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Observing mitosis of prepared Whitefish Blastula cell slides and Calculating the time (in
minutes) that each stage of Mitosis undergoes in Onion root tip prepared cell slides
Cell division is an integral part of the cell cycle in all plants, organisms and all
living things in general. Passing genetic information from parent cells to offspring allows
plants and organisms to grow and growth is vital to life. In both plants and animals the
process involves the distribution of genetic material to daughter cells. The process of cell
division involves two different types: mitosis and meiosis. Simply stated, Mitosis divides
the nucleus of a cell to produce these two daughter cells and consists of five stages. The
stages in an animal cell include Prophase- chromatin is condensing and the mitotic
spindle begins to form, but the nucleus is still intact, Metaphase- spindle is complete and
the chromosomes are all aligned at the metaphase plate, Anaphase- the chromatids of
each chromosome have separated and the daughter chromosomes are moving back to the
poles of the cell, Telophase- daughter nuclei are forming and Cytokinesis has begun. In
plants, this process is quite the same except for Cytokinesis. Instead, while in Telophase,
vesicles from the Golgi apparatus move along microtubules to the middle of the cell,
producing a cell plate. Cell wall materials are carried in the vesicles that make up the cell
plate and then are released, and actually form two cell walls. (Campbell pg. 223)
Meiosis is a process that is similar to mitosis and even has a few of the same
processes as mitosis does. Meiosis has the stages of Prophase, metaphase, anaphase,
Telophase and Cytokinesis but these processes happen twice. Meiosis I separates
meiosis, homologous chromosomes loosely pair along their lengths, precisely aligned
gene by gene. Then, the nonsister chromatids break at corresponding place and then
rejoin to the other’s DNA. Each tetrad has more than one of these places of crossing over
called chiasmata. The same process as Mitosis then happens, movement of centrosomes,
along the metaphase plate with one chromosome of each pair facing each plate. This
allows one of Mendel’s laws to come into affect, the law of independent assortment:
possible alignments with the 23 human tetrads 2 to 23rd power) Because alleles can
separate independently, there are more chances for variation among the products of
meiosis. In mitosis, this stage lines up the chromosomes and separates the sister
chromatids from each other and no variation takes place. Now in anaphase the
chromosomes more toward the poles as in Mitosis but sister chromatids stay attached to
one another but homologous chromosome separate. The law of segregation that Mendel
had made can be observed during anaphase I since the homologous chromosomes can
independently assort, segregate, and randomly unite. Telophase and Cytokinesis are
relatively the same. The process now starts over with these two cells, thus making four
daughter cells. Due to the crossing over, there will be a larger amount of diversity
compared to Mitosis which makes replicas of itself. Prophase II allows the spindle to
form. Metaphase II and Anaphase are exactly like Metaphase and Anaphase in Mitosis.
Nuclei then form during Telophase and Cytokinesis and the cells split. Each of the four
daughters have a haploid set of unreplicated chromosomes as compared to the Diploid
replicated that Mitosis produces. (Campbell pg. 245) I have mentioned a few differences
between Mitosis and Meiosis above but the key ones include the number of divisions in
each process: Two in meiosis and one in Mitosis. The number of daughter cells of each
process: two in Mitosis and four in meiosis. The functions of each: Mitosis forms somatic
cells, any cells that form the body of an organism while meiosis forms a gamete which
fuses with another gamete during fertilization in organisms that reproduce sexually. The
last key difference is the number of chromosomes at the end of the processes: Mitosis
gametogenesis. It includes the same thing we are studying and the same processes as
meiosis but relates the function to the name a lot clearer than meiosis gives. In plants the
process of sporogenesis is the same way and is another name for meiosis but instead
produces spores. This can be found in plants and includes algae and fungi. The pictures
Procedure
1. Acquire both onion root tip cells (plant cells) and whitefish blastula cells (animal
cells)
2. Use the scanning lens of the microscope to locate a viable specimen to view of the
whitefish blastula
3. Switch to the highest power lens of the microscope and view your specimen.
4. Next, you will be sketching the cells that you are observing. This means that you
must be able to distinguish all of the different characteristics of both mitosis and
meiosis. It would be helpful to have a textbook or another reference open in order
to fully know which steps are taking place.
5. Observe the Onion root tip specimen next and view under high power after
finding a viable sample.
6. Looking at the slide, count and record the number of cells in the field of view that
are in each phase.
7. Determine the total number of cells counted.
8. Determine the percent of cells that are in each phase.
9. To calculate the time (in minutes) for each phase, multiply the percent of cells in
that phase by the number of minutes for the whole cycle using the equation below.
Time in each stage calculation =
Percentage of cells in stage (in decimal form Ex. 50% = .5)
x 1,440 minutes
_____ minutes of cell cycle spent in stage
Data
Number of Cells in each stage, percentage of cells in each stage, and calculated time in each stage of
Mitosis in a prepared slide of Onion Root tips
Number of Cells Percent of
Time in Each
Total Cells
Field 1 Field 2 Total Stage (minutes)
Counted
Interphase 215 239 454 91.5% 1,317.6
Prophase 12 9 21 4.2% 60.48
Metaphase 6 7 13 2.6% 37.44
Anaphase 2 3 5 1.0% 14.4
Telophase 1 2 3 .06% 8.64
- Total Cells Counted 496
Table 3.1
Interphase
Analysis/Discussion
Our data clearly showed trend of data that we had expected before going into the
lab. Interphase is the longest part of the cell cycle and our data was supported by this fact.
The rest of the data showed a decline in cells in each stage and that is exactly what
usually happens in the cell cycle, Interphase being the longest and then in sequential
identically to the original cell and each other. In order to achieve this, the process of
Mitosis must carefully regulate all of its phases for complete accuracy. The cell is in
Interphase for 90% of its cycle. During this very long phase the cell grows and copies its
chromosomes in preparation for cell division. Interphase is then divided into three
separate sections or subphases: the G1 phase (aka first gap: early scientists saw it as a
gap), the S phase (synthesis occurs here), and the Gf2 phase (aka second gap). During
these phases the cell grows and produces proteins and doubles its organelles in
preparation for division. The S phase allows for chromosomes to be replicated. In these
subphases are checkpoints. These checkpoints allow for the cell cycle to be regulated and
act as a “quality control” of the cell and verify whether the processes at each phase of the
cell cycle have been accurately completed before progression into the next phase. After
the long period of Interphase, the cell enters mitosis and the process of cell division takes
place. The cell undergoes five more stages and the daughter cells are produced, the
introduction fully covers this topic and what each stage is composed of. (Campbell pg.
221)
Plants and animals have quite a few differences in their processes of mitosis. In
prophase, both animals and plants condense their chromosomes but in animals the mitotic
spindle forms between centrosomes on one side of the nucleus. Plants instead form their
spindle around the nuclear envelope with microtubules and Actin microtubules form
under the plasma membrane at the place where then new cell wall will be formed when
the cell divides. The nuclear envelope in both plants and animals breaks down, but in the
plant the actin microtubules in the membrane break down just after prophase. Metaphase
and Anaphase are completely alike between plants and animals. In Telophase the nuclear
envelope reforms, the chromosomes begin to decondense and the spindle breaks down in
both. During this phase, plants begin the task of setting up a new cell wall. The proteins
of actin, myosin, and protein made microtubules form in the center of the cell where the
new cell wall will be formed. Animals have contractile ring made of actin and myosin
that forms about midway between the two nuclei. When Cytokinesis takes place and the
real division of the two cells takes place, animal cells contract the center ring of actin and
myosin and it in turn pinches the two daughter cells apart. In plants, the actin, myosin,
and microtubules extend to the cell wall on both sides of the original cell and a new cell
wall between the two daughter cells is completed. (Campbell pg. 226)
The centrosome is present in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells and plays a
major part of cellular division and especially for mitosis. The centrosome is where the
microtubules in the cell assemble and connect to the chromosome. It is usually called the
microtubule organizing center for this capability and plays a key part in mitosis. Without
the centrosome, the chromosomes would not be capable to being separated and no
The tip of the onion roots provided an excellent medium for studying cell
division. Since roots are constantly growing and moving further into the ground, the roots
will have to get performing cell division to achieve these longer lengths. We easily
observed this high activity under our microscopes and could see all of the phases of cell
division since so much activity was taking place. This is only one of the two places on a
plant that replication occurs. That means that if we were to take a sample from another
pant of the plant, no activity or division would take place and we wouldn’t be witnessing
much to do with the experiment. Our results would have come up as inconclusive
because they would all be in the G0 phase, or simply stated, the phase that only steadily
Our data strongly supports that Interphase is a very long process and the cell
spends over 90% of its time in it. (Campbell pg. 221) The mitosis process is very brief
and accounts for a small part of the cells life cycle but is ultimately a very large part of it.
Looking at our textbook page of 221, it clearly states that Interphase occupies 90% of the
cell cycle, meaning our data was strongly supported and had a small percentage of error
Although there are quite a few differences between the events of mitosis and
meiosis, three major ones that can be recognized include the following. In mitosis, the
nucleus is only divided once but happens in all cells, while in meiosis the nucleus is
divided twice but only happens in cells in the gonads (sex cells). Another difference is
that mitosis produces two identical daughter cells each with 46 chromosomes (2n), but
meiosis produces up to four different daughter cells each with 23 chromosomes (n). Also,
synapses’ and crossing over do not take place in mitosis, but do take place in meiosis and
Mitosis Meiosis
Chromosome 46 46
Number of
Parent Cells
Number of 1 1
DNA
Replications
Number of 1 2
Divisions
Number of 2 4
Daughter Cells
Produced
Chromosome 46 23
Number of
Daughter Cells
Purpose/ Mitosis produces the cells of the body. Meiosis produces the gametes or the "sex
Function When the cells go through mitosis they cells" such as sperm and eggs. Meiosis
split and form exact copies of consists of two divisions that produce 4
themselves with a complete set of DNA. daughter cells, each with different genetic
The process can be used to replace or material. This genetic variation allows for
repair damaged or destroyed tissues of variation in a population. At fertilization
your body. An example can be a cut on male and female gametes come together to
your arm. Mitosis takes over and form an offspring with half of its mothers
produces epithelial cells that heal they genes and half of its fathers. Meiosis keeps
would by replicating themselves. chromosome number constant across the
generations, produces genetic variation,
makes sure that each gamete contains only
one member of each homologous pair and
eventually leads to the creation of
offspring
When meiosis I is completed, to daughter cells are haploid but the chromosomes
are still doubled stranded as they have their sister chromatids connected. The homologous
pairs that had been attached to them have already been separated. The original cell had 23
pairs of chromosomes but at the end of meiosis I the cells now have 23 chromosomes, not
pairs. Meaning they still look like an X in configuration. In short, meiosis I reduces the
In meiosis I, the DNA had been replicated but does not happen in meiosis II. At
the end of meiosis II, there are a total of four daughter cells, each of which is haploid. At
this point, the sister chromatids have separated from each other. This means that the
gametes each have 23 chromosomes, and each has one chromatid. Also, crossing over
occurs during prophase I of meiosis I but does not happen in meiosis II.
accommodate the splitting of the cytoplasm. The spermatocyte then goes through meiosis
and splits the beginning sperm cell into 2 and then 4 cells. Since the cytoplasm grew
extra large, each spermatocyte was able to survive and have an equal amount of
In oogenesis, the beginning egg cell grows and matures to a larger state with a lot of
cytoplasm. The cell then goes through meiosis I and the product includes one cell that is
larger than the other one. The other cell (now called a Polar body 1) becomes small and
useless. Both cells, the larger cell and polar body one, goes through meiosis II. The first
polar body creates to smaller polar bodies that will eventually die. The larger cell divides
into two cells with one being larger than the other again. One cell will receive more
cytoplasm than the other and a total of three polar bodies are formed that will die. The
So in spermatogenesis, four viable small same sized sperm cells are produced and in
oogenesis, one big viable egg is produced along with three unviable cells. The sperm
cells are only created in male organisms that sexually reproduce while eggs are produced
Each cell has two copies of each chromosome, making it diploid. Meiosis changes
this ploidy level into haploid cells (n) each with 23 chromosomes. A haploid cell from
each parent, the sperm and the ova, fuse together (fertilization) to make one diploid cell
which then produces a whole new organism or offspring. The offspring can have the
genes of both parents due to meiosis and the fertilization of the cell. Without meiosis,
genetic variation would not be possible as only mitosis would occur and every organism
on the planet would consist of one type of cell. Meaning no organs could be assembled to
possible. Again, if only one type of cell survived then pandemics would become fierce
and could certainly wipe out our entire globe if it got bad enough. Our bodies would be
ineffective at fighting anything off since we would be comprised of one type of cell that
could not be mutated into a cell that was resistant to certain strains. Meiosis allows for
these mutations and adaptations to exist. Meiosis constantly increases genetic diversity
especially in today’s times when interracial couples are extremely prevalent and we have
planes, trains, and buses that can take us to all types of foreign lands. Meiosis allows for
evolution to continue therefore increasing survival rates against plagues and making
future generations better adapted and maintains the survival of entire species.
Other Experiments
Other experiments that could lead from this one could be many. One that would
really interest me and inspire my full attention would be to witness cells going through
the cell cycles before our eyes. Of course we can watch videos of this on the internet but
when something is brought out in front of you to your attention it just pulls you in and
engulfs your curiosity. Like our teacher had stated while we were in our labroatoy, we are
going to be spending countless ours with ours eyes looking through microscope lenses so
why not start on that now. Instead of finding which cells are doing what on a prepared
an egg. Although this would require a lot of work and would probably be very expensive,
the whole process is just mind blowing. Two of the smallest cells in the body fuse
together and eventually create and living, breathing person. It’s both a thing of science
and a thing of art in my mind. Fusion of the gametes and then an explosion of cell
division that then divide into all of the tissues, organs and everything else you need to
create a full, live human being complete with thoughts, memories, and the ability to
References
Campbell, Neil A., and Jane B. Reece. Biology: AP* Student Edition. 7th ed. San