesample, properly measured.is a fundion of form of which plottedin Fig. 1.2a this fgure, temperature, typical a is In at Msis normczedwithrespect its value zero temperature. temto The is with Tc, perature normalized rcpect to theso-called C'ure temperatnret of the materlal, whic.h the temperatare whir,h becomestzfzero is at Ms 0 cmlbed When in the ferro$eld. nozmalized this wqsy, cun'es for diferent aze the ferromaaets become magmets verynearly samemsin Fig- 1.2..X11 regular at above andas suchtheyhavea Tc; pazamagnets temperatures non-zero magnetization the presence the feld which used the in of is for mea-surcent.Thisbeaviouris emphasizedFig. 1.2which in shows the curve as aduallymeasured a small in applied feld, at which does 2)G not Speecexmerimental for Ni mlrves temperatnzego to zero at the Curie andFecxn beseen,for ava.mple,in Fig.9 of Potterr2).

1.2 WeissDomnins In principle, theozy ferromavetism of should address of thase both unany usual phenomena, are not encounteredothermaterials. should which in It thus erplainthe hysteresis displpyed Fig. 1.1 qnd the temperaturein dependence of Fig. 1.2,even thoughmost theoreticians onlyon one work andiaore the other. Theydoit evenwhen theycompare results the with azt w'tperiment) whichalmays involves both. It is inevitable, because the general Luuantitatine problem too complicated the present is for state of Howledge. both are to Qualitatively, phenomena understood a certxin extent due to a,aexplanation already in Weiss asumed there that given Weiss 1907. by

WTRODUCTION

0.8
7

o' x'.s 0.6 > Nx

D =t I A 0.4 =
0.2

'

--u-

'

.'

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.B

nG. 1.2. SpontanYus magnetization, of a ferromaaet a functiou Ms, as of the temperature, normnlized tlkeCurie T, to temperature, The Tc. applied.feld Msumed besmall, 5:111,e, is in realm-nxm.eis to but msit ments.

Ls certain a internal Cmolnruxlar') Eeld Terromagnetic in materials, which (or trie to alignthemaretic Gpoles theatomsagahst of thermal fuctuations whic prefera mplete disorder these of dipol. will besn ia the As nextchapter, a molecularseld such is suRdent explain temperaturo to the in dependence asplotted Fig. 1.2,andtheparamagnetisan the Curie ibove 1.hz.-R leads a cdntdcz temperature. However, model to maoetization M at any sven temperature below ln orde to explain unusual the feldQ. dependence 1.1,Weiss in Fig. Msumed ferromagnets mad of that are out Esmb value domxsnsmagnetizedthesaturation is to m=y domains. of these ' as i!zFig. 1.2, but the diration of lhe magnetization vectorvazies Ms(T) 1omone domaiu the other.Themeasured of themagnetization to value is theaverage whic,h be zero in any particue over thex domains, catl

WEISS DOMAINS

diredion when there an equal is number domains of pazallel antiparallel and It to thatdiredion. ca.calso have non-zero value, a, numericazy thazt less if of The feld magnetic Ms(T),thisnumber dominsis not equal. applied the of rotates ma>etization theindi'ddtzal domains its own direction, into andwhen feld is sulcientlylarge aligna1ldomains, measured this to the value bemes Withoutgoing fne details, should into it be average Ms(T)quiteclear thisassumption sucient eolain theGeld-dependence that is to '' in Fig. 1.1,at least qualitatively. . Weiss not justify of his two azbitrar.g did %sumptions, could and any not explain origin themolecula,r or theefstence thedomains. the of field of Therewere also several diculti% implementing principles any in his for quantitative estimations. pazticulasr, theexperlmental ofthe In using value Curie point in such theozy, magnitude the molccular i.tlkron a the of feld turas out to beof the order 106 lt takesa eldof theorder 1Oe of Oe. of to rearrange domains ixon, 103 to elp'rnlnn.te altogether. the in and Oe them Howcome that a feld of 106 is not suscient alignclf the magnetic Oe to of it moments iron, arzd takes extra feld of only 103 to do t? And a.u Oe howis it that. even a 1Oe eld can contribute verysfgnl-ficantly so towards a taskwhic,h 106 fcld Ls a Oe not sudent accomplish? to of disculties In spite these v'itl (which beaddressed theassumplater) tionsof Weiss actually aze validaadsound, containthe basic and understanding ferromagnetism. molecular is lmownnow to be a of The feld certain approfmationto a coupling force spins, whichcan bedebetween here rived om more basic prindples, will beshown at diferent as levels. of in is TheHstence domains, magnetizcddferentdiredions, not-even an assumption more. Th%edmains been have techobsered several by any niques, outzined section andtheir Hstenceis now an established ia 4.1, eoerimental is lbct.Theonly diference that they aze lmownnow to be magnetized certaindirections; are not a-srnndomly along and oriented as Weisfthought. However, Gstence thdr being experimental should an fact not stop us fzomentuizing 'tnlqthesedomains e-xist, an appreciable and partof this bookq'i.1l dcvoted answerkng question, wellas the be to this a-s question whya 106 eld cannotdowhata 1 Oe of Oe 6e1d can. Even though basic the properties ferromagnets quantum of are mechanat' icalby nature:mostof the treatmentherewill use dassical physics) a level by students didnot takeany who whickcan befollowed engineering mechaakcs in college. is not onlythe choice thisbook. lt for Most quantum ofthe development theoz'y ferromagnetism done ofthe of was using classical concepts even in recentyearswhen only, evezybody knows that a classical theorycan at bestbeonly aa approfmation the true quantum to treatment, enecially magnetism. reason is that purequantumtheozy in The has Mvanced beyond not yet simple casu which ofverylittle practtcal are application. However, before tMs approach ferromap to adopting classical netism, is necessazy consider famous ofken-quoted it to a and theorem of

WTRODUCTION

to cl%sical physic cannotpossiBohrandvan.Leeuwen, accordhg which blyleadto magnetism, because pureclnMical in physics electrons a the in mat-rlltldo not interactwith a.n applied magnetic ield.

1.a The Bohr-vazzLeeuw-en Theorem Considerclasicai a syste,m N electrons. of Theyhave degree 1e0. 3.6r of dom,andare therefore descibed their 3wV by coordinates, andtheir qq, electron a (negative) d = -!:g1- cgs has chargej Iu 3N momenta, Eac,h p. = units)aa electron whose velodtyis v creates curzentdensityj cv, and a a magnetic moment .
m =

at theposition in space, r where is thevelodty light. Theimportaat c of featureis this m isa Iinqar that fanction thevelocity ofeach of v pazticular electron. mpltnsthat whatever patteM ofmotionof a11 eledrons lt the the ks,the total magnetk momentis alsoa linecrfunction all the electron of velodtiesTherefore, a-componeat the total magnetic the of of pomeat all theelectrons bea funaionof the form must
3N

ygrx J= sr

(t

x v,

(1.3.7)

T)l>=

GL , - - - , q'nr q-i (z ) , 2=1

/1.3.8) k

the a derivative with respect timej andwhere to the where dot designates coedents, are functions all the coordinates but do not depend of a(, %,
On R.

Thecanonical etpations a classical of motionaze

i= opi,
where

J>f

= 3%

&/f

t'k

(1.3.9)

(1.3.10)
is the Hnm-lltonian, is theelectron m. of massj A is the vector potential ' themagnetic andc7 is thepotential feld, Substituting (1.3.9) eneroe. eqn in e1n(1.3.8)j
3N
= 'rn,.'s

f=z

tz'; , :3.N') (17 aPi

- - -

(1-3-11)

If k'B Boltxann'sconstant,T is thetemperaturez is and

/3=

*T

(1.3.12)

TI'IEBOM-VANLEELTWEN TROREM

the dassical statistical whic'h bemeasured will Ls average

Mz =

) pue-Rdqz Je-sdq

..

. ..

.dqsxdps. . dpzx . . . . . dpsx dqsxdp

(1.3-13)

According eqn(1.3-11):numerator eqn(1.3.13) sum of to the in is a terms,each which proportional of is to

O -<

-c

#7Y-rt = t'?py Ti

ZC 1 ( J-sv WYPj m
-

(1.3-14)

whic,h 'kanishes, because is proportional Wfor largetpgi H to according to eqn (1.3.10). Therefore, = 0 andthereis no ma>eticmomentat Mz for no any vectorpotential(namely anyapplied eld), matterwhat the actual motion the electrons the material i.notherwords, of in 1. thereis no interaction between applied an magnetic andthe eledrons any feld in material, ifthese of physics. eledrons behave according thelaws classical to lt meausthat dassical physics cannotaccount eitherdiamagnetism or for paramagnetism,alone 1et ferromagxetism. Thistheorem ver.v is general, its proofis rigorous. aad Eowever)do% it nt eliminate possibility usiag all of classica,l physics. it elirnl-nates A11' is the use of pureclassical physics, whichnobody doing is nowadays. aayway Classical eledrons cannotmove in a cirOlar orbit azound atomicnuthe cleuswithoutradiating their energy collapsing the centre.But and into classical' theories use theresultof qurtum mechanonly m=y oftoday's icsto force electron such the into orbits) calculate radius and its classically. Iztfactthiscircular orbit isa11 takes allowa clmssical it to theoryof diamagnetism, will beseenin the next sedioa.Classical as eledrons not have do a spineither.Bat by superimposing quantum-mechanical the concept of a spin,a classical theoryof ferromagnetism becomes possibie. Actually, in the caseof ferromagnetism not even a realclassicaltheory, the one it is like whichservesas a limit to quautum mechanics other in feldsof physics. It is a quasi-classical approach which the takes quantum-meeanical concept of a spinandtreats it c.s %? 'tller6 c classjcak it 'pcctnr. essentially lt uses onlya classical to dress somequantum-mechanical whic,h results, Jorm up at frst sightdoes even seemaesthetic. not In principle would nicerto treat the whole of magnetism it be feld in general, ferromaaetism particulam, purequantum aad in by mechanics. Some books, Wagner andmanyof tke research whic.h are e.g(3), papers pubished this quaatum mech=ics is every year:adopt approach.Eowever, onlyapplicable a vep-limitedpaztof ferromagnetism. G the other in For in problems this Iield,thereis just no otherchoice. Theycan beeither techniques, used most of i!l ignored studied the quasi-clusical or by as this book. calculations givea usdul Moreover, classical can intaitiveguid-

WTRODUCTION

aace which suRcient pzefer is to themeven in some of the casesfor which

quantum calculations possible complicatedare but Besides, of the mauy reported calculations ratherrough use as quaatum approfmations, will be that seen5nchapter lt has 3. never been established these approfmatioas physics. azeanybetter th= the use of classical 1.4 Dinmagnetism Asa,nillustration, diamagnetism bestudied both1oma qu=tumwill here mechanical staadpoint, 1oma quasi-classical and approach which on the Bohrorbit of an electron superimposed. is Consider an isolated, frst quaatum-mechanical which Z elecatom ha.s trons. Its Hnrnlltonian Ls 7t =

y.Y!, ame
-

+ other gp -cA(r)1terms,

(1.4.1 5)

the where othertezmsinclude interactions between electrons the the aad nucleus, between electron another, and one and which not playa rolein do the point underdiscussion.the applied If magnetic Lsparallel the feld to z-axis) is constant both space time, thevector potentii is in and and A
=
-

H 2

(-p,z, 0) ,
H

(1.4-16)

and

= = pt - A(n). .--lzpvppzl -a ndpi s (1.4-17) !.! f, where is the z-component the orbitalangulaz of momentum. Substituting (1.4.16) (1.4.17) (1.4.15),expectation an.d in eqn the ecns

valueof theHarnlltoniu is
-

zJJ z 1 Z V = 2z?u w eHlt 117ezja (z2 &2)f otherterms, (1.4.18) ps X(2 c + c + + =1

whichleads a magaetic to moment

= iwv-

('?V =
DH

eH + )-) &F7zo (z2 p2)y zzrsec 2c

E
-

. .

=1

(1.4.1 9)

the Fora moleof the material, susceptibility ts

:J.Z ;x = o.a =

, nmeaE Cz2&2) f=1

e2x

(1.4.2 0).

where ts Avogadro's N number, namely number atomsin a mole. the of

DIAMAGNETJSM

sidtraa dedron modng a ccmstant ai frequenc.y a drrnln:r with fzc ia orbit

thenucleus, namely
2 n'tevz'r=
r2
-

In order obtain same resultby a quasi-dassical to the estimation, con-

a radius around nuclems r, a wkose electzi.c charge Srei. eq'lilibrium is In thentrifugal on tbeeledronis equal its Coulomb force to attrRtionto

(1.4.21)
(1.4.22)

Hence
tdc=
3 TIVT
.

forcej(e/c)x H, is added If a maoetic field,H, is applied, Lorentz a v tc thepredous forca,thefrequeuc'y changes (tnaztd new equilibrium to the equation becomes mcto1zz Ze2 lelYrS
=

.2

(1.4.23) (1.4.24)

Using notadon the

alz =

, 2mec

Iele

become eqn(1.4-23)

0. (1.4.25) Since <<t even for the largest whkh e.xn betecbnically LOL a;c H achieved, the solution thequuratic equation of (1.4.25) bewritten as may
a7= xz

Y2 - 2=:7:, oJ:2 =

2+ ogo .2o gs (az+ (ac.

(1.4.26)

Theappli-tonof tbemagnetic has,tkus, shled the fzequency eld by theamount which called Lavmor ulzt is tbe Jreuencp. mpmnstkat theelectron Thisc'hanze frequency in makes *z,/(2x) extra revolutions second, creating additional tkus the cmq'ent per
J = 2* .
-

(1.4.27)

In cgs units,themaaetic moment j/c multiplied the area unde.r Ls by the

orblt,lmmely

(1.4.28)
lends tbe .:a,z,,e lo susceptibility in eqn(1.4.20). which as nl's resultdoes contradict general not the Bohr-ma Leeuwen theorem, sneztlm orbit assumed tbis becausetrue clasdcal a electron c'aztnot the in

10

INTRODUCTION

tclasicalh It show, however, correctresults alryo that calculation. does may beobtained this quasi-claasical by approach it is combined some when qdth artifactsfzom quantum mecbanics, as the electron suc,h maintnsning the circular orbit in this case. Ia a sim:-lnm thequsimclassical of study way, ferromagnetism isobtained hcluding electron withsomeform the by spiu, for the e-xchange interaction between spins. these Before concluding present the several comments in order. are H cmse, thefrst place, picture an electron the of completely localized the atomic at site is oversimplled most solids, it certinly do%not applyto for and metals, wkich degenerate gasofthe electrons the occupies certain in Fermi that bands are splitby themagaetic into the so-called fdd Landau energy which beyond scope this is levels. isa completely lt dferentproblem, the of book. calculation presented actually The as here applies to noble only gases, or othergmses when theyare ionized down the complete to Jn shellj.. thtte cmses material completely the is isotropicjandtherefore = y2 = Xr2. V s Forthecases) (1.4.20) is usually found theliterature in as eqn
y: =
-

ezAr rz gzyz r''-'

T 11 -a-? (,=
-

--x

(1-4.29)

andtkeT%tof the calculation theevaluation Fpl is of 2 which rather simple ks for a hydrogen atom,butless for othermatedalsso susceptibm The second point is that the diamagnetism negative (ie. of eqn (1.4.20) efsts or (1.4-29) in cJJ matedals? including ity) paramagnets.Aowever,paramagnetc in the susceptiblty much is materials positive than is in in larger thenegative whch negligible comparison. cgs part, 'Imits, a typical.value the&st term i'nthesquare for brackets eqnr1.4.19): of AEJ, is of the orderof 10-27 whilethe second term, lctlfzzv2/(2c)) + is of ) the order IO-ZGSL largest H whicb physical!y of The feld is attainable is 106 andeven at that feld the second of eqn(1.4.19) Oe, term is aegligible compared the frst one. Theonlycasewhen second (namely with this term the diamagnetism) is measurablewhenthe frst term vaaishes, is whicb usually means a closed electronic shell,as i.!lthe noble It should be gases. noted that a zero contribution the orbitqlangular of momentum, for as d-electrons, not suRdent, is because electron contribution the the spin to rst teerm term negligible wouldnormal!y makethe second . annray The second term is measurable whenthe total contribution orbit and only of spinto thefrst term vanishes, thesingle and atom does have magnot any netc momeut zero applied in when feld. Thisis the c>e of diamagnetism, the magnetic momentof eack atom, andof the ensemble atomsin the of material, proportional theapplied is to magnetic feld, andis always the in opposite direction that of thefeld. to Paramagnetic materials a non-zero magnetic have moment eac.h on of

DLWAGNETISM

11

thdr atoms, whic,h not caused andisindependent azkapplied Ls by, of, magneticfeld. A magnetic arranges eld these moments its own direction, izz so that tke moment increases an increasing with magnitude the feld, of is The andthe susceptibilitypositive. diamagnetic, negative susceptibility ezstsin these materials well,onlyit is usually as negligible compared with thepositive susceptibility In the absencean applied the =n.gpart. of 'feld, neticmoments theiadividual of atomsare randomly oriented, that their so Ls ctlcme zero. Iu ferromagnetic matezials magnetic the moments the individual of atoms interact strongly e2.c.11 As will be seenin the'followwith other. ilzg,this interaction creates certain a devee ordereven ilz the absence of of an applied eld- order the causeof a non-zero average This is magnetic moment zero feld, whicll the basic in is dfereace between paramagnetism andferromagnetism. the classifcation materials beexpressed Thus, of can ia termsof the magnetkc moment zero applied in feld. In diamagnetic mar terials, momentis zero for eachatom;in paramagnetic this materials tMs momentis non-zero for eack atom,but averages ze'ro over m=y atoms; to is andin fezromaaets the average not zero. even

2
MOLECULAR FIBLD APPROXIMATION
2.1 Parnmagnetksm parn.magnetism trying to understand lt is necessary undezstand to before fezromagnetism, it is bestto start 1om thesame qumsi-clmssica.l and approach whchwill bc useful ferromagnetism. quantum-mechanical for A theory paramagnetismisnot particularly of diEcttltto htroduce, it but E3j wi'llnotserve thispurpose efecdvely. ms Therefore, start byconsiderng we an ensembleatoms,andmssume of thateach them a fxedmagnedc of has later for ferromagnets, justadopt moment In orderto beused m. we the quantum-mechn.nscxl that the magnitude of thismomentm is result m ggBS, where is the so-called tlaand fador' or lspectroscopic splitting g hctor' and ,
= P,B 2rzcc

jsj:

isknown theBohrmagneton. is another of expressiug (1.4-19)1 ms lt way cxqn although ,magnitude not evenneed justlcation thepresent this does in any conte:tof paramagnetism. just taken a devnition theatomic lt may be as of moment. Eowever, thereis another quantum-mechanical propertyof the spinnumber, whichis convenient adoptwithout considerng deSt to the tails-lt isthatthecomponent can onlymssume 2S+ldiscrete Sz the values -S, -S + 1, - - ., S, .e.one of theintegral halfintegral or sm2ue.s between -S and+S,in integral steps. These magnetic moments assumed interact are to wthan applied magnedc ield, H, but not to interact each with other- ener>of interaction The of a dipole moment with theield H is loqm be -m - H. J.f dim to the recEon H is chosen thez-n.'r1q, average of the component m in that of as direction a temperatnzreis,therefore, at T accor&ng theclassical to statistics Zm,emMfLf * == (2.1.2) (O%J) Temxnll ' where is dezned eqn(1-3-12)- theabove-mentioned in Using mxgaitude p of m in mzt andnotingtheallowed values Sz, of

PARAMAGNETISM

13

with
D where notation tNe
=

,: rt=-S

e##R7Sn =

=-S
= ,r;

C1

(2.1.4)

gn,f
-

NT

--..-,

(z.1.5)

ks used short. for Thesum in thedenominatorthewell-known is geemetric Kzies

n=-S

5-2 = C
J

.%'

1 1 1 - f2d+' f-S - S'+l ' = '+dS) .-g.- 1 - ( = 1 - ( -'y (1+4+. .$

(2-1.6)

this 1z> Diserentiating eqttadon rpect (' an.d with rearran#ngv

,

-1 =

a=-S

jp .s'+1 ts S(( 'i' s-z q fsv..y..:% j-s h ; k 2 qhy J 2 1 (h) (

. .

'

Substituting (2.1.6) (2.1.7)eqn(2.1.3), amd in eqns

+ S((S+:j-S-1) LS 1)(fS j-S) = = qsxi (zlzz) .t -s g;tn (: 1)( j,s+-z)
-

zssinh((S 1).4) + 1) + 2(S sinhtsz?)

fs+z+sss-,- (fs+f-s)

4.1.8)

where is defne in eqn(2.1.5). Therdore, z)

= (Szi
S (sinh + 1)zj sinhtspl) ((,s' sinhtsz?) cosh + llq) cosht sT? E(5' )

(2.1.9)

Tiliseeression besimplledby using$he can foEowing, relar well-lmown tioms Mweem hyperbolic the fcnctions: sin.h + ((J
= 2 1)q)sinhtlv?) sizh(zcosh #,)
-

) lyj (2S
,

-f-

(z.1.1(j;

25'6-1 = 2sinh !. funll cosk + 1/3) coshtsq) . ((S (2.1.11) !y n Also, lasttarmin thenumerator eqn(2.1.9) the of is transsormed accordiag

(z )

to

= sinh sinhtsz?)

25 + 1 - q. 2 r? 2

14
=

MOLECULAR FTRT.D APPROMMATION sinh

2.9 1 + sin.hp. . z T Substituting these eqn(2.1.9): dividing S, all in and by

cosh !! z T

25+ 1

(z) cosh
-

(z)
.

(2.1.12)

(&) =
s theform

28 + 1 28 + 1 c0th as y zz
-

c0th

(?l. z)

(2.1.13)

Recalling defaitionof 'cin eqn (2-1.5), relation bewrittenin the this c.an
-

(Sz ')
S
.

S ss IET--..S ,

WT

(2.1.14)
z

where A:nction the

= Sa@) as

25 + 1

2S+ 7 COth g-s- z

g,jcoth(z,j,) (2.1.15)

is cluled Britlonin the Besids argument it also the z depends on Azlcjitm. thespinnumbert S. Asan illustration shall consider we xlqn separately pmicalarcase the S = 1. Theallowed values Szin thiscase are zg= +la, ard thesummaof R two tionsln eqns(2.1.3) (2.1.4) over these values. and are Therefore,
n.n (Sz.b Ewns = -e,zv .ua
'.'.w.
'-

.1. -ae '-nla+

eznfl o en,.'g

te..7/2 1.tanh .; =
-2

(j

:2-1.16)

sjy = (5'a/ Stanh ggp (2.1-17) YT t instead eqn(2.1.14). no mistake thisakebra) actually of Thereis in and the
-

Thatmeans.

results thesame. R can beproved usingtheappropriate are by relatioas the functioms thede6nstion eqn(2-1.15) that in indeed between hyperbolic leads to = B.iJx) ta.nh :c. (2.1.18) k Hdwever, spedal this function does make case S = i)ratheratypical. the Thereader thuswnrned a phrase 'consider example = .1.: is that like for S 2 isencountered often theliterature; more often in but thannot it rders very to a special case,which dl'eerent is 1omwhathappens any otherwulue for of S,even though somesalts with S = .) ezst. do A ForsmallN-alues argument, of the
c0th z
=
-

+ -3 +

s O(z).

(2.1.19)

PARAMAGNEKSM

15

Substituting eqn(2.1.15)) in
1 + = Ss(z) (2S 1)2 z 1252
-

+1 a O(z = S3,5 z )

s 0(z).

(2.1.20)

Therefore,H is not too large, (2..1.14) if becomes eqn

1) = (Sz) #Jzp,S(.5' ) jsz H

+

(2.1.21)

which of the formof eqn (1.1.1). most parnmagnets ordinanr is For at e-an temperatures, deviations the line.ar no from behaviour eqn(2.1.21) of bedetected for the largest even possible H. In the cases for which feldj the magnetization not proportionat the Geld highapplied is to at felds,it to is customary conservethefotmof cqn (1.1.1) but a atorvayp defne Gelddependent susceptibilits in is then The x(Jf). value eqn(2.1-21) referred to as the initial s'tzscepflflfsp

DLM' 1% an%rgi C a) (&) = lim Xrntuz H,--& t').s = H...n Z'9JJ = -a r

-

(2.1.22)

where is tke nMraber spkns unit volume? N of aud per

h-S + lh L'S J. 23ks (pJzs)

..

(2.1.23)

The temperature-dependence susceptibility eqn (2.4.22) of the i.!l agrees M'ithexperiment a11 Jcv)for paramagnetsp is lmowu the C'urie Jk ard as be thatr on x mayaISO worthmentioning although maydepend S in paramagnets, does depend the historyof H, as is the case for the it not on ferromagnets will be discussed In paramagnets Ls wellwhich later. x(S) a defned, singlo-valued function. Fora very large argumentr cothz -+ 1,andeqn(2.1-15) implies

#s(+=) =

+1.

(2.1.24)

It means that at ve,zy largeapplied feldsthe magnetization saturases aad does keep not increasing the ield. Thissaturation with obviously occurs when thespins aligned the direction the appiied alt in of are eld,because in these the the parnmagnets e:ed of thefeld ksonlyto change direction of the individual, magnetic fxed moments. does chrge theirmagniIt not tudes, except the small, for djamagnetic contribution, mentioned section in 1-4,which always ex-istsj is usually but small neglcbly in parnmagnets. Thissaturation caanotbe observed mostpnmmagnets, in because the avallable H isnotlarge feld enough reach region-lt seen,however) to that is

16

MOLBCULAR FDLD APPROXIMATION

thattheargument eqn(2.1.14) in is SHIT, ratherthaajust Therefore, H. tMssattzration be can attained verylOw at temperatures; T is small. when It cxn alsobeobserved S Lslarge, if whichcmmbe achievcd a specia! by phenomenon as sktpenmramannetsm. materials, is the known In normal S spinnumber a single of atom, andis of the orderof 1. However, under certain conditions, which bedescrbedsection Sstheresultant will in 5.2, of the spins manyatomswhichare coupled of together. these In cases S can beof theorder 103 104) rathersmall is snlcient to reac.k of or and H saturation.
2.2 Texromagnetism section, Unlike paramagnetic of theprevious the atoms which interact only withan external magnetic theatomic feld, spins ferromagnetic in materials interactwith eachother,eachof themtr/ng to alignthe others its in own direction. Thisinteraction between originates thequantumthem from mechanca properties spias, of whkhwill bediscassedthenextchapter. in Readers donot kmow quantummechaaics sldpthat chapter, who any may whichis not essential following rest of this book.Theymayjust for the adoptas an aMom efstexce such force, the of a whichtriesto alignspins by the so-called ezchange interaction. latter can beexpressed an The as ezcltange between Sf artdspin Sy,whichis proportional spin to e'nerp:y S- Sy. Eeld, as in H, Including same eneraof interaction an applied the with thecmse paramkgnetic thetotal energy a system thus of atoms, of is
*

s. -5! 74ys E ggnsi Rp

-

(2.2.25)

Khere primeover theErstsup indkates thecase = J Ls the that excluded, because spins not interact themselves. forthese the do with Except mlues, b0thsummations extend over all the atomicspins the material. in The coecients are called ezctmpe Jii the fnteprcls, can beeeaatedby aad methods dcribed thenext chapter. should noted thesign in It be that of these coeRcientsdefned that if Jy is positivejNrallelspinshave is so a lowerenerathan antiparallel whzch thecmsefor a ferromagnetic ones, is interacton. Vezy are and ts manybodies involved, someapprofmation inevitable. In thischapter introduce populaz we a technique, which Hownby other is it names h otherbranches physics. the contextof ferromagnetism of In is lmown the name mnlecvlcr tpgrozfzrco'n, by although more reneld cently name mean Jcldapprozimation becoming widely the is more used. its In thismethod, spinis tagged checldng statistics more detail, one for in whilethe others justreplaced their me= value(or, are by rather,their quantum-mechanical expectation Then, value). aftersome maztipulations,

FOOMAGNETISM that partcular spin is 'untagged, saying on the average is not any that it diferent theother from spins, obtiningthemeanvalue. thus Spedqcally, consider spinS: mssomething we the special, collect and together enera terms which is hvolved theI-lamiltonlan the in it whiclz (or actson S:), when the other KE spins, are replaced theirmean value, Sj, by

(S#),

Ei
where

-2
#

' H Jus- (%) J/ZBSC

-Sf ' Hf,

(2.2.26)

H: = p/zsn + 2
i

Ju(S,)
.

(2.2.2 7)

Thefactor2 comu fzomthe fact that the double sum in eqn (2.2.25) actuallv contains particular iwiee: the spia once under name S,and its oncemsoneof possibilitiesmlncrn over S#. the irt ing Equation means (2.2.27) that the total energy) is not equal Ey anda factorof Zz to S, Si, has to in beintroduced the mln!rn ation over the interactions, that theyare not so twice. counted the interaction the To the presentapprotmation, exchange between spins thustHrned to be equiwlent an interaction eachspin hms out to of with an efective eld,H, whichis non-zero even whenthe real applied feld H vauishes- gs lt essentially assumption Weiss, the of mentioned in section whkhiswhythise:ective becxme 1.2, field known theliterature in as the Wr61.S molecular or Just Wre.s N' recently; ihe fore the .56ld. .#eu, name of Wekss tends beforgotten, the nxrne mean $614 to and seemsto betaldngover. Under eithername, the above treatmentcan be regarded at a certain level analysis jut6cniion thetmolecula.r whiclz of ms of fteld': Weiss postulated arbitrargly. reach level,we havepostulated To this Just arbitrarily etstence an exckange the of interacKon the formdescribed of byeqn (2.2.25). A deeper-level calls justication for delvsng (2.2.25) eqn 1ommore bmsic pzinciples, whichwmbedone the neadchapter. in Theproblem ferromaaetism thusbeen of has to reduced theproblem of isolated spins iateracting an applied with feld, which theproblem is of paramagnetism treated theprevious in section. should benoted It onlr that here .H, in section wp.s-JpsS .H. it theenergy is .-.S whezecs thepre'dous the function eqn(2.1.14) a,n Therefore, argument the Brillouin of in needs normazization. that is done, a-component Sz' When the appropriate of is seento become

(&z)= SBs sm , g., where is defned eqn(2.2.27). HL in

(2.2.2 8)

Nowtheparticular Sis nntagged: avemge is no difere-ace spin on there between spinandany otherwhichappears the summation eqn that in in

18

MOLECULAR FVLD APPROXIMATION

Therefore, spinsmaythe b0th writtenwithoutthe index, or jt (2.2.27). and'eqn becomesj substituting eq.n after 1om (2.2.27), (2.2.28)

(2.2-29)
which a transcendental is ecpation det-lxnl'nl-n Actually, relafor this g (&). tionLs strictlydefned not when writtenin thisway, because summation the for this over j depends . It still calts another on aumption about sum, the mostusual whichis that JL:i zero for spins of is which not nearest are and neigizbours the cz-ystal, it hasone universak in non-zero mlue J for neatest neighbours. lt Ls to customary usethe notation
y
=
N J7 M-= )

/@-F '; R

(2.2.30) (2.2.31)
,

= J% 9;iB$f9' t
'

QT

and

uz#j

2S2 7.

(2-2.32)

where Lsthe number nearestneighbours, the squaze-bracketed of and p expressionfor theabove-mentioned is assumption spins that which not are neazest neighbours a zero excange have integralOther assumptions about somefnite values the next-nearest for neighbours whic,h casesezdst real (of spinst with A);or evenfurther-away are alsopossible the snmealgebra. notations, (2.2.29) An example be#ven section Forthese wi.ll in 2.3. eqn
is
= 11.

+ BsLlaJz).

(2-2.33)

Older texts used elaborate graphical to on solutions thisecpation, of but it is not necessary more. Witha modern computer numerical a solution any of ecm is a of as (2-2-33)tridalmatter,andg e-anbeplotted a function a for ,, solution looks moreor less the like any mlueof h.Fora rathersmall thmis plot in Fig. 1.% slightvariations with depending the mlue of S.Ia the on limit ofvazdshingthesolution h, looks approximately thecurve plotted like n Fig.2+1. 80th these curves are plottedusing aztother theory, which will bediscussedsection andare not reallyplotsof the molecular in 4.6, eld appro-vimation. ax'eshown this stage They at only as a demonstration of the qnalitathe shape the solution eqn(2.2-33)of of Howeler: the case for h,= 0, whichis the mostinteresting for theorists, case thereLsan analytic

FBRROMAGNBTLSM

19

O.8

I ; & 0.6
,''>

X hv

Q 0.4

r/me FIG.2.1. An approkmate shape thesolution eqn(2.2.33) case of of for the te'mperature, lb= 0.Thetemperature: is normalized $he T, to Curie Tc, ' above whic,h onlysolution this equation p = 0. the of is
of cxn approfmation to the shape this solution, whic,h be particularly 25! useful when molecular cuzvehasto becomputed the feld az manytimes, a part of more comple,x computation, exxmple avera#ng some for in over parameter. Using notadon the
'm' =

t /,'(T)/?z(0),= r/zc,

(2.2.34) (2.2.35)

the xnxlyticapprolmationLs

Herea and b are adjustable paraceters, bestvalues whichare the for in 2.1, tabulated Table and
c
=

1+

1 . + 1) 4SLS

(2.2.36)

2.1 also deviation the analyticupression of Table lksts the maMmum from theexactsolution eqn(2.2.33). accuracy adequate mostpracof This ks for ticalpurposes, espedazly thernxxn'mnm of thedeviation since always occurs fozrather smallvazues@: which accuracy usually important. of for the less Ls

20

MOLECTJLAR APPROXLMATION FIELD Table 2.1.Theparameters andbwhic.b c should be used eqn(2.2.35),the matmumrelav in and tive deviation, of tlds equation D, 'hom soluthe tionof themolecular theoretical feld relation, eqn for diferent N?alues sph, S. ofthe (2.2.33),

.6'

1 -1 *0182 10-2 x ; 1 7.7521 10-3 x x (. 4.5249 1O-S 2 1.1241 IO-S x 1 -7.9838 10-4 x 2 3 -1.5270 10-3 x 1 -1.4780 10-3 x

b D (%) O26166 0.695 * 0.19270 0.708 0.14825 0.519 0.11229 0.277 0,080979 0.356 0.052860 0.535 0.027221 0.677

of As hasbeenmlptioned section1.2,the temperature-dependence in t:e magnethationzerofeld,asexpressed eqn(2.2.35) plotted in by or as in Fig.2.1,isexpected bevalidi.atheinfzrforof tkernngnetic to domains. In practice, measurements done suKciently felds asazenecessary are in high to remove those domains, are thenextrapolated H = Oin orde,r and to to with the theoretical curves, such the one plotted Fig.2.1. as in compare Details thhs of in 4. procv *1 beTven chapter cxn Actually, H = 0,there no direction space if is in which des.ne zthe which been has used deriving (2.2.33) 6mt place. reM for izthe In axis ew ferromagnets is no dilculty, because are anisotropit, have there they aad a bult-in preferred direction. spin However, readers may wonder for who about azready tlsisstage, is sucient assumethat thecaseH = O it at it to is theendof a process whicha inite feld is applied, thenslowly in and reduced zero. Such process quiteclose whatisdone to a is to experimentally
anyway.

2.3 Aotiferromagnetism Theexchange integrals were assumed tke predous J.f in section be to to positsve podtive, that spinstendto align parallel e>h other.TllLs so value essentiaz having ferromagnetic but it is not necessadly Ls for a order, so in al1materiazs, exchxmge and htegrals also negative. be Actually, may negative exchange coupling occurs in nature more ofienthana positive one. When exchange the integralbetween nearest nehghbours is negative, to it tends align the neighbouring antiparallel eathother,which to spins can SSO riseto a certainorder low temperatures. materials.do give at Such

ANTVEMOMAGNETISM ezdstj are cazed and antfevromagnets.

21

Thethcory this phenomenon preseated L. Nel of was by even before

it was 6.rstobserved e-xpezimemally; the historyas described hks see in Nobel lecture($.He con<dered coestalline material, a madeout of two in sublattices, whichare constructed suc.h waythat the nearest a neighbourof rw-vh belongs the otber spin t,o sublattice, whic.h interacts with it by a.n antifen-omagnetic exchangc coupling, with J > 0. Interactions -J, qrithhrther-away have been spins also added later studies, here in but we consider a relatively only simple whichis only a slight case generalization of theoriginal Nel assumptioninteraction of betwee.n nearest neighbours only. assume We that,besides p nearestneighbours theother the in sublattice,e.ac.h Jtlqcl spin interacts p' neighbours with withinthesame sublattice by a ferromagnetic couplng? Eowever, order maintan basi-FJJ. in to a callyantiferromagnetic we alsoassumethat T <<J. Hteractionswith case: hrther-away are takenhere zero. spins as Otherpossibilities azso foundin theliterature, can be includngcases which carnotbedescribed such simple by a subdivision two sublattices. into An outstanding example Euse, is which does have suc.h sublattice, two but with J = J$so that it takc only a smallperturbation some (e.g. to change a to or vice impursties) it fzom ferromagnet a,nautiferromagnet, versa. Weignore these caes here, aDd not try to studyanything do more general thespecifed than assllmptions. of Denodng z-componeni the spin in e.a,e,11 the sublattice Sz amd by Sarespectively, Kectiveeldson each themare, according eqn the of to

(2.2.27))

Ih

p/zuz'y'' (-S 2.gJ(x%1' + !?p'J' )

-

(2-3-37) (2-.3-38)
(2.3.39) (2.3-40)

and

H2 = gyB.l+ 2#.F(,%)2pJf%jSubstituting eqn(2-2.28),obtains in one

SBs

S r JJ+ kp'J/h'-S'; )sT klps

, t 1 apytxs'a ,

and

For the caseH = O everything symmetzic, t Lsre-adily is and seen thatthetwo equatbns become samebythesubstitution = -(Sa)the (&) Therefore, solution that themagnetizationthesame for b0thsubthe is is lattica, qnlyin opposite directions, each themis a solution and of of

25 , J (S)= SBs -t (.p/ -FpJt(S) ,

(2.3.41)

22

MOLRGTLAR FVLD APPROXIMATION

which thessme as wn (2.2.29), Ls or (2.2.33), = 0for H It is thusseen that in zero applied feld, the magnetization each of sublttice an antiferromagnetic in. material the snme as that of a ferls romagnetic material, with the temperature-dependenceFig.2.1.J.a as in particular, orderdisappears the abovea certain transitiontemperature, whic,h muivalent the Curiepoint in ferromagnets, in the case is to only of anxerromagnets transitiontemperature called NQIimfnt tMs is the ! It must beemphaszzed, however, a measureent of the total magthat materiolqcould netization, ) + (&),gives zero for H = 0- Thus these (S 1om of not bediscovered the memsurement the macroscopic magnetizais before came up tion,which whytheir ecdstence not suspected Nel was with tids concept two sublattice' azzantiferromagnetic of and exGange coupling. Nowadays) antiferromagnetic below N;e,I the order the temper' ature em.n beseen by neutrondxraction,because neutrons interactqeith the loal magnetization theypus trough czy-stal. c,an also when the lt besee.n nuclear by magnetic resonanceandby the Mssbauer efect,b0th ofwhichmeasure the magnetic momenton the particula in whicx atom that nucleus located not themacroscopic is and magnedzation section (see The of from may 4.1). ex-iKtence antiferromagnetism alsobeinferred meaof which zmtbedl'skcuqe or fromthe will here, surement the speclcheat, susceptibility the Nel above point,to bedescribed the next sectionin
2.4 The Curie-Weiss Law Thesolution eqn(2.2-33), of is zero or (2.3.41), in zero applied eldfor any temperature above trnnvltionpoint,nxmely Curie a the pointin ferromagnets, andthe N#elpoht in ntiferromagnets. region T > To,it J.n this of is Hownfl'omexpeziment all ferromagnets antiferzomagnets that and become regular quite fromtheforegoing, least at parnmagnets- p,lt4n clear Jt is qualitatively, for a suKciently temperature thermat that high the Quctuationsovercometheexeangeinteraction between spins, eliminating the thus the ferromagnetic antferromagnetic andmaldng mate-rial or order the as disordered a paramagnet. as studyof the high-temperatme Forthe quantitative region, will conwe the sidertogether case of ferromagnets of aatiferromagnets, and because the algebra esseatially same for b0th,andthereis no point ia 1mis the repetitionsActually, takethe ferroma&ets bea particular we to necsary caseof thetwo-sublattice anliferromagnets, as dened the previous in section.Fora true antferromagnet assumed that J andJJ are b0th we there positiveandthat J?m J. But we can also include case of a simple the exq- J = 0, (i6',) (5'a), H = H2. It = ferromagnet the particular as and be as case may/3.rstn obtnlned the particular J < 0, J' = 0. In the high-temperature it is sucient approvirnate Brilregion to the louinfunctionby the frst term of a powerserie expansion, in eqn as

TFR CUOWEISS LAW

23

because of is smatl. Therefore) (2.1.20), the argument lhisfunction always and by eqns(2-3-39)(2-3240)bereplaced may
+ + (&) = .b'(S1)(gIJnH 2, ,J, (Sz) 3ksT
'

a1) yfsgj)

(z<.<a)
(?-4-43)

and

(&) =

S(S + ). ) + 2, , J, 3ks y. Lgp.v.H (,%)

-

2pJ(&)) ,

equations the magnetizatonsthetwo sublatticesia of wkich twolinear are It is not diEcultto solve such set of two equations, it is not even a but to it to the topct/scr two equations necessarydoso, becauseissuEcient nHA andsolve for
= (St) = 'tslottch + (Sz)

Cff - -0gISBT T'(.%oq;x:)a

(2-4-44)

where

+ + ? t zsLs 1) z, O = 2S(S1)(.pJ.pJ,) 3ks .(Jp,s) 31s

-

(a.4 45)
.

Therdore, total magnetic the momentis

= = (Ma) #;zB(&oza:) a. z +.

CH

(2.4.46)

Thistnznperature-dependence msthe C'ttrie-Weiss lt should is known Ic'tp. and it applyb0thfor fGromagnets for antiferromagnetsj indeed ts and expezimezns b0th types,with some exceptions whichare igaored on (7) here- is more usually lt in expressedtermsoftheinitial susceptibility,
'XVR Xinitlal= x-.z H
A -.t!

(Mz) U

C T + O'

(2.4.47)

is than In many these which more general therelation eqn(2.4.46). i.tt cmses expressions equivalent. sometimes frst-order are But the approximation to Bs used eqns(2-4-42)(2.4.43) in and is inodequate large for felds, and .1, Hit is necessary applythe Curie-Weiss onlyfor small to law In bolh ferromagnets antiferromaaets use of this linearapand the proimationis certaimly above Cuzie the or justifed least smallHq (at for the NV temperature, = becamseboth cases,(Sz/ Ofor H = 0. Since sn we have seen that the ferromagnets the cmseJ = 0, it is clear are 1om that For we have eqn(2.4.45) O < 0 in thematerials. antiferromagnets mssumed JJ<<J, andeqn(2.4.45) a posit'tm. that yields 0-

MOLECULAR FXLD APPROXIMATION ferromagnets antlt ks thuspossible tell thedlFerence to between and ferrcmagnets themeasurement initiltl susceptibility the from ofthe a'bove transition temperature, when areboth they pvxmagnets-rrhe Cuzie-Wee Law these typesofmaterials shown in two is soematically Fig.2.2and in Wiq the deerenis obdous. propertyis pmicularlyuseful materifor azs whichthe Curieor NV poini is at a very1ow in which temperature, is not easyto acces directly. such caseit is prva-ble determine In a to 9omthehigh-temperature whether matprixlksgoing become data to the ferromaretic antiferromMneticlowtemperature. thereis no tranor If at sitionat all, andthematerial remnlns parnmxgnetic to absoluta down zero) J = J' = 0-= 0 andthe reciproeof the high-temperature susceptibility should exdrapolate 0 at T = 0. to At lower temperatures; linear the approvlmationBs is not adGmate. to However, vnn.y be ltlr.pz' thetransitiontemperature it still at itself,where the disorder begins, because functions contixuous a f nite the and are just for S = 0 must start Trom smallmlues. Therefore, thetransition ct (Sa) the equations and should temperature, set of linear (2-4-42) (2.4.43) still havea non-zero soluton (,5'z) (S2) for and when = 0. 'Phe S coadidon for such solution that the deteminant their coedentsvznishes, a is of nxmely
1 .- C*p'Jl

C*pl
C* =

+ 2S(S1)

6'*yJ
Hence Tx
=

3t-sTw

(2-4-48)

(2.4.49) 3:8 Comparing eqn (2.4.45), resuli means that Tc = IOI a wiih ilds for ferromagnet in'tarArrkion simple with between nearest ndghbours Simonly. ilxrly,Tx = 0-fora Kmple autiferromagnet interaction with between nean estneighbours nmely forthe cae J?= 0. If TN# (% diferen only, the between experimental may betakenas a meuure of J', prothese qmlues vided coursethat the dl'Ference rathersmall, that it fts thebaskc of ks so assnmption thiscalculation, T <<t Thevalue 0-is always of that J. of used with eqn(2.4.45) experimental as an eeuation of theGchange integra), J. At 5.rst is seems if theCurie-Wee also sight as 1aw contes aaother parameter, whkhexn becompred C, .1t,hoemOt. Howcvec practi in the number spins thecrystzlites of ferromagnets = integer, of in is not as will bedismzssed next cxapter, in ihe andthe susceptibility must data benozmalized. Therefore, parameter does contasn uxful the C not any Hormation, least metals. at for It shoid be particularly emphasizod the that reult.sapplystrictly to cases wltich the assumpuon two sublattices, predominantly ft of witk
.

+ ZSLS1) p @J+,J, )

TEE CUOWEISS LAW

nearct-neighbour interaction. Other casesmaybestudied asimiqar in way, but donotnecessadly to similar lead xesults. particmlar, veryeasy J.u it is tc subdividesimple a cubic, a bcc? two such or into sublatdces, have azd the nearest neighbour each of latticepointiu the otltcrsublattgcel it just bui cannotbe done a.s fcc for lattke.An fccIattice more readily is subdivided into jonrsublattices, whichthenearestxeighbours eacllspiaare ict in o all otherthreesublattica. Speclcally, sablattice one contalstke points 1, one , m), (k, ,rzl), contains + la:2+ 1-2 one contains + l.aJjm + ),and (k (k , one contains J + lzt m + iy)) integral lj andm. Numbermg for k, the (k) sublattices this order, in counthgthe nearestneighbours, usingthe azld high-temperature approx-imation the Brillouhfunction, equations for the to be solved asre

+ = + 8J(t,5'a) + (,$.4))) (2-4-50$ + (,$'a) , (,6'z) s(s 1)LgP'BH zksr

+ = + + , (,Sa) s(s g.1)LgpeH8-7 + (,6's)(,S4.))2 (2-4.51) ((&) 3,+

+ = + 8-7 + , Lsz s(s 1)Lg>BH ((5'z) (&)+ (&))q 3ksT

(2.4.52) (2.4.53)

+ + + 8-/ (&) = s(s z 7.) LgP'BH ((5'z)(&)+ (&))) 3kB

.

it By adding together frst two andthelasttwo equations, is seenthat the thereare actually sublattices, two
.'.= = + + (5--k) (S) (,5:.)t.Sa), t,SIr) (u$'z)

(2.4.54)
(2-4-55)
(2.4.51 k l

with t'qro equationsr

1) = + + 4.7 (q'h) 2SLs+ L9IJ'BH (f&) 2(SrI))q aur

=d
+ = zsls + + (,S11/)) (,S11) asz 1)LgpeH4./(2(,6'z)
-

Thefcclattice thusbeen has subdivided to sublattices) with into but of in dxerentf-rom tltelr number neighbours the same sublattice being number theother in subhttice. slight(liserence change foreThis does the going algebra Repeating samecalculations theinitial susceptibility the for leads thesameCurie-Weiss as in eqn(2.4.47), to law with
a

o- =

8J5' + 1) /u5'
ks
.

(2.4.57)

26

MOLECULAR PIELDAPPROXWAXON

I -,Q

Tempemature, T

FJG. 2.2. Schematic representationthe initialsusceptibiiity an aatiof of ferromagnet: andbelow Nle)temperature, and a ferroabove the TN, of abo've Curie the temperature, ForT < TN, a singl+crystal To. magnet aqtiferromagnet hap-e diArtmt parallel, , andperpendicala'r, may x-u, xjj susceptibilities- a ferromagnet, no meaning 5br below Tc. x has
the for Repeathg same calculation the transitiontemperaturey'ields Tc = - 0- for a ferromagnet, whenJ > % but T.v = O/3 an fz. for , antiferromagnet, wllenJ < 0. .6. lt Ls possible usea non-zero Eeld in eqns(2.3.39)(2-3-40)1 also to H and solve themnumericalls fnd the initial susceptibility an antifeno and of the For ms magnete.kzlr N&I temperature- thesetwo muations written here, result the is
= xkaqtzal

(f/tB ) )2 j J'g
'

(2.4.58)

which not depend thetempervturedoes on However, e materials cry have anisotropy, r-einbeexpressedan internal that prefers an which ms Geld the magnetization beoriented to along czystallorraphic Decertan axes. tailswill beSven section but it mayalready realized the in 5-1, be that z-direction which have for the quaatizatfon %'e mo,ed direction beconmay nected the crystallographic audis not necessarily with axes, identical with thedirection the applied of feld)H. In such cmsesj susceptibilty eqn the in is the susceptibiiits in which small the applied is H (2.4.58) JCZUJJeJ xjj, in the saae direction that of the internal as eld. One may alsoappiya

FIORTMAGNETISM

27

small feld,H, perpendicularthedirection that internal eldjandtomto of f putetheperpendicmlar susceptibility, obtaining temperatureinitial the x.t., dependence seematically Fig. 2.2.H prindple, shown in b0thx(l andx.s . in sample. may bemeazured a single-crystal this H practice, measurement not that simple, s because singleeven crystalsamples oftensubdivided domains are into magnetized diseralong ent crystallovaphic andone cn.n onlymeasure someaverage axes, between the curve for x(( x.zin Fig-2-2.Forexltrnple, a cubic and in material with probabzlity domains each thethreeaxes,themeasured an equal of h of x will be lxj! + 2aX.s. a polycrystmlllne In sample almays one meazuresjust a an average these of two curves. Thereforel details these the of curves do not have much in comparing experimentuse qrith However) because b0th a in of or curvK have discontinuity the derivative x ns. T, aay average combynation ofthemwillhave a discontinuity. such Therefore, position the ofthis discontynuits cusp,in theexperimental is an accurate or data measurementof theNeltemperature, Aeu Tx. more accurate meazurement of Tx is obtained the anomaly the specifc from in heat,which beyond is the of scope thisbook. J.r. ferromagnet< 0 and) a 0according eqn(2.4.46),susceptjbilt,o the 'IWu-q ity diverges the temperature when Tc approaees 9om above. :'nllnA-ty the possibility having-%% 'Bfor H = 0. is justa manifestation of of # when It is tempting desne ferromaretas the15n11 a paramgnet to a t of -+ co, but such dvnition does a not have moajag.Ashasalready x an;r been mentioned section the relation(1.1.1) G4lflled ferroin 1.1, is not in aadMz fundionofH below Forthesame Tc. magnetsl is noteven a unique reason,thereis no pointin using small in eqn(2.2.29) a H to calculate a susceptibiljty below in the same way as in an antiferromaaet, does Tc, yt not preventtheorists fromcalculating anzway, such suscepdbility it but a cannotbe me-asured becauselarge a feld is needed remove themagnetic to the efect (which domains sectioa In (see 4.1). principle) Mssbauer thl'q meathe sures the magnetization inside domains, calculated as in chapter) the can see the Xect of a smallapplied feld. In practice accmracy the of esect Mssbauez is not sulcientto seeeven the Gectofquitelarge felds. Therefore, susceptibility the transitiontemperature a meanthe below has ingonly in antiferromagnets not in ferromagnets, this is the we.y aad aad in it ksshown Fig. 2.2. 2.3 Feuimagnetism Theemxac't cancellation theopposite of maaetization thetwo sublattices in is possible for identical only magnetic moments b0thlatticepointsin Nel also in moA considered the caseof two sublattices whichthe magnetic mentsare not the same. It happens eitherbecause are made atoms they of of diserent materialsj because f.ems not the same, for exp.mple or the are when there Fe2-F one sublattice Fe3+ the other. such is in aad i.n In case.s an

28

MOLBCULAR :&LID APPROKIMJATTON

coupling the antiferzomagnetic between two sublattkes leads a pactiak to o'mcellafmthe magnetic of momelt.Tberesulting total magteti'zation at 1ow temperatuzesthe diference is between of thetwo sublattices, that which not zero. is Some the mateziazs whichsucha theoryapplies of to were actually known before Nelcame up with the theory,but they were thoughtto whic' beof the same clas as fezromagnets, h confttsed issue. may the lt beinteresting note that the oldest to permanent knomra already magnet, in ancienttimes,is magnetite, FeaO4, which a ferrite.As such, is a is it fezrimagnet, not a ferzomagnet, and according theclassifcationNe,l. t,o of It Ls interesting notethat themolecular theory ferrimagnets, also of to feld ilz the as presented this sedion, verywell(6q temperatnre-dependence fts ofMsin magnetite. The nzkrneJcrrfte,s irst givenio certain matetials was madcof iron ofdestogether some otherofdes.Nelused aame as the baeis with this for theclass matezials of whlchhecalled This ierrimagnets. name f.tsonly theFrenc.h pronundation, it was also but adopted Engltsh, though in even it doesnot Gt this language. spoken ln Englishthe diference between e-q:n fenomagnetism ferrimagnetism beheard when empha-sis and only the is put on the wrong syllable. Westart by generallca-ngtheoryof antiferromagnetism highthe in ihe temperature region, whichthe Brillouin for ftmction beapprofmated can by the linearterm.Weconsidcr snmne sublattices, mrcAangc the two with -, interaction J between nearest neighbours andassumethat there only, are p of them,all tn the other sublattice. here Howeverj we do not take all atomsto bethe same, but MqlgndiFerent S1 quantum numbers, and to the We % respectiveelyj ionson eachsublattice. alsouse diferentgfactors, andg1tfor the two sublatticcw genernlezation hig, The of the hgk equations and(2.4.43) is straiglttfozward, leading io temperatare (2.4.42)
zb, (S'y = szr. + 1',h -s 2.p.7t..%z)) lgl>ps..f 31-,a:2-..

(2.5.59)

and

+ 1) = (Sca) S2(Sa Lg1#BH 2pJ(Szz)) (2-5-60) aksz

Using notations the

ci

:2/4 --, + 1) -f- SjLsj

.

3:s

e;

2pJ

+ j sqls. 1),

(2.5.61)

for = 1j 2, these equations become

T J ....o) + 0- L az ),= S 1S $ CH , #-x liB
z%) 0- (S'j + T(Szh,. c z =

L'-CZ':J . (2-5.62) 9211,1.4

F'ENNTMAGNETJSM

29

Thesolution this pairof equations of is

% (&) = T.pe z

S QT o yag

Cz 1O- , C;O- zh
y

(2.5.63)

the it for i = 1,2, where index% hasbeen omitted simplidty: being for tmdezstood the averages thoseof the z-components. that are Therdore, the(initial) susceptibility is
x
=
-

, 2. 2 ! = (C$ C1T 2 C C,0- 0) gLp.sj%.? + Ta - o.z o-: 1 2' H z.= 1 a

.

(2.5.64)

Thissusceptibility diverges T = Tc:where at

Tc
=

v' -----0 lO 2!
'

(2 5 65)
. .

xs is the cxase ferromagnets- as in ferromagnets, is the Cnrie in Here, Tc temperature) above whic,h magnetimtionzero i!l z,e1-0 the is applied eld. f Thelattercan beseen,as in thepredous sedion,bylook-ing a non-zero for

solution eqns(2.5.62) H = 0,the condition whic,h of with for is Tc 0l 0- Tc a

=

O j

(2-5-66)

whose solution eqn (2.5.65). =ot a coincidence. divergence is It is The of the suscepfibility, ferromagnetsin fezrimagnetsj in or oziginates the fzom vanishing the same determinant the denominator of in whichappears in thesolution thesimultaneous equations. linear of the Tc H the caseof fezzimagnets, temperature is caxed Azvi7zzc<thlf neticCtldenoini.Above temperature, is the curve givenby eqn this 1/x whicN not However, (2.5.64), is obviously thestraightlineof ferromagnets. 'temperaturK, D> eqn(2.5.64) at much higher T Tc, becomes
1 x
-0

(Ct+

R CcIT e/T) C3+ Cat (1

-

>

T+e

(2.5.67).

where

2 zCc To . (2.5.68) C + G% n='q Theasymptote thusa straight whichcutsthe temperature at a is line = -e, as is thebehadour a,nantiferromagnet Fig. nerative xralue, T of (see Tlds the Ctlrl: lt diferent 2J3). 0-is called lmvamqgheicyont. is usually 9omTe)as can beseen fromeqn(2.5.68). equation This actually means that 0-= TconlywhenC = 6%.

0- =

30

FVLD APPROXIMATJON MOLECWAR

!
. .

z
A2 z'#'

Z' .
.'e

-'.#I

/' .' A '

A' .W .'

j
1

J
TQ

-6

l'emperattlre. f'
; F(7.2-3. Typical behavour the imtialsusceptibility a ferrimagnet of of above ferrlmagnetic temperature, as computed eqn the Curie 9om Q,

(2.5.64*2.

Equation is the law. thus (2.5-67) Curie-Weiss Wehave seen that this lawis obeyed asymptotically thecase of ferrimagaets. these in In materials,the high-temperattre for thesusceptibiity likethose an data look of aatiferromagnetj titeyare utrapolated lower when to temperatures. However, whenthetemperature approaches flwsmagnetic point,Tc, the Curie thesusceptibility a ferrimagnet likethaof a ferromagnet. of looks Below Tethereis a spontaaeous, non-zero magnetization a zero applied ilz feld, which is.also similar a ferromagnet-H temperature that a to re#on,suscepbut not men.ning tihity exn alsobecalculatedl it does have physical any becausecannotbemeasured, ksthecasein ferromagnets. it as ForT < Tcthis liztear treatment breaks dqwn, non-ljnear and equations such those eqns(2.3.39) (2.3.40) to besolved of have numerically. as and Sivce temperature-dependence the of themagnetizationnot thesamefot Ls thetwo sublattices, results usually the are more comple.x in theZmple than caseof antifcromagnets.particular, mayhappen sublattice has J.u it that .?1 a much larger spontaneous magneeation, a smazer but Curie temperature than sublattice At 1ow B. temperatures total magnetization parallel the Ls to that of a'1, at higher but tempezatures magnetization sublattice the of ..4vaYshes; the total magnetization that of sublattice which and is B, Therelore, is a there means that it is oriented the opposite in direction. temperature between, in known a tompenaztion a.s pofnt,at whichthe

E'EPAIMAGNETISM

31

'

total spontaneous magnetization f/lrpt?i before zem reaching inite passes v'alues again. r.:'.L.?.S phenomenon indeed has been observed someferrites in formula FesMaola, M is a trivalent where rare-earth ion. A of thegeneral Many experimental on all soris of fezzites befoundix books data on can thissubject g8j. The Jfne.rstudyfor the temperatures above Cmiepoint can be the eazily It xtendedmore than t'wosublattices. is readily fzomthe to seen foregoing themore rneral formfor eqns(2.5.59) (2.5.60) that and is

(2.6.6 9)
for any number sublatuces. the notatioxof Ci as in eqn (2.5.61) of Using Md . 0- = ?JLLS4(&1)S#(z% + + 1) , .f 3/v1 y/ (2-5-70) andreplacing average component the variable the spin by
= .1:2 .t.?'.i/.$: ), (siv

h (2-5.71/

the setof equations becomes (2.5.69)

Tz: J

0- = j'zju

AH.

(2.5.72)

Forthe solution thisset of mulianeous of line.ar equations is conveR nientto use matrixnotation. 9 be the matrix whose Let components aze 0- and1etI denote unit matrix.Let x betlle vectorwhose the .o componentsare zi, andlet C1/2 be the veciorwhose components are . The setof equations s then (2.5.72)
, (Tf 0)x= C7.,/2.s.
-

(2.5.73) (2.5.74)
A,

whose obvious solution is

x
w

trz 4)-1c'/2s
-

Thesusceptibility given is by
x
--

1
i.

Jf

k'K = -H z

1
L

(2.5.7 5)

andthis sum is the scalar product the two vectors of de:ned above. Substituting x *om eqn(2.5.74), for

32

MOLEGJLAR FXLD APPROXIMATION x

=

# C)

1 1..a. '' x

C1.',.a. IFJ
-

-1 ) C.j,Fa
.

(2-5-76)

Thissusceptibility wbenT equals one of the eigenvalues diverges any of the matrix 0. Thereare materials, suchmsMnO,whichhaveseveral diferent antiferromagnetic patterns, exprcsed dferenteigenvectors by x. Trandtions one structureto another from occur at the temperaturc for the of which eigenvalues0 cross eachother.Fromthe measurements of these transitions is possible extractthewluesof theJfj which it to appear i'nthedeflnx-tion of 0clearthat Jcrlas the eigen=lue of (2.5.70)ii. R is also 6is theferrimagnetic temperature, thematerial ferrimagnetic, Curie if is or the Nel temperature, thematua,lis =tsferromagnetie below if that just transition. Expanding of eqn(2.5.76) in powers 1/T, is seen that at high of it x temperatures
X=

C1J2 . J -.ac1./a c1/2 . c1/2 g r:a T F/ T-O ' ,

-

-'j

(2-5-77)

where

c l/2 . yc 1/2 E 0j . ()-= c1/2 cl '/w = i.i m CjGj (z. ,5,s) L5 . Etpy is the plamagnetic Curiepoint,as defned the foregoing. in Wdtteaex.

plicitls

2Egj + + XjSILSi1)&(SJ1) (2.5.79) + 31 Sy S2(&1) . Theeigenxaluesthe matrix0 are often(but always) of not related in some way to those a similarmatrix whose of eigenvectors the represeat ordered confguration zero temperature. at Details beyond scope are the of this bookandeltn 1)e found p- 123 the treatise Anderson on of of (9j.

0- =

2.6 Other Cases of feld is Themainadvantagethemolecular approfmation that it is much ssmpler anyotherapprofmation the quantum-meehanieal than to Hamiltoaiau eqn(2.2.25). advanvge a vez'y iz This is important one, because a simple theorycan beextended indudemore complicated to additions, which complex a theory cannot. who izt to For those are onlyinterested a betterapprofmation certna''n parts of Rg-2.1,obtaledfromeqn(2.2.25)) are inded methods thre to achieve as v'ill beseen in chapter Eowever, methods it, 3. these cannotgo beyond (2-2-25), maysometimes an insuEcient wkich be approfmation eqn reality.Tlzemolecular feld approfmationis sufdently to the physical simple allowfor otherenergy to whch termsto beadded that equation, to

OTUR CASES

33

is not usually possible the more sophisticated in methods. these, H even thefeld 1:1 often is dropped eq.n from (2.2.25) anything interest before of happens. many cxq:x-q additional ln the is of accuracy the othermethods more thanofsetbrthereduced acmzracycausedby neglecting enerr terms which not reallynegligible. are One is will example the magnetocustalline anisotropy enero',which bedefned section 'nis termj andthebiqnadratic in 5.1. ezchange which . is (101 enerr term of theform(S1 an are Sa)2, veryeasyto addto eqn under feld (2.2.25) the molecular approfmatiopbut not so exsywith'any other method. latterenergy hasbecome The term rather popular receny; because is quite strong5:11 it multilayers. hasbeen lt sho'wn that it (11J can arix 9omthickness uctuations such in flms, or 9om magnetostatic stzrface interactions to (12) due roughness, indeed has and it been obseawed in example t:e ankstropic is eg(13) many estems.A more outstanding change which an energy is term (14) theformD . (Sl Sz). triesto of x It spins pevendicnlar each to other. Obviously, a term cannot such arrange efst in high-symmetry crystals, becauseS1aadSzcmmbeinterchanged if bysome smmetry operation, vectorproduct the changes andD must sign, However, term does vanish. this nviqtin some low-symmetry antiferromagneticcrystals, 'bycompeting the exchangecauses direction and with it the of neighbouring to beslightly theexactantiferromagnetic spins oq direction.Therefore, ksthen netspontaneous there a magnetizatiow called meak nxis. in a direction to Jerrozntzgnetdrp,, perpendiculartheantiferromagaetic Thiscase is givenhere as an e'rnm p1e those of whichcan easentially just betreated theoretically the molecular approfmation by feld only,unless sometrivial form (15) involved.' f4111 is The details not be#ven will here, but theycan befound the review Moriya(16) in thelaterliterature: in of oz

such thestudyoforthoferrites by Trevu. as (17) As a lgst evxm ple of the usefulnessthe molecular of feld, we consider thecaseof an impurity, non-magnetic in a ferromagnetic atom lattice. For of simplidty drawing takea tmo-dimensioncl lattice,as shown we muare in Fig.2.4,where ceatral the atomin theEgure does have magnetic not a moment. problem essentially The is described eqns by and (2.2.27) (2-2.28), which use here thenotations eqns we with of and For (2.2.30) (2.2.32).the case of interaction between nearest neighbours and H = 0) these only, equations are F,i '= Bs , (2-6.80)
is where summation over the nearest the neighbours. Specifcally, dening (shells' distaace theimpurityatomlaz in Fig. 2.4jandconsidedng of from theshells to each next atommsin that Egure, can write we
+ pslq p'z = Bs ((2#a n

1(T)/&j

(2.6.81)

34

MOLECULAR EVLD APPROXTMATION

(lls (()*(1)3 (lls (1)* ()* ()1 ()* ()a ()c (l)s(()1ip (()1 (l)s ()* ()1 ()4 ()a ()c (y),(y).(y)a (y), (y).
'atomn a twemensional F1G. 2-4. Shell numbering around impurity an square lattke.

+ p,g= Bs ((25: 2/.z4)a) , (2.6.82) etc. These equations becnmn-ed to a shell rzul whichis considered far up enough for 9omthe impuzity its magnetization bethat of a purefeaa'chto em'n magnet. Numezical computations 'then to include extrashell t'y an and seeif it makes appreciable an diference, addanother if it does, and one until convergenceachieved. problem solved as outlined is This was (18) here a three-dimensional cystal.It is m'ach for cubic more complicated to approach byaay othermethod. it Themolecular approzmation hasthebig disadvanvgebefeld also of It the thermal fuctuations the possible and ing too simple. ignores actual correlations fuctuations neighbouring Ttcan thusbee.w of spins. between pected bea good to approfmation at rather hightemperatures, where only the disorder high.At lowtemperatuzes, rxn domuch is one better conby excitations the statet'awhic,h spins aligned. of sidering small all are This appremation,kaown spin ocre's, xzillbedescribed the next chapa.s in is higherazzd approaches Curie the ter. Then,whenthe temperature nt511 temperature, thermal uctuations become correlated the whole over lattice.In this critcftlregion bestaccuracy achieved the so-called the is by renovmalinabion. whicilwill bediscussed chapter in 4. przp,

THE HEISENBERG HAYLTONIAN

3.1 Spln aud Orbit ln theprevious chapter have we azways refez'redthemaaethation the to of spin at the atomiclatticesites, which justa marmer of spealdng. is is It notvez'y accurate someferromagnetc for materials whic.k is alsoa tu there considerable contribution theelectron om orbits. However, thelevel for of this book dxerence mostly the is semanticp because consider total we the atom,for wkichwe have ttsed spectroscopic the maaeticmomentof eac,h splittinghdor (also known the Land as g-factor),
. = 1 + + + J(J+ 1)+ S(S 1) LLL 1) , 2J(J+T)
-

(3-1.1)

whichrm.n beused all cases.Fora purespin,L = 0, J =' S$ obtains in one is as as g = 2,which twice much for tkecaseof a pureorbit:S'= 0,J = L. The mostdirec't meamzrementthis factorg for eac,k of material by is Nbxq a method Hownas theEinstein-de eoeriment. l13iK Iu experiment, eltn the sample suspendedsuc,h waythat its angular is ia a displacement bemeasured to a bighaccuracy. magnetic is applied change A eld to 119) thesample magnetizatop thereby cllanging a.:1511% the momentum the of sxmple. value of atoms,thuscausing certainrotationof t:e whole a The &omthe ratio of the change marethaton to the in g is thenobtained change themechanical ill angular momentum, rm.nshow and which part of the magnetic moment dueto the orbitaz is contributiom turnsout that It i.nmostof the common ferromagne orbitalcontribuuon negligibly the is small. reason is that theelectric The Eelds thelattice in tau'athe plane of theorbits czystallographic into directions, mab-ng average zero, thus Lz to or at leazt a small to number. somerare earths In there an appredable is orbitalcontribution) to include and themproperly should aciually we have used magnetic a moment glnns the lattice of at site.Howeverj cases these q'ill beignored here, we shalljusttakethe magnetic aad momentto be = where is the Bohrmagnetonr in chapter as 2. ;& ggBst Jzs It is interesting note that the orisnal to experiment Einstein de of and Haa.s done was with a pooraccuracy 1ed the wrongcondusions. and to It waa repeated others whodared publish their (better) by not resull (20) because the highprestige Einstein's of of npvne:audit tookyears 'before it thai was established the correct ia Feis nearly andnot 1. 2, g

36

THEHEISENBERG EAMILTONIAN

lt is worthnoting that thespinresponsible ferromagnetismthat for is For ofthedshell thetransition i.n metals, thef shez thcrare barths. and in
'

the these shells uzkfzlled a flled shell, totalspttisknown bezero, and to are in theabove-mentioned materials. conduction The electrons the outer of shell 170th are not bound their atomsin thesolid in casu to state,butare 1ee moveandare actually to shared thewhole by czystalj is thecasein as c!Jmetals. These itineraat electrons carry with themsomeinteraction do between thelocalized at thelatticesites, willbediscussedsection spins as in 3.4.

3.2 Exclmnge Inteeraction Besidu indirect the interaction cvriedbythe conduction dectrons metin als,theze a direct is e'xchange interaction between oftheionsat the spins latticestcs: analogue, b0thin metals in insnlltors.It has classical and no and caused overlap theelectronc functions quantum is by of wave in mech=ics.It is this part which discussedthis section. is i!l Consider system N electrons a of which bound 25f are to atoms. Let theeigenfunctions electron of a.n bound atomNo. 1,whenthelatter is to isolated fzomthe rest of the system, dcnoted bhLpj, p are be by where all thecoordinatesthatelectron, of includiag spin.Since theatoms the all are identical, atom No.2 Ls if separated theothers, electron from an bound on'ly to it wi)lhave same setofeigenfunctions: at diferent the coordinates, namely and to mLpgj, thesameapplies all theotheratoms. Supp:se the M atomsstart froma position that where theyare well separated each 9om other,andthen theyare pushed towards other. each Whenthese atomsget closer together, single-atom the levels start to become mhed.However: whenthis mifng just starts,theremust st521 be some relation between energy the levels thewhole of alzd of system those the separate atoms.ln particttlar, atomsat a verylargedistance for 1om eack other, energy the levels are
M
u=

+ 1) 1J(2& =1

timesdegenerate,Sgis the spin of the f-th atom. This degeneracy if is removed theatomsare nearer together, level when eac,h being spDt into u ones. Weassume,however, theatomsare not yet very close that together, an.d hteraction the between is sneciently them small, thatthissplitting so is still smallcompared the dist=ce beiween Hlperent with the original levels. such case theorigoal,atomic In a levels still distinguishable are in thewhole spectzum. It is felthtuitively that in such case thereshottld a wayto build a be the eigenfnmctions at leasta reasonable approrimation them) for out (or

EXCHANGE WTERACTION

37

of the functions even such vilspg), thoughit Lsnot so eny to justify a feeling mathematically) to statetkeconditions it by a rigorous, cr even for mathematical defniton.Thesimplest whic.h bebuilt up can combinatbn fromt/?i(py) product is the

'/

- -m (#z) WATIA-v) , W2(#2)

(3.2.2)

is aad its permutations. However, funcdon not allowed, this because it does obeythe Pauliexclusion not principle, beingantisymmdric not to interchanging of the electrons. must takea linev.combination two We of f anctions theformof eqn(3-2.2)achielre necessary of t,o the antisymmetryj for whichit is possible use thedeterminant to

# = detgwk) ,
. .

(3.2.3)
'

where Ls a detlwklanotationfor

pLptj t#l(pz) wllps-l wat#tl eacpa) tntpx); = E detlywl !E ) . wxt/hl w-vtpal vxlpxlt
-- -

(3.2-4)

interchanging two electrons equsvalentizltezchangiugposition is to the any of two columns thedeterminant, in whichis knowa Teversethe sigm to Therefore, formof eqns(3.2-3) (3.2.4)iu accordance the the and is with Pauli exclusion prindple. ' E( not try to proent the most general wi'll cmse, andwill justassume here that the set offnnctions is an orthonormal even thoughthe set, w: conclusions whickwe are goingto drawcan also be proved underless restzictive conditions. orthonormal is one for which An set
= 81.13 wzlpzlybtpzld'rz

(3.2.5)

where asterisk the designates complex the and conjugate, 8 Lsthe Kr necker symbol, whichis equalto 1 when = j andto O otherwise. '-the integration eqn(3.2-5) ll thecoordinatespz,namely intein isover in an gration over therealspace a snmrnationover the1wo and spindoordinates = of theelectron. practice, assumption that wf(p:) /:(rz)q((z), in the is where are thespace rz coordinato, 'ry normalized and are functions the of Cspin andtspindown'. up' of z-component thespin,whichmay benamed The latter are always orthogonal, that our mssumption so meansthat (% clsomake orthonormal offunctons. an set Wealsoassume that the elcctrons the innershells tightlybound of are to theiznucleij andonly the wave functions the electrons the outer of in

38

THEEEISECERG HAXTOMAN

shells Wected the iateraction with electrons the otheratoms. are by of Obviously, more shells that are taken the outer' the a,s ones, the more accurate calculation but usually is not praetical extend the i, it to the computations more thanone or twoshells. to Wken technique used this is as the so-called Hartree-Foc.k method computing functions, for wave one rarely extends second the beyond valence the electrons-H case, g'roup any the innerelectrons together with the nucleus takenp.saa ion, which are creato a certain potential theposition thei-th electron. potentials at of The due a11 M ionsaddup at the position the Fth dectron a clue to tke of to whic,h denote Tl.TheHamiltonian tke system N electrons of is we by of then N 1 N ? ez X= lh + --' Y'Y + 'l'o (3.2.6) '=' ,
f= T

2fy#=l rii

where ksthe Hamiltonian '/fc operating theion cores,rj# is the disfaace on between electronsand#, the primeover the second eliminates i sum the caeoe= j fromthe summation, and

'/'ff =

2 5, .a V . 2zn,c + Tl

tk3-2-7)

HereV operates the coordinatesthe Fth electron. on of Ushgthis Hamiltonian the eigenAlmctions and in defqed eqns(3.2.3) and(3.2.4) energy this system the of Ls

*1=

rxn Since operatoris linea'r, integral be written as the sum of the the integrals 'thevarious over terms,namely

+ dTz dm /*S/ dn da - . drN = Nj det-kslsdetkk) ' . drs. . (3.2.8)

. '

zr =
f=l

Si +

R 2

N
z

th.i+ Ec,

f,J=l

(3.2.9)

wizere have ned we def

(3.2.10) (3.2.11)

(3.2.12)

EXCHANGE DTEMCTION

39

Thelasttermin eqn(3.2.9) onlytheioncores:anddoes interest involves not us here the studyof theelectrons. for Therefore, want to evaluate we only thefrst two enera terms. . Let us consider theEi term: andrecall frst some of theproperties a of determhaat. has termsleach which a product N wkls.ln the It X! of is of fanctions latterproduct there arenevertwo which taken are 1omeitherthe same row or the same column. Therefore, which '/t, contains derivatives onlywith respect theparticular to coordinates operates only on one p6t particiar wkLpjj theabove-mentioned in product. other The terms m>ybe moved theleftof 7Q'. to Integrating thecoordinates those over terms, the in integral vanishes according theorthogonality to assumption eqn(3.2.5), in of unless determinaat w:,contains comple.x the of the conjugatesall the termsof pk which moved theleftof '>ff. we to There one andonlyone is such term in detlrglzj evezy for term of detlwk) fuKlsthiscondition whidt andall theother termsintegzate zero. Usually, to determinant termsmay be positve negative, hereeachsuchterm in one determinaut or but is multiplied thesameterm in theotherdeterminant, that theproduct by so is always poitive. integration thetermsmoved theleft is then The over to 1,according eqn (3.2.5), we are thuslefLwththeintevationover to and In is to words, po which theonlytermwhichremains therightof ?Q- other out Si is made of a sum of X! terms,each wikic.k theJrr?z of has
. e W t #i hr.t,.jk (V j tjy.' k z V s , :
Forgiven and , the function k in termsof the appears LN 1)! vkLpj) determinant eqn(3.2.4)of Htegration each themleads identical of of to results becausedoes make diference it not whkhof the otlter functons any integrates 1.Therefore, whole to the detnrmnant eqn(3.2.10) to izt leads

(3-2.13)
Forreaders fnd it ratherdilcult to followtheabove who 1 argument: recommend to wozk as aa illustration caseof a second-order them out the for determinant, which ,-

,.:;((,,-,), ,t- .,-,,- wztpz) )j ) wwj((,,--), jgz,(sa (pa(#z) ! j (('),))

=

oa.14) (3.2.1 5)

which leads to

'ztz 'Hz dn + )j kwl(p1)(n(pz) (p;(pz)wz(p1))

aad similarly Sz. Themore general should be clearer. for case then

40

THE IGISENBERG HAVIT.TONIAN

Theindex ia eqn(3-2.13) of theargument in the integraad. i ks that pq Afterthehtegradon thismdable, result the clnnot depend tYs on over Ntkular f. Wemay as Aell lxke anyone of these indices, tavxmple for the fizstone, andwzite

Q = '-''?a .2 %

J.

* 5J

= l

w-k )'Hz (Jh w,(/;)d'p:

(3.2.16)

wkic,h Geadyshows the novmn3l-zation taken eqa(3.2.3) that factor in ks Orrect. because reult ks1 if Nz is replaced 1. The sum over is the by tims
N x
k=k

F! & = N% =
i=1

w*,(#z)>f, dn = wk(#z)

s. >

(3.2.1 Ij

wlzic.h theenergy these is of electrons when they are separated each from . other donot interad. and Whea sameMndofalgebra repeated khj,it is seem the the is for that coordinate iwo electrons involved vg = lr# r#l. of are in Therefore, for each term of detgtkoare two termsin detlfglz! donot htetheae wkich the condition eqn(3.2.5). of The grateto rmo by applying orthogonality non-zero terms tims bemade of pklpgj wv (%) theircomvzill out and and ahmt repeating szme integrals plexconjugates.previous The argument the la'rnes eqllally here, so ds conclusion well and the that (N- 1)! applies theintegraks not depead thepaeticular do on choice theindices andj, of whiclk by may as wellbereplazed 1 and2. Eence
l '' S'j 2iI.f=Q j
z*sf'' ::z. -

(,2 1 ',2 t jjok rx..bv ?*j!wk, (pr))j:)dvj ga p 2 kxk/uul

,%bt*'

1 -v ' 2 i:11-'l =
-

-' v'% )e-&-' bs'z.''bt7ns'ok' d'''-2rpz nr''r'.t (3-2.181 ... . '' (,1 (pa) s . rv.f

eg

Now, leI is the that at l@(n)I2 probability thereis an electron the coordinates Therefore, rst sumks Coulomb the the intcaction betweea p. a pair of electrons, summed all thepairs.Thesecond over sumaatbnof integrals cannotbegiven such simple a classical intarpretadon. is clear, It however, it somehow out of the Coulomb that comes potential because of theuse of a determinaut, meansthat it is dueto the Pau)i wluich principle. It rnxythusberegarded a Mndof korrecton' theclassical as to Coulomb interadion thefrst sumvnxdom does takeSnto of wlzic.h not accouat the Paaliprindple. According tlts prindple, electrons have to two that the

EXCHANGEINTERACTION
sitrne spincaanotbein thesitrne position, that their overlap smaller so is thanthat ofclassjcal electrore. ttegralswhich The in appear theseccnd summation eqn (3.2.18) calledezchange of are ntlrtzlo. The sum itselfis called ezchange the enerr termlt maybeworthnotingthat theintegrals theenerr termsthus0bin tained can beevaluated if atl theftmctions' here only are lpkLpzqknown) whic.h hardlyever the cmse.It is more common to nalnate funcis the tionsvklp) minimlcing total enerr obtained by the when these enerr termsare substituted eqn(3.2.9). are diferenttedmiques the in There for actual of thismethod mostlyrh'1m' certain use that by simplifbng assumptionswhic.h introduced minsml'zation. are a21 are before energy the They known thegeneral by of ThueVII not be naztte theIlartree-Fcok method. here. described summation eln (3.2.18), hasjus'tbeen in Consider second the which ducribed theexchaage as The feature thisenergy of term energy. important isthattheintegzationsit containalsosummation thespin in over flznctionsSince functions orthogonal each these aa'e to other,theintegral vanish vrill if the spins not parallel. are Therefore, term actuallyrepresents this the spins, thestatewhen beiween aud energy digosnmoe thestateoftwo parallel W'hen isinterested in themagnetic they antiparallel. are one only properties of thematerial, termmay justmswell bereplaced a Hitrniltonian tMs by which to holdthespins tries parallel antiparallel, depending thesign on (or oftheappropriate to other. integral)each .Inorder statethesubstitution a Hamiltonian precisely, 11: to of more 1et bethewavefunctions thesystfem electrons theM atoms, of of of when they are at a very large distauce each from other,nitrnely certain a combination oftheflznctions a single of atom (or Let ion). + bethetrue eigenfunctions of thesystem when atomsare put closer the together, that theyinteract so meckly, such waythat thedegenerate in a are enerr levels split,but not rnz'ved beyond recognition. is le#timateassamethat it is possible It to to have some SOI't a one-to-one of corrpondence between and%for this 9 case-M a substitute forthetrue Hamiltonian, we would to have '7'f, like an effective Hamiltoniam, so that its matrixelements respect the '/fesj with to P'swill bethesxrne msthematrtxelements theori#nal of Hamiltonian , with respect theg's? to nitrnely
= ('1z1!7.f1IJ'k?)- (3-2.19) ('Akl-/eel#kr)

parallelandantiparallel spins Obviously, enerr drereace if the between is going be theabove-mentioned to exchange inteval,something conthat tainsthe sum of terms whichare proportional sL . sy can do thejob, to electron. it where are the spinof eac,h sy However,is not convenient to electron separately, it is bettert,osum fzst over all the and deal withear'h electrons each of atom (or at a latticepoint. Some in care ion) gout

42

TA'fR HELSEIRBRG HAMRTONJAN

tlsissummation bene in some cases,the 6nedetails whjc.h of may cambefound the thetreatise Herring iu of and (21), will not berepeated here- fnal result whatis inttiyelyfelt to bethe =e, namely is tkat The
'Ha = where
e s q = ,-dr1 dra Z,J? 2 k'Jl' ? (r:)$7;('r2)ralt,7.(rg/wyfurt./ r
' --

jS J - s.f,
$. i,#=

(3.2-20)

(3.2.21)

The conventsonto keep miuussignas in eqn (3.2.18), is the so that positive mears a ferromMnetic coupling that tends align spini to Aj parallel e,arxk whilea negative means an antiferromagnetic to other, Aj It coupliug. should noted be that in the present Hamiltonlxn . Sycan S havevalues between and SZ,whereas appropriate in eqn -9 the pari +4:1,:1% 0 an (3.2.18) between andLSZ,wllichintroduces e'xtrafaztorof 2 in thede6nition Kn (3.2.21). It should benoted S: is the t/tll also that of spinof a11 electrons the to bound theatom, or ion, at the latticesitei. Foran insulator, spinis thatof a.lltheelectrons. a metal, the the For only electrons the iunershells counted, of are whichusually meansjustthe d electrons the metals Co, Fe.Theconduction in electrons a metal of Nk and wander around whole the crystal donot belong anylatticesite,and and to the icnermt electmns taken one entity together the nucleus. are as with Since Coulomb the lteraction is a scalar? efective the Hnmiltonian must contain scalar the products theappropriate of spins. Howeverp i.t doe not necessadly that eqn(3.2.20) onlypossibility. someway mean is the In it may beregazded only a Ast-order term in an expansion, n%t the as term of which being
a

lvI

t/=l

..726 - S,)2 (S,J ) :,.1

andevenhigher ordersmay added prindple. hasalready menbe i'a As been tioned secdon thehigher-order is indeed in 2.6, term encounteredsome in nothing the physical situations. Howeverp beyond rst term ca!kgenerally beincluded a quantum-mechanical in calculation. is,thus, TheS'ciscnierp E'amiltordoneqn(3.2.20) thejustifcation, of at a deeper level, the a%umption a force for of which to alignneighbourtries ingspins. RR>e.U spi'a the thiR operators replaeed their eigenvalues, are by . Hltetiltoni= 10-* to, andjustifes, &st enera term of eqn(2.2.25). the Jt is thusthe baais the theoz.y the Weiss for of 'molecvlareld' apmo-'df mationthat hasbeen ttse throughout chapter andthe bx--K most 2, for of the rest of this book.In capter it was alsomssumed only the 2 that

EXCHANGB WTBGMLS
interaction usually is importaat, this part can also nearest-neighbour and bereadilyseenftomeqnrs3.2.21). the integral the Since involves overtap of the wavefanctiopit is quiteclear, without even detailed computationsj that its mluemust decreae rapidly with increui'ag distaace between vezy theions.In particular, must benegligible electrons farther J for on atoms. Therefore, is usually it sulcientto consider exchange the interaction betwee.n nearestneighbours as hasbeen only, done capter in 2It may alsobeadded the treatment hererefezred that specifcally to the so-called Idirect'exchange coupling. manyof the fezzites H discussed in section there no such is directcoupling the ions, 2.5, between magnetic' there an antiferzomagnetic coupling the Instead, Ls between spinof e.g.Fe. theiron andthat of aa oxygen andanother ion? antiferromagnetic coupling that iron between oxvgen thespinof another in the.samemolecule. and This coupling, knownas a s'upevneltange,tziu to alignthe spinsof still those iron ionsparallel each to other, is egeetiveky the sxme as a two a'ad direct ferzomagnetic interaction. thelevelof book, isnot necessary At this it to distinguish between two. the Theintegralin eqn (3.2.21) is symmetric interchanging andj. to t; Therefore, = h,iz it Ls and sulcientto takeonlyhalfthe sum of eqn oka This allows to write theHeisenberg us Hamiltonian its in (3.2.20)- feature ' moze common form, as

'lfeg= -2

J'lJ,yS:S.y
.

i>j

(3.2-22)

Htegrnlq 3.3 'Rvthaage lf the fundions are orthogonal each to other,adding tezmwithez/rza a yq r-qn beoected to conkibute podtive the a value. is indeed c%e for This electrons the same atom. In an un6lled in electrons tendto have shelk parazel spins longas that is allowed the sxme shell: as for thuscyeating a largetotal spinS for theshell. When fanctions are not orthogonal, the @j a roughestimation theackange of integral usually J leads a negative to value. a problem the hydrogen For like molecule, negative this exGange is physcal of to by argument: because theCoulomb easy understand a simple attraction, two electrons the would prefer beclose b0thnuclei, to to which the the theytnn doif theyshare sameorbit that goes around tloo nuclei. According the Pauliprindple:the orbit sharing posdble if the to is only spins the twoelectrons antiparallel. of are Therdore, antiparallel this state haxs lower e1. One a aTe enera thanthe svte in whichthetwo spins can thusexpect exchaage the electrons integral for interaction between Jj, in diferent atoms,to begenerally computations 1om negatlve. indeed And for almost reasonable assumption about functions the eqn(3.2.21)) any wo excaage integral. leadto a nmatine However, is knownfrom experiment Fb, CoaadNi land h that some

THEYLSENBERG HASXTONIAN

for are and integrab themmust be earths)ferromaaets, theexchn.nge pcitive; unh-ke similar a trnmsition metal, Cujfor which eigenfuncm the e.g. tions(p4are neazly sarne, but in whic,h integri must benegative. the that Ttused bestated that nobody been to compute positive to has able a (24) exchange integral Fe.anda negative for Cu,because for one ratherlarge positive negative and contributions subtract a smaller to value Ls that very to Moremodern sensitive the computational computations accuracy. (22) havethe zight of exchange alleady Mgn, the mannitltde the computed but iategral difersconsiderably the experimental Improving still 9om value. the techniques 24) the but yet. (23, keps improving results, not suciently Theaccuracy certainly sudent afcountfor the possibility is not to that Cumaybecome ferromagnetic certainconditions. under (25) It is,thus,not possible to determine value the exdonge the of inteyet gralin theferromagnetic metals frombasic plinciples. can justassnmc One theHnxsltonian eqn(3.2.20),takeJu asa parameter of and whose is value obtnsn by ftting thetheoryto a certain ed experimental (usually value the Cuzie Thetheoretical situation clearer thecase of.JerrJis in temperature). rztunE-ls, disc'tussed in section There, < % thebasic 2-5. J and interaction is antiferromaaetic, the moments the two sublattices not subtract but of do to zero because are not equal. they The net momentis then Kectively ferromagnetic,spiteof thenegative in exchange. theoryis also The quite in the clear thecaseof theindirect for superexchaage, mentgoned previous section. those 1n. ferrites, Feionis coupled one antiferromagnetically to an in to Mother Feion. O itm wiic,h turn is couplW autifeerromagnetically ks coupling the Thenet eFec't a ferromagnetic between two Feions,butthe iniegrals b0thnegaihe. of are However, tnthese even cases)thevalues the exchange integrals to betaken1omexpeziment, have because theory the is not suciently developed yieldreliable well to values.
rare

Electrons 3.4 Delocallzed The wholeconcept intezaction of electrons wich az'e loi-mlimzo between on ionsat latticesitesis at bestvery much oversimplifed. Afler all, a strong ecchange coupling implies alatgespatial overlap theelectron of wave fnnctions, whic.h cannotbe reAliz-d these if electrons strictlyloczllezad. are at Moreover, leasti.athe metals Co andNi?conduction Fe, electrons are moving around, theymustalso and hteract5.n somewaywiththe electrons at the latticesites.The pictureis cleare.r when ferromagnetic two layers are separated a non-ferromagnetic andan exchange by metal) interaction is carried(26, by ihe conduction electrons the latter. But even in of z7l the ferromagnet itself,some interactionLscarried mobileconduction by electrons- thecse Ja metals, 3d. the ban.d overlapped energy a much is ix by wider4sbaad, dncebands flled to theFemn'' the eledrons and are level) each atom contribt ;heconduction are not a21omthe band which 4s baad,andare partly the of Le3d band. Thezefore) number d

DELOCALUED ELECTRONS

45

electrons atom (or electrons the case of rare earths) f in contributing per to the bulkmagnetizationn:f an integral is number, which indeed is an ex-perimezt' .lkhrom expermental tal fact the saturation magnetizationthese of metals) number Bohrmn.gaetons atomis 0.6for Ni, 1.7for Co! the of per and2.2for Fe.Besidu, meuured the specifc at 1ow heat temperatures ia these materials shows bigger a contribution theelectron thanr-qn from gas bepossibly accounted by valence for electrons in Fe,CoandNi)(4s The theoretical studywkicll is based the Heisenberg on Exmiltonian, as used throughout rest ofthisbook, the igaores dllculties,andjust these puts a nondntegral number ofBohrmagnetons the lattlcesites. at Therefore,another theoryhasbeen devdoped parallel, in whichassume (28) a completely delocallzed: Fee-electron moving the prcenceof the in gas, fxed backgroundthepositively of carged at the lattice ions sites.Calculatingtheactual b-ds of these electrons accountfor theactual can enerpr specic andcan yieldtheoretical heat, values the saturation for magnetization%'s. temperature curves, likethe one plotted Fig. 2.1,az wella.s in for other transportand magaeticproperties in metals. theoryis called This eollnctine eleczrn or itinerantelecfrnn ferromagnetism, ierromagnttism. Theitinerant electron ferromagnetism iselegant, someofits results and detazed for are easy follow to cven wthout computations. Consider examp1e with 11electrons atom.Th%e Cu, electrons sucient fII the are to per 3dshell, a fdled and shell does haveany magnetic not net moment, because there art equal is number electrons spinup andwith spindown. of with ln the4sshell exchange the interaction ratherlow, thedistance is and between neighbouring is too large. levels Therefore, does have magnetic Cu not any moment. Ni,there 10electrons In are which have besubdivided to between the 3dand4sshells. a gasof freeatoms) In. there 8 electrons 3d,and are in 2 electrons 4s-In a solid,because the ' of bands to the same in of up it from magnetic enerpr leves can beconcluded the eoerimcntal (Yermy) datathat 9.4electrons atom azein 3d:and0.6electrons atomin per per 4s.ln theunfqled shell spins not balanced, 3d the because exchange the are interaction withinthe atom causesmore spinsto beup than down. The exchaage for enerr galnis more than sulcientto compensate the energy loss to theelectrons due beingraised higherlevels theb=d when to in they cannotuse thelower ones that can onlybe occupied those by with an oppositespinto the electrons are already that there. dxerence The between the moments of Bohrmagnetons givesriscto a net magnetic moment 0.6 peratom. Thema-dmum possibleimbalrce 3diswhen out of the10electrons in 5 enterth halfb=d with spinup, andthe othez splitbetwenthe other 5 half bandwith spindownaadthe 4s.For zLezecwtrons atom, out of per whichz are in 4sandzL- z in 3d)at most5 rztn bewith spinup1leaving zL- z - 5 in 3d with spindown. Thenet magaetic moment then is

46

THEYLSENBERG HAKTONIAN
y'n =

(5 (n
-

= sljos i10 (p, zll#s.

-

(3.4.23)

Ni, Ls value Tn zt = 10andtr = 0.6,which concluded theexperimental 9om of lln = O.6/Is, hasbeen as mentioned alreadyIgnoring change the the in bandstructureia alloys Ni with othermetals, assuming 0-6 of and that electrons atom st111 to the 4s bandin these alloys, their magnetic per go moment should be = (3-4.24) P,H (10.6 njpnt whicbagrees wellwith experiment Ni alloys. example, quite for For in alloying with Cu,which J1electrons atom,the saturation Ni haz per magnetlzntion decreases or lYs more linerly with ncreasing concentraton of Cujreanhlmg at about Cu,in accordance this simple zero with relation: 60% Sa'rnsliA.r estimations the metalitself) the efect some alloying, for and of workwellenough Co.J.n there' deviations about for Fe are of 2O% the Som e'xperimental which not surprising value, is because assumption the that the enera band structure does change not between element the one and other oversimplised. a lineaz is But relation works someironalloys stizl for and to .for results E29), it Lsofenpossible account theexperlmental in some others(30) very simple by models. Mn this argument For breaks dowm Continuing before, magnetic the momentof Mn (with = 7)should n ms belargerthanthat of Fe;but actually momentis 0. Pure is not the Mn ferromagnetic, the iu because exchange Mn is not strongenough raise to electrons higher to levels the band, in leaving lowerenerpe the ones enerpe whichbecome forbidden the Pauliexclusion for electrons (by principle) wsththe same spin.After all, eqn (3.4.23) the mcmimnm gives moment, whichem'n only beachieved a stvtmg for exchange coupling. However, in alloys withmaterials as Al or Bi, the d-istance such thetween 1$4n the atoms decreases sulciently incremse exchange to the integral, these and alloys are ferromagnetic. It should quiteclMrfromthisoutlinethat theitinerantelectron be theand calculations theenera of ory)with more detGed more sppkisticated r-qn bands, beverysuccessfalinterpreting experimental For in data. mauy exitrnple) already computadons whichwouldl:e conddered ratherprimitivetoday(311 showed, later confrmed more elaborate (22) as by ones 32J, contninvezy sharpandnarrow peaks. that the enera bands sometimes in when Therefore,sharp a change somepropertie maybeencountered a particular of composition an alloy a peakin theenergy baxtd. passes certain Also,transportpropertia,in pazticula,r giantmcnetoresistance the efect, only by the' itiner=t electron can be interpreted practically pkture) 133) . even though lotoliz.xdon play(34)certain does a rle. Generally speaking) itinerantelectron the theoryis quite successful in with However,Ls it quiteclear that such theory dealing thewhole cr-gstal. a cannothanclle sppcicl vaziations the magnetization, the simple in for any

DELOCALIZBD ELECTRONS

47

In Magrglten kllogauu

Flc. 3.1. Themagaeaton distribution a llnit cellofbccPe, tseen' ia as bz neutrons. Reprodute *om Fig. 3 of (37) permission. by
reuonthatthe energyband calmzvonis independentspce. of Therefore, that themagndtiMation s=e in is the an amitinerant model mustmsslzme thewholespace, whilethereis strongexpezimental evidence the conto trary, namely themagnetizationa crystal a function spRe.1.u. that in is of partictllar, bulk ferromagnets bnshown w.ry manyt-hm'ques %ve l)y wfll in ia* (wbich bediscussedsection to besubdivide (II-H in 4.1) whichthe magnetizadon pointsin derent diruions. 'I'h- eFects, aad the whole concept hysterisks in of as ren jn Fkg. 1.1,mustbeignored a.a atldtinmnt thmry. Bven besid subdivison domains is strong tzhe into there expea'mental evidence agninKt itineraatelectrozz the theory, some of whicilasbeen lite'zvl a popular in review S--%MK alongwiththe eezimentalevof (35j, dence ';:h tlzeory' assumespurelylocalized electrons. (35, agnm.'a that She 36j tried to outljnea combined pictme,in wikich m'rt f the 3d electrons Ls localized, ot:er part being te idneraat. even clearer An pictureeAn be seenfromFig.3 of (371, reproduced 3.1here. plots r-ltz of asFig. lt the shooting neutronsteough an izoncrystal. Since neueonbnxa magtlze netk moment,it interactswit.hthe moetic Eeld wVe passic through TH fgttre kterprets experimemtal thecrystal. the neutrondatain termq of themagnetic Grough eld whie.h neutronsp=. lt is quiteobWous those frt)mthe flgurethat some of the maretizxtionis locoed at the lattke site, but it is alqnclear that this maaetic momentis verymuchsmeared voundth- sitas. maaeticVld distrbution complicated, the The is aad

THEHEISBNBERG HACTONIAN

pictuze caanot even roughly the approtmatcd thenaiveassumption a by of pointmaDetic charge thelatticesites. at Some details thisfgurewere of somewhat moeed later(381, theydonot change general but its propertiu. There thusno doubt anybody's that neither itinerant the is in mind electron teor.v the loc-ql:-med one rAn beconsidered bea nor eluron to complete reality; that theyshould becomboth picture thephysical of and bine into one theorpSuch combined a approach come somekimey may but the present situationis that it hnAnot been seriously tried, on atv dunt quaqtivtivelevek beause is justtx diEcult.Workers magit n netism stickto one theory theotherjustbecause are unable do or tey to there evo withiaeac,h these of approaches are still aay better.Actually, too many rhimplifyiog assumptions apmemations and which msbadms are ignoring otherapproach, are acpted lackof anything the and for better. H tMsbook Goose usetheassumption laob-vzxd 1 to of maoeticmoments Rxmz-ltonl-zmderived sedion on latticesit,and theHeisenberg ms in 3.2, becauseis theonlywayto include variation themagnetization it the of in whic.h the maintopicof tltis book- meansusinga non-integral is It spMe, is nnmber Bohr of ma&etons atom,which physirltny strange cmmbe but per zmderstood the forego-mg 1om Once a value argttment. suc.hnon-integral is accepted is nothhgwrong using in the calculations, com-. there <th it and padng results experiment. n.1qn the with lt meansignoring that partofthe exchange interaction be'tween localizM electrons the 3d whidzks cxm'ed by theconduction electrons. Eoweverj a simplifcation inedtable, suc.ll is aad Hamilia any case'expressing contribudon part of theHeiseaber: tkks a,l toniaa,eqn (3'.2.20) or (3.2-22), is quitea reaonable approzmation. As longmsthe Gc%xnge from principles iaYk rlonot be calculated basic valuecontains aadit.svalue taken1om ex-peziment, experimental is the theitineranteledron conebution anyway. 3.5 Spin Waves The foregoing should a'aadequate be for Jqstifcationthe useof the lnm1-ltonx-lm ' (z; S = -V JzzzszSz'- V gpzHsg , y (3.. ry;
z,zz

where ae latticevectors,namely vetors fromthe ori#n the f tke the to latticepoints. equation moreor less This is equivalent mn (2.2.25) to which hRA already been';> in chapter onlythereS were chssical vectors, % whereas theydesignate spinoperators. justlcation not here the The mxy bems goodas maybeeetM butit isthebtwe have tbs at of stage the which theory, leavea 1ot bedesked. a way,it is not much than to In more kowever, the an nmmmption, beadopM1om now om It is hoped: to that foregoing is czmvincing adopting assumption, for this argument suhdently

SPr WM'E,S

45

wichat leastis not justan arbitrary,ad hocazsumption is the Weiss as tmolecular used chapte.r feld' j.u 2. It is customazaereplace operators @) St'/h the operators to the h and z by

s+ z

s@)+ j#F) :
z
K

sd

,g(=) jsLN? '

: :

4.5.26)

for which Hamiltonian the becomes

7t=

-.V Jzz. j1 gxv + h-b''') h(z) (a; &-', q+ 5'z, .f,,d/

?

J-) (z; gpnHh d

.

mechanics, spins the aamelatticesite, Asisknown quantum from for at theoriginal componentsthespin forthesame.4 of S f-.1l'9l commutadon the relations
: : j(m) &,gg(l) s'jzlj r,j.atzl jhspt stvlj ; gsjv) jjj,jvjml; sz(2lj k
'

(3-5-27)

whilethese commute spins diferentlatticesites,anda1l for at components /. these commutation relations mnishfor,4# . Using these relations; and the defnitions eqn(3.5-26), in

(3.5.28)

sz) = s.jz z
=
=

sjzt + jsjvlj gsztxl ,$vz(,) , Asvzjph , sjzb jjwl + sjmt + ,fsjvt .gs'ztt'l Asvztrj j szt ,) ,$R0 ?s i?t.s'/l Sjrl + sz'llt + ,$,z(t) + z z
-

y,s..v s+ ,j.(w) z + z z ,

(a 5 a:;
- -

Hence, symbolj is where is theKronecker 'zz, which 1 if Similarlyz ,5-z+. fzs& z = -h%z' z

gszto nkz? sz'tj h-b,

=

(3.5.30)
andOotherwise.

.d= .',

S71
,

(3-5.31)
x'.
:
.

Tocomplete transformationis necessary consider the it to also

, sz'z (q$k+= q

Here frst andthelastterm obvriously the vanish, thetwo in themidflle and can bceqraluatedsubstituting by fz'oz!i (3.5.28), to leading eqn
+ , S-j S/) LS.tzz = zzkz,
-

) ''') i + syt'') .s$ g,s,zC*') lz11 g-s-zt''z ,sj + / 2) s,( )1 gs-zt'') 1 j -aa) (a.-5.
,
-

k'

-'

(3.5.33)

'50

THEHEISENBERG RAMK,TONIAN

the relations notttsaally Actually, commutation are writtenin tbis fo'rm in books papers tbis problem. Lscastomary .writethemin the or on It to special (units'in whichh,= 1)andtherefore h. It savessomeink to omit writeequations thiswas but in principle hasa major in it disadvantage if andwhen resultLsto be exprerxsed the in terms of 'real units.J.f the at qnantity' one endof the Ypulation resultis a tertasa the measurable that wants compare eeeriment,it is not always clearwhether to with that very result to bemultiplied >.) divided :.2 or whateve'r. is always has by or by 1 lt machexsier substitate particular to the value = 1 if tt is wanted to >, than in value h'= 1 is assumed begin if to with.Asa matterofhct, ,pat another theories whichuse A= 1 (or othernon-physical sach the velocity untts, as enn of lightc = 1,etc-) ezstonlyin feldsin whichtheorists their compare results with each other's, the experiment far removed. em'nnever and is It happen thenormal in trendof physicsl which in theoryandexperiment are it erpected gohand hand. to in Therefore)is always betterpolicy keep a to ,in the equations. Consider at each now, lattice point, aaother operator defned as

@) N4 = Sh - .Sz ,

(3.s.34)

where is thespinnnmber the atom (or) S of rather, ion) that lattice the at site.Since is the largest S5 eigenwlae htO, the eigenvalaes of the of nqh * . operator e-xpress digkrence Nz the between mn.rmum possible the value, andthe actualvalue, the z-component the spinat the latticesite,4. of of the at the Therefore, nllrnbea'sare called spindedc,titm.& latticepoint the nz z. Tuet denote eigenstate which spindeviation zzonnmely Tru the for the is

Nzaz=

'rtnli Tru

(3-5-35)

In principle eigenstate a fuacton the spjncoordinates cJJ this is of at the lattice sites, such operator bat an with a pavticulav of,4 vatue operates only on thecoordinates which applyto tllis patticularf. lt is readily verifled the snmn kknz abo an eigenstate the that e is of operator tX)w hose Sz , eigenvalae is h(S-zu). Indeed, using denition by the of eqn(3.5.34), substitating eqn(3.5.35), and from v (z) = Se Ta, = tlrvz:

(SCz ,5:)
=

;;(S zulllI?w.
. -

(3-5-36)

Forother properties this function, of consider expression the

sgz' q,. Jz+

+ ss-bsgzt (/j# ,5'zj ).Ir

,

a ,.

Substitating the frst tel'min the curly bracket eqn(3.5.30), for fzom and for the second 1omeqn(3.5.36), relation term this becomes

SPINWAVBS

51

t;r) z @ ) Sz (,$'G = )LI'1+ s az s

vtg j

tpazl (.z+ ; ,

(3.5.37)

whichmp-qnsthat 5+% is alsoalz eigenstate Stl H fact it is the of z . ) : w eigenstate hasthe eigenvalue - (7u :t)J. thelatteris the which Since h(S eigenvalue of kzaz-l, stateSg-bqvu leproportional 9a.-,. Simthe must to ilvly, it r-qn beshown the operator transforms to something that Szkbnz proportional Taaz. to Thebehaviour theoperators arzd is)thus:similarto thatofthe of Sz- &z+ creation destraciion and Theycreateor destroy (fetlictbtlns. spin operators. However, is a big diference that thecomautation there relation the of in conventional creation destruction and operators (a, = 1.If therightis c*q h=d side eqn(3.5.33) a numbevt andSz-couldbenormnlized of wms S/ to make commutation the relaionequal 1)but that right-hand is to side cztn a'aoperator andnot a number. best The which bedone to defne is the operators 1 1 s + + cz = S. , ap = Sg: (3-5.38) * 25h 25h for which (3.5.33) become,s Kn t'Fz k'%) 1 = z z.a. hz, tzz'q, ss k'g f
.
.

(3-5.39)

Nevertheless,has become it customary use the apmmimation to in which operator tO on the right-han.d of eqn(3.5.39) the Sz side is rephced byits eenvalue justifcation(39J repbzu-m operator is that by Sh.The gthat its eigenvaluecorrect a Ez'st is to ordea introduces a secoad-order and only error, at 1ow temperatures. basic The assumption that in %he ks region of interest, almost thespins parallel z, andthedevlations small al1 are to are on the average, namely

z'Jz - -%%.n') M.(0). (O) (T, <<

however, there a diserence that is It should remarked, the betweenproof a that the neglected is smallat 1ow term temperatures, a ucntitcand (39J tiveestimate howsmall small. isemsy becoavinced repladng of is It to that the operator its eigenvaluea good by is enough approfmation the temif is to perature not too high.lt is lesse,as'y say up to what experimental or such accuracy, up to whattemperature, an approfmationis justied. Such quanttative a estimation never beendone, hasthereever haa nor been Auantum-mechauical treatment thelow-temperature of by any re#on Therefore, the presentstzage our knowlat of any otherapprofmation. edge, there no choice o accept asumptionbecause is no is but this there other to continue calculation. it must bebonte mindthat the But in way unspedfed approfmation involvedthe a cea'iain, is Therefore, statement

52

rl'HE REISBNBBRG EAMILTONIAN

that is only theory twbich too oftenmade) a qaaatvm-mechanical is x'nherentlymore accurate sopetlzing than dadsical in chapter here)at 2 s (as bestunproved nncahecked. and Repladng right-hand of eqn(3.5.39)just(%z', the side by
, La,al'l - Jkd' ,

(3.5.40)

the operators andcz' become same aqithe conventional c,z the destruction =d ceation operators, that so
= , clk'Ik.n.z'n.:+ 1Ww,a-p;

atqn.,=, nt Tnr-z .

(3.5.41) (3-5-42)

Moreover, according thedefnition eqn(3.5.35), to in

= -$%Jtzltzz,

to so that according eqn(3.5.34),

(3.5.43) from in ecn Substitutin.g eqns and (3.5.38) (3.5.43) (3.5.27),

.''

60 . Sz = $. - cl(ul (S

'>f=

z + g.s + jy >,,&z? ((uc1,(qtuzl (S z,.f

-

'

clc,tl (zlzazz (S ))
-

ggBS,H JR' (S cltul d

-

(3.5.44)

Forf # d, the operators commute, alarmaythe and replaced czzcl. by TJ the names of f andZ are theninterchangedthe summation, second in the te'cm eqn(3.5.44) in becomes identical thefrst one. A similarargument to the of applies the temnq t,o linearin S whenopening brackets that equation.Theterm wbic,h contalns product foaraz operators neglected, the of is to it is of because according eqn(3.5.42)a,product two spiudeNiation operatorsNz.At lowtemperatures ofthespins azigned, devia,tions most aze the from the fully aligned stateare small,andsecond-order are negliterms gible. Thisargument pnltil bemade more quantitatve. e-an can One y (39) even add(40) neglected the second-order as a pertrbation, f nd term and oui the raage validityofthis approimation. should noted, of It be though, that unlike dropping thesecond-orderterm,approdmation the of the which hasalready made replacing (3.5.39) (3.5.40) be been ih by eqn cannot eqn made quantitative, there not much and is pointiu qu=titzing without one the other. rcsultis The
= e/g C - 2z

+ : z, ttzl(uz (3.5.45) G(ul J'lgIJBD,Ha)aA, 2&jYJ L,t .d

-

WAVES SPLN where

53

2 -&2uh- zzz?gpshHslh E d,:J

(3.5.46)

andN is the totalnumber ion sites, of namely Ez. Thebasic assumption that the ground is statefor a ferrcmagnet the is (l) statein whichall thespinsare aligned abngz. In that state,everySz hasts max-imum eigenmlue, thereazeno spindeviationd. and Therefore, no cz operatorcan destroy deviation this state,whichis denot. ln ed auy by To. ln otherwords, cz operates thisstate, Ta,therKult Ls if on zero. Andsince the terrns i'a nqn(3.5.45), for C, havean az on the all except right-hand sidey (7YCjgc = 0(3-5-47) Therefore, = S<7O C%tO, (3.5.48) whic.h of means that tlle ground state9:) is an eigenstate 7t) andthat Ct in of as defned eqn(3.5.46), energy this state. is the Spin deviations anyparticular at lattice plintare not eigenstatesthe of Hxmiltzmian because at (3.5.45), a creation one latticepoint,f, is accompanied a destruction another by at latticepoint,l. Therefore, excited the states not locxlzed any one atom.Theyare made of spindeviare on out ations whichare propagated throughout wkole the czystal. description 11,s thuscalls a theorywhich for involves crystal a whole, which the ms for one should takeadvantage the periodic of dtr/zclure crystalline of solids. For that purpose, cz operators expanded a Fourier the are in series, is done as in of or :41) the studyof the normalmddes the lattice vibrations, of any otherpropertyof solids. N unit cells thelattice,andone atomper For i.n. unit cel.l, Fourier the expansion is
az =

vsv57 q -q

a e

tt:

+=

a+ e-yq.z j q

(3-5.49)

where summation over all the allowed the Ls vectorsq in the Brillouin zone of the redprocal lattice,quantized according periodic to boundary conditions. is the case in any other Fouriear As expansion, invezted the expansion is
( = q

1 -q.z: (Qe .v z

J,. = q

1
-

X-N z

. 5Lefq-z.

(ag 5c)
. .

Fromthe commutation rdation (3.5.40) seen that it is q jq.(,.,j x

,
=

1-

e-q-z 1

z,

gcz e'iq'.t' , czepy

54

'I'HEMISENYBBRG HAIGTONIAN
=

y Se

cj/).z (cj-- = :q q, t

(3.5-51)

' because allthetermsin thelastsum unless = q/, in which the case q sum is N. Substituting Fouzier the expansion in the (3.5.49) Hamiltonian using izzde,x of and (3.,$.45), for thesummation h = .t - L' instead L1' noting that Jzz'is actually f-umctionthis rekathe a of ddtanc: betweenandf' l:l f andnot of ' andd separately, obtain we

= 'AJ c -

. a 2A2,$'J-)J(h)-.2q.zy'yq,yq'.(z-h) N aqe
-

:.11
.,

qz

1 e-q'' Jl cqzcfq'd + y'lgitzhsl'-y'lcq* y'lcq,cq'd (3.5.52) N z

?
'

qz

q'

Thesnlmmxtion .din botk termsksthe saae as the last sum in eqn over which justa delta is function. Therefore, rearraa>g, after (3.5.51),
= ,>d C+ E 2:2: q h

S J(h) e-fehl (1 +
-

(3.5.53) p/xshlz'j

-r

c*qcq .

a Thus - C is nearly setof harmonic 'FJ osdllators, becausq andckaze tzg readz-seento act as the destmction creation aud operators reciprocal ln y osra-lln.tor The is spacet onlydiference that the Hamiltoniuof a harmonic is * aq + .1,whereaz (3.5.53) not contain 1a. the Eackof theze does eqn 2 ' o is atoz's ckaracterized a vectorq in reciprocal by but space, theyare nncoupleti eac,k an.d of them to other, each maybe considered independeatly of theothem. Therefore, energy the levels e.a,c.11 termsin the sum of of the over q of 14 C are those a harmonic of oscillator withoutthe 1a. Adding the C term, the eneror levels 'FJ of are

s = c.lwhere

Ezk, q
p

(3.5.54)

Sq= Aqh 2hS

+ ggjzK V J(h)(1 c-fQ'b) h

-.

(3.5.55)

which theeigenoue (Iq* is of cq. andsq is a non-ncgativq integral number, This nq maybedefned the number spin'tparequantat the opas and of spinqmave excitations. of erators andR dutroy andceate such Each cq

P WhR S S LN

55

thce elementary excitatons called magnon. formof eqn(3.5.54) is a The demonstrates that C is theenera of theground again state,for which the number maaons, is zero for evezy of 'rsq, q. it to Nowthat the energy levels known, is possible constructthe are l-unction which physical the in Jurififm 1om propertieof a system thermal 1ts the mechanics eqtzlibrium bederived. general, stadstical can defnition is givenbyeqn(10.14) of (zI24,

c-pe. 2 N-*' V .x

(3.s.56)

were ksdefned eqn (1.3.12). sumrnationis over all theatlowed ltt The p statesz:, whose is &. n'omthis ftmction can obtain, one quantum energy the internal fexample, average unit volume, enerr pe.r

= ksT2

(3.5-57)

an.d speec heatfromits derivative, The average the etc. of component themagnetic momeut the direction themagnetic is in of fe-td
-

= lzfy &-f) 1zt T Z. t'?z.r

(3.5.58)

Iu the caseof eqn(3.5.54) study here, partltion the is under function tims Z = e-nC J7 e-nsq7 (3.5.59) Nq where isdened eqn(3.5.55).Te z:qisjust E% in notation carried here ove,r fromthe foregoing. ActuGy,the summation eachnq is a sllrn over over all the non-negative integers, hasnotb'lng dowith any particular and to value q. Therefore, order sum andproducin eqn(3.5.59) be of the of may reversed, the summation becarried frst. Thelatteris a sum and out may of a geomeiric ,serie,s, leadiug to

f.1

Z = e.-qc

1 q 1- ev- J& zp&.'s J(h) l-u-zq'h Ej;k

a
.

x-plzszl'j

(3.5.60)

Hence
1.n = Z
-

AT

VY
q

-ypuzs J(h) Eu 1- e

jz-e-iq'hj e .pggvyy

According the defnition eqn(3.5.46), to in

(3-5-61)

56

THEHEJSEAIBERG IIAMDTONEAN

0L-C) ggxtsh= .K, r = DH

(3.5.62)

which the magnetic is momentobtained whenall theN spiasaie aligned alongthefeld direction: as is thecaseat zero temperature. z, Substituting an.d (3.5-67.) (3.5.58), carrying the dferin eqn and out eqn (3-5-62) eqn entiation,

It is possible continue igebrain its general a little further: to this form but at some stage will benecessary specify partcular it to the symmetry ofthe crystal under study, it issomewhat and clearer doit at this stage. to Other symmetries beapproacheda si=ilar 'fashionl the 'wvn.rn can in but p1e givcnhere refers specifcally a body-centred such Fe,with an to cubic, a6 interaction between nearest neighbours In this case the summation only. = over h contains onlytermsfor which1hI ..4/-3/2 .A (whereis the cube for each which of is a unicersal constant, Theatomat (0,0,0) J. edge), J(h) haseightnearest neigkisours,l.z +a1., so that at (+a1.) +.A),
q .h =

+ -4(+(s qv+ z).

(3.5.64)

Also,this theory' stazted certan with approvimatons whch onlyjustiaJe fed at lowtemperltures, may as wellintroduce andwe another that one, themaincontributionfromlongwavelengths, is namely small Theshort q. wavelengths a highenergy, it takeshightemperatures e'xdte have and to them. argument beeasily This can made quantitative, because is used what ' is a power series expansion,
1 - 2 h 1 - c'Wq' = q . h (fq h) +
. . .

(3.5.65)

andtheexNnsion out to termsto check may be carried (401 higher-order theeFec't negleciing of them.Eere series cut oE simplicity the the is for at quadratic term. Since linearterm in eqn(3.5.65) the obviously io zero sums in thesummation h, with equal terms,the ap>roimatiim use is over zk we .:2 1 . = 1 - e'-fq'h x (q h)2 - (t/+ q2+ g) , V 8 z M =
plustermswhich sum up to 0. Therefore this approfmation, to
gsS .J..42g2/8 JAt? S J(h)(1e-QY) h h
-

(:.5.66) (3-5-67)

SPmWM?:F..S

57

there because are eightneighbours. Wealso H = 0, as is customary this Mndof calculation. set in A11 theories magnetizaton temperatu-re only sdth the caseof zero of 'us. deal applied Geld, hasalready az beenmentioned section andwill be in 2.6 furtherdiscussedsection Equation in 4-1. then (3.5.63) becomes
Ma = AG . s h p

1
q
c
&s yzt a c

.y

(3.5.68)

Asis thecase in all solid-state calculations, summation q may be the over replaced an integral theBesllouin in q-space, by over zone provided the that integrand multiplied by the density states,F/(8';r3)? F is is of where (41) the volume thecrystal. of Howeverv theexponent thedenominator since in (/2, contains the integrand ve,rysmall hrge values )qr,, onlya is for of aud smallezwr rAn beintroduced the intepation ex-tended the whole if is over of also instead justover theBrillouin zone. ln a waytbisargument q-space? supplies fartherJustifcationthe approfmation for in a used terminating the sum of eqn(3.5.65) quadratic at the term, because contribudon the of highe.r orders q is rathersmall.Thus in
u.

u,

aw g s,v

pjs,;.a0 j

''

q2sin0(Mdp ds 2712.$'.M22 . g( p &

G)

(3.5.69)

Obviously, latterapprozmation justied the coecientof /z1)2 the is if is large.This coedent about3 for iron in the exponent sudently is at room temperature, is largefor an cponent.This whie,h already r>ther value that the implies replacing Briilouinzone by thewhole is space a good for approzmation iron below, probably to?room temperature. and up The integration over the angles eqn (3.5.69) in is stralghtforward. H theintegral over q thexadable replaced z = Z$VSJAZV. f or a is by Also? bccthe volume bewritten as F' = NX2/2, the number atomsr can and of r-q.rl eliminated using a%*3 the by eqn(3.5.62)
= xsfc
= J.G(t))g;&BItSN,

(3.5.70)
(3-5-715 z

to leading

JG(T) = zG(0)

1 ks:?* ga'zg gy; gg

g;

J WAj s
z
.

to of Thus, a frst orderat lowtempeatures deviation themagnetizathe at is tionfromits Nalue T = 0 is proportional T3/2 which kztown the to as l Bloch law.It its e'xperiment all known for ferromagnets. Blochlaw This here case of bcc,but the derimhasbeen derived only for the particular crystals, the tionis essentially same (40) fccor for simple the for cubic and

58

THEHEBPNBERG HAGTOMAN

rults diseronlyi)ya numerical factor. these A11 three cubic cases involve the scae integra: * vrz gz = W=. 3 t /3.5.72) ez - y .-st.l r t p where Lsthe Riemaun function. priadple, e.xchange zeta 1.a the integral, (' Jt cAn beevaluated the Gperimental of thecoeRcient T3/2. from value of this the of Howevert method never yields same value J as that whichis Curietemperature, obtained theferromagneticthe paramavetic fzom or as mentioned chapter Thediscrepancy surprising, 2. is not because these in at measurements done dferenttemperatures, there no reazon are azld is to believe that J is independent the temperature. of Even thereis no if theraioeapansion otheresect) certainly chaages isttma the between the atomswitil changing temperature. it is obvious the theozy And from that the exchange integral, which depends theoverlap thewave fanctions, on of must be nery sensitive this distance. hasalsobeen t,o It demonstrated experimentally b0th J obtained that from Tc andJ obtained *om the coesdent theT3/2term change of considerably thed''gtnn among when ces atomsare changed'by hydrostatic means. pressure 44) byoiherj45j (43, or Pressure also is known(461afectthd h to e fteldof the Mssbauer effect. cAn Thistheozy theSrst-order at lowtemperatures be(and of term has exetendedMgher-order to terms,as hazbeen memtioned duringthe been) foregoing derivation. particular, H Dyson continued powerseria the (401 Gpansion eqn(3.5.65) introduced magnon of and the interaction a Grstas orderperturbatio, check to whichpowerof T it Gects. s resultis Ei'

(3.5.73)
with speecexpressions (40) all these given for coedents in all three aj typesof cubiccrystals. is even possible to remove someof the aplt (4$ proyimations Dyson the use of Greea nctions, of by f4:. and obtainwhai should in prindplea higher be The accuracy. discultyis that the exprsionin eqn(3.5.73) not f.t expezriment. do Acmzrate r-qn befl.tted data better eiterwith an empirical dependence of J in eqn(3.5.71) on T, (48j or w1tha term with T2 before the TS/2 term. Thedetaled empirical (49) expression themagnetizationironwhiskers ts thewhole for of ihat range, 9omlow temperatures up to the Curie and point (50j,
T)1=

Mz(T) = A&(0)

, pt + Atjjy Cfyyz
-

(1 tj*
-

(3.5.74)
(3.5.75)

where = t

and and.f are constants, expands to T/Tc, p, .,4.

SPDI %'hMBS

59

at 1ow h been suggested that theT2term originates temperatures.has (49) fzom contributions thecollective of electron fromagnetism, this idea and was made more later. in (511 quantitative Therdore, thiscase, as in many others? itinerantandlocalized the electron theories becombined must togethez before extending either theory a highaccuracy. measuring to Also, and it is vezy Ma(T) ctrapolating to zero tzrliedjsld notalways accurate, H especially 1ow at temperatures. somecasestheaccuracy theerperiof al ment datais not even susdentto go beyond f rst TV2term of the the 1&,w, terms Bloch andhi.gher-order are mostlyof interest theorists to who their results eprt% with other's not with experiments. and , compare Forantijerromagnets thesituation much is more complicated, because even theground stateinot assimple as clear asin thecaseof a ferand cut Approzmations beintroduced must already tlcalculation for romagnet. of thespinwaves at the ground level,andthe excitations hopelessly aze complicated. are no conclusions can becompared a simple There that with expe-riment, any obvious or improvement the molecular approxon feld. imationpresented chapter Therefore, whole in 2. this theoreticale1d f is beyond scope thisbook. the of Othertheories whichuse theHeisenberg Hamztonian eqn(3.5.25) of are not included this chapter in because eitheruse classical they physicsj or at lewst beo'atlined can without specif mention quantum-mechanical c of techniquu. ksthemolecular approlmation, One 6eld already described in chapter Theothers beconsidered the next chapter. 2. will in Howevar, before concluding discussionspinwaves,there one importaat this of is conclusion theabove from treatmentthatxmust emphasized. integral be The dime' in eqn(3.5.69) contxins factorq2in thenumerator in three the only nsions. two dimensions factor would qdqdo. thiscxase In ln the dq have been in theintegrand ez - 1 in thedenomlnator with will (or one dimension) dinerge thevininityof z = 0,namely i.!l near q = 0. Therefore small any perturbation the ground of statewill grow rapidly, removing system the a21 out of theunpe-rturbed even at verylow temperatures state, where the approximations and calculation rigorous- other is H arejustiied theabove words, ordering in jerromagnetic not yt).ufslc one or tvo tfaendfondThjs proofthat ferromagnetism antiferromagnetism, matter) for that (or is possible in threedimensions already only was givenby Blochin 1930. It mustbe noted that it is a fundamntal propertyj whichdoes denot pead anyapprofmation. singularity z = : will bethereeven if on The at theintegral ove: theBrillouin zone andnot over thewhole is and space; the otherapprozmations zequire su/ciently temperature. only a low In practice has in ferromagnetism been observed some seemingly and one. twdimensional systems, be discussed section to in 4.5.

MAGNETIZATION TEMPERATUM VS.

4.1 Magnetic Domn.-ns Before continuingvththetheories, seems it to explain necKsanr pa,useand whythe molecular approfmation chapter the spinwave series feld of 2, for 1ow tempeatures chapter mswellas cJlothertheorie of Ma(T)) of % it are restricted the.case = 0. For a beginner must seem natural to H to introduce magnetic a feld, at lGst msa frst-order perturbation) and there dicultyin doing Thecliculty indeed is no particular t'he-mtical so. is that including magnetic without any othermodifcation the a feld of for the who Heisenbea'g Hamiltonian oftheeaergy eqn(2.2.25) reader of (or hasskpped chapter doe not have physical signicance, the because 3) any resulkof such Glculation a cannotbecompazed expem'ment. fact wiih This is sometimK forgotten theorlsts, by whichmakes even more important it to keep mentioning it. rlnhe pointis that realfezromagnets applied at zero eldsare subdivided into tbraiz?.s whichazemagnetizeddiferentdirections. otherwordsl in J.n thedirectioiof quaatization, changes between domain anotherone and z, The rwon for/theefstenceof these domains obviously a term must be of the Hazzltonian which bee,a has ncglected far, but it is too earlyat so io tlzisstage specfwhat this term is, andit will be Rrtherdiscussed in section6.2. Howeverj very efstenceof thesedomans a wellthe is established exepeaimental as hasazready mentioned secdon Gactl been in 1.2.These domains cannotbeignored, because are being they obserce.d by several techniquesTheolderobservytions 531 ihe (52, include Bitterpattern,in whie tiny magnetic pazticles, immersed a liquid,are attracted %he in to high e feld at the ltlalls which sepazate domans, revealing location the thus the of these wazls. metallic which thin enough high-enerpe ln flms are f or electrons .)go through,electrons deected the magnetic in the aze by feld domains theypass when through them,thusrevevng location these the of clm domains. Similarly, domain the structureon the surface be seen by that the electrons pass near that surface that aze refected or fzom surface. Polarized reQected a magnetized from suzce changes plane poits of lir/.t larization(Kerr andits detection reveals dxerentorientations 'the eFect) of the magnetization the Rndnrte the various on of domains. the sample lf ls thin enough, light can pass the through andthe iotation its polarit of ization(Faraday shows direction magnetizaton these of inside efect) the

MA G1N 1!J'1'1G AINS DOM

.' ''..' .' '''''''

@1
g...

F.
.. .'

'-D

.J !'

>. *e*'

' '

b ..> i Lw
1$ <

>*

.
.

.=, :'

'>. ...

4 .

lj

.q : .t>
.

...

'

L. .r. .
1
.

.' ...

j. I ': hl
x
r .1
'$ .

'. . !.

'-

=.

1:. .

. . ..='.,m. a ' e%..

.,,

#
z

'< 'N+k $..:w1Aw.''.' A' .=. '

fk p

' .= G;'

f..

'r

j
'.

pG

ersbnk-q''.'.'

I.

'< ,-

jax
1

x% >

j !

j t

j. N r ru

.,..,

/
*
r
I

'.. .x'.u.al .wpA.

'

I.1t

X' .t.

m.z

>,

FIG.4.1. Three dferentdomain congurations sameNi plateletin in the zero appled Eeld, afterdiferenthistohe.s applying removhga of and magnetic Reproduced Fig. 9 of (58) permission. Neld. from by these domains. Another method based scanYng magnetic was on the Eeld near the sample a very smallHall probe(531 by . Morerecent methods include passing currentthrough sample, measuring Hall a the and the e.#. efectat dxerentpointz(541 oppositely magnetized domains , where #ve arz opposite s'ignof the Hallvoltage. They alsoinclude snnsng electxon with electrons andmagnetc microscopy force microscopy polazized (55) (56) which allowthestudyof these domains almost down atomicsize, well to as as scanning opticalmicroscopy whichincreases resolutkon the the of (57) Kerr efect.These, other, and techniques leave doubt thus no that all bulk ferromagnets made of domains, are out magnetizeddiferentdrections, in untjl a suciently lazge Ls *eld applied remove them. to Obviously, magnetization the measured zero (or in applied .qmaXl feld Ls average its value thedferent domams, has an of i.n and notbing do to with tbe theoretical of Mz(T). value Horxver,the measured is not value even tlnkue, because domain the ia applied is structure zero (or small) eld not unique- good in A exn.rnple ks shown Fig.4.1whichis reprodud from Fig. 9 of (581.shows threecompletely rlx-Ferent domain confgurations lt observed the same crystal,aftersubjecting a diferenthstory in it to of theappled *eld.Thereare m=y otherposskbilities are not shown, which andwhkch give ziseto a diferentvalueof the mecuredremanent can in magnetization. Actually, zero Eeld is possible measureanyvalue it to of

62

MAGNETVATION TENJPERA'I'URE VS.

themavetlro.toalxwtwpon and -Mr +Mr, as has already mentioned bn in.secdon 1.1. Theorists caculat.e who maaetiza'tion teiperature ns. prefer ignore to the domazns, becausekstoodlecult to take it themiato account. Their reasoningtat whattheycalculate these is in theori thema&eation is tozw.ll insde of these domm'nq. quantity whatwouldhave This ls btenmeasured one domain if could separated the others exende be 1om and to ''nGnity . Theexplrimentalist's approach to measureMzz 81Fe,ris for (59! eat values H$theneMrapolate (Ia,V of the down H = %aadtake to that value extrapolated as tEedtdmstion Ms.Thisis te properdefnitioa of of the spontanec'us 'mcgnetfzcfftrnv wkichwas somewhat Ms, l-defned in section Pzeumably, exlrapoladon 1.1. this should to thevalueofthe lead magaetization each the domains, in thetheoretiW inside of as defmition. . lt mustbeemphmsized thefeldsapplu' ia theexwriment order that in to remove thedomains typically sma;perturbation,added such are a if as to theHeisenberg Hammoni=. evnmple, iroa the ezdnece.ary For ia to drlve the ct is of away domxnR vcm tcrnzerct'ureof tkeorder l03 Oe, interaction equivaleat a feldof 10G However, is to while exchange the Oe. tlds raodoes nec-atily m/un that tbe eect of theapplied is aot feld correction) it seemsat frst sight In thefrst place, ms justa third-digit theapplie feld maysometimes largeeaough crxe an apprHable be to by electron Sucb eet not magnetizatioadistoztiM atomic the orbits. an is thn.t included theHeisenberg in Haailtonian xq.qnmesfzxedat thelatspins ticepoints.But even whe,n efc<wt negligibleo mere arrangement tbis is tke ofdornninK a ver.g kas large eGect themeasnzre of themagnetizaon valuc tion, and process not evenEnear. this ks Therefore,rnxnycmses linear in a of lpMingto a wAlxtivety Mrapolation the feld to zero is not Mequatey large uartataty teexperimental at zero feld. Thisuncertaint ia value is very oftenof theorde,r the dilerence of betweea dxerenttheorie.s the wkich compared thatexperiment, it coex-nly are with and would allow not to Near temperature is there aay extrapoh'tion a ncn-zerc Geld. theCurie a more reliable extrapoladon teclmique allows suEdently acthat a lligh Hown as theWvcttplots, by whchq'ill 'l)e, described ia cuzacy a method secon Howeverj there extrapoladon satisfactorzy 4'.6. even the works to zero Gelds only,audthere no eoerimental datafor a small feld that are rztn theoretically added a perturbation. be as nlnn It shoild be'=phasized atl these that theories assumean insnte crystal. Thcreforc, caa havea chance reprenting physlcal they of the reality onlyif thesizeof these domains mnch is 1=#> thantYecmlation whickis the averMe distaac.e whickfuctuations the magof Jerwf, over netization correlated. is not always caa eeecicllp t,ke are Tis the near Curie temperatzzre, the corrdation whe length diverge. c>n The maaetization nade domain in prindple measured, a be in with efect. accordanc.e the theorehcal deflnstion, usin.g M6ssbauer by the

THELANDAU THEORY

63

In thisexppn'ment,ronant a abxrptionof 'praysis obtained when the momentum tke recril is tTanskrred thewholccrystaliastead the of t.o of individuat nucleus. When either sourceor theabxrber in a maaetic the is feld,theeneralevels thenudd are splitby theZ-rnan efect,andit of Ls to possible determ>-ne this splitting value theefediveEeld 1om the of at thenucleus. a ferromagnet, eeecdve tcallu ltvperjne In this ileld the at is proportional the magnitude the to pf ezd) the nudeus esentiazy e-an ma&etization theatomiq of shellaround nucleus. esect be that The only isotop, ofwiki:bSTFG one Ls wllicllis particularly observed in certain coavenient studying for fezrcmaaets. Since hy this e feld is proportional the magnLtnde magto of the netizauon theatom to whichthisnucleus of belongs, is independent and of the dircckrnn tke atomic of moeuMtion, contributioms theSI'Fe from nuclei rlieemntdomains thes=e andGd np. Forthe samereaxn, in az'e thehyperllne in an antife=magnet thesameas Gat of a ferromagfeld is net. Measuremeat hypprfne of the feld as a function thetemperature of thusyields a resultproportionito themaaetization Fig. 2.1here, in (601 andtlzis meaurememt indeeeArm'ed in zero applied is out feld.lt should benoted that, evea though nsclecr levels studied, nuclear are the energy spinds e'nter calculationthemagnetization:contribution the not of its is compared thatof thes1)1.11 electron? with ofthe leausetheBok negll#ble proportional the mass. Thenuclear' ia this to spln mareton is iaversezy experirnent evntially justa pro%used memsure magnetization is to the due theezccfron to spin. Sirnslar can beobtained measuring 62q nuclear data from (61, the magm' neticronance.Eowever, theM6ssbauer cndthenuclear aglyoth efect exn at bestbeuxd for thephilosophical aeticresonance desnition khe of spontaneous magnetization. accuracy Ms(T) The of mexsm'ed these by trenique is ratherpoorandinadequate. good For quantitative one data mustrelyon themeasnmmentMz(.RT) its extrapolation H = 0, of and to as in g48)similar or studies. There thnsno wayto meuure themagneis tization H = 0j vith ayreasonable for and of atcuras'y, txecalculation sucha quantityhasno phycalmexnlng, because caanotpossibly it be compared anyexDriment. with 4.2 The LandauTheory The temperature mostpopularamongtheorists that of the apis range proachtq and thenear dfrlnA't.y the Cnri. temperatarej because of, Te, in thksregion is possible use frst-ordez it to approimadols powers in of TMs started with thephnnnmenolo#cal theory Landau F - Tcl. attitade which to trxndtionsof the second knd. lt (63) applies all sortsof phase will bedescribed onlyfor thespecccaseofthemagnelzation here going through Cuzie the point-Thenotauon

MAGNETIZATION TEMPEMTURS VS.

m
=

akJa(T) , Mz(0)

: Fe

(4.2.1)

ksused for brevity. here mxlrp-q possible Thebasic assumptionthat m Ls is small Tc,which near it to expand thermodynamic the potenual unitvolume a power ms seriein per m. Neglecting hkgher-order , and tra.rmq auming that there no maaetic is feld,thisexpansion ks
= o(t) + #(f)m4. *(f,z?z) + A(t)m2

(4.2.2)

m3, Theoddpowers,aud are omitted, m because mustremainunckanged by a timereversal, wMch ohnnges siga m. ThecoeEcients ,t4) the of #c, andB can in principle functions otherphysical be of properties, which are ignored here- particular, is asumed everything done a In it that is at constant so that to the on yzas.s-?zre it is ao1necesary specify dependence whickis aa important part of theHndautheory othev of phase pressure, transitions. Thevalueof m should suchthat thethermodynamic be potential is a minimum. A ncessaryGmdition that thefrst derivative is vanishes, namdy #+ = = 2- (.4(z) aS(t)j 0. + 2m (4.2.3) om Also, order the soluuon eqn (4.2.3)bea minlrnum no$a in' for of to aad mxvivn 'thesecond should pMtive, um, derivative be

d24 a .!. = A(t) rvrsS(z) 0. + > 2 &mn

(4.2.4)

Thesolution eqn(4.2.3) there#on of for above Curiepoint, t > 1, Ls the ofeq.a m = 0,andin order thissolution fullthermuirement for to (42.4),
> .4(t) 0, Theother of solution eqn(4.2.3), is validfor t < 1,is whicN X(t), m2 = 2B(t)
-

(4.2.5) (4.2.6)

which yields, when substituted eqn(4.2.4), in

:2* = dm2

> 4.A(j) 0.

(4.2.7)

Thereforea .q.lpn thelefwhand of eqn (4.2.6) noting that side is positive,

TEE LANDAU THEORY

< A@) 0,

65

and

/(t)

> 0, for t < 1.

TMs resultmeans fz'stof all that zrs= in theregion < 1, but thereit is a memum andnot a nn-nsmnm t . The combination mns(4.2-8) (4.2.5) meansthat a coneuity of A of and also = at t = 1 requires .A(1)0. Them'mplest that function the (and rst-order approximaton any o*r ftlndion) can M6l these f or whic,h conditions is obviously = /41(4.2.9) a1.41) 1), (z> 0j where is a constant. tt Fkom rultit is already this possible to draw (631 some conclusons the entropy, = -D%f8T, the speclcheat, about S and Cp= T@S/&T), in which therctll'rnsout to beujnmp the Curiepoiat. at Letthere bea magnetic E, applieto he now feld, - 11 energ.g of interaction the magnetization-M . H mr unit xlume, whic.lz with is is in the notation. With -mSMa(0) present

(4.2.8) of also 0 is a solution eqn (4-2.3)

h=

IIMx$4,
-

(4.2.10)
a>

thethermodpmmic potential unit volume becomes per

= + + :mj (t,m) n(z)@(t1)m2BLt)m*
-

0,

(4.2.11)

where signofa is keptfzom foregoing, thellmt't lt = 0. Bythe the the for sxme token, the si> of S(1) should bekeptas in eqn (4.2.8). also The wrt-nhes now condition theSrstderivative that is . 1 = a h a( 1)m 2.&(t)m + , (4.2.7.2)

'

whch a cubicalgebraic is equation detezmhing for gn,. Above Curietempezatute, righvhand of eqn (4.2.12) the the side is a moaotonically of for value h of sncreasing function m. Thetefore, eve,othereis a single solution this equation, it tends 0 for h -+ 0. of and to For T < Tc,nn.mely< 1, the frst term ol the righthand of eqn t side is negative, theequation three and has diferentrealsolutions, m, (4.2.12) foza c-ltin re#on not too large11 of tkesesolutions easily of . One is seento bea memum andnot a Vnimum. theothertwo,one hasm Of aatiparallel h,tand to ts soluton therdoze enerr is hecr th= thatof1he in whkhm hasthesam: signas ,. the initial susceptibilil is According the dvnitionia eqr.(2-1.22), to
= lim xiaual= x-n d(Ma) t'9.J2'

a (0))u. (Mz ,.-.0 ah ,

Gr?-

(4.2.13)

i thepreseat aovtion.By substituthg thederi=tive etm(4.2.7.2) 9om of

with respect h, it becomes to

66

MAGNMAXON V5.TEUERATUE.E
= 1% Mnitzal h....e 2 (c(t 1) +
'

If h,-+ 0, thenm Thereforev

E.ka(0))2 (4.2.14) c) 6S@)m is zero for t > 1, andis given eqn(4.2.6) t < 1. by for
-

zstt-z jf j > 1' (4.2.15) '91 Jd'a a 41 1-1 if t < l . TMsdi-gence of thesnsceptibility t -+ 0 is thesameas in theCuriefor 2.4. Weiss dieussed section law, in to Thes'pontaneous magneeation t < 1 at zero fe-ld1, accordhg for aud eqns (4.2.6) (4.2.9),
= Ainivirul
.

a a v.

a. 2

msp =

/?a(1t4 .
-

zstj;

(4.2.16)

The magnetization induced the feld, Nud = xH, is in the present by notation h pz rind = X r , xu r - . . , (4.2.17) -

CM,COJIOtl f) Mcording eqn(4.2.15). qurtities are of the sameorder to Thae at

s/2 egz (2c(1t)j B z)g

(4.2.18)

Hence, f.eld>,<<t is a tweak; a feld, in the ron.v.ethatit does change not Gethermodynamic pmperties thesmple. a feld h,> hi thetherm> of hl dynxmlc properdes 'valu have wMc.lz determined theield, andsuch are by a eld thus tstrong' is a feld. Of course,thiscriterion ignores efec't the of the eld the measuzed by rearran#ngdomes, see sKtion 4.1. on m the It is obvious eqn from that Eeld, at (4.2.18) thetrandton &, vanish the poiatt = 1)whic.h T = Te.Therefore) the Cnne' Ls at poiatanyEeld a is feld to strong Mcording thisdemltion. 4-3 . CritizmlKxponents Moremodern studies tecrzfcclregion, of the of nltrndy near-vicinity the Curiepoint, are based two generi assumptioas, eoms. Theftrst on or one is that the asymptotic behaviour govprnsng approac thecrkdc,i the to ls point (.e. Curietemperature) physical the of all parameters a power 1aw lt - 11, in where is as dened eqn(4.2.1). t ia Strictlyspecng,tkis statemeat does necessatily that any pazticalar not mpxn physical quantity is proportional a certain to of lt as meus thatit 'aarie.s power j - 11. ozlly that power, whic.h more general proportionniity. is than

XTICAL EXPONENTS

67

deflnition that if Themathemadcal is

Y Vltv= A, . z-+o lnz

lim
we Ay

'

(4.3.19)

Gat flz) variesas P whenz tendsto zero. Tkis statement is writtenas .f(z) zl as z -+ 0. (4.3.20) Thesimpie.bvt possibility whicheqn(4.3.19) for is fulfzlled when small is for
= fLz6)(lzl (1+ clz + ocl2 + .), (4.3.21) wheze c$, cz, etc-, are constants. Ct However, (4.3.19) fulmled is also eqn
. .

in more complicated for dpwmplefor small cases, if z,

' '

(4.3.22) The particular whenthe exponent vaaishes meaa that .f(z) l case may tuds to a etmstcnt z -.+ 0, but it mayalsomean that .fLz4ln z. for ct
In accordance this basic vith assumption, the l'-m'-tt -+ 1 several for edtfccleofmenf,s crficc!indiasj ddned.1.zt are pvticular, for the (or ' specic heat: ' .x, Cp 11 11-G (4.3.23) for thesponlzmeous magnethation T., below
zrl /x.

= .J(&)CI1.a atl+ csr'e + '). zl>

(1 t)7,
-

(4.3-24)

andfor theinitial susceptibDity,

'xz Mniual

1f 11-t.
-

rAn General thermodynxmx'c considerations is the same exponent for the appronziof t to 1 fromabove from or a below, similarly ''t-Such and also certain relations fox consideradons impe betwenthese, theother,critic,al and exponents. nus, for mvample, the induced magnedzation is

(4.3.25) beUSGI prove(632 lt that to

hl1 tl-'S, (4-3-26) A1n'R accordng eqn(4.3.25). mn (4.3.24)) at wlzicx =n.gto Using thefeld
-

'mindew hx 'w

netization of the orderof thespontaneous is magnetization is

ht '-.z 11 fI#-F'7.

(4.3.27)

Ontheotherhand,at this transitionbetwena strong a wpztk aad feld the enerpp interaction the feldwith themMneiRation, of of -:m, shoald

68

'MAGNETIZATION TEMPBRATURE VS.

l)eof theorde,r thethermal of which of tite orderof (1 is energy., because = -T(:2/:T2). Cp Therefore,

ttlcpt (4.3.28)

ht 'w 11 I2-#-G

Combining equation eqn (4.3.27) to this with leads

leads p = 1/2 to according eqn (4.2.16) e?= l accoringeqn to and to J1.lpn # The held (4.2.15). molecular approzmation gives = l/2andy = 1, as will beclarifed section or as can nlgnl)eseenfromeqns(2.2.35) in 4.6, and(2.4.47) respectively. discrepancy This zlustratetheneed a more for sophisticated theoretical approach, indeed and theeare more accurate theories these, oftheother, of and criticalexponents ferromagnetksm in aswell as in othe,r criticalphenomena thdr phase nea,r transitions. should It be noted, however) in prindple ksnot dexr whethea.n eoansion that it in of be Tc. of powers T - n should valdc Iele awayfzom Thevalue Te b.r integral, andthelatter maychange J, itsdfis deterMned theexchaage of erpansion with temperature) least at because thethermal which varie the atomic distances- J varies temperature, does tvlnrer)f If V'I;h rxl the value Teto wlkicll of me==en? at somewhat lower temperatures seem to lead, value thecriticalexponents. Alsol thusdistorting apparent the of in practiOit is not always the asymptodc term easyto resolve leading om entxal data,pecially whenthe behaviour of the typeof is here'correctiolf theleading to terml a little mn (4-322) Thenexorder frt'mv Curiemint, may belazge the away enoulto cungethe apparent value theleading of term. are with diEculties, saying the that Theorists never ncerned these measarements should retrictedto thevet'y be close vidnity ofTc,butthat is often impracdcal. IUAbeen It noted(651 the best of #= 1+ '//# that ft v4=1% between an4.7in thenear vidity of Tc.A likelyartifad of 4.2 handling ewerimental (66) looklikea change thecritical the data can in when is approached. is betterto use a properequation Tc lt exponents of state,over a relatively temperature wide as in range, explained section 4.6.It is possible, coursej to remove most of the experimental of data, saying that theyare not close enough Te,butwhen f ew points to are vez'y leftto lookat, thedatacan betted to nlmostanyvalueof the critcal Unfortunately are indeed there some experimentalists for who exponent. theirdataby thstechnique ft thecurrenttheoretical to value, that in so

(4.3.29) In principle, power the lawsin eqns(4.3.23)-(4.3.25) (64) are based on experimental observationsj are not justan arbitrary and assumption. Theexpersmental are (64);tl 1/3 'y ;:er4/3, values and whereas Izaathe p dautheorswithitxs particularly oveximplifed assumption eqn(4.2.9), of
a+

2/+ 't =

2.

CRITICAL EXPONENTS

69

this partizmlnr it is often feld dilcult to Kay whatthe experimental result is. Ontop of that, thetheories always consder the tbulk'limit, in only the is fundnmental whicE volnme tbe system inqnite.Thereis nothing of ia this approach, whchis onlya matter of conveniencc, it must be but always in borae miadthat it maydistortthe asymptotic behaviour ver.y considerably. aotonlythat thesample It is under studymustbeverylarge for suc theory l)ea good a approzmation zeality. is thesize each to It o to domain mustbelarge that enough such theoryto beaccurate for a enough, aadsuch requiremeat hardlyeveer a s met. Some the critkal exponents of when theyare obtained the aaalogy otker from with mltybemore reliable critical phenomena donot bave equivalent a magnetic and that the of feld magnedc domaias. These beyond =pe of thepresent are the book, whch deals withferromagnetism not withgeaeral only aad s'tatistical meckanics. . The secoad assamption the theories cdtiical of of cxpoaents is basic known the sling as hplmthadt. It assnmesflrst of all the esten of a torrelabion lengf?l

('?x' 1# 11-M,
-

(4.3.30)

whick measuresthe average distaace whic.h over fuctuations the mxgof netization correlated. f arther aa'e It assume thatin thecriticalregioaj the dominating temperature-depeadeacethe phydcal of all properti the of scale system onlythrough is theirdependea this(. If the leag'th is oa hctoz, Orzelation the increased a cez'tain by length shrinlcs thesamehcby tor.Thetaperature region, 1-1, theniacremses accordingeqn(4.3.30), to anda11 phyical propertiewill alsochaage fuxed the by laws. Eowpower namel.y ever, ( -+ x for t -+ 1,axdthe lmled system 1)e can rnnomalized, - be mapped on the o 1:%.,11 oae. T/is procedure the bmsis aa is of important tool for calmllating citical exponents) the lowx the anoz'as mclizction theory(6:. gnmp of in Theories criticae:l expoaen'ks a general use space d dtmeasions (3 in re.al has aad space) a sph vectorwhich zzcompoaents in reallife). (3 for simplecases,smch the Isingmodel Except several particnlnmly am in oae aad two dim-nqions h the (discussed aextsection, or theLandau 4.4) theot'y the mathematic compEcated. etc-, ks Eowever, turnsout that it theproblem ver.y is much simplifed theuaphysical in coaditions a very of large'rl or d = 4. Therefore, powerseric havebeen some developed which sbould a good be approfmation a large aada =all for n

(4.3.31)
These, wellas more accurate as methods, beea have reviewed Fisher by (67j aa'd laterupdated to a certain exteat. Theyare a11 beyond scope the (O) ofthisbook.

70

MGNETJZATION TEMPERATURE VS.

4.4 IsilzgModel A very popalarmethod studying Edsenberg for the Hamiltoniaa a.a is haZ apprrMmationwki/ alr-uybeensuggested 1925 in the doctoral thesis of lsing.Tt is baaed l.eaving the non-diagonal of the spin on out terms alongthe Eeld dizection, z. matrix, aad kepingonly t'hecomponents lt meansreplacing . S2= Su%% Svsgp Stxszz only.%>Saa. Sz + + by Andscethe latter Ommute,it eectively means deRMng numbers <th of lt thatinstead theExmotom'n.n of instead matrcu. also meaas (3.5.25), or (2.2.25),crzcrpy thesystem taken be the of is to
ox :=-E&F'.%t-c.zq',psszzjz :
-

(4.4.32)

where lattice pointis iaracterized a qnxntnmn'tlzn&r I will by cz. every onlymeition passing there alsotheori in that aze which theopposite: do leave % and out keep Szand%. only This mssumption, or appremation, here. ksrnlledthe XY-mod.ej will not bedescribed aad In.pzisciple Ving tke model not a very good is approfmation any for temperature Eowever,has advautage it the ofstarting dizectly 1om ruge. theenerprlevels, sldpping the stepsthat leadto themfzom and all the .. Hxmotoaiaa,other in methods- conveaient This short-cut mcesit possible to coscentrate the details Ge statisticalmminMlcs.Therefore, on of the Tm-ng model very widely in a vadety otherproblems, than is used of more in ferromunetism whic.h waz ori ' for it For in y developed. p-vnmple,a . binnmy mnzlo atomsA andB, one can defne tke lattice alloy of for point.d theNalue = + 1 5:thereis an atom ofthe typeA there, a = - 1if J'z aad theleis an atomof thetypeB there. the in%radion beYeen If is nearest neighbours andSJ ksthepotential ozzly, 'nxz betwentwonehbours energy cf typeA aadslml'lxrly :7z.sandvss, it tsreadi)y that theenergy for seen of anydistribution tese of atomsis#ve.n eqn(4.4.32), by witk

J= 1 -us
2

1 4

-1)zz - -rss,

1 4

(4.4-33)

has but withcutH whic,h no analogy here.It ksthuspossible study to atheoretiexlly order-disorder the transition to the Cuzie Nel or (amalogous At high there disorder, while temperature). temperatures fs a complete bdowthetraasidon is reglzlarlyneighbour B for J < 0, andtkere .A a of is a separation re#ons azmost ..aadalmt to of pure pureB for J > 0. Thele a slightdx-ference the ferromagnetic antiferromagnetic) is 1om (or case,in wkiekthe direction the spin r-qJn be rever* at aay atomic of dte, whilein tNeoxqeof aa alloy,A cnrnot be converted B. ln this hto casethereis thustheaddtional constraint the totaizwecr ofatoms that of eRk type mustbecomsmed. However, mathematical the technique is

ISWG MODEL

71

sulcientlysimilarto make the same nln.m probl%s.A =iation of it of this case includes possibility .4 is aa atom whileB is a lattice the that leads thetheezmodynxmscstransition to of the 1oma solid varxncswhick to a kuidor a gM.There also are otherphysical problems cooperative of phenomena ph%e and traasitions whic Ising for the model used, is wic makes belong it on tbltn more in a book svtisticalmecxanics in one on it ferromagneem. However,is historically paxtof ferromaretism a =d rxnnotbesldpped altogether. Besida, problem aa easy elegant the as and solution: leas't one dimension, is well worth at in which noting. I wilt restrictthe followhg interactions to betwn nearest neighbouzs only,andfor the caaeof spinla,for whichduztb the numbers e%n of trz assumee,ithez' value or the value the +1 -1. There some more general are studies theliterature, theyare rathercompicated. also in but 1will restrict cbiu'n this section tke case of a one-dimeuional made of N spias. to out Thespinat thepointt interacts tke one at &+ 1 andthe one at ; - 1) with but slce J is mssumedbe the same,the snm of all the interactioas to of spins with the onebefore themis tEesamemsthe sum of Yteractions witE thespinafterthem.Periodic boundaur conditions also are &sumed here, namelythat spiaat pointN interacts theone at point 1-Equation the with thus for (4.4.32) becomu tiscase
zr=

-2JE

N czcz-yz- gIXBH cz. ;=l 2=:

N

(4.4.34)

of This enerr is now substituted thepartitionftmction Ons (3.5.56) in and(1.3.12).thereade,r assldpped For who chapter 1will onlyremark 3, thatthepartition function a geaeral is stadsticimechanics f cnction, made out of tke energy levels, 1omwllicit is possible derive thephysical to all properties a system thermal of in equilibrbxm. eneraofmn (4.4.34) Forthe t/is functioa is
N

Z=
crz=:kl
cpvmzi:l z=l

8Jfc'ztrz-yz-hzn j

(4.4.35)

with the aotatkon

'rc

2,,/ ksT r

h=

g;kBH . 2kBT
-

(4-4.36)

Here is theBoltzmann constant, i1is hoped neither nor , axkd tut K is * confused these with letters withdiferent Msed mexnings othersectionsin For the sake emmetry,210't rewzitten hcz+ hcz-h: is as the 'of , because produd overtb.e seccmd is thesnmeas thatove.rtheftrstone.Equation term is then (4.4.35)

MGNETIZATION TEMPERATURE VS.

Z=
eA'czc-z-hez-hhez4.t . czztzzbl eN=:k1 d=1 N

(4.4.37)

Themethod heze used toeuate Ls Z morecomplex isessentialfor than theone-dimensional problemThce is an easier method, it works but only if h = 0is assumed alreuy at thisstee,andit cauot begenernlzed to two dimensions withoutcomple.x aumerical computatioms- method The whkh cztn not dt-mensions Tam going descdbe beextendeto two (but three) to almost withoutaay change, except that in two dimensions analytic the solution only be #ven h = 0. Jt is actuallya onedimensional can for formuhuon thefamous of Onsageranalyticsolution two-dimensionai ofthe Lsing model, published 1944. soludon consideeto bethe real in This is mvhxn' which '-cs, brealdhrough, thebeginningallmodera and of statistical makes wort,h it studyingThismethod simplifes b.rdevinga 2x 2 matrixwhose Z elements are
= eK*''''+h*l*h<%' (ezlMlcz')

(4.4.38)

When and&z, pa through atlowed the Yues +1, the matrh elements J'z keepgoing, a diferentorder, in through elements theszmt matrix, the of

: A'+2A c-K d-x g-gu

(4.4.39)

where order the ckosen this pazticular for presentation is

(
trc=uiul

+. +. +0 -.

Now,according the rulefor mutiplying to matriees,

= (cz1J21ca), (4.4.40) )7l(czlzTIca)(c2IATIcs)

<z=+1 <rsci7,
tra=+l

= )7! )7!(,:IMI&c)(,clMIGs)(GalMIl4)

(o-z1M'1tz.<) (4.4.41) )(2tc.zlMzlc'altczlM#4

= ,

etc.It ispossible introduce fullforpalism mathemaical to the of induction, but even withoutdoingso it should quitee-lfxltz now that whenthe be by d-6nltion(4.4.38) Lssubstituted eqn(4.4.324, in

ISING MODEL

73

trl=t:!:l

ex=il z=z

(vzlM1a+z) , E F1

(4.4.42)

thismatrixmultiplication to leads
z
=

czzzrilo'x=L

E E

f,zIMN-lIcx) lcrxlMlc.:l
.

(4.4.43)

Thesecond ofthelastte= is txlctm a.s1,becanM theperiodic index for here boundazy conditions is thesameas N + 1 whie it in appears etm(4.4.37). multiplicadon on thetwo rpmxim-ng rule matric Using again matrLx the in eqn(4.4.43), Z=
(r1=;E1

traee V! @lIMNIcz) (MN).

=

(4.4.44)

ThematrixM i.l eqn (4.4.39) is symmetzic: rxn bediagonal-lmM. and rprers whomaynot befailiar wlth the However, thesake those for of frst tra ofa powerofa matzix, us consider a transformationwhic,h let T a geneal matrh, M, namely diagonnl'zm
T -z MT = lz 0 0 Aa
-

(4.4.45)

Multiplying sides theequadon therightby T-IMT leads both of on to T-LMcT =

lz 0 z-1 up O 12

(j j (j ,tj j
2
m

'

(4.4.46)

whicxcamobviously generrdx'qed be to kigher Since traze does the powers. not change such trxnqformatiozb (4.4.44)bewrittenp.s by a can eqn

(4.4.47) wherq ald lz are thedgenvaluesthematrh deGnedeqn(4.4.39). 1: of in

It can besafely asspxmed this theory onlyused vezylarge that is f values N, andeven nearly of equal numbers become dierentwhen very raised a Wge to term powerN. nswfore, if .:: > la , the second in eqn is negeble compared the &st one, as longas thereis no with (4.4.47) complete degceracy. is thussnmcient take It to
Z = kNz .

Z = AW X* 1 + ')

(4.4.48)

Fb'xgonn.llming2matzixam eely becvriedout analytirlmy. a 2x Aecording to eqn(4.4.39)equation besolved the to is

MAGSETIZATIONTEAEMTUM VS.

!
whicNl

eN+2& A e-K e-K cA-27z -

0,

(4.4.49)
(4.4.50)

A2 2AeX = +2 ch(2:) sinhtzr) 0.

equation .%nK solutions, larger whic,h the tke Thisquarlratic for two of is one witha + si& ia fzont tke square of root.Substituthg eqn(4.4.48), in

6K

+ ezK cos%(2) sinhzoi,' (j-2-riq )+

(4.4.51)

Tkemagnethation #vem etm(3.5.58), is by M. = EBTulnz

=

9IXBN t
2
-.

yln

eff

s + + o-ax cos:(2h) cc.q.izaztah,l

.

gIXVNeK sinll(2h,)
.

ekKsinb.2(2h,) + e-2X

(4.4.5z)

Obviously, magnetization this vaziskes h = 0, so that the system for is not ferromagnetic. However,is tnlmost'ferromagneticlthesensethat it in themagnetizaton all otherphysical propeieswkich bederived t=d may fzom are extremely sensitive magnedc to felds,even when these Nelds Zt are quite small-This feature s-n in the sqaare is root in eqn (4.4-52)1 or already eqn(4.4.51). 6m+ in Te root vanishes for term of tMssquare 1%n.n .= 0: but already ratkersmall at values h it bexmes of bigger the second term.Tke reasonistkat accordhg eqn (4.4.36), small to K is oy at Mgh temperatres, whileat 1- temperatures > 1j whichmakes K K > e-2X. Thezefore, 6m-te small term at but applied the second eld ia the sqaare root ksnegligible, hyperbolic fcaacels' the sine betw-n the nnrneratorandthe denominator mn (4.4.52), the magnetization of and looH'as it e>apolates a 6n5t.e if to *ue at zero feld.lt maybeeazie.r to seethis efec't theinitialsusceptiblty, in

f'lMz . -ax -a/z = lim ct 1!Tn aeax t xukitiaz H....z t'?.?2'x....()(4h + c )

(4.4.53)

after dropping higher of f powers h.It isa constant h = 0,butfor non-zero h, xcondterm become the and negeble, it seemsthat tke susceptibility diverg h-n3. ms

ISINGMODEL

75

Theaverage internal as enerr of theelectrons, unit volume, given per byeqn(3.5.57), thiscase is in

0 z- kszc#/ uz

.-z-wtanh

sT) Lk2J
,

(4.4.54)

in zero applied feld.TMsenergy contributc thespecifc of a unit to heat of volume thecrystal

2 0 cn= gg = knN 2.z sechz c.z

(srl jazj
,

(4.4.55)

functionof the temperature. whichis a continuo'as Studies whichstart H fromthe assumption = 0 (as lsing ori#nally use tids resultas did) an indirect proofthat theone-dimensional model lsing predicts stable no ferromagnetismanytemperature. pointksthatin a transition from at The orderto disorder magnetic the the uchange enerr (especially energy) mustbeconverted something,thatit takes extraheating the into so an at transition, which as in heat. even mupt appea.r a jump thespecsBc Indeed) thesimplest theori as theozy section predict in (such the Landau 4.2) a discontinuity the speclc heatat 7lj andtMsjump observed of ks in all experimental evaluations thespecifc of theelectrons-Yquation of heat peak, gives (4.4.55) a rounded but not a discontinuity. from calculation the Here conclusion reached a more elegant this was of actual magnetization initial susceptibility, and in eqns and (4.4.52)(4.4.53). Moreover, method this showed thestudyof one dimensionnot comthat is pletely academic, because system talmost' the is ferromagnetic? must which mean that some smallperturbations make a realfezromagnet, it as may will bediscussed section This method alsobeextended in 4.5. can with no particular complication cover theIsingmodel two dimensions. to in For zero applied eld,that problem an analytic f has solutionnot onlyfor a lattice:but even foza rectangular a hexagonal (6$. or one Details square will not begiven here) theresult thattheIsing but is model givestable does ferromagnetism dimensions. in two H prindplethis resultis wrong, the En.nn1'1because true Heisenberg toniau cnnnotsupportferromagnetismless in thanthreedimensions, as proved the endof section Howeverj only takesa rathersmall at 3.5. it modifcation have systems to real whichare jerromagnetic they because are 'nearly' one- or two-dimensional) bediscussed thenext secas will in tion.Forthese cases, Ising the model a veryusefttl is theoretical description, andindeed resultsare in reasonably agreement experiment. its good with It is not as accurate themore sophisticated as theorio,but it applies to the whole temperature in solution, whichmakes a it range one analytic convenient to use. tool

76

MAGNETIZATION TEMPEMTURE V$.

In threedimensions, for a spinlargerthan 1, the Isingmodel or can 2 onlybesolved applyiag by further approximations, using or by complicated mathematical techniques computations, b0th (69!. these and or For cases theIsingmodel no particular has advantage othertechniques. over
4.3 Low Dimensioniity Strictly spealdng, neithez ferromagnetism antiferromagnetism nor canefst in one or two dimensions, least as muchas the Hesenberg at ia Hamiltonian, with a11 studyaround is a goodapprovimation physical the it, to reality. The proofof this statement givenat the endof section wms 3.5, chapter should taake wordfor it andthe reader hasskipped who 3 just my that such rigorous a mathematical exists that it is undeniable, proof and involviag approfmation. no Thereis alsoa dxerent proof(70) whichis bmsed another on approach, leads thesameresult,nn.mely no but to that spontaneous magnetization sublattice can existfor the (or magnetization) Vnml'ltonian one or two dimensions. Heisenberg in However,was shown it in theprevious section that the lsingmodel one dimension tnearly' for is ferromagnetic;the senseexplained i.tt there,so tat even a smallperturbationmay make a realferromagnet. it Therefore,system a which only is 'nearlyt one-dimensional system wellbeferromagnetic ana Ising may (or as long One tiferropagnetic), as it is not sirictlyone-dimensionat. such system bea setof one-dimensional with a strong can chains, exchange interaction withineach the chins, andwith a weak of exchange interaction the This additional interactiol can beslllcient, in some among chains. the while to cases;to sta'bilize ferromagnetism, beingtoo small afectthe results the one-dimensional of calculations. Suck do The is systems est i.nzeality. one motlystudied the crystal which made molecul (CHz)4NMnC)a, as TMMC,for is of of also known Jmmnni'um tetramethyl chloride. thismaterial chains ln the are manganene separate'by about9, so that the interchnx'n is d coupling (71) least at threeorders magnitude of smaller thantheintrRhain (antiferromagnetic) exckange interaction. suchmaterials, theoryof one-dimensional For the chains indeed good is a approximaton 72j the experimental ruults, (71, to includingthe memsurements of the susceptiblty of the speclc and (73J hcatof theelectrons subtracting contribution the lattice). the of Of (after course,thetheory not necessarilyjust is thelsingmodel more complex and theories 75) alsobeen developed. (74, have ln two dimensions, lsingmodel the does a stable ferromagnetism #ve with a well-defned Curietemperature. simple A physica: explaaation of whyferromagnetism cannoteOstin one dimension, can n='Ktia two, but ca,n be seen on pages 309-10 the book(41! Ziman,but it cannot of by chaage lct that the more general the Heisenberg amiltoniaa not does allowferomagnetism two dimensions. in Obviously, singmssumption the that the of-diagonzl elements the spinsare' negligible a sufdent of is

LOWDIMRNKONALITY

77

tllat perturbation can stabilize ferromlgnetism, the sxme wa,y the in as oth6rpcturbations Sometimes it. In Kme way 1he ca.n do Isingmodel, in whichallows interaction the z-direction not alongthe w or thew but directionsj a particularcase of an anksotmvic is ezc&mge, is not which the rsame whatis describe sedion under sxme nxme. In the 2.6 the as in that is of preent contextit mpm.ns theGchange smteradion theform
'' z (m)''-=) Jg (sr) ) JxS.2Sj -1- S,qsf(s'+ Jasj(z)si,h),

withunequal Jv,andJz,andthis assumptionsometimes even is used &, in theories aboutcrystals a highsmmetrp It hasbeen with noted(7OJ that such exchange be suEdent stabilize an to ferromaretism in may two dimension? However, kird of an anisokopic this Gchange e.xis-ks only in some theoretical studiu, andthereis no experimental evidence its for possible etstence. Among other perturbations mayalso thesp.me, whick do it was shoqm that with the efstenceof a dipolar inteaution(whose (76) is a twodimensional system fmwmcnetic. may become range insnktelt A magnetic mayalsostabilize feld ferromaaetism, at leastmake or the system Iook a stable Jik: ferromagnet. .'nus, theinitial susceptibility of rxn a tw-dimensional system obey(Ma power law,and diverge ahwe a certain transitiontmmperature, though donot reallybecome even it an fordinay' ferromagnet below temperature. samewas loted that The by Mermin Wagner whoremarked theirproof and that rulesout only. (70J, spontaneous magnetszation,it 'does exdud.e pomibility other but not the of b'nds phase of transitions', as a divergiag below such initial susceptibility ' a certan temperature. all the Besides those cases? ferromaretism bestabilized a small by may iateraction there between hyers.Asis tEecasein one dimension, are also crystals which salmost' they are two-dimensional systas, because are mMe with a stzonguchangeinteracton of hyel's betw-ntheions them, in wVe theinteraction In crystals 73i beimeen layem muchweaker. such the is (711 thetwdimensional ts theexperimental theory resultsquitewell. the Morecve, emperimental of magnetism two dimensions study in is not restricted more to materials which occur in nature. Shce inventkon the any ofmolecular epitaxy be-xm new class artifdalstractures of a whole (AmE), has clean flms beea made studied. and These superthin, are single-crystal down by sorts hy(even to one atomic separated a11 of non-magnetic layer) These ers of anydesired thickness. hyers builtup (78) very regular are into superstructures allow which detailed cxpen-mental andtheoretical (794 (80J studyof boththree-dimensional stmzcinre, ialmost' and two-dimensional ones. It Lsa whole new world, which allows detaled the studies efec% of tllat have been neglectedwrongly or evaluated years sucx some just ago, ai thepropertie of thesnrfaces the exchange or interadions cnmeed by theconduction electrons a non-magnetc of metallic layerbetween mag-

78

MAGNETIZATJONTEMPERATURE VS.

neticlayers, In particulaz, is cleaar that a venrsmall etc. it now iateradion betwa uitrathin layers makethewhole can stucture ferromagnedc (or butstrictly monohyers paramagare antiferromaaetic) two-dimenskonal nets. of in Kstoriely, theproblem magnetization two dimemsions apwas by of cvaporated vacuam, wllichwas not in proached thestudy thia 62msj a very hi@ vammmin those days. Htead of temanyJayers weak with interaction thvm,as in themore rv>nt study in between meationed the foreming, Glm was mnzeout of atomiclayers coasad,namely tme 5n with a RI-,/strong exckaage interaction betw-xt tem.Thequesdon whicx w.xs distmsaed argued kowthicksuck layer aad wms a musth before verymuch it hastbemagaetic propertjes the bulkmaterialof the a in Until 1964 spinwave theorypredictedconsidezable reduction thespontaneous maaetization ronalr/uz!yat 10 or even at a larger of i, 6eld thekness. Caltulations themolecuhz appremationgave udng larger Ms downto a muchsmallcu.r thckncs,but nobody tookthemmrsously, because classical tkce rcults mast bemuchpoorerthan the quaqtumMs mechecal ones.Experimentally, decreaseof with decremsing tke thickn- wmsevemfmster thaa the spinwave calculation, theorists aad made efortsto modifjr corred theircalcalations thatdirection. frst aad i:a The Gception thecase(8IJ wu of4lmq madein betlervacuum everybody a tllan xdrnos''t bulkma&etization Ni flms made only ekse's, whio gave the in of a few atomic layers. Thisresultftted the molecnlxm approzmationy eld layer,but predic'ts whica16.0 prokibts magneeation one atomic at Ms whicb onlyafew%below bulk ks the *ue at tmoa'tomic layeri Obviously, thisexperlment ignozed, were Overal was as which followed. ' Thereal break-through a zero-feld was Mssbauer efect ent wkicb the o saturatio veryhnflms for (82), el-vml'nxtedproblem reaching andthepossbltyofmagnetizatlon created the appliHmagnetic by feld. WFe Eighlyenricxed but for (92%) was usedl even +at ms not suRdent layer.Theefore, separated memsuring a single were madeo by manylayers ' which some thickness. SiO, iatroduced uncertainty d in theiraverage Still,theresults were clear showed and a verygreat discepaacywithlarge a ' numbe,r previous of ents:for axt iron thickness 7.5 the Curie of . The is of h ne temperature 83.,$%its bulk value. roomrt=perature feld is only4% below bulkvalue 6k thlckness, drops zero its at and to onlyat an average Shickness4.6A. Tkue results quiteclose the of are to predichon theoversimplised of molemklar approzmation. feld Thks experiment raised aad Theomaayhea*ddiseneons arguments. ristsGopted, thenew rontts mtherlaicldy,andthe thKreticalspia (83) wave calculations ftted them. soon Eximlizte:lltnll'emlonger becontook to results wrong) keptarguins that weze and eced thatall tkeirprevious (84) thethicknessthenew (82) wasnot memsured of flms properly, t%not or somethingelse wrong wms thexe. Theywere onlyconecedaftertheGxperiment

LOWDIMENSIONAJJW

79

in a Fe of (85) which ssnglelayerwasusedaqia sourte, instead an absorber. Thisflm was measuredthesamemcuum chamber whc-h hadbeea in i.!l it made, without exposing to theatmosphere, avoiding ever it tkus ofdation. Latermod-l4cadons nr.t:.dmuch a higher vacuum, andstudied e-Q-H tke (86) o a slow deposition or of stoppiag deposition a wbileand rate, the for thenconthuing or of heating substrate, Teconclusion all it, the etc. fzom these studiewas that there no ferromaaetism thelimit of one atomic is in layer, that it take onlya little more thickness that to stabiWe but than theferrom&gxetismR turned that the 61=qin theolderexpersments out they werenot continuous flms,because wee Fe heavily Ydized.To avoid Alrns oidation, mustlx made ratherquickly a mlldentlyhizhvacuam in vacuum or covered a protadive andthendtherkeptin t'he by laye.r More being exposed alr. nus theSiOused for separation to turned to out (82) lx aISOprotection a against Odation-If thefzlzms allowM ofdize, cre to tkeybecome sexrateislands Fezczfclds of rathe.r a Gmtnuous thau layer. Titusthemagnetintion eve,n rathe.r loss for ck fllmsvas (8% dueto 87J thesexradon isohted iato islands, noi theeAect fllmthinlcnv.The and of pontis that small enough ferromaaedc pxrticles lose ao thdr magnetizationbyan efec't knou as snpeoaumagnziLvn will bediscassed which ilz section 5.2. theories experMents pointto the absen& ferromagthus of A11 and in unless mennetism two da-mensions, it is stablzedby one of the'ways donMin the foregoing. There howeverj possible ks, one exception. The of Ge electron rconance of Mn2+ was spln tompearatuze-depmzdenc,e ions measured ia a tlitcrallytwo-dimensional' ofMn atoms,made layer by (88) a cerfxin Gemical At the decreased pross. about2 1(4 resonance6e1d abruptly(by more than103 within0.2 in a maaner which typical Oe is K) of a phase kansidon the menk into mentioned yerxzrlcgnetidzrl in section 2.6.Asmendone theforegoing, eveuthing in not whick looks a magDke netic is one, aadt'heevideace would havebee,n more convincing witha difea'ent measurement, instead thespin of resonancewhich involve a large mavetic feld. However, magnedsm a veU 1ow s%e with Cm'ie or N&1 temperature not really is ruledout by theforegoing lf arguments. thisexperiment to indicate realMtiferromagnetism, m<ors a it only proves that theHeiseaberg Hamiltonian aot theG1ll is stors aadsomeGditioni of intazactions, the termsskould added. possblit.y dipole be The bud exckaage has interaction, already beenmentioned this sedion,and a in point for Ne,l of 2K may wellbepossible it. Afterall, mostexperiment are not carried downto veryIowtemperature, that t'his so pazticulaz retke of sultmay not beunique. Besides, whole concept a two-dimensional lattice down atomic to siza,because spinis the maynot bevery accurate not a point charge. Each alsohasa three-dimensional on structure, even if it is not necessarily pronounced in thecaseof metallic shown as as iron in Fig.3.1.

80

MAGNHTIZATION TEMPBMTUEE VS.

4.6 Arrott Plots

Theinterpolation techniqtte known the Arrottplots frst snggested mq was orallyby Arrott in a conference no published with pro-dings, thendiswith cuRsed used in (togethez othe methods at the time) aa unpublished series internal reportoftheGeneral Electric It is based a powe,r Co. on (89) e-xpxnm-on BrGlouin of the function, whose is (2.1.15), argument smallin ' thevicinityof theCurie temperature. be ' g of thisexp=sion The has already given eqn(2.1.20), it is carried one more term been in to buthere in theexpansion the cothlnction, yielding of
= Ss(z)

s+ 1 as

2s2+ 2s + 1 s :r + xsa

gtzsj
.

(4.6.56)

Subsdtuting (4.6.56) molecttlxr basc in the feld formula and eqn (2.2.33) rdumraaging terms,we obtain the
h=

gs z;j
a(

3s +1

g+

2S2 2S+ 1 + a' + acsc (?&G#)

(4.6.57)

Nmn.r Curie the point, the inital susceptibility diverg, wbichmeansthat Therefore, of V/zis smallpowers h,hgherthanthefr-rt are neglected. Dividingeqn(4.6.57)>, the ldt handsideshould by vanish T = Te, at which means that 35 = a(Tc) .% 1. (4.6.58) + Hence, H 2 = a(T Tc) bTM. + , (4.6.59)

kh

where aad are constants. is not dicult to write these a It constants explidtly,in tez'ms the pltumetersof the molecular theombut of 5.e1d that is not nec-- Theimportant point to benoted that theyare not is functions H, Mz or T, anddepend on the type of ferromagnetc of only material Thefrst conclusion eqn(4.6.59) for H = 0, from ks that
x (Q -?G2 T)-1 t
-

(4.6.60)

andthat

o: . cx Xiotsal Mz/A tT'c T)-Z (4.6.61) According the de6nions secticn this means that the critical to in 4.3, ecponents t'hemolecular approomations /3= 1/2 ..f= 1, for eld are and az stated without proof that section. in Thesecond concluson that muationis that if expezimental fz'om data for Mzat diFerent andtemperature plotted Mzz HIM.. felds are as at p.s.

AKROTTPLOTS

SI

const=t tempuatures, should straight they be liuesin thekriiicalregiont: namely whentemperatures not veryfaz fzomthe Curie are pott. The intercept thue Dnes of with the (HjMz)->m's is postive T > Tc,and if negative T < Te-Theadvantagethis ldndof plottingforan accuraie if of of It thai determinationTeis verydearandobvious. should benoted only thedata 1ow for elds,ihatdond ft these stzaightlines, bediscarded, must because represent they whicx itz avezaging domna-nn are magnetized over d'lerent direciions. pointwas Alws-qzly This empha-zed the GEreport in which that equatons 'repreentsthemrvqured Mz (894, waraed in these magnetizationthe bulkmaterials if domain of only alignment complete', is which means avoiding elds are too small. that Evenwhenthee plotsare not siraightlines(becausematersals real donot obeythemolecular thez'y) are still qaiteuseful for feld they (902 detmmiaing Curiepoht,because theclear the of distinction theiatvcept of for thet=peratnre to beahweor below However, are deculti Tc. there in Hrapolatingmzrves,because human cxn onlyreallydeal the wth eye straight lines.There n.lpn are diKculties in dedding where Emit ihe (90) of thelow-fcld 1. Therefore,was found data it Gtter (91Jinclude to the criticalezptmezlt.vsection andtzy to ft cll theexperimental of 4.3, proper datan ihe critkal re#on the eqnation state, to o.f

H /@= z - zc + sfa Q

y.r 1/# z Ml
.

(4.6.62)

1/p wherethe parxmetezs and p are chosen that a plot of Mz 'p:. so 'y at a constant gives 'setof staigh.tlines. T a Thisset of plots, (S/MaIVT whick giventhenxrne tArrottplots')becaae standard was the technique used rnn.ny by workers routine.E8wever, points as three whichwerc emphuizedin that paper(91) hter forgotten ignored, are worih were or and rewatinghere: 1. Equation is only to the (4.6.62) one of m=y po%ibilities lteep sxrne exponents and'y at thecriticalregion, thechoice depend and p may on how widethisregion dp6ned be. is to 2. Thevalues theexponenis and't cannotbedeternn-nM the of om p ft io the experimenial io any decent daia becaase ft the Mcuracy, loolcs muchthe skltme a widerange the values ihe over of of vezy pxrxmeters3. There no wayto ph-mlnxte curvature thedaiafor nerylom is the of The the Jdds. bt way is to ignorethem;see in particular data points Fig.3 of that paper,andalso(65). in An equaton state hasalso of b- proposed for the whole (50) range of temperatures, onlythe criticalregiowandis #ve,n mn (3.5.74) not by here. t $:, 1 it becomes same as eqn(4.6.62),only for H = 0For the but

82

MAGNETIZATION TEMPBRATUE.E VS.

Anempirical genervzation eqn(3.5.74) should of which applyto anyEeld zero has proposed andcompared with (gom up to saturation)been (921, someexperimental from literature. data the Eowever, datadidnotgo thae than that was up to a Mghfeld, andthe agreement not reallyany bettez which could obtained eqn(4.6.62). theft was not verygoodl be from Also, mainlybecause the experimental were used the least-square c2 data for the have ftting, whereas low-feld should been out of it, because data kept theyrepresent the rearrangementdomains. any rate,this idea only of At did not catch andnobody triedto use that equation anyother on, else for experimental It should noted, data. be though, both 1.2andFig. that Fig. haveactually been plotte with the use of that fozmulal 2.1ia this book andwith J = 0.368 c = 1.112. and lt was frst noted Wohlfarth that theArrottplotsshould by become (93) curved, the material not homogeneous. approach ex-tended if is Eis was by others, later used 96! explan featuruof and some (94j several (95, to these plotsin amoIpho'as which infezwromcgnetsare very heterogeneous deed. Nevertheless? theorywas forgotten., for severa.l the this and ye'az's to properties amorphous same curvature was attributed some special of materials, predicted a theozy by based a ,fzrst-order on perturbation the of EeisenbergEamiltonian, whichwas supposedapply nerylowmcgnet: to at In of aginst an as Selds.spite a1lthewnma'ngs such approach, emphasized izb.the present section in section dozens experimentalists and 4.1, of hurriedto produce low-feld Arrott plots,to compare that non-physical with theory.Details beyond scope this book, it should noted are the of but be thatby introdudng amorphidty a Gaussian the as distribution exchange of interactions, excellent to some experimental was obtahed an t data (97) provided tlte ltv-/eltf 'tpez'e that data eclnded theStting. theory This Fom used adjustable 8 not and parameters, a2 ofwhichwere reallynecessary, therewaa actually dcculty in keeping, example, accepted no for the theoretical mlues the criticalexmnents and't, whichwould of havegive,n p almost g*d a ft. It was justa tacticalerror to Gsiston showing, as in thesame paper,that the experimental values these of exponents unare reliable, ftting the datawith very d'Xerent by values # andq. H this of feld ofcriticalexponents, theorists used tellingtheexperimentalists to got the dcorrect' xalues whichtheyshould their data,whichis against to ft the tradition physics any other ia feld.Therefore, that of showing thedata couldbeftted verywell,f or example, y = 2.2was taken a heresy, with as andneither Pltysical the Sede'tp the Jonmal Applod nor PFzrt/c.s would @J publish lt was eventually it. published in Jotzmcl Magnetism crd (97j H Magnetic Materials ignored everybody. and by

5
ANISOTROPY TIME EFFECTS AND
5.1 Am*rsotropy .

TheHeisenberg Hxmltoniaacompletely is isotropic, its eaeralevels a'ad donot depend thedirecdon spa wlzicx eryst.al maoetized. in on i.x the is Throughout previous the chapters' measured the magnetizadon consiswas 'on is thedizecdon tb.e tentlydenoted Mx,where z by the of applied feldz feld. lt do% reily have meaniag thelirnl'tof zero appM not in any for whic,h of theculadons b-n done. fad, theconcleon most have In froma2the calculadons described far is thata fcromagnetic has so a certain is magnetic moment whose z-cmponent a certain function of Jzj thetemperature. How that at 1ow We mt spH are temperatm' of tb.e parallel z, but thisz has been to not defned aadwill beintroduced yet, here. . Eoweverj before de6nlng direztion, ksKustrative consider tYs it to the behaviotuaferromaaetic of Nrdclein thecaseofcomplete isotropy, when a11 direcdons space equivaleat the choice z is crsitmrp. in are and of At 1ow temperatures, strongGxcAange holdthe spins forces parallel each to of other, thedizection thee spins and defnes Oectionin space the the of magnetic moment wkc.ll g)&B is timesthevectorial of thespins. sum >, Let this Jz beat azt aagle0 to a %ed magneic H. Theenerr of seld theineRtion betw- the feld azdthemagnetizadonthe partide of is Hownto be -lts'= 0. TheMorey thermal at equLbrium probability te =gle 0 at a temperakzreis proportionale OS 8 T ofhaving particular a to whae yH ==
z

andks is the Boltzmann constant. Heace, average aa ensemble the for of particles is

NT ,

(5.1.1)

(cos = p)
where

%' sh J2'*' eos9ecoe# 9dpd4= (tcosp ezcthedl -.0 J= 0 x 1.) u(h = z,(z), zx 'r su lea'xloepl''' Jolz emcosp ots ds
-

(5.1.2) (5.1-3)

= z f?(z) e-oth

the is exlled Langeein It seen function fmction.is readily that theLangevia lnction of eqn(2.1.15) -+ x. is thelimit of theBrillouin for S

84

ANISOTROPY TIMEEFFECTS AND

Theleft-hand of eqn (5.1.2)the component side is parallel H of a to unit vectori.athe direction the magnetimation,the desnition the of by of angle np.rnely 9, MH == >N (cos c= 2) 8) , (5.1.4)

IMI

ksT

whichprovesthat a2lferromaoets actually are And just paramagnets. thereis no mistake thisalgebra: in thereare onlytwo diferences between this calculation the study a gasof paramagnetic and of atomsin section 2.1.One that thefunction is continuous whilethismriable is 8 here, had values section andthe otheris that the magnetic discrete in 2.1, moment it was that of a single atom there, whilehere is the momentof a large Jz, number atoms,couple'd of together. However, second thc dilerence only is quantitative not qualitative, the frst one should make and and not any of drerence, especially the energy since levels a largespinnumber are S together looklikea continuous and mriable. is thustmtethat lt veryclose if therewere no other the Heisenberg Hamilenera termbesides isotropic tonian,it would havebeen impossible measureany magnetism zero to in applied S.eld, therewould no meaning a Curietemperature? and be to or critiY exponents, aayof theother features or nice mentionedthe previn ous chapters. Theorists calculate propertienever pay attention who these to the fact that the possibility measuring whichtheycalculate of that is onlydueto an extraenera term,whichtheyalways leave out. Of courseza magnetization in eqn(5.1.4), is zero in zero apas which pliedfeld,conlradicts onlyexperiments produce 3..1. is also not that Fig. It experience for example, particles that, the in in confictwith theeveryday an audio video or tapestaymagnetized donot lose recorded and the informationwhenthe writingfeld is switched lt is because magnetic o1. real materials not isotropic not a11 are and ulues of the angle0 are equally probable. are several of anisotropy) mostcommon ofwhich There types the is the magnstocrystalline anisotropy, caused the spin-orbit by interaction. The electron orbitsare linkedto the crystallographic structure,andby their interaction the spins with they make latterJzre/'er the to alignalong well-def crystallographic Thereare therefore ned aaes. directions space in in which is easier magnetizegiven it to a crystalthanin otherdirections. Thediference beexpressed a direction-dependent term. can as energy smallcompared the exThemagnetocrystalline is usuazly with enera change The of is almost bythe only energp magnitnde Ma(T)determined exchange, in the calculationsthe previous chapters, the contribuas of and tion of theanisotropy negligible almost the known is f or a11 ferromagnetic materials. thedirection themagnetization But of isdetermined bythis only anisotropy, because exchange indiFerent the direction space. the is to in Therefore, axis z of the quantiMtion the direction always direction is a for whichthe anisotropy lt to enera is a minimum. hasnothing dowith

MISOTROPY

85

the direction the feld H, even if some of thephrasing theprevious of in chap%rs have to the conclttdon H is always led that pazallel z. ln t/o may realDfethe Eeld at to directionof rnxy beapplied anyangle the intnvnal theanisotropy as hasbe% a'Hs, hiuted h Fig. 2.2. at It may be worthnotingthat theoriu efst for the case of a large aOotropyenergy, whichis aot negli#ble compared the exGange. with Lfsuch materials couldbefound, theirmagnethation andeve,ntheir (981 ia Curie point(99) bedxerent would when measureddiferent diredons. It should benoted adding also that anisotropy not sudent for subdtis yet viding (xystals thedomaiumentionedsection The the into ln 4.1. exchange tziesto alir a11 spins the paeallel each to other, theanisotropy and tries to alignthemalong certain a crystallographic direction. Together, tr.g they all paratlel that directien: the diviion domains to and Y'tO to align spins mustbecaused ret another by term)to bediscussed seuon 6.2. in epergy However) thedomazns there, anisotropy once are the term energy will try to alignthe ma>etization e-ac.h themaiong of theaxes of its enone in of The are arrangdalong well-dezne err minimum. domains thusregularly directions) are not randomly and oriented, Weiss - y assnmed. as ori inteacdon frombasic eeuationofthe spin-orbit prindQuantitative plesks(100J possiblel the accuracy iaadmate, is the casewith but is as tke exchange integzalsTherefore, anisotropy energies always are wriitenas phenomenological Gpressions, whic actually are series expansions power thattakeintoaccount crystal the and are syznmetrs tke coeldents iaken e>n fzomGperiment. Specifc ex-prfmlo:as only be writte,a a specifc for crystalline as done thefollowing. in smmetur, Ls

Xnsofrom 5.1.1 Uniazizl The anisotropy haagonal of crwb-lal.s funciion onlyone parameter) is a of theangle betweea o-nvn'q the dsrection themagnetization.is the 6 and of lt known fromexperiment the eaera Lssymmetric respect' the that with to so of fzom series cyplane, that odd may powers coso beeh'mlnated a power expansion t:e anisotropy foz thus enerr dens,.Its frst twotarmsalwe Ou = -.% cos29 + Kgc>4 $ = -Jqm2+ Kgmh z z) (5.1.5) where is parallel theczystallographic andm is a unit vector z to c-axis, paralle.l the magnetization to vector)
m
=

IM1

(5.1.6)

The subscript is nrv!w.d because Hnd of anisotropy usaally 1 here, this is referred as a nniax one. ThecoeEcients and Kg are constants to Kk which depend thetemperature. on Tkeirvalue taken are from ents. H principle expansion eqn(5.1.5) becarried Mgher the in to orders, may

ANBOTROPY TM EFFECTS AND

matRn-nh to require H most but noneof theHownferromaNeiic seem it. =es even the term with Jfa is negligible, mxnyexperiments l)e and may analysed using frst termonly. ia all Howncases <<IXtl, by the And IJGI whic the expnnm-nnJustles powerseries Mtworkers prefer rewrite (5.1.5) to as mn stnt rj: tu = A'lsit2I + A'a # = .&:(1 m2) A%' rrt2hy2 (5.1.7) J: + z 1
-

ia which the coeRdent hasa diferent thaain the case of case Jfz tlclve nnlejs Xz eqn(5.1.5), Jfc = 0, or is ntr/kiblysmall.Once is pro-ly rdgmmed,dference the bemeen (5.1.5) mn (5.1.7) nstanit aad is a eqn mpxning: it only anda constantenergy term does have physical not any meansa shiftin:thedefln-ttion thexo energy, of whicx neve important ks for theproblems disfmme thisbook.Therefore, choicc in the between eqn aadmn (5.1.7) is complellyarbitrary, longas the defnition ms Ls (5.1.5) tn not switched themiddle a calcuhtion. either in of case,bothK and Jfa positive negative- most hexagonal or In crystals, c-nM'q the mxyl)e either xm is au 6asy which cds, meaasit Ls energyrn-,ninz audnota mxvlmum. aa Ja these cases,Kz > 0 in eqn (5.1.5)>xqn or Were (s-1.7). are, htlwever, mater-nlq which < %aad theem c-ax-k a hardHs, w1:,1z for Kz for the ks a Jlcneperpendiculaz Some hexagonpl ferrites AlKn ctArLni'n have a to it. easy xmountof auisotropy utldn theayplane, it Lsiways smaz, Ls but and (8) at mcs'tjustbarely measrable. will beignored It here. 5.1.2 Xbic Xnis/lrop# For c'tzsc ccstatheexpansion shoid l)euachaaged Lsreplaced if z by etc., when axes z, y, andz are desned the alongt:e czystallographic p, axes.Again,Vd powers nlledout audthe lowt-order are combl'nniion +m2z) tllis isjusta constant. which t;e cubic fts symmetnrm2z+m2v Ls but Therefore, expamsion Gt.Nthefourthpowerandis actually the starts
'J;c = a20,2 .2.2 X1(m2m2p z + 0,2.2z )+ Kgv,z y z x y +. z
z:

(5.1.8)

where thevalues JGaadJfaare also here of taken fromexperiments, and theyalsodepend thetemperature. on Hereagainthe expaasion be may carried higher to order:butit isnot necsary anyknowa for ferromaaet. -' ' Some kers prefeto replace exprerxsion X1 by 1(zr/ m4 + wor the with z . + v but term 'hon zr4l, witoutchangtgthe second with K1. Thissubstau does nloange cpeEcients, not the because
mx 4+m.*+m.4+2(p12zr:2+,r:2,r:2+,r:2p:2)= k. (5.1.$ a x v a x = (m2+w2+w2)2 = z t!l v z v

Cubic materials ezst with either fK. Fornvxmple, > 0 for Fe, sign Kz so that the easy axes are along(100), K < 0 for Ni andthe easy while axes are along body the dagonals, (111).

MTISOTROPY

87

If M is the same everywhere, above the expresions the eaergy for density to bemultiplied thevolume the c of have by to obtainthe aaisotropy of Ho=ver,if M (or is a function space, Lsthe as enerw. m) case in some problems discussedthe followiag in fin.pters,theeneror is
S=

J dr,
m

(5.1.1 0)

whee'tp stands either or 'tt/c(ox othe foz.m anisotzopy, the for 'tt/u of ms any casemaybe) theintegration over the volume theferromMnet. and is of
5.1.3 Mzgnetostriction There o'ther forms anisotropy are of beidu the magaetocrystalline one. 0neof themis dueto an Kect whie hadalready b- observed the in 19thcentursaad the when is #vea name magnetosyctiow a ferromagnet magnethedy it shn'nv (or in the of eq3a11ds) directioa themagnetization. StrictlyspduBlng, an ect inml-vdate thedenition M as the sac.h even of dipole moment unit volume, because Cunit the volume' itselfchang per with the magnetizzation, changes the applied which wth feld. lt Lsalso quiteclear whendomains maretizedt=dtherdore that are change their in dxerent there dsmensions) directions, caa bea misft of thecrystnllne latticeat the boundary between domn.inq, would suck wbicx ladto azt utra strain energy. Sucheec'tshaveb- studied (101, for some 102) simple cases,butthe problem themavethationin a delornvble of body is outside scope this book. the of Even mathemntical i'ts formuladon (103) Ls ex-tremely complicated ha,s aad neve.rb-n Rllly developed; evenfor not the case whenthe sample (104) Ls mMnetkally sa*rated. is therefore lt csumed here that all bodieare Bid, andall these magnetoelaztic efecfs will bejus'toored.Onlythree remarks must be made before dropping tMssubject. One that a large ofthe energy theinternalmagnetostriction Ls part of in rAn a ferromoedc czystal beexpressedthesamemathematical as in form anisotropz theuniafal or cubic magnetocrystalline gven thefegoing. in the When coeEdents andKg are calculated basic A'1 from principles, the of contribution thismagnetostriction beadded. when OeEshould But the dents taken are fzom eoeriment, contribudon alrevyinduded, this is and nothing rpmlly is Vglected not mentioning Thesecond is that it by it. point is possible addanother to dimension mGsuring by fezromanetic crystals under To approvl-mation, suc.h - entse%n be pressure. a rst-order xnnlyM 21G5, 107) = extra aaisotrop.y 1G6a as 1fvm. ()f cou-, the eas'y axes of this t-rm depend the applied on and pressure, donot necessadly coiodde the crystallogmphic of thematerial. these with =e,S In casu taad also Hme c in s withonlyau internal stran no external and pressure) it mxy beprBmblehave*th. cubic unieal anisotropy to and termsin the

88

AMSOTROPY Ar

TIMEEFFECTS

sxrne nmple.Thethird remark that some ftrst-order is theori e-fst f straias custalline imperfections particular the e;u of internal at a rtaindistzibution dislocadons 109) impurityatoms(110) of and (108, or other ddects on the to There many (111J) approaG saturation. are also (.:x-

(in

piments which show 113, that of (112, 114) tlc introduction dislocations and ha.s a (by m''lBngl theirremoval aanealing)hrgeefecton themea(by with sured coercinity. eeedis connected the large This magnetostriction in for theoryg115), thevicinityof thedislocations, which thereLsa detailed but it is outside scope thisbook. the of
5.1.4 Oler Cae.s Other forms anisotropy of include shane the cnfsofm.py, originaung from 6.1. the magnetostatic properties, whicxwill be dinntu%edsection t'11 in case of thx'n magnetic flmsthereis also another form,krttvn msindced crlrezv. It was a very popular in and when sublect the 195 1960s, mostlymade there were maayexpersoental investigations thia ftlms, of of permuoy, is Ni which an alloyof about80% and20% It was then Fe. at angle thesubstrate, to folmd when Alm is deposited an oblique that the or when large a magndic even electric feld applle dlm-ng the (or (H6J) Ls depostion, a uniafal azdsotropy thefnr'm ecm of of or (5.1.5)eqn(5.1.7) developed the plaae the lm. Applying removing maaetic in of and a feld (with withoutRmmealing sample) also or the could induce uniatal a aaisotropy was usually that referred as a =tatabe to xnl-Kotropy. latter The waa also' observed the bulk (11C in cobaltlll8). in and Eowever, spite in Tinterest the time,theorgin these of thewide at of phenomena never has Gxllyestablished. conduoa'of a 1962 been The review(119) that the was induced xnl-sotzopy- very compEcated it is not fully understood', is and audin 1964 p the was (120) the problem too complex that tis for a complete quxntivdve eeatment',wVe a 1969 stated paper(121) that - - tthemeclmnl-Km is a mzbjectbe iavestigated'. mcuum used to The in the(1a.> not gxd enough, section andit is quttepo%iblc was see 4-5, that cxygen playe a role(122)someof thueefeds.lnhomogeaeities ia ofr composition aadof phase were shown bepart of i%and to the (123) (124) pfwqx-ble of impuriti demonstrated bytheenhancement eed was of (125) thisnniKokopy uothermeual codeposited thepermalloy. when was with An iaternnl strxi'nmnyhave-also played part.None these of Gects wa,s (126) a ever fullyclarifed, was there lalr, andsomefeatures nor anyrealadmnce ofthe induced anisotropy noteasyto t.:xpln.''n in themore moden are even eoeriments. was not so muchtkat thepzoblem too diEcult,but It was that mostpeople lostinterest thuekndsofexperiments, in although jast some are still (127, 129) reported. 12% being 6lms An interesting feature the permalloy was that theywere polyof crystalline, they were made smallcrystals -c. ofr whose custallographic axes were randomly oriented. Therefore, had localcubic they a anksotropy

ANSOTROPY

89

whose oriented, besides ovmrxll the unia'dal easyaxeswere alsorandomiy anisotropy. random TMs anisotropy caused 131)rfmle:tacjura a (130, tEedirectionof the magnetization eachof thedomxins ia wiRled mghily of around average its direction. theory this ripple(orwiggling) The was quitestraightforward andwas A.1M v-n-Bed by (132): 7331 ferromaaetic reson=ce. Theexchange ovea'a,z and anisotropy to keep magnetitend the zationin ezmh domain parallel the Mm!A.='x1 aais:whiletherandom to easy auisotropy to tilt it into a diFerent crystxllite. tria Oectionfor each The competitbn between themrultsin theformer strongforces. two keeping themagnetization direction nearly constant, theyyielda little to but theweakerj random term,allowing small in each a tilt crystallite towards A=-K thelocdeasy of the cubic anisotropy. nen n.mozphons fcrromloets weze rstmade, was still taken granted it for that the same argument about random anisotropy thesmall in permalloy crystnlllte appli ms Just wellto therandom anisotropy theions.Therdore, eFect local of the should besimilarg134), thereshould a ripplestructure namely be with a (Mrixa'n smearing of thecriticalregion. non-phykcal The theory al(95) (critidzed reMytowards endof section according whicxtheoccurrence the to 4.6), of a random =isokopy,no matter/'tcsmallt must lead a drastically to dxerentqnalitatkne bGaviour, cngne onlylater. Whena certainthink'ness the Glmis deposited an anisotropy of with induced alonga chosen di-ction andthe rest of it is deposited the with xn-lsotropy alongad@erent direction,spedal of a sczcl a form or. iniuced even tyexdcl anisotropy obtplned. is Other spenlnl, artiidal type.s of q13,$) anisotropy been have obtained depvtion (136)a scratched by on substrate.

5.1.5 Snace Wzzfaomzp There several are contributions thisterm, themostimportazd wltdc to of wmssuggested in 1954 Nel, bac,k by whopoino out theimportance cf of The thereduced symmetzy the sudace a ferromagnet. spin at the at on suore IUA a neazwtneighbour one sideandnone on the otherside, so that the exnbn.nge therecannotbethe same aa in the bullc. A energy non-mavetic metal depited a ferromagnetic #ves 138, on one (13*6 139) for an evemdeerenteavironment thesurlce spins, andso does the (140q ferromagnets. easiest to considerij intmrlbetw-n d@erent two The cue that of a thin flm, because thiscaseit is possible compute actual in to the for wave f unctions eac atomic layer a reasonable to Calcalations accuracp for a fewatomiclayeers possible show 141, aze and that not (80, 142) it LG onlytheefectof the lat laye on thesurfazeo it mesrz'ia but inwards a to fewmore. Theproblem more complicated othergeometries, it is for and is not even clear whate'xetent results thin Glms applicable to the on are to them. However, a phenomelfolo#cal view, surface from pointof any enerr of spinsto be dther paraoel term should a tendency the surface be or perpendicnlnm surface, thertme wayas thethinAlrnenerr termis to the ia

90
all

AMSOTROPY TWE EFFECTS MVD

esotropywhe nan'nLs(143, dtherpazuel perpendicular or easy lz14! to the Slrn plane.Therefore, a Ot-order approvimation thezy to any should to an enera termof theform lead
c s. = yft'a (u- m) #,5,

(5.1.11)

where is defned eqn(5.1.6), iatepation over thesurface 'te m in the is of to mintingout of ferromaoet, n is a unlt vectorparallel thenormal and thesurface. coexde'nt should *e.n fromexperiment, there The Ks lx but experiments are not many dear-cut which mraluate parameter, its this and value anygive.n for ferromavehc material often is contzoversial. The form of eqn(5.1.11) mssumes that the 214x% sndarpesoopy Ls a geometrical featme that depends on the sltape the surface. is only of lt alsopossible imagine a surface to anisotropy caused thereduced by (1461 'of s'ymmetzy thespin-orbltinteraction the surfce.lt can leadto an at betwn magnetization thesurfMe the at enerr thatdepodsoa tkeangle aadthe awtaaographic of thematerial, axe,s beside, instead ew or ot Computations 'Iaalic 1om pzindplps single-crystal (142) on flms (5.1.11). together. Theycouldbe designed show to the contain bothjossibilities GCSC't of each separately, the quutiox could beclxrifM by one and also propelydesigned experiments which not been done yet. (791, has Thee'nergy in mn (5.1.11) frst indication thisbookof a term is the in possible spaa-dependence magnetizadon.thesurfReanisotropy of the If prefers rlleerentdirection tkat of the zlnllkntzrlyy thebulk,it is a from in concdvable thema&etization that vectorwi!l poht along bulk easy the n='q in mostof the and gradually into a diferent turn crystal will the.11 only direction when approaches sarfaze- courseo exn happen it the Of lt if the surfMeYsotropy enea'g.r largeenough compensate the is to for workthatneeds bedone to agm'nqt exchaage the which prders full energy, alignment. is illumimating think of ftA''K It to posslbilit.y at thisstage eve.n because contains it some of theimportut features the magnettatic of nl= share dxerent cases Oergythatwmbehtxducedin secon6.1.These theconamonproperty thcsy automatknllyiaozedia a calcalation that are that mssumes insnite azk crystal, which not have surface. does a
5.1.6 'Eqmvimental Mefzods for There several are methods measnring coeEdents andKa of the the K magnetocrystxllln is e anisotropy. Usually total xn-lsotzopymeasured, the of andthe shape anisotropy the swple must beknownandsubtracted. is Themostcommon method known the iorquectzzva the c'rystal is aa by to magnetized a feld applied dceyre'nt at angles the crystallovaphic axa, aad a tomion mechanical bnlxnce usedto measurethe resultiag is torque. applied mustl)e(1411 enough removethemagnetic 'ne feld large to

ANVOTROPY

91

domans but not so largethat it afHs (149) memsured the valu. (148j afct (1501 m=ured valuEvenau eledrufeld may somdimes the The' mathemadcal of theangular form dependence torque usually of the is knowa one of theetpwt--ons theforegoing, a tfansformation as in or (127) but of them, the analysis thedatais also of possible in some caes (151) for which symmetrz not known advance. method usually the Ls in TV js applied single to crystals only, uader but certain condidonsj torque cuzv caa (113, determine distribution tbemagnitudc aaisoeopy the of of 152) 61mn in a powder wit: racdom dlections easyafs. Measudng Yth of dlferentthieaesses also rxn yidd (153, 155) snace 154, the Ysotropy. Other methods to relymore heavily thetheoretical have on interpreto tion of whatis measared. include; They 1. Measurement magaetizationlarge of the in applied felds,f.e.in what LsWovaas the approach .scftlmftzrz to 1nthis re#on is it re#on. sucientto use a lineartheoryby neglecting higher orders of (1561 the magnetlation component perpendicularthe applied to eld, and thereare n.l!m empirical rules. (15% 2. FerromMnetic resonaaceln thegeometzy thin Glms.Thetheory of is well understood section and (see 10-1), theanalydsof thedata eAn yield not onlythebulkxnlgntropy constant, also/that the bat of ' 159, aisotropy. snrface 154,15% 160! (143, 3. Thetransnerse initiat suxeptibility, dvnedas
Em 8Mn Xz= JJx..+0 z , ag
-

(5.1.12)

is plotte versusa baJcd O1d HA. calculatitns were based on (161J a certatn model Stoner Wo%lfa.rth, will bedscussed of and wich in is section Thismodel 5.4. n.%cumes thesample made particles, that of andthat thereis no spacedependence magnetization of tke witin each paztide. Theo1d theorypredided in cwns this susptibility whenH. reaches of thevalue -KIMsand+2KlM>oae Such couldnoi beseen g1611 olderexperiment's. were in the They cusps lar found exist(162, (although formofrounded to i.nthe pealqs 163) instead c'usps) of in fILCUgVaiIIGI but not in coarse-grained ferrites, ones,whicb mustbe subdivided domains. techniquequite into This Ls popula.r nowadays, especially fozmatlrinlqwitk large valuc of (1641 Kz, for whichit hasbeendescrbed as 'euy to hxndle'and (16S) an interesting alternadve' othermethodsto Improvementsthis in of method allow evaluation Kg as well. (166) the 4. Singulariti the zamlles in susceptibility alsopredicte were (161) but not observed, a more complete till analysis 1ed themeae (167) to surement the derizabinethesuscepdbility, of of namely &*tMxl0H2z.

92

ANISOTROPY TIMEEFFECTS AND

when Thismethod works for czystallte con(168) coarsegrains, each If harmonic tainsdomains. this deri=tiveksdetected its second by the of response, distribution anisotropies cmm bemeasured. (169)
5.2 Superparnmagnetism Before introducing amother be to enerprterm,it should instructive study thechange which introduction theanisotropy in thecalculation the of made at the beginning theprevious of section. Considergroup particles, a of sa.y TA spheres example, for hadnga uniaxGal anisotropy in eqn(5.1.7). Kz as benesectedsimplicit'y, for although including does rfolly complicate it not thccalculation.onlyrequireto choosespecifc It a value K2(K1 any of for particular evxm ple.If the magnetic 8 moment of a particle at an anglc is p. to the easy z, anda magnetic H is applied feld afs along i.& at 0 = % z, thetotal energy is S = XiF sin2 - gKcosot $ (5.2.13) where is thevolume theparticle. function plotted Fig.5.1vs. J'r of This is ia #.Obviously, Boltzmann the distribution cannot used in eqn(5.1.2), be as because all amgles equally not are probable zzvforb. are two mirdma, a There one at 8 = Oandone at 8 = Jzy whose are enerbes
= 7l -gH

alld

(5,2.14)

respectively, an energy with barrier between them.In thermal equilibrium, themagnetization tendto bein the vkinity of these will minima. Actually, such confguration question not whatthc thermal for a the is equihbrium butwhether equilibrium reached a11 is, that ls at under normal conditions. a rough As approzmation can assumethat themagnetizaone tion vectorsof theparticles of spend their timein one of the dircctions cIl themimsma,.and at a2l an.y in no time at direction between. thatcase,the ((n. of number particlejumping thebarrier over fromMnimum1 to minimum of 2 Ls functiononlyof theheight theenerpr a barrier, - Xgwhere Sm Sm The is the energy the memum (see 5.1). lattcr can beevaluated at Fig. by equating Othe derivative eqn(5.2.13): to of
sin8(2A%V' + pHj= 0. cos8

(5.2.15)

en'ergie given The solution = 0 leads the two minimawhose sinp to are by eqn(5.2.14).othersolution ihemazmum, Thc at js
= cOS8 -

yH . 2N17

(5-2-16)

When is substituted eqn (5.2.13),cnergy the maximum found in the it at is to be

SUPERPARAMAGNBTISM Jm

93

Rz

7
Azz

JJ

vr

FIG.5.1. Theftmaionof eqn(5.2.13) for p,s'= 0.15JGF. plotted

2+ HMs 2 p. 1 + zk = Aezy 4.Y:7= Aez&r + 2A%

(5.2.17)

Thesecond relation obtained thedeinition g as the magnetic is 9om of momentof ev.hof theparticl, of tke magnetization M as the aad vector n1K defnition magnetic mcment uaitvolume. mpxns that g = FM, per namely = Ms'r,since as defned sedion is the ma>tude M, in 4.1 of g cf domains. M in the absence magnetic Therefore, number particlesjumping barzier rnlm-the of over the 1om rxn bewrittenms mum 1 tc minimum per unit Mme 2
n2
=

= f1ze-pfrm-4'l cste-plkhvjk+Hllx? ,

(5a )8)
. .

where is a constaat, is defned eqn(1.3.12)j c1a in and #

Fx

2A15r 2TG =
.

p.

Ms

(5.2.19)

Simjlarly, number particles the of over from jumping the barder rninianm 1 2 k) minimum per unit timeis -#(:m-8a) L'2l = t;21e .
Az.-#xyv(1-A/Ax)2 ,

(5z.zc)
-

whe.r is another cza: constRt. Jathe particular case H = 0 the bmier Ls thesamei.n dtlter Oedion,aadthese constants two must bethesame.

94

ANISOTROPY TTMA AND EFFECTS

Jathis c- it is more convenient consider relazation .r, which to the time is the average it takes system jump the time to fromone miimtlm to the other,instead the probability this jump unit ume. One tbe is of of per reiprocal theother,andthe predous of equations berewdtten may (for H = 0)as 1= -. Ae M:,h a = A%V' , (5.2.21)
r

*T

where s a constantthat hasthe dmensions frequenc'p original of The S s-' etimateof Ntxel h = 109 but recently hxsbecome cuswas it more s-1. is tomarytzl takejz = 10$0 Of course, this constant not necessarily the samefor dsferent ferromagnetic materials. Strictlyspenn'og, andc2l (or are Onstantsonlyif themMne-. cw A) tizationem.naot beat aztyotherangle aadis alwarsin one of the ever 0 TnA'n'xm 1$ two enea'v a. rxn onlyhappen thezninima if have zero widths. n any realistic caze,thereis a fnite probabltyof spending some cf the rninimlxvniztwhicbcasethepre-exponential time in the virqnl' of eithez ty , elcients andcazare functions thetemperature oftheapplied ctz of and feld H. Eowever, theminimaare rathernarrow aadthe barrier if enera is rather largej em'nbe exwcted it that ezz audozz (or have .Jc) only a 'lnenk dependence az!d whic,h neggiblewhen on T H, is compared the with ia when depMdencethe exponentialv only a small and error is ttroduced generally, KxmeOn (5.2Q1) they are taken constants. as More 'the should to also apply othe.r ldnds anisotropy, .Kzyis replaeod theerzerpp of when by r'xql. Mrrferfor that partimtlar Thederivation this muationmsK== a of ed partkular .form thebxrrlez - &, andit is obvious it does for tllat not %v applycs it is to other barriers. Strangely enougN, trivialsta*menthnd this to beemphxqixed because workers some used (5.2.21)oth.er for eqn (:70) xn-tscxtropiu. if the(mrect enersy But barrier used, (5.2.21) is holds, eqn prodded theminima raternarrow andthebarrier zather that are is high. Tids argument aboutnarrow msnsmx made was more quanuutive by Browa(171j, considered magnetization ia a pardcle wigwho the vector to le around enerv minimum a wve, thea' an for it jnmp (lomwherever happens bethen) somewhere to to the then around otherminimum, wiggle therebefore around again.. 'tze jumping it is Rtuatlya nmdor?z problem Brown wrotea d'lFerential and equadon descdbe and to it, showed the that of eigeavaluesthat equation should de*rmine more rigorously abovethe mentioned and>zl , or r. >la Browadid not solve derential his equation. lnstead (171j he tried someanalyticapprovimations uymptotic and a.n expansion, he(172) which improved later.R'omtheseestimatohe concluded for a 'lnlid='nl that anisotropy exactsolution the would l)e drastiezuly not dxerent 1omwhat is obYned tnlring andeaaas const=ts)in the range vatues the by cw of of physical for tlds is applied. Numerical soparameters wlzic,h theozy usually

SIHRPAMMAGNETISM

95

lutions Brwa's of diferenti/equation thecmse uninvixl for of aaisotropy, in zero (173) oz non-zer: appied that c12 (174) feldzshowed mssuminr aad caz to beone aadthesame constant a suldently goodappromntion, is fozall practical However,do% complicata nnnlysis it not of purposes. any daVif a lzighe.r is for case at accuracy used, whic,h it is betterto adopt lemst asmptcdcraatt ofBrown, instead just constant take the and of a h
= .fa 2./% M,

a rr

for

(5.2.22)

where is thoe gyromagnetic For ratio. thecase even when betternzvru'razty 'yo is requized, are several there easy-to-use approximations for thetevnrt (175) numerical solution. Studies othe,r of cases were reviewed (1762. in d'eerext thecaaeof a ctlsicanisotropy. Thesituitionis Ompletely in A slight complication isencountered calculation i.aa similar that leadtgto to calls equation and here, of eqns (5.2.18)(5.2.20) whic,h for a solution a cubic to evaluate at thernacrimum 9 in case enera. But at least theparticular m'mis 1 ' is H = 0 thesohtioa stzaightfozwazd, to a result whic VeZ'y ilar to eqn(5.2.21) uninvlxl forthe case,withtheonlydiFerence Ah that is replaced A%/4. by However, thiscatheassumptioaa constant in of hctor in fzont theexponential out to bea bad of turns apprrvin/atiom There are minima alongthez-, y- aadz- axes (for positive ='11 a A%) verymany pn-'bilities wiglng of azoud<>An% of them one before to jumping one of theothezs. Kddently, wealth possibities this of makes big dfereace a in the random-wm problem. numezical A solution(177, for cubicma178) dsfewmt terials which Ne.l were considerably 10n1 qlmple the gaveresults Gponential eqn(5.2.21). of Moreover, diFeren m--mt.rable, this is because fn'rne tezelaxation eztn beestimated thelino-width theM6ssbauer Fom of . m=uzements for diFerentsiz xme cubic spectrumsuc,lz of partid at difezent %mperatures (1791 far 1omthe prediction mn weze of ver.r to aad been (5.2.21) quitedose that whichha.s obteed by thenumerical solution(1771 BrowndFerential of the equation. the accuracy For used here, diference beignored eqn(5.2.27) Kzjn this will aad of (with hstead s'ucN will betlsed cubic fcr symmetry because details beyond too, are A%) the scope tMs book. of There othe,r aze approfmations anyway, the e.g. Asumption the Nrtides are sphere tlzat with no shape xn'tsotropynot is Besidesj certain uader always justied. drcumstances aumption the (170) that themavetization theNtide is nnlformaaddoes depend in not on itave been jusMed either.Calculations aISO zespacey not be(180) may as porte (176) more complicated such the case of a magnetic for cases, a='q. feld applied an angle theeasy at t.o anisotropy These details fne are thorougly described (176J ws.ll aoredhere. ia and be of the At anyrate, thedependence relaxation on theparticle time :z.e isin theexwaent,aad exponential an dependence verystrong ln is a one.

96

AMSOTROPY TM UFECTS AND

Table s-1 Rvamples thc relxxxtion of time r of spherical particlc,whoxradius R,for twomais terials room temperature. at

Matedal R (A)

(s)

Cobalt
Iron

44 36 140 115

'6 x 105 0.1 1.5. 10S x 0.07

order d=onstrate strong is, nnmerical to how it exoampl gi'ven two are for materiis,bothat room temperature, with KT = 4.14x10-14 Nrg f.e. e and 6 b0th calculated eqn(5.2.21) theN1l value h = 10 s -z . are with using of Oneis huagonal cobalt, whichK = 3.9x 106erg/cmz. othez for The is mtbicizon,whe axes are along(100), which = 4.7x 10S for Xz eazy The of time arelisted Table erg/cmS.vallzes thermlnvation r (in seconds) in to 5.1., a cpe-qlnGoiceof the radlus of theparticle, for R assumed be a sphere. Theradiiin the tableare chosen demonstrate withina rather' to that small rxn of beiag mnch raage partideshetherelxwtiontime chaagelom larger much smaller a,uarbitrnm-ly than chcfe.n to time-scale100 of seonds. A aiFerent'vallze%would cange general of not the form,andwould only reqlzire the slctly dfezentradiito demonsirate urne poini.A dferent a diWhwmt viue of A%) wouldshifttheradii maaeticmaterial(namely, value whic transiuon at tMs oezmm,bat it would the againshow same feature quhea sharp of change hrge to smnll vallzes r when fom of the particle ksdecreased. thusbeconclude size It may that thebehaviouz of fezromagnets depends the particle on size,and disectly d-tlereat may1>e for dslerentsamplc made the qxmematerlnl. caa rk!pn doncluded of It be thatmeaslzremeuts sometimes dxeerent yield ruultsfor thesamesammay ple,if theydonot takethe same tirne. It is thusnecessazy takeinto to the accolznt time-scale theeoeriment,or the experimental texp. of time, If r > fexp, change the mavetization be.observed the no of can during timeof the measurement, for all pradicalpnrposuthemagnation and doe.s change Mme-This Lsthe region stable not with of #erromcretibpk If a magnetic measurement takessomething the orde,r secondsl of of it is seen9om Table that for iron made particles 5.1 of whe raius is 1 cltn leasi150, change beobseaed no duzing e-xpeHment. the ln fact, no chxnge witl be observed suc.h sample iron even if it is kept in a of for several days.H thissizerange, almost everytking mentioned this in section The is maybeignored. onlypointwhich maynot beWored that

SUPERPARAMAGNETISM

'

thisstabilityof themagnetization not necessarily at the Lome.st does hold m-mimum minimum. it is brought scmemeanstc the hhh.er lf by energy of Fig. 5.1,it will jlzst there, s'tay practir-qlly evea', =:11it is brought for or down an appropriate by application a magnetic Thisistheessential of Eeld. partofthe hystevewis observedall feromagnets.is important bear in Jt to in mindthat the etstence hysteresis of means that it is not sudent to calculate lowest the of a ferromagnetic system. is always lt possible eneror thata lower-energy eists, butit isnot accessible state because system the is stuck a higher-energy in state. of and exOf course, thescale l00 s is justa.nSlustration, for certain periments, applications, scale oz the l:e completely diee,rent. '.l'has Tnlty for '--mple, if R is rcquixed the information a maaetic tapeis that on keptfor veavs, is neessauto ensure that theparticles thetapeare it in large 'r enough malce > 108 J.n to s. studyug(181, rockmagnetism, 182) it is necessau takeinto account decay thema>etization to of the during geolo/cal of years. the otherhand, On times,whichmay beTnx-llx-ons in Mssbauer measumments (experimental is thetime of eect the time' theLarmorprecession, is of theorderof 10-8s. lt is thuspossible which that partidof a rtainsize for KeC't maybe stable theMKssbauer but unstable nventional for maaeticmeasurements; samplcwhchare and stable during human a life-ume change duriag gKlogical times. The may principle theKxme,butthetime-scale bediferent, is which shift may mlty of in thetransition, whichonlya,nAltmpleis give,n 'Table 5.1. In the otheraxtreme,whenthe partidesare smallenough malce to r < texp: and occur during the manyfips back forthof themagnethation timeof the experiment. in Therefore, zero applied themexqured, feld aw value l:ezero. Ia a non-zezo will feld, thethtvmal fuctuadons have erage theirwayandoore theanisotropy altogether. calculadon section The of 5.1thenapplies theaverage and mvnedzation gien by theLangevia is ftmction, in eqns(5.1.1)-(5.1.4). ms Thebebaviour tke Kxmeas that of is the paramaaetic atomsdiscussed secdon with no hysteresis h 2.1, but Fmztb withsaturation, whickis reached all thepazticlaale aligned. when particle thissizerange in behaves a huge like atom,with thespinnumber of Sof theorder 103 even 104, of or instead S of theorder 1 in convenof tionalparxmagnets. theargument theBrzlonin theLangevin Since t or fundion 1s. proportional SH, saturation revhedin such to ks materials in Eelds whichare very easy obtain,whereas more conventional to in paro magnets saturation requires highfelds,whic,h oftenbeyond are the vezy capability themostpowerlul of available. thisreason,thispheFor magnets nomenon of thelossofferromagnetism in small particles became Hown as s'upeoaumagneilm, the Ssuper? was taken mean tlarge' i.n when part to as superonductivity. A single partide sucha small cannotbemade' handled. of size or Exof peziments therefore are carried on an ensemble particles, out which in

98

USOTROPY ANDTM

EEFRCTS

most cmsc have widedistribution particle a of sizu. Such Nrticleswould gtverise to a superposition Lamgevh of Gmcdons dferent valu with of p' = Ms? in the argument, themeastu.ed colzld pxsiand fmrve not b1y look111* Laugevin the function. However) the argument eqn since in

contains fdd .S'as S/T,when measured the the maaetization is (5.1.4) plottedmsa function S/T,datafor diFerent of should sutemperatur perimpose one curve. Therefore, superpositionM.e ns. H1T cmto the of onto one curve, andteabsen hysteresis, to betakenaa a,ainof used dkationthat the sample supeerpaznmn.aetic, is evemwhe,a curve did khat not looklikea Langevin fundion. Withimprovutsdmiqu produeg for small pardd, theirsize distribution become has narrow enough a for vezy Laagevin fancdon to beobserved, thisindirect a=d is azgument puze (1%) not necessaz'y more. Thecalculation section rAn now besaidtq of 5.1 aay %vebeen con6rmed directexpevlment. couDe, a Langevin by Of function eltn be data any (or otherslzmnxr fanction) alnmys ftted to such (184, 185) for a rathernarrow temperature but narrow distriraage, theremarubly r>n butionof (183) bef tted to suc.h functionover a midetemwrature a h thisrepect thisexperiment still unique theliterature. is iz rangexl= Theargument eqn(5.2.21) convins temperature the deof the in noMnator. dependence The is actually Just theparddesix, but on on not Therefoathetransition stable fzom ferromagnetism to sup VjT. agnetism, which demonstratedTable for thec,ase room temperais ia 5.1 of ture)sh-tfks a smaller to pmiclesize when temperature decreasedthe is In measurementstheMH r:- S/T curve, somehysteresis of suddenly app/xztm when at a suEdently temperatureo thesample low becomes a feromaaet. Nattzrally, dataat the temperatures excluded *om the the 1ow are 186) superpositiom temperature which Tke at suc,h transidon a occurs,namdy tkat for whichtherelaxation r Lse>cl to thetime oftkeexpdm'ment time tvp, kse-xlled bWkgn.q the ferrlwmtvq Ta. lf there a size Ls distributton in thesample, sametemNaturemaysometees above for someof the l:e Tz theparticluandbelow for txe others. a Kxmple thus Ts Sueh lxk snzmay aaedcfor somellighvtklu thetemperature ferromagnetic of T, at lowvaluecf T, azda mx''rtkta :0th at iutermedate A demonstracf T. tionof thisefecteztn beseenia Fig.3 of (1871, plotstheMssbauer which efect for the samesample difexent data at taperatuzes. T = 5K there At is .a paresix-lines structureof a ferromagnet. T = 324Kthereis one At cenkal of a paramagnet, at the line amd in-betWeen there temperatures is aa obvious mixqng b0th,withthe superparamaaetic of portionincreasiag with incremsing temperatmea ' Thispatternksverym'vnslnmthechanges theMssbauer to in spectrum when averagepaztclesizes obsewed thesametemperatare at the changed. Ydeed, tke properties if depend T/F,theefed of cAaaging should on F bethesame as that of nhnm#ng illustration theefectof vazying T. An of ia theee at a constant rAn besn for evnmple Fig.3 of (188), T which

SWERPARAMAGNETISM

99

actually represents materx that is an anhlenmmagnet a fera not tand =-e,p for a This temperatur. experimeat romagnet) largeparticle or 1ow well shows used as (as as others) that the argument hereapplies wellto when aatiferromxgnets, n.1M whicx beeome superparamagnets thepvticle sizeis Kmailenough thethermaluctuations dipthe maaetization for f to ' and the is back forthduring timeofthe ent. TMsG?.C'tquiteobviousfzom derivation theforegoing, it ks the in and n.1M that thes=e dpne a'pplies to ferrimagnets, it tsalways to havean azpezimenfal but nicer (186) vprifcationfor anytheretical condusion. samepattern a tnansition The of from to sixlineseAn also obtained theapplication ofvadous one be by :189) that magnetic Eelds. lzas lt alrp-'tdy mentioned the f .eld ben scaze SH of mnlres possible reac,h it to the eut of all pardcles easily at attained felds. Therefore,is possibleglg)thewhole it to se developmeat zzero from to partial to a tot/ aliglzment, thischxnge and wit,hthe app:ed feld is quitessrnslnm the paernGange to with cxanging tempeaturesizes Thewidedistribu'tionparticle is mostprobably rnm'n re%on of the for the gradnd disapp-anceof hysteresis the c'cenue when particle size dee-rex-- sharp The chxnge predicted thetheory s'mecred by is in meaeure- ' meatsg190) hysteresis ofthe properti remaneace andcoercivity) of (.e. Sessentially spheri' particles a function iheirmedian as of diameters. Of course, whea sample the contaias biggeramd smatler pardcliw someof them beferromagnets somepnmmagaets certain aad at a tempbrature, and may the measuze properti thenshow will some sort of a partialhysteresis, as i.atheM6ssbauer data e'ect mGtioned theforegoing. in However,is it possible part of tlzisgradual that changG lemst the comrtn'vity, at ia may ix dueto a dl'Ferent Kect. Whena particle rnxaethed is along+z, it txknsa feld H = Hc to reverseits magneation Fig. 1-1)-a feld If (see E < Hc is applied, is aa enerr barrier, theee whic,h clso is zzwporlitmc to that If size fhc'tlolumet preven?the reversal, the particle sa little above that whic,h allows spontaneous it maylp anyway a Eeld a Sipj at wkick is somewhat below bulkcoercivity. the There many are theorioof suc,h meclmnirn uncial partide (191) a in 192,19% or pla/lets (195) someattempts take into accouat and to it 194) in simuhtions 'temn.aettzation o There even is process. (196)numerical some 4x-efm' (197) the-tllMnltl fuctuations 'ate for overcoming diferent a ldndofenera bxrrier, the motion a domain a bigger for of wa2 particles which subdivided domains. are into However, of thesetheories none has ever been suEciendy developed even tem-ng these for l efcrts are large or small any rpABstic for case. And none of them !mnever rearlled the of abouttheraadom of the magnethation hu walk whic,h asuge wondering been mentioned oxrlierin lbl-s secdon whch not been and has properly solved for m-mpler It slkould particularly evea cxqx. ix emphasized that most of the (eeriments mentionein 1%!K section semi-quatitative, are only andCIIeCIC somefeatures the theorpThethKry predidsa 1- of of

10o

ANISOTROPYAND EFFEGTS 'lqA

theferromaaetksm theparticle small thetemperature high, when is or is remninqquite But andt/19plection is cerunlyconfzhed. thistheory crude, IUAnot been and developed more accurateestimates, into because theeare no erperiments callfor a higher that accuracy.Actually, for except ex-periments as (179) someof those suck there very and discussed(1805, ks ia theoretical little comparison experiments guantitadne of with predictions of what therelaxation is andwhere kansitionshould tlme the odcur in realmatezials. malnreuon is thata qllxmtitative The exxrimentis very dilcult to c'arry as *1 bediscussu thenextsecton. out, in

'

5-3 MagneticViscosity BetwentheKie,n supeparamngnetism thatof stable of and feromagnetism there in prindple particle for whic.h is of theorderof texp. is a size r According the ev-trn plein Table it is a very narrow size to 5.1 and range, it is usually quitadifcult to prepare sxrnple the necusary to see a of size of smallparticleq whathappens thea.For some teeniques maldng the sizedistribution wellbelarger region. thaa thistransition Moreover, may it is aot even always possible measure the sizeof thee.particles, to so much that therehave so been aud maaysuggetoms attemptsto u the superparamagaetic transition a ct-nre for the distributon aa (189, 198) or at least the anevage 19$ the particle Suc.h size. memsurements (182, of obviously for a bette,r call theoretical interpretation theoversimplled tha.n utimate of thepredous section, WhicA nxqumesthat all thespins within e-qzt!t particle aliaed.Besides challenges to thisassumption, re other (180) the mere fnrt thtata largepropordon the spins near thesurhce of is in maknone suspldous aaytheor.r such small particles shoald of that does not take1.a10 account prm'bleefec't thesurface the of anisotropy. In practicethere very strongevidence 189, 201, 2031 is 200) (187)dsgerent 202) thatthemagnedzation thesurhce oftea near is quite fromthat in theA-nner of theparticle(- alsothelastpasrlgrapk section part of 5.1.5). Iron paMicles particdar be ofdized,so that theyare Ktuazymade in may ofan ironcore srounded bya shell iron ofde (201, 2051, of 204, forwhich the'simple theory theprevious of section not apply. does SurfveGect,s =n.y also implied theobservationtzo6) be from thatmagnetic propertieof small particles sometimu are sensitive surfactants to adsorbed thesner.p. It on haaalsobeennoticed that of (207) the shape Ge pmicles=ny not be spherical) that they maytead to sticktogetherj and forming chains loag which or other(209) aggxzgates, change 211, therelaxation (208) (210, 212) particlOhave timecondderably. InterKtions beeen been demoastrated in aad interactions (213, to beveayimportant realieasurements,these 214) look Mssbauer no.ysometmes lilcea 8ze dkstdbution in aaalysing (215) eFCSC't Other data. efects, as magnetostriction, also interpreted sucA be may as if they were (215) a sizedistribution. Thereis thuslittle wondethat rAn the particlesizedetermined the magnetic fzom measurements oftea

MAGNETIC VISCOSITY

l01

bevery dllerent (216) their directly 1om meazured although sizer both suc meuurements sometime consistent, kuite av6 for uaiform and (2171 wemisolated' pariid. Comparison in betwentheoryandexperiment this particular feld is furthercomplicatedthe unuownphysical by constants, because the b0th satuzation magnetization 218, andthe anisotropy constant(217, (217, 219) of :ne particle dfer fzom thdr bulkvalues. these lf parameters are 220) for particles, thee is not reallyanydirectevaluation of adjustedthesmatl what the theoryof the preuous The sedionpredicts. Curie temperature n.1M d-lfFerent smatl be for partides rnlky (221, fzom it is in the 222) what or withintheparticle which bulk, there besomesmall may resons (223) Ep before magnethation the whole the of parhcle fips, when Curiepoint the is approacked. atlthese And unHowns uncertaindes supmo-mpceed aad are on a theory whic.h exiremely is sensitive =ull mistakein the partide to size(224), otherphysical or ia ms in 5.1. parameters, demonstratedTable ln spiteofa11 these dMculties, is a surpridngly number there large of experiments the literature partides this narrow reon for wizick in for in r ;4$toxp, even though is not clpxri.amxnyc,ascs it whether is rally it the whole sample, onlyNrt of it, for whicthe particle are in this or sizerange. thisre#on 'r, the meneticpxoperties In of change whilebeing me%ured, thisckaage inprinciple observed. for Altmple, and can be Thus, if a magnetc is applied thenr-oved, theaverage feld and menehzation decays a time-scale theorder T, which on of of should possible meabe to exponential a frst order, tlat ther=anent to sure- A decay usually is so luy-bn.ve magnetizadon should according to
= .M'(.j) r

e-t/.r .<r(O) ,

(5.3.23)

eltn where is thetimethe t Plttiztg experimental to thisrelation yield data time, value theTelnavxtion r, or at leut its average thesystem of when has a distribudon the valu r. of t . Eowever,nobody evertries ft datato eqn(5.3.23), it istaken to because forgrantedthat there mustbea wide of sizel distribution tkepartcie which mustcamse wide a distribution r, andtke timedecay actually of is
= Afr@)

Mr(0) ,(r)e-'/-dr,

jo
-

(5.3.24)

O1d where is a distribution P function. estimations, more recentnuand merical computations for snecisc distribution functons show P, that (225) e-xn under certaincoaditions (5.3.M) beappzoimated by eqn
= Mr() & Sh(t/a),

(5.3.25)

where andS aTe constants, this functional ks C and form used analyse to

102

AFRSOTROPY TIMEEEFECTS AND

>

logtlz-ol
FIG. 5.2. Schematic representation a magnetization of decay a logaon rithmicscale.
practirlulyall experimental data-Mostworkers the conslmnt and omit a absorb in Ct butit is wrong doso, bec-ause it to a logadthm onlydefned is foza dimensionless number. mayalso worthnoting mostworkezs It be that the do not choose integrand in eqn(5.3.24), a distribution the as with of values r. Theyprefer distribution theparticle or of theenergy of a of sizes assumption the relation that these barriers, use the dubious aad between parameters 'r is Hown and established.is not) according the and It to discussion theprevious in section. This choice the logaatthmic of functionis rather strange, because it is not regular eithersmallor largevalues t, andcan certainly for not of represent be ' ' g or the endof the memsurements.' realfunction the The not mayat most be linearin lult/al over a ll-mfted range,whichdoes conton shortand the longtime. ln pzinciple, can at mostlooklike the it the schematic in Fig. 5.2,and indeed formis what is observed plot tMs when over of (226) dataaa-etAken a widerange the time. However, m=y e'xperimentalists assume that the logarithm the Ctrue' is formto be just used,andthey do not report (ordo not measure) aqything outside the for can have reviewed range which (5.3.25)beftted. Cases been eqn (227) in Whic,k reported range so narrow that it maynot even bein the time was the linearre#on Fig.5.2,aadin an extremecaseMr was measured of at onlyt'tvo'tzcl'ue..s hzordez determine of eqn(5.3.25). of t, to S Thelogarithm so inconvenient even if it were an essentia) of is that part the physical problem, should someattempts avoid as much there be to it as possible. it as an approfmation, Using e'an ifit isa good approfmation, as complication. is cllurned for certanc-ases, a completely is unnecessary (225) It hasbeen claimed that function as (228) thecriticismof thelogarithmic

MAGNETIC WSCOSITY

lO3

brfu.king forlarge smalltis Vcorrect'(.Wc!), eqn(5.3.25) down aztd becattse is onlyused a certain for time-window <<t <<tmax: no reasonwas tzzun but ever given leaving thetimeoutside for out tids regiom Actually, limits the ' of the re#on which linear ln(@/erb) is i.:z are related to of (229)the'width the distribution. tryingto ft everytlting eqn(5.3.25): avoiding By to or by the outside time-window, that importantphysical information thus is re#on lost.Moreover, is reason to believe in manyexperiments there that only ycrf ofthe sample decays r of theorder exp. main with of The justlcation for using (5.3.25) that it is a good ks(225J approfmation a wide ffor eqn distribution eaergy of barriers'. However)the distribation wide,it is if is to that are to easy imagine someof the particles largeenough be stable ferromagnets the condtions the expeHment that someof the under of or particles smallenough besuperparamagnetic: are to or b0th.teaving out thepart of the decay curve for shortand long for values the time leavu of out all theinformation about small the large the and particles the >min plc.It is a riskyprocedure, especiany it hasYen shown at least since that icles large one method produces two groups pazj in thesamesample: of (230) oneswhich ferromagnetic small are and oneswlkich superparamagnetic. are of On top of al1thatj a logarithm may not even be a true representation a widedistribution, bec-ausecltezwtzfse an explanation says (229) that a.n apparent lineardependencelog//almay alsobecaused magnetoon by 'is used staticinteractions the particles. longas eqn(5.3.25) for As among the analysis the data,it b impossible distinguish of to between two these efects. . Actually, is noteven necessary lookfor an approimation it to which is it easier use than thelogarithm) to because is possible to carryout (227) in Ls theintegration eqn(5.3.24) rigorously ualyticallyjif P(m) taken and to be theso-called distribution gamma Jurlctforl,

P(S azxtp;
=

(-a e-M'IM
'r
,

P-Z

(5.3.2 6)

where is the gamma r ftmctiozb ;) andeo are adjustable and parameters. Thisfunction looks more or less anyotherprobability like ftmctiozb can as beseenfrom three the examples plotted Fig.5.3 theparticular in for choice scale, value a does haveto the of ;) = 2, 3 and4. Onthis reduced of not bespedfed, t will obviously to bef r s givenin real unif.s but have of exn dme.Graphs readily plottedfor othervalues these be of parameters, andthiy all lookqualitatively same. lt 1s, the to therefore: le#timate ms use as anyother distribution ftmction) at lemst convindng and no argument hms been ever presented theuse of any otherdistribution for function: the choice whichis alsoquite arbitrary. diferent of My diserence between functions at mosta second-order which betterleft efectj is probabiity ks havebeen clnrifled. The to bestudied onlyaftera1.1 frst-order the esects

104
n

AMSOTROPY rrf> KFFECTS AND

fC
%

bq

/
t'q &
,

Nv
,..

l
/?
e

N
x

-.

?
k
X
'

;e
, r . y

.-

.s

'/e

-. *. 'h' !; -.
-.

/
.*

;'

4 / I? j / :
I/ '
.e

Nu Y%

-q. -

-xv

..
.
.

< --

.h-

h.
k

&

($

s/ro

FltI. 5.3. The gxmma distribution funcdon eqn (5.3.26) for of plotted ;) = 2 (6111 p = 3 (dashed andp = 4 (dotted curve), curve). curve) distribution enerv of barriers, iastead tkedistribution relavxdon of of tima used here. this For rx-ee intqgration the cazmot nltrrled analytically is done be out as here. Wheneqn(5.3.26) kssubstitutein eqn(5.3.24)theintegratioa and is carried theresultks out,
same function eqn(5.3.24) ugM(231) a of was for

Mr(0) P@)rc

Mr(t )

(j

..t plk

xp a

(y.)
c

(5.3-27)

where ks modedBssel Kp the functionof thethird lrind. TV f'unctlon Ls well-desned, properties been its have invatigated anyrange the for of parxmeters, zPKp(z4 no sinalarities. and has Therefore, sortsof e.xall perimental maybesttedto this function, no separate data aad treatment is needed large small Suc,hEttingshould for or @. a determine two pat'he rameters, anda, of the fanction of eqn (5.3.26). vallzes P Their then p determiae two pazameters the whichare mostsignifnxmt any physici for problem izwolves ldndof probabilities. of themis the man t'hat One aay nalne, whicb the caseof eqn(5.3.26) by ia is given
m =

lrb ,

(5.3.28)
.

andtheother thercrcxez,which thiscaseis Ls in

0.2 =

mj

(5.3.29)

TM STONER-WOMFARZH MODBL

105

This important physioal infozmation aboutthe pazticular system under study just if eqn is lt is used. (5.3.25) Thepsibiiitof using gamma the distribution function somehow hms been ignored, ig noteven mentioned the mostrecentreview(225) and in of dferentmodels. (2251 others They and insist some (232) on choosing other and out the integratioa numerically. even for casesin And P('r), whicx turns they and logtt/a) out to beinadequate, (225) others sug(228) using Jmcer a series loglval, conserving inconvenient in thus the and gest non-physical siagalarlty small large Similar for aad @. suggestions been have reviewed (227). ha.s in There been attempt (233) plot one universal an to cuzvefor the decay the magnetization of measured the same sample for at diferent temperatur However, forthat purpose, was suggested T. even it that thedatabeplottedmsa bnction (T/Tc) of wMle 1:1(Va), R is clear that any fundionof that parameter also Iunction teTlvo lt ceems ks a of that this 5e1d the with crnot advance befoze obsession loguthmsis over.
5.4 The Stoner-Wohlfarth Model Whe,nfromagneticpazticleis a lazgeenough, kime-eeds allthe dcribed in section are neglisbly 5.2 smallNevertheless: particles still be such may smallenough the exchaage for spinstightlyparalldto enerr to holda11 each other, not allow space-dependence maaetization and the ofthe which enters onlyat a larger particle ln tlds =e, a.sin the case studied size. in sedion5.% excxange tAe and de not enterthe enerr is a constant, mlnimizations. There then onlythe anisotropy are of energy energy the particle the interaction and with the appBed to beconsidered.is Eeld It thenmssible use thesame enerr relation in eqn(5.2.13) for to a.s to solve the hystaresis ofthese curve svblebut smatl ferromagnetic particl. Suciz a calczzlationknx msthe Stoner-Wohlfavth is modet Actually, original the study(2311 of Stoner Wohlfxrih and assumed a shape anisotropswhick bedMned section andnot the unip.vlxl, .111 in 6.1, xniuropy as in eqn(5Q.13). crystuine Howeverj mathematics the the is same, aadthks model alsoused was laterfor the cxse of this anisotropy. Moreover, acalculation on thismodel beiag based k widely ) measure used the erpsilineanisotropy, mendoned sectlon as in 5.1.6. 'ne mm-n mssumpdon StoncaadWoidarth that the material of is is made of rathersmall particles, whichaz'esudetly separated from up elmlk other thatinteractions so between are negYble- magnetic them Ifthe Eeld, is applied an angle to theeasy of thennia'dal H, at I azs xnlsotropy of the particle,themagnetization vectorwill rotate to a.naagle$ from the Eeld which diredion, meansthat the maaetization vill beat an angle of is 4- e fromthe easyaHs.Theenergy thissystem thesame msix eqn with of into here, (5.2.13)7thechange the angl the on dened nnmely
= 17 A'zk' sin2(4 - /zJ./ 0) cosy,

(5.4.30)

l06

Ar BEFECTS ANISOTROPY TTMR

where is thevolume, wheethemaaeticmomeat of thepartide F aad (b by in may lx replaced MsV,as was later done seGon5.2as well. Stoner Wohlfaztk and preferre usea diferent to ddnitonofthee.ne+ zero, aad replRed bythecosine thedouble sx of ngle.They' worked with thereduced energy, s n = zAtF + const=
whce
-

cos(2(4 ,cos/j 8))

-

(5.4.31)

h=

MsF. 2A%

(5.4.32)

valuu of0 aad Forgkven otbe maRelization choosethe $whic.b will augle mnstnl'zes enrl n=dy the solution this of
1 ...3.8 = + $ #)) ?zsin = 0, t9/ gsin(2(4
-

(5-4-33)

provided thesolution that represeats energy an minmum not a mafand 'as m=. Thisconditicn bee-xpressed c.aa
= + > o. 8)) :42 cos(2(4 Acos/
-

(5.4.34)

Be auseof the muld-valued trigonome'cfunctions, (5.4.33) has eqn always thaaone solution a tven?& 9,andit can happen more for aud that an H to more thanone of tlve xlutionsrepreseni energy minimum. order obtain unique a solution.,is necessazyto it specify, follow, history aad the of tevalue h for e,ae,hA Klutionwlzic,h of 8. starts1oma particular branch c=not bejustalloweto jump anoier brach. TheJump be at into must a feld value whiG there no enerr bnrrier at is between brancke. these Tkks importan.t feature thebasis thehysteruis is of whichis always part ofmMnetism, in order see howit works helps lookflrst at the aad to it to trivial case8 = 0.In thiscaseeqns(5.4.33)(5.4.34) and a2e

(h+ cos/) sin/ =

0 and

+ Acos/ cos(24) > 0.

(5.4.35)

of Onesoladon the rsthalfis cos$ = -h, whiex a validsoludon Ls if hnlf < 1, but it do% A4161 second . '7%l's not the xlution rep=ents an 1:1 mcdrn'um has physil and no sigGczmce. other The solution Ls energy
sin4 = % axld 1 + ?zcos > 0. 4

(5.4.36)

Thecombhation mpltnqthat it is necessary use $ = 0 for h > -1, aad to = zr for ,< 1. $

TI STONER-WOIKEAETH MODEL
< 11 1 both4 =

107

It is thuss-n that the Klutionis unique 1?zI but in there#on if > 1, minima. At thispoint it 0 and4 = 'r az'evalidenergy is necessary introduce e2d If to the Mstory. we siart byapplying large a positive thenreduce feld to zero, andhcrease in theopposite ltt the it direction, physical the system remains thebranch thesolution = 0till on of 4 the bccomes unstable, and thefeld h = -1 isreached. thiseld solution At the system mustjump theother to brancb, = x. Noteia particular that 4 to according eqn(5.4.31)reduced the enerain tMscJueisn = -1-h,cos44 Once pa%ses andbecomes slightly h zero, even negadve; state4 = 0haps the a higher the enerr thanthat with$ = x. However, maretizationemmnot into state, it enera justjump thelower-enera becauseis in a rnin-lmtlm Aute, which mp-xns that there an energy is barriertllat holds there. it TEe situauon m'z'nilar theenera displayed Fig.5.1.Thesystem just is to in is stuck the b-lrher-enerr in state till the feld reaches valueh = -I, at the whic,h bnarryr removed a Jump a lower-enera becomes the is and to state possible. similar,but reversed, A appli starting to a argumeat Fom large tke negative in whichr-qme otherbrancb heldtill thefeld reaches A,A the is m'moar the value = 1. Thewhole lt hysteresis isthen qnalitatively curve to l'lmiting cmwe plottedia ng. 1.1, audthe coercivity defned ms thereis for the reduced h = 1, which feld mexns Hc = 2KfMs according mn to ' nnrneriexllyl the'general If 9 # 0, eqn(5.4.33)to besolved has but benimilarto tkecxqeof# = 0which justbeen haviour rather is has described. Starting 1oma lvge positive Geld, solution the which startswith $ = 0, = .e-cos/ 1, curves down with deceasing values h,to lowervalues of of to valuo of tlle component themaaetization of in c09,nn.mely smaller theeld .dizectiony Mu = Ms=ss. (5.4.37) At tke poiat wkere branch this stopsto be a minimum, thereis a jump to a second branch, displaying thus sometMng whichlooks more or less likeFig. 1.1.Obviously, jump the occurswhere left h=d ddeof eqn the that changefrommsnimam a paasc (5.4.34) throughzezo,maldng branch to a memum.Thecombination a zero fortMsmuadon of together with givc reladons between kritical'values eqn(5-4.33) riseto several g2341 the ofh'a'ad at which jurnp the occurs for a #vea 9. 4 It maybe interesting bok azso the otherextremecase whi/ to at does r.n.ll a numerical not for eeuation.Tkis caseis 9 = x/2,,e,a eld perpendicular theexsyafs of theasotropy,which to meaM efectively no anisotropy a11. thiscse at In and become eqns(5.4.33) (5.4.34)

(5.4.32)
.

(5.4.38) cos In tMscase,the solution 4 = h, whicb a validsoluuon 11 1, is if <

Lh cos4)sin4=
-

O and

+ h' cos(24)cos/> 0.

alsofulfls the second of eqn(5.4.38), is an e.ne.. minimum. half and It

108

ANISOTROPY 'lqMEEFFECTS Ar

yields magaeadon a pzoportional thefeld, as ia a pazamagnet, to with no hysterois with zero coercivity. h = +1 it changes to the ald At ovez vond soludon sin/ = 0,wikicllis the saturation 4 = 0 or 4 = A'. of of ATA computhg hysteresis the curvesfor each feld angle Stoner 9, aad Wolllfnvth computed a'verage a random the for distribution the of (234) anglu0tnamely collection pardcles a random a of with distribution the of direction theireasy withrespect thedirection the applied of aN:% to of eld. Theresulting c'urve is verym-rnilar the one shown Fig.1.4.Actually, to 5n ctlrv'es b'e in theory, maayexpehmental could aualysed termsof thissimple whichAxq been widelyusedover the yeats.Evenmagnetization curvu of thin permalloy obey fl=n approvirnately Stoner-Wohlfarth the theory, although physical the mechanism behnd is not clear. it Themainadwrtage thkstheoryLsthat it is suEcieatly of m'mple to addsome e-xtza featuruto it. li is jmst easyto rephcethe random as distzibution 9 by someotherdistribution, of fvmtre wherever is aa theze experimental reason to beleve the dhetions o eas'y that xws are more likelyto be,a: in the caaeof au atigne; a partlyaligaed, or maoetic tape. Thec%e of a cubk,n:tetzd a no-lx=u.l, of aaisotropy alx been has worked (235) out in detail. thiscasethere more branGes in the In are ixaaa tmlaMal which case, makcu,s it sometima more diEcult deideinto which to branch jump. these to But. diEculties be handled. r=dom cubic caa A anisokopy besides overall aa uniafal one hasalso been IISM(236)the ia study themagnetizatloniripplel of mentioned secdon ia 5.1.4. parallel The a'nd perpendlcular susceptibllities discussedsection in 5.1.6, also have (161)j calculatedffrom model. this Fkrther been developments a study the and of fner details caa a intezpretation the for (23% even stvt to oFer physical crp/m-mental rultsaadtheStoner-Wohlfvth between theory. irersv;ce It may sometimes to an understanding the partsneglected the leM of in thers Stoner-Wohlfnvkh whic,h the intervtionsbetween particles are the andthepossibility somes of ependence magnetization ofthe wiiin I eachpartide.Hteractions certaingoupsof ellipsoids alsobeen of have computed for this model. (2381

6
ANOTHER ENERGY TERM
6.1 BasicMagnetostatics Besides enera terms discussed far,thereis Mothertermwhicb the so has not been meationed acdit iqiMmeto introduce Thisterm is tke yet, it. mannetostaxc which 1om interactions setf-encrgp ori#nates theclassical the material is desczibedMamell's it by among dipolo.Fora continnotta equations, whicllthe rpmzeris mssumed be flns&-llar in theform fo wit, taughtN) undergraduates, i.f not necessarily even Gmiliarwith the part which m-t zelevant ferromarets.Froma historical is for pointof view it is interedngto notethat this enerr term waspart of theHrlltoniau in the earlystudyt(39) waves,wMch spin included anisotropy well. the a: Dyson oblectedsomeo the approx-imatons (39) tMsterm, to used for (401 but did not htrMuceanz othe, andsince thensomehow eveubody Just to out gotnsed leaving thiseaerr term. Ixtthe meaztime is justammedfor simplicity thema%rial it that is continuous, leaving the ne-x't for chxpter studyof a crystal the made out of discrete atoms(oz Not ll's equations use in are ions). atl of the present zeferen its discussiona Iemmagnek no particular of wi't,h to electric properties. oftheequations One state that

Vx H

0,

(6.1.1)

in teabsenceanycurrents, displacement of or currents. should noted, It l)e that of not to hqwever, thisassumptionzero currentsdo lead a rtrictive, paedcular Gtis customary the stady ferzomxgnetksm case. in t to separate themagnetic azd feldsinto two categories treattheeldH in eqn(6.1.1) as separate fromthe appied producHby currents coiks- long in As Jeld as these tdiferent'feldsare properly superimpcee, thee is no lossof generality, Gereis nothing and notation. wrongwith tEisctmtrenfcnl Themostgeneral solution eqn(6.1.1) known. vector is of is well The H a vadientof a scalar, called potential. convention to defne the Te is % it with a minus sign, H = - %U.

Another Maxwell's of equations is

V. B
=

0)

(6.1.3)

11

AIVOTHER ENBRGY TEEM

where kstemannetic B fnducfoG defned eqn(1.1.2). tb.e ia Se bookby of Browng1) thederivaon these for equations for a z'igorous aad deinition ofthe vectorsB andE. It should l)eemphasized it is nmong only that lo in is writeV - E = 0,as is done somebooks. latte.r equivalent eqn The t,o only holdw (6.1.3) if eqn(1.1.3) whichis not thecasein ferromagaetism. Thefaztor% invented Brown(11 beused by will throughout chapter, this as a wayof iatrodaction, order mxlr, thetrnnm'tioa in to pnmie.r readers for whoiave onlyused S1antstill now. H the SIunits,now used 21 the in undergraduate tutbooks,its value % = 1, while theGaassiaa, Ls in cgs units,used all theliterature magnetism, = 47r. in Moreconversion on % factors listed section and are in 6.4, 1omthere for therestofthebook on, onlyshecgs system unitswl be:RKMmltly or wroagls system of . tMs of unitsis still lx%tl almost exclusivezyall theBterature rnxretisp, in on eve.nthough some unge of SIis strting to creep into some of the more reent papers. =ybodywhowantsto studytMssubject is no For there alternative getting to used tEecgs to units. Substituting (1.1-2) (6.1.2)eqn(6-1.3), rd izt we obl-qin eqns

V2Uin CSV. M, =

(6.1.4)

whichshould validinside ferromaoetic be the body(or Outside bees). thisbod.y these M = 0, so that B = E =d the dz'Ferential (or bodies) equation is Vzuout 0. = (6-1-5) It is alsoHown1omundervaduate textbooYthat Maxwell's equations rmuire*at thecomponeat H Nmtllel thesurfaceo thecompmeat of to and ofB pezpendiculr thesurface, continuous theboundary two to are on of matezials. These requiremeats to theboutlazycondtioas on the lead that surface theferzomMnet, of
= Uin Wut ,

OUw XFout 'ysM- zl = , sz o

'

(6-1.6)

where kstheunit normal the surfu of the ferromagnedc (or n to body txknm Beside thae bounddirecdoa. bofes), to bepYtivein theoutward the U to at al'y conditionsj potential is required be regnlav inMity, wich meaasthat both IrulandIr2VtJl bounded v ...+ = Thisregukxrity are as sentially meaas thatthe beaviour the potentW a largedistaace of at *om themagaetized bodies thesame as that ofthe potential a point is of cltarge, wlticltrxn beexpectedthe maaetization if vanisho outside cera . , tain fnite volume. Hstead the scalar of potentiazy problem beformulated the mually may equation wellbywritingB = V x A audderiving diferendal a with boundfor this Joterztfttl However, formulation1A. is ary coaditions te eector

BASIC MAGNETOSTATICS

111

convenient the problems for dismzssed book,andwill not beused in tMs ' hme the have Once d'-Ferential equations boundary and condisions been H relve aad U is knownfor the wholespace, eAn be calculated fxom eltn The as mn (6.1.2). ener-?p theabeevaluated

su

-y

M . H dr,

(6-1.7)

where iategration ove,rthe ferromaaetic the ntq will is bodies. equadon 1n it beproved more rigorously thenext chapter. them'Gnume mnybe in taken thehteradion ofeMhdiio1e the fieldH created theothe.r a.a with by dipoles, a factor being witph iatroduced order avoid in to mice countkg the interaction . mth B) aadpf B wit,h.Aof ?

6.1.1 Unjqnenea Themostimportant feature these of diferential muadons boundary aud coadidons is'thattheir solution Sznsze. to provethis stat-ent, is In order that of U suppose thereare two Snctions spa, andU1,that fulGlall the equations to (6.1.6) are IIOG aad r at l-nfnity.Thenthe (6.1.4) functioa = Uz- Ucaadits derivative becontinnous must evewhere, Uz the iacluding sueceson whichthe normal derivatives Ift aadVaare of T2Uz discontinuoc. acemding eqn(6.1.4), = 0 evezywhere, Also, to wbic,h meaas that for an interalion ove,raay arbitrary volume,
h (TUzp2 dr =

7V. ((Ja A-. rzra (Jzlgr = V7j /2 : L i

drzrs (Ja d.q on I

muality is a maaifestation the divergence where second the of theorem, aad 1% iateral ksover thesurface the surrounding chosen, the arbitraz'y vo lmme.' should note that such use of thedivergence It be a theorem not is allowefor Ukor Ug,because the discontinuity of expressedeqn (6.1.6), by reqm-rtas suv?n whic,h iategzation bothfaces eachdiscontinuity ce. ove,r of Eowever, according the present to asumptioa, both Uzaadits normal derivative coniinuous are everywhere, the iategratioas b0th aad over fMes each because the opposite of diredions n. of cance) osher for isnow :Ifthevolume chosen theiutegrati6n eqn(6.1.8) allowed ia to while regularity the teadto infnity, ds increases ;P as condition require to at at as , ouslon decrease leastas r- W and Uzto decre'xselemst r-l, so that thesurMe integral the otends zero. Eence, intagral (VG)2 to of thewhole vazishes. since integrand a squarej And the is which elmnot space anywhere, must vanish eveawheze,. be negative TUz whic,h means tkat Uz=const. But a non-zero constantis not reoarat l'nGnlty. Therefore, Ua= 0 everywhere, UJx Ua. and Thereisthusonlyone possible Klutionto thepotentikproblem any of

ANOTHER BNERGY TERM

of it geometry anydistribution themagnetization. aad Therefore,is never to #ve intermedia.te or to jusffy aayother t;e in Meps; waya neeis solution a potential 1.o problem. a certainf'unction guused, arrived If or at by anyothermexnK,it Lq sucient show if fuls thedlFererltlnl to that mations the bonndary and czmctitons, becauseit is a solution the if of problem, is always solutlon that moblem-.ltshould noted, it tlte of be however, wbsle magnethation that a distribution determiae unique a Eeld ouidethefecomaaet, reverseis nottnze.A measurementthefe-ld the of outside ferromaaetic a bodyis no1suldeat (239j determin.eunque to a magnetization distribution creates feld. that this

6.1.2 FHdcl Ezamples Thetheorem aboutthe uniquemess solution of the allows qlzotiag without proof the potential some simplecaae The proofis h substituting for each these of functions eqns(6.1.4)(6.1.6)ycheckng it %a in to and that ' solutionTheMt caseks asphere, wh-e radius .E,uniformly is mMnetized along thez-diredion. thiscaae,V . M = 0, andia polarcxrdinates #, and 1.n r, equation become 4 the diFerential
-

-f- s'--u'xlp'lt/sin.sv :47 # (WW/ZT'Z'V-V :5..ry U

r2

1 ,9

,')

,?

ta

:2

.ra

0'

(6'1.9)

b0thinside outside sphere. in thiscn> and the Akso,

= 01&n (V& and

M . xt = M.

Mscos8,

(6.1.10)

because is theaagnitude M- It can beveried substitution Ms of by that U=

Ms zosex 3 %
'r

if v S R
jf z k a

a RI /ra

(6.1.11)

Mtilk'fles (6-1-9)y is czmtinuousv = .E, theappropriate at haa discontinueqa ktyof thederivative reqeedbysubstftutiag (6.1.11) (6.1.6), in eqn aad eqn of is regular inoity. Therefore,is thesolution thepotential at it problem l'ndde outside um*lformly and a magnethed sphere. ln particular, potential the inside sphere the is actually
= Uin 3 % z.

Ms

(6-1.12)
Ms . 3%

the is Substitutlg eqn(6.1.2),feld inside sphere iu the

= Hzzn Hv. =

0,

= Hzv

--

(6.1.13)

BASIC MAGNETOSTATICS

113

lt is, thus,a nnqorrrt wbich antiparallel z. Eowever, zfeld, is to the %nA And direction no partimzlar for conter meaning a sphere, in the present it onlydenesthe irection of themagnetization. Thereforep internal tlte sphere antiparallel the magneEeld,in homogeneously a magaetized Ls to thation.It should clearnow why spheriocl be particles were spedfed ia theprevious cxapter. anyother For the ofthisintcraal geometue, direction Geld not beparazel theeasy to anisotropy which aMs, complicates the may problem studied there. Themaaettaticenem of this uniformly magnethed sphere obis tzuned snbstituting H in eqn(6.1.7). the integrand a conis by this Since staat,theintevationis onlya multplicntion the volume thespheze, by of S.g'A3. Therefoa magnetostatic the self-enerr a uiformly magnethed t s sphere is 27 Eu = -x.!8Msa. (6-1.14) 9 Thesecond exaaple an infnitefn'rcttlar is c'ylinder whichis uniformly magnetized thez-ats, where c'ylinde.r is dvnedms Arln, along the axis z. V . M = 0 evermhere, in the cylindrical Oordsnat 4, andz the and p, diserentlnxl equation is
1 (7 1 03 g (7p Tp+ --5.02 + taz x I .S2
-

pV

J /

D-= 0,

(6.1.15)

is whilethenormal parallel p, andthenormnlcomponent is to

M-n

M: cos$.

(6.1.16)
i.fp %.R

It

rltn

be'vr>6- by subetution thesolution this caseis ed that for

U = 2 nNct)s$ x

Ms

a .E,j p kfp z p

(6.1.17)

where timeR istherxzh-us thecylinder. intlrnaleld inside this of The the cylinder is Ms = H=tv Hujx= Nx'a= (), (6.1.18) a %, whic,h also uniform is a eld, antiparallel themagnethation to vector.The length ctmg is z enera p6r 'uzzf

tx

'm

z -% RzMs4

(6.1.19)

is is If the samecylnder znagnetized thezdirection, (6.1.15) along eqn equation besolved, in theboundary stlthediferential to but condidon

114

ANOTMR ENKERGY TEEM

=

of.mn(6.1.6) GouldtalrfR one M.n leads H = 0 andEu = 0.. to

0. Thesolution thenU = 0, which is

'

6.1.3 Uujrmly M'tzrletile,d Bllipsoid TheMvxmplesa sphere a cylinder particalar of a moze of and are cmses general theorem whicllwmsalready about uniformly magneuzed elpsoids, known Maxwell- will bestated withoutproof. to It here Generallyj feld l'nm'dcunlformly the a ferromaaetic body magtetized Lsnof u/form. Eowever, andonly if thesurface iis bodyLsof a if of second degree, interaal the Eeld uniform. ks This theorem oftenstated is ratherthan to snrfxces a second msapplying onlyt,oellipsoidsj of degreeo because otherMond-degree atl surfaces exte'nd infnlty andAmot be to real'tvodpzactice. thecpsoid is usually in understood indude * to the Stilk . limitiagcxse of an tnf nstecylinder. the the When Cartean coordl'nates cllen are along yrfncilcl t?.'rcd of the of a general ellipsoid, equation its snrfnreis

:2 (z)+ (,) + (-c)1

-

12

z2

wth u s b s c.

(6-1.20)

lt maysometimes necessao- de6ne y, andz ia otherdirectionsj be to z, how but thertozierissuppivW know to perform rotationofthe:2:6.3 io the in this owation,andin the'onesthat follow- thisellipsoid unifcrzaly If is rltn magnetized, feld inside ellipsoid bewzitten the the as
= H$a -N - M = -.'>D ' M,

(6.1.21)

cxo when where both D andN = >D are tevors. In the partictllar to M is parallel one of theprindpal axes of the Gipsoid, bothD andN or are ntlmzera, both Hownby thename demagnetiping and aze jatocs, sometime demamt#zatkon Dceptfor theuseof theletters and D Actors. univttmxl, is sometimo N, whichis almost(btzt quite) not it dilcult $o tellmltiolt thoe dema>etizing of hctors bejng is referred lt should to. also benoted thisfeld (A1r.n as thedemagnetiziag is tkepart that Hown feld) ceatedby the magnetizatton.thereis alsoa,n appliqd lf feld, produM bzsomecurrentsin mernal Oils,tkese feldssqxm'mpose have l)e and to rklsxa sumrned vectodxlly. should benoted It that allthis treatment applies onlyto the caseof an dlipsoid which uniformly is magaetized, not to and distzibution the magnetization. of anyotherspatial Thelmst partoftMstheorem that thetraceofthetensor is 1,which Ls D also mpmns that thetrz- ofN is %. Therefore, results theforegoing the of examples the sphere the cyMdereAn beobtined Fom simple for and considerations. a sphere thedhetions are equivalent, For all symmetry andthetbrdemaaetieg factors mustbeequal. Therefcre, = Du= D. Da= j, because traceof the tensor(whichthe sum of these the ks three

BASIC MAGNETOSTATICS

l15

is 1. ia lpltdK numbers) Substituting eqa (6.1-21) t,othe sltme resultas in eqn'(6.1.13).7 for an innite Simslarly, Gliuder,thereis no sxlrlzxvof
'

discontkmity z, so that D> = 0. 'I'heothertwo factors along should be equal a drcularcross-sedion,that Dx = Dv = 1a, for so wic leMsto the rwrne reult az in eqn(6.1.18). Substititing (6.1.21) (6.1.7), magnetostatic in eqn the self-energy mn of a llniformly magneb-rM volume 7, is is ellipsoid, whose

(6.1-22)
It whichis somesort of aisotropy energy- is the shqpe tmiaoey tem, whichwas mentioned, not desned, section but in 5.1.4. rxq- are of spedal Twoparticular interest, botare elhpsoids and for which aN:% equal. is thecmsea = b andc > c twhic,h kiad two are One Ls a of egg-shaped It is a The partide). called prolateglhur/d. otheris shaped b'kea disk,or rathera tdyingsaucer', aadis the cmse < b more or less a andb = c. It is called oblcte an cAemtf. spere, = b = c, is tke Brnn't The c of botbIf tw'oaxes are equal,the related demagnetieg two fadors aae the same. Thus, a prolate for sphezoid = Nu,andfor an obla* sphearoid N. N = Nz.ln thecmse a prolate of spoid, (6.1.22) Werdore: eqn emznl be b
wmtten as

1 1 r, + .$f: a zzaA, Su= -V gkNatMx+ .5z wWz ;/'(-?$-yv;xlrya jaoum (6..,,a ) r J1= j- , z - a z o j 2 AJ.2 F = is because + pz: + AJ3 M.2, wltic a constautTbisshape anisotropy .. uninavixl term h>' the same mathematical as te Ast-order fozm energy anisotropy the physical term of section 5.$.1,even though originsare lo dferent.A similarexpression obdously applies the cmse theoblate of spheroid, in dthercmse shape and this Misotropy beside.s .a 11nl'may eodst ' ,m'n.1 cubic or e Misotropy term,discussedsedion5.1. in maaeto a='K Moreovem easy ofthecystnlllne the anisotropy Ls necessx.mlly term not parallel, related anyother to theeasy oftheshape or ia ars anisotropy way, term,andin pedple therecan beaayaugle - them. betw. Theori#nal Stoner-Wohlfarth dismxne-' sedion aVumed model, in 5-4, onlywith teshape no crystalll'n anisokopy, dealt e and anisotropy of (2345 ellipsoids. &st bothprolateandobla* spheroids considered) At were but laterextensions mostly sphezoids, are (2401 wlzich addrerxsed prolate very common in permxneatmagnet ma*rials.Comparing (6.1.23) the wiG eqn 61.*termof eqn(5.4.30)semz for a pzolate spheroid thealgebra all it is that ofsection is unchanged, eqn(5.4.32) bereplud by 5.4 should but

h,=

(Xz N.)Ms
-

(6.1.p,4)

116

TERM ANOTHER RNERGY

tlzoz.yis nlmnappncable pazticles TheStoner-Wo%lfx-h for whickhave Wth. cryeltlllne a shape a and esotropy.Formwmple, llaci it ven used for with superimposedthe on (241) a unixvlxlnnlsotropy botbTfzand.A-2 A=-K usnnllyaume thattheeasy isihe skape aaisotropy. calculations Such same for botkAnsqotropies. If thereis a ceztain angle betw- these two axej the problem becomlittle more complicated, not prohibidvely a but
SO.

The demagneiiziag factors a general in ellipsoid depend on the only of ratiosc/b s/c, not on the palues a, bandc. 'nns, two ellipsoids and and wkichhave >me shape, a. dxerentvolume, the sameN or the bnt have D. Analytic expressions, in termsofexiptic albeit integralw lnown for are thefunctional of thedependence demaaetizing fnrm (f the factors the oa A:va'r2 raos. Formulaea raphs,andtables publishcd by Osborn were (242) aadthem more ubleswere computed witk a more modern computer (2431 J.n case sphezoidj %pressions the for program. theparticular ofa prolate the demagnetizing fadorsare composed more e-lemen-fundions. from Specifcally, using notation by the
P=

c/l (>1), #=
ln

19- 1 lp,

(6.1.25)
(6.1.26)

thedemagxetizhg for a prolate lctors spiteroid become Dz=

1
1

. -

j-(

1 + (' 1- f

D==

1- Dz . 2
-

Fora smallf, a powe,r seri ex-pansionthe logarithm tkis equation of ln leads to 1 1 x 1 #- 1 . D. = =- w + X , (6.1.27) Sr- E' k=z x + a s-.

J.n formit is clear in thelimit g -> 1,which a sphere, = j t tMs that ks Da as condqded the foregoing. in Demagaesn'ngfeldsdemagncdzhg are also and factors defned nonfor ellipsoiv bodies. These defnitions begivo in section afterthe will 6.3, introductioa themagnetic of charge.
6-2 OriG of Domxlms Thestage now Rt for a demo>tration it is the maguetostatic ks that selfis termwhich responsibletheesteaceofthemagnetic f domains energy of secdon or at least 4.1) tkat thisenerr term relers stbdivision the of Ama simple a ferromaaetic crystal domains.choosepardcnlxrly into 1 ple,wkicalsoproddes niceexample one of the methods solving a of of potential pzoblems.is a somewllz.imodl'4ed It version a N:elcalculation of ofan infnitecircalar cylinder wlzic.h subdivided two domains, is into

ORIGDOFDOMMNS

ll7

>

FIG. 6.1. A cross-sectionan izdlliteecular cylinde subdivided of into two antparallel domains.

Tbiscylhder asslxrnedbemagnels'zzazl rows i!zthe cossis to alongthe section plotted Fig. 6.1,which itt mennqthat themagnedzadon vectoris

Ms= Ma= 0, Mr = AJk x

where y
=

+1 if y > 0, .e. 0 K$:; x -1 if y < 0, .e.

g'

K $ K 2x

pe 4 in cylindrical coordinates, () s $ K 2r. Thestep with rltn function beerpressed its wemHown by Fourier erpansion , M.
= -xMs

(6.2.28)

x-.*

.aw za o y x=0
*

+ sialtzn1)/) ,

(6.2.29)

mxkM thenorrnxlcommnent Fig.6.1) whclt (see

2 Mn = Mp= Mm $ = -Ms cos .z'

2)4) E sin((2n + 1 sintzn#)(6.2.30) 2/. =0

+

wllc.:n product t:e cosine snefunctions converted a sum the o and s into rltn The of two sine functions. sum in this equation now bebroken down into two sums, one with singtzlz ando=ewith sin(2n4). frst + 2)4) H the sum the summation index changed n to n - 1, andia thesecond is 1om sum thesummation stat't 9om n = 1, because tlrm with n = 0 is c-an the . zero anywayCombining againinto one snm,
2 M= = -Ms
W

S n=1

1 1 + zs - : sj + 1

sin(2n4).

(6.2.31)

118

ANOTRRR ENERGY TEPM

Adding together two fzRtions, sabstituting mn (6.1.6), of the and in one the buadar.v condidons is

oUQ duout
ap
-

dp

p=a

%u

a.

-8
=

%u s

E'='n+sin(2x/l ' (6.2.32) 2 a-z ( p, 1)(2a1)

-

where is teradias the cylinder. is therefore R of It naturalto lookfor a solutoa theform of m

V=

IGIP) JR Sin(2R/),
a=1

(6.2-33)

where aze fanctions 'ua whichhave bede-rrnin Notethat bolause to ed. of theuaiquenessthe solution, g'uv about fancdonal of the formis aay ' 6.16 legitimate it eventually to a Atnction if leads which ls all thediferential equations boundary and conditions. H the present V . M = 0 andeqns(6.1.4) (6.1.5) bot caze and are T2U= 0. Substituting eqn(6.2.33)1 1om we obtain

v2/

*
=

E s(2z#)p + p ym p *1
-

d2

1 tf

4x2

= 0. s w&(p)

(6.2.34)

Obviously, the diferential b0th eqaatons thezegulazity infnit.y and at are fulfmed theRnctions by
= c,v %a(p) X

if (p/A)2'p s JL
if (2/J')2'&p k R

(6-2.35)

wheze are constaats. e,a Moreover, thesefunctions contiauous al1 are at = .& Substituting th- 'fzain eqa(6.2.33),substituting latterin and the p it is for av eqn(6.2.32), s- that dl the requiremGts satisfed thechoice
= Gz

+ 1) x(2%hjt-bl
-

2'ysM4R
' '

(6-2-3 6)
c-

lt has thusbeen shown thepotential that inside cylinder the is

5-

2-/s

sintax/) .e. hM57(ca 1)(ax1)(a) cr + a=l

-

'

(6-2.3-4

The'tdemagnetizing) thistwo-domain feld inside cylinder givenbymn is and its is (6-1.2), in particular z-component

Ssr.=

(VD,.n-ov =

OS/-

t'y - s'Y t'g # . Pp p -ay Uin

(6.2.38)

OWGU OFDOMUS

Substituting 1omeqn(6.2.37) performing dxcentiations, U and the

x...
-

4% .Mx

,:sia((2p. g 1)/J E (2,, 1)(a,, :.)(s) + =1

-

='

zr.-,
.

(6.2.39)

Intlzisca-se there also p-component, is a butitdoesnotenterthe calculation ofthe enerr, because is maldplied Muwhich zero. According it by is to unit length the magnctostatic aloag is in thiscat;e z eqn(6.1.7) energy pc Su =

-g

'

M%H. = dS

--

1 2* 2 0

X
n

MxEpdpdh. (6.2.40)

Substituting Mz fromeqn(6.2.28) for Jo 1omeqn (6.2.39), for aud aad over g out theiategration p, su
with
=

f '-JPMJ (2n 1)(zyj j; jc sinltzn1)4) #, V + z :(/) ? R=,

,vw
-

<=

sg

2*

(6.2.41) (6.2-42)

-1 if 'mK 4 K 2?. If this inteval is separated integration into over the regions S ';c and / is leadlng to 4 k 'lrt the integradon elementars

*@)

+1 10 < 4 s Tr

su - :>. zMs a ,
s.

E + gz a-=1(z,, y)u(as
-

80,

2.a2.,/'2 * N
.l(

l
-

>1

+ (2n 1)2 (2s 1)2

'

z :x.RcMs (6.2.43) g.
.

TNe reuer should beso naivemsto j'lrnp the condusion not to that all potential problems suGa nice,aaalytic have solution. Obviously, oaly such arechosenfor e--tKe demonstzadon butthere others. here, are Actually, tMscaseof an ininite cnrlinde,r is used onlybecause%nA simple here it this soludon. problem a :pAere The of subdidded a in (orrelatively simple) to alsobeea solvv (2m1, oaly by a more but wayslmila.r Fig. 6.1%xK complu tenbnique whichis beyond scope this book. any rate, the of At the importat condusion obtnsned comparing resultwith eqn is by tMs
nxmely (6-1.19),

gM

ne tiorn n fa1cloluaktira.zr 2 uw two

rk',
--

1. 4 >

(6.2.44)

l20

ANOTHER ENERGY TERM

Notethat tbisresit does depead R or Ms.Tkerdore, any fenot on for material, aaysize, magnetostatic tke romagnetic of term energy b rednad by subdividing czysul1.at0 least domains. the at two It is not docttlt to extend calculaton more than two domains, this to *1#andseethat further subdivision reduce caa further menetostadc te 'hA's Andin ca'use e-xample a c'yMder seemto somereaders d enerpu may to bea unique mqse, qualtatne convincing a but argttment begive,n will ia the next section, showing tkis cmseis quitegeneral tkat the that and ma>etostatic prders subdivkion domains anygeometry. a into in e'nergy However) because energy prefers co one term thjs ationdoes not Just necessarily that it e>n always its way.There otkerenerr me= have aze termswhich mttst beconsidered. Asfar as theMisotropy there beenerr is concprned, is no diference t'ween nm-fnrm shou in.Fig.6.1, a magnetization thetwo domains and because z is an easyes, so ks-z. The anisotropy only dictate if will that z is parallel a particular to mystallographic direction, is not just and withintke cylinder eitherthe uniformmagneeationor for any drection tke maaetizadon :$.$m% in However, exckange domainthe in energy a ferndgkbours have to parzlle.l spins, in Fig. 6.1tkere and romaRetprefers is a wholesnrfnzte whic.k neipbouring on each ()fit are for tke spsms side antiparallel each to other. Therefore, order crcte ths Gmfguradon ia to workhms bedone to exckange: even a very ro'ugh .and estimation against shows this 1- of exchange that larger than the gainin enera is much themagnetostaiic of of enerr. Thetotd energy theconfgurationFir. 6.1, asin foregoing if tken=cc'lp the calculation, larger is thanthat of the uniform magnetization, thephysical and syste,m pzefethelattercmse. will

6.2.1 Dopz/in GcJl Still,it takes a slig;t modiGcahon theforegoing only of picture change to tkeargumeat. mlnpointisthatthemagaetostxuc are 'vezy Tke forca long ranged. control behaviour hrgedstanccs, donot chaage They the over aud unst considerablya distance several if of hundred cells inserted ks between whicll ihe two domains Fig.6-1.lt is verydeerent of fromthee-vbxnge, is a ye.zy short-unge force. skould quiteclearfromchaptez's 3 t be 2 and only. thatltGects nearest, maybe or next-nearet, neilbours It isa ve.ry forbetwn nekkbom-s, do cxtend spins strong suc,h butit not to which are much fartheraway. Withsmall angles betw-nneighbouriqg large spins, chauges the aagle a dse-q.nce of over of manyatoms not involve laz'ge do a uchange Therefore, lossin the e-xchange rnxn be very the energyenergk muc,h reduced, thepictureof Fig. 6.1is approfmately if mahtained, but a mallis introduced, whic,h direction the maretizationvector in tke of cxanges gradnally, instead an abmzpt of tke magnetization of 1om jump tkeoretical treatmentwill be#ve,n tke in $ = 0 to $ = x. A more complete nex'tchapter, in the meantime maiafeatures be understood but t:e cau

ORIGINOFDOMMNS

froma simple, semi-quantitative estimation. When spinoperators approtmated classical the are by vectol's, in as chapter the exchange 2, And eneraris as in eqn(2.2.25). if J ksnon-zero between aearest neighbours only,

zu =

-)7 Jys sj =z -lsz nekghbours $.,t, J-I cos

.

(6.2.45)

where Ls angle between andSs A one-dimensional S2 structure is 4qj the considered,which in planes n spins each with in interact with neighbouring planes. interaction plane is takenonlywith that at + 1 andnot The of f with the other neighbour f - 1, anda factor2 is introduced at instead, ms in the transitionto eqn(2.2.26). the energy fzom statein Then loss the which spins aligned a1l is are DC.=
= 4J52a (1 jh,;, 2J5'2aVcost/yyyj V sin2 i $z,grs JS2P.V? i i
-

for smallangles. this calculation applied Let be now to the case where the direction the spinschanges 4 = 0 to zr ove,rN such of from planes. Theangle change between planes not bethesamefor all planes, need and a betterscheme be givenin the next chapter, will but for simplidtythis angle taken f,s here bethesame. It meansthat in order obtaina total to to of change .lr aher such N angles, = 'm/N the enera loss and is 4$,.j
= t'sex Jszn

(6.2.46)

E (p')
=

J52ys.m2 . x

(6.2.47)

Theexchange over thiswallis, thus, timessmazler that N than enerr loss of one jump from$ = Oto $ = A'. Ob<ously, this N is sudentlylarge, if the lossin exchange can to by energy be smallenough be compensated the gain in the maaetostaticenergy, whichmakes subdivision the into domains energeticazy favourable. Ia prindple, the Jump one domain the otheris not abrupt, if from to the calculation the magnetostatic of should also enerr in the foregoing bemodifed, the correction rathersmall thewall is not too thick. but is if Eowever, is another there complication that the anisotropy in now energy enters well.Twoantiparallel as domains bealongan emsy of the ctm axis for Misotropy along of the directions which energy one this enera,namely term is a minimum. spinsin the wall,however, The mustturu out of an has in such direction, that aaisotropy so a emsy energy to beused creating wall.Qnlditatively,anisotropyenerlto enforcethin wall, the tries a while the exchange tries to enforce thick wall.The above-mentioned a energy number planes, is therefore of N, determined minimizing sum of by the

122

ANOTEER ENERGY TERM

exchaage aaisotropy and ener#es. Theinedtable condusion all these from semi-qualitative is arguments that none of these threeeneraterms (eexchange, andmagneYsotzopy en.n Siace fact tcstatic) benegleted. domes are aa experimental in sufNciently' crystals xction 4.1), reaDsdc calculation a bulk of large any (a all of ferromagnet contzain these must threneN terms.Thefoundatlons such theorywill lx givem n%xpter Eowever, a in 7. llefoz.e intomathgoing ematical detns3n,is veryhstructive continue little more with the it to a semi-qualitative discussion tablish dearlythe pltysialpkcture aad more ofa ferromagnet, thenature theforces and of its governing behaviour. 6.2.2 Longcld zS%vt Rqnge Every undergraduate nowadays studi Mzxwell's equations, mostof aad themc-qznquote thefact tkat the electricandmaaetic forces IOV are becuse potential is the decreas% distance l/r, whic,h c with as rangeg slow decrease. Howeve, theere relatively even among are few, profesdonals workng thetheory magnetism, actually to underst=d on of who try what tMsstatement means. Consider simple of a uniformly the case magnetized empsoid. feld The which meuured a pointhsidethts Gpsoidis #ven eqn(6-1.21), is at by where is determlned the mto:of its axe. Theabsolu* doc D by size not enter.Suppose this ellipsoid iHated in such way that its that is a Size incease:, its shape heldthe same, .e-its axialratiosare kept but is GmstantThenthefeld is still theMme msit waz for thesmallellipsoid, which a function theaxialratiosonly.If this indation is of conGues, even in thelimit ofthe dlipsoid extending l-ndnitsthedemagnetMng in to Eeld it still depends theGa.1ratiosof theanrsace, is now aa infnite on which distaace Thus,the Glong raqge'' thepruent contextmeaus that in awaythisrange actually extends thewayto l'n6osty. all Theobvious conclusionthn.tin f=omagnetism is there no physical is meaning the limit of an :'ncnx' cryst/ mitho'u.tsnrfa. notjust to te c lt 5s thtenbnl' pzoblem in6nite cal that crystals in eMnotbemade renlity.This technicality not causeany docnzlty o*r feldsof physi, does in where theassumpdon inonlty can bel-q.lren the limit of a crysti which of as is largecompazed some sort of a meuuze for the properties with under discussion. this =e, even in thetkeoretical ofthecustalactually 1n limit tending -'nGnl-t, shane its suece still determine lemst .to the of at part of themagnetostatic Oera term, andsurXe eectscannotbeavoided. Therefore, calcuhtions thetypes all of decribed chaptersaad4,whic,h in 3 iaore thesurfRe saying theczystal infnite,introduce error. by that iq an This error would be importltnt thewhole not if magnetostatic .-. energy teerm z'athe.r wms small.But it is not-It tsonlytoo often poiated that out theuehltnge densty orders magnitude is of lrger thaathemagenergy netostatic denray. However, phydcal the systmm governed the is by emergy

ORIGNOFDOMUS

123

tofd.l As times enera andnot byits density. svtedseveral in theforegoing, theexeange force a very shortrange. actsessentially between has It only neighbouring atoms,so that its eFective Ls of range of the order the unit cellof thecrjrstal. Thereforw totalexchange the Ls theorder itxs of of energy density integrated the volume a uztitcell,Themagnetostatic ovez of energy density small,but havinga longrange, is integrated the whole is it over volume thecrystal.Fora suldentlylargecrystal, of which contains very cells, total magnetostatic the is largerthanthe manynnn't energy much total exchange On the enera.It is not negli#ble. the contre, exchange only properties, in the inside thedoas of enera controls themicroscopic main wall,butit isthemaaetostatic term mostly determines energy which the structureof themagnetization distribution mostofthe crystal. over lt mustbeemphasized that a largeerror is introduced oniy again not whenthemagnetostatic Ls altogetherr it is ia mostof ms energy neglected the calculations described chaptezs an.d Sometimescertainapin 3 4. a proimationfor thedipole interaction 2.45) in (76, Lsincluded the spinwave theoryof Ms ns. temperature. thereview(671the renormnlsg-ation And of calculations several intowhich interactions been cites cases such have group introduced. However, these aJJ casesmssume infnite crystal an withouta surface, which inadequate. ferromagnetism is always surface, is In. there a evenfor an in6n'l cnrstal, it is thesuzface te and which Vsponsible is for the ' subdivision domains. into A11 calculations this section the in were for cmses whichthe only in contribution the maaetostatic to term is 6omthe discontinuity of energy the derimtive(which depends on the shape the surface) only of because a11 mvnmples thosen besuch V . M = 0. lf this term is the were to that not zero, the solution eqn (6.1.4) bevery diFerenth'om cases of the may in thissection, will befurtherdiscussedthenext section. as in Eowever, it c'analready stated be here that although these otherc'aresex-ist, are they much cornrnonin reallife thxn those whic,h - M = 0. Thezeason 1for V isthat themaintendency themaaetostatic of term.isto subdivide energy large crystals domaizts)each which . M = 0. Andeven when into in of V it is not soin the1:m11st a smallpart thespins in thewalls, that only of are so theyhave small a esedon theoverall properties the crystal. of Therefore) a theory which introduces dipolar the interaction leaves thesurhce but out treatsa less important term while neglectig more important the one. However, omittingthis largest tezmis not always badas it ms energy the term may oftenbe may sound..paradofcally) magnetostatic energy neglected be'tiseis thelargest it term. Thepointis that domn.-tns energy are arranged minirnizm magnetostatic to the being largest the term, energy, withvery littleefed fromtheexckange, onlya minormodifcation aud by thenmssotropy. large For crystals mayevendoquitew6.11g246, one by 247) nealtogether. at theminimum, usually But reMhes glecting exchange the Cu a small value, which oftentuz:a to bemuch out smaller theother than may

124

ANOTHER ENRRGY TERM

tezms; much that it Lsofn so so possible M8, M9, Zsoi * enerpr 1M6, the by for whick = 0. approlnmate emerrminmization a convnradon E'M But this ene-rris onlysmallat the mimjmum a deviation tkat aad 6om confguratior costa largeamount maguettatfc cAn of enera.Therefore, when Eu ciculating enera of the com'etmagnetizadon the distzibution, c pricd, a wrong magnetizamayoen. benegleco,but if it is neglected tion distributioa reached, hasa vezy is wic,h large term. Eu of MC.II Because thisproperty) because domain homogeneously and is magndigM, is ofl-n possible getaway it with to withouttheEu term and that czystal homogeneously is thewrongassnmpdon thewhole maRetized. Asexplained section it is posdble calculate il 4.1, to as Ms(T) if the domnlnqdidnot esq and worW. one mustalways in mind it But bear that it iswrong prindplez that it works withsometrickqandonlyfor in aad only Emited applications. is drgerous lt ground stepon, aadit ks to neessary pxnln t,oremembe,r fad andcikcrlc case for comNtibilitywith theasthis sumpdon no domm-nK. aumption can never betaken gr=ted, of Thks for andone should certainlynot try to extend beyond naturalrlmits of it its validity, where dllenmt thKry is required. evxrnple, a For a adding nondestroys theoz'y, section This this see 4.6. approach has zero maoeticZeld never bnused the cakulatios crlticalecponents, it is not clear for o and at all whether neglctingthe domain structuredoes does have or not a largeefec't 't'ese on Yculations any speec case. for Thisdistinction between a Iong-range a short-rimge ks and force already suEcient rlolva (at qualitatively) to least thediculty which have I ldt 1'of force Oe, openin cxapte,r Theovnhnnge in ironis of theorder 106 but it takc an application amextrafdd of about 103 to wipeout the of of Oe domains; even a reallynegligible of 1OerAn make large(11faad eld a ference the domain to structure.Wlly cannotthe$06 eld accompish Oe whata muck smallere1d Theausweris that tNeverylvge exn%ange f c=? qeldhasa ve,zy shortrange onlyenforces angluYtw-n ndghand small bouringspins- is not capable preventing lt of subdivisions domains into ove.r a longrauge. When magnetc is applied, does dowork a feld it ncf agalnst forces. works It cxchange agest magaetostatic forces are twhic.h of thisorderof 103 in Fe) rnrnoviag rearransng Oe in domes. Andit or clm Rcomplish becauseis applied it it over tke wkole and crystak not only between neighbours. It shoald espvinllynoted be that theargument abouta longanda shortrange applieonly$olvge crystals, which eontain suciently a large number nm'tcells. small of In particlethe long of Eu dou not make range a dfero, because integration only cvriedoMc the Bmsted tNe is size of the cr-ystal. spiteof the elnz-ms some tkeorists theyomit the In of that magnetostatic term because crystal verylargealldits surface the is enerr isfar away, adually it worW theopposte for extreme. is in swzcll lt particles that thee-xchange is sudently strong enforceuniform to a maNetization

MAGNETIC CHARGB
over thewhole although auisotropy plays role,as shown also a in crysta chapte.rlf such particle a spitere, magnetostatic does 5. a is the not enerr ente.r all. If it is an elongated at ellipsoid, magnetostatic the eaerr plays anisotropy, only therole of a shape which addsto the other anisotropy terms.Ja dther cmse,the e-xnhxnge in these force smallpazticles too is strongto allowsubdivision domains, other features the lazge into or of particle.A table typical of nnmerical mlues these of termsca.n be energy

..

lt is, found, examplq (251). thus,in thesmall, thelarge, for in not crystaks where should for a possible one look validit.y thespin of wa=theory the and criticale-xponeats. then,superimposhg mssnmptiona.nl-nmm-te But the of sample cannot a verygood be approvimation ver.g for smaz) particles. Sud%tlys'mall partkle are, thereforev homogeneously ma>etized in z&o applicd feld. 'Phey thencatled theliterature are in Mngle-doman particle.Calculatlg enc't size wich a multi-domain at the particle turns It.O bebzgsingle-domlu'nis not a simple a one problem, wi11 further and be discusseda later Gapter. thissta& it will onlybe remarked n At that semi-qualitative estimations the enerr of the domninK the waz of and betweea as done thissectioaj allrightforratherlarge them, in are particla, forwhichthe accuracy lessimportaat.Nearthe traasition, energy is the bnln.nce ratherdelicate, a higher s aAd is eve.n accuracy needed, though in this point was ignored esl-mations in published the 1940s 195Os. and calculation considered Thefrst rigoroms a sphere sliced planes, into (252) as rourhlydone sedion in 6.2.1 here, calculated but uactly theexchange: nm'sotropy, maretostatic azld for thnr.n glice. rpnrled value lt the energes of 37 for the radius%lowwhic.h cobaltohereis a single nm a domain, andabove which should it divide tto'two domains. thiscalculaton Bve,n tcrned to beiaaccurate, out becausewas laterfound that thetotal it (253) can redud meng tNedomains by cuzved, enerorin a sphere befurther witha rlindricalsymmetrp modifcation This reduced lcritical the radius' for being single a domain 34n= in cobalt. to 6.3. Magnetic Chnrge Undergraduate textbooks a formal give soluuon thedifereptixl to equations conditio'ns eqns(6.1.4)-(6.1.6), be etten in andboundav in which ca,n the form
= rJ(r) .:*4x
-

V' - :u(r') dm'+ lr - r/ I

lr

M%'% l ds? - v'

'

(6.3.48)

where contains V' derivatives respect te components rJ, the with to of frst integri is over the fromagnetic bodies, second the integral over is theirsueces, :rt is theoutward and normal. does the ia Thissolution not solve problem thesensethat mz rxn forget equations. is Ch;G about df erential the lt easier solve diferemtial to the

126

ANOTEER ENERGY TERM

muations, in the evnmples in theprevious as section, thamtocarzy Xven out theineradons thisequadom a nicezlustration) reader in As the may for a tzy to obtain solution eqn(6.1.11) homogeneusly the of maaetie s'phere carrying tke in+grations mn (6.3.4E). certainly by out ia It is possibleto do it, because two mressioc are rnxthematically tke idotical. is But thentegration denitelynot trlvial.Actually, more oftea tkannotl aualytic intevation fromtkis solution rathc mzmbersome not emsy is and unless to perform, sometraasformation is frst applied t the particular to cmse- isnot very'IK-GII mlmerical It for integration eitheer, for certain except spedal cmses, because of the contribution theintegr=dis usuazly most to 1omthevidnity of the singulim-ty F = r, where is not emsy atte at to it an adequate Msq tkefrst term in eqn(6.3.V)aa integration is acccas'y. over thevolume, which a tkree-fold is ntegration. order calttnlxte In to the hM the in and energy, w<mlt to besubstitutM eqn(6.1.2), tkensubstituted in eqn(6.1.7), involv witic.h anoier tkree-fold intevation. mayiange lt in the near future:butrightnow a six-fold numerkal integration anydeto centaccuracy beyond ca-bility of M-Kting is tke computers) tkougll even htegrations thissort (254) bncvriedout. of Mn6 ,tlme six-fold Tkis formxlsolution more uspfnlwhe.n srst integral is $he vanishes, andthereis onlythe second with a twmfold one integration. energy The calculaton involv a four-fold then only integratp if one or t'woofthese and eltn intecations beexm-ed xnnlytirltllyj numerical out tke problem becomes qutemxnageable. the mt importaatapplication eqn (6.3.48) But of is buedon its qnalitatne properti: whichallow insightinto what the an magnetostatic Mthoutactually doing calculations. Ths enerr prefers auy possibility udngphycal ttuition is dueto the formalIorrn tke of of integrals eqn(6.3.48), contain1/r. ia wlkic. Thishctoralsoappears the n electrostatic potential a point chcrge, of which allows llrnt integral the to beintezweted the potentialdueto a spatialdistzibuton a rolwme of as charge, a charge with density . M. Sl-ma-larly,sexndintegral -V tke can beccsidered if it was Gpressng potential to a suviat.e ms the due cllorge surflmedensity M .n. Ofcourse,these wbose is carges not Hst. Ma.ny do boobek-plan the diFerence that betwenelectrostatic maaetostadcs and is that there no ma>eticchrgeo that these is and integrals ikave a only mathematical and meaningj donot express pkydc.al reality. However, any it is neve.rnecessvy any nseW for mathematical to kavea physical tool meaning. Thereis no mnl physical ckargeo tke mathematical but identty lxztwn integrals those the makes possible and whic. involve charge a t to usethe Howledgeabout cbnzge guess quazit,ative a real to tke propehies of the magnetostatic potential. Ia partlcular, know sirnl-lar we that cakrges pxzth zepel otherTherdorej a volume Otribution of such chvger-qJnbesusteed onlyif it is held a by otherforces. to itself,the charg Lelt anmkere the volume in will repelepm.b othe as far as they eztn, wbichis a11 way to the surface. the

CRAR GE MAGNETIC ++++ ++--

127

+ +

+
+ +

l tt
--++

(a.)

(b)

(c)

FIG.6.2. Sckematic represotation thesurface of charge a particle in magnetized along longandtheshorta'dslandtheMme particle the subdi,' vided two antiparaltel into donosns.

Therefore, maaetostatic the the enera termby i/elf will prde to avoid volume charge altogether create a domain and only strudurewith a chnrge charge a11, can onlycome it on theoutersurface.there ny volnme If is at out ofa compromise another with term, e-g. withincertain trpesof enera the wallbetween domes.Because maaetostatic the term is usually the force secientlylarge largt in c , andmostof the magnetization structureis ananged ft th%tarm, a volume charge baardly be to will evu However,mustalways bon'rp mindthat if a stzucture encountered. it be in which involves volume a c'harge introduced a (wtain calnnlxtionj s into themaaetostadc due cAarge sof negb-rible.is is It energy to this volume cftenconvenient introduce a structu're rtainproblems, it to such ia and is uezy tempting thento forget aboutthevolume charge arxsume and that it probably do have large not a eect. It i%therefore, to necessary wart do calculations,Ls it not age thatif thevolnme Garge not enter other because is negli#bly but becauseis Ntremely it small, it large. is only It to byavoid-lng that themagnettatic t emeracan beminimized a small value, if thiscaxgeallowed creep Su e-xn increase and is to n, enormously. A slmilnr argttment applies thesurface to charge well.Consider, as for evnmple, exw-q shown Fig.6.2. single-domain the ia structurein (a) hms Tbe theO'rne rhltege as But this is densit theone in (b). in (a) charge spreG overalargerareathan nerefore, enera of thecase(b) smatler in (b). the is this thanthat of case(a). Gpsoids, rctllt can alsobeobtained For from

128

ANOTHER ENERGY TERM

theHown analydc solution, according which demagnetizing to the Mtor is smallest thelongest and tendsng zero in thelimit of an along aHs, to infnitecylinder. Howevez, concluhon Fig. 6.2is easier see,and the from to it also applies otber to bodies, not onlyto ellipsoids. and J.n (c) total surhce case the curge isthe sxmeas in cmse(b). However, thesubdivision two domm-ns someofthenegafve into malces charge from thebottom sudace to thetop, replaclgpart of thepositive move charge attract p-qmb there is moved thebottom. that to Since unlike charles than oiher, in is and thestructure (c) morefavourable) its eaera ls smaller thatof thestrudurein (b). Again, conclusion this obviously appli anyshape to of themagnetic pazticle, notonlyto theeltipsoid and shown seematically in Fig. 6.2.Akso, snmeargument the applies furthersubdivision morc to into thantwodomains. maythus concluded themagnetostatic It be tkat energy term prcfers domain a covguration a uniform over magnetizathon for any ferromagnetic and tat it would body, ratherconeue th'-qsubdividon indefnitely, unlesstopped thecompetition theother by with enera terms. e.stn Therefore,uniform a maaetization only est eitherin suEdently smallparticlc,or in a ctystalto which suEciently a Iarge magnetic feld is applied. large A magnedc can wipeout thedomains rotatathe feld and ' mavetizadon it,sown direction. to Before condudhg discusdon eqn(6.3.V)will beremarked this of it. for thesake completeness thisformal of that solution nlnnusel fortwoother is these usually even are Ested undergraduate in tebooks. purposes, though One that dn (6.3.48) pvlKteace ks ks an tkeorem. proves tkereis at It t'hat leastone solutio theset of eqns(6.1.4)(6.1.6), completing to to thus tke proof given section that'iltiqRt ofequations in 6.1 cannot kave morc than one solutiom Thesecond remarkis that eqn(6-3.48) the principle proves of sneoosition.Since everything linearin those is integrals, is always it posdble calculate to separately, by dif-nt methods, poteltial even the creatdby diferent partsof the charge, thenaddthemtogethen and
6.3.1 Gene, Dernagnedzcton interestts a homogeneously A cmseof spedalpractical magnetized body. Thedomain covguration zero, or small, in appnH is ver.y feld complicted andvezy rliecult to reproduce.varies It fzom umpleto another, one and even for the same Kstmple depends the Mstoc of the applied it on Eeld Fig. In meuurements, must stxaz't one with (see 4.1)- orderto ezzibrate somet%lng whicheztn berelated the matezial, not to any spexc to and sample. bestcaseis a sample a suldently The in large feld,for which one can at least hope themagnetization paratlel that is held parallel) (orxlmost fo tke direction tlzefeldthroughout whole of Ge umpleHowever, feld the is inside ferromagnetnot thesameas thefeldout,sideo thed'-Ference a and the of A (called dema>etizing' is a Gnction theshn6of thesample. feld) of must r=onableestimate thisdemagnetization bekubtracted to in order

MAGNEXC CHARGE

l29

removetheefects theparticular of sample renrrb intrinsicproperties and the ()f the matedal. Therefore, de6nition this feld, given for an the of only

ellipsoid the previous in section, extended to othe.r is here bodia. la a uniformly magnetized bodyg . M = 0, and the ftrs'tintegral V izteqn(6.3.48) mnishes. Substituting second in eqn(6.1.2), the term the feld inside ferromagnetic th materiaz is (demaaetizing)

s where M

7Jxvj (M
.

:$ s jv s g

.n

'

(6.3.49)

was lmlcen of the inteaal, because is assumed be a out it to constcnt. thesamereason, M can bemoved theleft c the digerenFor to tiations, thateqn(6.3.49) so essentially meansthat tuz!h component E of Ls Iinecr a of thecomponents, Mv,andMz-Also, (6.1.:) M., hmction mn is in this case, 1 Sv = -yM . Hd'z; (6.3.50)

where again constant is moved lont of the integral. the M in These two m<o.n that themagnetostatic relations h thiscase of a homogeenergy, neously magnethed is a quadratic in the components M. lt body, of /=n rgkn, thereforej writtenin kbefm be

8v = -7 2

. k5.f2Z -l'td'p s kz (x5 + Arlax%1'x+ ,),

,
. .

(6.3.51)

'

where etc.are constants depend on theshape the partideNzz that only of lt isalways possible rotatetheazxes that tlds quadratic becomes to so form the same as eqn (6.1.22). htter is, thus,the most general The fo= of the ma>ctostatic of rrzognefz'zed ferromagnetic ' body, energy a 'unvoonly whichapplies auyshape, not onlyto ellipsoidsto and MorKver,by using theproperiie of the function it exn readizy shown 255) i'a be l/s (1, that thediagonnll'',M of eqn(6.1.22) form all three components Nv and N=, Nz are non-negative numbers, sum (whch traceofthe tensor is whose isthe .N) as the magnetized any %. Therefore, far ms ener&is concerned, unifozmly ferromagnedc behave thesamewayas an ellipsoid body in which the has This is theozem. samevolume. statement Hownas the Brown-Morrish It should particuhrly that be noted this theorem not even reqlzire do% a simply eonnected andappliu evento a body body, that contes ccdtied. Ofcouzse,smmetzyconsiderations beused as in thecase of an may just Por lhree eqnal factorsdlipsoid. example,cube a musthave demagnething the lctor is Therefore, demagnetizing ofa cube thesameasthatof a sphea.e which thesamevolume,that cube nnl'formly has if is magnetized. Eoweverv such statement nothing dowith the quetioa of whether cube a hms to a can be brought thisstate of being to uniformly magnetlzed, howto ahd

130

ANOTHERENERGY TBRM

do it. lt is generally assumed a sudently that lvge, nniform applied feldca.n bringtlzemagnetkzation cube be neazly in the to ulform, but it t-qk'es special, non-uniform to make cube ield the nniformly a completely maretized. . Themii.adference between ellipsoid any othe,r a.n. and bodyis that thedemagnetizing inside ellipsoid nnfonn, seld an is namely is theMme it at everypointinside ellipsoid, the whicN not tnzefor anynon-ellipsoidal is shapeAlthough energy the latter is the sameas that of a certain the of eEipsoid, energy an aveageover a certain tis is Eelddistribution. For non-ellipsoidal in a large bodies applied Happl, is still customazy feld, it to dezne dnmetizing a hctor,N, andtaketheinteraal as f.eld
= Hqo' mpp: NM,

(6.3.52)

becauseis the oalywayto eb'msnx+ efed of theshape thesamit the of the in ple andwuztlk intrinsicproperti the ma+rial.However, nonof it onlya,a approzmatiop it #ves an average ellimoidal bodi ks and only of tkeia-aa.l Eeld. Onlyin an eltipsoidtheaverage =trne as thefeld is tke . at evezy point. ln pedple, thedema>etizing hctors(namely, thecomponents the of tensor .N) be calculated evaluating potential .thqsllrfnace can by the of in for clzarge eqn (6.3.48)tke particular gxmetry, substituegin ecm to fnd the eld, andthen t ' the appropriate of (6.1.2) average that 11feld. Twodferentdenltions averag IISMin pradice.One a of are feld average thewhole ove,r volume t:e sample, of leading a demagneto ' is the demagn - fRtor. The tizinghdor which called magnetomet6c otherdefaitioais an average the middle ove,r coss-section the crysof tal perpendictzlaz frecdonof the applied eldj lsuzling whatis to to the eAn knowa thescllidtic as demunetldng hctor.Some tlt- calcttlations of becarried analydcally, somecallfor a numerical otzt and eeuation,with or withoutcertaia appremations. Detltllq such of eeuationsandtablokbothknds of demagaetidng 2 factors, befound the hteratuze, are outside scope tks can in and the of book- speec evxmple begiven here,andonly several .No will leadiag rderenc bementioned. will Tabl bothdemagnetizing of hctorsin a extending infto rectangttlar Gst for thecmse L1) dimension prism of one nits andfor thecmse (26) square of one coss-section. a Mite cirfu'ln.r For cylinder there tabl(256, a longreview are with formulae, tables and 257), vaphs (258J, a sophle-cated aad computational scheme There a (2594. Ls spccial studyof single double ilms (26% andthereare also or thin 2614 some theorems nature,andan attempt(264) (26% of a more general 263) at a Nrst-order correctionor tke cmseof a slizlztly f non-unifoz'm maaetizadon distribution- there alsoa detailed And is discussion of certan (2651 ' drawbzmlrq in practical applications.

UNXS

l21

6.4 Units Older tutbooks used cgssystem units,ia whic,h basic tke of the unitsare thecentimetrw Mdezn textbooks undergraduate for gramaadsecond. a,'e switc'hed to called for Systnte S1, zhferxafoorlcl completelythesystem d'Untls, it eztn safely assumed thereader more Gml'll-ar and be that ks with it thanwith thecgs. maythus seemsimpler adopt SI unitsfor lt to the thisbookmswell. However, righdyor wzongly, pradically themodern all *-11 literature magnehsm usestheso-called on Gaussi= estemofupits. cgs mu'st Andtke reader become fxvn'linr it, if onlyin order beable with to to zead this'pqblished al1 literature. For Mrne people, converting iX:II Si units has become obsession, an on conviction abozsh to heresy make aad everybody bordering a rdigious use the Strue' units.However, is no way of ignoring fMt tllat there the there manyreseamhers have been are who not convez'ted, it sexs that and theywill not befor m=y years com ln any caseo use of units is to the onlya matterofconveniuce, as Brown(266) oz phzaEedCdimensions it: are thetvention of man, aad man Lsat libertyto aign themin anywayhe pleases, longas hes coasisteat as throughout one mterrelated of set any nlm deoes, describes history and calculations'. tuton-nl nis the ot (266) is systems lmsts', it.sreading lu-rhly of au.d recommended. , Thebestsource for the demitions the Gaurvqian ; andits of conversion SI; is theappendh theI.U.P.A.P. to to report(267Junits. on 1 will onlystao briey the impoexntconversion fadors,in words an.d tAt not as a table, accordiag the good to advice Brown(2662:a.llcts, of avoid conversion tables; them, aever know with whether multiply to or you divide-' ten,forterestofthebook,onlythe And Gan--nn system will cgs beused. Evea Vtor 'ys ofBrown the wbch been ia thischapter has used aadi'nsection will not beca'ried farthez. will bereplaced 1-1 It Som any then%t Gapter thecgs by value 47r. of Thecgs of maretic Eeld, is thexsted (Oe). S1unit is 1 unit Jfj The 47 Oe. The ms A/m= x 10-3 Or 1Oera 79.6A/m. Oeis theRme Gb/cm, U. where gilbez't the ks cgs the Alnltfor themagnetic potential, The (Gb) of latter measuxedtheampere in SI,andthenumber A hasto be ks by (A) of multiplied 0.4*to obtaia number Gb. by the AIM Themagnetic iadudion, Hownas themagnetic density, is Qttx Bt measured gaurxs in theegssystem. this system, andB have in ln H (G) the same dim<mKions mn (1.1.2))j some yearsagoH was also and (see measured gauss. in However, ttnl'tsnow have ie dxerent nxmes. TheSI unit is Wb/mz) rxlled tla(T), 1T = 104 also the aad G. Thepermeability a dsmpnm-oaless in thecgs number system, p.z and JIis ofeq.a should bereplMed thenamber ln S1, whiceqn by 1. for Just (1.1.2) is written,thepezmeability:1* space Jzo 4r x 10-U of is = In (1.1.2) H/m. = thissystem relatins the permeability: pjgnt alsoused, defned is as in yr

132

ANOTHER ENERGY TERM

The of to eqn(1.1.4). value Jzris equal tltat of the cgsp.. The magnetizatin, sometimes M, cazed tloltlrpz the magnetization, ksthe dipole moment unit volume. cgsit is measured emu, or J.II in per even emu emu/cm3, though is not reallya lznit.inanysenseof the word. Thenumber emu/cmS be multiplied 1O3 convezt to A/m. in kasto by to it Oftea 4zrMis specledinstead M, andthenit is measured G az of in B is, see eqn (1.1.2). is divided the density tkematersxal, J.fM by of it is known themass magnetization) measured emu/gtheGaussian as and by in system. has sqme numerical Jt the vaiue A.mz/kg, s tke SI unit. as which Thesusceptibility permeability dimensionless and aze numbers thecgs in 1. system) the permeability the vacuum Ls and of numerically factors botk Thedemagnetization D andN are dimensionless in cgs andSI,but there thefactor47 in N as dvnedin thischapter tke is by t'wovalues % . Theazisotropy of constant defned chapter has K, in 5, tke dimension an enerpr of density, namely J.n energy unit volume. cgsit is per memsmederg/mnz, in SI thetmit is J/m3, equals erg/cmZ. by and wlzich 10 A11 otkerconversion the factors skould obvious andit is hoped be now, that . the reader 'on gV themout. re

BASICMICROMAGNETICS
lt can beconcluded the laztchapter thereisno wayto neglect fzom that any anisotropy, magnetostatic, one of the threeenergy terms? exchange, and anda11 threemust be takeninto account any realistic in theory of the rnnagnetization processu-Et would havebeen if theothertermscould nice be added theEeisenberg to Hamiltoniaa, least a perturbation. this at as But Hamiltonian cannoteven be solved quantummechanically witho'at these termsunless quiterough approfmations introduced. Therefore, until are a bettertheorycan be developed, onlyway is to fneglect' the quantum mechanics, ignore atomic the natureof matter,anduse classical physics in a continnous medium. Such aclassicaltheory been has developed in parallelwith quartumthe magnetostatics. historyis 1ts mechanical studies aVs(T) justignore of which toldin (2682, thestart with a 1:35 9om of and on paper Landau Lifshitz the of works structure thewallbetween antiparallel two domains, several and of Brownin 1940-1. Browngave theorythe name micromagnetics, tbis because hehadin mindat frst was the studyof the detalls the what of wallswhichseparate domnins, distinguished the domain a-s from theory, whichconsidered domains, tookthe walls bea negligible of the but to part the details The misleading, because microscopic space. name is somewhat of the atomicstructure ignored, the material considered a are and is h'om macroscopic of viewby taldng to be continuous. point it Partof theclassical approach to replace spjns classical is the by vectors, whichhasalready been done chapter But on top of that, a classical in 2. thory whichcxn beused together Maxwell's with equations musthavea classical term that cnn replace quantum-mechanical the exchange energy interaction, thelimit of a coninuo'as in material
7-1 lcbssical' Exchange Asseen in section 6.2.1, exchange the spins bewritten can among enerpr in termsof the aztglez between 4andspinj, a-sin eqn(6.2.45). spin As 4:,j hasbeen' explained there:theangles between neighbours expected are to bealmays small: because exchange the forces vezystrong are over a short and azigle develop. small14o.I to For R is range, will not allow large any possible use thesaae approfmation in theparticular of parallel to as case planes w,spins each, with in leadng eqn(6.2.46/ write to and

l34

BASIC MJCROMAGNETICS

%x %
%
K%
S:

Flc. 7.1. Schematic representation tlle CIIaINin tlle angle of beeen neighboadng andj, audtheposition spins vectors: between them..
= 6..K JS2

nighbotuv

F) 4?j %,j

and aftersubtracting-the ofthestateia which spins aligaed) all are emergy whiG isJ used a reference in tis calculation. me=s redefning as state It whicllis always legitimatw that thezero cf tbeexchange provided energy, it is done consistentlyForsmxnugles, 1401lw - mjl,where k a tzntvectorwilicllLs = m parallel tlle localspindirecdon Fig. 7-1). that this defnition to Note (see alsomeans that m Lsparalle,l thelocaldiretion of the magnetization to vedor, M) andit is actuallz samem as in eqn(5-1.6) the whenever is M ' a continuoms 1% wlzicllis dvned not onlyat thelatticepoints. For such vadable, Grsvorder a the erpansion a Taylor in series is

(7.1-2) wlleress is tlle posiontlecferpointiag9omlatticepoint to j (see Fig. Substituting eqn(7.1.1), in 7.1). s = JS2 V) (7.1.3) ((sy m!2
-

= lm mJl l(s# V)mI,

-

5(

where second ationis over tlle posiuon the snrnm vectors fromlatticepoint to all its neighbours. example, a simple For for cubic latticewith a lattice consuntc, this snm Lsover the .W.z vectors = c(+1, +1). +l, This sy snzmmationreadily iz carried for a11 out thz'etypesof cubic lattice,and it is seea that theyall lead the sxme expression, difer only in a to and multipcative factor. t:e over over Chan#ng mmrnation to aa integral the ferromagnetic body, resultis thatfor cubic tlle crystals exeange the enerr is

LCLASSICAL' BXCHANGE
xc
=

135
,

1 c -a

+ r.7', $,?ul tkvzrlz? + 'vTmz)j

sz

sc

where

C=
a

2JS2
a

c7

is theedge the unit cell,andc = 1p and4 for a simple of 2 cubic,bcc andfcc respecdvely. a hexagonal close-pafked cystal, suchaz cobalt, For summation thes vectorsleads the same resultas in eqn (7.1.4)A over to onlywith 4xN2J52
'

C=

a.

(7.1.6)

where is the distance a between neart neighbours. For lowersymmetries, (7.1.4) to besomewhat has modled. But eqn cnn for mostcasesof any practical interest equation beVkenas a this good approvimation theexchange for in as energp asmuch the assumption of a continuous material a good is approimationto physical re/ity. The constant is thenVkenas one of the physical of C parameters thematerial, whose isobtained ftting theresults thetheory one ofthemeavalue by of to expressions surements. course, it ccn be obtained the theoretica,l Of lom integr'al is lmown. in eqn(7.1.5)eqn(7.1.6), or whenever exchange the J However, depends the temperature, explained sectfon and J on as in 3.5, thcmlueof J near Tc is not useful micomagnetics for calculations which for are usually applied or near, room temperature. best at, The values this ezchanne constant are usually C obtained fromferromagnetic resonance. Theorder magnitude b0thFeandNi is C ra 2 x 10-6 erg/c. of for The factorl in the defnitionof C in eqn (7.1.4)quite arbitrary, is 2 andwas introduced Brown(145)order avoid factorof 2 in the by in to a dxerential equations whichminimize energy; whichwill be inthe ard 8.3. troduced section Manyworkers in preferto write the energy eqn ia lz withouttheGactor anddefne dxerentconstant thematerial; a of (7.1.4) A, whereC = 2.4.It ofiencausesconfusion because A andC are 30th of referred as the fexchange to constant the material' it is not always and dearwhichofthetwo ksused anyparticularcalculation. in TheexGange of is avery powerful useful for and tool energy eqn(7.1.4) solviag problems whichtedirection themagnetization in of vectorvaries in lom one point to another the crystal.Rs sizeis assumed beMs(T) to everywhere, discussed section This energy as in. 4.1. term is zero for the case of atired magnetization, all the derivatives when vanksh, which the is here. is largefor large It spatialvariations, wayits zero hasbeendefned witic,h whatone expects cxchange is the withlargederivatives, to energy try to avoid. However, are certainlimitations theapplication there for of thisenergy expression mustbeemphashed. is thecase with any which As theory,one should never be c-arried awayand try to applythis theory

136

BASIC MICROMAGNETICS

the beyond naturi vazidity its apprnxn'mations. therefore of It is important to specify these what liets are. ne most olwious restziction connected thebmsic is with assalmption of a continuous material, which onlybevalid longas anychzuacteristic can as length deals is ver.g it with large compared thesizeof a unit celtIt with is not sometbing whicbeztn begttarauteedadvance. is Just in It necessary to bear mindthatif any micromagnetics in calcdation comesup with a pazameter hasa dimension length, vult is reliable if this that of the only quaatity mucxlazger theunit cells. s thaa Thesecond, 1- obvious, and nmitation that tketemperature not is is too high.In chan#ng 1om spins thelatticepointsto a contkmover tEe at ous vadable, themMnitude tisvectorM comesout automatily M, of msa constaat over the wkole cystal.lt is alsoan expmm'mentalthat Latt the magnitude M withinthe domains a Gmstant the materiak of Ls of as in whic,h only Ms(T): depends on the temperatuze, diseussedsection Eowever, pictureoffzxu spts at thelattice pointsis not a good the 4.1. approvlmation realmaterials, d-lpztussed to as in cbapte,r and experi3, the fnztt mental that

lMl= Ms(T)

(7.1.7)

isonlytnzeas a.uaverage a rather largevolume-lt over cnannot stridly so be at every pointwhen there enough is thermat ductuationmake diference to a between pointandanother. hc.kof a bettermodel,' theoz'y one For tEe of micromagnetics assqmes thateqn(7.1.?) ewer-/zera holds Therdore, this theory, it isy as .cazmot carried thewayto theviclnlty ofTc,where be all even small te locdfeldsmaychange mavitudeof M. of Gforeit can beapplied Thenecsazy modiications thetheory, to lligh temperatures, not vezydear,even though therehave been some are to it. step was attempts geneaollze Thebiggest ia this direction that of that of the fuctuations, Minnaja whoshowed in theprence thermal (269) uchaage density eqn(7.1.4) bereplaced in should by eaergy
'tpe=

C ava

a+ (VMv) g(VA&) + (VMa) j

a

(7.1.8)

where is the maaitudeof the vectorM andis a fudion of space. M However, did step, is Minnaja not dothenext necessary which to replace reladon, whicbshould used detlrmlne M. tbis by be to eqn(7.1-7)auother choice and Msnnaja jMst eqn (269) ignored (7.1.7) it lefthimMt.htoo much of possible solutions the diferential for equations, whichcannotdofor a theorp true genemlivAtionmicromaNetics (270) should replace geneY A of whic,k bysomething tends it n thelimit of1ow to temperatures) mn (7.1-7) and a betterphysical has mennsng high at temperatures. part has This not lxsen done aadan attxpt to xlve a speel cxase yet, was (271) not very succeqfnl; wasneve,r lt and eendedto other problems.waslatersuggested

ICLASSICAL' EXCMNGE

137

was used(272)solve certain to a problem uzzder some approadmations. Jt that wa: noted(273) these approfmations were not really needed that for solution, therewmsno furthez but developmentthis idea. of In the cmseof nvclection, whic.h be discussed chapter9, eqn will in ca.nactually ignored, reasonswhich be for will beexplained there. equations thLs of nuclefor case Minnaja solved high-temperature (269) his whlch legitimate. ation(inan infnite plate), is Similar nucleation Mgh at temperatures thencalculated for the caseof an inf nite cylsnder. was (274;

tezmwhose density prchporkional(lM1Ms)2j thisform is to and energy

that bemodifed hightemperatures adding extra at by an (272) eqn(C.1.7)

(7.1.7)

It should benoted theapprofmation here valid also that used is onlyfor smal cngle.s between neighbouring Since exchangethelargest spsns. the is force a shozt over it that angles generllly are range, ca.nbeexpected these However, general does exclude this rule not some exvery smallindeed. ceptions unusual in a,s tke must cases,such a corner where magnetization turn around to some constraints otherenergy due on tnrrrm. Formally, a discontinuous of an angle for an in4nite exchange calls if jump energy, eqn is takento be literally correct.But the point is that it should not (7.1.4) betaken beliterallycorrect. to Thisequation afterall, onlyan approxLs, Hation to eqa(6.2.45), the lattet hasno infnities.Even (7.1.1) and eqn flnt'te,andapprofmating by somethng becomes is always it that infnite only means that the approfmation not applicable that pazticular is for case,whic.h mustbestudied othermethods. by . It cmn beargued an occasional that angular in means jump someplace that a particular of spinshasa muchhigher palr than any other energy pairin thecrystal, which does seemlikean energy not znfnfzntlm. Howevery this argument cannotr'ulco'atthe possibility this arrangement that will be aa energyminimumundersome spedalconditions, it certainly and does Justi not taldng apparent the nfnity of theexchange seriously. too Thispoint hasoften been overlooked andledjfor ecample, special to (2704 solutions fora certain tsingular' in a particular of a domain point type (275) wall.Thatsolution rnlm'mt-zes the exchange only because term this energy, . tgoes in4nity for'r -+ Oproportional 1/r2, exceeds other to to and a1l energy terms'.Even whowas alwaysverycaeftzlhisdefnitions, with made Brown, and on he this mistake, in a footnote p. 67of (145j ruledout a certain enerr'. confguration, because 'would it entailinf niteexchange Thisproblem a zeal for certain is one, special cases, but it has general no solution, a certain and attempt(2761 it hasessentially to solve failed. There s no altpaativeto the use of eqn (7.1.4) mostproblems, some for and special techniques special for problems. should be borne mind It only in that there casesfor which generalzule a'ad are the Ols, should beused. not ln thesummation the positin over vectors that 1ed eqn (7.1.4), s: to it was implicitlyassumed all of themare inside crystal. that the Whenthe latticepoint is on thesuzface, of these some neighbours be missing, may

l38

BASIC MICROMAGNETIV

aad sum mxy comeup dxerent the thanat intemal latticepoints. is not It a serious problemp for all pradicalpurposesis suKcient keep aad it to eqn a,s it it everywhere, addaaothe.r ad eaerr term (7.1.4) iq assumiagapplies only. whichasects sarface Actually, mndi4cationtNeGcaage the tMs of near the snrfnr- is onlyone of several conkibutions to the s'ttrface (145) tm.sotrppp tcmj alzeuymentioned section in 5.1.5. enevgy Thefnrmof eqn(7.1.4) is partscularly oalyto Cmesiaa stlited coordinates. cVs certan It for tmnsformations in cx-forwhlcE other coordiaate systems prefable auy reasom It is not verjrdicult to carryout are for ihese trxnKformations, it is euier if they cxn be avoided but altogether. it For thispurpose whs suggested that tNeKxchaage enerc demsity (27% 1x i.xeqa(7.1.4)replaced by
m.
=

C M)z + x z aw E(V (V M)j ,

'

(7.1-9)

because a vectorof %edmagnitude difezuce for the betw-n thisemprsionaad one ia eqn(7.1.4) a divergencea certG vector. is (277) tNe of The volume integral over thelatte.reltn betraasformed a snrfn.ce to inteaal, by usingthe divergence Therdorw diNrencezedefnes this t/eorem. only anisokopy thesudace term,aaddoes cbnge exchange not the enerr in thebulk,aadin tNefo= of eqn(7-1.9) easier chaage a diferit is to to ent coordinate system. This suggetion,however, never beea by has ased anybody and not l)eused dthem else, will here 7.2 The Izudaa and Lifshitz Wall .&sa frst illussration tNe ofthisdassical f use exchange enerr, a bette,r solution be give,a for thebt strudureof tNewall betweea will heae =tiparallel domains. wall hasalready This 6.2.1) b-n dincussed section in butvery roul appremations used w&e therel which at best can demonstmtethefeasibility its evlqtence. much of A betterapproach to rnlnlrnlze is theenerr of tNe problem, using sameappremations the whiclz frst were introduced ia 1935. (268) For thsspurpose, conslder insnite aa crystal, witichhasa uniandal xnsnotropy tNetypeof eqn(5.1.7). domains arraage of The will themselves witb theirmagnethation parallel antilmmllel the easyxnsnotropy and to n.='s whichi defned kereas the z-a='K tsR section We 5.1). defnethe z-n='K along tNedirvson ia whichthe magnetization chuges fromtke m -z- to the +z-directionv namezy mz = -1 to mg = +l, where from is defned eqn(5.1.6). wallbetw-n the domains, tilts out of m by In the the z-direction, which beeither c,an towards or towards Houver,aa z y. m. which a functiim :r mexnma non-zero V . M and #ves to a is of rise large maRettatic Obdously, enerr is lowerif the eneo contribution. mz = 0: andonly mu aadmg are 10 to be functions s. Combiaing of

THELANDAU ANDLIFSHXTZ WALL

13S

the anisotropy density 1om eqn(5.1.7) theexchange with energy enera density fzom (7.1.4), total energy the density this caseLs for eqn
'tn =

1 .1KLmz. Kgm+ -C s. y a

Jrzw 2 dmz z ' + (jz (Lz

(7.2.10)

Themagnetostatic V enera is left out, because . M z'x %so that there is no volume charge, thesurface and charge neglected theassumption Ls by ofan infnite' crystal. reader already The has been warned section in 6.2.2 that such assumption no physical an has meaning, that leaving the and out sudace charge such argument never justed. by an is However, kaowthis ledge nnme much later,andfor manyypltrseverybody convinced was that thisapprofmation 6llly justifedj least bulkmaterials. was at for Actually, there still manywhobelieve, that the are against strong evidence, at least calculated is a goodappro-xn'm to thewallsin veryhrge here ation energy crystals. Nowit is known that the approfmation not reallyJu' Ls stifed, andthat themagnetization structure a wall dou not lookat a11 the in like one calcalated thissection. in Still,thisstructureis veryimportant a from historical pointof view,beingthe frst studyin micromagnetics. also It is a nice andeasy problem solve) as such makes good to and it a ntroduction to the more dihcult problems micromagnetics. of is The vectorm is a 'uzif vector,which means that its magnitude 11 +m2 such is and77z2 z = 1.Theeasiest to enforce a constraint to defne way F an angle, by therelation %
mz
=

cos: and

mv

sin0.

(7.2.11)

Substituting eqn(7.2.10))integrating energy ln and the density x, the over total energy unit area in thevz-plane is per

(7.2.12)
TheEulerdiFerential equation miuimizng integral for this Ls C

+9 2Xzsin0coso zlffzsin 0cos# 0, a = a

-

(7.2-13)

with the boundary condition

dr

=
I .+.oo

(7-2.14)

It is easyto integrate an equation such once, andobtnlnwhat lown is

14O
as a Svsi ntvml

BASIC MICROMAGNETICS

lt can beaeievedfor example mitipyng thedifeby renllxlequation d8/dz iategzating z. Ther-lt is by aad oMc
l ds 2 4 -C Aez a 8 - Kasin $ = const, sin 2 d.'r

(7.2.15)

where right handside an intagration the is constant.Thisintegration is theorem whie,h actuvya particular of a general case (2701, will beproved in section 10.2,according whicall one-dimensional to problems static in micromagnedcs at lMst one 6mt integral. have Theintegration constant bedetermined thecondition the can lom that must bea OCJJ separating domnlmK maaetized aloag It Lz. structure two implies sin# = 0 at z = +txh, when condidon suuituted that and this is in eqn(7.2.15), together with eqn(7.2.14), conenntis s-n to be0. tMs Hence d= ftru z + :?./ 1 -h sin $ sin0. (7-2-16) gzt T' c T zk% equation obvious eithercho thesi> in front for of lntegraton thss of is of tlle square is rootvandone of the branches
cos$ =

1 + n tzmh @/J)= mz, 'F1+ mtaah2 (z/J)

. -

J=

, j/'2A%

N=

Kz.

.K'l

Actually, insteo z theargum%t of should contan- z:, where ks tr zo the seondintegradon constaat the original of second-order diferential equation.However, origiadoes have men.nipg an XJP,A the not in crystal, any andzo maybeomitted. rztn Thewallerldr.o also calculated be analytirolly, substituting by eqn in eqn and oqt The (7.2-17) (7.2.1$, carr.ying the integration. wallenergy is to perunit wv a.Z'I?Athusfound be
s=

(7.2.17)

Fr -1 n azfzc + + arc--antz-)s ,
L

)
.

(7.z18)

whic,k depends on t'heAninokopy Gchn.nge only and constants themateof riakThespontaneous magnetzation, does enter, Ms, not becauseis only it ltM connected themagnetostatic with eliminated erlerr term which 1:ee.11 1omtke present calculafon. Threueldly, magnetization eqn (7.2.17) the in becomes parallel to +z onlyat infnity,andthewall IUAaa in6nitewidth,but of course this ' innity need betaken seriously. scale z in this equation 'not too The of is 6 = Cj2Kt lemst at whenx is smal), thln expression usually and is defned the mallWdfYAnyremsonable ms denstion the widthas the of

MAGNETOSTATIC ENERGY

l41

distance which ove.r mostof the rotation om mz = -1 to mx = +1 ukes plve, wttllead somethingtheorder thisquaatity- moreaccurate to of of A is deNnition s'ivea (27$. in If theanisotropy cubic,as is t:e case,for raxmple, iron or nickel, is in thereare threeeasy axes along three the cubicaxu. ThemMnetization in some of thedomains at 900andin some at 180*to the one in the is domm-n Fig.4.1). structureand The neighbouring (s enera of boththe 90*an.d 180*wxllqhave calculated in a similarwa,y the the been to (r9) cakulation thissection, lemst a negli#ble Theresults also in at for Xa. are m-mllar theforegoing. ettriction, to whichhas been added as (2791 a uninNn-nl Anisotropy superimposed the cubic hassomeefect on on one, but thewallstructure, its efecton its enera is negli#ble. Thecalculation theenergies thedferentwalls thelwq-qis of of is of what teory. calculathg eaerar of becpme known as the ln the E145) domain dxezent confgurationsdomains, wallsllet-wsvm are takn to of the the.m havea zero width,as in the calculation the magnetostatic of enera of thetwo domnsnssection But thentheenea'a tphe is added, in 6.2. of walls using upressions as theone fortheunlim-al such aaisotropy eqn(7.2.18) in here, multiplying thewallarea according theassumed and by to geometry. Thistecxnique azows comparison the total enerorof a11 the of soz'ts of confgurations, attemptto fnd (5% theonewhose in an k energy lower 279) of thanthat of the others. is even possible addthe interaction each It to confguration a.aapplied with magnetic andtry to follow feld theoretically 1he whole hysteresks For largeand complusystems is theonly c'urve. it theory, these and stdies continue 2811 Forsmall still pardclo (28% todaythereare betterandmore reDable .methods, whie.h bedecribedin will iapter 9, butthistechniquebeing (282, for them well. is used 283) ms More about walls begiven chapter butmt delzu-lK domm'n will in theozy ofthe % the of Only before conduding section, this the are outside scope thisbook. reader must be waamed to be msqled the elegaace the solution not by of into believing thecalculation that presentM sthefnal result the here for wallstructureor its energy'. a Iarge Even crystalends somemheat the and structnrepresented create muchtoo muchcharge the surface. here on Thks cxarge tdemaretizes' wall and distozts s/apeto reduce the its its ma>etadc andthisdistortion propagat% the into internal parts enera, of thewall.Theresulting structure becomes complex, eztnnot quite and be expresseda one-dl'mensional of spaze. by ftmction Thewhole problem them becomes more complicated theone presented but then much than here, complicationinevivble ferromaretism. is in

7.3 Magnetostatic Enerr Themagnetostatic term hasb'een inkoduced section mseqn in 6.1, enerr but not prove there. will be put here a sounder lt on (6.1.7), it lm.q been tlun bmsis the ent Zven there. orderto satisfy In those whomay

142

BASIC OCROMAGMTICS

fee.l about mere acceptance Maxwelps a of equations theyare, it ms uneasy is necessary start fromtheatomicnatureof real'mxtedals, to whichwas not even Hownat thetime of M>xwell. approvlmation a coneuThe of ous material inevitable the end, is at but it is importaat nodcethatit to is not inednced as an arbitrarymssumption.comesas a well-justifed It approlmation thelirnt't of vadualvariauon a <zewhichis large for over compared thelatticeconstant thematem-nl. is n-xrly thesame with of lt and appromadon the for justifcation thesame limit as in the classical e-xchxnge 7.1. the for enerain section If anythlngj approzmation themagnetostatic term is ev> more justifed thatfor theexchange , as than tRrm will beseenizlthefollowing. 7.3.1 Physially Smcz! Splttrt mom' Consider latticemade magnedc a of clipole,with the magnetic ent at th at thelatticepnint . Let h..betefeld intensity telatticepoint dueto all the otlterdipol. theabsence thermal Ia of fuctuations, the poteatial of thiq is enera 1 Cu= -j' Y!1% Y', (U-3-19)
1

where factor1 is introdux because surnmation the the contains of ea.c.1z 2 theinteeractiolks once as theinteraction thedipole with thefeld tWce: of 6 dueto .handon as that ofthe dipole wtthtke feld due . to .i Let a sphere drawn be around latticepoint f- If its z'adiusis large the R wit,h outside this compared theunit cellof the maial,all the dipoles spheze betakenas a continuum Yculatingthefeld whiclz for they may eate thispardcalar at point,. Therefore, feld lu at thispointmay the beeviuatMby tnlclng ield dueto a continuous the matarial everywhere, subtntcting it thefeld due a continuous from to material inside sphere, this andaddiqg feld dueto thedscete the dipoles witMnthe samesphere. Theirst ofthese termsis thefeld calculated section 1omMmxwell's in 6.1 It equadons. will be denoted now on by H', in orderto keepthe from novtionH for theapplied dueto curren?ia some exteaalcoils. eld Az has already explained sedion6.1, been izl these feldsmaybetaken two as separa*ent-id theasuperimmsed. is necessary subtract and It to frop this feld H' the contribution a continuous of mMnetization insideth1 sphere. this magnetizadon not varqg muc If does inside sphere, the very thelatterNeld approzmately demagnetizing ofa homogenmusly is the feld magnetized sphez'e, by etw (6.1.1.3), -(4?/3)M. given namely Hencl
42: hs'= H' + M + ht. ,
' -

7-

(7.3.20)

h? where is the conkibution thedipoluinside sphere. of the

MAGNETOSTATIC ENERGY

143

'he of the demagnetizing is jalh-ia-ed radius of the use feld if 'te R sphere smazcompared thescale whicthedirection the is with over of magneation betnlrnnas a const=t, or at mostas a linaarllnction can is ofspa-lt necessav mnw sarethat thisassumptionnot in conlct is to wit,h frst asstxmption, R is much the that lrger thaathelatticeconstant ofthematerial. second The requkement that R is small is compared with thesenlled ezthange Jenvl/j, wic.k the length whichM cllaag, is over namely sometMng the orde.r the of cf Lzandau Lifshitzwall width, and For with aud Cf2K. a typicalcaseof permalloy, Cx 2 x 10-6 erg/mzz 104 this is Kk ;4$ ezg/cap,wazwidth ahmtl00am,amely about unit 300 the m-rtcells, about samenumber and applies iron.ln these it is indeed to value possible defne intermedln.te of R, 611611img rmuirement to an both for being suEdently hrgeandmzRdently small, which n.sawnlly is referred to as a pltysicazy Jzncll sphere. should e'mphasieM that this It be agna'n possibiv de ' such physienlly sphere dueto thee-xchaage of a small is lwqng strong a shortzange, almost over keepng spins the aIig'IIC'd over very distaac theorder a unit (e- There casof certain earths, of of are rare or thdr alloys, whic,h is muc,h for K largerandthe exchange lengthis onlya fewlattice conKunts. thecmses contauum In the approach aot is in and a justied, it is aeceasazy to coasiderfnite Gaage thedirection (284) of M 1omone lattice pointto thenexk . Thelastterm in eqn(7.3.20)sum over feldsdueto dipoles, is a
Jz. -..-.J- + 3(../ riylri.f, (c.:.).a:.) a s Irjl Irzgl jTi 2<2 where is thevectorpottin.g1omlattke miat f to lattice pointj. ln a z'Li physically Kvnxll spherey is Rtually a constant, whichdoes depend not gj on #.In thks rzuej it is pvible to write, for examplej z-component the of thefeld in Cartelmcoordinat as
( hz=
-

,' = G

za +

g. Lj

+ lAvyij 3ze(#..a4y + #x.r.f.l

r.s
.

ij

(7.3.22)

U the crystalasa cubic symmetry, snrn over a sph'ere the termwith a of because is an equal there contribution 1om ajtwj or with zijzzi vaaish the positive negative and term, =d. actually this statement true for is almost othersymmetry. lso,for a cubics'mmetrstr, y andz are aay interchaageable,therefore and
zi v.aj. y'y<J= y..y uazy.y,J m .y'y.y.. r'F rq rq 3 xj eJ

.s'?,

? &

z?

z ? + y? + z ? 1 . lj

P IJ

..y 3

.-w
g

: w.

rqr.g.zz;

Thns totalsnm in eqn(7.3.22) andsois aayother the is zero, compoaeat of

144

BASIC MICROMAGNBTIV

In a eqn (7.3.21).nonmbicsmmetrythe sum is not zero,butit isobdous fromtheformofeqn(7.3.22) pz ca.nbetaken frontofa sum wllic.k that in is justa numbec, thesameis kue for the othercomponeztts. the and On whole, under anmption tkat M maybeapprozmated a constant the by srnzzl inside physically the spkereo is a liaear function thecomponents of h; ofthisM, with coeRcients dep%d on the crye-xll'oe which only symmetry. ln otherwords, = 14 A . M , (7.3.24)

where Ls tensor A a which depends theczystalline on symmetry which and vanishes a cubic for smmetzy. Substitlzeg (7.3.24) (7.3.20) and in cxqas and the the eqn(7.3.1$, chan#ngsam to a.nintegzal, magnetoMatic energy Su =

-g

M . Ht +

4/

SM + A

M dn

(7.3.25)

where intwation is ove.rthe ferromagnetic tke body. It must be aphmsized tke approfmation a physically that of small 'iltiq sphere not really does require that M is a constantinside sphereA c'hxnge the dlrnensions thesphere notmakeany will Jfnecr over of dxeren to theforegoing, it is that bfvm.mse easy seeby smmetry considerations to its contzibntion zero. A genernllmation of the foregoing is derivation (285) considered caseofa quadratic the change tkesphere, showed over and that ts contribution also for a suEciently czystalline is zero Mgh symmetry. For the term a lower smhetz'y, contzibution a quadratic is not zero, blztR of IUAbeen slloW(2851 negYbly for all casesof interest. to be small The proofof this theorem be summarized can qualltatively thefollowiig by of is slow, foregoing the vgument:if the change themagnetizationrather kscozrect. it is not slow, maaetceaticenergy be assnmed If the to may besmall compared the achange witk and mistake the in energy, a certain smaller term does aeec.t total enerr. Thephysically not the smallsphere also genernl-lqed to bea,nellipsoid, thks be but gencxliqation does may (285) not have reeal eeect the proent calemlxtlon. on any Themiddle termin eqn(7.3.25) contains . M, which theconstant M is M'zs depends on the temperature, does depend the that only and not on spatal distribution M. Therefore,is omitted, of it whicxonlymeans redecning zero ofthe magnetostatk the and energy hasno H'H on energ.g msnlmiqations. lmst The term Lsa.n energy M denstt . A . M which%M tke s=e formal form tke anisotropy of discqssed section izz enerr density 5.1.Therefore,maybeincluded theanixtropyenergy it in instead here. of lt is particularly convenient .doso because anksotropy to the constankin m-t ca- are takenfromthe eerimental values, whichalready inclvde this term.It should benoted only thatwhen sph-orbitinteraction the is calculated bmsic fl'om principles, termshould added the nanlting ihis be to esotropy. Themagnetostatic has skown be to energy thusbeen

MAGNETOSTATIC ENERGY

l45

s.

-)/ M s' d.,

.

(7.3.26)

whic.k thesame=pression is already used chapter withoutproof. ir 6 M was the cmse with theexckange DaII sphere energsthe physirmlly ksassumed to be eatirely here inside ferromMnetic the body,andthis assumption forlattice fils poiats thesurfnce-Here,p'ofthenecessary near az't correction already ks iacluded thesurfnne in cltvge,Tven section as in 6.3 part of tEechssical The only enera calculatlon. resi of this error Gects spins wkic.h qlziteclose the surfRe, can beexpressed V are to ard (145) a term <th the same funcuonal fnnn as the surface aaisotropy enera Yrm. ThereforerAn betxl- intoaccount anotker it ms fo contribution the surfveaisotropy. The magnetostatic a,s by ksnon-locat energy exwessed mn (7.3.26) H', Thevolume integral this equation in contains wbichin turn ilM to be cvaluated aaother by volume inteval (see secdon lt efec:vely meaas 6.3). integrathgtwice ove,rthesamevoblme. tzhis In respect enerarterm is this aad terms,which are very diferentfromthe excbaage aaisotropy energy local, aamely involvirgoae volume-intevatioa an enera density. of This property another is a,pedof the long-raage natureof themMnetostadc forces which irto the dipole wlth requiretaldng account inlradion of e-qnh Eave in beensome attempts everyotherdipole the ferromoet. There this to approfmate double intevatouby a slngle andthese one, attempts have failed, revicwed (270J. poiatisthat, in prhciple) long-range as in The a force cannotbereplaced a short-raqge wlthoutloshgsome of it,s by one important propeies. Therefore, Omplication a six-fold the of infagration is paz't thephysical of problem, mssuc.h is hevitable. aad it Pdneple 7.3-2 Pote A'/zodcn 'I'hetx other are forms ecpress magaetostatic to the are enerr, which mathematically ia equieent,but one maybemore usehltkanthe otber some problems. order establisk it ks a In to them, necessary to prove theorem frst concerning magnetic the inductioa,

H' + 47rM,

(7.3.27)

here whiclt already has ben defned eqn(1.1.2). denoted msB?in in lt is order emphasize it is onlythepart ofB whic related H?,aad to that is to not to theapplied H. feld According eqa(6.1.2)) fo

JH? B'dr JB' Mudr j (V (t7B') U%.B')dr, (7.3.28)

.

where secoad the equality an identity,aadthe intevation is Msumed is to be over a large enough volume contain the ferromagnetic to all bodies.

146

BASIC MICROMAGNETICS

w.ninhe vcording eqn (6.1-3), tmrrn Thesecond in thelast exprsion to andthe5.rs-t rxn betraasformed term according thedivergence to theorem. Hence, = H! . B'dm - n . UB/dS, (7.3.29)

wheze is thenormal. n Now,theboundo conditions Maxwell's of equar donsaure a contiauit.y bothU aadB= evezywhere. of Therefore, the integrals when of of surface cance) evaluaM b0thsides aay surface a on ferromagnedc andthe rgbt-hand of eqn(7.3.29) iategral body, side is au over tkeoutside surface thevolume of which Yn assumed contain hms to a2 these bodies. tMs snrfxceis allowed tendto infnity, outside If to all B# ferromagnets= H#= -VU, which tends zeroat least fmst l/r2 to as a: the coaditionssection Therefore, tends zero in UBs to (see boundazy 6.1). at lf'xqt as 1/0,wMle incremsesrZ, andthe whole ds as integralon the right-hand of eqn(7.3.29) to 0 at nAnity,wMc,h side tends mpltns that

H' . B'd'r = 0.
a1l spaco

(7.3.30)

Thistheorem of some interet in its own right.But it is x.lKn is n-ful fora transformation theexpression tlle maenetxtatic of Tor energpt is whic.h ae-etine substituting (7.3.27) (7.3.30), yields by in eqn ma
all syace
= H!. (H'+ 4rM)d'r 0.

(7.3.31)

Brexlclng ixtegraliato a mym o two integrals, is seenthat the one this it witic.h 'contains is proportional the integral the magaetostatic M to for To with, the htegralin eqn (7-3.3:) Lsover enea'rin eqn (7.3.26).begin a.!l which hclude Nrts in which there no ferromagnetic axe bodiu. space, However, = Oin those M to partsofspace, the.rdonot contribute the and seondpart oftheintegral. Therefore, second this integral also is over the ferromagnetic as is theintegral eqn(7.3.26). bodies) ia Qemrrrm#ng,

Su= - 1

Szadr81 ul spacc

(7-3.32)

This formof writing themagnetostatic the eaerRdemonstrates polz cfodcntz The is evezywhere, makes which the zdnesplc. intisgraadpositive positive. smallest The value magnetostatic possible for tMs enerarazways H' when is lden... enera term is zero, azdthis<ue rztn onlybeweieved tcazyzero everywhee. Therefore, maaetostatic the term always enera triesto avoid sort ofvolume snrfazv or charge. complete A avoid=ce aay ksnot 'lzsually psible, unless geometry that of a toroid,in which the is

MAGNETOSTATIC ENERGY

147

a magnetization no divergence be parallel the surfacewith ca.n to However, the prindpleis that this eneraterm triesto achieve confgurations with as little chazge possible. prindple already This has been used in as

the qualitative 11/ 6.3, showed, example, for that arguments section which along an ellipsoid would ratherbemagnetized its longest afs, etc.However, in that section argument a little premature, this was becausecleve.r a reader have wondered avoid charge why the ratherthaa thinkofsome may sophisticated with of and arrangement a combination a positive negative charge, whose belower thanthat of no charge a11. now, at Only enerr may aflertheproofof eqn(7.3.32), an integraad with whichis always positive) it should clearthat such fsophisticated' be a caanotefst. arrangement Thereis still another formto express magnetostatic the termj energy which also is derived eqn(7.3.30), can bewrittenas from which
'

+1space

(B' 4xM)B'dv =
-

0,

(7.3.33)

in accordance eqn(7.3.2/0. with Rearrangingz using (7.3.27) and again, eqn

k
-

B'I

au spaco

B' c dr = 1

i'

M . B'd.r=

i'

(H'+ 4'mM)d'r, (7.3.34)

o
r

where intevations the righthand are (wer thevolumes which the on side in M # 0. Substituting eqn(7.3.26), from
-

1 B,a dr = -1'M + 2* 8* wllspaco

a .&fdr.

(7.3-3 5)

Afos /./2 Andsince is the constant ,

(7.3.36)
where is the volume the ferromagnetic or bodies. 'Z of body, It mustbeemphasized that an energy again calculatedfrom (7.3.36) eqn for any pazticular is going yieldexactly samenumerical case to the value as the energy calculated from eqn (7.3.32), because two equations these are mathematically identical. However, msnussign eqn(7.3.36) the in does not allow pltysical interpretation what confgurationsthe magneof of any tizationthis eaerr term prefers, which even come close thesimple ca.n to pictureof pole avoidauce implied eqn(7.3.32). besaidthat the by lt can magnetostatic the B,2 enera term prefers average to beas largeas possible, thisstatement but does helpat all to seethe actualpreferable not distribution the feld B;, or that of h1:. hasbeen of lt claimed that (286)

148

BASIC MICROMGNETICS

B' hms over because hms more a eqn (7.3.36)to beprefen'ed eqn(7.3.32), diredphysical than is the meaning H/, which essendally same mssaying thatsurface volume or charge should beused =ot because is no physthere eAn icalmeaning thischarge. to a puremathematical Sometimes concept bemore convenient, allow better and a physix intuitionintotheproblem, thana truephysiY approMh. samedisadvantage lMk of physitzal The of a Jdlrsn intuitionapplies to other forms of the energy (287q magnetostatic term. Beginaers wonde thefrst term i.aeqn(7.3.36), is just why which may a constant, not omitted redef is by Tn-ng enerr zmo, mshms the already done been several timesin this book. course, it is quitele#umate Of to dosq as longmstYs new defnition used is tonsltently. However? not it is it done because is not usefnl, will onlymislead ald people bezeve to that B' themavetostatic as evenrwhere. enerr prefers to beas lazge possible Redl6m-ng zero wlnot change mathemativ tat wbatever the the fact B' is, the newlydefned cannotpcebly be more negadve than energy -2rcMs2zr, is the enerr of a conouration no volume surwhich with or face charge thenew system. in Defniuons chosen behelpfuly are to and confasing deim-dons betteravoided, f theyare quitel4gitimate are even in prindple.
7.3.3 rociiy A vezymwerfal for calculating maaettatic tool the enegyof rtnx'n confgurations beobtained a gen-mrwzkdon (7.3.30). can Fom of eqn Consider distributions mMneation spa, and two of in Mz Ma. Let bethemaoticfeld prodqced M,for = 1,2respectively, 1et by and H)= to it is + 4xM.Uing the sxrneproofused proveeqn(7.3.30)9 B) Ht en readily that

H'z. B'adr =
:111 space

rzll space

. B'zdm 0. H?a =

(7.3.37)

TEe properties thefunctions for proving (7.3.30) that E' of msed were eqn Ls gruient ofa potential a everywhere is regular and whicltis continuous at infnity, andthat B'G is continuous everywhere, allthese ar.d propeties . are aso fulflled H(aad separally. by Therefore, proof theKnme, the is Bt andia thesamewaymswritin.g (7.3.31) pfwNlble conclade it ks to that eqn l both H'z- (H1 4'rM2)g'r = 0 + (7.3.38)
a11 epace

and
a11 splce

Rc'.

= + (H1 4rM1)d'r0.
?

(72.39)

Subtracting 'th- two muations, part with Hl . 1% common to b0th te is ' etpre%ions caacels, and leaving

ENERGY MAGNETOSTATIC

149

(7.3.40)
'

Of course,it is never actually to over necessary integrate thewhole space, ande-ach integral over the volume whichits integrand not zero. is in is This equation knownms the r#llrodty theorem, is very useis and ful in solving magnetostatic problems. integrals eqn(7.3.40) The in are partsof the integral eqn(7.3.26), andMa are parts of thetotal in if M1 magndization distribution, andthe theorem truefor auyarbitrary M, is subdivision the magnetization these entitiu. Thereforepapof into two an propziate choice the wayin whic,h is subdivided Mz andMa of M into of may often simplt theevaluation themagnetostatic eneza.Of course, thischoice to beftted to the particularcase understudy: there has and are no guideznes faetate the decision. example this use of the to An of theorem begiven the derivation theBrown in diferential reciprocity will of equations section in 8.3. the theozem not limitedto Mz andMawhich is Jnprinciple, redprocsty addup to thetotal magnethation distribution, Theproofof this theoM. rem is quitegeneralo applies and also casesin which andMa overlap to Ml in somepart of thespace. Eowever, nobody ever used theorem has this for such overlap. mostdirect The is an application the theorem for the case of in whichM1 aadMa are the magnetizationst'woseparate in bodies, and is interpreted mean that the interaction the magnetizato of eqn(7.3.40) tion izt one bodywith the feld cre-ated that of the otherbodyis the by sitrne as the interaction the magnetizationthe second of of bodywith the feld cre-ated thedrst one. Themost common evnm pIe (288)in the by Ls calculation the energy interaction of of between recording andthe a head bits it records a discor tape,or in calculating signal the reading on the on headj which nvolves sameintegral in eqn(7.3.40).rathez to the as It is easy know feld dueto themagnetization thehead, themagnetization the in and distribution the recorded lt is muchmore dicultto estimate in fape. the eld dueto the recorded aadthe magnetization tape distribution the in head. Equation(7.3.40) it possible How theinteraction makes to without the evaluating more 35fB part. cult Brown(1q listM this reciprocity has theorem onlyone of several as theorems which gavethe general to h4 name of reciprocity theorems. M the othersare less common, andlessapplied, the literature,andare 5n outside scope this book. the of
7.3.4 Vyyer LoverSdtlnds and Whenit is diEcultto evaluate magnetostatic the exactly, may it energy often sucient have reliable be to a estimate its value. appremation for An is only of may do,but a'a approvimation reliable with a goodestimate the error involved. principle, bestestimate obtained J.n the is whentheexact

150

BASIC OCROMAGMTICS'

value beput between bounds, can two esperzxllywhen twobounds these do not dlfer very much each from other. Somekime bounds found suc,h are by a certltin t:1c,1: wlzich applicable to a particular ks only problem. However, 'Brown for mavetostatic a has enegycalculations, (2891 devised rather general method fnding bothan upperbound a lowerbound. for and J.f properly used, these bounds besuhdently close together, that the so may exactvalue Thee bounds beswcfedhere, will but maynoi be needed. theproos they are indeed lowerandan upperbound diferent that a is 1omthe one orisnally The pr-ntv by Brown. latterwas not very easy to followor to unders/-xnd. Let M betheactualdkstdbution whickthe magnetostatic for energy is to l)ecalculated, let H?bethetrue feld dueto t%u magnetization. and LetHl = -V . t: bethefeld due some othev to distribution, whic.N be will specedlater.Obviously,
Ev >- Es = Sxt

l , / .. H: 8x .u xpa.rk

H ,)z dr,

(7.3.41)

where inequatity results the fzomsubtraztiag inteval whicbcannot an bencgative, becausethesquaze. the in of Opeming brzmlretsthe in*gran; Grst the using eqn(7.3.32) eqn(7.3.27), then aad omitting 'all space' whieh is implied fromnow on for all theintegrals thissection, in

su -

sl

.n' d.r (2Hk Hl2)

-

sl

(B' g2y,q4,mM) dv. Hkj

.
-

to Thepazt of theintegral whichcontna-ns . B' is zero according eqn Hk Notethat theproofof that equation rmuized that H) is oaly (7.3.37). a gradient a potzmtal of whichis conthuous regular inflnity. It and at is not even necessazy this poteatial dueto any realmagnetization that is distribudon. Therefore, writiagthispotential by eelidtly and substituting i.neqn(7.3.41) eqn(7.3.42)

(7-3.42)

su z su -

.vlazdp, /M sl /(v+)2

(7.3.43)

where fzrs't the and ineih ove,rthefromagneticbody(or bodias), the second integral over thewhole s space. Thisretzlt provideslower a bound thecorrectmaaetostatic to enerr Cv ofa given magnetization distribution in termsof an arbi-vy funcM, ton of spaze: Theonlylimitationon tke arbitrar.g +. Goiceof + is that everywherw that it is regular inCnliy, only it is coneuous aad at because the properties were used theproofof eqn (7.3.43)in A discontinuity of te dezivative allowed, may beintroduced is aad anywereHowever, it is not usuallysuEcient have a lower to bound, which becozrect just may

MAGNETOSTATIC BNERGY

but not useful. Afterall, a zero is alsoa lower bound the magnetostatic to positiveaccording eqn(7.3.32),this lower to but enerr, whichis always bound does helpto solve not A lowerbound one ts manyprblems. useful for which is not verydxerent Cn fromCu,which intuitively is understood to be more lgely when is chosen haveat leastsome ofthe features 41, to U. expected therealpotential theproblem, It should noted 1om of be that = if 41, U, the inequality eqn(7.3.43) in becomes equuty,according atl to and Therefore, bestchoice the should always a be eqns(7.3.26) (7.3.3$. 41, whichapproam or at least 'matesj imitates, Thus, evnmple, someU. for it howdoes seemrightto choosefunction which a discontinuous not a + has derivative inside ferromagnetic even if such choice allowed the body, a is in prindple, even though hasnever been am.d it proved bea wrong to choice. At anyrate, such choice never been a has triedin any of theapplications of thistheorem the literature, citedia (288j. iu ms In practical applications, is not known, it is impossible deCu and to termine howgoodthe choice 41, by checking of is whether is close sz to Su. Thereforejlower a bound itselfdoes helpat all, andthe only by not criterion theuseftllress 4 is when upperbound alsobefound for of an can that is not very diFerent fzomSz-Onlyin such case e--inone claimthat a theexactenergy value is suhciently deternzined, .' it must Cu well because !) bebetween two values. importance Brown bounds thus these The of s are in thecombinadon 30th them, not in each themby iiself. of of and of To obtalnan upperbound, positive a integralis added the true to Su energy, ) in theform 1 Cu f f's = Cu + B, 2 drt (7.3.44) 8* (B1 ) where is a,narbitraryvectorialfunction Bz ofspace. can beseen1omthe It proof the relations in thisderivation it is suhdentto require of used that that B: is contiauous everywhere, that V . Bz = 0. Asis thecase with and .',thisB1 does haveto beconnected the realB' of theproblem, not with but it helps they are not too diferent.Substituting eqn (7.3.36), if fl'om opening brackets, ushgeqn(7.3.211, the and 1 2 - 2B1. z l's = 2.mM.27 + (R+ 4rMjdr. (7.3.45) 8x gB1 According eqn(7-3.37), to for whicha11 takes assume(as it to mentioned is that and is above) Bz is continuous that its divergencezezq c I'M< En= 2rMs2y 1 Bydr B1 .M dr, + (7.3.46) 8,r where last integral ove,rthe ferromagnetic andthe one before the is body, it is over thewhole As V' of space. before, is the volume theferromagnetic

152

BASIC MICROMAGNETICS

body bodie). aqin thecaseof thelower And, bound eqn(7.3.43), in the (or ixequality becomu equality B: = B' due theactual an if to magnetization M. distributioa Bz Theconstraint . B1 = Ois enlrllyimplemented coosing = V by A compldely V x A, in which thevedorpoteatial is almost cxe arbitram it of becauseisvezyeasy takecare of therequircment continuity any to in analyts.c model. is always lt preferred defne to someadjustable paraeters mnvlmlee i.nboththescalarpotendalaad vector 'I' the poteatial and A, k aadminimze with respect these SB to parameters. l-Aniqueensure This tkat thebest lowe: bounds obtainedfor cNoxn are functional upperand any formof these functions spMe.With some htuition,or some luck,the of botmds beclckse cnough make unnecessatygo to it to upperaadlower may intothe Ompatations theactualmagnetostatic of enerr, andsomesuch cmses have been reported A dferentcmsewi.llbegivenln section (288J. 10.5.1. H this section, integrals theferromagnetic (orbodie) over body aud ttegralsover the whole were trp-qtel an equal on bGs, even using space thesamesymbol both- pmdicethere averybigdiference for ln is between thae two integalswhen comestzl numerical it computations. Because of thelong-raage natureof themagnetostatk potentials, integration the outside ferromagnetic converges slowly, it isnecessm use the body and to very timesthe volume theferromagnet of before resultcan apprHthe many matean integration in6nity. mustalways borae mindthat when to It l)e in two expresbionsidentical aze mathEmatirnlly: as azeeqns aad e.g. (7.3-26) their shodd only converge epenttt4ll: the >me to (7-3.32), computation nlzmerical for thesameproblem. does mean that theytake rault lt ztt?t tke Rxmetimeto compute rx-laeresult. the BeAuse theslow of corvergence, sach numerical a integration outside ferromagnet nevc been the haq considered pzactical a=yof tke applicadons this theore,m 5n of reporfe PM! so faz, with onlyone exception whiG will bediscussed section in 11.3.4. Tncfmz!, potential always the was takenmsa ftmctionat for whichat fo= leasttecontribution J(V+)2dr B2zd'r the m,rt outside to oz J from tke rltn ferromagnet be carried aqazytkal'ly. details befound could out More in the references in (2881, it can only be Mdedthat thereis a cited and nlnKs eztn certain suggestion for a-rathergeneral of Nnctions whic.h (290) beused thispurpose, for the scalar for b0th potential aad thevector * for potential A. 7.3.5 Planar J?ectangle It hms akeady been mentioned section that theformal in 6.3 solution eqn of involves which out (6.3.48) integrations rAn beveryrarelycarried xnnlyticuy. Themain reasonis that thenllrnerator a Tnndion r' only, is of while thedenominator involves - rJ. These r expressions rlsmcult mix,even are to for rather simple functions.

MAGNETOSTATX BNBRGY

153

i.:z the body Consider particular cmseof a ferromagnetic in theformof -'c prism, %z i %- K y K b and-e %z K c. Thepoteatial to dte thevolume charge; namely rst tntegral eqn(6.3.V), be wdtten the in can in Cartesian coordinatu ms
a
= '-JWS Lvoluma r
a

q.

t'!'h.?s1'4'1a') * fa'' . x

::7r'

x? z/ .p? M *' %l' + am (x? *'z') + 4%a. zq . , @vz -

..c

-. -.

+ + (z z')2 (# y')2 (z ztjz

-

dzzdyz dzJ. ,

(72.47)

'

where is defned eqp(5.1.6). m in Intevatiag partsjthefrst te= with by with respect XL send withrespect &?, it is to the term to etcu omzlox' bdween lt'mits andd,,etcpcancel tke -4, seentat all theGmrusions the appropriate termsof thepotential thesurface of ckarge, namely secozd the iutegral eqa (6.3.48).te reGerwhohasnever t'ied this b'ndof in For exerdsel highlyrecommend I following details the laatstatement, the of wickis thebet wayto understand meaning thenormal At any the of n. rate, theresult tat the totalpotctial due bothsufaceandvolume is to cEarge is
c

t) -:

e, -a
-

&r(z,z)= el/k..c y,
x
-

y', z') + (z /, F) (z ,'zJ)mx(z/,+ Ly ytjnhilz'tfnz'j z')ma(z/, ' 2+ tr ) + (# #')2 (z z')2)2/2 E@ x dW dz'. d/ (7.3-48)
--

If m is made of (rather out htegralpowers z', f andz', all the of small) integrationsthisequation becnm-ed analytically. prnztta'cally in can out For nyother fundion these of vuablesit ksimpdble doanytldng to analytic in into unless mixture thedenominator Kmehow tm.nqformed a the can be productof functions x andz', andso fort. of Nogeneral trazsformationthis sort ks of known thegeneral, for threedjmensional in Howeve, general a twmAormation integral eqn (7.3.48). is knownfor the two-dimensional whem does depend z, rmse, m not cn whichcan beeitherbecausd snmple a vezythin fhn , withc -/ 0, the Ls or because sample very long one dmension, c --+ cx). H the the is in and two-dimendonal is known anyundergraduatetextbook caseit from thatthe potentiiof a unit charge 1og(Va)2, ofthethree-dimensional is instead 1/r in ()f Repeating foregoing the ntegraton uscd te derivation eqn (6-3.48). bypartsfor therectangle K z K c, -5 K y K bleads -4, to

154
6

BASIC MCROMAGNBTIG
*

U(m,= 2Ms -i &)

*
-

-.

+ @ z')ru(z',&')(v y'tmvlz', dm##:/) , , (z z , )a + Ly v,;c

-

'

H thisclmett is possible usethewemuown to Laplcetrxnxformj

-

(7.3.49)

og ja.g/ j 1* v'ltle-lm-m= c((p (7.3.50) + 0 @ F)2 (y F)2 smllxrlyfor t:e second aad inside eqn (and term), zewrite (7.3.49) the
-

r--xngtei'athe form

G
''-

: ; -(Z...m).& yytgtj#l +. 'CN'2(3 AV )d

c,

pmjtzz/ljj
-

mvtz) , ylj
* (gaogj.;

X e-(v-v#)z l g#

-v)z t (zl 'NV , #Jy-(T/ g# gzz Jj' ' .

TH expression ori/nally was derived astheliml'tk -> 0of a periodic (291) z-depeadence formcostkz), fzomtheA:11 of the directly three-dimensional potential mn (7.3.V). in It should notedthat brpztMng integrals be the ft)r
a?> z andz' < z taald m'mllxrly yt)is dueto theabsolute in mn 'value for is valid a) that ia (7.3.50), the resultpresented mn (7.3.51) onlyfor the poteadal inddetherectangle. dther z or ?/Ls If outside ferromagnetic the rectangle, breakngdown two integrals to be modifed, tkis into has and HiFerent exwessioas to betted according thequadr=toqtdde have to tke rectangle which potentsal calnnln+M for the is . These distiactions are not usually because potential therectxangle, S tz %a the in -c necrars and-5 S y S b,is snmdent calculating magnetostatc for the enera. Repladngdouble a integalbya tripleonemay sea a good not st of ()#er at a frzt glance. However, advanvge eqn(7.3.51) eqn(7.3.49) the ks that theformercontains trigonometzic exponential and fanctions which are readily of upressed prodncts, ms namely function zl timesa ftmction a, of z, and similrly for y and In a product ishighlylikelyto beable one 6 varietyof hncdons to perform botkntegrations analydcally, a wide for m, whichcannotbe haadled the formwhichcoatains - z? in eqn in z For there (7.3.49). the maaetostatic enerr in two dimensions is a foaris foldintegration, which transf ormed kztoa fve-foidone. But if four here analytically, nnmeric.al the out ofthefve caa beperfozmed integration . of the remiaing 11z*g1-a2 t is muchsimplerthan a four-fold over numcical rnis beeu useftzl thecalculation in ineration. ttenique hasiadeed found . o several cas,dtedin (288)

MAGNETOSTATIC ENERGY

l55

Thesubsdtution theenerr will only be demonstraM for the in her particular of a maRetization case whichdoes depend y. Ia thiscae, not on aftercarrying thintation yl in eqn(7.3.51), out over

Dk@,= Mfs #)

:-(:-v): - :-(y+v)t
1
2

a -.

&' xs((z z')t)mv@')

-

siatsfl + 2cosLyt) t -.
-

? dzt 'cutz -(z-xz)t le

, -(xr-m)v mc (z)e aqy

cg .

(7.3.52)

According eqms to and tite (7.3.26) (6.1.2)j magnetostatic of sucha enerc one-dHensional magnetization structure a rectangle in is
SM=
1

j.

1 M . TU dS= -Ms 2

* -.

b -,

Substituting eqn(7.3.52), fzom aad Du= 2j%f.

tz '

t3rJl= 8U a.@)dz + mv@)m dzdw % (7.3-53)

-

over g out theintegrations y,

J

.3

-z
-

2 sia

(btj

u.

2 , zmstrcl t Emxtzlq
c .-.o

x
-@

'nzz r

' :. .n-zbt , + (z' Iz. a Iz gm a,g )e t

-.

rzz z % s. )

c.ltz j' mv(z')

,

z/l4

a. az'tfzj
*

(7.3.54)

Thiseoression besimplifed notingthat. can by

=

cosltzz'))
t

jl

.-zyf (jj e

.z

sinztt) a ; e-jzwxyjt
j

(ya.55)

because ofthee ecpressions befound tables inteval transeach can in of forms being as equal to

i' log 1+
z

452

@ z')2
-

lt is nt adeableto use the lattr expresion bdoreiategrating ove,r andz' for speccmagnetization covgurations. Howcxver, (7.3.55) eqn allows combining two expressions the together. subsdtuting and By it the knownintagral

156

BASIC MICROMAGNETICS

in eqa(7.3.54),obtains oae
-

df 1 sia2@) 'iQ=

t2

gb

(7.3.56)

C = X 1 (5-256 C' E'.'ls':. a j 2:%f g -a.

-

J -.

z f r crslkzz .rlq-m.I,tJrlrnp@ )
-

&. rutzlms '))dz' (It+ 2r5 (mz@))2 (7.3.57) (z dz

J*

The azvanuge tikisiateaal over oae witk z - z/ iaside logarithm of a shonld quiteobvions. erpressioa beused sectioa for the l)e This will in 8.1 ealenlxtion the mMnetostatic of domain of energy one-dimemsonal walls in thia flmq.

8
ENERGY MINIOZATION
8.1 Bloch and Ndel Wnllq Themostpopularcaseof minimizing three all terms(namely, the energy exchange, uisotropy andthemagneiostatic tke is the eneagies) studyof thestntdure andenerr of thewall between antiparazel domains thin in ilms. TheIzandau T'A'RM#,z desczibed and iz gecion assume an soludon 7.2 lnBn-&ta cnrstal, whichit kspossible get away in to with no magnetostatic If enerr contribzltion.the crystalis lnite, this wallstrudure continsa non-xro normal Ymponentof themagnetization thesurhce, the on and smvfnne cbargemust taken account. be 1to Moreover, enerr oftheensuing can NH Z'eI:O nlrpady 1955 theenerr of thissufMecharge in that have more suzface than betx largein the caseof verythin flms,which volume. tMs zeason,N&.Isuggesteddferentstructurefor thewall Fbr a in vet'y thin fzlms, whichthesurface in chaueis replaced a volume by aud that indeed reduced such by Garge, showed thetotal enerr could be a trxndormatkon. of will Thisproblem a wallstructure thin Elms bedcibed for ia here showa F$g. A platewltic,h infnitain b0ththez- and in is thegeometry 8.1. domxins z-drectkons a thckness in thetll-dz'wrta-Twoautipxrallel has 25 on. have magnethation +z, which alsoassume bea.nemsy their along is to ais for a unieal anisotzopy, thewa11 aad betwenthe,m occupies re#on the -a S z K a. Thewall is Msumed, tlu-K ka section, beone-dimensional, to namely is assumed bea function z only. m to of

'-'b

@ Z
ea a

>X

F1G- Thegeometry a domain ia thin lms. 8.1. of wall

l58

ENERGY MIMMIZATION

One to approach proble.m to n- the solution thebnlk this is for way wall structm.e eqn (7.2.17),calculate maRctostatic in and its enerafor the'Ose a fnite b shou ia Fig.8.1. ()f coarse,it should taken of be into atcotmt Mrudaremaybemodifed a fnite thicHess, for and tVt thebMllr it is better have model to a with one or more paramcters rnlnsm-tz,m and only thetotal enerawithrespect these to pnmmeters. model The should tendto the structureof eqn(7.2.17) Brnlt b .-> x. However, in the the e%n calculationthiseneratel'mfor tkisparticnlnm stnlcture only of wall be done a Nlntvely complicted by numez'ical comptttation. Therefore, (292J two methods been have used resolving dllcultjr. In one method for this cer-x-n approimadozus the maRetostatic for and enera are introduced, theothermethod flmctional uses forms forwhiG themMnetostatic enerr rltn be calculated aualyticallyj whichappwxjmate (7-2.1.7) and for a eqn eAn large Exampl 170th 5. of methods befound theliterature in dtedin aa.d lgxq (2923. HereI choose mustratethe problem one of the models the to of by second lt was fa.s't type. proped Dietze Thomas a pape cited by and in ia (288) (292), e-xtended and th= to more adjustable parameters others. by The orgnat is but. for paper i.n Germaa, it is not imporun thereHe.r to look it up, because calculation themaRetostatic the of givea energy ltereusesa completely diferentmethod theone #ven from there. Only the result thesame. This model is assumes that tez- andv-components of thelmlt vectorm are
= mwtzlq + ''z; , tzo a
.

2 cos('.i

= mvtz) e sir/ : +s

(8-:t.T)

were is an adjustable determjnes wall the paraeter, wllichsentially q width. Here4 ksaaother parameter which introduced order treat is in to mnlrfw together cases4 = 0 (which my = 0)and4 = xI2(which the makes = 0). mz nese cxq- were studied separately theoenalpaper in of Dietze aadThomas, wellin all othermodels a one-dimeasional as of wall- should noted in thc case4 = x/2thevolume It be that cbxrge the in wallvaaishes, there a surface but is charge v = +5. Thiscmse been on has the in #ven name of the BWhvpcll.Onthe otherhand, thecase 4 = 0 thereis a volume in chage. caseLs earge the walk no sttrface and This exlled N&l =cll. the Foranyvalue $,thedefin-ttiontheunit vectorm is completH of of by the requkements m2 + m2 + a2z; = lj andthat at theend thewall, that > G M where domains the Fig. Heace, be#n, mzt+xl= +1 (see 8.1).
22 z2 + . (8.1.2) c cxn Themaaetostatic 9om enerr ofthis wallconfguration becalenlnkzvl
= 'ma(z)

z + :rz

BLocH ANo NBL wALLS

159

for by eqn(7.3.57)theNrticularcasea = x, whichis implied eqns (8.1.1) aud(8.1.2). thektegrations z andWit ksonlynecessary use For over to
'x'
-x

statzj) = 0: 2 + z2 &
4

E'*

costrl = gz

2 + ZQ

'r -. -. e

-x

(8.1.3)
u,: (8.1.4) 2
'

and

J-- aazzlz Lq,

q

'*

T -2

z qzz + ca'dan -q e + z2

'x'
-

--

rodxuons mn Subsdtuting these a1l in in is pernn't length thez-drection

the enezgy (7-3.57),magnetostatic

su = zlrplMszcosz 4+ 2x2Ms2g2(sin2 J0 $ - cos2$j

o .-24:
*

dt. (1 c-2&)
-

The raaining integradon over t is a wemuown Laplace trausform, expression bewHtten a.aanalytic to whic allows whole the in closed form. Howevery studyofdomain in the walls is custome to deal it with thewall thauwitheperrper unit bxg enera perunit wall arewdenoted y, rather wall lemgth. thecaseofFig.8.1,it Ls la to tke necessary didde FaE energy by thickness, to obtain eaeraperunit wall the perunitlength the61m 2% area. Theefore,
>=

(8.1.5)

SM .,2.v,2qcozz = 4+ 25

-jQ cos24)1% 1+ -b (sin24

-

1 (8.1.6)
.

ln particular, theBloch for wit: 4 = x/2, enerr is proportonal this wa,ll 'k>(:X)log(1 wkichtends zero for b -.+ x, aadrtmu-nn im'tm to + 5/:), for 5 -+ 0. For the NIeIwallzwit,h$ = 0, the menetostatic Gergy is proportional 1 - (:/$1og(1 whic.b to + bjqj, tends zero for b --y 0. and to fnite for b -+ x. It Lsthusqualitatively clpxrthat if thereare remains the no othertypes wn.llq, NV 5vall of should est for thin Slms which (h the enerr of a surface calze hrger thanthat of a volume ks chage) , and theBloc should over for thic.k wall take flmq,for which energy a the of snrfv- charge becomu smaller that of a volnme th= charge. Theother eneraterms to be considered tlle exc%xnge the aTe and Ysotropy.Theenerg for is by density theformer #ven e1n(7.1.4), whkh becomes, substltuttg 0e.r Fomeqns and azd out (8.1.1) (8.1-2) cazrying the diferentiadons respet to z, with
= qzu -C 2

dmw
.

dz

dmu

&

dm.z d:r

2Cq . , z + z2 I2(29 + z a: , Lq2 ) (8. 1. .7)

160

BNERGY MINIMIZATION

where is the exchange C constaqtdefned section Notethat thks in 7.1. Apression independentthe parameter whichwas entered the is of in $, fo= sin24 + cos24. Theintegration obvious, the (.= is and e energy is perunit wallarea of thismodel

%x 1 5 = 'yox - 2 = -25 -s

x
-x

g'c = m6dzdy -(W2 c

I).

(8.1.8)

zbtheanlsotropy is by whicE enera density #ven eqn(5.1.7)9 will beused here thecaseof a negzgible Forthepartknlnm for Xa. consgurationeqn in

Aasnmnsng theanisotropy uniax-ialj that is whose a'dsksparallel tp e%y

this is (8.1.1) eaerr density

'tpu=

2 ..h- 2 = A'z Xh lmz ?'??,vl

q4 c (q + :nz )z

(8.1.9)

SuVtituting eqn(5.1.10),ansotropy in the enerUper unitwall area is

w
on
=
-

?lm 1 = = 26 23 -,

-w

v?u - = v &dv

A'q . K:
7

(8.1.10)

Aswas thecmse withtheexchauge , thisexprvion does depend tprrn not minimleing total wallenerr with respKt to $ is the $. Therdore,' ' Mhieved ' ' by themagnetostatic only. since term And is *'yM/:4 proportional sin4c thereare onlythetwo solutions to mendoned in 4, tefore&ing: Bloch the wall,cos$ = 0, whick a sur.far,e but no as charge volume charge whose wallenerr per unit wallarea is and total
':&!=

vcc

x (./j 1)+ OJt',+ ,

-

cz-vzzz'' b s log 1+ ) q
-

(8.1.11)

au.dtheNelwall,sin$ = 0, whicA a vohmecharge no surface has but cbn.rge whose wv energy unit wallarea is and total per
..)x=
rrC

: (V%1zI Jr....g c c kzz, y :os g + Si + ,q 2

.

) .y.( t.l

(ao1-yz ;

Note that the exchaqge enerr term is trying to makethe wallwidth, q, as large it can, while ms the Ysotropyenerr term is tryingto make ms q smaz it cltn . Thistendency more general thepartic'ular as is than model discussed audf'kstegeneml, here, qualitative iscussion section n 6.2.1. Theroleof te ma&eutatic enerr term is less obvious because the of dependence theflm tMclmess, TMSfeatureis alsorathertypical, 2. oa in that the magaetostatic term is usuatly complicatM, and energy yttite

BLocHANDNtBbwM,l,s

l61

- .

the it is not easyto s- its tendency preferences. present and J.n cmse, the onlyobvious feature that 7Mprders largeqt if bIq constaat. Ls a is But tlis statement not helpful is because is not a constant.Evenin tids b1q Mmple case, theonlywayto fnd out the role of efu is to ml'm'rnsze the total watlenerr for deerent values Ms andtry to seethe tendency. of nere is no mMnetic in thiscalculation, feld whic,h justmeantto fnd is thestaticstructure a wallin zero applied of Eeld. is not dilcult to add It a.ninlraction with a feld to this model) the mainefectof applyhg but a feld is to make wallmovesomewhere which a diferent the else, is problem: Theparxmeter is determined minimizing wallenergy either by the in q or eqn(8.1.12).nrhieved equating zero the derivative It is by to c'qn (8.1.11) of thewall enera with respect q, whicxlen'qto the transrvmdental to equation C n' (H q
= 1)

AK+ A.u,z2-1 1og + ! 2 b q

(1 )

q q+ s

(8.1-13)

for theBloch wu, andto

(H 'n'q

1 + 1)= X-.-!2 g'u:

+ + 1log(1-9)+q i q q

(8.1.14)

for theN&l wall.These equations to besolved q as a faacdon have for of b,andthentheemc'pv l)ecalculated Gm(8.1.11) (8.1.12)j r-qn from or mn by substituthg computed the q. Thesolution these of equations straightforwaxd in thelimit b-> O is only for the Niel wall,or b -.+ (x) for the'Bloch wall.ln b0ththOecasesthe of maaetostatic Ontribution vanishes, thesolution dthe,r and energy eqn or eqn(8-1-14) ks (8.1.13)
q=

2c

v(W2 1). .tA l

.

(8.1.15)

Substituting mn (8-1.11) (8.1.12), i'a or eqn

hm,m = nm %
=

2crz(X2 1).
-

(8.1.1 6)

= Thiswall energy 'a'tx/i 1)/2 1.011 is timestheenera of theLandau and Lifshitz eqn(7.2.18), has wall, which b-n obtained a solution the as of Eulerewationof the problem. mpAnsthat eqn(7.2.18) absolute lt is the minimum theenerpr all possible for of one-dimensional s'trucwturOan wv in klnite 5lmthiclmess.diferemceonly1% thisabsolute A of from mYmum, pcrcmeer4, certinly makes pre-t the and/or any wal'ue t?Ie o.f physical model very good Also, a approzmation, least verythick Kms. at for the

162

ENERGY YY/AAON

20

1$'

10

! l

--' <v'

15
'

F a

tr A, o iw 121 = .

i ! Nel S N
N
..
.-*

1
'

rn

-'.x

O Cl
u: ;.
C2

7
''v..x.
w
... .-. ..-.

..

...

..-

.-.

<'

**

7 r

, njoaty

jc 5
-!
I

pw

--.

.> ox-w

gj tz > u
c)

'-'<

5 q rr
k !

.Z

j
-

= :

>

p.
()
I I I
.

..

11

i.

,.

100

2OO

3O0

Pilm thickness, 26 (nm) FIG.8.2. ThedomaH width,q (dshu wall aad curvl, emergy unit per wallaremJ, for Bloch N&I wallsiu thin permalloy aad S=s.
wall widthwhieh bedenedq in eqn (8.1.16) signKexntly caa by is not dxerent fromthe widthobtized1omeqn(7.2.17). Foranyfnite Glmthintms (8.1.13) (8.1.14) to besolved and have >ns nnmerically, a nurneric,al aad solution onlybe performed sptmiic can for valu the physical of parameters- aa Awmple, choe parameters As I the lmq, usually iu thestudy pqrrnatloy namely = 2x 10-6erg/cj used of C K = 10D and erg/cm3, Ms = 800emu. For theGuesj the compu%d valu thewall widthparamde,r aze thedashed plotted Fig. of line ia q 8.2as fnnctions thefll= thieWess, Once isHownforeither the of 2. of q wallsj mlue rltm besubstituted eqn(8.1-11) its ia or (8.1.12), forcompnting te wallene-rgy unit walla2%'ys oz erxrespectivdy. enerryvalues The per thuscomputed plotted the6111 are ms cuzves Fig.8.2. in Deerentone-dimen/onal models publisked, theyatl yielded were aad for of parameters. ..w One very Kt'=t'larzesults) the >me values thephysieal theoretical conclus-ions Fig. 8-2,whie,h already has of the obvlous Fom qualitatively theforeming, that one should in ben stated s expect N&l flm walls vezytkin Sms, the,n a certain thinkncsthere in aad at should

BLocHAxo N/;>:L wxtrs

l63

bea shao tmndtionto Blochwalls. Thissharptrusitions did not s-rn tried right,andseveral workers to workout a cernmted mallaround te wall tke transition be>een Nlel andte Bloch re#ons- of tese None models worked, theya11 and collapsed the: in same way that tke present model eqn(8.1-1) In te beoning, model in did. this contained Gtra an parameter, wldreh could kave values wic.k wall is partlyN&l for the $, andpartlyBloch. However, enerr minimivnion tke retained te two only Yues Oandrj2, anddid not allowaay mixlng.Tesame appened for wbbc Mybody tzied. Laterthere a general was proofg%lo) that anymodel c4.n thesamemustappen anyone-dimKsional and to model, there beno mixed in one ds=ension. tkYr= does nerxqm'lyinvalidate wall 'I'Ms not certain semi-quantitative of arguments about possibility a mixet (293) the but not strictlyonmdimensonak wG. Experlmen#mlly, transidon a Nlel to a Bloc ls not sharp. 't'e 9om wall It is prwmlble disdnguis to entally between wa11 tke structure in fll'rns(or tMn flms,identledas a Nelwall, thewa11 and structure tkic.k in te in bulkmaterials), as a Bloch identfed wall.Howevery between re#ons where or tke otheris observed, Ls ceexin reson Alnathickone tere a of nessin wic tirdtypeofwallis obsened. third type,which a This has been named cm=-tiewalb (52, a verycomplicated te ms 294) structure. It is defaitely a one-dimensional not structure, b6x:a,11- an obvious it as periodicii'y thez-direction Fig.8-1. in of Tere ave been several attempts 296, 2981workout a theoretivmodeel te magneation 297, to for (295, in xtisfactory structure thiscross-tewall, none ofthem but could produce z'e-cnlts. vent computations made large More towards te admace (299) a understandingthiswallstrudure,andcompared of hvourably wit (3) ex-periment. However, have reallysolved problem they not tis comple*ly, andthefne details thecross-tie strudureare not verywellkztown wall of
yet.

TedetxilK teN&,I structureare not ve& Fe.II of wa11 Howneither. In 1965, Brown triedto avoid choice the te large number te tenof among tat efsiing models theBloch N:elwalts. tougt econld for and He fnd thestructurewitk thelowest possible zniaimization 0e.1v by a nnrnercal of all mssible one-dimensional rations, co usiuga method which will bedecribed Gapter11.HeandMsstudct, Leonte, solved this in E301) proble,m the Blochwall in pe=nlloy Xlas, but tey couldnot fnd for for te such structure teNGIwall,because computations did not a just bt out wall 'tG', wicb keeps converge.turned that the Nel asa verylong iteradons. g witk farter LaterOmputations, reviewed (295j, various hocsolutions in found ad forteproblem cmvergence te tail, buttese of of solutions onlyproduce a converglng result.Tcydo not necsxrlly solve pysical the problem, andit is not cleaz all if these at solutions Rtua'llypresent a converog pysically wallstructuze- te rst placej necessity special valid In the for

164

BNERGY MINMZATION

which tricks itselfshould regarded a smptom ofa deeper by be ms problem, does goaway aot wh%the emptomis removed. Secondly) of the details

computed structure not quiteagree waz do with Thirdly, (302) expeziment. the whole one-dimensional approachbmsed theassnmption mg is ls on that zero everywheze, though magneticeld this dirrtion, 8Uj%, even the in is not zero, whic.k somehow not sound does right,as noted already, (29% 295) togethc wit,hsome otherdetails. Besdes, thereis too big a diference between tailsobtained thesamephysical the for parameters, a slightly with dieerent thickness, in curves c andbia Fig.3 of (3031,it looks flm as and at is theora (304) according strange best.Ontop ofthat, there a general to wkic,h one-dimensionk magnetization structuroare unstable. alI It is quitepnqm-ble these that dl-lculties not serious, ai least are aad there no expedmental theoretical that something banilly is proof is or wrongwith theozy theonedimensional walt. theore,m the of NH The about instabihty a1l of one-dimendonal structures neve,rtnkm veryseriously was by anybody, even by theauthorsof the original not For paper. the particularcase of tke Landau Lifshi't,z and one-d'zvnensional theywrote wall, tHt Fom considerations (K4) it tderiveits justifcation Shree-dimensional one-dlmensionat implidtin the initial statement the formally of problem'. Theybazlonlya very mild critldsmof otherwall Gculations. p. 93 On of his book(1<jBrown justifMtheLandau Lifshitzwallcalstill and , culations, was more ex-plicit stating but in that the calculadonswalls of in thin flms are essentially invalidated this theorem. wrotethat by He they theyneeed jnstication, without wlzic fmustberegarded mere ms guesses'. Hoever, Gtidsm was Just this Everybody in those else Wored. days regarded theorem a mere formality a nuisance, most this as and and people thtnkso even today.Theyconsider az sometbing it equivalent to the mathematcal that magnetism Hst iu two dimensioas, proof czmnot wkiclz does preventa theoretical not studyof two-dimendoaal systems, andita comparison experiments nprly two-dMensional with on umplew msdiscussedsection They in 4.5. believe these that one-dimensional Nl walls, aloough formally approzmaiion thereal for wrong,aze a vezygood threedMensional strudure-Therefore, serioas wall no attempt%Meve.r been made check point)andall that is known to this about NG.I wallshms not changed the review(2951 listedthe bestone-dimenm'onal since which models werc all geaernlszations (8.1.1) that of eqn with.more parameters. mv' of to of of Theresults aa attempt(294 allow to bea fttnction yt instad 'ne computations just0,were notveryencoura#ag.mostxcent numerical only of (299 nlm start with aa c priod assumpiion dependence on z ! 302) of Ftg.8.1. tn view of all tke indications mentioned EE not consider here, do this approach besatisfadozy. to Although there no clear-cut is evidence it, for the solution bein allowing another dimensson. the strudureof Since may walls which in z theGoss-tie involves handedness changa a periodicazly of

TWO-DIMBNSIONAL WALLS

l65

Fig. 8.1,a real Nel may alsoitavethis periodidty. wall This calculation has been yet. not tried
8.2 Two-aimensionalWalls Thetheorem mentioned theprevious in section, about instability all the of one-dimensional ferromaaetic coafguradons, applies, principle, also in to thecaseoftheBloch wa11. Moreover, thepossibility a-dependeace while of stated theprevious in section onlya spemklationtheNel is for wall,there is ebxnge strong experimental evidence 305, 307) such apedodic (52, 306, that of thehandedness e-rutin Bloc.h ds walls, eve.nin bnllrystals. There change is alsoa ratherconvincing argument (295, that this periodic 308) with redus wallenergy, least respect theonmdlmensional the at to Bloch wall.Still,the CFeCI thisz-dependencethewallenerr, andon its of on structure theothe dimeasions, not been in has fu'tly investigated The yet. whichhasnever beea usual assumptionl justledin any way,is that the z-dependenceminor perturbaon, s a whkhOects a small of a only part longwall,audeltn beignored withoutmaking sezious a mistake. However, the Blochwall therewas alsoa rathercommon fraollng for that tkeremust a wa.y reduce magnetostatic the to by a enersy allowing vaziation themaaeation of along of Fg.8.1. Brown particular in uscd y advertksing idea, neither nor anybody hada tkis but he else to goaround good moddto try it on. Thefrst published suggestion in (2952) was (dted sclzeme the one-dimensional which never been a perturbation of wall, has walls, actually carried Then out. there were obsmatiomq covzzled wbich of Alms,separated are thewalls a sample n made two fcromagnetic of by a thnlayerof a non-magxetk materbl. There a strongmagnetostatc kq interaction, eectingcertahexperimental reqlts, betwn wa11 the a in wllic,h Just above in the lowc layer. one Some rderenc to is upperlayer bothexperiments theory given g295),the detnsh outside and in but are are the seope thsbook. is suEdent mention that the theozy cf It to he.re of this phenomenon two-dsmensional in which magnetization models the usd ia thewxllqwa: a ftmction b0thz andy. The of purp- was to formclosed Jop.vthemagnetzation of vectoz, whiclz not have volume do a cbarge, and to hit thesurfafes small at aagles, redudng surfRenhntge. thus the lt thenoccurred methat thesnmemodel, the limit ofthethiekmess in to oftheseparating tending zero, ynn.y used the wallstntcture layer to be for i.aone flm. The onlydiference between ,single anda pair ofcoupled wall wallsis that in the latterit is prv-ble to drawclosed loops whose radius shrlnlrs tozeroat thecenta where there no ferromagnetic is matczial. Such mall-radius loops involve very largeexchange a in layer, energy a single whose eowtre xlg.n is ferromagnetic. 1solved diEculty deningsmall this by a transition region thewallcentre,Ic;l zo, in which magnetizaton at < the changed gradually in thecoupled more than walls, thusavoiding large the excAange Tbiszn was leftas a parameter respect whichthe with to eaer&.

166

ENERGY MTXIZATION

Two pnmvneters suae wea'e enezr was minirnTzed. more adjastable but (:*9j, never tried. e.a,lly: Splvn-: for thegeometry Fig.8.1themodel(309) of %sumed that for IzI zn, <
Tllx =
-

Sm

X# N)
*7

m. = COS

rcz

22c

c.

(%; 2
j

mz

sin

zzo

cos

( )

X-F 25 ,

(8.2-17)

whilefor lz1 z(b >

mz = mv =

zn.

sin (Izr gla, zoj (:!J?) j jzzjsech zclj gsmzaj (-7j) (8.2.48) gj(Iz$ txnh (IzI cos .--jzj (w* + seehigwX c.c (-0 (IzI (Izl zpj 25) z ttaaip zolj
-secz
-

Note that . Thismodel obeys constraint the

'm,Z m,2+ I + F
*
= 1 zn,y

(8.2.19)

everywhere. Themagneadoncondnuous is everzwherc, including I = zo. at = +1 forz = +x* It represents wallh thesensethat mz a * There no suzface is charge, becuse = 0 for y = ::E:, there vd,./ but is ' a volume Garge. Thus, model not goalong this doe witNthe rule argued sedion acmrdjng whicha xmrfltce in 6.3: to charge should be preferred a vobme over e in bulkmaterials. Thestructure thiswallmodel shown of ks in.Fig.8.3, fortNe particular cae 61m of a permalloy whose l., thickneu 2000 with thevalue zo wkicll is of rniminnl'ze,s emerg.g these partictlxrparameters. thisfkgure, the for h only m. and rz?,v plottM. Thecomponent is perpendiciar theplaae are ma to is the of of theplot,aadits magnitude largewhere size tkeplotted arrows is smal), viceversa. and Theortnal publkation(309) modeldid contain fgttz'e: of this this not because method plotting titis of structuro wasonlyilwented magnetization later:in thethesis Leonte.It shows thevolume charge decreased is of how by formingnpxrlydtred loops,in whicthe head eack of arrow nearly follows tail of the one before Thks of magaetl-don the it. Hnd structure

$''$'!' TWO-DIMENSIONAL e' e' WALLS

1 4 t t z .' ,, ,. .- I 1 p /' J .e ,' .e ... ... l l l z' z z e .' .... ... l l i I : g' # z' .- ...
x x h : # 4 , ... %.. w x h. h v $ ! ! I - - ..w .% x q. hk & l t I ..- ... .h, .x x. x A N l ! f / z z .e' .e. ... - .-. x x. x 's N ! t # .' z ,.' .e, - - ... .... w x x N. l I # /' / /' z z ,,e .e. ... ..- .w x N h. h. l 7 z z .' ..- - -u. x x sk N h ! / z ,' e .e. - '-- x x h' ' - - .. '$. 1 i ?' t --......-= ...- o-.t.-1 -e -

167

..

l 1l l l l)iI t l JI l l .-..1. -L..).--1-.-l--.2--I--' -1--1--1-..1J--t-rIt$hNNNxx----zz,//Jll zxalyqkxwxxv-xzz//?,! ).. . lihk%uNx----zz////,!**jevj- *q.- wtjx . ... ... .u (.. .. . j.. a- n.- - - r -j- -t ..j j-( -( j p *( -e..'j. l r l t T k . . - - ' ' , J ? l l I t 1 '. '.. h. -- - 'e e .' ,' / ! t l t 1 1 k $ 1 l ) '$ 'k.N N .k % w -- .-e .,' ' r ! ? ? 1 @ t s. -.- .-- ,,'
I l N 'k x I l $ '$ '$ N ''. N -.. -) 1
i l
i
-

l l l l j l ) / I1l I

! !. $ I f l 1 ! t t t t ! 1@

-'- .'' t $ hkN 'x N NhN. -- -'' '-- .,' $ N N N x 'hs-... .w - ..- ,,' i h N N N %.'h 'x ... ..p. .,e ..' I I . N l x. w h. .. *. ,. . l A Ai % h %. h. .h. .. .@.* ...... -

z' ! t / t z' t t l ! e' .//' ' /' / ? f e' e' ./' z / / f

.e' z .,' ..'

l 1
t

.e ,: #' z : # l I . 1 e e / I z p .r .e' a 2 # I
.

zN.apca 2

lx
Flc. 8.3. Theassumed structureof theflrs'ttwo-dimensional domain wall ' El=s msdescribed eqns in permalloy by and (8.2.18) (8.2.19).
is preferred the magnetosutic by but work wlkich must energy, involves be done against exchange the prefers magnetization the to enera, which bealigned. is especially It notedin the fgurethat if theregion with zo Lsremoved, circularvortex with a very smallradiusis formed the a at centre,whichis betteravoided because involv very largeexchange it a of ks enera. Theintroduction this extrakansitionregion an artifdal, ad Jztpc solution originatingfrom the adoption a model double of for walls, wkthno exchange the centre. physical at The system fnd better can ways to avoid large this exchange thecentre. at The ex and anisokopy of were calculated ener#esthis model The analytically. magnetostatic term was expressed as a oneenera (309) dimensional inteval, which wouldbetrivial to compute nowadays. However, computers those in days were not whattheyare now, and instead of computing integral, vxks onlyproved theterm whic.h this it that contaned it was nenativeTherefore, droppng termthemagnetosVtic by that energy was increased thetotzal enerpr and wall thus calcuhted an 'apper was b/und to the wall energy whichcan beobtained such wa!lstructure.Such by a an upper bound was adequate demonstrate necessty this second to the of dimension, because theupperbound thiswallenera was already even for smaller considerably thanthecomputed lowcwst enera for a g301) possible

168

MMMWATION ENBRGY

onedimensional wall. Ia a way)thisdemonstration a waste, was because thetimeR was by published LaBonte already waz concluding doctoral his tbuis, in whieh he Tn'-m-tdeveloped a method be desebed ehapter for numerical in (to 11) miem.tion thetotal wallenerc,composedthe exchange, of of auisotropy, aadmagnetostadc of two-dt-melsional terms, magnetization condgtzrations. Hecomputed strudureand the walls enera of twdt-menional bythisnumerical minmization, was muc.h which bettertba.n crude this mMelThe olly usefnlnessthemodel thatit gave of was Hubert idea the to (248)constructtwoemensional skucture withzezo magnetostatic *a11 He energy. introduced constraints mg = Ooa y = Hz Fig.8.1arltlthat the that of
num am +- v =0 dz oy

(8.2.20)

evezywhere. conditions Kforced choosingscalaz 'nese were by a function with.A= conston y = +b,anddefning components m by the of A@, y),
ru
=

tz?.4@,:) = aA>,y) mv , ,
%
t-s

(a a.al)
-

matters, withm,z beingdened constrintofeqn bythe Tosimpli (8.2.1S). Hubert2248, ckose eertain a fundional form for X@,:), whichcon24% tained certain The were defned adlustable htnctions. fundions evetually numerically poiatto pointdadng enerr minimization fz'oz the process. Forhisdoctoral thois,lmRnnte solved problem theBloch i.n the of wall permalloyflmq, at thattimehewasstill but usingsymmetry considezations to reduce computation the time.Hc actually computed the quarter only z > 0 andy > 0 of the equivalent Fig. 8.3, of assmming the rest that of thewallcan beobtained Gklngthe m'lrrfar images this quarter, by of Ls the izz which the same mssnmpdon to make model used skown Fig. 8.3. However, hegraduated, wentto workfor CDC when and he compans had unli=itedcomputer at Msdisposal, time which umlsmnl those was in days. Tberefore, allowed computer lookatall fourquarters thewall, he the to t aadfound(310) the wall enerr couldbe vezymuckreduced a tha.t by structurewllie, rpt is symmekic along When z. viewed fzom domaia the on it,sright',the wall lxks deerentiaa when viewed fzomthe domain on its left.Thisresultwas unexpected, because would one tendto mssnme that tEereis no built-in directionatits the wall caanotp=ibly telt aud which rightandwhic,h left.Eowevez,twrnsout that theazmmetric is is it allows magnetizaon buildnearlycomplete the with structure to vortices, mltksng 6.11 the a very small mn.aetosutic drcleat the eaerr, 'tvitho'ui centre,with its large exckauge than the od eneY. It is a bettersohtion ltocavoidaacethat small of circle thetpointrMuce'into Fig. 8.3. by d The approHmation zero menetostatic of by enera used Hubertalso

TWO-DIMENSIONAL WALLS

l69

1ed wall, (248, to an asymmetric andits wholestructuretllrnedout 249) to be very Mmilar that computed LaBonte. tosalwazenergy to by The Vculatedby thesetwo methods also ver.vnearly the same, whick wms shows mlnt*mlAing the magnetostatic that only as by energy, done Eubert, approvlmniion minMizing total wall energy, done is a good to the as by Leonte. This resultdemonstrates the magnetostatic that enerr is the leading largcsamples, whichis theconcluston enerr term in suciently already reached section in 6.2-2- should emphmsized that it It be again is mnsnly magnettatk the the enerr term whichdetermines complex skuctureof the mMnetizadon the wall (or anyothermagnetization in ia slzuctureiu bnllrmaterials), the exchange azisotropy while a,nd energy termsonlyplaythetoleofsmall puurbations-However, thisstntcture on is determined, magnetostatic the from eneraterm computed it become mms of forpermalloy in the small. the computationsLeonte (310J In very lo thickns between and2000 the ma&etostatic 1000 tqnn =ied ramge between% and3%of the total wallenegy.For the thinnc flm with 5 a thiclmess 500 the contribution tMs tqnn was 12% but at this of , of of thicHess minimization the Blochwall becoma te doubtfal, because experiments that the crosmtie alteady show wall tn.kes cver- Experiments on M platelets show a strong dependence of Fig.8.1 theBlocE on z in (311) wall,already theticHess in approvhing occurra of Goss-tie the range walls, an even more complutansition hasbeen and observed in aa (3121 also FNAI alloy. is reasonableassumethat this z-depeadeace afcmts lt to the z- andv-structure the wall,aadprobably energy in tat of too, its thickness but theoc hasnot been worked H out. re#on, the appropriate tho reson 11l=thinltmv it thusseems.that calculations LaBonte of the of else, andof Hubertars unreliable, should replaced something in and be by th- dimensioas, is not known wbicE yet. ilrnsvthe azymmetric Forthickcr two-dimensional as computed wall by Leonteor Hubet h good ks agrYment with electron Mcroscope studies of w=llq,at least withinthe Mcuracy these these to of exeperiments. Actuazy, some wall asmmetr.ye.xn alteady seen in olderpictures be which (3134 were published before these theories, at that timetkis asrmmeky but was ignored. When mote ateationwas paidto this detail, vez'y a pronounced etry,quttesmoarto the one predicted the theou: seen 5.a by wms 180* walls(314, 316) vazious 3151 in matedals. an asymmetry Such has alsobeen scen (3171 domain n 90Q walk,wbicE outdde scope are the of this book. these :(n measurements electrons shotthrongh 61-, aad are the measureonlythe average the maaetization their path,namely of in the along of Fig.8.1.However, somecasesseveral in are average y pazs tn.ken withihe sample tilted (318, at deerentazgles. lozwhnx-que This allows 319) a betterl*k into the v-dependence magnetization, of the because several dxerent a're The is but averages measared. azcttracy notblgh, to withinthis it of or accuracy seemsthat thecomputations Eubert EaBonte a good #ve

170

ENERGY MTNTMTZATION

Elm description theobset'vu of wallsin this iatermediate thinknus. is It 61nu,wherethe not soforthethianer theory does t theexperirnent, not as hms already mendoned. it enmnot cll<vtkedverythickflms, bean Apd be for thtough eledroms whic.h emannot withoutbeg completely absorbed pmss enrth on the way. maybeworthmeatiomfng while It that wallin a flm is mspnmetric, nmpleasa whole nothave Oectionality this the does for any azymmetry, walls with an opposite s-nne of asymmetr.y =ur in the and the rAn same Kxmple. Sometimes senseofmsymmetry beseem to (320)vaty periodicazlyz evenwithinthesamewall. in J.n much a plotofnnmeriYrestllts be as ms can taken analsolution, ms thewall structurein thisintermediate thirlrness knowm lm is Eowever, physical numercal restklts apply onlyto the particuln.r parameters f USH tecomputations, if one wants know structurefor a z'Yea'emt aad to the ex constant, Jmiruatropy or constant,etco the whole computation must berexated. Alqo, dd!#m.ilK re-sults of the cannotbepublished, and Mnnot be pmssed to somebody wantsto use themmsa start for over who %M another calculation, to calculatepropeo or a whicx notbeem included iu theoriginal mputation. such For it more convenient purposesis much to have andyticcmrorimcen of the magnetization a structurewith some parameters rm.n beftted to aAy Nticnlnr cae. When good that a approfmation thetrue minimal for statecan bespcifedover a eme,rv the widerangeof physical parametersjks it suEdent m-tniml'qe enera to the withrapec't to theadjustable parameters every for spedfccaae.lt helps if thelattermiaimization simpler theoriginal Ls thaa nnmerical computaton the of thewhole strudure.Butevea if it is not,it %Mat lemst advantage of thepossibility s ' ' gall thede' of thestructureforanypazticular of tails case i:atermsof the numerical Oues of a fcxw parameters. Moreoverj it is possible interpolate these values for to parameters bdween computH a physcal parameter the and (e.g. amisotropy xnstant) thusknowthe applovlmate structure a wil for cmses of which have been not computed. Forthetwo-dimensional watl,tbere su%a modd(321)1 Blocx is with eightcustable parameters, whichis a verygood appremation b0th to the stntctureandtheenerr ofBloch walls computed TmRonte. is ms b.r lt too complufor any analytic calculation any of the enera terms,and of theenera minimiRation bedone the s=e numezical must by method as that of Leonte (310$ thepossibility rnmrnunicating results but of the in is termsof thenatmerical values theeightpnmmeters a large of advutageAttempts make yirrlpc'r a have concentrated r-qAras wkich on to model for themagnetostatic e.stn l)eevaluated analytically, it becauseis this euergy takesJtlmostall the compuiational in numerical time enerr t-rrn wMch minmlzations. the bestof tMs class models of the h (322), eeuaton.of theuchange theanisotropy and termswas done a numerical by htegration of a one-dimensional for each. iategration a relaivelyemsy integral Such is is simple use,even if the computadon, thewhole ad model relatively to

TWO-DIMENSIONAL WALLS

defnitions the magnetkation of components manylines.Thismodel take tnrned (3224 a suRdently approxsmationcompadng out to be good for with electron microscopy butwas not good data: enough obtaining Oer for the details the theoretical of t'wo-dimensional walls.
8.2.1 BnlkMaterials Above certpin fllm tlzicknessy the highest-voltage a even electrons cannot penetrate throughthe sample, thereis no wayof kaowing and whatthe domain looks It is possible shoot wall like. to neutrons through sample? the butthe accuracy neutrondoactionisjustsucient seethedomains, of to of not the details thewalls. Ixk theoretical the models which n.nsotropy for the enera term can be calculated analytically 322), eneraterminareases increastg this with (309, 61m 11lx'n thicHess.' term Ls This negligible permalloy whose for thickness is 103 around forwhich mostofthe studies been have carried Howeverj out. for a muchlargertickness increase makethe n.nl'sotropy this *1 term larger than theotherterms,andthetotal wall energy start (30% will 322) to increase with increasing Gickness. Computations on the model based of Hubertalsoshow(315) at leastin one cmse, total wallenergy tat, the 61m througha rninimum, then starts to increase tcremsing with passes thicaess. seemsthat it isgoing wayof the aaalytic It the models, namely 6lm' the wall enerarwi'll keep increasing increasing thicHess. wit Since the one-dimensional wall enera plottedin Fig. 8.2decreases Bloch with lllTm Gcreasing thickness) theremust be a certainthickness above which the eneror thetwo-dimensional 'rl become of wall larger thanthat of the one-dimensional Therefore, two-dimensional walls wall. the Bloch described here must ceaseto exist,andchange something above certa'in into else, a flm thickness, for a cubic for a uniatal materialboth and For a longtime it was takenfor granted that at a suldently large thickness wallwill change the one-dimensional wallof secthe into Bloch tion 8.1) which eventually tends the Landau Likhitzwallof section to and 7.2in the bulk.For this reason the model Jakubovics was speciiof (321) callydesigned contain one-dimensional wall as a particular to the Bloch case for certain values the parameters, of mnlcing that if thereis a sure transitionto thiswallit will come out of the computations. a transiSuch tion*omthetwo-dimensional to theone-dimensional wmsactually wall one computed for a largeincrease theanisotropy of constaat. could It not (3214 be calculated an increase the 6J.m for in thicHess,because requirethe mentof computer andmemory time increases rapidly withincreasing very fllm thickness, a11 computer and the rcsourcesare used before sucha up transition eve,napproached. is Thesamedicultyof limitedcomputer timeandmemoryalso applies to Leonte-type computations. thickest The flms studied theoretically so far (323) iron f 1ms f ew ynkthick.H themthe wali structureis still are a

172

ENERGY MYNIZATION

predomin=tly of the tkin flms?with no wayof seng any posdble that transition tcwardsone-dimensional a strudure.Near edgedf the thestudied region thereseemsto be (323) a dfereatldnd of asymmetry, whichmay takeover at a stlll larger thickaess, it s'titlha.q slightlylzighe dlm but a than thai of the Lvonte-typethin mTnstructure. Actually, the energy dference these Ls that between i'wos'tructur so small thecomputer enerr canbesiuckfor siate the start ever in thehigher-eaenn when computatioxs 1omkt At this stage Ss clearwhether otherwallstructure it not this is 1 inde going takeover at ptal'lazger thickaesses whether will 1.o flm and it eventually into simzar theLandau Lifshitz to and wally develop something completely diferent.Some or nto somethhg computations were aISO (324) carried for 10 thick out ppvrnnnoy but t*ey used veryrough grid, Elms, a itm withthesubdivision an ordez magnitude thltnin muyother being of larger computatlons. Therefore, results these of tke computations unreliable. aze tezm Budes,theyyield(324) a marettatic emergy which 21%of the is totaz wall enerr. It is suspiciously thania maayof the othertwolarger dimensional computations, seems wall aad toindicate hadequateenera axk

msnimiqation. By analysing polarizatioa the electrons a srztnn'mg the of in electron microscope lt is possible memsurethe magnetization the l%i to of (55) fewatomiclayers near the surlce. Such expevimental clevly show data that near the surface domain looks a Nxel the wa2 like wall, 326) (325, in the sgmqe themagndization ksnearly that there pnmllel thesarfMe. to Thisruult is not surp g,becauseihe todsmensional discussed risin in will in theforegohg' magneMzation approaches surface a very tEe also the at small angle Fig.8.3). anyratej it should dearto thereader At be by (see now khxttke mavetostatic approach the to emerrwill not allow othe,r any surface, if thecrystal vezylargeandthevast malority thespirs even is of are very faz1omthe surface. working The hypothusin Malysing such
'

data 1326) ia a suciOtlythick saple thewall is essemtially is that the Bloch most oledimensional wallthroulou.t of thetMckness, when but it approaches surface changu the it fzom Blochtypeto the N&1type, the when magnetizatioa tnrnsaround thev- to the z-direction the slowly om of Fig. 8.1.DetaileLaBonte-oe computations 327) for iron (32% both and for permalloy supportthis pctux, andare in good agrementwith measured oft:e surface ofthewall.They provethat the details part abo cll wall older m-urements of domain nidtltia bulkmaterials measured have dlFerent from onlythewidthof thesurface of thewall,whic.h vez.y part is thewall widthin the bul.k the material. of Eo-ver, suchOmputadons azelimite to rplxtively thin lms, becauselimitedcomputer of resources, azready mentionM theforegoing. problem whatthe wallreally in The of looks inside materials not reallybeen IiP.e bulk has solved yet. Thewazl either.TheLandau and eaerr in bulkmaterlnlsisnot known Lifshitz of used domaln coafgresult Kdion 7.2is still ofte,n for analyshg

BROWN'S STATIC EQUATIONS

urations, it is aot clear it is a good but i.f approximation. using certain By a analysis 329), energies beobtained experimental wall can from data (32% on domain widths, this memsurementeven oftenused evaluating and is for the exchange constantof the material However, LaBonte-typc computationsfor thin flms involve approfmation,exceptfor leaving the no out thirddlmension, must therefore at leasta rdiable and be to upperbound thc realwall energy. yet, wall energies And measured thsstechnique by 61ms f or thin permalloy are (270) considerably thanthis theoretical lcrlcr This discrepancy never been has accouated andit does for, upper bound. seem to indicate tkat something wrong is with the analysis the datain of thistechnique, casts and some doubts thevalues on published thebulk. for Finazly, will onlyberemarked thereis a vastexperimental it that and theoretical literature wallswhichare not straightlines,in particular on wallsin thefol.mof a closed drcle,around circular a domaln., known a ms b'abble domcrl. sucha circle,even a one-dimensional such the For wall as one in section8.1mustbe expressedthe two dimensions the drcle, in of anda two-dimensional as in (330) complicated bediscussed wa2l is too to in tbisbook. Some references befound (2882. cxn in

8.3 Brown's Static Equations Numerical computations described theprevious as in section relatively are new, andaJe still limited relatively to simple cases.Wit,h present computers it is not even possible :nd the lowest-enerr to confguration a single of wall,let alone whole a structure domains of separated wallsz anyother by or true three-dimensional magnetization distribution. such For problems is it still necessary lookfor aaalytic to solutions, at leastworHble or models. In as muchaa the wall energy Howa, it is possible compare is to the total enerr of certaindomain confgurations, fnd the one whichhas and the lowestenergy. This technique the bmsis what is knownas the is for whichhms successfully manycases.However, for domain theory, been used in principle has serious it two drawbacks. Thefrst one is that comparing ener#esdifereat the of congurations always carries risk of ignoring the another conguration, mayhave which a still lower the considered.the basic If structuze enerr than a11 ones being can be takenfrom experiment, if it is done somebody a high or by with physical intuition, mayworkout But the probability a correctguess it of is never very high, andmanywrongresults havebeen obtained this by It how method. hasalready been in theprevious seen sections all sorts of one-dimensional were compazed each models wit,h other, it turned till out that thewallenergy beverymuch when is a'a reduced a variation allowed in thesecond dimension. otherexamples est, andit is always Many also a risk whichmustbe borne mind.J.n in principle, enerr calculated a'n.y for ny particularmodel, with or without minsmization respectto wit,h someadjustable parameters, should regarded an 'tzppcr be as bound the for

1;4

EIVERGY MTNTMTZATION

actual mMmum. mMmumcxnnotbelargerthan theenergy We ene-rgy of any special oase, but tNere always is the possibility the lowestiat tion, whic.N not included is in encgymlnsmumLsin a dferentco the assumed model. estimate 'really The is rliable oalyif a Iower bund e%n AIM found, which emr.p those be in thetzuemfnlrnum mustbebetween

bounds. Thesecond dMculty thatone is not alkays is ia*res'ted thelowtia state,because thehrstereiswhich part of thestudy ferroof is of energy in czse iu ma>ets.As *n atready thesimple discussedsectioa the 5.4, actualmasnefsexuon maydepend the history theapplied state on of feld, andeven though lower-enera statesmay>='qt,theyaa inacessible due to an enerr barrier betwe% themandthe praent state.IIk such caaes, comparing is meaaingles. ener#es Rr thue renArmsBrownset out to eoress the energy minmlxation tn.ke rigorously, am eyeto perfovl'ngit in a waytat would thehyswith teresis account. ftrststepiu thisd''rt?M' A'n.q into A on already demonbeen strated theLandau Lifshitz in section where enerr izt and wall t;e 7.% minivnsvlttion by solving EulerdlWerential is done the equation which Ieads to te lowot possible for form ene,zvminimum the assumed of the total e,neru. that c%ethere no hystereis, h waE because magneKc no eld wasallowed, the eistence the wallwas assmmd, and of c yritvi Brown's ideawas to bavethemost goeralEuler df erentM equation a pure by =iational Xculation,so that the nviKtence the wall (or any oter of of magnetization would of confguration) betheze,sdt t;e calmzlation,witbout having asstkme beforehand.was this theory Browno ' ' y to it It that nxmed nbicxmagneiica, althougll name wa.s Iater exiended mean the to in the any sort of calculadon whic.N atomicstruetureof matterLsi'gnored andthemagnedzation Ls vector taken a continuoas as ftmction spRe. of Consider, iezefore, ferromagnetic of any shape, whichthe a body in maRetizadon anyfnnction space. totalenergy tMsparticular is of The for is maleup of the cxcAange as ia eqn(7.1.4), anisotropy the eneza m(r) ald energsthe magnetostatic enerr ms in eqn (7.3.26), al interadion withan applied magnetic Hy, wMch sometimts eld, ks called Z-maa the enera term,namely
s - ,-+s-+.
-

+su

+w g(v-.)/ (vc (v-,)- + tv--laj

+

1 -M . n , - M . m 2

dr +

ws ds,

(8.3.22)

'as it *mu

where lasttermof the volnrne te integral thehteraction M with H. is of outofthedenitionofM, andas used iu manytimes thisbook, although in thisform.Theftrstintegral overthe not is ferromaaetic bods

BROWN'S AATIC EQUATIONS

175

andthe second is over itz surXe.'Both thevolume thesurface one aud Anl-qotropy deasity left unspeced tisstee, but theyare are at ene.rgy eztn simple functions, which beone or more of thecases specedia section r-stn 5.1.Magnetostrictioa also added, it is neglected this book, be but in as mentioncd section Gceptfor cxseswhicheztn bewritten t:e in 5.1: in formof an anisotropy audare theefore term induded 'ttu. in if This Gpression determines e,ae,.r&m(r) HowmTheproblem the ks is Brown(14.51 here to determia so that thisenerr is a min'lmnm. mtr) mlmlrnlqed eme'ra several them-mplut which to consider tMs iu of is a ways, its mall variation themagnetizxton of vectoraround value bound m:, by theconstraint 1he that ma>tude m mustbe1. Thefrst two Cartesian of cxvdsnatacan theabeexpressed as (0) , mx = rtm + e'u mv = zn,(0)'+ 6v, (8.3.23)
y

where and'p a.re anyNnctions spa, e is lImnll.Thethird com'tz of and is by that ponent determined theconstrrdmt m is a Alnitvector.To a frt order e, it can bewzitten ia ms
/1

c,a -

jf'l

+ + mvtglo.) Lmzz;Lmlb' mato 2ctma$ol.?, ,,tzl + cm) y

-

. .

'.'l

(o) = mz where

1- e

(0) (0) mu v + wzv k? = m.(o) : (0) mz

l
.

eA:

(s a z4;
. .

(01 (0) 'r4x u + mv t?

(()) TN.z
+

.
.

(8.3.25)

Thevazitionoftheexchange term eaergy dueto thisxriadon of m is &s.-

f2

(mp) gv (,p,r + gv (,pp) / (gv + cu)J2 + ,v?)j2 eA)j2 g))2 tva (v,p,;n))2 dr .cj((vz,d)) (v.r4c))2) (vu)
-

(vz?) tvmioll (v,qo)) d.r (v))

.
.

(8.3.26)

to a frst order T.However, in arxmding thedivergeace to theorem, any for two functions aad J F,
=
.
-

dr J(VJ).(VF) FVMdv jFxygds-jnzfd j (V(FVJ) (8.3.27)

=

1V6

ENERGY MINIMCATION

where is thenormal thesnrfa-. Using rehtionth'eetimes eqn n tkis to in prodttcts tisformwhick forthethree of ocftnr there, variation the (8.3.26) of the excxaage enerr becomu

J& = c C
c

o,

(0) (0%. /0) rQ) ow(0) t'gmv- mx 'u + rzj n tqznh ds + w Dn t'rz zngol t':hz
-

'

-E

---..-.1.--t.....-1 2snYlo:y .p,v2m(0l 'pV2.m,(2) V . . m + p (o)

-

(Zl

?01

-1

mz

(g.g.28;

Fortheoriation of theMisotropyenergy is suEcient thisstage it at to useeqn(8.3.24)ftst-ozde,r expansion, in a Taylor

8%=
=

dr J(tu(m)watzzzcll
-

t'guu f'l'tn 'g (0)+ Pms iyvast r

-

(0) (0) rrzx .tz+ my 'p -a(e) z

dwa . : drntol dzj (8.3.29: o.

andm'nn-larly themlrfAzte for anisotzopy term. The=iation of themagnetostatic term 5sa Jr'iori #ven by energy

JfM

dr, ='-)((M+ :M) (H'+ JH?)M H?) J

-

(8.3.30)

where Ls feld due thesmallma>etization $Bl the to vaziation If this z-M. feld hadto becalculated any of themethods to calculate by used magfelds, thiKproblem netostatic wouldhave beeome hopelessly complicated. Hcwever, ic nofnecessary calculate feld in orderto eviuatethe it to this in to ntegzal eqn(8.3.30), it is posslble use therecprocilp because tlseocm ofeqn(7.3.40), en-qlzres in thepruent case which ihat
dr JM /$'N'' JH/ J'Md'n
'

(8.3.31)

Substituting mn (8-3.30)1 in andleaving the eeztmiorder out term, f:M =

-

T'.&T&dr,

(8.3.32)

which thcsxme formms vaziation theinteraction theapplied has the of Mrith feld, Hk.Using boththese for wiation in eqns termsthespecifc (8-3-23) and(8.3.24),obtains one

BRDWN'S AATICEQUATIONS

(SMSsL, -egzfs Szzu II+ h= + :)a?; Hz

-

(o) V (:) Fow11 'm.y * ,

,o; >1

dw,

(8.3.33)
(8.3.34)

where
H = J:'f. W. +

At a ndnlmnm, the variadon the total e'nez'r, t comprising the all abovomentioned should terms, vaaish any cpice 'u aud 4J.This for of rmuirement means that the coedentsof 1 and't) in thevolume inteval should mnxs'lb andthe ume applies thecoecients the surface each in to ' integral. Adding all the appropriate terms,andomittingtheiadexC0' up which not necessary more: leads two diFerentird to muations the in is any ferromaaetic body, to two bozmdar.y and condidons its surface. on The boundary conditions thesurface on aa'e 5

&mx. dn
.

znx (imz m.z

Dzu. ru 8%% .. = g + t'??z ' 0mz mz &rtz '

(8-3.35)
(8.3.3 6)

and

m ... ma.z z pm (%p... m..z t?, = . 8 s v + 8n mz on 0mu mx 0mx Tke twodiferential equaons are
C
-

C :72 z sa
=d

mz a V mz
azJ

+ Ms Sz - -Hz my
.

mw

W'a TrG Dnlx = O +yrzw mz mz

(g.z.z.jq
m. m ma
-

6' V2m &

mu c T mz ma

+ Ms Fr -

P*7x rzv omu = 0. + mv mz xa

It looas if mz playsa spedal here, role unlilce or mv, but it is oaly mx a mattcr of cltoiwhic.N of the threecomponents use frst in eqn two to The is multipned mv by (8.3-23). symmetryrxn be seen if cqn (8.3.37) andsubtrvtedfromeqn(8.3.38) multiplied m=, which. to a third by leads equadon thesameform: of

(8.3.38)

t'hrx +M, +mx (mrvzmz m.v2mv) (mv&-nvamj-mvovv &mv= 0. .

-

Aa

three can in ms These equations bewritteaYgether, vectornotation,

m x

(8.3.39)

CV2m MsR Dmzb 0, = + m

-

(8.3.40)

178

RNRRGY OIMXZATION

where is for Cartesian coordinates are ('ea/dm a notation a vector whose Thevector notation eazier transis for ptna/dgrya, aadomwlomp. omulomu misleadinp'lt forming othercoorinatesystems, it is somewhat into but should remembered there onlytwo independent be that are equatioms, and tke third one is only a linearcombination the othertwo, dueto the of = constmint(mI 1. These Guations knownas Brown'sdiferential are equations. They as that the meazh phraedin (331), in equilibzium torqueLszero everywheare, that themagnetizationparallel aa eeetivefeld, and is to

C Hos= -V z m+H Ms

1 u&v . Msdm

(8-3-41)

Since x M = 0)anyarbitrary M vectorpropordonxl M A'xy beMded to to He.e withoutGanging rcult. In pxrfa-nnlnr there no dxerence te (:t311, is between E andB = H + 4rM. ushg Brou's equations to besolved have together solving H#,whic,ll with for is paztofeqn(2.3.34), bysoleg eithc thediferentixl Guations sedion in 6.1or thettegralsin section The.solutioas the wholeset contain 6.3. of ' * ia prtdple a11 possible but not only the mimimnThe enerr mpm-ma, condition thevadationvaxishes Rtlfmed that Ls also %remera aad enztll it is ne-sary to clzMk soludon being memum or a minimum. for a Therepm xlg.n boundary the conitionsof eqns(8.3.35) (8.3.36)) and for whicha liaexrmbination be added thesame way as to the rmM in Hiierential equahons. thre equations thenbewritteu a similar A11 can in vedor notation as
m x

+ 't%- dm

0,

(8.3.42)

on thesurface- theparticnln'r In cxqewhen surface the is energy as in eqn

nrkmely (5.1.11)) if

'tt)s=

, yff, (n m) ,
.

(8.3.43)

one should substitute eqn(8.3.42) in

o'w.= Ks (n. m)no ('?m

(8.3-44)

whick theformused Brown(145), by others is by aad Other, (332). specinl cases, suchas (146)) beignored If there no surhce wll kere. is anisotropy, which theassumption is made mostofthe theoretiW in calculations, the = combination eqn(8.3.42) thedentity - 8nl8n 0, which of with m holds = for auyvectorwhose magaitude constant, is leads Xnlnn 0. to

SELF-CONSISTENCY

l79

8.4 Sez'-rxm6kx-<one Brcwn's Solving muations aot exy, but thereare certain is conclnsions aboutthe nature of the solutions whickcan be drawn right away.For pvxmple, consider ca:emz = 0 or mu = 0,whick thebasic the is aumption used all theone-dimensionalcalcnlauonssection Substitute ia wall in 8.1. mv = O in eqn(8.3.38) E'v = 0, because yields cveryone of the other tezms vanishes, which to including onlxlnmv, is alsoproportional m.yfor f all theexpressions Ia the absence an appeddd, as in the oneof'tra. of dimensional calcnlxdons, = 0 meansGat Hu'= % wall Hg whic n:t' the is the casein those studiethat take averageHy' Therefore, Msumption of . the rzv = 0 (and s'-milxrly mz = 0)cannotleadto a soludon Bzown's for of equatioms, rlmaot represeat true eneru nzinirnlTrn. and a TV argument rigorous, it is not very usefulbecause cannot is but it l bemHe qnxnlaative. factthat a partkula.r The functton not aa eact is representation actual ofthe physical rAn hna'dly bea good state ever reason to avoid Certain it. approimations ofteninevitable) Oer all are aad some approx-imations already have been mGeon the waybefore deriving Brown's equafons. realquetionis notwhether = 0 (or other The m any ? assumption khks can bean absolu*enerr m-tnl'mum, but whether of sort) it maybea reasonably approtmatioa this m-xnlmum.. above good to The does this whc.h reqm-nps somemeasuze argument not helpanswe,r qution, for howfar themodel fzom mirlmum. Ls the A partialanswercxn beobtm-nu when (8.3.37) ismultiplied Tru, by eqa aad (8.3.38) is muldpliebymy, and theyare then added together and eqn integrated thevolnme theferromaaetic over of body. Partofthe kltegr=d rAn be transformed therelation by
m
.

1 V2m= -V a,rn2 .2

; (Vmz,I (Vmp) (Vzp,z)

'

sa -

z-

(8-4.45)

in whic frst termvaaishes thederivative a constant, the rt the as of aad is proportional t:e exchange to The enerr densty. total inteval is thea
-

+ zk

M . H-

t'hu 1 dm + mz

'hvx CV mz - MZHZ dr = 0. z Dm.

Comparing mn (8.3.22), seenthat thetotal energy the system with it ks of may alsobewrittenas :7=
-

(8.4.46)

1 2
4.

2'*a- m 1
znz

'

okcu ' H. - M dr + dzzl

-

ws &V

+ -2

aultv z c 77r'nz Dmz

.

Ms d'r. Nz

(8.4-47)

180

ENERGY YNNIZATION

This energy expression contains a simphfed ofthe exchange only form in ad that partofthemagnetostatic which included only energy, energy is dum-rar compu'te tban Hz of thelasttermof eqn(8.4.47). tlmsmuch It is 1.o it theintevalin eqn(8.3.22). However, cannotbeused a substitute as for only fnl6l because ktapplies k) magneeation structure whicb eqn(8.3-22), Brown's equations. What can beused ks a mexsure of howdose it for as a particular model, a particnlar or minimizadon under constrets, is to the trueenergy mYmumwhic,h a solution Brown's is of equationg. a good For model, energy the ccmputed lomeqn(8.4.47) beapprematelyequal must dlFerent, to that computed eqn (8.3.22). from If these are ener#es vea'y the model a badappror-matiom hasGen found $s as whea criterion tMs was fm-k appliM (333) the then-used to models Nel of walls.Thetwo values thiswallenergy of HiFeereda,norderofmagnitude certan by at flm whicb thiclmesses, showM themodels for thtswallcalculation that used wezeverytbad approfmations, leastin that rauge ft)mtkicHesses. at of lt is thuspossible use tke dfaence,or ratio, of the energes to computedfromeqn(8.4.47) frommn (8.3.22) quntitatinemeasure and msa for thevalidity themode.l thexxtvuznptionsused anymicromagnetic of or in nqmlwmare very diferent,thiscalculation wrong calculation. these If is If close andmustl)e discardM. theyare reasonably to ozmh other, calthe culation a good has chance being of correct xlf-consistent, a good and and approfmation thcrealenerr minimum. is onlyachxnce, It because tMs to criterion onlya necessary, a sucient, is not condition thecalculation for In Brown's to becorrbct. thefrst placej mqations aISO are fuKlled the by mnxn-ma, audnot onlytheenera minima.Also,the botmdary conditions have been in theabove not used deivationof eqn(8.4.47), a solution and the is ofBrown's mqatbnswhicbdoes G,1A1 boundary not conditions not necessarlly energy minlmum. an However,solution a obtained auysort by ofenergy minirnizationnotverylikely beclose a realrrladm'um, is to to aad at anyrate, it is always betterto have neca condition mllvninatfor ing somewrong cases tun to have critezion all, andso have idea no at no Axq whether calculation anymeaniag all. lt should particularly the at be conusnsseccd VRmx, noted mn (8.4.47) that derivativestheterm witzlj in is andas such verysensitive thedevilsof themaaetizadon to structure, which makes cxlterion self-conMstzncy Gectivev this of qnite TMs criterionwas irst suggested for a mrticular case of eqn (333) wbiG wall (8-4.47) applie onlyto a 180*domain in a f1mwkichhaaa un-la'dal A.nlmtropy-ln particular this case,there neither applied is .u feld nor surface anisoopy, thefrst twotea'ms thefrst lineofeqn(8.4.47) and in cancel other,so that thewhole lineof thiseqqadon each frst vankshes. It was then extended a cubicsymmetc 1323J,to a 90*domaln to azd wallj rst in one dimension andtheain two dimensions A non-zero (335). (a34) appliede1d aada moving (3371 also f wall weere considered. selfOther (336) egt, consistency n.1Rn whichdtherare not useful or applyonly tets (295)

T11E DYNAMIC EQUATION

to the specifc case (334) of one dimension.

8.5 The DynnmlcEquation TheUme-dependence ma&etization beobtained of the directly 1om can the quantnm-mechxm-cal for of (axpresdoa a precession themaretization the in amaaetic feld,byconsidering termsin thebrackets eqn(8.3.40) of as an e'edtfse magnetic feld. Othermethods alsobe used can to (145) derive sxmeresult,which the $s
dt
=

-,yoM x 'zft

= ezf

&

27
%
=

V zm + Ho + H , -

Kdm , (8.5.48)
(a s.4s)
.

1 Aa

where is thetime, t

2m.c

Jzel

is the rzomagnetic ratio,already mentioned section andg is the in 5.2, tLand factor',already mentioned section ln some lum-, Brown's in 2.1. staticequations be considered a particularcase of eqn (8.5.49), can as giving thestatic equilibrium there no ckaqge time-Thebouadau when is in conditions are thesxme as in the static=e, nxmelyeqn(8.3.42) here . Thisequation repreents uadxmped aa precession themagnetization, of eAn whic.ll continue ever. Eowever, for actual changes the magnetizaton of to are known fromexperiment decay a Mite time. Asis the casewith ia the anisotropy atioa 5.1,thednzn cannotbedezived in phg theoretically Yrrn. frombasic principles, isJust and added a phenomenologie One as wayto addit is to modif.g (8.5. iato eqn .48)
dM =

-k- --V;M x

dM .l4-pdt

(8.5.50)

where is a phenomenolofcal pazameter. dxmping , Thisformof the equation dueto Gilbert. is actually is H equieent to aa olderformof Landau Lifsbltz(145, whicN the and can dmived 3381, as follows. First M . Lsapplied vth sidc of eqn (8.5.50). rightto The handside vanishes, therefore - Rvldt= 0. TV resultmfuzns and M that = % roznnsna con-m.nt it that s dming the dMnjdt fromwhic,h follows .MQ motion, thisconstant beidentledwith Ms1. and can The.a x is applied M to Mt,IIMdes eqn(8-5-50), the general for a cross-product of ustg rule of = 0. a coss-prodnct M - ?1M/d,t Theresaltis aad

M x

-yz M x

(M x x)

vcMszq-a-.
x

-(8.5.51)

Substituting right-hand of tlzks the side equation M for and lpxz!s (8.5.50),reaz-ranging, to

in dM/dt eqn

182
=

ENERGY MTMMUATION

-GM x N

+ IM x

(M x m ,

(8.5.5 2)

where
. 'la = 1 -L. 2 : -R''' 2 ' 't' z? i s Q

'%'; I

and

h=

2 %.T p o'2 zV2. l -F-o.42 s

(8-5-53)

Equation is the form which some (8.5.52) older of Lrdau andLifshitz, still prefer use, bessdes forms(339) also to other which eldst.lt can beseen muivalent fromthederivation that tketwo forms mzthnmzbicdly here a're if the physical constants modifed are accordin eqn(8.5.53). to (145, 338) The physical interpretation not verydxerenteither, the damping ks if s small. a large For damping there somepractical are reasons (340)prefer to formof eqn(8.5.50). the Gilbert

9
THE NUCLEATION PROBLEM
It isverydr'c'ult xlve anynon-linear to d''Ferential Nuation, it is even and more dlmcult cllse appropriate to the physical among vadous cmse the solutions wlzich = equation have. such Thezefore, irying any bdore may solation Brown's of deerential equauons, seemed it desirable ddne&st to thepossiblebraachwhich required on the solution be.Forthispurpose may equations, be a solution was AM sought a set of lineardiferential of to denedin section wlzich 9.1, became known thenucleadon ms problem. Thksproble.m misunderstood many6omthe very be#nning, was by an.d more so later,wh= Dicomaaeticsbecame csven popular the among zp-rchcs ofdi#tal recording. Ndtherthepurpose thetechniques nor or theresuluof tenuclGtion properly followed, problem to havebeen seem audthereis a large number m017quotations misrepreentations o and ofthisproblem thelitarature. older in The are papers oalytoo often Just presumed saythe exactopposite what they zpxllyd,whichmay to of l:e dueto the hct that the writersof these reported certaia only papers detxllqj Msuming themaincsumpdons that were wellHown.Theywere actually known thesmall to number spedalists of worM-mg themat $he on time,because practienlly evebodyelsejust ignored them, theywere but unHown, therefore and misintarpreted., theEeldwas zevived whea later. heresome of the wrongczmcepts have that 1 will try to clari been attaeed ihestudies nucleation. to of Eowever, before even defnhgwhat thisproblem it is worthmentionhg 1s, whatit is not.Thelin-xn'zxdon of the equations not = approzmation, should be (:0zd1)* is and not with HiFerent the physically completely probla of the appracls saimrakion f./ ia a matezial which continspoht, liney plane or imperfections. latter The calrtnlxtions, are outside scope tlzisbook, mathematically whic,ll the of are sl'mlnr the nucleation to problem, because use the same linearized they diFerential equations with They (although dferentboundary conditions). rtxriMnly played importantanda crudalrole (145, ia the initial aa 268) dcvelopment miomagneticsgeneral. they havenothingto do of in But with txenucleadon discussedthis chapter. in
. 9.1 Donltion Let a ferromagndic beErstput ia a magnetic wkicis large body eld exough saturate in thisfeld'sdizecfon. thiseld bethenreduced to it Let slowly, avoid to dynamic efects. necessary, feldis decreasedzero, If the to

184

THENUCLEATION PROBLBM

(a) .= (b) > (c)

FIG.9.1. Twomechanical aaaloguo thenucleadon of probiemthenincreased slowly the oppodte in direction. somestage At during this the alongthe original direction the applied of process, stateof saturadon Geld must stop to be stable, some change and muststart to takeplace, because a1l) samplc eventually saturatein theopposite the must be tafte.r direction. feld at which orighalsaturated become The the state unstable, andazkv of a chauge tEemagnethadon sort in congmration tnstglczt ca,n is called ncleationflel The name is somewhat the misleading, because 'nucleationl seems imply that something to happens a particular at (341) point,around certain a n'uelenn, wher= in thepresent context,thisterm is used something mayhappen over thecrystal. all Brownarg'ued for which all Ms against use of theword, hehadnothing life ths but better ofem to aadthename stuckandwas meed everybody, by including Brownhimself. Theimportant pointis that thisnudeation an uambiguous haa meaning, which azdefned theforegoing is by that procv. lt mustbeemphzmlzM the defnition contalsthe history the applied which of eld, mustbethec%e in any defmition involving hrsteresis the whicb part of fenomagnetismLs ok ne coacept nudeation is analogous thecritical feld to force whkh is neto bend beam theGperiment a in shown schematicallythe on right-hand of Fg. 9.1,whc,h partly hoed on (341j-an mlxxtfa-c side s If beam pushed b0thsides a force is from by by thearrows), as (reproented shown (a), in nothing happens rst-Withan ncreadrlg at force, 'criticap a valneis r-Mbed, whicb beam at the suddenly buckles a particular to shape, whicb an eigenflmctiona (Main dxerential is of equation, showa (b). as in H theanalogous ofa ferromagnetic nothing case crystal happens the when feld is Grst 'lnduced a certainvalue thefeld - thenudeaiion till of feld is reached, the magnethation when suddealy lbucldes', Ganges or in another andthisczaage alK aa eigenfunctioncertan is of deerentlnl way; equations, will 1>e in thefollowing. mustbeparticulazly as seen It emphasized during 6rststage, that this when notking happensj maywell there be states whose is state,buttheyaze energy looerthan thatof thesatnrated not accessible system. to the Thispssibility already eacountered has been

DEFINITION in the caseof the Stoner-Wohlfarth model section andis further in 5.4, illustrated the second by mechanical analogue theleft-hand of Fig. on side the 9.1.In thebeginning saturated magnetizadon is the only energy state xminimum, is amalogousthe ttleball phced a single and to at depression of a sm00th surface Whenthe feld passes zero, the saturated state in the opposqte already a lowerminimum, the situation direction has and is analogous the ballplaced the surface to on shown (a): in thereis already a lower pit, but theballcannotroll there, because the energy of barrier in between. ballcmn roll down when surface furtherdistorted This only the ks the which analogous the nucleation is intoremoving barrier, in (b), as to for magnetization reversal start. Therefore, choosing particular to a just that its energy lower magnetization a function space, proving as of and is thaa that of the saturated state (or is any otherstatelfor that matter) completely meaasngless,doesnot provethat the magnetization and will actually choose state.It mustbeshown the lower-enera is that that state accessiblethe system, that the situation not as in Fig.9-1(a). to and is It should benoted also that the surface which ballis placed on the in Fig.9.1is actually representation a multi-dimensional a of surhce the in function and case of magnetization reversal thereare space, in the actual paths this ball.Therefore, showing a particular that path for manypossible is blocked a barrier by does mean anytidng not either) because may there bea wayaround ln principle, possible it. C!J functions beconsidered. must Fortheelastic beam shown Fig.9.1, theharmonics a given in all of solution are usually solutions thediferential also of equation its boundary with conditions. exampleshown An is schematically(c), there generally in and is a whole of such set solutions. thecaseof beam, these ln alI higher-order this solutions larger have eigenmlues, namely a larger need apped force, than the basic solution Fig.9.1(b). this case, none of the othersolutions of In haveany physical the meaning, can beseenfz'om following as argument. Suppose takes certainforce for the beam buclde in (b), it a Fz to as and that the taka a force > Fz to create deviation Tk suppose ii theoretically of (c). orderto applythe forceF:, it ksnecessa't'y passthrough In to the application the forceFz at whichtimethe beamalready of changes into , the confguration . By the timeF2is rcached, initial conditioas the (b) (a) do not efst any more, anda theoretical transition from(a) (c) the to at forceFacannotberealized. higher-order The solutions apply in.o/zer may c'ases, if the beam tkampe.d centre such waythat (b) is at its in a cannot e.g. takeplace, if the hrger forceis applied fast,whendynamic or convery of For ditionsmay preventthe formation (b). the nucleation problem as formulated thehigherharmonics no physical here, have meaning, beiause theycannotbeachieved. thesame token, the caseof magnetization By in only lcrges't the nucleation hasa physical feld meaning.something lf starts to reverseat a feld Hz,the reversal continue that path,andanother will on nucleation whichcan theoretically place H, < Rhdoes have take at not

186

THENUCLEAXON PROBLEM

of the Mtial conditions a saturated stateany more, an.d no pkysical hms meaning. anycaseof nudeadon is thusnecessazy fnd onlytke Foz it to hrgest posibledgenvalue tke appropziate of dxerential equations. Thenucleation a: is studied Ifseadby process, a stactofthereversak zing Brown's equadons dened section namely leeaving dftkese in 8.3, by out equations higker-thaa-linear of tke maRetzation tke components powers ia the dizections perpendicular tke applied to Geld. is TMs Bnezm-zation n/t = appremation.Jt is only a maniftation the requlement of of cxmtinufr. Every of structure must siart witk a chaage the magneeadon small everything bnear tke b - ' g. Theidea ckaage. Thereforey is in is that on tke correcteigenfnncdon the nucleation known, is going is it for to bepossible studyt/e zest of tke process soleg tke non-linea.r to by equations tke cmse for whichstartswith thisparticular eigenfnnction, and notmoveintke anxrk tllmugkall sorl of mathematically possible solutions whlch have physical no meanlng. Tkelixpxrlxtion of Brown's equations not be done for the <11 hcre mostgeneral Jnstead, fozowing case. tke restzictive assumptions frst will bemade. 1. 'Phe appliu maveticfeld, H., Lshomogeneous,is paraltel ad to n='s of eithercubic nm'a='x1 an easy or aaisotropy. mssumption Tkis in of so wxs made cl studies nucleadon publsshedfar.In peciple, a theory couldnlM bedeuoped othermagnetic for 6.e1ds, it has but tzied- xcondpartofassumptionfollows, never been Tke 1 because it e= be shown tkat it is imp-ible to reMh saturation any fnite, in komogeneous in a dlectionwhicxis not aa easyJt='K. If z Ls feld ckosen the dirlctkon the magnetic as of sn feld, it is readily that to a fus'torder ma an.d in mx,
-

0- +

zp,: 0mz

-zA%ru,

(9.1.1)

where staads either of mn (5.1.7) 'lz?oof eqn (5.1.8)m for 'u?u or In eitkercaseaKg is noneglededj it hazbeen some other as in calculationstMs book. spiteof thepresentauon (342), ia tkea'e In ia isjustno Grst-order in te expresions Kz, andit doa not term witk enterthe rzzaczettm problem. similaz A expression applies mvfor 2. Thesample aa ellipsoid, tke feld Lsapplied is and paralldto one of its major axes. The &st part of assumption is hevitable a 2 if komogeneous is assumed, feld because inside elltpsoid the an is only 6.1.3- second demagnethsng homogeneous, Geld sa section The part is not essentlnl, ks an.d onlymtroduced for thesake m'mplcity., here of . Some calculations been have reporte (343, 34,5, for a feld 3M, 346j ikx5K, applied an aagle a major butonlyfor Tez'.y' at to a limite number of casey wMch beiaored kere. wiz According section to the 6.1.3,

DEFNTION

l87

demagnetizing at the saturate state, before f e1d nucleation, a is constant, isparatlel z. Txezdore, toti eldof eqn(8.3.34) aad to the whichka.s beused Brownhs to in equations is

az (9.1.2) where is thedemagnething i'a thez-dizection, the satNz factor in 'lrxlzx,l state bdorenndeationj aadU is the potentialdueto the starting dekiat,ion saturationy isof theorderofvzz an.d from and mv. 3. Thematedal homogeneoust %Mno KnrfMe is and aaisotropy. a Only fcsw with a non-zerosurface cmses Ysotropy (146, 348),with 347, or certain inhomogeneitie 350,351,352), ever s'tudied, were aad (34% b0th*1 be ignore here. Onlysome of theirimplications be will briey disrmnqtvlGapters and 11.As mentioned theendof in 10 at stion thebolmdarz 8.3, conditions in this case are
-

Vx =

OU . 01'

&= =

(??J

Hz = Hu- NaM, OU, .

0mt Dn

0mv = 0 >

(9.1.3)

on thesurface. ) Using thue assumptionseqns a11 in and and (8.3.37) (8.3.38),oYtting all termswic,h higher liaear mz or mj or U, includfnp term are than in a S'UCX aa mzu, which also is second when zs of theorder mz or order Lr of mu, yields the dlFerentiimuations

2r: ((7V2
-

J'pfs - Nzasfalj t'a m mx = (k-To os

-

Ah.- -

(9.1.4)

and

alhn -%Ix (9.1.5) oy bodyMM oftheearlicr inside ferromaretic the studic started aa with in extra term of the formggmzmw theanisotropy enerr daits whlc,it added aaother term to 0c.11 these of KuaKons. thenthisterm was But takento bezero at a laterstage, at any rate it is not usually of and part anyanisotropy enera. These equadons to besolved have together eqn (9-1.3)the with ms conditions, simttltaneously theecuations boundao aad with and botmdyy condittons, to (6.1.6) defnethe potential Forthelin/xrlmed U. (6-1-4) wlzich cee of onlyXst-ordervrmK mx and thediferential in niy, equations
c I(7V
-

2Jf1 Ma(Fa Nzx%fs )jmy

Vzr7u 4xMs 0mz+ 0mv = 0z oy with the boundary conditions

are

VaZutl:= 0,

(9.1.6)

l8S

THENUCLEATION PROBLEM
= Oin U'out ,

&Uu- OU t = ' ---*X 4*.Km' zl , (9-1-7) on, on on thesudace, we.ll theregulvityoftke potential infnity. AII these as at as eqnations to besolved all poaible have for of ield, eigeneues theapplied S'a,aad thenthelargest tkemhas bechosen- hasbamexplxined of to As in theforegoing, thelarges't allowed forHu has physical value a meaning. only
9.2 Two Eigenmodes Bron wroie this set of linearized equations for (353, in 1940 the 3541 sake aaother of problc. Only17years laterdidheformulate as the them nucleation problem andrealize two analydc that solutions couldbe (355) cirfmlnr It writtenrightaway) fora spkere for an -mGnita b0th and cyliader. actually turaed that one of them out could generstlt'zed ellipsoid, be to any and othercould genernll-qed ellipsoid revolutkon, the be to an of namely one wkickhastwo equal axes.Tkese modes bedermibed Erst, two will here in ihis more general form,Vfore addrving the problem otherpfwwlble of dgenfundions, Brown(3554 whick presented the tMe as a gapin the at theory.As hasalready been Irentioned the previous in =tiop onlythe eigenvalue a physical largest has meeng, so that any one eigenfunchon does mpnmver.ymuch. not S.2.1 Coberent Jbtafi/n JT 'rzzz my arc constats, eqn(9-1.3) b0th and isGlfmed. volumeearge The V2U is zero, andeqn (9.1.6) thepotential for becomes = %b0thinside and outside. thus Jt reduces theproblem a komogeneously to of magnetizad elpsoiddiscussed section in 6.1.3,whichleads a homogeaeous to eld inside, with

Pon= Lsz-vvmvand PLV= wNvMxzr7v, r r t'iz ou

(9-2.8)

where aadNv are the appropriate N. demagnething factors. Equations A.rm and(9.1.5)in tkis case (9.1.4) -2.R-1 + Hx+ (N.Ms
-

m. Nz)Ms

Q.R'I + Sa+ iu. s

-

These equations all tkat is left in tMs casefromthewhole ofthe set aze cmn lizm-m'Rz.vl equations, nudeation takeplace and once they are ftzlMed. of Tor=ind thereader what Gcnlxtion all about, stari wms tMs is the a saturated state m. = mv = 0 at a large positiveH=,whichwas later throtlgh andstarted in The reducM 0, inceasing theopposite direction. reversal wken nudeation a magneiqation a becomes possible Hx rpmrhes a value that allows (small) a deviation the saturated 1om state.lt ea,n

mv LNvNz)Ms = 0. (9.2-9)
-

TWOEIGENMODBS

189

happen these when equadons befxllilled/oriheSrst can frnz witheither mz # % 'rr/v # 0. Therdore) nucleationaiievedwken applied or this is the feld Nazeackes a Yuethat makes ofthesquare one brnrkets eqn(9.2.9) of x .pass through zero. lf theellipsoid a symmetry revolvhg hms for around z, whickmeans that Nu = Ny, the eigenvaluethe mnmefor rotationin is them- or in thep/-diretion. theyare not the sxme, therotationwill be If =-!R, becausehas larger towards lonner the it a eigenvalue (less negative) thazt rotation theotherdiredion. aMs a in Suppose Ionge,r is z, namely the N. < Nukthenthe nucleation for my = 0 andtxltoqplacewhenH. . is of reaches nudection value the el:

2A'z + Ms. (9.2.10) M. (Nz Nz) ln thismode mavedzation the rotatesin the sxrne angleevermhere through Gpsoid,andit is therefore the Hown a.sthe coherent rotation mode. nxme Srotation nnlsonl alnntried(356j a while, it The in was for but did not catchon. Actually,it is Just Stoner-Woblfn.rk% studied the model, in section for themore general of a feld applied an angle the 5-4 caqe at to xvkqpxesent theseldid parallel theeasy cmse to ads, wMch is eas.y In $he 0 = 0 in the notationof that section. section it was assumed In 5.4 that therewas onlya crystalline xnl'sotropy, no shape with anksokopy, which essentially means a sphere. that ca'le it was seenthat at zero =gle, For the nothing happens thefeld renzthes valueof thefrst term in eqn till hereTh%in sedion 6.1.3, second ofthenucleation the term feld (9-2.10) wasintroduced thecaseof an elllpsoid for withoutMisotropy, namely with = is for of esotropy terms, .JQ 0.Herey (9.2.10) thecomblation both mn but ouly thecmsewhen easyaxes of b0thate plkenllel theapplied for the to feld.H this case,their'values justadded are togeiher, l/uAtdmingthe at start of thedeviation saturation. 1om TheStoner-Wohlfxeh model, whichstarted a model as namely a aa ptulated structm'e t:e mavetization space, thusbeen of in has skown to be a mode, unmely eigenfnnction Brown's an of equatio=. such, is a As it realenergy msnimum, notjust arbitrary and aa confgaration comparing for as in theory, whiGBrowntried to avoid(see sedion ener#es the domain It will be 8.3)- is not the endof theroadyet, becauxlhlK mode actnally used the physical by system in cues in whick is the mode only it witht:e lpxqtnegative uutleation In orderto fnd out if it is, all the other Neld. modes beinvestgated, compared thismode. must aad with
Hn =
-

9.2.2 Magnetizztion Jurlfn.q Another mode wlzic,k Brown(355) to bea soluhon theliaeltriv>d fouxd of xt ofequations appliaonly an ellipsoid revolution, at l/mAt of or nobody to has tziedto generalizeto any otherellipsoid. cylindrical it ln coordinata become mode thesoluton is of Hownmsth'ecurling p, z and4,whathas

190

'rEE NUCLEATION PROBLEM

Brown's equations whiciz for

m.
=

= TP.P cos/, Qa -Fp,z)6n$, = F(#.,#

= D-out 0.

(9.2.11)

It is an arbitrary ofconstrlu'n? thesoludoa, set whose on onlyjustifcation is that it nwrka, namely such solution ezst for an.y that a does ellipsoid of stlldent to substitute revolution..ozder seethatit does, isobviously 1.n to it these constrints eqns in to and is (9.1.3)(9.1-7) seethat thm.e a solution to the constrained Substituting eqn (9.2.11) (9.1.4) set. thus ia eqns and it is sen that theyare Wth fnlfllledif (9-1.5),

qclv,s
+

az

-! ta - 1

v v

.,?z

zs,

Ms(Hu NzMs z)= 0. F(p,

Equakon isobvioulyfnl4lled, so iseqn(9.1.7%thongh and even the (9.2.6) Alkkes little thinkingabout see that eqn(9-2.11) lattex a to actuuy leads to m . n = Oon thesurfreof anyellipsoid revolution. poht is that of The according thisdeGm-tionF, tkisF is actuvy thecomponent m in to of of is thedirection the coordinate namdym4. Tkiscommnent parallel of $, to the surlcei.nany body which a cylindzical has smmetrsin particular an ellipsoid revolution. of Therefozey onlymuationwhich still left the is fromtheori#nal is eqn(9.1.3). xt in the Substitution it yields boundary condition 0F = 0, (9.2.13)
on thesuAce,where is thenormal thesurh. n to

(9.2.12)

Theassumption mn (9.2.11)thusreduced three-dimensional qf has the problem a tweimensional wldc.h not diEcultto solve the to one, is in ellipsoidal coordsnate system. However, tkese since coor&ates betoo may adv=ced somereaders, solution beexpressed forthe two for the will drst almost cmses a spkere an t-nAnite of and circular c'yBnder, studied, ori#nally simult=eously, by Brown bot aadby Ftmi cl (356J. is, e'l There (355) however,big diference a between twowhichhas the ben forgotten during theyears, whiG is worthemphaaizing. and Brownstarted fromthedilerential equations, guessedpmicular and a Klutionfor a sphee for aa in6nl-te aad eylinder. 6i al started a Frei from particula.r functonal for the magnetization, compared enea'a lrm and its withGat of some other mpdls. theirpaper, In theypresente curling tlhe mode an arbitrary as model a sphere foran in6niteVlinder, for and because they did not How iat it wms the same soludon Brcwn'sequationq of published Browna fewmonths by eearner. Brown not give name Since did a to this mode, since au.d people nsually that when feel something given is a name theyunderstand bett, paperof n'e.iet cl (356:,whic.h it the in thename 'curling' fzrst was ixvemted, became bdterHownandcitu much

TWOEIGENMODES

19l

thanthe paperof Brown(3551. talksandpublications, In his Brownkept emphasizing strange the coinddencethe samesolution of being worked out simitaaeously independently two places, henever mentioned and in but 'this diference between reversal a mode that obeys equations, a his and it mere model, probably becausewas so obvious Mm,andto everybody to else the time.Theunintentional at result that too manypeople was were lef4 with teimpression (3555justthe samems(3561)wasnot that was and worth reading. Thus, manybooks reviews a schematic too aad give picture of whatthe curling(looks like'; usually onlyin a.n infnite cylinder, but not themathematical defnition thefunction, #ven of as here. papers And with have been, still are, published all sortsof models magnetization and for reversal whic,h compare in they theirs with thetcurling model', E35'C. It e.g. isimpossible convince that the curling not a modei, cp.nnot to them is aad betreated the same levelas their arbitracy on models. is a nucleation lt reversal mode, which a solution Brown's is of equations, as such and cxn onlybecompared otherreversal with modes as coherent such rotationor theothermodes discussed section in 9.4.
9.2.2.1 InfniteCylindcwr an infnite cyDnder norrnaln to the For the surhce parallel thecoordinate andit is onlynecessary consider is to to p, F whichdoes depend z. Eqn (9.2.12) well-knoWn not on is the diierential equation theBessel for functions. hastwo solutions, of which not It one is regula,r p = 0,andcannotbeused a solution. otherone is at The ms

Jzlkp),

(9.2.14)
(9.2.15)

wldch a solution eqn(9.2-12) that is of provided

Ck1 2.&% = + + MsHu Oj

where term withNz hasbeen tbe omitted, because = 0 for an infnite Nz c'ylinder: section see 6.1.3. boundary The condition isalso (9.2.13) fnlflled,

dh @p)
dp

0,

pzza

(9.2.16)

where is the radius the cylinder. R of Equation has l'446115 te number solutions, of which of out only (9.2.16)an the smalLest hasto be considered, one because largerones leadto a the cxn more negative nucleation which never takeplace a less feld, if negative one efsts. Let z be thesmallest root of

dJz = () 0 dq

(9-2.:7)

l92

THENUOLEATION PROBLKM

Ls Then feld is, t21 (which = 1.8412)- thenucleation for titismode accorrling
tc eqn (9.2.15),

H.v=

2A% (k21 Ms. Mk R-z

-

(9.2.18)

Compariug eqn(9.2.10), tazng into account for an l'nfna-te with and tat c'ylinde,r = 2* andNz= 0,it is *e,11 iJtbere no ofher N= that i: mode, magreve-l ill a.a'-n*nite rotation nedzation cylinder should by coherent start if JL< &, audby curliug R > J?.o if wkere
,/''t('F = Bm f,ll h/-2 ' Ms / x

(g g .jg;
'

becauseis always largatJo whic,h it tke counts: explained xction ms in 9.1.This svtementis not true if thereksa third mode a still larger with eigeneue Sa.Thispossibzity befurther for will discussedsedion in 9.4. R'e,i c! (356) ei iatroduced redlmed tbe rcdi'tla,
s=
-,

with

I G = z?o l j , 2M,

j/

(9.2.20)

andthisnotation laterused manypapers micromagnetics. was in on ln t/is novtion, thetumoverfzom coherent.rotationczzrliug at the reduced to is radius R ez ss 1.8412 1.039. = 7e, Se -X = (9.2.21) 9.2.2.2 SphsreThesecond considered Brown case by and Frei (355) by ei al (356) that ofa sphere. this case,thecylindzical was For coozdmates to ccordinata and0j with 4keptthe r p and z are changed the spherkal transforms same.In these coordhates, (9.2.12) into eqn

:2 -2 t'i 1 02 + + + 0r2 r'W ;s0e 4r -2A - Ms S'a- 'y'Ma

g c

cos 0 r a sya y o

p--r-w.s m
(9.2.22)

F(m,= #)

0v

because = N>

for One of is 4*/3 a sphere. of the solutiomsthis equation

(x j1(k'r) giu.#,

(9.2.23)

where is thespherical Bessel function, whichcan n.1M exprased be in Jz termsof thetrigonometric functions,
= .i @)

sinz
oa

cos n . X

(9-2-24)

TWOBIGENMODES

193

It is seento bea soludozb provided tkat c:2 + 2A% Ms Na- 4xMs +

0.

(9.2.25)

Actually, Brown also other of (355) comddered solutions thesameequation, buttheyhada smallc(.c. negative) more nudeation thantheoneill eld and a2e The eigenmlue spectrum eqn(9.2.25),mss'uc'll of no interest- whole isleft to be discussedsedion9.4. izt Theboundary fttldlled if condition ks (9.2.13)

djj. (kr)
dr
r ua

=r

0,

(9.2.26)

where here the radius the sphere. equation a,zlln6nt'teaumR is of Tbis has berofsolutions, ofwhich the malleat hasto beconsidered. out only one ' Let qzbethe smcilest of root

4'/1(c) = ()
.

(g.2.27)

is q, 2.0816). thenucleation forthks Thea Eeld mode Rcordixg 1, (which ;4$ to eqn(9.2.25): 41 Hn = 2A% Cd + yMs. (9.2.28) Ms AzMs Compxring eqn (9.2.10), txMnginto accout that Nn = Nx for with and
. -

- -

sphere, k seen that f there m) other it magnetizaton is mtlde, reverx ia a sphere should by coherent start rotationif R < &, aadby cuz'ling if .R> J?,c, where h 3C & = Ms 47, (9.2.29) wid.c,h rathersimilarto the exwession aa infnite c'ylinder. the for H is notation Fre,i c1(356J,tllrnoverfromcohezent of et the rotatiotto turling in a sphere at tke reduced radius is
a

that f speculated this ruult cou)d utendu to a prolatespheroid: be wlkic,h curDng the nucleaton should feld be

(9.2.30) & 9.2.2.3Bllipsoid Revolnkion 80th earlystudies curlingg355, of 0/ 356)

= =

3 R Sc= --1 = qz 2r

3 2.08162/

1.438.

fzk=

'a rq

Ms

Cq2 Ras.i + NzMx, s

(9.2.31)

194

THE NUCLEAXON PROBLBM

wkere ksthe snmi-axis theellpsoid a direction R of in perpendicular to t:e f e1d directson andq is a parame/r whose z, value between andqz. is q and in terms harmbni, Bysolving (9.2.12) (9.2.13) of theellipsoidal eqns that it was' latezshown equ(9.2.31) is indeed nucleadon for this the eld mode, for a prolate for aa oblate both aad spheroid. Nrameter is a The q which only geometrical factor, depends on theaspect ratio,zp,,namely the ratio of theellipsoidal anddoes depend theproperd the axK, not on of ma/rial. 1tsvalue a monotonic-ally is decrexm-ng of m, whic function varies for a prola,tf spheroid between limits of qnfor thesphere m = 1, the with cylinder, m = x . It used betaken wit,h to 1oman aadqzfor theA-nGm-te not 'vez'y plot old,and auratey of q r,s. m, butnow t can beobtained (358) fzom follcwing the polynomsxl, is correct ve si/zifrltn digits, to t whic,h
+ .11381/-2 + .54072/+4 q = 1.M120 .48694/m .50149/m.3 .l72/mS.

Foraa oblate sphezoid,keps increasing monotonically decemsing with q r?z(359), qgfor thespherey thevalue = 2.115 theBmt't an fzom to in of qs inlnite platewith rrz -+ 0. Thecange thiswhole in isj reson thus,very small, a eozustant a q ra 2-1Cs and value corredto within1% foraay oblate spheroid. ?/x ra 1.4ma.y n!uvl(3591, is correct within2%. Or, be which to Compaz'ing (9-2.31) eqn(9.2.10):seenihat foraayeLpsoid with it is eqn of revolution, nucleation beby coherent must rotadon =a11rxzll-iand for ) by cuzling largeronu) andthe Ccriticap for radiusfor g between thue two modes is

(9.2.32)

Rc= q Ms -q

/r--c

-cz , A

or

Se= q = , hz

5--2

(9.2.33)

pzovided there no tMrdmode that ks wh- nuclGtion is large. Neld ThecurMgmode zmtreallylsmited c,ax of drfmlarsymmdry. is to For the caaeof a prism, whic,h infnite i.a the zzirection, has a s but rectangnlar cross-section zp-plane, i.athe the.curlingddned(359)the is as mx in reversal for whlc.h is an evenftwction tr andan odd mode function in rzv in in y, aad. is aa eveaNnction y aadan oddftmcuon z. Thepotential for tMs mode not zero, andneither the magnetostatic is is but enerar, it AlKn yieldsa nucleation whichhasa term with an essentially feld 1/R2

zependence-

9.3 Tmeo&* Slab te It has been shown section thatthe onlysolution Brown's in 9.l of linexrszed %nA . muations which aayphysici molkn-tng one which the largt isthe has nucleadon Thetwo modes eld. described the previous in section not do nnlsthewhole me= verymuc dgenxmlue spectrum analysed, it is and is shown all theother that psible modes a smalle,r have eigenvalueThe

INFNTE SLAB

l95

'

6mt of suc,h studieof thewhole spectrum for thecaseof an ivnite was c'ylinder. showed the existence a thrd mode, eliminate a,ll It of but (360) poebilities a fourthone- Thisc%e is atypical, its resul are not of and in as condudve other as cces, which v,ill bediscussedthenext section. 1tsalgebra also ks rather complicated a start-Therefore, pAdple for tNe ofcoverhg whole the eigenvalue spectrum bednmonstrated by a will Nere detaled of an infniteplane, presented (3614. c%e is also study ms in This atypical, its xsultsare zather and ambiguous of no particular and intert whenever ''n6nity mssumed as usually.happens an is a maretostatic (362), is problems. However, zrletW the same as in themore complicated the rxdaax,and is pxqier undeataad method consideriag simple it to this by this rxqo fm$. Therefore, consider platewhic,h iaaitfin boththez- andtheya is and irections, Mendsover the flnz'te raage-: S z S c in thedirection of theapplied eli In an inf nite material, non-divergent Gtnction of any must be a periodic functioa. With an appropziate coasideration for space thesymmetry propertieof etms thispcriodicity meaasthat (9.1.4)-(9.1.6), themostgeneral solution bewrittenin theform rztn

A(z) SA:'Z zc) eostnp &), mu = S(z) coslz sintzzv *o) #c), U = 'utzlcostz costnv #0), zn)
mz =
-

(9.3.34) (9.3.35)
(9.3-36)

where andn are realnumbers, .4, B ande, are functions k and whiex have to lx determinedSubstituting eqns (9.1.4)-(9.1.6), i.a andnoting that Nz = 4* for an snflnite plate, Wan- Nz = Nv = 0,

c P 02

:.2-

.42

C O ,- ka c dz
-

s2

tfz P dzg

nz

= 4xK) A(z) -kMs'uis(z), (9.3.37) 2.&%plk(Nw 4xMs) = -sMa>a(z), Blzj (9.3.38) = 4xMs sS(z)) (9.3.39) 'tqatz) (kz1(a) ,
-

2A-z Ms tSa

Jz kl .p.2 ,tteut(z)= 0. (9.3.40) dz2 Theboundary conditions obtnln by suMtitutin.g sxrneequatioas, are ed the in eqns The two are (9.3.34)-(9.3.36), and(9-1-7)- 6m-+ conditions (9.1.3)
-

1
-

(IA dz

A= sc

dB = 0. dz a=+.

(9.3.41)

196

THENUCLEATION PROBLEM

Theotherboundary conditions easier incorporate it is noted are to if frst thateqn(9.3.40) twopossible has only solutions, ofwhic,ll one divergcat infnity.I1sonly solution whicis realar at '-ninit.g ks
cout =

vse k.+o-(ezp) ,

(g.z.4a;

where upper applies thereon z > c andthelowe signappli the sign to to there#on< -G andwhe.re and7- are twointegration z F+ constaats. Substitutin.g solution theret of theboundazy thks n conditionsl are they seento be
= w'uzliclFc!z ,

and

dwn a = ry k + na i,. , :i: dz 7mukc

(asgsggl

which completc reduction theImJIMderatialequauons a set the of to of or ' ones,i.aone dimension. Thecohexent rotationmode theparticular k = p, = vzin= 'tlout= is cmse 0, with either = 0 andB = const,or B = 0 and.4 = const,according W to the defnition section i.n 9.2.1. rAn beverKedby su%titution It that thiscmse hdeeda solution a2theforegoiug Ls of equations, that the and nudeation is the same Br rotationin the A-direction in the :> feld or direcdon, s and H= = - 2fG+ 4rMsj (9.3.44) Ms for Nz Nv But which a particlar of eqn(9.2.10), = 0 azkd = 4r. is ca% of this eigenvaluedegeaerate onlywith respect thedirection the is not to rotation. the infmite istakenas thelsnn-t a,nobla* spheroid If slab of for nlnn wikich -+ x, eqn (9.2.31) nucleation cnrlin,g tendsto R for the by the same valuemsin eqn(9.3.44). point is that an infnity is never The wemdeved magnetostatic h problems, it mustbespecifed liml't and the of whch shape infnity is.ln a 6nlte body, coherent this a rotauon involve workaYnstthe magnetostatic doing for= dueto thesmface nhn.rge on the <detowards not whichthe magnetization rotates, does ilwolve but because the spinsa:e aligaed all parallel to evfhzmge, any workagaimst eachother.On the otherhand, curliug exthe mode do%workagalnst there change forces, because is a spatial delmdence tkemagnethation, of but doe not involve workagainst magnetostatc because forces there any sorfnzw volnme Lsneither charge. this atypical nor In case of an infnite slab, excAange the contributlon the curling to wnisha because radius the in ininlte,whilethemagnetostatic contributkon the coherent to rotation vaaishes because is no smozw f/he there in directton rotationwhen of the is plateeex'tends to infnity in the zpplMe.ln this case,the onlybarrier dueto the anisotropy whichis thescm.efor 50thmode, aadthe energy, eigeneue tums out to contain onlytheA'1term--Howevemobdous it is

INFINITI SLAB

that the vanishing onetermis not the samemsthat of theother, the of and realphysical depends thewayof approach thisinfnits as often limit on to happens manyproblems magnetsm. spiteof all the azguments in in 1.xz in the that rotationtakes place thisplate in (3611,conclusion onlycoherent is only dueto the separation 'variables Cartesian of in coordinates, which implies approaching infnity msthe limit of a growing the plate.If square it is approached the limit of a growing a,s oblatespheroid, mode . the at innity the curlingmode. is Before proceeding, it should bementioned the argument also that about the periodidty not strictly corrcct,although hasbeen is it used other i.n studies, particular the cmse(360)a.'!linfnite circularcylinder. in for of In prindple kspossible imagine it to some sort of a loczzlze mode, whichdoes not spread over the slab,aadsuch mode all a need beperiodic. is not It notpossble buildsuch mode theseparation vadables to a by ol technique, as used writing eqns(9.3.34)-(9.3.36), shortcoming in but this does not rule necessarily oat thepossible efstence a locnlszed Thisproblem of mode. will befurther discussedthenext section. it is suldent to saythat in Here the inadequacy the separation of variableinto a function z timesa of of of functionof y, etc., is another manifestation the infnite dmension the sample. problem ndt encountered any Eniteellipsoid) The i.s in for witicha11 possible the modes bewrittenmsa series the spheroidal can in wave function, it is not necessary supezimpose extraassumption and to any assumption periodidty. theinfnity which equivalent thepresent is to of If is approached an appzopriate of a fnite particle, results as limit the a're betterdened than they aze whenthe start is 1om a particle whichis infnste one or more dimensions. hasbeen in As mentioned already, is there no meaaing infnity in magnetism, it is always to and to necessa'ry speci in which this infnity is approached. way laeaving problem innityfor the meantime, accepting this of and eqns msthemostgeneral caase, such setof threesecond-order a (9.3.37)-(9.3.39) diferential equations should a solution six arbitrary have with integration constaats. Therefore, solutjon which such constarts themost has six is any general I.aparticular, it is shovnto bea solution, is sulcientto one. if it takea solution the form of
6
= = A(z) V Az'elLsnS(z) ,

SeJ<r
i=1

f=1

= 'fzutzl

ULela' ,

:=1

(9-3-45)

where aresixcomplex numbersy provided sixout of the18constants that /.s A'l B6,aadUi are jndependentthe others. of Substituting (9.3-45) in eqn thediferevtial equations it is seen for (9.3.37)-(9.3.39),that theconditions it being solution a a're

l98
-

T% NUCLEATION PROBLEM
-

m Lybx (C :2 2) 2A% M: (JQ 4*Ms)j+ lMsw = 0, (9.3.47) w (9.3.48) (p1P n2) = 4xMs(kA nB
-

For ear.lt valueof 1 K f K 6 these tk homogeneous are equations i.aA, m andvo andGe condition themto havea non-zerosolution for This is that the determinant the coecientsvauishes. detonnina.n a of t is third-order polynomial pl, and sucx in aa shoddllave (complex) six roots eAn be used for ;ti. Foreach these of roots,eqns (9.3.46)-(9.3.43) to solve for two out of the tlzreeconstants Sf aadkz: in termsof the th-lrd .&, one, thus leaeg sxarbitrary intevationconstants, widch mezas that eqa' is the soludon, contains po%ible aud all mode. These (9.3.45) mtgeneral sLx constants, with the t'woadditional 'k%, oaes should beeuated now bythermuirement fulflling theeilt muations theboundary of for conditionsin eqns(9.3.41) (9.3.43). are dght homogenecms and There equations for determnlng eightconstants, thecondition a non-zeror,othese and for of the vaaishes. Equating lutionis thltt the de#orlm-nxnt coeEdents this detprngnn.n zero thenyields allowed the values theapplied Hx, for feld to aad these theeigeneuaofthe problem. are an Such akebra not triviak. it is stMghdorward pedple. is but in Moreover, present of an ln4nlteplate particularly the cmse is simple that in it can all becvziedout analytkally. tird-order The determinant be can factorie- (361) a quadratic a linearequation Jz?: a11 into aud in , and six roots rltn be mltten in a closed fozm.The resultLs (361q all oter that mcdes havea more negative nudeation thaa the coherent feld rotatioa mode) as such beignored being and can as physicldly unatteable. Thedetails thae othersolutioas not begiven of wlll here, becauseis it simpler employ technique wlzicN nlm proved vea'z to a has a mwerful (362q *ol h othe.x cxses. Themethod lomed calculating uppe-r Ls on aa bound feld is to the nudeation ofa certe mode) namely value a which proved If to be lvgex than or eq'aal the t=e nucleation to eldof that mode. th2 upperbound found be smaller more negakive) that of is to thau (.& another the is mode, actual nucleation of theErstmodetwhicilnot eld than hrgerthanits uppe.r is bound)certxinlysmaller that ofthe second mode. sia And onlythe largest nucleation hnqa physical fe-ld meaaing, mode whichLsshown have smGernucleation than that of to a Neld any aaother mode of no iaterest, maybesafely out.Even ks and left when two modahve same nucleation one of the.m usually left out. the seld be may lzvm, One to calculate upperboud isto drop vsiiine ezte-rgy an a way pxm'e thau thusdecremshg energy the barrier, meng thereversk aad it rpallyis.In thepresent it is czmvenient obtain upperboand a cmse to an to setof mod dropphg mMnetostatic the l)y termj whichis knownv enezgy section to bea non-negahve tsee term lt clear 7.3.2).ks fzomthe derivation ofBrown's equations secdon that droppiag mxgnetostaiic in 8.3 the enerr = te= is equivalent writing'ttuz 0 on thevisbt-hand of eqns to side (9.3.37)

INFNTB SLAB

199

and(9.3.38), ignoriag (9.3.39) (9.3.43), thesubsKtuaad and eqns befm nm of The tkon eqn(9.3.45).dllerential muations A(#and#(a) then for ideadcal, eitherone of themmaybeused the upperbound. and f Foz lmmple, w1t,h = 0 t'hemostgeneral solutioa Ls 4(a)
= + BLz) Bzegz fac-e

(9-3-49) (9.3-50)
(9.3.51)

with thetwo arbitrary constants andB,. It is a xlution provided B that G'(p2k2

-

zft'y 'rz2)
-

= Aqzf, 4rrMsl0. LHu

-

Substituting (9.3.49) boundazy in the conditons, (9.3-41), yieltks eqn eqn

= #$ (Jhep'c = s (.s,c-- ac/'c) c. sae-mc)

These equaKons a common non-zero sohtion andoalyif the two have if det>rvn-nant coeden B aad veshes,namely ofthe of Sz
= 0, g tstme e-zJzcl

(9.3.5z) (9.3-53)

whose mostgemea'al solutton is

g
=

'mzCY

2c j

wkere is an integer. m in the for Substituting eqn (9-3.50),upperbonnd thenucleation is feld

C =2:r2 kl $7,2 u:u Hzx 4gr.K 2.% . + Mu Ma zlc72 +

-

(9.3.54)

Theleastnegative these of eigenvalues oae for wlkic.h = k = n = 0, is the m Dd for this mode (9.3.54) ume msmn (9.3.44) mherent s the of the eqn rotation. It haathus that for is been proved an upper bound all other modes larger th= or eqnalto thetnte nudeation of the coherent rotationmode. Geld Therdore, thiscaseofan inGnite for plate, coherent tlze rotation themode is wMch theIeast has negatve feld. not that aucleation It izas btvm proved thereis no othermode whichhms sqme nucleation as that ofthe t'he feld coherent rotationjand there no justlcationtheclnx-m (361) tis is to in that e-q.n Gculation thatonlycoherent rotation takeplace s-ac,h in a plate. provu H fact,it hAA alrevy ben demonstrated foregoing thecurlhg in the that mode have s=e nucleation aa thecoherent does the rotation,aadtlds feld degeaeracy someambiguity to whicah q'ill takephcein a leaves a.s mode realphysical situation. mainideaof lixertHscTngequadons to The the wms

20O

PROBLBM THENUCLEATION

know of aoa-liner 1omwbie.b mode staz't numezical to a solution Brownss eqqaiions oftheverymanypossibilites. tidspurpe, out For degenerac'y of the Imcleaonmode is undeeable, because allowsmore thnn one it tke posibility proceed Howevez,thks t,o lom. in respect caseofan infnite pla* Lsnot representative, because Lsless there ambiguity any fnite ia empsoid. aumption of an infnity is problematic Tke because of anyway, tke necessity assumea periodidty, to aleadymeationed theforegoug. in
9.4 The Third Mode m'rnl-lar Usiug methods 'those to outliaed the predoussection, was in h 6mt proved a spherw latarfor aay oblate for and spheroid that the (359), coherent rotationandthe curling tke only pfwmible are nucleation modes. Curling 'Ae.S plce above certe dze,aadcoheremt a rotationbelow it, wkeretheblrnover fromone to the otheris given eqn (9.2.33). by Tkere Onnotpo%ibly anycompetition a third modeo be 1om because all other for thau modes nucleation ksmore negative for thcxse Theonly the Eeld two. in abiguity is encountered the b-mltof a.n A-n4m-te for whicllthe plate, curDng thecohereat and rotation tendto thesameeigenvalueo as(ILSCIUR'U:!;I But in theprevious section. even fthat limit, thereis no tkird mode) if tke in6nlt.y approachu an oblate is with from spheroid .R-+ x . tkere Fora prolate spheroid, maybea thirdmode, which beaamed will for name- Thename buckling 6m-: was bncklng, lackofa more approphate applied a particular to model, suggested together witk'the model for (&%) cur ling forthe'particuzu of aztinfnitecrlinder. nucleationeld case Its f was laterfoud (360)bea good 1 approvlmadonthat of a third nucleation to mode was skown ezst in an infnite cyliader, wbiczh given that to aad was the samenamc. Actuallyl mode this turaed to bealways out easier than the coherent rotationin au infaite cyHder(360), so that iu suck cylizta deriere rAn onlyi)e buckling Mow a certain swize, curling and above it, witkoutaaytkird pfwmibility. Grststudy(359) whole Tke ofthe eigeneue showed coherent that rotation could spetrnm of a Bnitepfolatespherofd bethceaaiest in someregion size elongation, didnot rule mode of and but out thepossibility tEebuckllng that would takeover in anotker It range. didrule out, however, possibGty a lonrth the of mde, that it coald so be dvni*ly stated none buttketEree tkat modes should considered be for prola* sykeroid no surfKeanisotropy. witk any Otherlimltson the possible moda were fouadlaterj but tkey were stzlambiguous, a recentevaluation gave results until reproduced (363) the in Pig. 9-2kere.It plots regions wlzic,h in modes beallowed a in may prola* spheoid with an aspectratio m aada radius in the directbn R perpGdicular tke applied to Geld, plotted terms of the reduced in radius Sdefned ia or Form (9.2.20). K 500therecan onlybedthercurling coherent eqnas shown thefgurej. as is the6a,% all obhte rotatlon, in and for spheroid? large,r thethirdmode not completely out.It may For m, is mZIM

THETHYD MODE

201

1-5

CURUNG

COHERENT ROTATION

FIG. 9.2, The possible nucleation modes a prolatespheroid in with a.u aspect ratio (majorminor to m, semi-minor SA a'ds, Jt='Klanda reduced defned eqn(9.2.20). curling coherent in Only or rotationare physically in eists possible the regions marked. a third mode(buckling) at so lf all,it ca.nonlybein thelittle quasi-triangle, around question the mark, fzom computed 'a,= 13.See for thedefldtion n. Copied (3634. for te-xet of
place, alimited range, thesmalltrhagularregion in in take for size marked F'ig.9.2.Thisre#on the bestthat ca.nbeobtained n = 13,where is for 'p,) the order theLegendre of polynomial for thecalculation, essentially used is an arbtrcn is parameter. choice onlyDmited the dilculty, which Its by increases 'p,,ofachieving suldent accuracy the computations. with in a cmnn An elongation more than 500:1 ot bereached practice, its of in and ' the is notvery diferent study purely is academic. Moreover, bu 1om the coherent rotation, the inGnite for cylinder, -+ x, with smallradi.i m before curling the takes over. There someuncertainty this conclsion, is in because the infnity,whiG is never a 'good of assumption magnetismin lt implied that the eigenmode nfnite cylinder bepriodic of an must in (360) the z-direction. Therefore, possibility a diferent, the of localized is mode

100/ga

202

THENUCLEATION PROBLEM

still leftopen,as it was in the studyof theinfinp'te in section But plate 9.3. nnll'kxthel-n6nite platejthe 1-n4n$ rnnnot beapproached a te cylHder 6om mode'mxleqy knoum solution a fnite cpsoid. Obdously, a loeltlized for if thethizdmode, named lbuckling' Fig.9-% besimllnrto Gat one, in mus't andnot to the knowa buclrllng a.ainvite cylinder. no loe-qXeAlin If (36Q) mode efsts in azt infnite cylinder, bucbling the mode m-t probably ks a of aad in just manifestationthel'nllntety, dx not exis-t aayfniteellipsoid. Some attempts fnd a modelfor a mode = infnitecylinderfailed, to such in wlzic,h prtdple does proveaaytkin:one wayor the other. most in not The r-nt attempt(3Gqwrong is becauseuses wrongapprozmation? it The is much thauthetermswhich taken are enerr ttvrn it neglects (365) larger into atrount- However, loMll-g,p.d of a similarnaturemaystzl be a mode ptebleobut onlywithinthequui-triangular bounds shown Fig.9.2. in At any rateothe mckqt importantpoint is that there no othermode zs for a.nellipsoid revolution, that this statement been of and has rigozously There proved theproofcltnr ot bec'hallenged. is no pott in tzyiagto and postulate otkerreversal mode, Gcause mustlead a higher it to any enerr barrier, namely more negative a nucleation tllaa at lemst of these feld, one modew unless there somemistake the calculauon the othe,r is in of modeNevertheless, wereverymaqysuGattempts look othermod, there to for because presentationtbis stat-ent in the oririnnlpapers the eddently of wasnotdearenough be to understood. confusion to have The seems already started wlth Fig.3 of one of the frst redews on elongated particles, (366J reversal'modes. whicN together sGemxtic put a representationlour of The the e of that review did but (366) explzu'n dFerence, whenthis fgure out wmscopied manyreviews books, was used of cont>t. lt then to and it ledsomepxple to believe thereare actually models reversal, that four for which beused an equal on bmsis, payiag not attention their diflent to may geometries. These models thecoherent are rotation, bu , andcurlingy mentioned the foregoing, a fourthone rnlledIanning. in plus Historicalzy, magnetization the fnrningmodel the flrs'taevpt to was reverml,in order calfmlxte formof a non-coherent maaetization to any explm'n theStoner-Wohlfnr'th didnot agreewith why model expeziment on (m-rtain materials.lt c=e at the<mewhen General Electric developing was theproduction elongated pardcles whatwas latersoldunder of fne for the that commercM ofLodex name ma>etwaad was noted these it particlu this were shaped more Therefore, shape was (366) or less111*peanuts. approzmated by a lin-xr trthna-n spheresl of which toucheach other at (36% a pointso tbnxt is spheres, there but Gere no exchnange interaction betweea ksa magnetostatic interaction between them.For tMs exq-, a model waa proposed in which magnetization the rota coherently tw-11 thekz of (367j spheres, theangle rotationmaybed-eereat the diArent sphere. but of for Thismodel called was 'non-symmetric fanning'. However, computez's were not avHable those in days, computation thedsF-nt angles hand and of by
'

THETOD MODE

203

was rather elaborate. Therefore,was found it adequate to studyonly (367) tsymmetdc an cppraimation called fanning', whichthereis only one n acgle, with one halfof the spheres rotatingat that angle, the other and Even approfmation shown halfat minusthesameangle. this was to beeasier reversethanby coherent to rotation,which not surprishgfor is

(3671

thisparticulargeometry. Obviously, non-symmetric the fanning, whichis equieent thebuckling to mode a cylinder, beeven easier the in must than symmetric fanning, because enerr is mt'nsmlzed more parameters, the over with the symmetdc fanning beinga particular case of the iore general minimization. mode studied more detailfor a chain only t'tvo This was in of sphere with a unl'ar'a1 Gsotropywhoap axisis parallel thechain to easy a'ds (3681 is actually an additine thenucleation ia aJJ to Eeld just (which and feld curling of modlzthenucleation formagnetization in a chan any of length been has evaluated bya perturbation scheme. problem The (344) in the whole of modes such chainof spheres never been set a has fully solved, it seems that the resultshottld very similarto that of an but be namelythat the reversal by curlingabove certainradius, is ellipsoid) a Gnning a smaller andbynon-symmetric for radius, vezylittle ckance witk of any othermode. any case,the reversal H modes an elpsoid,and for those a chain sphereq for dxerent for of are bodyshapes. cannotbe They compared each with other,or mhedtogether any otherk'ay. in Nevertheless, quitepopularfor some time to compre the it was (36% values tprdicted each theknownmechanismsfanning, by of of buckling, andcurling'with some experimental results, orderto ndout which in of theseEmechanisms' placein a give,n takes experiment. attention No w.xspaidto thediFerent involved, actually and therewas not geometries even an attemptto defne even specifc picgeometry, when any particular microscope turesof thesample aelable. These were transmission electron whkh showed particles (TEMlphotos (369) ofa ratherirregularshape, could elcertanly bedescribed ellipsoids. not as Theylookmore like distorted Je-ss of lipsoids, theycan muc,h beapprofmated the picture a chain but by of spheres. However, realshape not even mentioned thequasthe was in theoretical hterpretations, whic,h consideredae a part oftheadjustable it parameters, stating, example, (370) for that certainexperimental results llayin therange consistent thechaizsof-spheresprolate with and ellipsoid models'Thediscussed were not verywelldefned ! modes either, with more attention paidto thename thanto anysort of a mathematical defnitiop andnucleation Gelds in these used comparisons more oftenthannot, were, those curling an insnjte of in cpl/zder 371q- thisapproach there (36% With is little wondcr too manyworkers freeto inventandpropose that felt all sortsofnew reverx models in to of (372) addition theesting models coherent rotation,fanning, buckling, curling', demanded these and and that new models treated thesame footing the tefsting'ones. be on as A dxerentparticle shape be easilyima#ned support modes can to

204

PROBLEM Tc NUCLEATION

whichare dsFerent those fzom mentioned But no new shaN was here. ia Msnmed thue sindies, for thesamegeometry modes and other caanot takeplaze properlycalculated. should especially if lt lye noted that it is not secientfora reversal mode bave lower to a enerv tlzinthe satura/d state.States lower with eld enerr doGst as Kon asihe applied reverses its direciion, theyare not necsnn-ly but Rcesible, explained xction as in 9.1-One shonld careful govia enerr minima a well-dened to on path, be and to useapprom'mations, can lead large not which to errors, as theyhave in these modes. Thee new modes esseutially nAsmmed ume chain the of spkeres, considered but a vagaenes aboutthe geometry an excusefor as in The aad poorapprovlmations the calculations. kuass-curling'kuasibuckh'ng' were particularly ill-defned, were hardlymore Gan and (370) appropriate thee case to justnames, it beingsvted that tcalculations dilcult'. The Knove.l are ve.ry reversal mechanism' named (372), 'ipphg', fanaing couldbethe sameas what used be rztlled to non-symmetric in a chan spheres, done of if properly with no extra approimations aad or inconskstendes, as a total thickncs, of tEeTGzlly suc,h T, developed in wall' the chaiw which allowed belargear the total number spheres. is to than of ln an invitedtalk at a conference I tziedto pointout these dLs(373) tortedconcepts, Kncwleat lemst not convinced ihese but by was arrzments.Eepublsshed a lreply'whic: stakdthat thei.r shape (3741 all %,'m of thepartides invalidated thereults for an Gipsoid, allowed and to legislate curling of efstence, to choose modeat wi11. out aud other The recder hopefully will understltnd thisapproach nowhere. that leads There are more appropriate of studieof cltn.ims spheres anisotropy or wiih (375j) of spheres wllichare cut before togeoer <) joining (376) that theytouch GCX otherover a ratherwidearea,,andnot onlyat one point,andthus resemble better pe=ut-shaped the pvticles.Therels alsoa theoryfor a nhlu'n disks of and of spheroids whic,h (3711,one fora chain oblate (378!, are evenbetterapprofmations tbsK for skape. none of tke.m encounYd has tered new mode, they a11 backto the'old' moda.In order aad come any to condude discuHon will only bementioned eventhe angalat tbis it that dependence was so emphaaized which in (374),we,ll that of (3711, as ms was dl-lerentapproach. dataof later azcouated (379) a completely for by The Knowle were ftted to a Stoner-Wohlfne: with model, a cubicmaaetoctystxll-me anisotropy superimposedthe shape on anisotropy a prolate of the spheroid, whe.n demaretizing wmsintroduced,led (379) and feld it to azt texcelleni agreement'. possibilitie Other 380, have (368, 381) n.lgnbeen nsidezed.doe happen R quiteoften that (3821 thesame experimeavl dataft dferenttheories.
9.5 Broml's Paradox Themnsnrexsonfor the tfatilel search otherreversal for modeis Gat in spiteof all therigourin the qvaluation thenudeation o felds,the results

BROWN'S PARADOX

205

donot agree eoeriment, particulaz the caseof bulkmatedals. wth in for Mthough nacleafon is a teoretical the feld which aot usually is concept memsured, not evemnecsary continue calculation it ks to the beyond the muclGtion wit; etperpointin order seethat this theorycauot apee to iment, that something basicatly and is eld vrongwith it. Thenucleation E= is dened section :: the feld at whic.k 5n 9.1. some ckaage s'tcr.ts fust in the previously saturated state.Thecoerdvity(or coerdve H< force) is defned section asthefeld at which the maaetization been in %x1f has 1,I reversed, at anyrate meansthat a tvgechange already whkh haq ocrmvrM Hz in the previously nturatedstate.Therefore, can onlyberenrhed a?.er eztn going through in thesequence described seclon9.1,or tkcsy be in Jlk at mosttke sxme feld in the e-qme whenthereis a bigjump the maaeof dzation the feld H=.Notingthat the denjtion Hn is for an applied at of tbrough feld that stuts pitive, goes :zd zero to negative valuu,while Hc isdened a positine ms quaatity, above the statement meansHc k -H=. Suppose tllat the fezromaaetic rs't bodyis a largeellipsoid. Small later The particles bediscussed in this section. mainconclusion will fzom the all the studies sectons and9.4is ibxt for a hrgeenough in 9.2 body, takes whether scoherent rotationo: budding the for curling mode over, it smaller radii.Therefore, according eqn(9.2-31) to

Sc k ----1 azvs - NzMs. + Ce

2A

(9.5.55)

The right-haad mqy benegative, whennucleation side occurs already at = positive elds. example, '-wm at rxm temperature For for 2K(Ms 560 aad Oe, 4xMs= 21600G. the elpsoidis a sphere, Nz = 47/3, If Mth. thefrst aadthelasttermof mn (9.5.55) up to -6640Oe. middle add The 1 term is positive, it is ceriminly but negligible a sulciently for large and R, the z'ight-hand of mn (9.5.55) side is negative. such case all that the In a ixequality states that the posiiine is larger is thana negadve number) Sk whic.k an emptystatement. is EFectively meansthat the calculation it of H=is inadequate tell anything to aboat in such cmse. S< a St froma large positive feld,a reversal already nucleate a podtiveapplied at eld, bdorea zero feld is reached. is then necessary solve non-linear It to the Brou's equations smaller for positive felds, afternudeation, follow and thesolution down negative ti11 Ls to felds -Sc reached. statement No about the theoretical of Hcis wlid lxforethlscalculation carried value is out. However, ironcystal is an elongated if the prolate spheroid instead of Nz a sphere) caa bemuch smazer tends zero for an infnite cylinder), to (it andthe whole NXM.tprrn noy beomenegligibly small. this casethe ;.a is positive. the term right-haad ofeqn(9.5.55) <de Since middle is positive that for ve,ry iron it elongated bodies 2 560 Sc Oe. anyway, eztn bestated For whiskeest are veryelongated with iron which paztidaindeed, dixmeters

206

'PHE NUGUATION PROBLEM

of severilm aada lengthoftheorde.r 1 cm, theexwrimental of value foz Hcis nsually Oeor less, 0.1 wllic.h a ve.ry Ls large discrepaacy. lown lt ks ia telitaratuze Btomn's as c-rcivity paradox. Nrtotrlor Brown's lroais givea msa zepresentadve chssof mat-n'xhwkic.lt here oka .6 called magnetic mzedcl:anddeoedas materials whic.h < f :o# .R% exi-me is matezials wlzich >. 'ZMI, thks . The for Kz and clmss JrM; othez isHownbythename of Mrd mcgnedc materials. There ao 1aw nature is of which preveats maiarials beingin betweea extreme fom these cases,but suck matezials not behgproduced invtigated, are or beceause donot they have practicat appicatioa. ma/rialsare used Soft where coercithe aay vit.gis preferred be as smallas poggible, in motorsor trusformers, to e.g. where hlgkpermeability lowlosses zmuired. a and aTe Hardmaterials are msed applica/ons require magnetizatioabefxedfor a loag in whic.lk the to dmeafter czystal been the ilM such magaetized, as in permaaent magnets. materixlK, Recording sueah 'PFeZO3, i!l fhe latter categoryp for as aa'e but themit is prp-f-mad themagaetizing for writingthedataskould that feld not behtge.'Thereforq are made they wltlz a K wlzich rathe,r is large, butnot too large. Such materi/sare sometime rderred mssemi-hatd to ' acgnedc mcfedcfxs. H hardmateziab, is tbxn Browa's paradox even more outstaading in softoaes,becauseit appzes anyelliped,aad onlytoelonoted to not ones. = 16 Forev-tmplej R-tpezzoz ia at room temperature Oe, 2A'1/Ms 600 and yrMs = .1500 Thelargtpossible for Nz in any cpsoid is 4r, G. *ue f an inHte platewith the feld perpendicular the plate.Evenfor to thks value, justnotingthat the middle and term in eqn (9.5.55) is posiive withoutchenldng whatits mluemay be,this ixeqnxlity>ys that Ho 12000 Theexperlmental for Beelcow partides theordez Oe. smlue of of l>m is 3 000 Slmonr Oe. discrepandes eacoune in practically are any magnetic mateM,whea crystal is hrgeeaoul. the size It should particnlnmly that thisdiscrepancy,paradcx, be noted or caan befozmulated without of theYculatioas theprevious in secdons) aad any would have applied if all that algebza wrong-The value the even was of has here, middle term in eqn (9.5.55)not even beea used except its for being positive, that all tke details thecurling so of mode not exte,r do te rgnment.At least samediscrepancywoddhaveappliecoherent the if the rotatioa theeasiatmodep wms becauseis in theterm withJt% it wkic.lt is common to c!Jtevetsaz modes. Otker modes even Tnnlw dirvfnrethis may Nz worsebyhaving additional terms,such asthe termiu eqa(9.2.10) pancy for thecoherotrotation,but theterm with Kz is certainly always there. For thl'n reason, inventiag modes new caaaothelpremove the paradox) ev= if atl the discussion =tion 9.4was wrong.Actually, problem in tke wmsalready Hownb6jor6 the foregoing all calmzlations of nucleation felds. in Mready 1945 Browa had that of 13831noted thebarrierfor nucleation is tkat is any sort of a reversal ai lecast of theanisotropy ezezutwbich

BROWN'S PAEADOX

207

theErstterm in eqn(9.5.55),because exeunge magnetostauc the aad just termsare alwanpositive. thisnnt-sotropy byitselfis too Even m eaerpr ' and coercivity considerably is smaller thanit, in large, thee-xpersmental all bnlkferromagnetsMoreovezz the vala the coerdvity not even of need benKtvl ordc to rmllh'z- paradox. in the Equaon or already eqn (9.5.55), nacleation but domains 1)e implies feldj can observed (9.2.31), a negaiine already zero applied (see in eld sedion It has shown ution in 4.1). ben 6.2that the estenceof these domMnRfavorable is energetirAlly) a but lowe.r for to enera is not a sulcientconditlon the domalns enter.As ha: alzeMy been uplznm-qed section the ezstence a lowez-enera in 9.1, of stateis not suEcieat thesystem beableto repnhthat state. Tor to . Theremsons thisparadox ratherwellunderstood, for are qualiiaiinelk, and belisted will separately hardand SOA for for matlm'm. Eowever, More gotg 1.nt0 details must1)e these it emplxized thediscepandes tx that aze large betaken to ligbtly. Until thetheozy modise to takeinto account is qnanutazively Gects tke whic,h cause thtsparadox, everything discussed eAn in this chapte.r onlybeapplied Enepartcles. of thisstudyof to None nucleation servea=y usevpurpose can when comesto czystals it which to are largeenough suppol a subdivision manydomains. them nto For it is possible get awaywitha theory to which iaores all of this capte,r d tlte question howdomains into thecystalz' takes for of enter and it grantethat theyare there theirestence if reduces enira.Theories the whic,h compare only of confgurations, a,stheone in such energies vadous section6.2,or that of domain stmtdures chapter workverywe.ll wall i.ll 8, ' in thisrefon, eztn beused interpret xrts of aad to all %ta1 data. t?y'n.rn is the shape tlzervfwtxlled spikes, A particularly nice p1e of N&1 which are formed near inclusions- theirgeneral Once shape is (384) non-magaetic xuumed, eaera mlnlmlzaxtion (385)a.tt 6nedetails thdr an leads to the of stracture, with a perfect to experiment. theoriaare still being R Such applied , aad theyare actually inevitable, long thepresent as ms theory (=) c=not beextended takecare of the defects to whic,h be spfvq4ed will in wthe followlguStill,thissituation does jusGy not discarding capter tMs altogether, less much discarding wkole the theory micoma&eti, of as has beea suRested dubious on goulds,discussed(382). nucleation in The theory agree expeziment small does with for pardcle,and modications the whic necare to mnlcm >ee <th experiment largez it for particles somekime. are knowa pdndple, may beworked in detail in aad out

9.5.1 HardJrflterilld Wkenopticaliytransparent plates BaFelzozs saturated a large of are in feldpaadthe feld is thenruuced,domasns already a positive at appear appEed Eowev/mhasbeen Eeld. it noted that domains not do (38% these anywhere theMmple. in Thezsem to emerge radally a wellfrom appear deine (nucleadol centre'whic always the same spot in a given s at

208

THENUCLEATION PROBLEM

crystal, vadous for cyclng the ield.ln somecrystals, domains of no were obsened zeroapplied aad onlyappeared to seveeral at eld, they hours up nfl,er of. nuclo (:'&) thefeld kadbtamswitched In some cases,domains atedonly aftera negatve of -1000 to -2000 was appied:389). Geld Oe these Obviously, observations to indicate the domes nudeate seem that the value only poin? in the CY:aI before theoretioal is reached at those whiclz be, evpmple, impurity where is somesortofa defect, there aa may for hrm atomor a dislocation. nat'um thee ddects notbeen The determined, of except one casein whicx nucleatlon for tke centre could identled(389) be with a craclc the crystalin Similar nucleation centres were produced (390) Some iu MnBifllmql)yprickng themwitha non-magnetic needle. domains nudeate at the ehe.aa plate, of (3911 These experiments meaa thatthepeded parss thecrystal of obey may thenucleation theorsandthat nothhgwould nucleatedtt were not have if for these imperfect spots.Of couzse,oncc thedomains nudeate one of at these centres, there no extraenerr barrierj it is ver.y forthem is and eas)r to spreH all ove,rthe crystal, whenthe state of subdivision domains into hasa lower stateeven for the perfect partsof enera thztn the saturated the crystal.A model proposed in whic.h nucleation was the centre (392) were assnme.d dislocation to be lineqandtheirefet was assumed bea to highlocalstres that could eedivelybetakenas a local Jouednp the of ansotropy constant, Nothing K:specifc bedone can witlloutatleast some indicatioa $he of amouatofthisreduction, tesize whc.h may aad over it Gxtemd but these parameters not lown. is x1mnot possible are It (3j32, to knowwhat domains tle actually like ia the earlystages their look of formation, an attemptto studytikisstMe(394) materln.l and in one could of onlyreportthat theinitiat growth thedomans pro-ds tx rapidly for observatiomFor remsons, a calculation, its modifcations these suc,lz or (395) can as evaluationlnstead of 396J, onlybe descxibeda semimuaatitative thedillocation lines, defects aduallybeplanar the but may (396, in dther r'lm caseit sems (392) su& a mraztunism resolve tkat Brown's paradAin hardmaterials, least partkle whichare aot muchlargerthan the at for size which at domains to beenergetically start favourable, atthoughmore a quantktative theorr is still needed. Thereare alsosome e-X.IIe-IiII'eIA on - andann-wkh-ng matpvlnln, hard whose resul?are g112, 114, 113, 398) in qnxlitative aveement tltispicturefor theroleofdislocations. with larger cystals,theroleof dislocationsreversedj there is Fozmuch and are both theoretical 400, and (399, 4011 experimental 40% in(402, 404) dicadons the c-rdvit.y of bulk materinls that hcreases with increasing number defects) of probably because holdthe domaia they wallsanddo not let themmove fzeely whenthe fleldis nbltnged. There have bceaseveralattempts to separate mechanisms the of nucleatingdomah a ao 2405) of moving wal thediference not bee,n very well tabits but has (4) Smore lished. as coacludeda review(4Wj, workis needed make Or, in to

BROVWYPARADOX

209

interpretations unambiguous'. problem particularly The is compllcated by whic,h not start with a sudently experiments do largeapplied for feld driving domains andreportmeasurements are actuallymithe whic,il away, they they nor loops. Sometimes are presented suc,h butsometimes as (403), are not, as in several examples in (373, 392), repeat one listed 382, To just case, in certainMnBicrystals domalns the completely disappeared at (408) when an applied feld of 5000 andreappeared thefeld was reduced Oe, to a smaller, still positive, but value. Whensuch crystalwas once put in a a Oe, feld of 20000 thedomains disappeared never appeared with and again of stated the that any cycling thefeld. In some othercases,it hasbeen tnucleation depends the valueof previously feld on applied positive feld andt;e crystalimperfecuon' so that the nucleation measured thus (4091, hasobviously nothing dowith the nucleation def in section to as .ned 9.1: or with Brown's paradox. Similar obseneations 411,412), others and (410, dted in (407), that manyexperiments not start fl'omsaturation. show do cnn Onthewholej magnetization the reversal bulkhardmagnets onlybe in crystalline saidto depend on defects, which notincluded the theory, are in andthat Brown's paradox beresolved theyc,r6 lduded. wl when
9.5.2 Sojt Mstezicg lf a longiron whisker heldin a suciently magneticeld,andan is large f opposite is apphed a smallpart of it, it is possible studythe feld to to reversal tbm part of thewhisker, of whilethe rest of it is heldsaturated parallel its longaMs.By picldngthe signal to 9om the reversing it part, is possible determine feld at whichthe reversal starts,namely to the just the nucleation f or dxerent f.eld, the This pactsalong whisker. experiment andits latermodifcation obtained nucleation which ields were (413) (414) quiteclose thetheoretical to value -560Oe(for very longiron coestal of a at room temperature) partks selected at some of whiskers. otherparts ln of the samewhisker: negative less values Hn.were measured, of obviously the Unlike materials, because crystal less was perfect those in regions. hard for which natureof the defects the nucleation the at centres not Mown, is for softmaterials hazbeen it established reversed that domains nucleate where surfxce rough. f rst demonstration of this conclusion the is The (414) was an electropolishing whisker, of the which resulted a complete ln change ofthewhole nucleatioa was of pattern.A more directproof aa observation thesurfxce the whisker an opticalmicroscope-(415) of by It a showedgood correlation between volume the surface the of defects the dxerence and the between theoretical experimental in that vidnity. and Hn roughness beimportant anyferromagnet, i.na soft Surface must in but material magnetostatic the large There enerr is particularly by defnition. is thusa Iarge efectdueto the surface charge created the polts where at themagnetizationthesaturated isnot parallel thesurface, of state to which must bethe case where surface not smooth. the is This charge gives rise

2l

TM NUCLBATION PROBLBM

whie,h to a demagnetieg Eeld that re#on, in reduces locally energy the harrier, atlowing thus domansnucle.a* to there. Andit is quiteeasy be to 1A111 conviuced that a local or a local valley approfmately same hms ihe (372) sMrfn Gect- Kim5lar A demagnetization,to a similar ce charge, due shoutd also occm near voids knclusionsinsidethe and crystal,whic also llave beea demonstratH 41% intmd withwalls.Nucleation such at internal (416, to defe? is xlg.n espem'zzly perfu samples. in whiskers) in less possiblw Even whichare particnlxrly goodcrystals, were xme cmses there where local a reduction Wkl in could bemssigaedanysurface not to imperfection (415) andmusthave been to an iuternal due void.Theopposite never occ=ed, snrcedefed aad wkenever major a could seeaon at lemst of the be one foursnHves of a whisker, therewas always rnnirnnrnia Isklthere. a Thistotal dependen fnedetails thesurface a large of in crystal on the must seem straage frst sigkt,especially somebody is used at to who to t%nkiag termsof thetheriesin thefrst fewchapters this book. in of tn those theozies,suedently a largecrystal sometimes quitesmall even (and are to to at The ones) justassumed extend ''nGnltswith no smface a11. lnatzzrap approltn%thatthesurhe.e ave strong is can a eKH onlyforsmall cystalwbut it is Sexpected to be.l= impoztaat, lazger czystap the the as beforeunderstood natureof Iwrote(4181 of my earlier in one I the papers, theproblem. pointwhiclmustberemembered for spmdently The is that largecustalsthemuld-domain hms lowe,r sute a that enerr tha.n of the singlodome one, but theoretically domains the cannotnucleate before a certain negative is reached, feld because an ener bxvra-c the way. of on t%5K Once bxrrleris liftad at anypointin the crystalor on its surhce, it Lseasyfor themto propagate over the crystal, seenexzmm'mentally all as and thdr the (419), Gcause estenee reduces enera eve,aitl the pezfect pvts. Therefoaaay mewwx-ment the whole of m'ys'tat measurethe will nucleatkn pzoperty the morstpoht (3821,the point at which of .e. the crystal Gethest behgperfect. Xectis the sameas in pullng is fzom The a ehnln, with a stenzh'ly increasiag The for. whole chai.a breaks iheforce at wlzich suEdeat bm.;tlr m-kestlinlc,even if a,llthe otherBnksare Ls to its much Tke of stronger. onlyway to mecure the properties otherlinlcnis to pull themone at a tmey while preventing others being the lom pulled. Andthb onlywa,y End true nucleation of theperfedly to the eld smoot: wMsker to measureone region a time,whilepreventing domnsns is at the fromentering otherparts,by kping the tkemirt a saturating as is feld, doae iadeed 414, in the uperimentof DeBlois. 1413, 41SJ 1.n sense caa besaidthat theex-perimentDeBloisproves this it of that the nucleation theorydoc agree with exwrHent for the perfect crystals assumedthetheory, in andthereis paradox.For perfect no l%s crystalsl the into of tkeor.y should modedto take Mcounttheeeect imperfecwdonG be wlzich not been details revealed twoextensions has done More yet. were in of thisetmeriment. one (420) feld wasapplied dferentregions h a local to

BROWN'S PARADOX

21l

of a thin flm, andthe shamof the develophg dome was obsewed. In anothe,r whiskers unde,r stress wm'estudied the sametchniqueof by (421) DeBlois,andthenucleation at tgood' feld points Bundto become was more negative ineaing with str-, whic,h equivalent iztfrrpnm'ng is to the anisotropy constant, There a frst theoretical towards better is step a .&i. analyisofthedatain the1= perfec't pats ofthew%lqklrin theex-pen'ment ofDeBlois(422), a stadsdcal and corrqlation betweea pzobablty (4234 the offndsng defedandtNevalues Hn measured DeVlois. none a of by But of these studies been haz cxrrled enough a quaatitative Z'kr for theoryof imperfed crystazs. there As is the caze i.!lhardmaterials discussedthe foregohg, are in alK theories softmaterials for whic iaore nudeafon, try to analyse aad ' (Ia.'t.a H'zFere'at ental oa memsurements,particular in coerdvities, of the crystalas a wholeTheyusume that the domains azre-ady are there, pinn'lng theiz walls crystcne defects-For thKries these andconsider of by Hilerence there not reallymuch is between andsoftmaterials, llard except forthe numerical parameters wllicaze used. Some teories use the still of assumption one wall pinned one defet (424), others to while conside,r thestatistical aspects 426) manydefects, randomly distributed in (425, ok pnnhdomain. Vazious models haveb- proposed 428, 429,430) for (427, ' thephniug.Theyall Mserather rough approvimadons. of cannot#ve ne is one pointon wlzic.k experknent De Blois' the a clpm.r and therefore remains obscure. Lsthequestion It of namRwer, whic whether edge tip)of the whisker, the wllichcannotbeaccessed the by (or teGnique DeBlois, of behaves d-lFerently otherregions. question than This has alreadybeen in in conaection somesuggestions with for iscussed (392) resolving Brown's paradox the argument realcustalsare never by that saturated start wth;andsomeuns@m to domans reme npltr the edg, w'here demaoething the eld non-ellipsoidal is veU 1ar&.Of (for shapes) (xptme, there a largenmountof evidence, ha is some of wlzic already in been meafoned theforegohg: thefeld used manyexperiments in that isnot suRcient saturate sample, these to the and published results confuse the l'aqne.Butthereare those whoclaimthat no sataration possible is in Jrincfpl: some bodies for with coraer &s (sucha prismor a plate), a sharp at theedge, at whie a diferent is matteraltogethemMy argument thetime scale, was (392) that on a,n atomic a sharpcorac doc not haveanymore meaning a zounded (see 3.1). than one Fig. Theareforq approfmation the of an ellipsoid at leastas good that of a prism,aada saturation a is as ia 4nitefeld shoald posdble prirciple realparticlew be in for although highe,z elds are usually th= conddere admuate have beused. view to My may . is e111 the samejbut the opposite justas legitimate; there those is aad are whoprder to consider pHsm, a whichlAke,s ''n6mlte to saturate an eld andfor which therecan beno audeation also On tsee section 10.5.3).11H* basis, thereksa modelg431)domnins enterfzomthe corne,rof a for that

THENUCLEATION PROBLEM

plate, even in Mrd materials. 9.5.3 Small Parlcte.d . ag' withmost Al1the foregoing Gmlaaatiozus the theory of 'mltk does not ree exwrimeentsnotchangethefact thetheoTyproented chap*r do that in tlzis is not useful mtpractical for cases.nerefore, thist'heory amddered wxs fora long to belst a rmriodty, time which could mostinterest at somepure theorists, may bc appliMto extzemely or unusual ldnds experiments. of Andin spite all thegreat of hopes Bzown others thebeginning of and in of having theorythat can exple everytMng, isundemiably one it a complete faa-lure bulkmaterials-lt for should obvious theabove be 1om analysis that untila bigimprovementincorporated, thmr.g at mtbeapplied is this can to small particles, below value whichsubdidsions domes the for into reduce total energy. the nncleation aot that of reversed the If Ls domains, the mct shape the czystal of becomes important, b0ththeKeL't less and of costalllne defec'ts the probabltyofthe Gstence vezy and are mu& zedaced. sach For cases,thenucleation theoryhasa chance workwe11. to H a way it exn be saidthat it works indeed a relavely in narrow sizeregionof tsmallparticles'. This reon Lsbtdened1oma plot, of ns. size. sucas Fig. 1 of (190),theremanenceandcoercivity pn:rklcle in the Thesg properdes 1ow lhn.ve values to superparamagnetism smaller due pvticles,aaddueto subdivision domes in tEelarger into ones, with a theory memum in between. the vicinityof this maximmm, H nudeation upapxy wozks, since smazest ind the particles elirnA-nnuted, in are it meaas m*t cxq- that tie theory the curlingmode of with experimental ayees data. Examples such of agrment been have listedin redews 35% (270, llere 37% and it will only be repeated that the coerdvityof verz 392), elongated particles found to beqaite approfmated niekll was well by (432J a D-.ftr ynction VR2 two temperatures. linearfundionof 1/12 of at A wmsalso observed in tEecoercivity alumite, of although pnrkseles the (4335 were not ellipsoidsy even in cnbes cobalt-doped and of 'pFeaoa The :4341. latterEt was ori ' y praented(434) dperhaps as fortuitoash, it now but seems bea realpart of a pattern. to Tkisexample, others, acd provethat the iheoryworkson the wkoleix tMssizeraage, mayat mostneed au.d someslight modifcations, theMer details when aretakeainto account. The data as citarion,tAatthe theory works if themiddle 'well suggoty a zough tarm of eqn(9.5.55) is larger thanthefrst one, aud breaks dopnwheu the frst term becom large.Thisruleksdemonkzated the experlrnental by coercivity of It =lue (434 whislrom. is cleto the theoretical forcurling nucleation small at radii,batwhen Xz term becomes the dominant, cothe erdvitykeeps decreasing, ofmagnitude orders below theoretical the value. However, such comparison Hs with Hc does reallyshow a of not an it to there no is agreaent,and is morc aczturate saythat in thissize re/on bigdiscrepancy to saythat it fts. TheMreement betweea tha.n (4:$6) other

BROWN'S PARADOX

213

propertia, calmzlated thecurllng 1om mode, the experimentaz aad data, is n1msai-qualitative. fts used beconsidered enough Sucb to good when it waz discult to make smallparticl, when and expeziments done were .on a largenumber particles of togethez, wllic,h involved crudalOtor the of sizedistribution. even with the mozerecentcontzollM And dispersion thue ksstzl the dimculty interactions of theparticl. This (43-1, among problem never been hms solved, is still studied and for the case of (438j a regular averaging schemes. The array of particle,or by cerinn'n (4395 former theoryshould certainly comparewith expezimen'ts 441) be g440, on such artifdal, regular an But wheninterpreting array- it is unrealistic experiments disordered on powders, is deemonstrated ms by more rigorous calculations 443,444) imo iateracting on dipoles) wbichdo not ft (44% Suc.h calculations probably a goV bas thelocal-feld conceptcan be for wkc.h studying particles have a;n but (445) oddshape, theycaa obviously not beextended interactions to withina random ensemble particle. of enn instead being Nowadays, problem interactioas beevaded this of of ' solved, because andmore mfuxurements performed a single more are on particle1369, 447,448,44% 451,45% 454,455,456J. 446, 450, 453, For these erperiments, sqrni-quantitative fe compadsonH.nwithSeis not of good enough more, an.d should possible tzy a more detaled it be to any comparison. particular, goodthKry is aeeded the coerdvity In a for in Kipsoids, preferably somewhat distorted elliyeids. should note that It l)e theccerdvityis not onlyan import=t pnmmetez i? own right.It ksohe h o t;e 'lmry parztmeters wkic,h wkole hysseresis can l)e from tke curve Jet12 (457, constracv. 458) Theori/nalid% was to conthue with the solution the non-llnear of muations, thenudeation determined, t is possible identify onis and to tlle brazmh which proceed. q'asnot done on to It because di>gr-ment the witexperiment bulkmaterials fheimpression therewas no for that gave pointin continuing: when already wmswrong. H,% Small pardcles not were available exmerimentallythat tkme, thewitole eldwas considered at and f The impraztical- Omebnnlr whe.n size recording was the of particl becnme small enough, theo1d and theory suddenly manyexperimental f tted data. But at that time manyof the original w&e already forgotten, or papers misunderstood: thenew theoretical and approwi didnot procedtheway it could have. There'wu muc,h put intosnding too fort othermodes that would better: toolittle efbztput intonecessazy cations the ft and modif in cttrling mode uldbeappliHto realparticles. in particulvthere that And isstillno attempt dowhat to Brown meant bethenextstep startwith, io to namely fnd out whathappens nucleahom thebegkming, to Jm. theze c/fer is no change thefeld Ls while reduced a large 1om positive vallze, through negative Aher zero, and down a certan to value, something when nucleate. lat, thelinear equations not validanymore, andthenext stepshould are beto solve non-linear the equations more pzgctirc for felds, follow and the

214

'1'HE NUCLEATION PROBLEM

s'

rest of themagnetization hysteresis. tMs solution, one that is to be In the chosen of m=y possibilitiesthe one whic,lk to the nucleation oui is teads

eigenmode H= -+ Hg%. ' whea Rxperlments ready for a good are now theory, butthispart is s'till .. . the An attemptto dojusttut part (459) a particttlar missed for case rnnsn point,andafter authors fndingthenudeation H=,these feid, solvH the non-linear equations IS'I ISkI. for < They24591 that teeneo found ofthe curling mode Qzis i.!l r=ge offeld is larger that of thennlf' thaa ormly mMnetiznl statev wilic,h not surprisinp it meansis tbatnothlng Ls M will happen the range < ISkl, in wkichis essenteythc desnition the of lS'I f 9.1. have for in nudeaoneldin section Theyshould solved H < -tSk!, orderto 6ndout whathappeas nudeation. There iadeed the are in c/er in literature works whii the eneo is calculated IS'I ISkI, some for < but they (460, look for the energy barrier,whickis a deeren.t problem, 461) in a or try to Sada localmode, mentionH sedion9.4,whichis also as aieewmtproblem. A xludon of the non-liapm.r equations onlytried for an infnite wms whicb an atyplcal H that caeit wasfound there is that cylinder cmse. (360), was one jump fzom mturation along to one along-z, andHc = -Hn. +z Fora sphere and4ora fnite cylinder (462) (463, thea'e onlysome 464) are apprczimationsthe kruecuzling to mode afternudeahon. behaviour The ofaa ''n4nste wmsonlystudied at thefrst stage nucleation. plxo after (465) bpn Nothing been done a more general for ellipsoid, lt is still needed. and

10
ANALYTICMICROMAGNETICS
ln thisckapter thene.u one,mious topics micromagnetcs, in outsde aad thenucleation problem, bedecribM.The subddsion Annlytic will iato in aad numeriYstndies thetwo Aapters ratherartlcial andquitearis ln between bikary. mostcasesthaeis no realdistinction analyticsolutions of aadImmerital andm=y physical ones, problems a ml-vkzzre b0th.. use Nevertheless, desirable a (Iidvdc mint of viewto keep 1om them it seems asseparat cbaptars.
10.1 Ferromagnetic Resonance The bmsic equation thisrvnance is eqn(8.5.48), or ratherone g ofits modifcadons either (8.5.50) (8.5.52), there as because is eq.n oz eqn iways damping rpml s. TheGperimental setup, always hwolves in aa applicauon a larr DCfeldJzk atloa of whtch holds magaeth. almost the parallel its direction) It mp--avm thecomponents to z. that perpendicular to z are rather small) maybetaken a frst order and to only,ms thecmsewith Ls thenudeadon. Besides DCfeld, thereis aISO AC feld at a given the an fzequency) whc,h uz, dticldes' magnetization a peziodic the into motion at thisfzequenc'y a small with amplitude. is tenlooldng a reonance One for u7, of ih%motionat the lequency when applied feld Sa passes the DC trough appropriate which the value corresponds being frequency to u? the of one of thenaturaloscadonsof thesystem. eztn If theAC feld is sinusoid), time-dependence beexpresed its by e= then beinserted a factorc*'z andtke same factor into the steady 1 statesolution mz andmy. Thelinpxn'zAtion theequations mA11 of of for znz andmy LsmathematicaEy nme msfor the nudeation the problem ia sedion9.1, thesmevqnvn pdons for used there, namely that the sample is aa ellimoid, that the feld Lsapplied aad alongone of its major axes, n='n wllichis also emsy for eithera uniazalor a cubicanisokopy, azz etc. Forthiscase,and whenthedamping eqns(8.6.60) of or (8.5.52) Ls omitted for simpidty,it ksseenthat theequations motionfor the amplitndest of mxmely thefMtore*f is omitte, are whea

V Vs
'

z-

2Jf1

rzz Ms + N>MS m

i;/ Jo

zn.y=

8Um 0x ,

(1 0.1.1)

aad

216

ANALYTIC MTCROMAGNETICS

V;V

C ;

zffz + N.M. - Sa Ms

ms

te mx 'M

OUv= 0y ,

(10.1.2)

all where ihe notations thesameas in section are 8.5. Thebounde conditions arethenxm e asin thecaseofnudeation, and on thewhole nudeation the proble,m beregarded a particulr caase as may oftheresonuce problem, theparticular u?= 0.There however, for value is, one big dl-/erence that the nucleaon a physical in has meaaing for only themode whichhms largesi the eigenvalnw discussedchapter J.u a: in 9. the caseof the resonance, @J! mMescaa be udt.fvl in pzindqle, the if theconditions right,andtheefstence one mode not ertmmnte are of do% dl#erent And mzmy mod have lndeed been studied anyof t'heothers. entally thesnmesample. in In spiteof the shm-lxrityy reonxnce modes have been studied without payingmqch attention therelation thenucleation to to pzobleam and Yfoze this been after pointhad discussed byBrowm someways, theory h the (341) of ferromagnetic resonanceis more general th= theequations here, given becausesomefsma it iacludes other terms,such a s'urhce as anisotropp e-p into in (158, 467J. hasto take account more general of 466, R n.1M a form lba.n in the Max-well's equations is used thisbook, because dynxmx'c Xecis of eddy currents skindepth important and are at thehigltfrequemcies (468) used these in expersmenis, whereas aze negligible suuc nudeatiom they izt H mosi cases, however, geometv Bmited Gat of an inqniteplate the is to equations Omposed is of (4691 whichthe solutionof the diferential , for sinusoidal variati'xus, =tion 9.3here. Beides msin ihese sinusoidal mod% rotatioamode the of only (4701,theory resonaax zvwcorizes thecoherent 'ms mode' tkis contexi), iu in whch boih mz aad Aown the tttniform mv aze constants. non-coherent The modc in a.n ellipsoid, known the ms magnetostaiic modest onlystudied withouttheexcbange are enera (471), by writing C = 0 in eqns(10-1.1) (10.1.2), tkem algebraic and mnn-ng hsteadofdferentialequadons. approimaiion Justifed longms This is as the ex-perimeatal Rnmples ratherlargel a rough are and estMaiion (472) Aowed theneglected that exchange was indeed term for nesigible the she IXS?I of spher tiken. However: smaller sphere were made later, (473) and ihey were found sqppoz't resonancemod to new wkich (4'F3), dewndon particle andwhic.h not been sizet .parkkleste have observM larger in In such smallsphez%j' exnbxnge the bccomes dominant, aad energy it is necessar.y xlve the difeential equations the same way aas in t8 izt chapter As a ftrs't 9. this wa,s for small spheres, step, problem solved veoe forwhich magnetostatic is neglkblecompared exchnxnge the withthe term can Forthecaseof a cylindrical symmetrs whole the problem be energp solved analytically, theresultis (472Jsameas thecurling and the mode. h particular, thesemodes, which n=e emcltange hasbeen in for the rrlod> snggeted there to in (4721, is a termpropordonal 1/.R2tkeresonanceield.

FITLST INTEGILAL

lt should particulatly be emphashed that higher again modes alsobe ca.n excited, that theirresonancecan also observed, thecaseofthe and be unlike onlytheleastnegative nucleation forwhich feld, eigenvalue a physical has xmeaning. the usual For sinusoidal variation a plate,the higher in modes For are the harmonics, integral with multiples thelequency. the curling of from exchange modes, highermodes obtained the largerroots of the are which make thememsy distinguish. to eqn(9.2.26), should Recently, resonances that maybeassigned such to rootswere observed in smallspheres, the size-dependencenot that of kjRI. but waz Sur- . (474) face is anisotropy a verylkelycausefor thedference, being demonstrated to with If (475j beableto makethe theoryagree experiment. it is the reazon, it must alsobetakeninto account the nucleation in theory.The developed to ruleout othez resonance theory, however,not suciently is yet for possibilities, epecially theintermediate range, which30th in size magnetostatic exchange and may ener#es beimportant.H thisrange,some exchange modes bemix. together, less ed and easyto tell aprt. Also, may the modes without a cylindrical calcusymmetrswhichhavenot been lated, overlap othermodes the same experiment, the in espechlly at may still smaller sizes, whena curlingconiguration involves vezylargeexa change The theoryof thesemodes alsobeen has extended energy. (4761 to include, exnample, for damping, whichis lefi out in eqns(10.1.1) amd But this extension not address mode did tlle mifng, or the case (10.1.2). be withouta cylindrical symmetry. Before suldently small particles could made, theorywas onlya mathematical this exerdse. now that such But pazticles available, gapsin the theoryshould investigated. are these be 10.2 First hdegral It hasbeenmentioned several timesin this bookthat the mssumption of magnetization confguration, a.n infnite crystal,is in a one-dimensional errors. However, assumption this is quiterisky aadmay leadto serious made in whether or anyway manycalculations: Justifed not. ln some of these cas there no othertheory, theycannot justgnored. ks and be Besides domain dscussedchapter one-dimensional the wall in 8, models have been used a.nattemptto findthe eS'e'I;tplanar in of crystn.lllne defects on nucleation coercivity. and The physicat properties a certainregion in were assumed be diferent to 9om those the rest of the material, in and Brown's equations solved were separatelytheperfect ia theimperfect in and regions, thenmatched and together. problem irst solved for This was (47% a defective in only constant diferent waz fzom re#on which theanisotropy that in the bulk,adlaterextended to a modifcation theexchange of (478) constant and the saturation C magnetization, besid anisotropy Ms, the Xz. constant Theformer laterused was to explain coercivity a the of (4794 hardYateriat. sam6 model revived the caseof a wall which The waz for is assumed bealready thedefective to in region, iastead its being of nucleated

218

ANMZYTIC OCROMAGXTICS

in there. coerdvity thiscaseis det,ermimM thepinning that wall The by of to thedefect) which mathematielmy s=e problem in thed-lFerent i.s the ms physical of t'he caqe nucleation. Retzlts reported a region which were for fn vth C audA'zwere mod-t6ed 4811, for a casein whic C only 2480) and fnnctions of spMe. was chauged, diFerent as There alsoa case of is (4821 a fzlm(4832 a =iable thiclme, whichthemathemati still with for is essentially same. the fllmK, the samz onedimensional With the new interestin multple llm.M model been for studyizg has strongly coupled In tb.is there ftlms. case are ae two regioms are the flms of dlFerent wkth (which compositions) dlFerent each theregions.' thephyfcal const=ts C,MsandKzbeing for of Becausethecoupling, solution one region of the in should smoothly to pass that in the oier region, that the mathematical so problem ldentical is to pa' that of (478), although these models always are rdnvented without ying attention te previous to work. Rmalts ha've reported two flms, been for enzt% which sentially of is saturated, onlya transitionlayer vdth between thembdnga function spRe(484), for a cmse 1111 of an.d of variation over eRhofthetwo ftlms as a for withan mswell s'uch variaon two 'Flms (485J, antiferromagnetic coupling. here Detils will not l>e #ven for any of (486) tkese cases, andit will onlyl:erqrnnmked themssumptionone dsmenthat of sionmay be too restrictive describing physical situadon many in for the of theproblems whie s'ue,h to models applied. a largeXl173 are Evem ends sanewhe% it %nA aad been noted(48% the efectsof theedges that may sometimes verylarge vnn invalidate one-dimensonat be and the approach. Anmvxmpleis schematicvy Fig.10-1- (a) ma>etization in In the shown is parallel the 11lnl to plane, m'eating charge thesurfve. 'WhGthe a on bardmaterialtA' is magaetized theright,the Geld to its surface to due materialtB' e>n bein a negative charge pointsto theleft, andthe SOf't Eeld whenthe applied is pMtive.In (b) flms a2enot continuous feld the andone matarial Tpenetrates' through otherone (which happen the tun in practice). applied The feld andthe magneation perpendicular are to te flm, but the surfa cbarge 1A'can st111 of crea* a feld at $B' fdd. Such in tlopposite dizection that of the applied to casescan #ve cm've whic.h qualitatively is diferent(487) the one a magaetizptinn from exn calculated neglecting efecksby the Surhce roughness also cause (4884
a m'mlnar demaoeation.

Nevertheless, calm:lmtionsezst in which usumptsion one do suc.h this of dimeasionalitymade. once it is made, maymswellA-xlre Ls Md one advaaof micromagnedcs is which tageof a particular pzoperty one-dimendonal onlylittle known, although caa fadlstate res'tof thecalculation it the ve,zy it condderably. spe' * thistheorem, should noted ima Before be that true one-dimeaslonal Le.whenM andU are functions only(say) cmse, of z, eqn(6.1-4) becomes .

FHBTMVTEGRAL

219

A ---)

+ + +

A ---A

+ + +

yI ---TA
-

Iy

(a)

(b)

of FIG.10.1.Theedge a multjlayer made a hardmaterhltA>and f)m of CB'. for a xft material Surface charge shown is schematicuy thelayers parallel or xrpendicular(b)to the <lm plane.Copied zmvnetized (a) from(483.

(f2. !.y= .-z.d V 4xMs m ,

wlticltis zeadily integrated to

(10.2.3)

Au

4rKmx.

(10.2.4)

Theconstant integration of depeads thegometrs but it eAn always on l)e absorbed thedemagnetidng into fRtor. Thewhole term in eqn(10-2.4), whem substituted eqn (8.3.34) then used Brown'sequations ia and in hasthe formof a unim-alanisokopy term.Therefore, (8.3.37)-(8.3.39), thewole maaetostatic drsd-dfmerlsiorlcl 0e.1.& mayl)eleft otlt fn c *1%6 cdcmlaiion, hduded as a modifcation tkeanisotropy. feaaud only of Tis tnre did not appear thedomin walls thin flms discussedchapter in in in was 8, bause that cxqethecalculation not a true one-dimensional in one, azong superimposedthe withthe magnetostatic oa enerr of thesurface 2/ assumptionno dependencey. However, theterm ofeqn(10.2.4) of on here will bewrittensenrately,andnot induded theazisotropy, order in in to

220

ANMYTICMICROMAGNETICS

emphasize eisteaceits Substltutingeqns in fthe c%e m not (8.3.37)-(8.3.38), whea does on depead y or z,

C' dx9

aelmz
-

rng tAm,z . + ; rrsa dz

-

l'nz Mk .s. .xxjssmz - ru uy x

ov= zn.z'tsw = 0, +:mz mz Onzz

..

(10.2-5)

aad
c

g2ru fvnu- m...x Aa rN. 0m.= + us Jz; m--y.g a *2 mz dmz mz m,+ mz dmx q
.

where now contains most some demagnetizlng besid H at fartors the feld whichdo%not depend z. applied Eo, and such a corl-dcnt ms s on now Consider theerprexqion
1 .A= -.C 2

(10.2.6)

d'mna gwzxa dmz a M - H + + + #.z dz dz

Ya

z 2r va m.. s

lf thisexwession Werentiated resped z, is MY,N to

one should use

(10.2.7)

dmv d'tpw dmz doa, 0m= dmz o'tru = + e 0mz dz 0mv ti'r + dmz ( j

(10.2-8)

because depMds :r onlyvia t:e components m. Substitating on of for 'ttu thesecond dezivativrrzx andmv 1om<ns (10.2.5) (10.2.6), of and it is to seenthat thecoedent d2ma/*2 proportional of is
mz-

tlm. drrsg dmz= -1- d a + my + rr;x(zn (2.,5 tf's dz 2 lLc' ),

-

m2 whic.h zero because = 1. Also,the sam,efactormultiplies and is H. aadon thewhole is seentat it t'llpa/gmx,
=

0,

.A= coastant,

(10.2-9)

forany function which m fuls eqns(10.2.5) (10.2.6). worcks, and In other X is a Srst cquations one dimensioa. ixk nfcprc! Brown's of nin expression 6mt proved wms to for (489)befrst integral the partirtnlnm of a Mm-aial case xniqotropy, thengeneryzzedf a-ny and (270) anisotropy. %nA bee,n lt not generalized more tltp.none dimension: to but

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

221

it applies wdtte.nhereto cll publjshed as onc-dimensional of the models diferent physical problems, constantC, ffz andMst fncltldn. with the casesof theseeonsunts ehaaging abruptlyfxomone <ue to another in h diserent regious. does applyonlyto thecasesi.zt It not whtc.ll or more one ofthese constaztt ch=ges continuously a (mlxt'nre#on spa, over of suc as in (477) (4821, it aad althougk should be diEcultto genprnll-vo not it for these casesas well.H some of the published case thisfrst ixteral H it has ben rediscoveredtheparticalar under for case study. others, 11% simplifedthecalculations. been ignored, though use couldhave evea its h particular, whenthe dilezenfsnl equations solved are numerically,is it euierand more accurate solve Erst-order to a equation a second-order than one, andit kelps one of the constants ixteration can bedetcmined if of directly thephysical fxom problem, instead having beadjusted of to durixg the computations. Sometimes use of thisfrst integral even lead the may to analytic solution, mnxking numezical the computadons (490)a complete unnececx4nry. Theumefrstintegral also has been used 491)a self-consistency (334: as test in thecomputationscertnx'n of one-dimensional domain walls. tke For remanent state,H = 0, another frst integralwas alsofound(4894 for the cmse a uniax-ial of ansotropy. Together witk thepresent it allows A a complete analytic solution al1one-dimensional of problmmK in zero feld aadthis n,nssotropy.hasnot beea It gowmlie,p.dany oGercx-. to

10.3 Boudary Condltlons together soluhons dfereent the i.a as in Matrlu-ng re#ons,mentioned the previous section, usuallymelmthat themagnetization its normal both and the deziwve continuous thesurfvebetween two1:/:)% materials. are on of TMS condion quiteobvious is where is thesameon b0thsides that Ms of surface, bacause exiange very strong shortrange section the is over (see and te= neighbouring to beparallelto spns each 6.2.2) thisenergy prefers othcr. WhenMs is not the same for thetwo materiah same purpose the is served boththe d-ction of the magnetization if vectorandits no=a! derivadve contiauous teboundau. one-dimensional aze on h calculations, msin the predous section, requirement this meansthat the angle between themMnetization thez-ads is conthuous sm00th. condition and This and kasbeen used almos.t the calculations th1 sort, ucept for (4&S) in a11 of in whichan angle dlcontinuity usumed, was dened terms waa and i.zt unknown coupEng the of a certan prametermeasadng exftbx-nge the at interface. approac criticized (48% This was in as bdng drutic a cxaagetoo It may,however) necesary taV into account possibltythat the be to the evhxnge coupling theixtprlnzne at between materials, two being diferent 1omtYat witlkinenzth the materials, add an extra term to the of may boundazy condition there.

222

ANALYTIC YCROMAGNETICS

Theconeuityproblemis limlted t%in61nu.R also not to is enountared materixh,such magnetic i.nothe,r as alloys wich in tyws ofheterogeneous of coppositions thealloymayedst(492, of lYons dieewmtchemical 49% in exnmple tcobalt-modiied' 494) thesamesample.Another is theso-called p-FeaOa, ia which particl% 1%1K oxide coated alayer cobalt of ferric are by of f-'te. Thetheory thisc.ase(34% Jtlqn in %stzmedconsinuity the a of 350) magneadon drection its derivative the boundary and on between the ey-Feaoa theCoFezozl. it d- not provethat oterboundo aad Agaizb condktions not beused. should One pcssible to modify boundary the conditions betwn two suc.h way materials is to postulate Mndof surfn- integral, the geaeral a of (492) fozmof an exchange htegrallwlziclz supplsed manift d'-eerent is to the exn%xngethat snrfn Forthe caseofno oth.er on ce. surfaze anisotropy tum, s'tzchpostulate a leads theboundary to conditions

Ms x

3MI
-

rlaM:

Ma = g;

(10-3.10)

52 lvz - .R';aMc ML = 07 Mc x x (10.3.11) x'kf'z drpa 2 which consunt %)Md Ma on t;e surhce xllaratesMz (with exchange exchaage consunt&z). nz andr?,aare thenormals Here fromdther (witk of side the interhce, Jt'zz a Nrameter tlzetheorp and ks of These boundary condttions thea4IVa,IZta,Dtheyreduce the have that to conventional of eqn (8.3.42)the Bnn'tof a boundo between for a ones ferromagnet a non-fezwmagnet = 0),in the abseace a stzrand of (Ma fm anixkopy.They have dindvantage that theydonot reduce the (2702 in the to some tzi.val continuity requirement the limit Mz = Mz when mlrfnzte bounde is jnstan arbitrazy insid ferromagnet.thisb'mit the In = Mt x Mz = 0a eqn(10.3-10) and or (10.3.11) to M x 0V(0n 0, leads which an impossible is requiremeut everyarbitrau surfa for inside the ferromaaet. Ls lt non-physical to have special forcnlytheboundary a form mnNstt tmposstbleadopt surface, witiclz to these boundary conditions. The however, sttll therwandmore appropriate physical problem, Ls botmdary conditions still have bedeveloped. to may
10.4 WaII Mass Themotionof a realwallthrough implrfnctmaterial quitecomplian is cated, outside scope s book.Discussion limitedhere aad the of is to thecase otanideal,stminhtwall (xxnlslce te bubble wall,wilichis (495) a dieerent moeg crystalwith a pedectly smooth problem), in a perfect surxe. Ev%in thiscase,thewallstructurecannotbethesameas thatof . a svlonary wall,because two r-ons. of One the Xectof the applied is

WALL MASS

223

feld whiGdrives watl,aztd otheris the gyrouuxnetic the the eEect, as muationin sectioa Onlythe second will eeressed thedynamic by 8.5. one motion. bedescribed andonlyfor an undamped, here; uniform All early wozk thispzoblem) as (4962, fromthespecifc on suc,h started '%sumption a one-dsmemsioaal of wallconfguration. iu thework(49% Even whicN could readily be exteuded thre dimensions, in its extensions to acd 499, the cxample those a oae-dimensional ln were of .wa11. (498, 500), actual these it thevariaton of works was noted 7t ofeqa(8-5.48) that wms ae also fzom deRity,w, whichshould bequitedea.r the dirivation tlje-enerr 'ofBzown's in equations sectioa Therdbre, M is replaced iz 8.3. if by
' .

rlirection, wbicknn.n be upressed its poiarandn.ezimuthal 0 and by angleq is actually 4,eqn(8.5.48)

do - Jj.JY Wsin#uu Ms %-$ and

'

-2-

c'p (j'. 'yn J'tn sin9 = ' dt uk' tj- , Js 8

'

(10-4.12)

'j;(:)

where designates variational the derivati've. the particular of a ln J cx* uniform motion a velodty izthez-directioa, derivative zespect at 'n the with to the timemaybe expressed a derivatlve respect z, according as with to (1 = d8 -vand ds= -v-. d4 (10.4.13) dt da (b- d exn In thisparticular it is seen (501) eqn(8.5.48)berewrittem case Oat '
= = Lm '?rzl y (0 '?rzl
-

'

j'

0,

(10.4.14)

Ms% # cosd-. (10.4.15) dz 'p .' This result mpAnsthatthedynamics a uniform of motion betaken can into :: azcrqatbar minimclag iatagral 'w - 'tt)zinstead the Ecuir-izr.tzatiou the of of Qfthe integral w in thestaticexsf!. of Consider splvn'6cally case of a moeg domain the wall,whichhasthe ms' sHe staticsac in iapter 8, andwith the samegeometry defned by ' Fig.8.1. witl nlM bea-qmlm that tewall structuredo dejend It ed not 6nz. ln tln's cmsea foregoing the conclusion meansthat theenera per unit *a2 area of a uniformly moving can betxt'nnas that ofthe s'tatioaac wall plus *al1, a dynamic (501), f,cr)):
01
=

.wheze

em=

--

25 -&

mjdzdy,
-x

(10.4.16)

where is defned eqn(10.4.15). 'u?z in fzom Chan#ng 4 and# to the more conventional Cadesian coordinat m, thisdynamic of enera terme-qn be writtenas

224
%
-

ANALYTIC MICROMAGNETICS

M% -c5,'

J,/--mz

+-7'e, drzzmv dz

m.

omu dzd''. dz

(10.4.':)

SucN mim-rnimzttion integral %v sequivalent minimhing a ofthe of -'d)z to the Izagrange function, dzlnGlas the pot'ential tke enerr znf'n'?zs Mnetic i.a mechamics. Therefore, convenieat defne 'tllall mwau, it is to a rpad: energy, so that theldnetic to write this wall mass enerc is equal 1a-q*2, an.d as perunit wallJkena 2J0 =
'rawall
:) ,

(10.4.1S)

rninimw' theLagrange is after img fuetion.Thisexpresdonno$nec-qm-ly independent t), andthe mmss of on It may depend the velodty. is often Tsnn found(502, that the bAbxviour beapprofmated by 503)
0<1I
=

T4D

@/,?7x)2

(10.4.19)

at least rather1ow for velocities. masszn,oin thellrnit%-.+ 0 isknown The a%the Dring mass, afterDring whohadpredictM efstence suG the of a mass alr<mz!y1948. should emphasized thewal!ma in thin in It be that fzlms a realentity,ud experiments wallmotion Ls on indeed skow a (504) behaviour similarto that of a particle with aa inerkial mnAswritten in.theformof eqn(10.4-17)dpnr(501j this it is When that kineticenerr, therefore the mass, is identicclly for all oneaud also zedimensional dozal wallmodels secdon becaase mz or mv of 8.1, either is identically in a1lofthem,whichmxkp-q integrand zero the alwazs zero. Manyworkers managed obtain to of these non-zero values mass fzom onedimensional modelsj it vzmsonlybecause did rt/t use ecn wall but they In particular, Sehlmann noted was also (10-4.17). (499) that eqn(10.4.15) posdble choi' ms, which preferred wzitein a diferent 'another for he to form.There of courset otherforms wlkieh writmthe Lavaage are, in to function, themint is thattheyshould lead thesamewallstructure but all to If andenergsafterpropermimlmlqation.they do not leadto tke samc that reult, one should justchoose not them, realize thediferent but among results meaztthat it is not an enera minimum. Thelogicis theume as in theself-consistency in section andindd should clear cheaks 8.4, it be fxomcxapter that even the stadconodimensonal is no'la proper 8 wall approzmation a m'-nimal for Still,a recent enera wallstracturein 61ms. lookiato somerelations between digereafsnl the ecuations gces (505) back to the picture an esseatxy of one-dimensional wall. It cau alsobeseea fromKn (10-4.17)theldneticenerr andthe that mass will both m:n-'K% whenever is a.a oddfunction y, whilerzv mx of andmz are even functions y. rrnu'n of izk te symmekyis found a11 twodimensional stationary wallsin zero applied Geld, it mpst therefore and

TII-R MMANENT STATE

225

beconcluded an additional that asymmetry y is added in whenthewatl moves. Such asymmetzy indeed aa is foundin thestudyof Hubert(249) ()fa domain h4a non-zero feld. It ksaISO wall foundin thecomputations of movng structures wall which bedesHbed thenex-t will in chapter. F llniqreMon, models moving of walls have been constructH 5q (50% with thisMndof azymmetry theA-direcdon. in 10.5 The Remanent State Anargumc'ai presentedsection wms in 6.2 meant convince rtmoder to the that thetotaleneraof sulcientlylargepartides reduced subdivision is by into domains zero applied whi)e a small in eldy for prtide theexnhuge too is to it, the remain uniformly a magnetized strong allow and particleshould domnln'. studyof mtpepramagnetlm section is based The in 5.2 Csingle assumption, suEciently that small pmicles always are on an even stronger This is for uniformly magneed. x'anmption actually little ioo strong a etism not always to a coherent is thispumose, beeause due superpar It rotation themMnctization. has of been demonstzated that under (180) certain circumstances, thermal the Quduations excite back<d-forth caa a maaetization revlmztl thenurling by mode. eAn be made This (jnxb-vtive givingthe size ar/ment domain. quantitative, uade wbzc,hpn.riicle a single a xs Sometimes procedure to the ts of magnetized withthat ofsome state compre theenergy theuniformly cllcfen spatial co rations themagnetization,done e-g. 3464. of as ia (283, Butas in tie cmse Brown's of equations themaRetization for this process, comparison not suEcieat: is because is always riRlc overlookmg there the of the a state whose is Thus, Rmmple, fk'rs't for modern energy still lower. in the of studyof thisproblem a spheze compared (252) Gergi all the coaf,gurations could obtained c'utting spheze slicc. whic,h be by the into eltn But it thentumed (2534 a still lower out that by eaergy beobtained diddng thesphere cylindrici domainsj into whic.h cxnnotl:e expressed by that sEcing. is Gerefore lt to necessary tzklr-into accountall pceble maaetizaton confgurationsj to doR by a rigoxous and calcttlaton with no approvlmations. problem, TMs whickBrownnxme %he fundamental theorem', bestated can as that (507) claiming the stateof lowet enera ofa ferromagaetic particle, whose is less size tkana certaincriticalsize,is one of uniform magnetization. alsogoes It v'ithoutsayins thai above this (xiticalsizey lowt-eneastateis one of non-uniform the magnetization, although doe not necvarilyhaveto be a subdivision domains. it into eltn There bestatesof non-uniform magnetization above critici the just sizejwhichare not the fully developed domain confgurations, the with lattercoming onlyat a still larger ia size. proofofthis theorem The will be#ven for theMmple here of before discussing other geometry a sphere, geometrie whicxtheproblem still controversial. f is

226

ANALYTIC YCROMAGNETICS

10.5.1 Spltere Thetotalenerg.y thedFerent of coMgurations considered isthe slme here as in eqn(8.3.22), forCuwhich omitted except is herej because present the Yculationis for H. = 0. Theintegrations over a sphere radius are whose i.s lt isalso .2. assumed as in thecalculations here, ofBrown 508), (507, that thesurface auisotropy zero. Experimentally, anisotropy not zero ks this Ls in many cmses, such g2OO, 202, (see end section as 201) 475) also of 11.2). H the single-domain namely state; when sphere uniformly the is magnetized a direction in parallel an easya'dsof the anisotropy to energy; = le la= 0, andthe total enerr is the magnetostatic Thelatter term. hasalready for been calculated a uniformly magnetized in (6.1.14). sphere Therefore, thisstate, for
8x2 X3MZ. (10-5.20) s 9 with Theenergy a11 otherpossible of the stateshas be compared this to expression. Forthe energy thoseotherstates,lower upperbounds Cu of and for in are calculated, according the generk ofthetechnique to idea described section 7.3.4, although particular the trick used for thelowerbound here is not mentioned there. fndiuga lowerbound, constraint eqn For the of Ls replaced themeaker by constraint, (7.1.7)

?7 = 'V u aeorm

='

z d.p + mv (mz2a + mz) =

= zc

4*

y+t

(10.5.21)

'

where integration ove,rthesphere, 't;is thevolume thesphere. the is and of funcdons space Thisconstraintallows of whichare not allowed the by constraint eqn(7.1.7). of lt mmnns thesearch a minimum that for stronger is done a largergroup.Therefore, minimumfoundfor the weaker in a constrxintmay lx due a fanction to which dces belong theoriginal not to is in thanthelowest minimum in group, whichcase this minimum lomer It theori#nal because weaker the constrintalso group. cnnnotbehigher, coversal1thefanctions which allowed thestronger are by one. Forcalculating lowerbound, anisotropy the the omitted. enezais also Whether cubic uniax-ial, anisotropy or the term is always positiee, energy andit is legitimate omit a positive to a enera term for calculatinglower bound, because omission such decre%es total energy. khe Enerorrn-pnimization under constraint carried by thestandard of Lagrrgian is out use multipliers, leading thethreedsferential to equations 47r z + zj for g&V2 ma = 3 Mx(m(x), a = z, y, or zt (10.5.22) where is a constant l Lagrangian multiplier, and

THBREMANENT STATE 1 = (znzz) mzdv, k?

-

227

17n t 'h y/ ;m '

1..

w .,!y , Jg

(1.0-5-231 ?

Theboundary conditions are 0m% :mv = 0mz= = (10.5.24) ar dr Jr 0) on '. Theconstant andanyotherintegration constants mustbe adjusted so kthat constraint eqn(10.5.21) the in is satisfed. Multiplying equation a = z of eqn(10.5.22) theone the with by m.t with a = y by mv, andthe one with a = z by mz , adding, integrating and the theorem eqns(10.5-21) and and 4ver thesphere: using divergence the enera of eack thesolutions these of of equations be can (10.5.24), brittenas 1 = l'llh fkoa-zaaiorm (10.5.25)
.
...

y,

thet'atio seealso section Comparing eqn(10.5.20), oftkeenergy 8.4. with of

to of dWerential equations that oftheuniformly anyof thesolutions these magnetized is state 3,L = J?- . (10.5.26) 4$,r Zs xl.f htegrating 'a-qztbthemuations (10.5.22)thesphe're, now of in over and using (10.5.24)the defnitions eqn(10.5.23)) and in eqn
'

1. tzn.zl0 or #

Lmn; (A Ms2) 4/Ms2) 4-/ (mv) 4-J (zrzz) Ms2) (10.5.27) T

=
-

,k-

0.

meansthat #0 # 0, LmvL or (zrzz) thisequation

. =

4/

a wM,,

(10.5.28)

whichaccording eqn (10.5.26) that the energy such to means of statesis qnal to that ofthe uniformly magnetized It rltn thusbeconcluded state. thattheenergy besmaller that oftheuniformly can than magnetized state onlyif = (Tn'?/) = 0(Tn'm) = (Tn'a) (10.5.29) With the substitution from eqn (10.5.29),equations (10.5.22) the in are linearandhomogeneous diferential equations, whose solution well is regular solution known. cztn write,for exwple,formz themostgenezal One in theform
m.z =

/), Ain.iknbur/RtkkgLo,

(10.5.30)

where is a constant . which to beadjustedsatisfy (10-5-21), has to eqn j.x Besselanctions, is a spherical isa spherical f Fs,s harmonic, knyu the and is

228

ANALYTTC MICROMAGNWICS

= 0. rth solution dJa(z)/dz Thelattercondltion necessary satisfy of is to it is san that all theequations wkich involve aze mz eqn(10.5.24), aad fulftlled, A of eqn(10.5.22) cxqunl one ofthe dgenvaluu with being to

2%9#=

ceRIM
yg
)

(10-5.31)

for atl allowed valuu n and v. Hbwever, according eqn (10.5.25), to the mlm-rn the smallest =vn incrpzmes A, andfor thelowest-eaerr with energy ' l should iaken, be which is (7q2 = ,). /22 ' (10.5.32) where = 2.0816 the swmlledf of eqn(9.2.27). that forthis is root Note h the solution othercomponentmustbe mz = mv = 0, because othex any solution eqn (10.5.22) compatible the snme 1. A slmiln.r of is not with solution possible mz or rzv instead mz, butits eairais the sae. 5s for of whic.h solve ikjs Tkerefore, smallest the for ftmctions energy alt possible is lower-bound problem givenby mn (10.5.32). Subsdtuting eq=(10.5.26), that R > 1: namely lowest in it is seen the magnetized if state, enerais that ofthe nnifovmly

cqk 47Ms a >

YY

(10.5.33)

lt hasthusbvn proved the lowest-enerr that state is one of a uniform magnethation a sphere for whose radius fnl6ls R
l . 017O = A$ R < Rc0 .tcMsj/ k-- u s

/-3c

(10.5.34)

lt should noted be that, even withoutan upper bound, rauit already tMs the statememt thenniformlymagnetized is theone whkb that state prove hasthe lowet eaergy', 'sttEdently for small'spheres. a quantitative For evaluadonbow of smil SshlfBciently is,aalupper small' bound also is needM. ForWeulating upper an bound, is Erstxtoted that for aayreal it (508) numbers zrla aad whose mx, mal xparaddupt,o1) '

T'V y +

2m2

m2m2 +yn,2m2 =
v z
z z

Therefore,cubicanlotropyenergyis always a Mcller than a txrn-azal with the aaisotropy thesamefft . Since is always it to ie#timate ncrwlae total enerprin calculaiing upperbound, upperboundwhic a'n is any calcnlxted a um-av-al for anisotrops theform'tsa = Jfztmzxv is also of + m2), validfor the(1,9eofa cubic aisotropywith ihe >me value A%. of

(m2 m2) (m4 0,20,2 + a4)< ,.2z + 0,2 z + u x + :r v u. p (10.5.35)

-

THEREMANENTSTATE

229

The teclmique Yculatingan upperboundin Gis case is bazed for class 'hmctions, on resGcting eneram'-nlma-em.tion the to a palticular of or evento one particular function. a restrictionmaydalirnn'n spatial Suc: atethe variationfor whiclz energy thelowest the is mknimum, that ihe lowest so of restricted class largerthan the realminimum. is 1t energy the special crnot besmaller,andnn.n ai mostl)e equal therealminimmm, to when the lowest-enera happens beiacluded theretricted nln-qs. state to in In ihis respect, computation as in (2521, rnI'=,'m1+zx enera a such whic.h the of al1magnetization confgurations can be obtained slidngthe that by sphere, alsoazt uppex is bound, because considerspardcular of it a class functions. thepreseat For problem, Brown(507, considered ldnds two 508) of functions- is a rough One imitadon the curling of mode,
rtv =

0,

ma =

1-

p 2 R ,
-

m6 =

1- m,2,

(10.5.36)

coordnates. second is a rough The where 4,andz are theeplinddca.l one p, imitadonof a two-domain structure, with a wallbetween ihem,takenas
mv =
m.
=

0,
, (Ps)

for

sin(Ps ),

mv = cos mv =

for for

?z <
h

z<

h,

(10-5.37)

0)

z>

where is a parametewith respect whic.h enera is minimized. h, to the An upperbound theenerr can becalculated to analytically for (5084 tozw.ll these of particnlv fhnctions. Af Kmparing energy this with that of eqn (10.5.20), the resultis that the lowest-enerrstateis that of a non-uniform maretization R > Scz wheneqn (19.5.36) or if if is used, , R > Sez, when (10.5-37) where is used, eqn Sc, =
4.52 927-C
.v/4xM:5.6150A%

(10.5.38)

provided ihe expression that under square is positive, the root and
+ 8wvM' &.a= 8 a t3t>'2)M, (T'lft% ;) ,
-

fr =

0.785398. (10.5.39)

Since separate two functions nsed, smaller the two radii maybe are the of used, it is possible statethata suEcient and to condition a nonluniform for magnetization to have lowst state the enerr is that R > min (Sc$ . j Sez) Equation is useful 'values A'z-ltis meaniagless of (10.5.38) onlyforsmall audinvalidif JGLsso largethat the exprt-on underthe square root

230

ANALYTIC YCROMAGNETICS

becomes negadve.Bven thisexpressionstill positivej small, when s but this equation not usdulbecauseleads a verylarge . Therefore, is it to Rcz eqn with is applicable to softmaterialsl 'mM.1 Jf'zl only << leaving only (10.5.38) for larger of mlues K. In practice tmrns that thelatter it out eqn(10.5.39) is not veryuseful either verylarge for vaues Jf'z, c,anlead an Rcg of and to which orders mn.gnitude than Roo. is of larger Knowing the turaover that froma uniform non-unif statekssomewhere to orm between aadRe:is Rcz as good knowizg transition within 10% so for ver.g as thks to or smallJG, because radiiare that close thee together. situation quitedxerent, . The is however, very largevalues Jf'l, for whichthe preent calculation for of leaves uncertaktyia the orderof mn.gnitude, an obviously because the lowe,r bound of eqn(10.5.34) small. bound Rec is too A whic,h neglects Kz cannotbe expected be close the correctNalue to to when is large. Xz Thereare someindications for softmaterials lowerbound that the is close the e'xact to valuej whileb0thexpressions the upperbound for lead to too largebounds, should replaced betterone. In certain aad be by of computations, bedescribed section to in 11-3.2, one caase a uniafal on anisotropy and cases(5091cubic two ofa anisotropy: computed the val(253) thanto theupperbound Brown. of ueswere much closer thelower to bound In prindple, results these the of computations onlyupperbounds, are bemlnlmlze enerr causetheyapply certainconstraint, donotreally a and the of al1possible functions. Theycan only bepresented good as approfmationsto the tzue,three-dHensional structureccc'lzsc upperbounds the they leadto are very close the lowerbound Brow'nto of Thereare azso experimental obtaked data 1om which (510) neutrondepohrization show a deartraasition from one to two domains Mno.eZn0.asF'ea.0sO4in This transitionis quiteclose thelowerbound eqn(10.5.34), to of andveryconsiderably theupperbound. course)theparticles thisexperiment below Of in hada ratherirregular shape and not (510), were certainly spheres. Thereis alsoanother analytic eve,nthough hasnot it upperbound, been presented such. started as It froman attempt to approzmate the confguration the curlingmode a sphere of in after the nucleation stage, but was thenactualy (462)fnd the remanent used to state,andfor some estimations of superparamagnetism by curling- ia an upperbound It (2.80) for the enerprof the remanent state,as is any calculation whichresthcts the rniniml-so.tion enerr to any class functions. this particular of the of H case,the assumptions (1804 are
m,
=

0,

m.z =

cos2 + (1 gzLrb gc(r)) 0:

-

m4 =

1-

m2z,

(10.5.40)

with where is a functionof the radialspherical coordinate, respect. to gz = which enerais mlnlmlzed, the botmd the constraint by #0(0)1to avoid disculties thecentre. at Wlze.,n assumption substituted theexpresthis is in sions the enerr, a diferential for equation bewritten(462) Jo(m) can for

T% REMANENT STATE

23l

whicb thee-xchange, anisotropy magnetostatic and mlnivnsm energies. ThisdlFerential equation tb besolved hms numerically, which a much is asier th= a numerical task solution the whole of problem: because only a one-dimenonal, ordinazy d-eerential equation tvolved.Still,it is not is as eas)r ux mstheforegoing to resultof Brown, which l:e expressed can in a closed form.Computation only been has carried for the caseof out l,1n1>='al for whiG thecriticalradius oalyslightly cobalt, was larger thaa k.hat computed for allp-ible dependencer and0.Thefunctional on (253) for was in to= computed thismodel al= quiteim''lxr to that computed It is made two e#lnddeallp of symmceic domrdns, mavetized in (253). copposite directions, separated a spedal ofwall. and by Mnd

10.5.2Prolate s'gher/d Browa's .denersllrdng lowerboundto a prolatespheroid is quite (511) ssrairyhtforward. actually txlrp-q to usespheroidal Ganctions, A1l it is wave in of ',spheroidal coordinatesj instead thespherical nsed theprevious on in rsedion. caze considered is a prolatespheroid whichtheeasy The here for r, ;t='E ofthe itnlqotropy pazallel thelongn.=-K thespheroid, % to of wltic is 't,alte,n thez-ais- Thesemi-xvis tis s'pheroid c; or y is denoted as of atong 'b.y aadthedemagnetMng along twhich R, faztor z replac of the 4r/3 is deaoted Nm. result (511) theldwt-energy by The Ls that state 'sphere) forsucA spheroid, zero applied is one of a tmiform a in eld, 'maaetization, henever C R < .&: = q .- , (10.5.4:) Ms Jfz Fhere Ls pnmmeter dened section in 9.2.2.3 aucleation the foz by q the Eurling in a prolate mode spheroid, an analytic with approfmation eqn in Actually, (10.5.41) Ls identical eqn(9.2-33), for Nz to except eqn (9.2.32). there w hic.h bn has replavd Nz here. diference beobvib,y This shoald b-.use thenon-uniform magnetization heze compared a state is witk oms, unifnrmmagneuzation thez-directionj along whereas cuzEng the mode in izt sedon 9-2.2.3 compare is with a coherent rotation thez-direction. It should emphasl-mzw.d resalt be that this applies theremanent to state only.If a partide uniformly is maaetized zero applied it doc not in Geld, necessarily that it wi.llremnsn whe.n eld applied, it does folbw so a is and tnecessadly that it will reverseits magnetization themherent follow by In of s5m-11A.r1 mathematici ty in the exprpnqions for t.rotationmode. spite the size'for chaaging fromone stateto Mother, fxom , the tcritical ove,r or one mode another, to remanent statesaudmagnetization reversal modes are dieerent physicaz problems-ln particmlar, lowut-eaera the stateina #ve,n . fieldmay not even l:e reached duringcfarfrmstages tbemagneation of reversal as in 9. aud process: explained Gapter It is quil posdble, pvnm pl ' were given there,that a lower-enera stateezsts,but the system cannot reach because an energy it of barriez betwn, it gets4stuck' a in aud in
'

232

ANALYTIC MICROMAGNEWCS

higher-enera Besides, diference one. the betw-n Nx andNy exn bevec

signifcant elcngated fcr elpscids.

Z-Z'M in wlhic,h A plot of CJV.W befound (5114, should an idea of give thevalues iavolved not-to-longated for ellipsoids. = aspect For ratio of aboqt3 or larger,that plot Lsnot aec-aty, because Nz becomes q! a good for is (51:) remsonably approfmation qlvm, where = 1.8412 t)z thelimitingvalue q for an '-n4n-'te in of c'ylizder, dezned section as 9.2.2.:. has Aaqpperboqnd not been calculated, is it necessary nding nor for in out whatthe sitqation for typicalpartida used practical is recordiag materixlK. Thus, evxmpleo x ra 3.1 an aspect of8:!, which for for ratio qj ;4$ nm, with yields lcriticapdixmeir of at lpxAt a 2./% 150 for magnetite C= aad emu. are g511) 1.34x 10-6 erg/cm Ms = 480 Othere-xltrnpl n!o.d aISO in (511), theconclusion cll particles in rrrding given vdtk that n.'> media segle domnln' zero applied in feld, in as muchas thershape beapprozmated that ofan ellipsoid. more recentmaten'rtl by A for may perpendicular recordhg is made aa arrayof parallel of nicltel px-lb.rs, (512j with a uoifnrmdiamete.r dem:n Using nckel = 484emu Ms and ce. for and with C = 2 x 10-6erg/c,for particl a distmeter 35 anda height of nm of of 120 eqn (10.5.41) a critical radius about50nm so that nm, yields , thererltn beao doubtthat these parlclesare uniformly magneeed in z&o appliv GeldThks estimate Yready is sacient make ihat the to sure othe,r sample with (512) a dinae*r of 75nm is alsomadeout of single domains, whichwould have 1*e.n ev% if t were thespxrne trqe apect ratio, andis evenmorg vith thelarger sn aspect ratio for thisspxrnple. Foranellipsoid whicx not ver.g is 1om there an diferent a sphere: is also etpansion arotmd lower bound a sphere. eNmndon not for This is (513J the for now solution Hownfor prolate is necessav ellipsodc, that a rigoroms spherods, it should bediEcultto extend oblate aud not to spheroids as well.It may bepo%ible, howev&, adopt to such expaasion shapes aa for whchare not ezipsoidal all,as is thecasein reeal at pardclo.

10-5.3 Cnbe Mostcomputations the remanent on stateof a: cubet=d other shapes), in the size wlll whichis normally dm4nu bea Sfzie to particle', be range thereis a discussed nextGapter.Forthe pmicularcase of a cube, in the cmn seeMngly complete study(514) possiblefunctioas ofall of space, which beexpressedcutthgthe cubeinto slices. computationrigorous by TMS is withsn own lamework, theconstraint a one-dimenional slicing i but of makes criticalsize te tusobtained an qppe,r only bound. There alsoanother is problem with sue.h computations a cube, for or actually anynon-ellipsoidal Thed-agnetizing for body. feld inside such bodi not homogenmus they are uniformly is when magnetized, it and seems that theEeld Nrpendicular themagnetization to vector components Yust eaforce some non-nnif ormit'y. Moreover, a unilormly for magnethed

SVATE THEREMAMNT

cube(or fnite c'ylinda,or any otherbodywhichhasa sharp a corner) - thedemagne Eeld formally is at insnite thecozners.Theintegrated mngneuutic enera is Enite, some (431, nlnlrnthat it is wrong but 515) to use this Eniteenera as in (514J, because localinfnite Ecldwlll the never allowa uniformly magnettzed confguration. clztimhasbeen This ntroversial many f or it that becausecltn also said(3921 a sharp be years, an cannot est on an atomic scale, corneris only approzmation which auy more thana smooth, empsoidal surface (see section c-an also 11.3.S). Thecalculadon describedtMssedion restricted an unusual in is to case ofa cube made a small of number atoms, an attemptto undezstaad of in thetransition the atomiclimit, bypatticularly to avoiding use of the the of as in 7. approvimation a conttuousmaterial htroduced chapter It has already mentionedthat chapter thisapprovlmation brpltlc in that musi been do= if thetheorytries to de.al dis-taac the order a unit cell, with of of andit is always possible even tensofunit e.qllK betoo small that for may using safely app-vimations micromagnetics. benecessazy the of It may to start wondpn-ng usingthisthezy for caswhere whole of about the size thepardcle oalya fewtensofunit cells? are someof the vene is as small partides which alremzly studied are being eoezimentally. it may sked Aad ' ' some lilt on, or at lemst some pre indication thesolution to, #ve the qution what a sharp particlesof of corne monnsin small Theatoec llmit in thepresent cont- does Gtendas fa.raq an not attemptto start with a model which reproduce magnetization the as may in depicted Fk.3-1Nobody ever approacxe part oftheproblem. hu this Also,it Lsnot practical studyhundreds latticesitesby themethod to of which d-ribed hexe, onlyninespins used, whatis supposed is and are in to be an iadication what happens of with the others. Allowing theamal fuctuadons s'uck smalltpvticle' would made in a have them strong too for thiscase,thusdistorthg physical the picture somewhat for large.r padicles. thermal agitation notused, isthereuy attemptto change is Therefore, nor theclasscal into quantum-menharical which spins on, should done be in 1''m5t. spinsare left to be the nln.qs'ical the atonzic The vectorsused in micromaveti, because mn-m purpose to studythe limit of the the is =nll x-nvnption a physir-qlly sphere. of The model thusmade tpoiatspiaswhichare locnllzed the Ls out i'a latticepohtsofa bccunit cell,whose edge a. Onlyninesuch cube is spins are considered, complete unit celk whck one Thefrst one of these spins is located thebodycentrez is at which taken the point(0,0,0) as in Cartuian crdinates. otherekht at 1zcm, The are whea'e = (+1,+1, is the p +1) position vectorfor theth spin.Thenumbezingthespias Rcording of is to thescheme shown Fig. 10.2. in The exchange interaction x-nmedto benon-zero onlybetween is nearest eighboursj wkichmpxnKbetween andthe othereightsphs.The Sz exchangeeaerrtaken theexprsion eqn(2.2.25)., isreplaced is as in but J

234

ANALYTIC XCROMAGLIETICS

FIG. 10.2.Thenumbering sckeme ninespins of arranged a bcclattice. ia by the more flrnlliar exchange constant,C, accozding thedefnitionin to leading to eqn(7.1.6),
= :2c..
-

C 9 ?a1=2 mu zzuj
.

(10.5.42)

where denotes unit vectorin thedirection the the of zzu pertmit volume, i-th spin.A similarexpression alsoused a calculation wkich was ia (332) ignored maaetostatic the term, but did have interaction an with energy an applied feld. Tkat case (332) assumed surfveanisotropy, a without in is Hereonlya volume cubicanisotropy used, anyansbtropy thebody. withoutXa,whichleads theanisotropy to enera perunit volume,
9

Eu= A-z
i=1

2 2 2 2 ; a rn.:* m6 ''Hrzsrz:. + mamj.

,

(10.5.43)

H practice it as (516)turnedout thafthis equaton, written, was useful onlyfor positive namely the easyaxes along(1001.Kk < 0, K, for For whichmeanseasy axes alongg1:11), theaccuracy computation this of from relationwas ratherpoor.A muchbetteraccuracy couldbeobtained by rotatingtheaxesto z', y' andF, with z' alongg111) oziginal z, ofthe axes in these &,andz, andviting eqn(10.5.43) coordinate. The magnetostatic s as of at eneror taken the interaction dipoles the

Tc REMANENT STATE

235

latticesites the dipolar ofeqn(7.3.21), the introduction with feld before of the physically sphere. enerr is written in termsof the vectors small This
P j
=

P - PJ1

(10.5.44)

Fherepy = (+1, +1) the position +1, is vectorfor the f-th spin,already mentioned above. With this notation, maRetostatic the energy, unit per volume, thepartiular in latticeassumed Ls here

su =

a 82$.J2, 9 m: . mj ' ' pf,j)(myp;,,.) s - 3(mf + : a s 81 =2 .2+y lpi,j.l lpi-j'l #=

=

w'' here termfor the

1 is written separately, is and

(10.5-45)
(10.5.46)

Thetotal enera of this system minirlzed was numerically the 18 for directions the ninespinsfor C = 1.73x 10-6 erg/cmj for eithe,r of and MS = l7ooemu/cms = 4.7x 1O5 aadK erg/cm3MsV 484emu/cm3 1 or = -4.5 x 104erg/cm3. frst of these ndK The caseshasihephysical cspamrneters of iron,aadthe second hasthose nickel, one of used spkte in .ofthefazt that realnicke,l axl fcc andnot bccstructure.Foreitkerof Eas . these largerthan cases,the exchange of enera is manyorders magnitude ''theotherenera terms,if a realistic value USH thelatticeconstant, is for c.. Such big dxerence a makes very docult to obtainany reasonable it in the and the 'accuracy calculating total energy, aayattemptto rnl'nlrmlze lnergy encouaters large a noise. trick used The for (5161the mlimization ' was to stazt with al unphysicvy largevalue the cube of edge for which a, ' theexchange of larger than enera was onlyfouror fve orders magnitude khe other terms.Forsuch case,theenergy a minlmlzation could be enera carried with a su/cient accuracy. valueof a was then reduced, out The the ztd enera was miaimized again, usiagas a start the values the of 18angles obtained the previous This procedure repeatedp for c. was and 6yelimiuatiug necessity compute enera for angl% the to the whichwere ratherfar fromthe minimum, allowed extrapolation the minimum it a,a of stateto the physically signlcant latticeconstant of several c, . energy , . The result positive was (516) thelowest-enerr that for Jf.1 statewas not one of uniform maaetization. was a statein which = 1,but mu for It mz. they ''> 1 was not exadly1, although were all vez'y nearly Theactual 1. lowest-energy confguration beexpressed one angle, could by because a to *zy highaccuracyit zns. = ms. = msm= m8. = mzv = m4v = mzv = had 148 andma. = m4. = mr. = mg. = mcy = m5u = m%u= rzgv, with M
'

236
rzzz = .-maz

ANALYTJC MICROMAGNETICS

z?, cocrdinxte were cbteed in thetransformed F system #r, a'nd with z'

10-*. ofapprovsrnately Fornegative txe same relations X'z,

nxn's along easy to thenn-lqotropy. angles an order magnitude the The were of smaller for the Xet> 0 cxse,whichis to beexpec%d than because the of same fattor in the assumed values M2. H Iealsto a dference two foz of orders magnitude the average ! 1omsaturation, - (mz). of in deviatzon 1 t hasthus been proved that thereis no cube whic smallenough is for the nniformly maaetized state to be the one with tkelowest energy, in spiteof thefact that over shoz't the ranges Gxch=ge enerais xveral thnn theotkerenermr orders magnitude of large,r terms.ln otherwordq the Wndamental theorem' Brown,whichhazb-m rsgorously of proved for a spere for a prolate and spheroid, not holdfor a cabe, will daad for to obviouslr hold an erension a cube a prksm. mathemadcal not of The dtfeence betweensphere a cube that tke demagnetizing ofa a and is Geld is nniformly magnetized sphere homogeneous, that of a cube not. wlkile is ln a uniformly magnethed theze always tzansverse cube, is a demagnetidng Geld, which small compared theexch=ge with feld, but it is maybevez'y never zero-Therefoa least at when anglechange the continuously do and values, not have certain discrete there always s 'hght, fnite, tilt out is a bat of theuniformly magnetized Thephyhcal state. sigecaace thcs of eefl'et is not vez'y clear, is qutte aad controversial, depending theviewofwhether on or ks approtmation the behaviour a small for of a cube a sphere a better magnetic paticle in reallsfe. Of eonme,, ksnot thematterof the extremely deviation it small from saturation, whihnegli#blefor a11 is dmcst applications. controversy The is the of described seon 9.5.Thesamereasoning in about paradox Brown, about non-uniform a demagnething applies to a saturation Edd also by the application a magnetic of Eeld,and leads the conclusion a to that cxn cube never bestridly Mturated any nite,'//ZWJO= And if by feld. the crystaldoes start 1om mturation,the whole not of argument sedion 9.5 may not be valid. Thispossibility thezuolutionof the parHox for badbeem of and suggested longkfore tkis calculation thecube, had (515) already discusse theoldrcviciw been in of It (2j the paradox. hasbeen strengthenedmanyobservations 518,519) domes at thetip of by of :517, whlRknzs, are not drivenaway the applied whch by feld. These problmmq not quite thesame, andthereis a diference two aa betweenslightly a incomplete sataratioa thevichity of the corners, aad in a whole reversed domain there. These reve.rsed domldnn nndoubtedly a2e real,but theyoalyapplyto lave crystals, theredstence only and may mMn. thatsome smples must put in a larger be feld before measuring the nucleation, dkscussedsection Theslightdeviations the edges as in 9.5. at lom, andthe mayor maynot besudentto st.artthenudeation process cubeXculationdoes reallycbange contrcversial It is still not this issue. the sameo1d problem which a betterapprozmadon wwtl of is for particles,

TlIB REMANRNT STATE

237

aadit should remembere micromagnetics be results agree do tltat with cerlma-n e'xllerimemts on mcll partides: including particlc with very odd supes. Tkeoretically, nudeation t%e problem alsosolved kn4m'tely was for longprisms, which have square a or a (5201 recvngular(291, cross521) section. However, l-n6nit.y always an is suspiciousthese in problems, at and the rate, not of axty theinlnity in thiscaseonlyevades, solves, problem the approRh discussed is in saturation theHges. morerecent near A numerical section that eAI:tof$he 11.3.5. hms It demonstzated tNe edges nnmezical on results negvble, is provided discretizaon suciently the is Ene. to A moxcationof the cube calculation was 'USM address the (522) problem wheier the minMaleneranon-llniform of state ksdueto the highsymmetuof the cabe. orderto break symmetry, number !(n this spin 9 of Fig.10.2was moved the position = -(1,1,1)to -A(:, 1) fzom 1, , p: a with l having tke either value or thevalue For the 1.25. b0th cmse.s restllt em-, for lazge w&e quitediferent a fzom toKf or the previous but b0th ofthemextramlated thesame results before realistic to as for valu of several for a. i

11
MICROMAGNETICS NUMERICAL
1.zt thenumezixcamputations mitzomaaetics, all in neazly the comall putertimeis spenton computing magnetostatic the term for the energy dl'Ferent maaedeminn coMgurations a2ebeing which tried.It must be' that of method, emphuized thisfeature independot thecomputational is and a rstqnlt is oftheinevitable thatthemmetostaticenera defned fact is by a six-fold integral, explained section wher- all otherenergy as in 6.3, terrnq involve a three-fold only Fortisrenmnn is important it inteeon. to choose eEdent Rfrective an and method computing magnetostatic for the term,whileaaynumerical Anxlysis will method dofor theothertarms.The deseption will, therdore, fromthisterm. start
11.*1 Maaetostatic Ene-rr Manyof thenumerical computations based themethod aze on developed and byLcontej for computing a onedimensionat wall(301), irst domain thena twodimensional g310). one In two dimpnsions, wallstructureis assumM be independent the to of the dimension of Fig.8.1.Thewall re#on, S a and1,1 , of the z S I=I z&-plane divided Nz x Nv square is into prims, of<de

25 = -2a . Nv N.
-

(11.1.1)

rxekkisf.r = lNv, Thelatterrelation lMits thepazametersthf- which to bNz but tikislimitation does Gectthegeaerality the method, not of becau thewidth 2/, rxn 1xextended arbitrarily thedomx.inK. badcmsinto ne sumption that witkin e-xrtb theprisms, is of -c,+ IL K z S -c + (f + 1)A, -b'+ JL S tr S -: + (J+ 1)A, maaetizatioa not nnn the does Fora constant mxgnetizationeach ia prism, srstterm in eqn(6-3-48) the cnn wan-qhes, n .M ia thesecond is a constant, while term widch bemoved in frontof theintegral- htegrand The thencontains algebraic a.n Rnction, whe inteval HI)= ia prhciple-lt thus is is possible obtaia anazytic to an exprsion thecontribution tuztb for of pzism themagnetostatic to potential, and wholepotential summationthese the isthe of coatributions alltheover prisms. should notedtatthisl-%nlquetransformsvolumocharge lt be a if contribution, it eists, to that of surhcecharge the four sudaces on If a the prisms. the magnetization not change does between prism one

MAGNETOSTATIC ENERGY

239

pad ts neighbour, contribution a positive the of charge one sideof on the sudace between will beexactly them cancelled the contributon by of the negative charge the otherside the samesurface- if thereis on of But somechange, diference the between surhce these charges to expresses, a the ''frst orderin smallquantities, contribution the spatial of derivative of whicheventually to ;:6f the magnetization, converges the contribution therstintegral eqn(6.3.48). the totalpotential known, caa in Once Ls it .%.substituted eqn (6.1.2), then in eqn (6.1.7),nd the total e in and to hagnetostatic can againas enera. The latter integration be exprused ahoter summation the integration eac the prisms, of ove,r of whichcan .zso carried aaalytically, M Ls be out once moved lont of the integral in sign. result (3104 the magnetostatic The is that energy unit walllength per in the z-d/ection Ls
.

: FM =
'

L2

a J J) 2 J)1 5-2 )7 E J7 x >z(J, + MvLI, + .j.J'=1J?=l -4m(J , , J

-

m Nu

Nv l m

J=t J=l
-

J?) (J&(.J, JIMwLT, MuLI, J') J)MuLI', + Cm T, J J% (.J

-

J/)l.&JzJ)Mv , J/)+ Mu(./, (J:, (J, (.r JjMA J/))

(11.1.2)

fromthe above-mentioned The where andCmareeuluated Am integralsqxpressions these for coelcientshavebeen evaluated, are given, and in transformations been have implemented order in to (3. Some 10). algebraic lake these coeEdents suitable accurate more for numerical computations. 1TJ are listedin tbisimproved hey fnshion (5234. in It should particularly be , mphasized theaccuracy these that of coeEcientsveryimportant a is for 'ereliable computation. Experience that evena rathersmall shows inaccuracy in the coeldentscaa,n the wholecomputation lead astray, andendup in Cacompletely Another to increase accuracy the wrongconfguration. way i,s.to combine together contributions two neighbouring the from prisms, the of thusavoiding subtraction nearly equal numbers. details tids The of modifcation described (5244. are in The four-times sumnaation eqn (11.1.2) wouldbecome in six (which times threedimensions) izk is a manifestation the long-range of natureof magnetostatic interaction. Everychange the magnetization any one of in prismWects energy the evaluation all theotherprisms. hms for .A.s already khi!k been mentioned, propertymakes computation muchlarger the Ume than it is for the other energyterms,but thereis no way to avoid it. There were certainatt/m pts, reviewed (27(1, in to approvlmate longthis interaction a localeld. Theywere not successful, onlyledto by and range '.intolerable znistaku. is Just It impossible substitute short-range to a force
.

240

MICROMAGNETICS NUMERICAL

for a long-range ucept for a spedalcasewhichwill bedisolqqfvl one, i:a Section 11-3.4. Themos'timportaat advaatage this method, of namely writing te of magnettatic is that enerr in the formof eqn (11.1.2), the coecients .A,a Cmneed beeYuated and again and not over over with every itcation of themsn'lmlzation Theyare computed, stored, and onlyoncea processbefore aztual the computation starts.Any othermethod involves least at some computaticn coeEcients, hasto benztnqed which equieentto these for iteration.Thlsrepetion mxnr timesov& do% make out again evea'y Therefore, othermethods all whichhaveever b- usedj a big dxerence. ald whic.h reviewed (2881, usean mpossibly computation ve in either long time or gointo rougkapprofmations, b0th. or Computhg aad onlyoncealso X,x Cm meansthat onlynegligible &mpu*r <meis swnt on them.Therefore, does make dFerence it not if any theyare easy d-llcultto compute, is there reason to tzy to save or nor any tx'tain appremations, sometmeon theircomputation introdudng by or otherhaccuracies. spite'ofthat, therelzave ln been mitnycompuvtions, also reviewed (9M), in iawhicx iategration theprismfacu just the ever was TMK replaced theeld a dipole its centre. presumed by of at simpMcadon leads the samerestlltof eqn(11.1.2) sliltly diferent to with valueof .4m andCm. is not a bignumerical lt diference the coeedents, it can in but rnnve(288) difereace the reults. Andit is completely a big in unnecesary whentheexpressionsw4,m Cmare kaown published, it is for and and and at (to themoace and all on thecomputer. for MorYver, no trouble a11 store Arm that not a that manyantkors so convind it does make diference they donot eve,n mendon theyusethecorrectcoecieni of TmRoatea only if or an approzmation them.It is thusdilcult to evaluate for properly many enn% them of thereults in theliterature, to compare wit,h or other. to approzmation, Thes=e vgumentrnn J2mn applied another be used in manytwo- and three-dimensional compqtaons. this appremation, Ia theiategration themuare(or cube)replaced the.feldat its is over tke by this method cemtre, to the charge the snGltces due on atound Again, it. leads thesamerelation ix eqn(11.1.2), with somewhat to as only dferent values ArzandCm andagahit is quitemmecesar-r. approzmarTMs of , tion has13ee.11 tbat it justifed by rqniming it is easyto ckange Fom (299) a cube othergeomeGes- to mehat leastt seems to But it to very strange into iatroduce inaccuracy a'calculation becauseis easy introan only it to. the into calculation.is true, ofcourse,that lt duce >me inaccuracy aaother themGhod TaaBonte of is retrictedto one particala'r geometry, when and another geometzyneeded,is necxury to work those is it out integrals 1om thebeginning. mayalsobe. lt to approfmations for necessary ur.- certaia geometries which for these integrals not beea Hve evaluated. there But s no renqnnat all to iatroduce haccuracies cazes which accurate into for the coeEcients alteady are known.

MAGNETOSTATIC ENVRGY

241

The generxh-mation method three dimensions, prisms of this to with replaced cubes: by enables computation three-dimensional suck in bodi,
as prsms.Te coeldemts writingthe magnetostatic for Hteractioxs xmong

cubes) themagnetostatic and 5n A subdivision enerr term,are listed (525). urval 1nt0cubes n.ltkn for the studyof fnite drcularcylinders was (526), discnq.-d section in 11.3.6. Whenthe surface detai.ls not importantz are or when the cubes smallenough, a subdivHon beusM ia are suc.h can prindple othershapes well.Another for as genernlzationthis method of yields(52% coecients a periodic the for domzu-n j but only for an. wall essentially Go-dimensional in wlzic,h case theze no dependencey of s on Fig.8.1.It n.lpn indicated a hrgesaving computing four-fold in the (52% summationsr nxn be used the cmse eqn(11.1.2) which in of as well. Tta-e.p not Fora sphere: A111 the three-dimensionxl has b*n worke out, buttwo simplied cases ezst, for 'twodifereatphysical assumptions. One is a one-dimensional in whiG the sphere sliced case, is into planes (2524 the of coordinates. otherproblem The along direction one of theCaztesiam is twodimensional, having cylindrical a symmetu<th no dependence on of R #.Eerethe sphere radius is subdividuinto Npx N. acd-fomdo,
1 -8 I J- 1 r J S 'r S (k-' aad Np f (S p-, (11.1.3) Na o r where and0 are the polarcoordinat, 1 S I K N. aud1 K J < r and Nr are integen. magnetizadon The is assumed beconstat h p-qztb to of these quci-toroids, for the maaetostatic but enezgs sin8(fO and M4/ , whic,h proceeds then Me(.J,are txlrnnmsconst=t,sfor the integrationj J) as for the prisms ToRonte. of Therltis (253j

su =
+

3 caca X E 57X'! ALI, ,, J, )zn.(,)m.(.r,,.z,) J,1 g, v ''S'r

J-2 Jzwz z'w.z z=z

Nn J-1 #. N.

J, J, BLI, I', J')znr(J, (J', + C(I, I ', J?)m:(J, J') J)rzr(J', Jtmo J')

+
x x

otz,J,z?, J'jmoq,

..rz')m,.(z, gstz, Jlmdtzz,,zzlj o

+

y'l)-!y! J=l J=1O=1

J+

N. Ne Ne

J, J, zrwg', + FLI, JJ)rw(f, J)m.(r, + GX, J')rp,p(.r, J) J) J)

mol1.,

J)j
.

+ 2sin

E,., ,E., (zz -) (go (J,) (.r2 ) sia(W1)

-

N.

1 N.

x'

J))2 (m.(z,

(11.1.4)

242

NMRICAL YCROMAGNETICS

Thecoefdents, obtained integrations thesurfacesthequasi9om over of toroids, listedill (2531, the typos corrected (527J. are are with in They expressedslowly-convergent in Legendre as sez'ia polynorn-lnls,thenthe but is not for which computed once, are only convergence important coecients the before startiag time-consuming minimizations-Taldngsin0instead Moj maes possible catr.'/out all to of Mo as a constantin eack quasi-toroid it the Gtegrations analyticxlly, of courseit htroduces certainerror by but a neglecting variation sin0 over therange such toroid. principle, the of of a H this error is negligible the subdivision sudently if is fne. In practice it checked yieldsquitea Mghaccuracy for moderate as hasbeen even No, ' by usingthis method computing magnetostatic for the of energy several for wkichthe resultcaa n.1m evaluated be Mnlytically. conkurations There no otherthree-dimensional for whichthese is body coecients kavebeencalculated, mostlybecause expressions the become and long mzmbersome. A beginzdng a calculation a fnite circularcylinder, of for whichhasnever been carried far as yielding practical as a fozmof the coeGdents, found (259). course, it is always is in Of posdble compute to a11 coeEdents these storethemand numerically anygiven for bodyskape, the Actually, a numerical such thenuse themf or minimizing total enerae. clnl'rnsn computation been hms carried fora cube out (263), gthat it is simpler to doit this way,talthough complicated ralytic forms theinteraction for eztn For this has energy beobtained'. a dferentgeometry, method only been used one case, Jscussed the endof tMssection. in at Mostof those who carzyout suchcomputations preferrougher still appro-xn'mations, or methods'. completely diferentnumerical analysis As hasalready been mentioned, methods impractically other are time This consuming. point mustbeemphasized because again, computational pacHges available are nowadays can beused compute that to magnetic elds without even knowing whatthey contain.Also,thereare special conferences on magnetic computations, for several feld and now the years proceedingseack themhasbeen thicker of of a bookthanthis one is. Most rxn of these aad of methods, onlybeused for programs, studies improved 111ne,M' magnetics: whickmeans that theyworkonlyfor cascsin which is valid,butthereare alsomanystudies whichthemagnetjc in eqn(1.1.3) feld is computed ferromagneiic for materials. Some themobtainthe of with eitherbya numerical feld H fromeqn(6.1.2), the potential obtained with solution thediferential of equations their boundary conditions eqns of or bya Otegration eqn(6.3.48). obtain of Others (6.1.4)-46.1.6),zmmerkal the potenual, %M B fzom vector briefymentioned section which not in 6.1, been usedin this book.Eowever, these a2 methods devised for are 2528) computing eldofa given the magnetizahon confguration oncmMostoaly of themcan alsobeextended, withoutdieculty,to thecomputation the of of structure,but onlyif it Ls done once. 1na ma>etostatic energy a Tven minimization, energy this must be computed typicalenergy tkousands of

BNBRGY MWJMIZATION

243

times, fzom magnetization a distribution which keeps changing every with iteration. Present-day are for for computers too slow this task) except those khoare ready spend Sseveralmany'CPUweeks solving a to on such (529: to problem. Improving technique 531j not change time-scale the this (530) did buciently make more usefal. to it case (532j numedcal the analysks technique returaed has ?. In one recent to the ideaof LaBonte, computing of a1l for (and storing) the coecients themagnetostatic term before startingthe actual iterative energy process of the enera Dinimization. hasnot been It presented such, as although the authorsshould haveHown aboutthis idea,andthe computations already carried by using in mauyproblems. this case)the b%ic out it 1n discretization element a tetrahedron) which LaBonte is for the coeEdents numerically bytwo dxerent methods. is clnsmed It to pre computed (532) bea veurgeneral method, it hasonly been but used a certain for prism, cubicelements, the alreadyzknown with coe/cients, could have ,forwhich been just well used as
1 .2 Enerr M'nlmlzat on Calculationtheother of For enera termsis straightforward. theanisotropy of such or is just vnera term, integration densities as eqn(5.1.5)(5.1.8) broken a sum ofintegrals individual into over prisms cutes). since And (or su'bdivisions, 1he magnetizationassumed bea constant each these is to in of each integration equal the area of theprism, thevolume thecubeis to or of .'I'he same applies the enera of interaction to with an applied feld) if used. Theexchange can directly 9omeqn (6.2.45)) after energy be obtaaed bubtracting energy the uniformstate, as is donein eqn (6.2.46). the of T.here no contribution is 1om the bodyof the subdivisions, where the neighbours parallel each are to other.Therefore, total exchange the energy i'sthe sum over a11 surfxces the between neighbouring subdivisions)an of eoression similar eqn(10.5.42): is derived to which directly thetheory from kb. f Chapter LaBonte 2. did he from (310) not doit thisway.lnstead, started angle, theclassical expreasioneqn(7.1.4), approvimated small of and it for practicany working the derivation section backwazds. result, out in 7.1 The however, the same. For curved is subdivisions, as the quasi-toroids such sed for the is the (253) a spherej procedure essentially same. It is also thespmefor a one-dimensional (53% of an infnite cylinder, study in 534) whichthe magnetization depends on p. It hasbeen only presented a as 'newtechnique, named latomic and the layermodel', order (Iistinguish in to that understand applyonly to to ij 1ommicromagneti, theseauthors The analytic calculations. lattercasealso out themagnetostatic Ieft energy altogether, they deal only with the curlhg lmodel'. ''trm becaux ' , Theforegoing should a su/cientoutlinefor writingthe total enera be t in a form whichca.n be coded a computer as subroutine. Thereare very eEcient computer for minimizing expreasion a subroutine an in programs

244

NUMERICAL MICROMAGNETICS

which depends several on parxmeters, it may seemat frst sightthat and tkere should nb diicultyin Iainimizing totalOergpEowever, be the these whh small are to programs limitedto ml-m-rnization zespect a rehtively for number parameters, of usually theorder 10.TheyOnnot beused of of m'pnl'roizizgenerr with respect the maretizationvectorin p-qzth the to of the discrete in context,because numbe,r is subdivisions the present thdr typkallyin the range thousands tensof thousuds,audeven moreof or in There two methods theliteratuze the minimization are for ilf, au.d in bothof themthe expresion the enerais frst used compute for to the eFective magnetic desned eqn(8-3.41), ofthesubdivisions. Eeld, h at eath Thisfeld, Hem, essentiuy derimdve the eaerr with respect is the of to thelocalmaaetizauon vector,andrxn be evaluated numerically each for of thesubdivisions 1omtheenergy directly exprasion, without going back to the do6nstion eqn (8.3.41). in ln one method, in e-g. 310, 326, 337, andothers, u>d (253, 3231 327, 524) themaretizationvectorin 1nn% subdivision zotated the dizection is to of tkisfeld,mn', atthat position-After swepingthrough thesubdivisions, all themxr-mum angle thisrotationi.aanyone of themis compared a of with tolerance. procv of rotating setof m(J, poht by point preset The the J) the uatil is tlmn throughout grid is continued tMsmnvl-rnntmaugle smaller the required toleran, whichstage (8.3.40) at is obviously fulved to eqn withinthistolpmnce. can beshowa in thismethod energy It that the always decreases one iteration thenert. Thispropertyis an advaatage from to for sim' energy relatively p1e manifolds, at leastit ca= never go wrong and if there s onlyone miMmum. maybea disadcantage i. lt if there at least are two energy them,in which a minima, with a certainbazrie.r between cmse staz't the vicinityof thehigher in minimnvn converge therey without may evez crossing to thelower over minimum. The othermethod: used for exxmple, 1, (299, andin many of 324) the numerical computations whichwill lx d-lpztussed is to solve laterv numade>lly dynamic the equation or oae of its vadations discussed (8.5.50) in section For staticproblems, msthestructureof a stationaxy 8.5. such domldn wall,or the remanentstate of a pazticle, dxmping a parxmeter for induhonin that equation ehosen is arbitrarily. mainadvantkage The of thismethod that it ks is readily adapted for realdynxmic problems, (32% such a moeg waz,or thevariation themagnetization a mxgas of after neticfeld ksapplied. stddly staticmagnetization For coafgurations, this method not seemto have admntage the previous or does over one, any at leastnone %J'x been claimed any ofthe publications in desczibing lt it. be becace intermediate evolved time stag in mayn.ltkn time xnsuming, are of no particular inteestin this b''nd computation. an improved of In . variation this method , the dynnamle of equadon m'ittenfor eve.ry is (532) one of tbesubdividons separately,' not for thewhole sample, the and aad is in ezach iterationto bemslarge possible) long as time-step adlusted ae as

ENERGY MTNIMIZATION

245

theenergy not allowed increcac any single is to in step.Since purpose this is automatically aeieved the other method, in by descdbedthe foregoing, the advanvge this method doubtful best:for any statcproblem. of is at Of course, it is irreplaceable the realdynamics sought, when is except for the case of a wa2l uriformlyat a constantspeed, whichthe for moving statictechniques be applied, discussed section can aas izt 10-4, as done and in, forfwvitmple,(3371 best . The description the details integratin.g of of the cxn timodependent equation befoundin (5351, a comparison the and of . diferentmethods this integration given (536) for is in . ln eithercasejtheboundary conditions to beenforced choosing have by special for the magnetization the subdivisions the surface. rules in on For exampleo a domain is supposed endin a domain bothsides, when watl to on in is kept themagnetizationthefrst andthelastrow of prisms always S'XE':I = O in the appropriate directions The boundazy condition .g310q. t'?M/t'?n can beenforced adding by extrasubdivisions outside materiall the in just is whichthe magnetization(5374 a mirrorimage those of or justinside, by other(310) methods. Theconvergence ofeither method quiteslow. hasbeen is lt noted(538) that a muchhsterconvergence beachieved ofken grouping can by vez.y subdivisions bechanged to together each at iteration, instead setting of the magnetization one subdivision a time.Therefore, number in at the of iterations, time, cnn be much and hence computation the reduced, a if certain patteracan bedentfled, a cooperative for magnetic change, a or mode, a large in in however, only been has used a group.This method, special (538)a domain motion, whichit is rathereaEy case of wall for to identify partsof the wall,andmake the themmove together. ldentWing Cmodes' othercaEes not that simple, it still takes is therelevant in and a deeper studybefore method bemore generally this used. may A more dratic approach thisknd is to group of together several the of subdivisions pevmanentlv treat themas one entity:by aEsuming and that themagnetization is always same n each the membcr thegroup. done of lf for the whole sample, assumption means a crudemesh, this only whichis easier solve to than a fne mesh, leads a lower but to However, accuracy. when technique used this is selectively,maysave computations it without losing accuracy. was actually the lt used(323)the computation the izt of domain in very thic,k wall flms, for which can be safely it assumed that the magnetization varies much more rapidlynear the surfaces in the than middle theflm. Therefore,fztesquare of a mesh taken(3234 near was only the surhees. Farther the several were grouped awayfzom surfaces) squares together ratherelongated into rectangles.course,thereis bigdlFerence Of a between qualitative the statement thevaziation more rapid'near that is the sudace, the quandtadve and choice a particular for the rectangles of size This particularcase was justifed its passing by awayfrom the surhce. makes at leastbetterthan it the self-consistencyof section which test 8-4,

246

NUMERICAL MICROMAGNETICS

some# ld guesse, which also are being published. thistest nltn' oalybe But applied a1l computations done. after the are There should somewayfor . be a quantitative of theuse ofthis technique, preferably before ,. justlcation ' startiag mainpart oftheiterations,thispart has the but never been done. Thisdrawbackonlyone of several is unknown unestablished . and points audassumptons are justbeing in micromagnetics which used computations withno justifcation.theolddays, ln when resources were limited computer andexpensive, programmt-ng to beapproached more carelllly used much than in more recent for that years.lt wmstaken for granted) exn.rnple: a cltn mustbe checked mmniag lemst case which besolved by at one program Malytically, compadng results. course,it is not practical and the Of aay more to doit for every problem, somesortof checkng essential, i but is even

if the full three-dimensional problem studied is withoutapprozmations, assumptions' introduced. butevenmore so when some Ssimplifylg are The otherextreme having checks all is toodangerous, its restllts of no at and are never reliable. Thecomputer a veryuseful mwerful andit cAn is and toolt do'wonders if properly used. it is certainly asubstitutefor But not thinking: and istoocommon amistaketo thecomputermakethedecisions. it let all It bnA become too eas'y much nowadayswritea program run it, so that to and oneoften wonders certain if published results refectsomephysical realits or are merely theeFect an overlooked in theprogramming, in of error or thelogicleadiag that program. mayalsobejustdueto an approxy to It mation which progrn.rnmer not stopto thinkabout, which the does or may have been copied another fzom work, which approzmation justiin that is fed, andyet maynot bejastifed thenew context another in of particpllxr problem. Several dllcultiesic thepaticular ofmicromagaetics such cmse computations, whichstiz awaita solution, listedhere. are Some them of been addressed,even solved, someof thestudies. they or in But mayhave are not mentioned thepublicatioas, in whichmay bebecause ofthe many results being ate published conference in proceediags strictlyenforced with size limits,in whichthemostinteresting is oftenomitted. pal't

1. Thesizeof subdivisionschosen is arbitrarily most of thereported in computations, in manycasesthis size not even mentioned, and is as criterion known, if it merean unimportant parn.rneter. clear-cut No is but thereis an obvious guideline between lsmits.On the one two hand, mesh the should betoofne,sothattheapprozmation a not of continuous materialpdiscussed in Chapter isstill valid. theother 7, On should suEciently to allow magnetostatic be fne the hand, mesh the eneraterm to developfully complicated the structures it usuatly that pzefers. thesubdieions too crude, magnetostatic If are the energy is too high,instead becoming of negligible it normally besides as isr thepossible introduction 5401 and (53% ofdiscontinuities, converging to (541) a wrongresult.A cntdesubdivision for may be adequate

ENERGY MINMZATION

247

But ceztpimly justled withoutthedetvs of thewalls. it Ls not when the wall detvs are neede,suchas in (324) a 10m thick where 'l= is divided 128 into prisms, making prism about'?8nrn. the size Tlzis prismsize cn order magniinde Ls larger tha.n someof the in OJ predous works, it is onlyused order elximsomerults and in to for thicker Slms ever studied than Gfore. article(3242 not even This dou comment tMscxoice theprlm ssze, it ha.s on of and otherfault.s too, such not even mentioning as. whether mngnetostatic the enerr term is computed in.sedion11.1, by someapprozmation. as or Thesafest method to compute a certninmesh, sub. Ls for then divideit furtherandrepeatthe computations, s the efect of to thefne.r mh. proMureis almost This standard less in complicated computations. Thusfor vamplein (530J accure wmscecke the fordferentmeshes eompxhng Eeld a saturated by tlle of sphere with rcult. Thischeck certnx'nly theknown analytic is muchbette.r than the no check all, but it is inadequatej at because eld a Mturated of spheze not bea good memsm.e thefeld of themore complex for may confgurations. the actual F in (530) eleenera mlnlmlem.tion , 2639 ments werejust Gosen, without kying anyother subdivsion. a Ititz h model a sphere, wbich magnettadc for for the enera was solved analydcally, oalyGeexcxange was computed and term numerically, it wmspossible to start witha 31x31 then subdivision, incemse (M0) it to 33x33,andfmazyuse 66x66. much A preferable approach is a systemauc studyof the Kect of subdivision msdonei.atwo Mze, and dimensions, it is not always but practical for (544) three(545) problems whic,h compute.r in the resocces azepushed their mafto Thus, mnrn lmlt mstqkonhappens maaetostatic in computations. a detailed study theArzturacy been of has reNrted some numerical for computations 546) theLoonte eneldents,but ne- of the (532, of itself. complex msnrns'zmtion Of courseit Lsimportant mnlre sure to Evenin a that Ge cdentare accurate, it is not sudentbut c%e such (532) is compared ms whic,h directly experiment, is with it also to that is properlylt necessarycheck therest of thetheory done Gtween cox- anda fne a may beadvantageous to allornate (54% mesh, themnin pointis to endup with a suKdently meshz but 5ne
2. The approvhto A'n6nlty never welldefned is nttmerically. r.n:n It onlybeexpected betaken fromthemainbodyof to suldeatlyhr the computations, thereis no clear-cut but guidplsne howfar is on suldentlyfar-Agaia, is necessazytry more tlzan wzue, it to one and a hms in H yet sueA check notbeen reported anypublicadon. domain wallmputadons, uampleo domains expected start at for the are to 2 = :i:a of Fig. 8.1,where should large a be to enough allowa G'11

ca:essuch (542, when walks thedomains studiM as aad are 5V), the

NUMERICAL MICROMAGNETIOS

spread thewall.And yet, thisa is just of Gosen arbitrarily, without askng wkether islarge it enougkl witkouttryingt/oseetheelec't and ofusinz latge.r In a numerical a c. rlution oftke rl-earential equadons tphe behaviour infnity is an Hportantboundary at (6.1.4)-(6.1.6), condition, shonld snfnit.g talcen 5 timest'heradkus but the be as of theferromaaetic body, 50times, what? studying spheze, or or H a it Lsmentoned thepotential that ne not becomputed in the only sphere, also a dmuch but in largersurrounding of re#on freespa; butno lazge llger'. 15292, indicationss on how is Cmuc,h Forthe #ven adualcomputations, dements used thesphere, 7534 2639 were in and outside, if aly othernumbers tried,theywere not reported. and were in 8.4, 3. Self-consistency such those tests, as diMussedseckon are veary Mportantto c,he that the results make sen,andare not merely theresult somemistxkMy ofwrongappzozmations. them of or Using is theonlyknownwayto dxa'm for a certain that of razge theilm tMckness, neseded dimemsion chaage computed the third cannot t'he tw>dimensional enerpr wall No of very nsiderably. improvement this ve,n thecomputational accuracy itselfrxn reveal information, by i.f those computations 100% are reliable 1eefromerrors. The and dx-lcult.y that these ks only bee.n developed static,or for tmtshave for nnt-forzlzly movhg,domain walls.It is, thereforev lmportant to develop similr testsfor othercaso, andto ure the es-ting tests wherever applpAny publication which self-consistency they in the test is ignored should suspcted not reliedupon.Thetest be and is ocnttcffre, andan articlesuc (3021, only >ys that as which the results were 'tested'this way,vithout specifying ruulting the nnTrnbersj straage best. looks at 4. Theway computational resultsare presented the most dicult is probl= in trying to extrac't Mormation published 1om results. The stm.ndard methMfor preenthg twdimensional ksby plots walls such theone in Fig. 8.3.Theydonot reveal the fmedetails, as all but at least givea good of themainstructure. thr* they idea For dimensional structures, this method desnitely goodenougk is not but no betterway hasbeen developed Thethree-dimenshonal yet. pictur made of twdimensional in (529, are incomout arrows 531) prehensible. reladvely Even simple structures, such those (526), as of or of others which bediscussedthenext section, not muc wlll in are clearer, althoush cu1548)sometimes to seemore details. a can help Sucx plot are relatively to followin the or= presentations in easy colzfeences, diferent when direcdons shown deerentcolonvst are in but these colours usually in the publkshed az'e procrMvh-nr. The lpst problem be at leastpartiallysolved thee fgurare pnblished will if ia cololm there but seem'to besome technic/ deculties, whic.h also

ENERGY MINIMIZATION

249

apply to the presentation certainexperimental of results, suchas Although thereare already several publications colour, in e.g. (549j. 551, ihey problem needs (550, 552), are still quite rare, andthe whole a more drastic solution. Actually, bestwayto present the numerical results to buildan analytic is approximation them,as discussed to in section Thismethod, 8.2. however, ver.y is decult, andhashardly ever been used. 5. Theconvergence criteron termnating iteratons thelemstfor the Ls defnedparameter micromagnetks in computatons. Dxerent authors use dxerentcriteria,andtheirvalues seem to be chosen arbitrarily. Thereis never any attemptin the publication just# the value to used a particularstudy, in mn.ny in and cmses this number not is even mentioned there.At a frst glance mightseem that a rather it large valueof ths criterionis adequate only a roughestimation if is wanted, experience but shows this criterion that should m'tzc be smaller than the requbed relative of structureor enera.In accuracy of1 to which manycasesa choice say,10-4mayconverge a structure can be changed drastically the computation continued a if is with criterion 10-6.In one (unpublished) energy of case, the convergence of the system changed about3%whenthe maxlmum by anglewas changed 10-4to 10-6.lt maynot befhe same change other 1om i.l cases,but themere factthat it cazz happen should warn workezs that they must bevery carefal. Morethan one valueshould always be tried,andit is wrong rely on any one guess. to 6. Theeventual theoryin Physics its agreement is check evezy of with experiment. thecmseof micromagneticsf J.u however, a check such ks than oftenprematurej maybemore misleading helpful. should and It beborne mindthat thistheory,in its present in form,is very much such magnetostrktion, oversimpl/ed, neglectiag importaat fadors as surface roughness crystxlline and imperfections, discussed section in 9.5.Theefec't surface of anisotropy not knowpbut it islikelyto afis fed strongly experimcntal These the data. are Xects ignored in (553) mostnumerical computations, although are easier introduce they to therethan into the analytic studies. Therefore, agreement the an of with results someexperiments likelyto bea mere coincidence is (554) that only covers some computational these errors, espedally since computations make arbitrary unjustifed often an and choice other of such and constants. The parameters, asthe Jl.nl'sotropy exchange (553) real challenge computations this stage to do themcorrectly of at is for an ideal particle before considering particles. real
.n thliterature are doubtfal. the next sectionl ln some results that reem more rellable thanothers besummarized, even these will but results

Because a11 of thesedilculti anduncertainties, of the results many

(5541

250

NUMERICAL MICROMAGNWICS

c>n with Detils which cannotbegiven here '. maychange newer reseaz'ck. l)efound the cited in pttblications.

11.3 ComputationalResults 11.3.1 Domain W'tzls Mostof the computationz results statiG180* for walks alrpmz!y have %en ltsted section andwill onlylxabrie:yredewed There eithe,r i:a 8.2, kereis Gperimentat theretcal nor information the wallstructureoz energ ou in bulk materixlK. Yt Gimation of thewallenergy tke bulku' We in ' still based theone-dimensional 1 C of theLandau Lifskiiz on calrm on nt and whiey is most probably wall,dcribed sedion7.% in wrong.Computer reourcw are e%austed aa ironGl= tkinbness about to 4 Jzm at of 3 and. tkere no wayto tell whatkappens a large tidckness. abouttltnxt Ls for At tkirvnerxs s= to l)ea kansition(3D) a thin 6lm confgurathere 1om ll1ep tC' tion, where curve on whichMz = 0 is shaped thelette,r to a the HlFereat lke confguration which cmwe is shaped the letterCS'. for that lf tkis transition eists, it maybean hdication thewatlstructure the for in Glmswhich bulk.Howe-, even in thetMckest could computed, be there was no Gangeover Ge C- to tke S-type from structure- ener#es The of tkese structura bdngverynearlythes=e at t%hthickness, eitherone of themcould obtained, be depending the symmetry tke startkg on of

conguration (323). For aa intermediate tkckness, betw- that of a fewJzmaxd that of abottt 0.1Jzmj somewhat thesituation qaitecleaz-There xme or less, is are two-ap'menskonal computationsthewallstmcture ener, 'whic. of and #ve't the results described section There n3= a thr ms in 8.2. is enKional computation in this thicHus region, nxmelyup to a tlzio.knvof E (555) 5OOnrn whc.htaken bealzeady is to tbulk'.But tkis studyus a rough ? . apprormation themaretostatic for enetv, andvery=de subdivisions. Forstill tkinner flms,a three-dimensional computation beomes essental, but none of tke published resul? dear-cut, is because are based they on. an approzmation the maretostatic for tm that ca,n (52% be energy avoided Ia particular: computatkon a transtion now. no skows fromthe Blockwall to tke crosmtie at a thickness wall whkh may becompatible with tke experimental olerntions on metallicElms.A changeover from the two-dimensional wallto a symmetric wallwas sought BloG Nel (556) butnot found. Instp-'td a well-dened of transitionjthecomputatkons (5565 enountered widethielrnes a region wikic.h of thcse strttctures in noae two was stable. Thisrpvnltis not surprising viewof the fact that cross-tie in wallsare observed thni size in bat re#on, this structurecannotappeamin a computation whic constrxlned be two-dimensional. is to lgnoring tMs ex-pedmental some otkerexplanation sought (5561, an fac't, was in with that by of feld. attemptto enforce tramsidon an application a magnetic

COMPUTATIONAL RESULTS
;'

251

' '

In the case of ferrites, periodicity the alongz of Fig. 8.1 is usually rgplaced a ldnkin the wall,whic,h 1% pronounced thecross-tie by is than jsructure permvoyflms.Forthis case, manymore details of havebeen and with mputed compared expeziments but onlyfor a smallpart (5571, i'f 'the wall in the vicinityof the change wallchiralityalongz. Some of ; 1. o-dimensional computations 559) (558, point the way on howto take :4 t'dto account dependencethe thizddimension, bysumming the on z, over 'he periodicity along direction. that However, computations not these did yelly address problem a cross-tie andwere only done the the of wall, for '# priodic structure Hownas the tstrong stripedomnsns'. theoryof the The Xel in very thinflms is not very cleareither.In particulaz, is wall there .Ep of a obeys self-consistency testaay .A computation such wall whic.h A wallmustdevelop e-x-tra aa asymmetry when moves,as explained it is section 10-4. asymmetr.g beclearly in numerical This can seen solutions L such (56% These as computations also have been done dseqn (8.5.52) 561). for wall $62) the caseof a two-dimensional movingthrougha regionin b'' the anisotropy hich constantchanges, in ssm-lln.r, one-dimensional, as but )7' c)51. culations discussed section10.2.These in studies, weEas the one as ir'hick addruses efed of eddycurrentzon the wallmotion (5634) the are .;f. in iestricted one- or twdimensional to structures ratherthin flms. The . 'J. fnclusions about thinkness 1#m; for exxmple, not based of ire on (5634 a They bqmputations :1mthickness. are actually at this obtalned scalhg by 6h. physical parameters the material, computing 0.1 flm of and for yzt i:ickness, size, without payingany attentionto the changng subdivision )7 or convergence criterion, any of the otherpointsIistedi:l the previous or iection. much A higher for accuracy thickerfllmswas repoted (337) ) but f,hat studywasonlyforuniformly moving walls, could beextended aud not fztl largevelocides. couldnot be extended vezythick Alrnneither, It to because the same limitations the computer of of resources,mentioned in thck itke foregoing thecaseof a staticwall.A dynn,rnic of a 2yzm f or study , , ) X'lm showed a transitionfzomthe ;C to the LS sjjapeoj jjje wau (5644 btwjmcture, mentioned theforegoing, this result obtained a in but was with subdivision. Similarly, studies the motion(565, of a part of a of 1.nde 566) wallis alsosubject the above-mentioned to limitations iwhree-dimensional hteresting trick (567) apply isto forthestatics such wall.A particularly of a eriodic feld to thecomputed to stabilize pe iodicstructure. wall its ,*)p. llt'. has mentioned sectfon a verygood .ks been in 8.2, approfmation the for jh flm cmn by #all structurein intermediate thic-kness beobtained enforcing than any iero magnetostatic Such computations muchfmster are energy. in but the of ijf the othersdescribed this chapter, theyinvolve problem T' with G'tting . M = Otogether the constraint = Ma-Ia a mriation 1Mi used computations, frst the $f this method (5684, for three-dimensional sonstraint- M = Owas mainvined each point, but the second V at grid = to fzomone tme,1M1 Ms, wmsnot. Instead, was allowed change iM1
.' .

252

NMRICAL OCROMAGNETICS

point to another, with an eventual towards same <ue the convergence everywhere. technique laterignored, neverused This w> and age. nlnn Some computaols domin wallstructuzes of lkave been utended for looldng theaualysis magnetic miezoscopy into of force data. (MF'M) ln one extreme 5701 the magnetic confzgration lzkken was (569, 571) meuured as Onstaat,aad theresulting maaeticconguration theAGMtip was in computed. theothe,r ln extzeme the fne details a two-zimensional of (572) wallwere computed, - into account feld dueto the measurlg the tip, but thedetalls thetip magnetization neglected. magnethation of were TMs was assumedbecoastant to withintheLspherik v?ms tip, and allowed only one degree freHom, it,sdirectlon bezotated such waythat the of for to in a total enerr of tip aadsample a minimum. is Such approimation aal may bejustifed m-urements ofthemagnetic in thevidmity a sltam by feld of MFMtip, which seemto bewellapprox-imated bya (dipolar) of feld (5734 Of a sphere. course,these measurements made were without sample, a and of when is mar not beindicaove whai happens thesample nby.Moze detailed computationsa.nenerr minimum thetotal energy, of of allowing a mriable magnetic dlen-bution boththe sample thetip, are hinted in and 19 at h Ref- of (572), neither detils of thecomputations, tkeir but the nor resulk,were ever pubishM. hms The conclusion (572) that the m-mnurement a negli#ble Fom was eFect themeasured on conclusion, teestence that pattera.Anopposite ofthememuring hasa verylarge tip efecton themeasared magnethation pattern,wmsre, VACSII15311 rexsonfor these in . Tke diserent condudons is not Hown. Finazy, should emphasized this discussion been it be that h% limited to a 180* wall,ignoring otherwallslsuch 90O as onas.Wken latter are the straight lines, theircomputation rather is similarto those prescted hereThereis alsoa largenumber worHon thestatics of aaddynnxns (330) wll.1lq, of which outside scope thisbook. are the of (574)euaed 11.3.2 Sphm Thetheoretical remanent stateof ferromagnetic a sphere been has discussed in section 10.5.1. was proved It therethat belcwa ztainTcritical' Teusj thelowest is magnetize state,but thisradius enerar thatofthe uniformly wmsonlygiven theremsa reliable lower bound. aaalytically The Ycuhted evaltiation tnrnedout to l)e muchtoo large; their an.d had upperbounds to be done nnmerical by methods. Using method the dacribed sKtion11.1) subdividingsphere in of a into the qnMi-toroids .ned eqn (11.1.3),lowu-energy def by the confguration was computed one case (2532uninm-al for of a xnmotropy two cmses . aad (509) of a cubic n.nisotropy. Ttshould emphmsized becuse be that these computar thc tionsare constrxx-ned to cylindrir4lly smmetric confgrations, result is in prindple upperbound theenerr of clJpossible an to confgurations.

COMPUTATIONAL RESULTS

253

Therefore, criticalradus the whkh theyimplyis also upperbound an to the true ra dius ln thetwo computed for cubic . caies materials upper , the bounds obtained onlyabout40% thus were hrger thanthe lowerbounds. Together thusdeinethe criticalradius within the accuracy they to with which values thephysical the of parameters known. unieal cobalt, are For however, diference much the is larger.The computed upperbound (253) of 34.1nm smaller a11 than upperbounds computed Vfore,butit is stll is three tmes value 11.5nmj the of whicheqn(10.5.34) forthephysical yselds of It estlmation, it is not clear and para.rnetersthis material. is still a rough whathappens the case of very large i'n anisotropies: whichtheupper for andlowerbounds Brown particuhrly of are diferent fromeach other. Themagnetization confguration above criticalradsus made the is just essentially two curved of domains, althoagh wordmaynot beproper the in this context,because $wa11' the between domalns these extends an over of appreciablepartthesphere. These domains a cylindrical have symmetry, not onlyin thecomputations which symmetuis assumed, also for this but in a full, three-dimensional compuvtion(52% wth no constraints: at 531j leastin as muchas it is possible see i.n. published to the confguration. lt seems that the wholeconfguration very well approfmated the is by Rtz model(462),defned eqn (10.5.40). latter was originally as in The desgned to studythe magnetization reversal the curlsng by mode (462j beyond nucleation the feld. But sincethe studyof'curlinghadalready been forgotten, confguration presented lusa new typey this was called (529) Theabove-mentioneddomains a tvortex'structure. two should imagned be as oppositely magnetized, directions in parallel an easyanisotropy to ao-ds, andthewall between is mostlymagaetizedcircles. them in If the anisotropy mnishes, innerdomain tmiformly the is magnetized, in thedirection of thepreviously z applied feld,or very nearly Theouter so. namely is azmost domain mostlymagnethed circles, is in M equal Mst to with a small towards ln both domains, cylindrical tilt z. the component Mpis very small. average in the remaneat The Mz stateis quiteclose to Mn for a radius above critkal value, is ratherlarge the and even for Just conssderably radii.Al1thisdescriptionactually larger is based on those only whichassume a cylindlicalsymmetry(5754 start withp computatons to the of three-dimensional because results the111, computations 531) (529, are not veryclear the published in Thelatterwere tme-consuming fkures. computations, approached sphere a limit of a polyhedronwith which the as for for it verymanyfaces, which was dicultto obtaina sucient accuracy parxrneters known the analytic 9om analysis, as the nucleation such feld. that lt should noted, be though, it is still an openquestion whether (576) a sphere a better is approfmaiion than a polyhedron therealphysical for situation, when comes to verysmll St particles) whichdonot contain very manyatoms. Thedirection doGnot have meaning z when boththefelda=dthe any

254

NUMEMCAL MCROMAGNBTICS

anisotropy zero. Therefore, desczibed are the two-domain structure the has sam: for and to energy any direction; cnn berotatedfromone direction aaother withoutazky barrier. Therefore; infnitesimal a,n magnetkx enerpr feld should ableto tura a largepart of the magnetization that be into feld's direction. other 1.n words, initialsusceptibilityinfnite,at lemst the s theoretkally. a.n infnity (ora very large Suc,h valuein a non-ideal cmse) couldbevery useful transformers, readheads, it were possible for or if to make suciently a good approvimation such for smalljandisotropic, spheres real life. This ideais not a complete in fazdasy, that ve,t'y now mtn.llparticles, an almost mnrle(473, with spherical shape; been have 474). Their=isotropyis not zero, andtheymaynot besmallenough bit yet, such furthersteps maystill bepossble. For sucha,n isotropicsphere, it is smaller if than the criticalsizeof thenucleation should bycoherent be rotation. Thenudeation'' eqn (9.2.29), eldfor this mode 0 according eqn(9.2.10), is to because = 0 and K Nz = Nz. In this case,the Stoner-Wohlfazth of section should model 5.4 apply, with all thearguments presented Thewhole as there. magnetization curve then. consists threebranches. thereLsthe IineMz = Ms, of First of a saturation the ea-direction, a hishfeld downto zero feld. in fl'om At H = 0 thereis one jump a saturation the -z-direction, to in whkh is followed thebranch = -Ms for al1negative by Mz felds.Tlzis curve is reversible; namely is followed it againfor a feld increasing negative fzom valueiThecoercivity thuszero; theremanot magnethation is equazs Msl andtheinitial susceptbility izdnite. is If theradius the sphere justabove cdticalsize, remanent. of is that the state consists the two domains of described the foregoing, which in for Mr = (Ma) Ms.There still no hysteresis, themn.gnetization is and cuzve < is completely reversible, according thecollective to information Ritz from models computations 531, The (462, 57% numerlcal 54% and g52% 575). Mz saturation = Ms is followed 1om thehighfeld, downto thecurlklg nucleation of eqn (9.2.28)7 is positi'lle this case of K = 0. feld wbich in Thenthere a cuzve,which nearly not quitea stzaight leading is is but line, fromthenucleation to a positive Eeld remanencevalue, At H = 0 there Mr. is one jump -Mr, andthenegative of the Inagnetization is to part curve symmetric its positive to is part.The coercivity thuszero, andtheinitial susceptibility still infnite)although initialjump is the brings average the magnetization to Mr, andnot all the way to Ms.With increasing only radius, incremses, Mr decremses, at somesize linefromthe H,v a.nd until the = nucleation lead.s thepoint(Mz) 0-Forthissizej larger point to azkd ones; 'Fnste: theinfnity disappears, initialsusceptibility the becomes tending to andMr = 0. . . 4*/3, Thetheory much developed K # 0, anddefnitely is less for needs more studies. There veryfewcomputations 53117evenfozthem az'e most (529) and of the details havenot been publishedTheyare a11 a sphere for whose
'

COIXUTATIONAL RESULTS

255

gs 0-2. radius such Mr1Ms It seemsthat when uniafal anisotropy ks that a lsi added this sphere, sucha my that the nucleation is still to in feld Mr It the Jositive, v=ishes. i.s ratherdicult to understand reason for this lkfect, evenmore dicultto Endouti:fthisbehaviouztypicaal, f it and Ls or Amplies to a special There no hysteresis only case. is around = 0 in these H tomputed andthe coerdvity zero. Thereis, however, certain curves, is a kysteresis for numerically positive negative, loop large, and applied Eelds, and to A pearthe nucleation the approack saturation. similarhysteresis has observed single-crystal Jlr?.s . lt wms in iron fear saturation been (578) 'then presented a vers6cation a certaintheoryof phase as of transitions, predicted thishysteresis that should ezst for cubic only anisotropy, yhich The d for a feldapplied the (111) only in direction. theoretical efstence bf this phenomenoqunlnMal in spheres defnitely that theremay proves ube mechanisms than thisphase other transitionthat ean account its for havenot been out. 6. bsermtion, thedetails but worked :.. M these resultsj wellas /1 of chapter9: are lirnitedto the case as fxzerosudace Hsotropy. latter rnnyplay a,n important in real The role but has sudently developed Except yet. for jarticles, itz theory not been hzp.q for studied ipme approfmations trivial cases,the sphere only been for anisotropy. this cmse, nucleation Foz the .,746)a certainfo= of surface 6,e1d thecurling by mode beemluated can analytically. ictually lt involves only Aother (06, changing the valueof q2in eqn (9.2.28). mode, 553) the rotationwhkh is not an eigenmode sucha,ll once r'pladng coherent Hisotropy introduced, ks rztlled a numerical for computation of (579) Hn. Mathematicmllyj mode somewhat this is equivalent the buckling to mode 1 z'ila:a-'n 11- cylinderor in elongated nxte prolate spheroids,thereis sucha if , lodein them-For ofa bettername,thismode therefore, called lack be rnn.y, Surface has been included somecomputations in bpclrlz'ng- anisotropy also hysteresis they were carried for curve. Formally out ( of the whole 348) twoshapes, sincethe magnetostatic but iveral andthree-di=ensional k' was not inctt dedtheastual cannotreallyplayanysignl6cant l shape , nerr role.Beside inclusion the exchange its i'a ruonance modes, mentioned in 10.1) anisotropy alsobeen has included a recent in study S,ction su'rface of the mode. (580) unifoz.m

1. 1-3.3 Prolat s'.pcrttf Mothing equivalent eqn(11.1.4) been to has designed anyellipsoid for other rihan sphere, a whichmakes dilcult to compute of its properties. it any Forthe prolatespheroid thereLssome, but very limited,guidance 1om nnnlytic cazculations.is known It that the uniformlymagnetized is state ihelowest-energy but remanent statebelow certainsize, only the lower a hound eqn(10.5.41)begive,n that size,andno reliable of caa for upper has The has bound ever been calculated. nucleation been proved beby to coherent rotationor by curling. The possibility a third mode not of ha:

256

NUMEMCAL MICROMAGNETICS

1:*e.11 out, butit was shown it may onlyeist for unpractically ruled that long narrow prolate and spheroids,theregion a question ia in with mark Fig.9.2.Fortke same surface ansotror as in thesphere, e-E'H the its on only nurling nucleation is (553)modi'f.r theeue of qin eqn(9.2.31). ield to Thereaze onlytwo numerical studie (531, of prolate spheroids, 581) andonly an mspect of 2:1. for ratio ney used time-consuming methods to compu*the hysteresis for several curve particular radii,with andwithcut anisotropy- nucle-ation increased by exactly The Geld from (581) 2A%/Ms value Jtez 0 but te coercivity for = incren.qd!dless $ts by than 2I%(Ms>=' s, is Thesmallest aq semi-major c, t'I'iC.IIreported Clleah= 0.04, = 0.04. whic probably is mpltntto beC/(4<rc2Ms2) thenotation On Ia of nlv5s the of (9.2.20),semi-minor is S= 1.0,whichis in there#on coherent rotation Fig.9.2. llik radius) was onejump nucleation in Eor there at fzom a podtive a negadve to saturation, st wmsnot clea.r and visually whether curling verysght nonefstent' was or The (5811- next sizetheykied was 0.02 those in units,which should me= S = 1-4, wellabove transition the to thecurlingmode Fig. 9.2.A wemdevdoped strudnrewmsfolmd in curllng to nudeate thissize.but no attemptwas made check changefor to the Neither thereanyat-mpt to compare computed ove.rsizewas the curling nudeation feldswith the analytic not Gpression, even in orderto check the accuracy thecomputatlons. of The curng ai probably corresponds to confguration thisAe, whic.h to The S = 1.4,wa.j(531, qui/ similar that of a sphere. hrteresis 581) curve consisted a continuous of cznge nucleation to a certain from dou a11 feld, at whc.lz therewmsa jump the wayto t:e negative saturation. into Fora certna'm radius, jump larger this brought magnetization a the xrling statewltichwas a mirror image the structurefzomwhic,h of the started. complex More behavioars found were forstilllarger j=p (531, 581) partides, induding somefo= of two domains a complex betwen with watl them.However) thesecmseswere studedfor one spexc z'adius all eaclb wit,k at-mpt to followthet'rxnRiton one cxase =othcr.Neither no from 'kh was there and change the of any attemptto followthe drastic qualitative hysteresis bdween sphere the particular a and aspect ratio of 2:1.R is impossble doanymore bythis method. probably to whic.h verywmsteful is in computer time,butone wouldstill expect reports #ve to someide.a such of the estlm atedaccuracy, convergence or criterion, at lplmthowthe or computer keptfromjumpizg one possible wms from solution another to for some of the rnzlii-The published arkcles not even mention relation do the between pvticle K*,>andthe dtqcretizatlon used tYs work. the size in
11.3.4 nzzFilms Some computations to account the exp'm-rnental for hysteresis curves try of thin %lms,andrelatethe.m some measurable to properties. way One the of particles. to do it is to condder fzlm a collection non-interacting as

COMPWATIONAL RESULTS

257

By pretending the'wltole that hysteresis of each curve partideis knownt a certain 'over of Such is computed thedistribution theparticles. average computations, (5821, sometimes reproduce meastred the properties, e.g. at leastqualitatively. course, thisprocess not limitedto thin flms, Of is andhas been forothersystems particles, used of including models (2144 for interacting particles. thiscontextit is nlsc ln worthnoting computational a scheme for fndingthewhole magnetization confguration a thin in (5834 flm fromexperimenul ofLorentz data microscopy, of themeasurement and of themagnetic patternoutside 61m. feld the Other computations concmrned thedomains thin flms,and are with in are done a rough on scale which cannottakeintoaccount walls the between it the the domains. this particularpurpose, is convenient ex-pand For to magnetizationa Fourier in series (584!,

M(r)= J'lpkefk'f,
k

(11.3.5)

where has k certain discrete values thezv-plane, msa.nz-component in such of theformznr/.f?x integral for values .?z.The coeEcients may bc of gk constants fanctions z, andin either the solution thepotential or of case of problem fxomthe dferentialequations section by expanding of 6.1, the The potential a similarFourier in series, vezymuch is simplifed. diEculty is thatit is usually impossible flt theexpansion eqn (11.3.5) the to in with constraint eqn(7.1.7). this remson,this method of For couldactuallybe used onlywhen walls the were taken bestepfunctions to or in (.%41, some similar applicatioas reviewed (2884: in A similartechnique alsobeen has usedin many othercomputations which impose false a periodicity, order use thefastFourier in to transforms whichreduce the time (550) computation by a very largefaztor.It has been argued thatthisapprofmation justifed a two-dimensional is for (550) because efective 'the of demagnetizing is comparable feld system, range to thef1mthiftkness'. argument This sounds convincing, it would quite but have been more convincing there if wms a any cascfor which computation using fastFourier the transform compared was quantitatively a more with rigorous computation thesame case.In a mriation (542)themethod, of of the potential expanded a Fourier is in series, the magnetization but is not. Theex-pansionusedto eliminate potential is the outside, Uouty and formulate whole the problem withinthe(infnite) ferromagnetic with 6)m, theboundary conditions expressedan integral theupperandlower as over surfaces theflm. But even thisformulation actually of is applicable to only a perode domain structure, whichthepotential reallyperiodic. for is Or at least has it onlybeen for such periodic used a confguration, a crudein computation of domains, oversimplif structure that the of mesEed (542) ln thewallsseparating those domains. a certainstudy(585)very thin of

258

NMRICM MCRONIAGNETICS

fllm s, it was found the adequate aegled magnetostatic to altogether, energy

the except restricting magnetizationbein the plane thefilm. for to of which alsoconfined two dimensions takes Another method, is to onl advantzage upperbound themagnetostatic of the to enerr in eqa (7.3.46). In prindple, magnetostatic the termcaa be replaced thisupper by energy bound, the total enerr czm be minimized respectto both M and with andA. M-niml'zation respect A makes upperbound with to the converge the leads towards true magnetostatic Therefore, mimsrnleatton this energy. to thetrue minimal while the enerr confguration, A becomes true vector potentiaz the problem. advantage thistechnique suggcted of The of (fzst in (586) never carried by these out authors any particular for , but cmsel' is that the sk-foldintegraz the magnetostatic for by enera is replaced the a three-fold one, which should reduce computation enormously. time Increasing number variables the two tdependent the of from components of M to thefve components bothM andA Ls smazl to payfor this of a price which localization the problem, of does callfor evaluating not interactions dferentdiscretization points. disadvantage, The azready discussed among in section 7.3.4, that eqn(7.3.46) is contains ttegral over thewhole a.c whichin practice meansc-arrying ttegrationover a much the laiger space, volume than the sample, increasing number grid pointsfar thus the of thoseused more conventional beyond in methods. dllcalty makes This this method for impractical almtacythree-dimensional problem. two IIl dimensions, however, htegralover theoaterspace beevaluated the by may a conformal mapping it, mahng method of this pcactiolandconvenient. It hms been thus used, example, thestudy(587) efectof Gchange for in of the coupling acrossgrainboundaries the nucleation of a 6lm. of feld A particularly popular computationaz method subdivides :lm into the eithertwo-dimensional hexagons three-dimensionaz columns. or hexagonal fzom Thehexagonal 'grains' mssumed besomewhat are to separated each other, thatthe exchaage so coupling between ks them smaller it Ls a than in continuous H practice actually flmit meansthat the expression for (588) hnm the exchange between neighbouring grains the sumefunctionaz energy formas described section for subdividing sample prisms in 11.1 the into or cubes- course, a hexagon more neighbours interact Of has to with than a But besides dxerence the summation, only dseerence this in the square. is that the numerical valueof the exchange constant,C, is takento be somewhere between and the experimentaz for a continuous 0 vazue 61m. Theactualmlue this efective is oftenpicked rndomj although fot C at it is possible to estimate frommemsurementsthe domain it of wall L5891 for describing magnetostatic the energpThecoeEcients the tensor eneror havebeen emluated Annlytically by integraingthe surface charge, (5901 on the faces the hexagons, a similarwayto that used the prisms of in for discussedsection butmanycomputations an approfmation in 11.1, use for

those coecients.

COAUTATIONAL RESWTS

259

Thismoddwas used two- andthrodl-men-qional for computations of :0th thestatics the dynamics magnetization and of patterasthat donot involve fne detna-lKthewallsbetween domains. of These the the include, /orevnmplez magndization or theformation realrangement the ripple, and .T if dominsandother covgurations, theirefed on thefhll hysteresis and 111n1, wellas a dmulation the magnetic for thewhole ms of recording purve Thedetzu-lKthese of computatlons, all theirresults, fully and are jroc-. 8, esMbed (5881. detailed in Thts description, however, not giveany does Yformation thechoice the discretizaton ox ofthe con-gence on of szea criterion tke distribution spacm does for ia It specify thestep sizein tat chaage themagneeation fmewaschen thatthe mxvimumrelative so of 10-4. rinthat stepwas keptat approximately lt . is. nlgnmendonM a tdhat - ''$ consguration accepted a rnxnzmumoalyaaertrying Lhaaetization was as .'jI qio' to tt small add random perturbations, checkiug it evolvHbnrlr and that yto initiallyobtained. the confguration. is a aicecheck the validity Tt on ,f'ihe miaimization whichshould adopted other be by workers ac processl it into point # ell,bemuse guaraxtt- arainstconnerging a saddle in the 'nerr mxnifold. does guarantee, lt the not - . . however, against computations -1 rntnlrnum when lower minimum avdilable, is a high-eaergy a ienverogiato fn'nllysince Vpe thce computahons not made starq a wellare to fzom seEned nucleation- use of this subdivision hengons. The iato coatinues, '..g. studying iz the or a r:mdom (591: efectof va.iabouudarie of (592J e-gons. ln-lnotropy. was alsoeended (593)elongate It to Some computations addras mxNctlzaton the confguration inside sucb Ahe-xagon or a one-dsmensonal (551, 596, ofm-rnx-lxv stacb-ng 595, 59% (5942, bengons. Thereare alsccomputations rvxrtltnptlar of partidu made out bfthin ilrns (531, 599, 601, or 604, 606) 59% 600) 6021,a pcr (6(k% 605, of mc,ll rectaqgle, =ious other aad two-dimensional shapeas. by (6074 A class ttr-mlf plxna:r are of for arrays tbln 6lm particlu gzlz.kl,609, 60% 610) which are compared expezimental with studie,andthe jhecomputations being The articl, however, not are '>.,' meatsenmKto bequitegood. published . V equa yet for dzawing conclusions. te any Such compuvtionsof rect ar particles used becritiched some to by workers, because ignored insnite they the dema>etiegseldat thecor'rs. dilculty wa solvebythedemonstntion thatthecoz'ne.rs nis (544) l'Vve negligible on thecomputed a efect mavetization covguradon, if tliesubdivision sAtmciently It hasaduallybeen is fne. clm'med before (392) ikat takes *- a deviadon the oxdG aa atomicsize reoh it onlv of of to that ). . lTzllty a rathersmall by value, theargumeat but controwrmx'lremaiae zhe approv 2544) tkat it vmsnot even necasazy godown new provu to to 7 Jr.atomicee, andsubdivisions thanthe $ smaller exckange .?of the length 'mxe were adequate removing divergencethe corners. Such for the at lresult se= strange, an analytkmodel gave a plausible but may (611q it eolzmation, onlyfor a twodimenskonal but also the for pliyical not corner
.

260

NUMRICALMICROMAGNETIG

thrn-q dimensional dkquu-q.qdvl nex'tsection. one in the Tf werepMdble saturate plxnztr it to a te to square, enerr neededkeep it saturated would have been isotropic thearaments secuon in (see 6.3.1)Thevery slightdeviations saturation, fzom however, depend the do on direction, causing tcovgurational' a anisotropy squar, found ixt as thus b0th and on (612) in computations in erperiments somethin flms. 11.3.5 Prism hs mentionein section 10.5.3, Brown's r'fundxmeatal theorem' not does holdfor a cube, thereis no m'vp below aad whicther-anent stateof a this cube bethe uniformly vill mMnetized Actlmlly, condusion one. could have ben drawn d-l-ctlyfrom eqns and(8.3.38), inclcde, whic.h in (8.3.37) principle, theminimnm a11 lf state, = enerastates. tkehlnsfoz.m 'rzza 1 and mz = mv = 0, is substituted these in equations, is seen tat ther cau it e.xn befulflledonlyif S'z = Hv = 0. Andthese relations onlybefulWlled 5feitherthe bodyis au ellipsoid, theapplied is not homogeneous. or fe'ld Eowever, property a cube not seriously this of was discussed some lml;il computadons revealed equilibrium statesof sucha cube, and (6134 the made problem the quantitative. Before discussing result, a semantic thpointneeds beclarled. to Woen Brown(520) looked ihe nucleation an l'M4nitely prism, into in long he noted that all ihe possible eigenfunctons bearranged groups, could in according thesymmetry of theOmponents andn6. Thisdmsto clmss zrz. Xcation waq tho extended for the case of a rectangular prism, (2912 -a K z f % -b S y K , with z exiending the wayto l'n4nity. all In particular, nucleation for which is an evenfunction z and the mode m. in ia an oddfunction y, whilemu is oddin z a'ad even in ybwas #ven the name kurling',becauseis basically it made of a ma&etization out vector whichgoes around prismi quasi-dzcl. is topologically ume the It the in structure Gat ofthecurling as mode a sphere, in other or ellipsoidsThe mode which is oddin m andeven .ay, whilemv is even in z and for m. oddin y, lxks 1% thevedors describing :ow out of a centre.lt wms the all giventhenxme fanticurling'l because the above-mentioned symmetries are opposlte those thecurling to of mode-For readers maybeeasier some it to visualize structure following equations thecomponots this by the for of t>e same mMnetizama , etc.,as sped6edsection ix 10.5.3. When mw tion structura were rediscovered s mssible minimal statu (613) in energy zexoapplied Eeld, was somehow necessary #ve it felt to .them nam. new One therp-enns have of been attempt(613) drawa distinctive an to rnxy linebetween sclassical' the micromagneticsy thenew, numerical and studiesthat was Thestated was (613) the nxme tcurling' 'mmonly justifcation takento mean the reversal mode' as such did not ft msa nn.mefor and it a state. Therefore, curling renamed Lvortex guration' the was the conf axd out theanticqrling renztmed Towez' was the state. never czmld I gure why

COMPUTATIONAL RESULTS

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two magnetization confgurations lookthe sarnecannotbe called that by stuck themeantime aad in thesamename,butthe newnameshave (576)) are commonly used many. by ' The zesult thesecomputations that in zero applied of was feld the lowest-enera was that of the anticurling, vortex,below certain svte or a size. Thisstatement formulated cautiously (613) in the was morc , because waz not really sulcieni very small for cubes, the resultwas but accuracy in confrmed thestudy(S16j in described section 10.5.3, thenin (545q. and ' Of coursej the actualconfguration extremely in small particles of vez'y is little interest, because system not stay thereanmay.For a vezy the will small the superparamagnetism size, of section should place. 5.2 take ln this structurez deviation the 1om the eazy-es direction is only z for the magnctization tze corners of thecube. a sulcientlyf ne near For meshv magnetization(5451 the is parallelto z, with negligible deviations, at a distance one exchange of length froma corner. Withincreasing size, cube the magnetization the cube at corners tilts hrther in the radialdirectionj but the magnetization insidethe cubeis still not asected, that the so Ma size, decreMe theaverage is small. in Above certain thelowest-energy a statebecomes that of curllng, vortex,with a sharp or decreasethe in (6134 phase Mz. and diagram the magnetization of average A detailed complete size, given structuresor diferentanisotropy f constants a still larger and is in (545), someresults diferentprisms reported (614) and for are in . is in the fower) lf a largeGeld applied thez-direction, minimal energy the tilts con:guration shrinY, nxrnely magnetization more towards but z, it never saturates completely by closing structure. Therefore, was this it considered to of 9, unnecessary gointo the nucleation chapter andtheRII hysteresis was computed by applying largefeld, reducing it1 curve a (613$ thenreversing andminimizing totalenergy each t, thc for feld. There waz no attempt check to whether coercivity obtasned the thus depended the on vaiue theinitial,Csaturating' or at least such of feld? no check reported. was Ofcourse, it is formally that it is not absolutely true to necessary look into the nucleation thereis no saturation, a continuously evolving if and magnetization confguration becomputed. art However, is too risk'y it at diferential equations havean bestto use this approach. non-linear The ' enormousnumber solutions, all of which minimal of not are enerarstates. These solutions belong difereni to braachc, wkich intermixed are together in the non-linear case, andcan only be separated resolved and whenthe equations lincnn-zcd.my mind,allowing computer decide are 1.n the to on how stayon one branch, at which to and point to jump another to branch, involvestoo-optimistic of the abilityof the computer.believe a view I that it is betterto study ellipsoids, whichthe demagnetizing is better f or feld defned, leaztas a frst stage, at until the basicproblems understood. are But even in problems whichline-artz' in orderto fnd a nucleation in ation mode beavoided, does efst, it mustbesomehow can or not introduced

262

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cAn bdorethesolution beconsidere meanimgful. anmay,as a check, simllla bodic) Theproblem whether sharp of the cozaerof a cube(or bnnanyphysical meaning been hms higbly conkoversial a longtime.It for now studic (5M, 565) justf its use 545, tat is settled bythe estemati'c if 'thediscretizationsuldentlyfne. R is not clear, is however, whether ' a suEciently discretization indeed fne is usedin all the published studi, and there otheruncertainties are there. Even curved if bodies betoo may dccult to deal with in thecomputationsyis possible evnmple put it for to rounded bodies, a Howndemagnething at thecozaers,wioout wkth feld: complicatin r%t of the calculation. elongated 'te Foz prisms is possible it to taperofthe edges, whic,h n.1M them will make lookmore like m=y ofthe realpartidesas %en in the eleceoa microscope. There also other be may to nudeation, none of themwas ever tried.It is mx-tnly but ways indude bexuse mostpYpleare happy getrid of theaudeation to problem, which theyconsider l)e an unnecessary to auisance- is not. It is an import=t It guide whereaadon whichbranch start the computations.is an on to It vential part for thcse wan.t who to a thel computations have physi meaaing, to allowan insisllt on howto continue aad 1omthere.It is a nuisan for thewhowant to compute only sometldng enough fast for proentiqg thenext confpren, donot waatto bebothered the at aad by necpmm-ty to check validity thdr results. the of Evenin computations a simple of cube dp-qrtrl-bed foregoiag, as in the in which partklenever satarates, the magnetization co tioasdonot just keep evolving continuously-There (613, 616J azestlll 615, rtzu-n tswitnhz-ng modes': 1donotseewhy mustbedl-eingukshed thelclxquical' and they fzom nucleation modes which decribed chapter For nvxrnple, very are i.a 9. in smallcubes, b>ic structure the'fower'stateis mainul'neduring the of the reversal, in orderto switch, :owe,.r to dose but this hms frst. Fora small feld applied thenegative in directiony tendency thefoweris the of whic.h to open(613) further: mak more dicultto reverse.It tztkas it a still more negative to make structuresuddenly feld tNe close, switch and of this into the direction thefeld. Forlarger cubes, foweropen until it -ons. In either suddenly intothecurling co case,tkere ks jumps (613) a clpumcut bxvzler, aztually s quteobdous thereis no an.d t that eaergy hysteuiswithouta barrier.Giving proccs a diserent the name, such as or do% the nucleation ajump a switc, not change hct that a well-defned to described. Moreover, proceqconfned a pnirticulr =dG hasjustbeen this mode must be the frst one encountered the eldLschanged, when wkichmeansthe feld fwhicN enerr barrier fattens,msin .Fig. the just 9.1.Evading issue, lettiagthecomputerdecide theJump, this and on may lruzl to the correctresult, it is certainly guaranteed doso. . v but not to Some the reported of rults(613) the verysmallparticles not for are muclz derent thoseobtained the Stoner-Wo%lfnrth de1om by model, sebedin section for ellipsdds. closer (544, revealed 5.4, A look that 616)

COUUTATIONAL RESULTS

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theirswitching actually another is by mode, whichdoes efst in ellipnot the idids, whichwas given name splaying and mode. should helpful lt be this the itt include mode computations in because closeness the known to coherent rotation mode betaken some sortof a check the comas of may The and however, are Ejuter program. mainproblems, themandxcalties, in the study the bigger of particles, which for there sometimes are trather qmplicated magnetization more con:gurations' andmuch care must (6131, be exercised determining jump or out of such before the into states. , is in Thisnecessity beverycarefal evenstronger studies elongated to of t rprisms made little cubes, of thoroughly reviewed (61$, wella,sin the i.xt as other in applies othercomputations cmses mentioned that review. also It to pfbodies sharp with corners, such two interacting as cubes 6191, (618, and the which discussedthenext sectiom in have been also cylinders are There of it ikorerecentcomputations elongated prisms, indeed seems (554) and : thattheyhave ben done not carefully, therefore to wrong and lead results. the feld always in removing helps serious mistakes, r Knowing nucleation that in butit should noted it maynotalways sucient. nvp.rnple, be be For khe of only computationsa sphere, discussedsection in 11.3.2, thebe#nnjng eltn ofcurliag bechecked against analytic the resultfor thenucleation feld. Aftertlzis start, the structurechanges continuously, a certainfeld Ls till reached which at there a jump, thecurling is and confgulation is replaced 'is b. something Forthe location the latterjump else. of there no analytic y and in the is juide, computationsthat vicinityneed samecare which needed lbrtheftrstjump a cube a prism.Ofcourse, a program reproduces n or that correctly Erst the jump more likelyto bereliable computing second is for the oneas well, one r-n.nneverbe but sure. It should better havesomething be to analogo'asthenucleation to theory, whichwould determine beginning the pfa new mode, when startsfroma complex even it confguration. ' Iu prindple, nucleation the problem not bedefned in chapter need (as startingfromthe saturated state.It is the only 9. in termsof a deviation ) which been has studied detail far, butit Ls theonlypossiblty. in so not ase . here T. wereactually some initial attempts of a crude at analytic treatment cases too. In one case,thehystercis curve started byrotation 4fother (3432 6' the magnetization the Stoner-Wohlfarth andjumping f along curve: to urling fromthere.There no search othermodes, theprocess was for a=d not very diferentfromthose chapter because Jump of 9, the started wms ibma uniformly-magnetized even if it was not thesatuzated state, state. another (304), case stabitity checked considerng deviations was by small Jn fromone-dimensionat maaetzation structures. Such structuzes werefound . to bealways unstable, to justcollapse, that it was not necessary and so to ltudythe details thecollapse. of There no special s dimculty, however, developing in a more general thefrom magnetization sayMc(r)state, ory, of a tnucleation; a non-uniform U' wayLsto adda smallperturbation, ne so and dMz(r), that bothMo(r)

264

NUMEMCAL MIGAOMAGNETICS

of + are svtic with Mc(r) wMl($ soludons Brown's equations (8.3.40) the

appropriate bcundary ctmditiona. substituthg Mn andM0+ Mt By bnth in thee equations, leaving evezytmrmwlkich higher and out js tka.athe i.n frst order e, it is pceble to obtain setof linear a diArential equations with boundary conditions determizdng 4or It ia Mz(r). is thenpossible, prindple, look for the whole to eigenvalue spectrum these of equations, in thesame way msia scme cues in Gapter9. TheEeld vzue at wkich another mode start to Enudeate' thenbedeterrn-xmed srst<11 wi!l by the enovzntered eigeneueAmoter s-tudied n more deta'il, to Ls way, (620) start fromtheexpression theenergy, for workout the fa'st vadation that gives eqnill-brium as in thederimtion Brown's the sta*s of equations, but proceed to tke second also variation, whic,h determines stability tat the of A becomes possible thesecond when variation vanishes, equilibrium.jump l<mz!s muations. matrix notation wizic.k to te sxmediferential A caa (612J helpsolve linenriqed the muations. eithercase,the kmowledge H of the Eeld which jump at the should occur can be used guide computer to the as to where lookfor tkisjump trandtiont,oanother to or conEgmation. ThediEculty not in wridng is down equationq in solving the but them. Tereis no casefor whic.h startingconguration, thejump, te before is known a closed in form,ccept it Ls uiformly magnethed when the state. Q'heerefore, vay rightnow is to incorporate thecomputational the only into the Tnucleation' another of for magnekbmiion program search a possible For confrzraticp. thispurpose isne it to usesuldentlysmall Eeldstem(or where andto avod sortsof short-cuts all time-sleps applicable), ald approadmadons. Otherwise, Omputation the skip ajump maylnst suc.h andcontinue elsewhere. whe,n jump encountered, provam Then, a Ls the should s''l dentlyback rcstart tracing and fzomGere, using evemfner go and The criterion alrtuz!y hms been dissteps, a fner mesh. coavergence cussed suion 11.2, it must beemphasized erethat starting in but again to compute aaother before structure a given in eld the in feld is proptrly eAn to And) a11) provam completed lead meaninglvresnlts. above every should contain spech: a searc.h posble for rmddle points, with a check for tkepossblity a jump of there. anyof thepublished contm'ned If works any of these measures,teywere not mentkonedthepublications. in Theprecautionstaken (588) already by were mentionedsectioa in 11-3,4. a was as a2 There magneeation covguration accepted a minsm energy state,onlyaftertryingto addto it small random perturbauons, checkan.d back TMs ingthatit evolved to tkeinitiallyoblmx'nM confgurauon. method cimost does whata nnvnerical nudeation theory should doing, the be but R was designl at least avoided saddle C!J points. way (or reported) just Suc.h avoidance not do,because the physical will 5.n ms problem outlined for kere, saddle a poiat may be a tchance' the meetHtion to escape Fomthe branch is onj to a lower-eaera Thecomputcr it oneshould be ed f value wkick does answer the not provxmm inemzi to stopat each e1d

COMPUTATIONAL RESULTS

265

abovmmentioned citerion,lookvound,andcheck whether point mxy the 1M 1omwhicb is possible go to a lower-eneroone it 'to confGration. lf it isya Jump the new branch to should Vke place.lt may not beeasy to formulate SlooMng this vound' i.ua programmer's language, it rman but andshonld done any computation whic,h nucleation not be in for the is invtigxted =alyticatly. TMsgenerxllzation the oldnucleation of theory, in a numerical form,is eqnally applicable a sphere for a cube, for or or If it will down production the of anyothershape. it %implemented, slow results, it will produce reliable but only ones. lt rnay l:e possible skp to this stage, above certn'-n a pvticle size,if an unproved conjecture (621j, based the results on ofsome cube computations,foundto .begenis (615) erallytrue. Wesuggestioa is that to a frst-orderapprofmation the (621j curMg nucleaticn cf anyregttlar feld bodydepends on the nolnmo. only the Its dependence on shape onlythrough demagnctivang is fuor. H is also essential try to obtal 1omsnch to computadons th= more rxv. value the a Just numeric/ for one particular It A-xlresvery smallchange in a program designed a tperfectl for pvticle, to mxlrn it n.lgnapplicable forfndinj t:e eFect defects. efectwas discussedchapter out of Thks in 9: th= on fnzre, a bdte.rstudyis but theze was based on guus lt more and needed. a recent ln computaticn elwt mlrfnzte the of roughncs studied was by certaln cubic elemeatts mn.lrinthemnon-magnetic), (622)removing (or g in a particuhrpattamalong fromagneticbar.1.zl a another dmulaton a thin f1m) one such cube made was either non-maaetica on (6232 just (of thesurfaze at theflm cenke. bothcasesthisdrnuhtionta,nimperor In fecon found make signifcaat was to a dxexence the result, b0th to but used rathercrude subdivHons.is possible use thesametechnlque, It to of creating inside an fvcid'or a fscratch' the surfa removtgsomeof on by thelittle cnbe,for a deeper more detailed and simulation the DeBlois of experiment..ln xzne way, dx-Ferent ofJfz,or ofany oftheother the a value physlrml parxmetersy beexm-ly can assigned some part of the cube for or pm-mm, so on. Actuatly, the models ezplaining paradox and cll for the of Browm which never rfmnhed conclusive result,s analytic by ciculation, any cau be vezyreadily studied sncha slightmodifcation the efsting by of agnl-n computer propnms.It must be emphasized that without Howing theegect imperfuionsj comparison eoeriment thecompuof with cf any tational resnlts ltd-t particles meaningless misleadtg. for is and No serious efort hasever been into this sort of simulation, it put but seemsto be theonlkwayof gaining some realphydcal information about thetmlenatureof themagnetization in and procs realparticles, a physicalindghtintohowto proceed there. from Hstead such attemptto of an solve realproblem, Dterature jnst the the is getting Ved up wlth results of computationsm=y diferent uhcorrelated. which of aad e-q-q involve dfercmm emt unspedfed a:d arbitrary assurptions. '.F'.MK method lp.ldzl nowhere, cannotimprove longas people a,s andthesituation holdtkemistaken idea

266

NIMRICAL MICROMAGNBTICS

that such computations in a Hi/erentclass a new' micromagnetics; are of whichshould beconfused the old, (classical' not with micromagnetics. It is quitepossible such efort to solve problem real particles. that an the of will run out of computer resourcesYfore rsuzrh-tn sizefor whichsomega ' thingof jnterest happen, was the casewiththe attemptto compute. as may correctly domain structurein thickflms.However, this limit 1s.. the wall if reached will at lemst known far meaningful it be how computations be rnny pushed. Thereare other Xectswhich need more serious a consideration J than is givento them.Forex=ple, eddycurrentsare known to bevery (6241 metnllicparticlG. important large, for Theycannot playan Mportantrol in smazl particles ver.ythin Slms, a more sczztjcti't or but estimate of. the limit to whichtheymay beneglected still missing. problem is The of a material whichtwo difereatphases mixed in are together, knownas a nanocomposite hms solved either.In particular) Ls it not magnet, not been clearwhat boundary conditions should used the interface secbe in (see Some cxn tion10.3). information beobtained numerical ftom computatons batthere no clear-cut Ls theory. Also, computationstheenerr of (625, 626), barrier a superparamaretic for transition still done 196) 628) are (176, 627, separately. prindple Jn theyshould combined the computation be with of the statk hysteresis, tnblng111t0 account possibiliiy thermi a#the that tation mayhelpthestaticjump, reducing coercivity. thus the 11.3.6 Cklinder PractiYly a11 discussion the cubes prisms section the of and in 11.3.5 applies to the studyof a inite circular also cylinder. is ltstedseparately It here two reasons.The frst one is that for this caseof a fnite cylinder for there an analytic is proof(629) the uniformly that magnetized r-qn state never bethelowest-enera statein zero feld.At somestagetriedto prove I the opposite, some upperandlower 1om bounds in section as 10.5.1. ln the evaluation thelower of bound used (7.3.43) a certain 1 with vector eqn H'' instead the V9 as writteniato the equation of here. did not notice I that the vectorH'' whic used 1 could bethe gradient a potential, not of because x Hn was not zero. Thismistake poiated in (6291, V was out and I have already reported in (5761, I fnd it necessary emphasize it but to it again. Thesecond reason is the need mention perturbation to a scheme 26304 for calculating deviations the lfower) the of structure1om the uniform magnetization the cyljmder. in Dieerent analyticapproimations deare rivedfor a dat andfor a,n elongated clinder,andtheplottedspatial vaziations bothcases tunl out to be in fair agreement thoseof the in with numericicomputation for a cylinder. subdivision thelatteris The of (526) into >5e.,$, it seemsto bea rathercrude It is not clear and one. fl'om the presentation which supposed bemore accurate, analytic the are to the or

COAWATIONALRESUZTS

267

numerical results. themethod certainly But is unique, theattempt aad to namerical resits in a.u analyticformshould encouraged. be A represent jimilaranalytic approfmation also was GCXII for a prism. (631) ' Even mostrecent the experiments elongated on c'ylinders, as (632, such cylindez'.is d33J, forhtemretation theoldtheoryofaa insnqtc bvk to It go urtzu'nly n=ssatyto dosotespHallyfor aaguhr not the dependence ofthe pucleation forwhic theory a fnite ellipsoid woald Eeld, the of (345) have experlrnent bln better apply.A particularly to interesting repohed (6341 thattheaagulazdependence switching had ofthe feld someofthefeatures ofthecurling mode, was kdepeadent themwofthecylinder. spite but of H 9 bfthe discussion(634), in it should obdous Gapter that a sizebe 1om Ndependent aadthe curling mode mode mutually are Gclusive, because ikecurlingds agalnst work exchaagej vazies S-2. Detnllq whic.h as Hve kot bMngiven,andit is quia possible thissizeindependence that is a is muck i altofuslg R in a region which f.rstte= ofeqa(9.2.18) for the in larger t11% second the term, or Kirnilarly eqn (9.2.31), be seen mscarl If it in Fig.1 of (392J. is a KZJ indeppn/lencej a real challenge size it is to is tEebrists fnd, byanalytk aumedcal to or methods, reversal what mode measured thisexperlrnent. in

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364

RBFBRSNCBS

AUTHOR WDEX
Then'ambers square tu brvlretsare therderence numbers. are followed the TEey by pa> numbers. Abd-Elmeguid, M., (46) M. 58 Abe.K., (574) 252 Abeledo, R., (218) C. l0: Abolmxnn, I1sl) tj., 91. Abralmrnj (477) 221, (478) 217, C.$ 217, 2l8 Abrahxmm,S.,(45) M, 58 Aclzer. (4731 254, (474) O.j 216, 217, 254 Adxm, Gh.,(285) (584) 144, 257 Aiy, A. Ao (552) 249 Afanas'ev. M., (5132 A. 232 82y 82z Aharoai, (5)19, (921 (95) A., 89, (97) (110) 1146) 82, 88, 90,178, 255,(161q1082 187, 91, 94, 95, 95, I170J 95, (173) (1742 95. 95, 95, (177) (178) I180J 1K, 225,2309(227) 103, 102, 119, 125, 105,(244) (253) 225, 230, 241-244, 25% 231, 25% (270) 136, 14% 173, 220, 137, 14% 212, 222,239, (271) (273) . 136, 137, 137, 149, 15% (276) (288) 151, 1,54, 173,240, 257, (290) 1.$8, 152, (2911 2371 (292) 154, 260, 158, (295) 163-165, (309) 1809 166, :.71 167, 2322) 171, 170, (323) 171:172, 180,244,245,250, 180, 180, (333) (334) 181,221, 180, 180, 1.80, (335) :336) (337) 244,245,2511(344) 203, 186. 186, 187, (3451 2671(349) 222, 194, 13501 2=, (358) (359) 187, 194, 200,212, (360) 197, 195, 200-202, 214) (3621 19% 195, 200, 202, (363q 201,(365) (373) 204,20% 212, (382) 207, 204, 209,21p, (392) 208-212, 233, 209, 236: 2617 25% (415) 210, 210, 211, 211, (418) (422) (424) 2141 214, (461) (462) 230,253, 2549 214, 216, (4635 (472) 217, 217: 2171 (47S) 226, (477) 227.1 218, 220, (4.871 219,221, (489)
221, 221 221, (490) (491J (501) 223, 224,(502) (503) 224, 214, 230. 22% 22% (506) (50$ 252, 231,, 234. I5llq 232, (51.6q. 235, 261, 237, 241, (522) (525) (527) 2419 250, (540) 247, 246, 24% 254,(553) 255, 249, 256, (554) 249, 263,(572) (575) 252, 253. 254,(576) 261: 253, 266, 1577) 254, (5791 (6211 255, 265 Ah-tlea; (:16) E., 88 Akira., :183) T-, 98 Akoh? (183) E., 98 Mdred, T., (3G) (4% 63 A. 44) 58? Aluopoios,b. S., (,550) 25? 249, All=?G.A., (457) 213 Mvarado, F., (56) S. 61 Amemt, S.j (470g W. 2l6 Anbo: 2377) E., 204 Andetmm W-, (9) P. 32 W., A'adrz (533) (534j 243 24% Appel, W., (5M) 243 S-. 46 Arajs, 529) . 1e., E., (49) 59 B. 58, 68. 68, Arzott,A-, (65) 81) (66) (901 8l, (91) 81 Arrott, A. S-, (501 81, (1591 58, 91, 1:$8, :277) (3312 (458) 17% 213, 257 214, (463) (585) 101 Aruztarkavalli, (222) T., Asseln. (586) P-, 258 Asti, G.. (164) (1.67J (168J 9l: 91, 92

K., 90, Baberschke, (143) 91 Bvhmau,K-, (394) 208 255 Bxri, J... (580) Bxalxz (233) E., 105 Bagnrl,A-z (566) 251 Rsaceng., (2ay u., zps 211, 211, maldwln, A. Jr., (428) (429) J. 2l1 (430j Baltenspcger, (2721 :460) -W'.) 137, 214:
2l4 (461J Balucani, (751 U., 76

306

AUTHOR EOM
138,(289) 183.(301) 150. 163, 167. 238. (&4) 263, (338) 164. 181, 182. (3411 216,(353) 184, 188, 188-193. 18% (354) (355) 206. 211. 213, (383) (423) (442) 225, 229, 226, (507) 226, (508) 228, 229,(520) 260,(521) 237, 237 Broz, S., (460) J. 2l4 Brug, A., (258) (265) J. 130. 130 Bryaut, (2461 124 P., 123, Buessem, Ru (3971 W. 208 Buiocchi, 7.j (451 C. 58 Burke, Ra (5522 B. 249 Ra 92 Cabnxxk (168)

Bssv-xndbarrm, (169J 5. M.j 92 Baras, (542) 257 P., 24% Barbaza, (456) B.. 213 Bardx,D. L, (30J 46 Barnah (140) (486) J-. 89, 2l8 Baron, B., 2147) m 90 L. 87, 87 Bartek C-, (lo5j (l06q Bm-'m P., (198) (220) (367) C. 101, 10% 203, 209, 20% (413) 2l0 Beardsley, 2583) 1.A.y 257 Bodqer, A-, (219) J. 10l Rvler, J. 1-, (405) :447) 20B. 213 Beeby, L-, (30) J. 44 Bey , m S., (60% 259 A. 89 Benaltt J.z(141) Benoit, (451) (4.56) A-, 213, 213 Berger, (302) 24& A., lM. Bergboh, (153) m, 91 Bergter, (153) E., 91 Bkow V., (228) l05 D. 102, Bekowie,A. B., (206) (445) 100. 213 Bea'tr.una N., (210) (35:) H. 100, 191.. 213. 213, 251. (+43J (444) (560) 251, 251, 251. (s61) (562) (563) 251, 258, 264: (s64) (588) 259, 259, 25% 259: (s93) :602) :603) 25% 260-263 (6101 :613) Bsllms, Lp (219) 1,M. t01 Birgeneau, J., (72) R. 76 Bishop, E. L., (235) J. 108 Bissell, R., (163) P. 91 Bloomberg, S., (277) (331) D. 138, l78 Blueo L., (327) 244,(330) J. 172, 173, 252,(546) 247 P., Bwlker, (2032 100 Boeau, (5421 257,(565) 171., 247p 251, 262 Bolduc, B., (82) 79 P. 78, Bolzonit (l6TJ (168J F., 91. 92 O., 21O Bfvtaqioglo, 14:/) Bovier. (25) C., 44 Braun,E. B.. (35% 191, (364) 202, 214 . (460) Brebeck, (460) 0., 214 Brommer. B.. (94) P. 82 Brott,K 1,.,(238) l08 E. Brown, A.. (10) 33 Bxpwn, F. Jr., !1)1, 110, 130, W. 129, 149, (103) (145) 135: 87, 90, 137, 141, 164. 178, 138, 145, 17% 181-183. 94, Q4, (171) (172) 129. 131, 133, (255) (266) (268)

Cxln, C.?(4855 221 W. 218, caz,M.t (441) 259 213, 46 Cilaway (32) J., C<lea, lt., 198) (99) & 85I 85 Callen, B., (98) :132) (339) 1I. 85h 8% l82 Capio, D., (402) C. 208 Carey, (53) 61 lt., 60, L. Carbon, Wv (238) 108 Gmspers, J., (18) W. 34 Cdinski, (159) Z.: 91 m 61., 1:2, Celottal J., (55) 172,(326)
Z. J., Gende.m (528) 25411 24% 246 nhxmherlim M.k(232) m 105 E., 259 Cbxmpion, (602) C--m, (342) Clzang, 186, (3524 187, 214, 218, 222 (459) (488) (494) Chaug, (451) (5941 T., 213, 259 Citautwmj W., (163) (196) m 91, 99z 265,(211) (213) (2251 100, 100, 101, 103, 10% 105 Chapmau,N., (300) (330) J. 163, 172, 252,(510) 23:

244,(3274 244 172,

Charap, H., (491 5%7311 S. 1:4 5% Charles, W-, (203) S. 100 Chtelain, (219) A., l01 Chen, Du-xing,(258) l30 Chen, P., (217) J. 10l Cen, W-s (5321 244,24.7,(6001 243, 259,(61)9) 259 Clzenz, L.-Z., :156) 91 Cherkaoui,, (437) (452) Y 213, 213 R, Chou, Y-, (5121 S. 232 Chow, K,, (432) c. 2l2 M., 89, lXnal, (1421 90 Coakley, J., (327J 244 K. 172,

AUTHORWDEX

307

CochranrF., (792 9%(159) J. 77, 91 Diozme, F., (15% (457) G9l, 2l3 M. 88 Coey, M-D., (200) 22% J. 100, (351J Doemer, :F'.t1129) 230 18'r Inanet,D. M,, (5l0J Co&ey, T., 1174 (176) W. Dring, (275) W., 137 95 9% c'oh B. m , (26% 99,100.(437) 0, 131 DormxnnJ. 1,., (18$ , Coho,M. S.?1122) 1125) 88, 88 21.% 213 (452) Cooper, a., (1411 B. 89 Dove, B., 12613 D. l30 Doyle, D., (132) W. 89 Coopec V., (328) (3292 P. 173, l73 Coxiovei, (285) f584) A., 144, 257 Du,Y.-wo (221J l0l Cozen, L., (132) (260J lk. 89, 130 Duft-, J., (382 48 K. J. >n'., 46 Dumrenll (13j 33 , K.: Cornwelk (31) Cowburn, P., (612) 264 m 260, Dualop, J., (181) (182) 100 D. 97, 97, Crx-tlc, J-. 152) 141,163,165, D60, 232, (5141 233 173: 173 Darst, K.-D., (2415 116 (3?A (329) Duvaly (25) E., 44 Cregg, J., (1751 P95 F. 52y Crespo, (2s) P-, 44 Dyson, J.. E401 56-58, l09 Crew, c., (226) D. l02 Czxm4vneyerx (243J D.C-, 1l6 Eagle, :F'.,(4344 D. 2l2 Czws, W.y (606) R. 259 Fadware, M,h(142) 90 D. 89, Crothem, S.F., (175) D95 Edwards, L., (421) P. 2ll Ctlller, J., (428) G. 211 Bgxmi, (2841 T., 143 Blsrzm,41'.o1n 95, gl80) 100, 95. , 1., (178) 103 225, 230, (462) 230 214, Dulberg, D., (229) E. El-mlq M.. (213) (225) 101-103, Dale, (204) J100, B., 1.00 l05 14, DaltoaN.W., (4; 18 , Engel, N., (138) (139) B. 89, 89 Duu, H., (533) (5%) 24% 243 Engemann, (567: J-, 25l Dxm-elst M.,1215J J. 1* 48 Enrle, (2294 .F,.y 103 . D-, T. P., (38) pnlrln .it. Jv (514) 233 232, Daehton, M., (6055 J. 259 , Rn'x. (:$8% U. 207 Davio, (203) K.) 100 Brd, (15) Pw 33 Davl,P. :F'., 207 (385) Briclfson, P., 12% R. 44 deBiasi, S., (199) m l00 DeBlois, W-, 158) 14131 R6l, 209, 247, 262 210,1414) 2l0 Fabian, :5452 261, K., 20% Dedezics, 1:149) H.z 89 2l3 nlco, C.M., (138) (13% *9, DedeHGs,H., (26J P. 44 Falicov', M.z (7:J L77 deHeer, A., (219) W. l0l Fharlez', (571) A. Nu 252 deJongh, J., (731 77 L. Felamxnn 161) 63 76, , D., Deza Torre, (259) 242, (262) Fea-nandez X..,(l*J 7.* E., 130, A- A. 130, (263) 242, :3c, 218, Farz-az'i, (I50J J. M., 91 (481j 218, 46 245, (482) 221,(5381 (555) FertjAo (331 250 J., 248, Fidler, (404) (548) (5871 208, V-cn-hlo, M., Is431 De-l m 247 258, (591) (625) 25% 266 De-moktitov, (12! S., F., 217, 33 FMvet, (473) 254, (4741 21% S., 267 254 Deaony, (6332 D4portes, (396! J., 208 Flvewvmcoty 1473) 25* (474) F., 216: 217, Desimone, (2472 A., 123 254 DeWxmo,m E., 1469) 2l6 H 103 9% Fige-l,., (193) (230) Detzich, B., (112) 208 H. Finea E., (186) 99 M. 88, 9% H. 211, 2ll Fiorani, 2189) D., 99,l0D,(43.21 213, Dietze, D., (425) (427) D-zrm-trov, (332) 234.:(3484 D. A-, :.78, 2l3 (452j 187, Fiscer, B., 1512) P. 232 25,5

308
Fl=her,m,

AUTHOR &EX
248 (548J Griinberg, Ll2) Pn 33

Fisher, E., (6C l23 M. 6%

Planders, J-, (15:) (445) P. 91, 2l3 Forl>.r'-', (361) 197-199 F., 195, Fowler, A. Jr-, (51.7) C. 236 216. 2l6 Frait,Z., (466) (467) 2l6 &aitov, (46% D., R-anse, J. M., (149) J. 91 n'edkln, R= (210) (441) D. 100, 213, 259,1455) (529) 248, 213, 243, 253, 254,(530) 247,(531) 243, 2431 253, 256, (532) 248, 254, 25% 244, 256, 243, 247,(581J (598) 259, 259,(599) r60) (6071 259, 259, Q59, 259 (608) (6091 n'-rnan, A. J-, (:0) 89 77y R'ek, H., (161) 108. (356) & 9ly 189193, 200 A., 91h Diedmnnn, El58) 216 Friedman, (116) N., 88 k'Yytp M-, (5171 B. 236 M-s 88 PURMG (1282 H., 266 n'lcnaagay (626) H., nzkushlmw (536) 245 204 F'ulmek. F., (379) P.

Grfmterg, (4861 P., 218

Gubuov, A., (24) V. 44. Gvggenheim, (402) H. J., 208 Guo, (555) G., 250 250 Guor Y.-M.,(556) GyorrE.M., 576) t23 77,

Gadbois, (627) J., 265 Gangop-Hhyay, ) 100,(205) S., (204, 1t% GaZ'CIG EQ5) N., 44 Garcla-Arribas, 92 A., (169) Gaunt, :191) (197J:2241 P., 99, 99, 101 Gaeau, :580) F., 255 Gersng, (1441 B., 90
tn.rm , y'., (s80) dwm 255

L. J., Geogheram (176) 95 H-, Gessinger, (109) 88 Gracomo, :267) P., l3l A. 58 Giardius Ao E44) Gibson, A.. (4531 G213 Gi-en, A- A. v. d.z(184) 98 Gipzerre, (6331 A.. 267 Gllu, m, .(550) 257 249, Givord, (396) (633) D., 208, 267 Goedmhe, (492) F., 222 Goldfarb, B., (1S51 (258) E98, 130 Gome, D., (5524 m 249 Goto. (%8) (389) K.z 20% 208 GrMmxnn, (153) (154) U., 9l, 91 C. 143 Grahxm, D. Jr., (284) Grebensnhz-kov, (620) Yu.B-, 264 Green, (319) A., 169 62 GHGths, B ., (594 R.

Rxd?-ipxnxyis, (204) (205) G. C., 1(D, 10% l0l (217) Hagedora,F-, (236) B. l08 HxbnA.? g251) 12s 9 Hall,E. L., (445j 2l3 Hauy (378) D,z 204 E'anedav Il14J 208. (201j K., 88, 100, 226,(202! 2264 100, 208 (39,% HnrrlMtb G., (3llJ C. 16% 169 (318) I'Iartmxnn, (306) (3071 U., 1.6% 165. 236, 252 (519) 15735 Harvem t., (4s) R. 58 Hathaway, B., (578) K. 255 Eauser, (280) (281) (3792 H.y 141, 141s 204 Haynth-v, (1281 E., 88 Hayashi. (1352 (2992 164, N., 89, 163, l,44, (535) (536) 240, 245, 245, 247 249. (5474 (551.) 25% (574) 252, (592J 259, (595) 259, 259, 259, 263, (5961 (5971 (618) 263 (619) Hayashi, (183) T., 98 Hebbert, S:, (543) m 247 Hegedus. J., (259) 242 C. 130, Eeinricl, :502 81, (79) S0, B., 58, 7% 91, 135, 214 (159) (2771 (4631 Hellenthal, :87) W., 79 Heller, (64) P., 68 HelmansS., (2721 (460) J137. 2l4 Hempel, Ao (166) (449) K91, 2l3 Eendrsksen, (203) P.V% 100 33 E'mnlozb :13) M., Eernzt'n A., (251 do, 44 Eerdng, (21) 44z(28) C., 42. 45 Herzzea-,(:69) G-, 92 Heubelm-r, (195) R., 99 Eiblo, Mo (121) (1371 89 8% Hicken, 5.b(1q0q R. 91 N-deinger,R., :4(xj H. 208, (426) 211, Ql8 (480) Rirai,H-, (2404 ll5 mrano,S., (547) 247 Eirsch, A., (116) 88 A.

AUTHOR MEX
Ho,K.-Y., (156) 91

309

Eoare, A.,

Hofltman, (300) (330) 252 H., 16% 173, R.. 79, Hofrrnan, W., (85) r86) (1471 79, 90 Holstein, (39) 52,l09 T-, 5l, Holz, (431) 233 A., 211, Honda, (3901 (409) S., 208. 209 D. Hone, W., (71q 77 76, Hoole, (539) H., 246 Hoon, R-, (57:1 S. 252 Hoper, H., (133) J. 89 Hoselitz, gll3q 91,208 .K.. 88s Hosokawa, (409) Y., 209 Hothersall, C., (3131 (3141 D. 169, l69 Hsieh, Y.-C.P 2l8 04831 Huang, (380) 204 M., Huber, E-Jr., (1221 E. 88 Hubert, (248) 168, A., 124, 169, (249) 124, 168, 169.225, (495J 222, 247, 247, (5441 259.262, (545J 261, 262,(6162 262 Hughes, .F'.,(590) G258 F. 172, Humpbrey, 4-, (324) 244,247, Huysmans, X'.A., G25l (566j

Hogmnnn (1371 89 : F'.,

91 (163q

Jaualc, F., (308) J. 165 Jatau, A.t (481q (538) 2. 2:.8, 245 Jnes., C., (624) D266 87 Jirlk, Z., (102) Jofe,1-,(192J (195) 99, 99 Jobnson, E., (129) 1f. 88 Jolivet, P.j (437) J. 21.3 Joliveq J.-P-, 213 (452) Josepb, L, (256) A. 130, (257) 130, l30 (264J JudsJ- H., (380) (451) 204, 213
Kadar,G., (259) 242 130. V., 91 Kambersk#,7511 Kanai, (626j Y., 266 Kaneko, (371j 204 M., 203, Kannaz, R., (222) K. 101 Kaplan, A., (771 T. 77 Kare, W., (2.79) 100 95, Ifauynma, (41lq T., 209 Kawakatsu, (3151 17:., H., 169, (3171 l69 Kelley, 1.r., 61,172 M(55) 88 Kench, R-, (124) JKez'ns (440) D., 2l3 Ket'n, R, (441) 259 D. 21:$, Kiz'a, (128) T., 88 Kircbmayr. R..,(61) H. 63 Kirachner, (325) l72 J., Kishimoto, (412J M., 209 Kittql, C., (279) 14l Klabunde, J., (204) (205) K. 100, 100, 101 (217) Klein, (542) 257 R., 24*6 Klemaa, g1011 87 M., Knappmann, (144) S.? 90 Kneller, F-, (190q 2l2 B. 99y Knowles,E., (369) 213, J. 203, (370) 203. 204,(372q 204, (374) 203, 204 Koehler, R-, (441) 259, T. 213, (529) 243, 248,253, 254, (530) 247, 243, 243, (531J 248,253,254,256, 259, (532J 244, 243, 247, (581j 256, 259, 259: (598J (5991 (600j 259, 25% 259,(6071 (608) (601) 259.(6091 259 H-, 88, 208: Kojima, (114q 208, (388j 208, 208, 208 (3891 (3911 (398) Komne, (623) T., 265 Komoda, (128) T., 88 Kondo, (240) 1f., 115 Konishi, (409J (5041 S., 209, 224 Kooy, 2387) C-, 207

212 (433)

ldo,T., (3681 204 203. O., l05 lglesias, (233) . lida,S.s(207) 100 Inaba, (128) H-, 88 Indeck., S., (58% R.258 Inoue, (535) (536) T., 245, 245 Isaac, D., (531 61 E60, Isbida, (128) M.p 88 Isbii,Y.p (282) 141, (283) 225, 141, 186, 204, (346) 225,(376) (377; 204, (464) 2l4 Ivrmov, A., r5051 B. 224 S-I., 2l2 Iwasaks (436) Iwaspka-, (582) S-h-, 257
Jacobs, S= :198J (367) 203 1. 100, 202, Jakubovic-sy (2531 22% J- P., :.25, 230, 231, 241-244, 253, 141, 25% (278) 171, 170, (321) 171,(323) 172, 244, 180, 18% 245,250, (334) 181, 221: (335j (336) 180, 180, 180, (3371 244,245,2511 (49:1 224, 221, :502) (503) 225, 224, 230, 239, (5092 252,(523) (572) 252,(575) 254 25%

31Q

AUTHOR PYEX
N.u,1. P., (351) (493) 187, 222 Livagey (452) J., 213 Livlngslon,D., (220) (40F) 101, 208, J. 209 Odder,C., (151) (433J 91., 212 (mtts, K., (229) D. l03 Lu, D., (604) 259

Korvlr-x, (1.79)1(i0 J-, 95, 'V'-, Korenrnaa? 222) 46 44z Konln'x!.- 1 (298) z6a ; m Kom-o<t-!A., (567) R. 251 Er., 88 Kster, (109) Kxtx-lr.uj (204) A., 100 Koduga, lt., (287J P. 148 J. KouvekS-?(43) (89) 81 5% 80, Krauq A., (512) P. 232 IfmbsjJ. J-, (5781 255 Kronmimer. (1084(10:) (241) H., 88j 88, 208, 116.g3A) (400) (401) 208, 211, 208,(404) (426) (54:8) 208, 248,(*7)258, E5S11 25S Krop,K.l (179) 1G),(1934 95, 99 Kubq O., (3V) 204 20% K G. U., (222) 101 Kumx, (626) J., 2% Kuo.P. C., (375) 204 Icm-hxmx gze4 s:t ,r., 88, Kus.mzla, (390) /0%209 Ta, 208, Kwq J., (76i 123 77, . M., Kyoho, (;.28) 88
Labarta. (2331 A., 105 LaBonte, E., (3011 167, A. 163, 238,

Lu, E.-x.#(221) l0l M.j Lubaw (223) 101 lmbotvlqy', &, (190) 212, (366) E. 99, 20% 212 (435) Lyberatos, /96) 265,(2T1) A., 99j 100, 100j 101-103, 105 (212) (225)

168-170, 239, 238, 243-245 :310) Labrane? (558) (55$ M., 251 251, :. Lagaris?&, :r4) 137 Eaizut, A.?(206) J. 100 Lxm 5., (4382 213 , taudauj D., (63) 65j67 L. 63, Laog, (26) Pu 44 251, Laxkxj (5651 262 Mn Leaver. Dp (31.1) (319) K. 169, 16% 251 (5681 M.j Ledcrrnau, (4532 (454) 2131 21% 213, 267 (454 (634) Leej M., (459) Cv 214 Lee, L.z (821 79 B. 78, Lee, W., (2351 E. 108 Iepeve'ry Au (107) m 87 R., (3%) 208 I-< F., 123 ImIZk (245) Lcviason) M., (223) L. 101 Izevinsem-n, (402) II- 5., 208 P. Txwvy,M., (33) (34) 46, 46 1,ew1, El17) (120) B., 88, 88 Lv-Mhtensm-n, (24) A . I., 44

Mccltrrie, A., (4X) m 208,(448) 213 Mcpadym (450) (456) Lt 213, 213 Po 33 Masn, (13) Mx'zllyy :45:1 (456) D.y 21% 213 Mnll-knqmn, (239) (340) 7.C., 112, 18% 212y (434) (443) (444) 2:.% 23 A. 88 Miozemo P.j (1.11) Mnosuripur, (330) 252, (483) M.. 173. 218,(550) 257)(5692 252 24% E. MaayMn. A., (513) . 232 V. I., 20S Martliztaa (408) Martmek, (M1! G., 116 Mxv-no-ra, (121) (131) S., 88, 89 Kfzmhiyama. (741 76 E-, Mxqstnlo, V., (274) 2476) C13'6 217 A/Gf'hom (142) 90 J., 8S, Matsom (22% M., l03 Matt/mzcci, (5'5.1) G., 252 Maugn, A., (104) 87 G. Maye,Jcph Mwaz'd, 55 (42) Mayer, MariaGoeppez't, 55 (42) Mayergoyv,D-, (552) 1. MS Mazauric, (633) 261 M., Mazjewakil (505) A.z 224 Mendey K, (306) E'. l65 Mcrgcl, :4841 D.p 218 Mermln, D., (701 77 N. 'r6, Mernm T., (6154 265 262, , R. M., 88 Micbijima, (1282 Mickiitz, (46) H., 58 Middelhoek, (294) S., 163 Middletony K, (393) B208 Miedemaom) (731 77 A. 76, 239, Miltat,J., (524) 244, (557) 351,
251, 251, 251, (5581 (559) (565) 262,(611) 259 N., 136, 163, Minnajal (269) 137::296) 195, (361) 197-199

Liedtke. (417) lt.. 210 Lahitz, B. M.) (63) 65,67 63, Linde-roth, (203) S., lX

AUTHOR HEX
Mitchelly K.p (4061 R.. 208 Mitsui, :623) Y., 265 Mitui,T., (ll8J 88 Mizjaj (193) J-, 99 Mizuno, (377j T., 204 Moutroll, W., (69) 76 E. 75z Mook, A.I (37) H. 47 Morelock, R., (435) Cw 2l2 Mori,N-, Ll00j 85 ' Moriyap (1.4) (16) T., 33, 33 A. Morrish, E., 1201) 226, (202) 100. l00p 226:2255) l29 Mlrup, S.a (187) 100,(203) 98, l00r l00p 1214) 257 Moskowitzo (262) R., l30 Moyssides,G., (254) P. l26 MrymsovhN.r (244 0. 44 Muccini, (573) M., 252 Msllery K.-H.y(351) 187 Muller, W., (465J (589) M. 214, 258 Mller-pfezfer, (5371 252 S., 245, Mulligan, (176) B.p 95 Murata, (592J O., 259 Myrtle, :159) K., 91 Nagai? (396) E., 208 T., Nxlrxbayashi, (128) 88 Nalcac, 1282) E., l4l Nn.lexmura, (1834 E., 98 Nxknmurw (582) Y., 257 Nxkxtaa 1504j H., 224 Nn.lextanit (299) 164, 244, Y-, 163, 240, 245, 245, (535) (536) 1551) 24% 259,(592) (595) (596) 259, 25% 263, 25% 259,(618) (619) (597) 263 Nwtoli, (2452 C., 123 Nel, (6) 27;28,31 L., 2l, Neem=,E., (415) 21Q 209, Emj 212 NembacK1432J Neagebauer, g81) C.A., 78 Newell, J., (6151 265 A. 262: Newell, F., (69) 76 G. 75. Niez, J., (5422 257 J. 247: Nssuida.; (377) K., 204 Noaku) B-, (65) 8k?(91) J68, 82. M.p Nogus, (437) (4524 213: 2l3 Nolan) D., (113) 9lp208 R. 88, Noordermeerh A., (510) 230 44. Nordstrm? (26) L., Noziru: 5--P.,(633) 267
Mlv-zxmnnnl-, 1129) M., 88
)

3l1

Nunes, C., (216) A. l0l O?Barr, (455) (456) (632) R., 213, 21.3, 267,(634j 267 Oda, (240) E., ll5 O1De11, (2861 T. E-j 147 Oelmann, (417) A., 2l0 Oepen, P., (144) (302) 248, H. 90, 164, l72 (325) 100, 101-103, O'Grady: 1213q (225) K-, l05 Ohkosb.iy g4llq M.z 209 Olsonz L., (293) l64 A. 163, Onishchenko, (513) E-V., 232 Ozdshi; (54) K.p 61 88 Ono, (128) Ea Onoprieakoz (395) L. G.I 208 Oredsont N.y (2931 l64 H. 163, Orozcot B.j (456) E2l3 91 Ortb.y (163) Tb..z Osbomy A., (242) J. ll6 Otip O., (5701 16061 J. 252: 259 Oucbij (436) K., 2l2 Ozn.lcz- (450) (4542 (453) 213, 213, , M., 213,(456) 2l3
v., (204) Papacftkwzziou, 7.00

Paretip (162) L., 91 Patto, E., (1854 C. 98 Pelzl, (163) J., 91 Perlov, u., (482) 22l C218, Pet-zynski, (580) R., 255 P<xnrhanyr (526) 248,266, S->)., 241, 261, 264: 266, 1614) (620) L6301 267 (631) Petersp :163) A., 91 Pfeuty, (68) P., 69 Pierce, T., (55) 1727(326) D. 6lp 172, 244, (3272 244 172: Pinip Gw:75) M. 76 Ploessl, (300) :330) 252 R.p 16% 173, Pomerrmtz, (88) M., 79 A259 Pohm, M.t (605) Popma, J. A.t (151) T. 91 Por, T., (510) P. 230 Potapkov, A., (471 N58 Potter, H., (2) H. 3 Prange, E., 122) 46 R. 44, P., 213, 2l3 Prenq (437) (4521 Prima.kof, (395 52,l09 H., 51, Pn-,a=, x., (578) G. 255 Puchalsloz, ., (l30j I., B 89

312
Tbugb,W., (49) 59 B. 58,

AUTHOR MEX
Sato,T., (2404 l15

262 247, 262)(616) 261, Ravel, (473) 254, (474) E.. 216, 217, 254 Rayl,M., (4b! 58 Reale, (831 79 C., 7% 172, 247 M., Rsxqidal,(324) 244, Roveldt,M-T1z..(510) 230 Rettori, (75) A., 76 P. 76, 89 Richvds, Mu (71) 'r6 (1341 Richter, G.. (112) 208,(479) H. 88, 2l7 Rice, (570) P., 252 Riedel, 23031 E., l64 medi, C-, (62). P63 meger, (399) M.. 208 mslztozuA.: (441) 259 S. 213, 101 Rodbell. S., (220) D. Rod, (210) D., 100 c., 33 Rodmvq, r13) Roos, (449) R., 213 Roshko, M., (96) 82 RJ. Ruigrok J.M., E510J 230 Thwse-k, (606) S.B., 259 Rram Jw (327) 244 P. 172.

Sawatzky, (6B) G.A-, 63 241, Schabes, E., (525) (613) M. 260263 26% $17) Qvbford, J., (578) F. 255 Scheiufeiu, Ru (55) 172, (326) M. 6:% p.'aa G.T., (150) (160) (468) o, 9l, 91y 172, 244: 2327) 244, (3301 172, 21.6, 216, 223 (4701 (496) 173, ,252,(546) 247 Rzu-lrbe.r, (5801 Yu.L., 25& Smblgmxonj (M4) B., 130, (49% 223, 'Rxmstyck, (544) 259, 1f., 247, 262 223, (499) 224 Raacourt, G-, (215) D. 7.00 213, Schmid, (440J (441) 259 H., 21% Rao, N. R., (222) C. 101 Schmldts, F., (587) (5911 E. 25% 259 W., (149) Rathqaau, G. 91 Schnekder, (537) 252 M., 245, S., 246 Nxtnajev=, (539) Scbmolz, I6lj 63 A., Ratnxm, V., 397) D. 208 C.z(561 Raver W., (544) 259, 247, 262, (545) rehBnezzberger, 61 258, Pmhwm, T., 248,
1I. 9lI Qu>oh,T-, (1581 2l6 259, (625) 266 S. 88 SchtudqB., (1241 Schaler, (420) F., 210 rszmnnery ;. x., 1122 :.k% >hultz, S., (5% gz140l (441) 61, 213, 213, 259, (4m) (453) 213, 213, 213, 213, 213, (454) (455) (456) 2671 259, 259, (598) (6101 (6321 267 (634) Scbnl'z, (143) 91 B.. 90. L. 247 Schwee,J-, (2971 (5431 163, Sdzweninger,(3l2J P-, l69 Scott, G., gl9) G. 35 Searle, W., :41.0) c. 2o9 Seeger, g1;.5)(3031 (399) A., 88, 164, 208 Segavas (127291 H., 88, W. 2ll Self, B., (421) Pwmmye, J.1(351) (493) D. 187, 222 Selwood,W., (2182 P. 10I Semglzettio:25) J-, ,t4 204 Sbx, J. C., (381) Slzi, Y.-b-.g221j 101 shllka- (386) k62z) K.j 207, 26s Shlw,V. P., (580) 255 SMmada. (3912 Y., 208 SA-marawa,2386) K., 207 T., 98 Shlnjo, (188) Shirane, (r2) G., 76 H., Shieido. (128) 88 Atoltz, B. Vu (408) 209 Sbtrikmam :152) El6l) 108, S., 91, 9l, 1641 101, (223) (304) 263)(305) 165.(3431 263,(356) 186, 189193.200. (360) 197, 195, 200. :02, 214, (515) 236 233. Shull, Go (37) C. 47 Shur, S., (408) Y. 209

(5VJ (58% (591J

Sacchi, :361) 197-199 G-, 195, S 224 , K. A., (505) K., 259 Saito, (5921 R.*.!rx, (386) C., 207 Sakuma; (234 A., 44. Sakttrai, (155) M., 91 Sakarai, :54) Y., 61 Sakutaro, (2071 T., 100 S - , C., (450) (456) 213, 213 -. sxmao 58, 87 , G.A., (44) g1:7) Sxmboagi, (1lE) T-, 88 Sanders,C.. (606) S. 259 Sako, (282) (283) 225, M., 141, 141, 204, 2l4 (376) (464)

DYEX AUTHOR
Shyambumar, (541) B. B.. 246 J. Sievtrt, D., (148) 91 Sllva, 1., (57) T61 Skomski, (351) (4931 Ro 187, 222 J. C., 223. Slonczewsks 71)33, (498) 223 (500) J., Snu-t, g8) 86 3l, Smith, F., (384) K 207 th, Srm- D. O., (122) 88 Smith, (V51 221 N.; 218, J213, 213, Smytt F-) (440) (4411 2599 259, 259 (59s) (61(1 Sollis, M., (163) P. 91 Soohoo, F., (347) R. l87 Sorensen, (204) (205) C. M., 10% 100, I0l (217) Spaia, 5., (130J R. 89 Spratt, W. D., :618) G263 Strmk-sewicz, A.. (505) 224 stxnley, E., (77) 'H. 77 Stapper, E., Jr-. (2s2) 225, c. 125, 229,
24l

313

G., 69 Toulouse, (68) Thuble.g (799j E., 208 'p'eve.s, (17) El611 108.(305) 33, D., 9l. 165,(343) 263,(356) 186, 189200, 2331 (517) 19% (515) 2361 236 Tronc, (:.89) E., 99,100, 100, (214) 257, 213, 213 (437) (4524 Ttouilload, (5241 244, 25l P., 239, (557) 'Ihzeba, (419) (518J A., 210: 236 . Tsuuba'aj S., (315) 1770 (37.7) 16% 16% 170 (320) E-. 33 Tsyznbal, (12) 91 Ttlrilli, G., (1621 Uedap :504) M., 224 Ue=-kn.j (299) 164, Y., 1K3, 240,244, 249, 259, (5511 259,(595) (596) 263. 25% 259.(618) (619) (597) 263 172, Unguris, :55)61,l72, 2326) 5.$ 244 (327) 244 172, Usov, A., (526) Q4% (6144 N. 241, 266, 261,(620! (629) (630) 264, 266, 266,(631) 267 Uyedw (207) R., l00 Valez'a, S., (571) M252 Vnnmurer, E-, (206) C100 von de Brnxlr, P.. (18) E. 34 M. van Delden, TI.W-M.?2510) 230 vaa den Berg, A. M., (250) Hl24 vaa de Woxde, (60) B-, 63 P. 230 vwo de Zaagy J., (510) V= Leeuwew A., (138) 89 A. vaa Vleck, E., ;71 J. 23 Varma, L9'., 79 M. (861 Veerman, g149) J., 91 Velsku, g61) M-, 63 V A., (542) 25? 247, Viau,G., (473) 254, 217, 2161 (474) 254 Victorwm 11.,(194) 99 Violet,C-E-, (82) 79 78, Viscian,1., (1364 89 Voigt, (148) 2449) C., 91, 213 Voltxlram,A-, (274) (476) P. 137, 217 von Baeye-r, C., (20J H. 35 Vos, J., (238) M. 108
wvquxnt, >*., (633) 267

Stennw, B., (35) (36) M. 4*6 47 204 Stephenson,:381) A.y St3ckel, :432) D., 2l2 Stoner, C., :234) 10-6 1:.5 E10% 108, Street, (226) R., :.02 Subramaniazu, 246 S., (539) Suhl, (246) E., 1M,124 Suzuld, (316) K., l69 S., l69 Suakk (316)
Tx'kxb M., (1l9q aabi, 88 Tnmagawa, (208) N., 100 Tan-yx, (208) T., 100 'raq4ald, (207) A.) 100 Tawn, A., (32) R. 46 Tebble, S.. (52) 141, 165 E.. 6t)y 163, Testa, M., (4371 A. 2l3 Tlzeilet (5671 J., 251 q'iitiadlle, (456) (524) 244, A., 213, 239, 251, 259 (:651 262,(6112 Thiele, A., (586j A258 Tlmmpxn, M-, (300J A163 Tognetti, (75) V., 76 TomM, (6llq D.. 259. Tomltw (74) 11., 76 Tomlinxn, L.y (571) S. 252 Tonegtuzo, (474) 254 F., 217: Tonomura, (549j A-. 249 'Ibnomura, (54) E-, 61 Torok, J., (123) (293) l64 E. 88, 163,

Wua, N., (2071 100 Wue, R..H.j (416) 210

3i4

AUTHOR DYEX
2S5 Xiong, X.-Y.:(156) 91 Xu, M.-x., (221) 101 Xue,R.-b.,(221) l01 Yaegasbi, (127J 91 S.j Vj Yafet Y., (76) 123 7T, , Yxmadas (51) H.s 59 Yan,Y. D., :263) 242 130, Yang, 2600) B., 259 214, Yaag, J.-S., 187, (352) (459) (494) 222 Yang, H., (465) M. 214 Yang, (378) Z., 204 98 Yatsuya, (183) S., Yee, (440) D.j 213 Yelon, (158) 216 A.h 91, Yeung, (96) 1.p 82 Yokoynmw (368) 204 H., 203, Yu,Z.-C.,(2161 101 Yuxn S.W., (5601 (5611 251, 251, , 251, 251, 251, (562) (563! (564) 259, 259 (603) (610)
M., 87 Zelenr', (102)

Wagner, g3) 12 D., 7, Waaerl H., F(( 76, 77 W=1=- (4121 299 , 1t., Wakui, (433) J., 212 Waldron, T., (175) 95 J. Walker, R-t (471) L. 2l6 Wang, S., (22) 46 C. 44, Waring, K., (209J m 100 Watsen, K., (297) J. l63 Wayae, C., (1074 R. 87 Wecber, (s39) K., 246 Wd,M. S.h (512) 232 Weissj P., (122) G. Weiss, A., (457! J. 213 Welland, E., (612) 264 M. 260, Weller, (57) D., 61 Wells, (203) S., 100 Wendbausen, P., (351) 187 P.A. W., 213 Wcrnsdorfer, (4511 (456) 213, White,R.M., (229) 103 Wickstead,W., (1751 A. 95 Wiedmasa, H., 738) (139) M. 89, 89 ' H. 31, Wijnj P. J., (81 86 Willinms, M., (126) C. 88 Willinms, (96) G., 82 W-tzinmq, L-, (601! M. 259 WiHmoreh E., (4484 L. 213 Wilson, H., (43) m 58 Wirtit, S., (439) 213 Wirtz,G.P., (1861 99 98, Wohlfartit: P., (31) 82, B46. (93) 105, 108, (2344 107, 1:.5 Wolfrnm, (469) 1%-t 216 P. J., 58 Wojtowicz, (451 Wolf, P., (265) W. 130 Wood, W., (4) 18 D. l4, Wu,c. Y.y (158) 2l6 9l, wu, J., (221) l01 Wu,R.-Q., 11,89 (80) WulGekel, (144) W., 90 WyspG.M., (332) 234,(348) 178, 187:

Zener, (26j R., 44 Zitang, (33) (34) S., 46, 46 Z'hx, Y., (593) 259 Zhzso :156) J., 91 Zhu,J.-G.,(2381 (451) (556) 108, 213, 250:(588) 264,(5945 259, 259, 259, 265 (604) (622) E., 208, Zijlstra, (403) 20% 213 (446) Zimau., M., (41) 57,76 7. 53j 91, 9l, Zirnvnprvnx'nrt(1651 (166) , G.: 108 (237) 78t 245, Zinn,w., (12) 2844 (537) 33, 252 iukrowski,(179) 100 J., 95, zuppero, C., (85) A. 79 Zweck, (300) J., :63

SUBJECT INDEX
alumitez 212 amoxphous materials, 89 82, aagular momeatump 1Oa 8, 35 anjsotropy, 83p 87, 94,97,109, 26p 84, . 125, 181: 204, 253, 189: 220, 254,256, 26O a'rtifdal,89 constpmt, 10:1., 140, 7.70, 91., 132, 7.44, 1719 21,1, 218, 208, 217, 221, 249, 261, 251, 265 cvbict' 87, 89,95. 108, 86, 115, 141, 180, 204, 226, 186, 215: 228, 230, 252, 234, 255 91, distributioa, 92 axis, 89-92, p105, 96 107, easy 85-87, 108, 115, 121, 113, 116, 138, 141,160, 203, 226, 21.5: 231, 236, 26l 253, plane, 86 easy 33, 85, 115, eaergy, 84h 87, 105, 120123, 133, 144, 125, 139, 145, 157, 160, 159: 167-171, 174176, 196: 219, 187, 207, 226, 231, 243 234, hardaxss, 86 iaduced, 89 88, magaetocrystalliae, 9Oa 84, 8% 105, 115, 189 116, r=dom,89,91,108, 259 rovtable, 88 shape, 95,105, 116, 189, 88z 115, 125, 2O4 suzface, 89-91:100, 138,145,:7.76, 178, 187, 216, 180: 200, 217, 222, 226, 249,255, 234, 256 uaiaxial, 88r89p 94,99,105, 85, 92, 108, 116, 141, 115: 138, 157, 160, 186, 215, 180, 203, 219221,226, 230, 255 228, 252, anticursing 260: mode, 261 aatife-rromagnet, 26-30,32,33, 20-24: 42-44, 63z 76,78,79, 59, 7O, 99,218 Arrott plots, 80-82 62, Bloch 57-59 law, blockiag tempcature, , 98 Tz Bohrmaaetoa,Jzs,l2, 35,45,48r63 Boltr's electroa orbit,7-10 Bohr-va.a Izeeuwer Geo-m 6 9 's Boltvnxnn coastantz 6,7l, 83 kB? Brillouia functloaz l7z22z 25,28, 14, 24z 8Op 97 83, Brillouia zoaej 53,57,59 Browa's lt 110,114, 131, 129, l32 ..t, Browa's equatioas, 178-181, 173, 183, 186, 187, 189-191, 198, 194: 200: 217, 220, 205, 219, 223, 225:264 Brown'sftmdameatal theoremj 225, 236, 26O Browa's paradox, 204-211, 265 236, Brown's bouads, 149, upper& lowe,r 226: 258 253: Brown-Morrish theorcm, l29 Bsn=ceBrillouia fuactba buckliag mode, 200-203, 255 205,
sec TMMC ICHaNNMACIA,

Co,sezcobalt

Bal-ker:ilozv, 207 206: Bitterpattera, 60

cobalt,42-46,96z125, 135,212:222, 231, 253 coercive sez coerdvity force, coercivity paradox, Brown's sr.r pazw dox coercivity, 2, % 88,99)107,108, Hcb 205-208, 211-213, 218: 217, 254-256, 266 261, CoFea 222 O41 cohereat rotatioa modey 189, 188, 191.194, 196-203: 206, 205, 216, 225: 254-256, 231, 263 compeasatioa 30 poiat, complex 37p coajugate,39,40 coaductioa elcxctrons,42,,t14: W 36, 48, 44-46 copper, correlatioa leagthz 69 62, citical expoaeats, 66-69,80-82:84, 124, 125 critical iadex, criticalexpoaeats Jcc critical 34, resoa, 66,69; 8l, 89

316

SUBJECT EfDEX
tions
157-:63, 168-172, 165, 250 Block

?' cryatp.llln c imperfections, imperfecJea

Cu,4e.e copper Oku'le law,15 26, temperature, 3-5,l0, 22-24, Te, 29-31, 441 62-68, 34& 58y 70z 76z 78-81, 85,101, &i, 7.36 forrlmagnetic, 30,32 29, pxarnagnetic, 32,58 29t Curie point,aeeCurie, temperature Cude-Wdss 22-25, 66 law', :$0, curlingco dom 256, 217, 2*-263 curllg mode, 196, 189-.$94, 197,199206, 212-214, 225, 2164 224231, 253-2561 263, 243, 260, 267 26% delocaliyed, tinerant Je.4. electrons demAtrneklez-x-s on, demagrzetO 128, t 2, 141, 210, 2l8 factor,114-116, 132, 128-130, 187, 188, 220, 265 219, 231, yssllx-ttc 130 ma>etometric 130 eld, 114,116.118,122,128-.130, 142, 186, 204, 143, 181, 210, 211: 233, 257, 232, 236, 2$9, 261, r 262 zI1%m= diamxgnet, retirn, 1,7, 8, 10, 11I15 . dipole, 77, 109, 123, :43, 4, 79, 111. 142, 145, 234, 213, 240 1, 132, moment l2, 87y l42 dislocation, 208 88z distrbutlon augles, l08 aniwtropy, anisotropy se,t xnn Bolem 92 dislocatlons, 88 :02-104 enerr barriers, lme-ton, l03 101, 103-105 gnmma, paztides, 257 relaxation tme,101s 104 102, size, 98-102, 2l3 wdth,l03 domain 6c,99,120, 123, wall, 121, 12$. 127, 133, 1.38, l41j 137, 140, 156, 179, 207. 157, 180, 208, 210, 217, 221, 219, 223-225, 231, 241, 245, 238, 244, 247, 248, 250-253, 256-2$9, 266

cw--tie,163, 169, 251 164, 2$0, Laudau Lifsbitz, and 133,138, 143, 157, 164, 172,, 161, 171, 174, Nlel. 1$7-165, 180, 25l 172, 250, domains conf guratiom 1201 141, 61y 128, 173, 225 znaaeticz 20,;7, 47,60-63, 69, 5, 66, 81,82, 87,89, 93)99, 85, 9l) 116, 120-125, 128, 118, 127, 136, 158, 207-212, 138, 171, 225, 229-231, 238, 236. 245, 247, 254, 257, 258, 256, 259 Wes, deeWeissl domains 'rnaq.q Dring , 224
S&-nmtein-deexperiment, Enx.q 35 electron ronaace, spin 79 entmps65 Buse, 21 excbxnge, 16,17, 112, 20-22, 33,36I 28I 43-46, 76-79, 62, 82-85, 89, 120, 133. 196, 124, 137, 202: 221, 2.33, 225: 258 anisotropic, 77 33p biqunzdrxtic, 33 claaslcal, 133 oonstantz 140, 170, 217, 135, 160, 17% 218, 222, 249, 221, 234y 258 direct, 43 36, 4l, enera,16y 45,75,84,85,89,90, 105, 120-123, 133, 125, 134, $37-1391 1V, 157, 144, 159, 160, 16:-170, 165, 174-176, 179, 207, 217, 180, 216, 2,31, 233, 236, 247, 235, 2431 258 clx-kalj 1.34-136, 142, 1381 243 indirxt, 36,48,77 43, integrzz, 18y 24j41z 44,4s, 16, 20, 48,58,68,85> 222 135, 1431 lengtk 259,26l
faanyng model, 202-204 Fxvxaay 60 eFeck Fe,ecelron Fe3 28, O4, 232 57Fe 78 163, FesMaots 31 >A,.rml 10 rws,
mx-cql 222, 224

250

SUBJECT JQDEX
Ferrrl1 44j45 1eve1,

317

ferzic ozdc,sc 7-:Fienoa fmvimagnet, 32# 99 27-30, 44, ferrlte. 3l, 43,44,86,91, 28, 25l 'ee bazium? Balhelaolg cobalt CoFezO4 se.e Mn-zu, Mno.6Zn().:$sFoz.:sO* se.e ferromagnedc resonancey 9l, 135, 89, 215-217 2l6 feldp modes, 217, 216, 255 fower state,260-26% 266 Fouder series, 54,117, 53, 257

itjnerut electmnsj 44-48, 59 3%

B, .:e Boltmzrmn's constan Kerrefect,*, 61 kinedc eergy,22*

Kmncker smbol,37,49

'yecm, 212, 206, 222

p-factor, Land;fxrrenr see elect,HaII probe, 61 Hall Hamiltonian, l7, 32, 41,42,53, 6,8, 38, 54,?0,l09 Eeisenberg,42-45, 59z 62) 35, 48, 60& 70,75,1% 82-84, 79y 133 Hartree-Foclt,41 38, Fe, sc coerdvity Hcisenbcrg Harnl-ltoniazla >eeHrnarr,''lto

2,2,4 Lagruge function, Landd factor, 28z 18l 1% 35, Landau levcls, 10 tbeoryof phax Mndtions,63,64. 68,69,75 Langevln 83, function, 97,98 Laplace tr=sform,154, 159 Larmor preceslon, 97 spin, 59, locxlixqd l0, 36,44,46.48, 62, 233 magnet:m,76 low-dimln<ional

ni= homogeneous magnetization magse.e netizaiion, uniform hydrog=, 43 10, h e seld, 78 63, hysfzresis.47,97-99. 108, 3, 106, 174, 184, 254-25% 262 21G lizrztlng cuz-ve, 1-3, 105, 107,108, 141, 214,255-257, 213, 259, 261, 266 263, zninor loop: 2 Ycurve, 2

M, zeemarqtszation maaeiicforcq microscopy, mlcrosaee. *W znavetic momeuto 5-12. 22,23. ly l5y 27,28,33,35,44*8, 55& 56& 83.84,92,93,l06 orbiia), 35 magnedc viscodty, 100 magnedte, :F'eaO4 see
magnetization co don,137: 147: 155, 141, 148, 160: 165, 173, 163: 168, 174, 184, 207,-217, 226, 189, 225, 230, 2391 244, 229, 238, 242,
curv'e? 108, 254 218,

250, 253, 24% 252, 257-259, 261-265

imperfections, 183, 88, 209,210) 249, 265 impurlts 33,34,88:208 2l, initialsuscqptibility, susceptibility: se.r initial iron,3, % 35,47,-.4*/, 57. ,J8, 27, 56, 62, 79,86,E8, 100, 135, 96, 124, 141, 169, 172, 143, 171, 205, 206, 215, 255 209, 250, whisker, 209-212, 58, 236 69-71, 77 76, Isiag modql, onmdimensional,ondlmcnsiosee nalIsiagmodel two-dimenionalz tw-dimensio,ee nalIsing modq)

84, dircctlon, 85.87,89,90,92,94; 97, 99, 100,105-107, 113, l20z 137, 140, 128, 138, 141, 143, 157. 172, 147, 167, 178, 181, 196, 218, 189, 215, 219, 222, 253, 258 231, 254, distribution, 112, 123,124, 47, 1147 130, 148-150, 173, 144, 152, 2V, 252, 259 9, 225, 265 procex, 133, 231, r 188, 191-.193, 202y 99,185: 204, 207, 225, 206, 209, 231, 253 ripple, 108: 89, 259

'

318

SDJECTINDEX
MFM,scc microscopy, maaetic force microscopy Loreatz electrom 171, 169, 257 magnetic MPM,61I252 force, optical, 209 61, nz--annln 61, g e:ectroaj l72 traasmislioa elqctron, 262 203) Mn,s6v maagaaesq Mn0.@Zao.3sFea.csO4, 230 MrlRi,2:8,209 Mno,32 molecular epitaxy, MBE beaa ze.e molecular 4, 5, 12,16-18, 28) Eeld. 20, 32-34, 49,59,60,68,7% zlz.j 80,81 22, 58j M>bauer ect, 27, 62j63,78, 95,97-100 Mrl Jeemaretisation, remanent saturation AGlsa magnetizationv Nel
207 spikes, temperature, 22-24, 27,32) TN$ 26, 70 79 I theory aatsferromagtetsm, of 21,22 theoor ferrimagnetism,28 of 27) theoryof surf anisotropy, Me 89 Nelpoint,se.e I temperatttre Nel neutrondepola.rsz-xtionz 230 neutroadiAaction, 47,171 22.

magnetizations N.:

87, sNce dependence, 90, 91s105, 1.08) 169, 185: 165, 174) 190, 196) 243 stmcturea 127,139,155,163,164, 166-170, 186, 242, 180, 189, 2467 248-251, 260-264 256, uniform? 1.12-115) 122,124, 95s 120, 125, 728-130, 1.42, 135, 185, 188, 214, 2099 225-228, 231233, 235, 252, 255, 236, 253, 260, 263) 266 264) 83, 157, components, 84,91,98,107, 171, l86 rem=ent, Mrp2, 61, 99: 101,212, 254) 255 45I saturatioa, 2-4: 30v31, 33p Mal 46,57-60, 63) 67,7562, 66, 78j 101, 106, 112,120,123, 136, 217, 221, 140, 218, 254, 255 vector,1,4, 26,46y 87,90,92-94. 85y 96, 105) 113,117, 112) 120, 134-136) 165) 175, 1d19, 174, 221, 232, 260 244,

magnetocrysvlline anisotropy? aa4ee sotropy, maaetom-ystnlline magnetostatic 90, 116, energy', 109:1t1, 113)115, 119-129, 7.38-142: 133, 1+1150, 154-161, 167152, 165, 170, 174,176, 194, 7.72, 180, 198, 209, 217, 207, 216, 219, 226,231, 233-235, 238-243, 246, 250) 255) 247, 251: 258 force? 124,145, 120, 196 interaction, 165, 239, 103, 202) 241 potential,109-112, 116,118,119, 122, 128, 131, 126, 130: 148, $50-154, 188: 238, 187: 194, 239) 248) 266 242) 257) problems? 149-151, 145) 173) 176, 195, 241) 247: 196) 243: 257, 258 magnetostrictiow 88,100, :75: 87, 141, 249 55, magnon, 58 32, m=ganese, 46)76,79 Ma:twell's equations? 109, 122, 1,3: 110, 133, 7.46: :42, 216 MBE,77 me= feld, Jcc molecular feld

Ni, sr.znicakel 61, 86) 135) nickel, 42-46, 7% 8% 141, % 169: 232: 212: 235 NMR,scc nuclear maaeticronance nuclear magnetic ronattce)22,63 nudeation, 183-189, 194) 137, 191, 196) 200)201, 207-218, 205, 230, 231) 237, 236, 254-256, 259265 centre,208, 209 feld, 1841 185,1899 191-194, 196, 198-200, 202-207) 209-211: 214) 217: 253-256) 263) 258, 265, 267
revm-sal modesJcc under mode the 11
Ilnmey

obhtespheroidv 194: 197) 115: 196: 200, 204, 232 one-dimenshonal Ising modely 72,75v 71v 76 maaetism, 76 75I

SUBJECT DDEX
orbital mareticznoznent. maretic ae,e moment, orbital ortNoferrite, 33 orthonorrnpl 37 set, oxide, 32,78,79,100, 28z 222
10-12, 15-17, 24t27,78, 22, 84,97-99, l08 partition functjon 71 ! 55, 37, Pauu exclumoa prmdple, 40,43,46 Vj 143, oyy 89, 1G81 162,163, 166-169, :71-173, 251 206 pveablt, lj 2, 131,132, crygtxlllne planar defects, 2l7 poleavojdauce prindple, l46 145, potential 142, encgy', 224 magnetOtaticj mMaet*tatic lel pptential prohte spheroidy 116,193,194, 115, 200,201, 205, 232, 204, 231, 256 236,255,
rve o-xr:h, 35,36,44,4a5, 31, 143
;'

319

1-4 parxmmet,pnvxmxgaetqm 7

spheroida! coordknates, 23l mve functions, 23l spY,5, 7. l0, 12,14-18, 2*22, 24,25t 41-43, 46,4845, 3l, 33..47, 53,56z 69-71) 79,8363, 76, 85,89,97,100, 120, 105, 123, 133, 136, 143, 134, 137, 145, devlatioa, 51,53 5O,
operator, 52 50, 172, 221, 196, 233-235, 237

speM' hea.t.y 27,45,55z 67:75, 22j c 65, 76

.'

123, 125 spin-orbit intemcfon, 85,90,l44 84, spontaueous mMaetiexlrion,zzzagneaee satutation tizytion, Stonee-Wotfarth 9ly 105-108, model, 115, 185, 202, 116, 189. 204, 254, 262, 263
tiyrrn, 7% l6, 92-100, 103, 22% 261, 212, 230, 266 se=epdbility, '8-11)l5, 22A 108, 1, 91, ' 132 iaitial? 23-27, 15, 29-32, 65-67, 74-. 77,80y 254 9l, T., se Curie tempature T>, &es micrvopy, traasmuion electron 'MC, 76 Tw 4eeN&1, temperature , transidon metal) 44 36, two-dimensional 1s1R modely 75s 72, 76 maretism, 75-77, l64 79, AAnlfonn mametizatiom magnetizaJee tion,Mniform valencey 45 3% vectorpotential, 152, 110, 242, 258 vortexc ation,253, 26l 260, wall wal:aot domain weak ferroma&et-tsmv 331 79 wyu'sa 17 3-5, domdns? 85 3-5, Geld, mn:rwnlxlz.r aee eld XY-model, 70 Zeemxn qsqcts 63
supere.x supe
,

waxea,34, 54, 59, 78, 48, 56, 6O, 109,

43,44

reiprocity,148, l76 149, relaxation 94..-96, l00j l0l timej 98: Browm 95 94, Neely 96 94, remaaoce, Jee mognethatioG remaremormallzation 34h l23 groupj 694
Ynxn

nent

electron spin,se.e electron zochsph

nnn e

fromagnetict ferromagneic ac res-

nuclear magnetic, auclear J* mMnedc nenaace modew ander mode revewal 4* Aamqs ripple stmcture,sa magnetluO-on ripple
nr'nl potezttsal) magnetosvtic m' ,c< pos s
' '

onance

tentii bypotbub69 electaron micoscopy, mi;co

self-coniutency, 180, 224, 179, 221, 245) 248, 25l self-eergy', mxretostatic zcc energy SO, 79 '?*,