Handbook On Investment Casting Gold Jewellery

WORLD GOLD COUNCIL
HANDBOOK ON INVESTMENT CASTING

THE LOST WAX CASTING PROCESS FOR CARAT GOLD JEWELLERY MANUFACTURE
WORLD GOLD COUNCIL
HANDBOOK ON INVESTMENT CASTING

THE LOST WAX CASTING PROCESS FOR CARAT GOLD JEWELLERY MANUFACTURE
By Valerio Faccenda Consultant to World Gold Council with Chapter 3 written by Dieter Ott Formerly at FEM, Schwbisch Gmnd, Germany
Copyright 2003 by World Gold Council, London Publication Date: May 2003 Published by World Gold Council, International Technology, 45 Pall Mall, London SW1Y 5JG, United Kingdom Telephone: +44 20 7930 5171. Fax: +44 20 7839 6561 E-mail: industry@gold.org www.gold.org
Produced by Dr Valerio Faccenda, Aosta, Italy Editor: Dr Christopher W. Corti Translated by Professor Giovanni Baralis, Turin, Italy Originated and printed by Trait Design Limited
Note: Whilst every care has been taken in the preparation of this publication, World Gold Council cannot be responsible for the accuracy of any statement or representation made or the consequences arising from the use of information contained in it. The Handbook is intended solely as a general resource for practising professionals in the field and specialist advice should be obtained wherever necessary.
It is always important to use appropriate and approved health and safety procedures. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior permission in writing of the copyright holder.
CONTENTS
Preface Glossary 6 7 13 13 14 15 16 19 20 21 21 21 23 24 25 26 28 29 29 29 30 33 33 33 35 36 36 36 37 38 39 41 42 42 44 45 46 48 49 50 51 52 53 56
3 Alloys for Investment Casting

3.1 Yellow and red gold alloys 3.1.1. Metallurgy and its effects on physical properties 3.1.2 High carat golds with enhanced properties 3.2 White gold alloys 3.3 Influence of small alloying additions 3.3.1 Improving properties 3.3.2 Effect of individual additions
59 59 55 64 64 67 67 68 75 76 77 78 79 79 81 81 82 83
1 Introduction
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Development of the modern process The modern process and product quality Choice of equipment and consumables Health and safety
2 The process of investment casting

2.1 Design 2.2 Making the master model 2.2.1 Alloy of manufacture 2.2.2 Feed sprue 2.3 Making the rubber mould 2.3.1 Types of mould rubber 2.3.2 Making the mould 2.3.3 Cutting the mould 2.3.4 Storing and using the mould 2.3.5 Common problems 2.4 Production of the wax patterns 2.4.1 Types of waxes 2.4.2 Wax injection 2.4.3 Common problems 2.5 Assembling the tree 2.5.1 Bases and sprues 2.5.2 Tree design 2.6 Investing the mould 2.6.1 Flasks 2.6.2 Investment powders 2.6.3 Safety and storage of investment powders 2.6.4 Checking the condition of the investment: the gloss-off test 2.6.5 Mixing the investment 2.7 Dewaxing the flask 2.8 Burnout 2.8.1 The burnout cycle 2.8.2 Behaviour of calcium sulphate-bonded investment during burnout 2.9 Melting 2.10 Casting 2.10.1 Test for system temperature 2.10.2 Inspection criteria 2.10.3 Test for best feed sprue design 2.10.4 Casting with stones in place 2.11 Cooling and recovery of cast items 2.12 Summary of the basic guidelines for each step of the process 2.13 Schematic list of possible defects
4 Equipment
4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 Vulcanisers Wax injectors Investing machines Dewaxers Burnout ovens Melting/casting machines 4.6.1 Comparison between centrifugal and static machines 4.6.2 Centrifugal machines 4.6.3 Static machines
5 Sources of equipment and

consumables 89 97 102
6 Further reading 7 Acknowledgements 8 World Gold Council technical

publications
103
PREFACE
Investment (or Lost Wax) Casting is one of the earliest processes developed by man, dating back 6,000 years or more. Today, it is the most widely used process in jewellery manufacture but probably the least understood by practitioners of the art. It comprises a series of process steps, each of which must be performed properly, if good castings are to result. It never ceases to surprise me just how many casters do not realize what quality of casting it is possible to achieve consistently, if each process step is done carefully in a controlled manner. There are comparatively few good manuals on investment casting. Many date back some years and focus on centrifugal casting. Our first WGC technical manual, the Investment Casting Manual, was published in 1995 and has proved popular. Since then, there have been substantial developments in the technology and our understanding of the process. Thus, we considered it timely to update it, particularly as stocks of the original are running out. This Handbook is the result. It has given me great pleasure to work with Valerio Faccenda and Dieter Ott (Chapter 3) in the production of this Handbook. Both Valerio and Dieter are well known to many of you as experts in jewellery technology, especially in investment casting, with each contributing several articles to Gold Technology magazine over the years and presenting at several WGC International Technology Symposia at Vicenza, Italy. Valerio, as a technical consultant to World Gold Council, has also presented at many WGC technical seminars in countries around the world. He is, of course, author of the Finishing Handbook. Dieter has made major contributions to our understanding of the Investment Casting process and to the metallurgy of the carat gold alloys and is author of the Handbook on Casting and Other Defects which complements this Handbook. Both have presented at the prestigious Santa Fe Symposia, Dieter on many occasions. I know that this Handbook will become a classic in the jewellery field and meets a demand for a good comprehensive and authoritative book on the subject. I know you will find it useful and enjoyable. I must also mention Giovanni Baralis who translated this Handbook from Italian into English. Whilst known to relatively few of you, Giovanni has been responsible for translating Gold Technology into Italian over many years. He certainly makes my job easier. This Handbook is the seventh in the range of technical publications published by World Gold Council. These are designed to assist the manufacturing jeweller and goldsmith to use the optimum technology and best practice in the production of jewellery, thereby improving quality of the product, reducing defects and process time which, in turn, results in lower costs of manufacture. We believe that it is important for the practising jeweller to understand the technology underpinning his or her materials and processes if he or she is to achieve consistent good quality. That is one aim of these Manuals and Handbooks not only to provide good basic guidelines and procedures but to explain, in simple terms, why they are important and how they impact quality. Armed with such knowledge, a jeweller should be better able to solve problems that will inevitably arise from time to time. Christopher W. Corti, London, April 2003
Handbook on Investment Casting
GLOSSARY
Note: Certain technical terms exist in two spellings (e.g. carat or karat, mould or mold), reflecting English and American common usage. In this Handbook, the English versions have been used, although both are given in this Glossary.
Accelerator: Compound which speeds up setting of investment, mainly to increase the productivity. In general it is based on crystalline substances such as sodium chloride, sodium citrate, Rochelle salt. Alloy: A combination of two or more metals, usually prepared by melting them together. They are designed to have certain desired properties, e.g. strength, hardness, ductility, colour, etc. Annealing: Restoration of softness and ductility to metals and alloys after cold working by heating to a temperature that promotes recrystallisation. Assay: The testing of items to determine their precious metal content, e.g. by fire assay or other analytical technique. Base metal: The non precious metals in a jewellery alloy. For instance in a gold-silver-copper-zinc alloy, copper and zinc are the base metals. Binder: A substance used to hold together the investment powder, e.g. for casting jewellery, this can be the Plaster of Paris (q.v.) or acid phosphate. Burnout: The firing of the invested flask at temperature in an oven after dewaxing (q.v.), to condition the mould for casting and to completely eliminate any residual wax or other model materials. CAD/Computer Assisted Design: A sophisticated software system for bi-dimensional or threedimensional designing. CAM/Computer Assisted Machining: A software system for automated machining of a component, driven by computer software, typically from a CAD system. Carat/Karat: A unit for designating the fineness of gold alloys, based on an arbitrary division into twenty-four carats. Pure gold is 24 carat or 100% pure. A 75% gold alloy is 18 carat and so on. (The carat is also a unit of weight for gemstones, equal to 0.2 grams). Carat/Karat gold: A gold alloy which conforms to national or international standards of fineness and can be legally marked or hallmarked. Castability: The ability of a molten alloy to be poured into a mould, retaining sufficient fluidity to fill the mould completely and to take up an accurate impression of the details of the mould cavity. Casting: This word can have two different meanings: 1) the process of pouring a molten metal in a mould; 2) the metallic object taken out from the mould, after solidification of the cast metal. Casting grain: Metals or, more usually, alloys prepared for melting and subsequent casting by dividing the charge material into small particles (like gravel) by pouring a melt into water to form shot or grains. Casting temperature: Temperature at which power is switched off and the molten alloy is poured into the mould. Centrifugal casting: A method for casting metals in which the molten metal is driven by centrifugal and tangential forces from the crucible into a heated mould whilst both are rapidly rotated. Chilling factor: Cooling capacity of a mould calculated from volume specific heat of the mould material and the mould/melt temperature difference. Value for gypsum binder - low; for silica medium; for cold copper - very high. Cold work/working: Deformation of a piece of metal or alloy to effect a change in shape at temperatures sufficiently below the annealing temperature to cause work (strain)-hardening, usually with a loss in residual ductility. The amount of cold work imparted is often measured in terms of reduction in cross-sectional area (e.g. wire drawing) or in thickness (e.g. rolling of strip). Cristobalite: The highest temperature phase of silica, stable and with high strength retention from 1470C (2678F) to the melting point, 1700C (3092F). De-airing: Removal of air bubbles from an investment slurry, to avoid bubble defects on the final casting. Assisted by vibration and/or vacuum. Devesting: Separation of the cast tree from the refractory mould. This can be done by quenching the flask in water or by hammering or with high pressure water jets, depending on the refractory type. Dewaxing: The removal of the largest part of the wax from the invested mould. It can be done dry, in an oven, or wet, with steam.
Dross: The scum that forms on the surface of molten metals, due largely to oxidation, but sometimes also to the rising of impurities and inclusions to the surface. Feeding: The necessary process of introducing molten metal through suitable channels (the sprues) and into the cavities of the mould to fill them and to compensate for contraction (shrinkage) as castings solidify. Can be gravity assisted, or otherwise pressurised. Feed sprue: A system of wax rods connecting the central sprue to the pattern to be cast. It forms the channel for the melt to fill the mould cavity. It should be kept as short as possible and must not freeze prematurely. Its junction with the pattern is called the gate. Fineness: Precious metal content expressed in parts per thousands (). 18 carat is 750 fineness. Flask: The outer metal container of an investment casting mould, used from the investment process through to extraction of the cast tree. It is available in standard sizes and reusable. It may be a solid cylinder or a cylinder perforated with holes to allow escape of air from the mould under vacuum. Fluidity: Complex property describing the ability of a molten alloy to run into a mould and take up an accurate impression of the mould cavity. It generally increases with superheat, freedom from oxidation and some alloying additions (such as zinc & silicon). Flux: Inorganic mixture applied to melt surface to protect the melt from oxidation. It should melt at a temperature lower than melting temperature of the alloy. Form filling: The ability of a molten metal to fill the mould cavity completely. Fuel gas to oxygen ratio: The volumetric flow ratio matching the molecular ratio for complete combustion. With a hydrogen/oxygen flame a ratio of 2 gives a neutral flame with a sharp inner cone. A lower ratio gives an oxidising flame; a higher, a reducing flame. Furnace: See Oven Gate: The part of the feed system that controls the flow of metal from the feed sprue to the pattern. When it freezes, it is closed and no more metal can pass that point into the pattern. Gloss time /Gloss-off time: The time between the addition of the investment powder to the water and the moment where the slurry surface loses its gloss. It denotes the start of setting of the investment. Gloss-off test: A test for determining the gloss-off time of a batch of investment powder. Useful in defining or eliminating possible causes of casting problems and defects. Grain: See casting grain. It can also refer to the tiny crystals - or grains - forming the bulk or microstructure of a metal or alloy. Graining: The process of preparing casting grain, normally by pouring the molten alloy into water. Grain control/ grain size control: The metallurgical procedure to keep the grain (crystal) size of an alloy under control, by addition of particular metals or compounds (grain refiners, q.v.). Grain refiner: An addition of suitable metals or compounds to control the grain size of an alloy during solidification or annealing (recrystallisation). Grain size: Dimension of the crystalline grain of metals and alloys. In jewellery alloys, a fine grain size is usually preferred. Gypsum: Calcium sulphate, used as a binder in investment. Gypsum-bonded (investment): The traditional refractory investment based on silica powder bonded with Plaster of Paris (selected hemihydrated calcium sulphate) mainly used by jewellery industry for investment casting of gold alloys. Hallmarking: The stamping of precious metal articles by an independent assay office to show the fineness of that article. Term derives from the U.K. for marks applied by Goldsmiths Hall -marked by the Hall. Term is often used loosely to describe a mark applied by a manufacturer to show fineness in non-hallmarking countries. Heat treatment: A treatment given to metals and alloys, involving a combination of temperature, time, heating and cooling, to effect a change in microstructure and other properties. Hot shortness: Brittleness at high temperature, often intergranular, caused by either low melting point segregates or other non-ductile grain boundary constituents. Hygroscopic: A material possessing a marked ability to absorb water vapour from the atmosphere. Some compounds can react with atmospheric water vapour to form new compounds (e.g. calcium sulphate hemihydrate forms calcium sulphate dihydrate). Gypsum-bonded investment is hygroscopic and should not be left exposed to the atmosphere.
Inclusion: Non-metallic particle that is found in a metallic body. It can be generated from fragments of extraneous materials (e.g. refractory from furnace crucible or mould) or from the reaction of the metal with foreign materials (e.g. atmospheric oxygen, sulphur compounds generated from investment reaction, etc.). Induction melting: Heating to above the melting point by generating eddy currents within a conducting material surrounded by a water-cooled copper coil carrying an alternating current at low (<150 Hz), medium (>500 Hz) or high (>100 kHz) frequency. Also creates a stirring effect in the melt by induced electromagnetic forces. Investment/Investment powder/Investment mould: The investment is a mixture of fine silica powder and a binder, formulated to withstand the high temperatures of burnout and casting. For the investment casting of gold jewellery, the commonest binder is gypsum, in its hemihydrated form (Plaster of Paris). Besides these main ingredients, commercial investment contains small amounts of other chemicals (modifiers), designed to impart to the investment the required characteristics for optimum performance. When mixed with water to form a slurry, the binder undergoes a hydration reaction (like cement) to set the investment into a solid mould. Liquidus temperature: The temperature above which an alloy is completely liquid, i.e. no more solid metal is present. Below liquidus temperature there is an increasing proportion of solid phase until at the solidus temperature no liquid remains in equilibrium. Lost wax: Original name for investment casting. A wax model (or pattern) forms the cavity in the investment. Then the wax is melted out before firing of the mould. So the wax is "lost", from which the name of the process derives. Master alloy: A premixed metal alloy (q.v.) that is added to fine gold to produce the final carat gold alloy. Generally contains silver and copper with other additions, e.g. zinc, nickel, palladium, deoxidisers and grain refiners. Master model: The master model is the reference model for the design and can be made of wax or plastic or metal. Nickel silver or silver alloys are frequently used. Metal models can be rhodium plated to improve wear and corrosion resistance. CAD/CAM systems can also be used to produce master models. Melting range: The temperature interval between the solidus and liquidus temperatures (see Solidus temperature and Liquidus temperature). Mould/Mold: A hollow object, containing a cavity that is the outer form of the piece(s) to be reproduced by wax injection or by metal casting. In the case of investment casting, the mould can be made of various materials, e.g.: metal, rubber (for wax patterns) or refractory investment (for casting). Mould clamp: A pneumatic device for maintaining a constant clamping pressure to a rubber mould during wax injection. Mould/Mold Frame: A metal frame, usually rectangular (but can be circular), used to contain the rubber layers and master model during production of the rubber mould in the vulcanising press. Negative tolerance: Used in the context of standards of fineness. It implies a small allowance in precious metal content below the specified minimum that is acceptable in some countries. Oven: A furnace where a controlled and relatively uniform temperature can be held for the required length of time. It can be heated by combustion of a suitable fuel (e.g. natural gas, propane, etc.) or by electrical resistance elements. The temperature is controlled through suitable regulators. For burnout, the oven should be of the muffle type with a large volume to contain several flasks. It may be fan-assisted and/or have a rotary hearth to aid temperature uniformity. Overheating: When the temperature of the material becomes too high. Not to be confused with superheat (q.v.). Overheating is an unwanted and potentially detrimental occurrence. The overheated material can begin to decompose or react with other materials into which it comes in contact. Overheated melts can oxidise more readily. Pasty zone: The pasty zone corresponds to the temperature range between the liquidus and the solidus (q.v.). In this temperature range the metal is not fully liquid nor fully solid. It is in a "pasty" state. Compensating shrinkage by feeding liquid alloy under these conditions may be difficult. Pure metals and eutectic alloys do not show a pasty zone. Pattern: A master (usually metal) or consumable (lost wax process) model of a component that is to be reproduced by casting. Pattern dimensions may need to allow for net shrinkage or expansion over the whole casting process. Phosphate-bonded (investment): Investment with acid-phosphate and magnesia, which first gels silica flour and then bonds it by subsequent dehydration. It is used preferably for high melting point alloys, e.g. palladium white gold and platinum. Pickling: The process of dissolving away surface oxides and flux by immersion in a suitable dilute acid bath (pickle). Normally used for cleaning cast trees, soldered or welded parts or scrap (before melting).
Handbook on Investment Casting 9
Plaster of Paris: White powder of calcium sulphate hemihydrate (2CaSO4.H2O). It is obtained by suitable heat treatment at relatively low temperature of the mineral gypsum (calcium sulphate dihydrate - CaSO4.2H2O). It reacts with water to form the more stable dihydrate. This reaction is used for investment setting. Porosity: Network of holes in castings, often at the surface, caused by entrapped or dissolved gas or by shrinkage on solidification. Protective atmosphere: An oxygen-free or low oxygen gas atmosphere used to protect a material from oxidation during melting, casting, soldering, welding or heat treatment. Quenching: Fast cooling of a hot material by rapid immersion in a suitable fluid, such as water, oil, or even air or other fluid mixture. The quenchant is usually water for carat gold alloys. Rapid prototyping: Modern technique for producing prototypes with automated machines driven by CAD/CAM systems. Many quite different techniques of rapid prototyping have been developed. A modern method for producing a master model. Reducing flame: A torch flame with excess fuel gas in comparison with available oxygen. Often used for shielding molten metal from oxidation. Refractory: High melting point inorganic (ceramic) material used for furnace linings, crucibles or moulds, usually based on graphite, oxides, nitrides or silicates. Often needs a suitable binder to hold the refractory particles together. Preferably, it should also be resistant to thermal shock and chemical attack. Retarder: Many organic compounds and colloids retard the start of setting of gypsum-bonded investment. This increases the available working time (q.v.). Scrap: Any redundant or reject metal/alloy from a manufacturing operation, that may be suitable for recycling as feedstock to the primary operation. Segregation: The non-uniform distribution or localized concentration of alloying elements, impurities or precipitates within the alloy microstructure, originating from solidification or heat treatment. Setting time: The length of time the investment slurry requires to set, harden or cure. Shot: See Casting grain. Shrinkage: Volume contraction of a molten metal during solidification, typically about 5% for carat golds. Can give rise to porosity in investment castings. Silica: Silicon dioxide selectively processed for producing refractory and abrasive materials. Exists in the vitreous state or as quartz, tridymite or cristobalite phases in equilibrium at increasing temperatures. Silicone rubber: A heat stable, flexible material containing organic radicals and silicon. Can be used in the place of natural rubber for making rubber moulds. Can also be used for heat resistant sealing gaskets. Silicosis: A serious lung disease caused by the inhalation of very fine silica (SiO2) particles. Precautions must be taken when handling investment powders. Soaking: Holding the material in an oven at a constant temperature for the purpose of obtaining a uniform temperature throughout the mass. Solidus temperature: The temperature below which an alloy is completely solid, i.e. finishes freezing on cooling or begins to melt on heating. Above the solidus temperature there is an increasing proportion of liquid phase until at the liquidus temperature no solid remains in equilibrium. Spalling: The breakaway of the surface of the mould due to internal or external stresses, mechanical and/or thermal. Can be a sign of a weak investment. Sprue: Main, central pouring channel in the mould. It forms the stem of the tree and is connected to the castings through the feed sprues (q.v.). It is obtained by melting the wax sprue used to build the wax tree (q.v.). Sprue base: A pad, often of rubber, that makes a bottom for the flask during mould making. The cone (or hemisphere) on a sprue base makes the recess that will be the pouring basin for the molten metal. Superheat: Difference between the melting point / liquidus of an alloy and the casting temperature, required to allow the molten metal to fill the mould without premature freezing. Experience shows that it should be as low as possible to avoid overheating (q.v.). Third hand: Mechanical device, usually fixed to the workbench, to assist in rubber mould cutting.
10
Tree: See Wax Tree Vacuum: A space in which the pressure is much lower than normal atmospheric pressure. Vacuum can be applied to remove air from the mixed investment slurry or to "suck" molten metal in the flask. Vulcanisation/Vulcanization: A chemical reaction of sulphur (or other vulcanising agent) with rubber to cause cross-linking of polymer chains. It increases strength and resiliency of the rubber. Performed as a step in making rubber moulds from the master model. Vulcaniser/Vulcanizer: A piece of equipment used to carry out the vulcanisation, i.e. to produce a rubber mould around a metal master model. Essentially, a press with heated platens. Water blasting: Surface treatment in which high pressure water jets are used to remove the investment from a cast tree. Water quality: The content of ionisable (dissolved) salts and organic matter in the water. Important for mixing of investment slurry, it should be accurately controlled, because it affects the working time and gloss-off time (q.v.). Deionised water is the preferred water quality. Water temperature: The temperature of the water mixed with investment powder. It should be accurately controlled, because it affects the working time and gloss-off time (q.v.). Wax: Any of a group of organic substances resembling beeswax. In general they are formed by esters of fatty acids with higher alcohols. Mixtures of different composition are used to obtain the required properties for making patterns for lost wax casting (melting point, hardness, flexibility, etc.). Usually, the different wax types are differentiated by colour. Wax injector/ Wax pot: Equipment containing molten wax under pressure for injecting into rubber moulds to replicate the desired patterns. Often has a vacuum facility for removing air from the mould prior to injection of wax. Wax pattern: Wax replica of a master model, usually produced by injection of molten wax in a rubber mould. The solidified wax patterns are removed and used in the assembly of a wax tree, which is then invested, to form an investment mould. Wax tree: The assembly of wax patterns on a central sprue, from which the investment mould will be made. Usually shaped like a tree, hence the name. Wettability: The ability of a solid surface to be wetted when in contact with a liquid. Wettability is high when the liquid spreads over the surface. It is related to surface or interfacial tension. Working time (investment): Time available for the preparation of the invested flask. It includes: mixing investment with water, de-airing, pouring the slurry in the flask and de-airing again. In the whole it should be about 1 minute shorter than the gloss time (q.v.).
11
The oldest example of a gold investment casting: The Onager or wild ass, cast in electrum (the natural alloy of gold-silver), part of the rein ring from the sledge-chariot of Queen Pu-Abi. From the royal tomb at Ur, Mesopotamia, dating to about 2,600 B.C.
INTRODUCTION
1 INTRODUCTION
Investment casting is probably the first process used by man for jewellery production, dating back over 6,000 years. This happened long before man used the same process for manufacturing weapons or other objects. Perhaps uniquely, investment casting is the only manufacturing process that has been used first for jewellery production and then subsequently for other production fields, like the mechanical engineering industry. Investment casting is also named lost wax casting: this latter name reminds us that we start from a wax pattern that is invested with a refractory material to form a mould. The wax pattern is then removed by melting (the wax is lost!) leaving a negative impression in the mould, into which the molten metal is subsequently poured. The word investment in the context of investment casting has nothing to do with financial investment. It refers to the fact that the wax patterns are invested, i.e. coated, with a refractory material. After setting of the refractory, the wax is melted out and molten metal can be poured in the cavity that accurately reproduces the shape and size of the wax pattern. The cast metal item accurately reproduces also the fine details of the wax model.
Figure 1.1.1 Greek ring, fourth century B.C. (Schmuckmuseum, Pforzheim)
1.1
DEVELOPMENT OF THE MODERN PROCESS
All past civilisations left us wonderful examples of investment cast jewellery. Such jewellery specimens have been found in the treasures of the Pharaohs of Egypt and in Atzec and Inca tombs of Central and South America. Also, in Europe, the ancient Etruscans, the Greeks, Figure 1.1.1, the Romans and the Byzantines, Figure 1.1.2, left us investment cast jewellery, and later, during the Renaissance, the great Masters created wonderful masterpieces. The starting point for the utilization of investment casting in industry has been the application of the refractory investment in the form of a fluid slurry, invented near the end of 1800. But, until the middle of the past century (I refer to the 20th century!), investment casting has been used almost exclusively for the production of one-off pieces for the very few persons who could afford it. Around the middle of the past century, three major breakthroughs made investment casting an industrial process, usable for mass production. The first breakthrough has been connected to automatized chain making. Whilst this process is not related to investment casting, it enabled production of large quantities of jewellery (chain and bracelets) and favoured the access of jewellery to the field of fashion and to an ever wider market. The second breakthrough has been the invention of flexible rubber moulds, for the mass production of wax patterns, by the Canadian, T.G. Jungersen. This invention was rapidly patented in the USA, in 1944, Figures 1.1.3 and 1.1.4, and allowed goldsmiths to reproduce intricate objects, with marked undercuts, without problems or limitations. Finally, the third breakthrough has been the realization that the casting machines developed for use in dentistry, with minor modifications, could be used also for the industrial production of jewellery. These were spring-driven centrifugal casting machines and explain why, even today, centrifugal casting machines are widely used for jewellery production, in spite of the advent of static casting machines, particularly in the last decade.
Figure 1.1.2 Byzantine earring, sixth century A.D. (Schmuckmuseum, Pforzheim)
Figure 1.1.3 Patent for elastic rubber moulds, registered in USA in 1944
13
INTRODUCTION
Figure 1.1.4 Description of the mould and of the centrifugal wax injector, from the patent of Figure 1.1.3
After flexible rubber moulds and casting machines were made available, a simple optimisation of the consumable materials has been sufficient to allow a profitable industrial utilisation of investment casting. In particular, we refer to the wax and investment powder. The wax types used for dental applications were too brittle and cracked easily during the extraction of the wax pattern from the rubber mould, especially when marked undercuts were present in the pattern. In this case, a correct balance of properties had to be sought, to develop a product that could be used without particular problems. The investment used in dentistry was too expensive for the goldsmith, who didnt need the high dimensional precision required for dental applications. Therefore, less costly, but in no way inferior quality, investment types have been developed to meet the requirements of the goldsmith. We refer here to silica-based, calcium sulphatebonded investment powder. Since investment casting developed into an industrial process, it has become ever more widely used. Today, we can say that at least 50% of jewellery worldwide is produced by investment casting, as a result of the remarkable technical progress made, whilst the ancient, time honoured basic concepts remain unchanged, Figures 1.1.5-1.1.7. As a result, investment casting has an aura of fascination, still preserving the artistic and craft aspects of jewellery items.
1.2
THE MODERN PROCESS AND PRODUCT QUALITY
Figure 1.1.5 Modern investment cast jewellery object: hinged pendant with clasp (Pomellato Spa, Italy)
Figure 1.1.6 Hinged bracelet: the single links have been investment cast (Pomellato Spa, Italy)
Figure 1.1.7 Investment cast pendants for young people. Their weight ranges from 1 to 3 g (Pomellato Spa, Italy)
Investment casting is very versatile: both simple and intricate shapes can be produced in small or large numbers. It is not costly: often, when we take into account the cost of a good die, pieces that could be cold forged are more economically produced by casting. However, investment casting is not a simple process. There are many metallurgical principles we must consider and comply with in the many steps of the process, if we are to obtain a good quality product. These steps are made more complicated by the small size of the castings, which makes process control somewhat difficult. Quite often, the goldsmith focuses his attention on the melting and casting stages; these are only the final steps of a multi-stage process but, very commonly, a defective or unsatisfactory product will be obtained, if all process steps preceding the final ones have not been carried out correctly. Some years ago, World Gold Council, with the Santa Fe Symposium, supported research by the German Institute of Precious Metals into the defects occurring in the production of jewellery pieces. This study showed that about 80% of defective jewellery pieces had been produced by investment casting and that more than 50% of the defects were due to porosity, a defect typical of the investment casting process. The most important results of this research were collected together as case studies in the Handbook on Casting and Other Defects, published by World Gold Council, where the most common defect types are described, along with an exhaustive explanation of their origin and useful recommendations for their prevention. This Handbook is a very useful and essential complement to the present Handbook, which is focused on the process. Investment casting is a very ancient process; nevertheless, in its modern form it is not an easy process to control. We mentioned that the small size of the castings we want to produce is a problem. In Figure 1.2.1 we see the progress of solidification in a ring with a large head. From the first to the last picture, only about 10 seconds have elapsed. Solidification is completed in less than 1 minute. This experiment to observe
14
INTRODUCTION
the progress of solidification was conceptually very simple: molten metal has been poured in the mould, and the liquid metal remaining after a pre-established time has been removed by centrifuging. The shortest time has been about 1 second after pouring. After centrifuging, the mould was opened and the amount of solidified metal was evaluated. These pictures show that the solidification process is very fast and, consequently, its control is nearly impossible. Therefore, it is clear that the last steps of the overall casting process should be carried out under the best possible conditions, in addition to the correct execution of all preceding steps. We would be foolish to believe that a completely automatised latest generation melting/casting machine, centrifugal or static, with vacuum and pressure assist, can compensate for carelessness in the preceding steps of the process. The machine will help to achieve a consistent quality of the product, but it will never be able to attain a good quality level, if errors have been made in the preceding steps of the process or simple metallurgical principles have been ignored.
Figure 1.2.1 Development of solidification in a gold alloy ring: a - about 1 second after mould filling
1.3
CHOICE OF EQUIPMENT AND CONSUMABLES
The modern goldsmith can choose from a wide range of equipment, from the vulcanisers, wax injectors, investment mixers and burnout furnaces, to melting/casting machines, which represent the largest capital investment. With regard to melting/casting machines, two types of equipment are commercially available that differ in the origin of the force that pushes the melt in the mould: centrifugal machines and static machines. There are no special reasons to prefer one type of machine to the other: both types can produce a high quality product. The main differences between centrifugal machines and static machines will be briefly summarized in Chapter 4, devoted to the equipment, but the final choice should be made by the goldsmith, based on his needs. This choice will depend on the amount of money he is willing to invest, on the type and quantity of product to be produced and, particularly importantly, on the level of technical after-sales service guaranteed by the supplier. A fundamental consideration: a decision taken to purchase new equipment because the current product shows too many defects can be a big mistake! Before considering new equipment, it is absolutely necessary to make a thorough scrutiny of the present production process. When (and only when) we are sure of obtaining the best performance from the existing equipment, can we think to make an investment in new equipment. At this time, when the market offers more and more automatised equipment, there is the danger of committing the full responsibility for product quality to the equipment. The results of such an attitude can be disastrous! Therefore, the most important rule for achieving good results is always to engage your brain and to scrutinize your current process constantly and accurately. Investment casting should never be considered as a routine process. No detail of the process should be neglected, even if, at first sight, it could appear unimportant. In the course of the production process, the goldsmith uses not only equipment, but also various consumable materials: the rubber for making the moulds, the wax for the wax patterns, the investment for filling the flask and, lastly, the alloys. All these materials are the outcome of careful study: they should be selected and used correctly, carefully following the recommendations of the producer on their use.
b - after 3 seconds
c - after 7 seconds
d - after 10 seconds
15
INTRODUCTION
If the results are unsatisfactory, extemporaneous inventions should be avoided. Please refrain from trying to transform your production workshop in a research laboratory! There is the risk of a further worsening of the problem and of increasing mental confusion! Time can be saved and results improved if we involve the producers of the various materials directly in the problem: generally, the producer is the first to be concerned about the results obtained by use of his product. Usually, he will be able to detect possible errors and recommend suitable corrective action, enabling you to save time and money.
1.4
HEALTH AND SAFETY
We have discussed the complex nature of the investment casting process and the need to ensure the correct procedures are followed at each stage. There are health and safety issues that need to be addressed. It is vital that the interests of the workforce are protected if good quality and productivity are to be ensured. Some of the materials may be hazardous or toxic. Of particular note is that related to handling of investment powder and its removal after casting. This material causes silicosis! Engineered control of investment dust or the use of a respirator, approved for silica dust protection, is essential. Respirators must be properly fitted to each worker, who should be trained in its care and use. Other hazards include hot metal handling, electrical and chemical, etc. Suitable precautions must be taken, including provision of protective clothing and implementation of rigorous safety procedures. These issues will be discussed later in more detail.
16
INTRODUCTION
17
INTRODUCTION
18
THE PROCESS OF INVESTMENT C ASTING
2. THE PROCESS OF INVESTMENT CASTING

Investment casting is a typical example of a multistage process. We can list at least 13 separate steps from the initial design to the finishing of the jewellery: 1 Design 2 Making the master model 3 Making the rubber mould 4 Production of the wax patterns 5 Assembling the tree 6 Investing the mould 7 Dewaxing the flask 8 Burnout 9 Melting 10 Casting 11 Cooling 12 Cutting the cast pieces off the tree 13 Assembly and finishing of the jewellery. With the exception of the last two steps, all other steps directly or indirectly involve metallurgical concepts that should be respected, if a good quality product is to result. The process does not tolerate errors: any careless operation, any apparently innocuous shortcut is a potential source of defects in the finished product. Later, if a defect is observed in the casting, very seldom is the root cause readily found and the proper corrective action identified, because of the complexity of the process. Temperature is an important process parameter in many of the process steps; often the goldsmith tries to improve a situation by changing the temperature, for example of the metal and/or the flask. Usually, a simple temperature change does not solve the problem, but it certainly changes the operating conditions and makes defect diagnosis more difficult. When we have to deal with a defect in our castings, we should first consult the Handbook on Casting and Other Defects to help determine the type and possible causes. The number of defect types is not infinite and many of them, particularly the most common ones, are described in the Handbook. In this way, it is usually possible to identify the defect type and its possible causes correctly. The second step is to scrutinize the process parameters to narrow the possibilities by elimination. Finally, we can try to identify the root cause of the problem. Only at this point can we decide the proper corrective action. Because of process complexity, a defect does not usually originate from a single, simple cause, but from a group of causes that are not necessarily located in a single process step, but over several process steps. Therefore, systematic process data recording is very useful and we never should take anything for granted. The human factor is fundamental for achieving good results. I believe it to be not far from the truth by saying that the contribution of the goldsmith to the achievement of good quality is not less than 80%. The remaining 20% is represented by the equipment, which should be well maintained and reliable.
In this chapter we will discuss each step of the process, with particular attention to the rules or guidelines to follow and to the most common problems that can arise. Later, in separate chapters, we will describe the characteristics of the most commonly used casting alloys and of the different equipment types. We will also give some basic guidelines for making a correct choice.
2.1
Figure 2.1.1 a Design of a ring in 3 parts by means of CAD technique. (Courtesy of Pomellato Spa.)
DESIGN
Design represents the moment of creation, the birth of the idea for a new jewellery product. Although we can cast very complex shapes, thanks to modern technology, the designer should always have a good knowledge of the casting process, so that he/she can design pieces that are easily cast. In the design phase, it is also important that the designer be in regular contact with the caster on the shopfloor who will produce the casting. Today, the design operation can be facilitated by the use of Computer Aided Design (CAD) systems, which enable a dimensioned drawing to be obtained, used for making the master model, Figure 2.1.1 (a e). Such CAD software is not easy to use by inexperienced persons. Specialised knowledge is required. Small workshops can seldom afford such facilities, but it is possible to access CAD service through a reliable CAD service centre. Considerable advantages can be obtained with the use of CAD systems, e.g. the ready availability of a dimensioned drawing is a great help to the work of the model maker. Moreover, if we use a CAD system, we can also use a Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) system and/or one of the many available Rapid Prototyping (RP) methods, Figures 2.1.2 2.1.4, for making a first master model, typically in wax or plastic or even metal. With regard to the creative design phase, we should remember that many production problems originate from lack of communication between the designer and the caster. This insular approach is no longer acceptable in a modern jewellery company. A good rule says that the relevant production staff should be involved when a new jewellery design is discussed, to scrutinise for potential problems that could arise in the production process. This should be done before the new jewellery design is launched on the market. Good quality starts right from the very beginning! At the Santa Fe Symposium of 1995, in a discussion on the way to shorten the time between the idea and the realization of the product, J. Orrico, Director of Jewellery Manufacturing at Tiffany & Co., said: Sure a CAD machine will be great. But realize, even though it is an extremely powerful tool, it can only facilitate the process. A round table can do the same thing. If you can justify a CAD machine, great. If not, everyone has a table. The process needs to cut across organisational boundaries to be truly effective. Get started today! This very simple, easily implemented recommendation should be always present in our mind if we want to achieve a high quality level: it is fundamental to establish a symbiotic relationship among the different departments in the company.
e
20 Handbook on Investment Casting
2.2
MAKING THE MASTER MODEL
The quality of the master model is of fundamental importance for the achievement of good quality product: it should be perfect, with a perfect finish. It should not show the slightest defect, because any surface defect will be replicated in the rubber mould and, in turn, on the wax pattern, on the refractory mould and finally on the castings. In most instances, a defect can be removed in the jewellery finishing stage, to obtain the desired quality level, but it requires time and money. However, such a defect limits the use of mechanized finishing. Such finishing is done by hand, with a resulting waste of time and an increased production cost.
2.2.1 Alloy of manufacture

The use of an alloy with suitable high hardness is recommended for manufacturing the master model: finishing of the model will be easier, with a better wear resistance. We should remember that, if the jewellery design is a commercial success, the master model will be used for making many rubber moulds. Therefore, good wear and corrosion resistance are important characteristics for a master model. The use of nickel silver (nickel 50%, copper 30%, zinc 20%) is recommended. Many goldsmiths use sterling silver (silver 92.5%) to make the models, because they are accustomed to cast and work this alloy. The only drawbacks to the use of sterling silver are its low hardness and reactivity with the rubber during vulcanising. No matter what alloy is used, rhodium plating of the finished model is strongly recommended. For silver models, it is essential. Rhodium plating is bright and hard, enabling better finishing, increased wear resistance and making it corrosion and oxidation resistant, particularly in the vulcanisation stage, if conventional rubber is used, Figure 2.2.1. Up to now, we have discussed metal models. With the modern techniques of rapid prototyping, it is now possible, with the aid of CAD-CAM systems, to manufacture models in special plastics that can be used directly for making rubber moulds or for casting a metal master model, in the place of a wax pattern, Figures 2.1.2, 2.1.3 and 2.1.4. Some jewellers use their wax or plastic model produced by Rapid Prototyping to cast the master model in carat gold.
Figure 2.1.2 Heads of a rapid prototyping machine: the red head builds the supporting structure, which will be removed later, while the green head builds the actual model
Figure 2.1.3 Operating diagram of the rapid prototyping machine shown in Figure 2.1.2 Vista laterale = Side view Passo della goccia = Spacing of the drops Diametro della goccia = Drop diameter Direzione del movimento dei jets = Advancement direction of the jets Direzione del deposito dei jets = Deposition direction of the jets Altezza di un layer = Thickness of a layer Altezza della parete = Thickness of the whole deposit
2.2.2 Feed sprue

Usually the feed sprue is considered as an integral part of the model. It links the pattern to be cast with the central sprue into which the molten metal is poured. Function of the feed sprue The feed sprue is a very important component of investment casting. It should guarantee perfect filling of the pattern cavities in the mould. Even more important, it should act as a liquid metal reservoir to compensate for the unavoidable volume contraction of the gold during solidification of the cast items. If the feed sprue cannot perform this second function, a defect will form - shrinkage porosity, with its typical dendritic appearance, Figures 2.2.2, 2.2.3 and 2.2.4. This defect can be entirely contained inside the casting and, if this is the case, there are no aesthetic problems. However, as is more often the case, if it appears on the surface of the cast piece, it must be repaired or the item scrapped. Repairing is a delicate operation that can be difficult or sometimes impossible, Figure 2.2.5. The criticality of the feed system changes in accordance with the type of casting equipment. Feed sprue design is more critical with the traditional equipment for
Figure 2.1.4 Some models manufactured with the rapid prototyping machine
Figure 2.2.1 Master model of a ring made from nickel silver, rhodium plated
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Figure 2.2.2 Shrinkage porosity in a cross section: the dendritic shape is evident
Figure 2.2.3 Shrinkage porosity in a metallographic microsection, observed under the optical microscope
Figure 2.2.4 Dendrites in a shrinkage cavity, observed under the scanning electron microscope
static casting and a little less critical with vacuum assisted static casting. The difficulty of feed sprue design decreases further with pressure and vacuum assisted casting, the more recent evolution of static casting machine technology, and is minimum with centrifugal casting. When we speak of criticality, we usually refer to form filling in metal casting, because the feed system is never critical for wax injection. Therefore, feed sprues should be carefully designed, Figure 2.2.6, as a function of size and shape of the object to be cast. Given that solidification shrinkage, as a physical characteristic, is unavoidable, the feed sprues, in addition to allowing complete form filling, should be able to drive shrinkage porosity out of the cast object. Design of the feed sprue Basically, a feed sprue system is a tube or a set of tubes, wherein the metal should flow as smoothly as possible. Turbulence should be reduced as much as possible: so abrupt changes of cross-section, sharp angles, etc. should be avoided. Turbulence in the flowing liquid metal can cause gas entrapment and gas porosity results from entrapped gas in the casting. In all cases, turbulence causes a pressure drop, thus hampering form filling. Therefore, it is always important to think in terms of fluid mechanics and try to imagine the behaviour of liquid metal as it flows towards the cavity to be filled. Patterns with complex geometry or with abrupt changes of cross-sectional area often benefit from multiple feed sprues. However, the best results are not always obtained with a multiple feed sprue on the master model because, although multiple sprueing can be beneficial during casting, it sometimes does not enable high quality wax patterns to be obtained, in contrast to those obtained with a simpler feed sprue. In these instances, many workshops use models with a single feed sprue for wax injection. Later, the single feed sprue is cut off and the wax pattern is fitted with a multiple feed sprue. A set of rubber moulds of multiple feed sprues of different size and shape can be used for this purpose. These multiple wax sprues can be fitted to the wax patterns as required, in accordance with the type of casting to produce, Figure 2.2.7. The Y feed sprue design is the simplest and, from the point of view of fluid mechanics, the best type of multiple feed sprue. When the liquid metal gets to the junction, where it splits into two streams, the metal will not favour one side or the other, unless some other force is involved. Therefore a Y is a balanced fluid system. The stem of the Y becomes the primary feed sprue and must have enough cross-sectional area to supply ample metal to fill the two secondary feed sprues into which it splits.
Figure 2.2.5 Shrinkage defects in a ring with a large head in a vertical section cut through the ring half-way across the band width. Two defective zones are seen: a diffused one in the head and another one in the opposite part of the shank, near the junction with the feed sprue. After pouring, the side parts of the shank solidify first, because they are thinner. Thus, when the thicker head solidifies, feeding of more liquid metal is no longer possible. The defect on the opposite side is known as a hot spot, because the sprue junction is heated by the flowing metal, causing a delay in solidification. This zone solidifies after the feed sprue and both sides of the shank are already solid. So it is not possible to feed liquid metal to compensate for the shrinkage.
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If there is the danger of investment erosion at the point of splitting of the secondary feed sprues, or if the shape of the wax pattern requires a large temperature difference between the liquid metal and the investment, the excessive cooling expected where the metal splits off into the two secondary feed sprues of a Y can be relieved by using a V design. The wax pattern can be produced with a Y sprue, with the stem cut off to form a V; this junction is attached directly to the main sprue. With all other parameters constant, the V feed sprue will deliver molten metal to the pattern with less temperature drop than the Y, because the metal path is shorter and less tortuous. Size of the feed sprue Another important point, also based on the principles of fluid mechanics, relates to the constant cross-sectional area in primary and secondary feed sprues. If, for example, the cross-sectional area of the primary sprue is 8mm2, then the crosssectional area of each of the two secondary sprues into which it splits should be 4mm2 and not 8mm2. The total cross-sectional area remains constant. In this way we can reduce turbulence. There are no formulae to calculate the optimum size of a feed sprue for a given casting. As a practical rule, we can say that the cross-sectional area of the feed sprue should range from 50% to 70% of the cross-sectional area of the pattern it will feed.
Figure 2.2.6 Examples of split feed sprues (coloured in red) for correct feeding of liquid metal in a ring. They should be connected to the thicker part of the ring with a heavier head; also, to the model with an inclined angle, to reduce turbulence
2.3
MAKING THE RUBBER MOULD

Figure 2.2.7 a Moulds for making complex feed sprues
The correct design of the rubber mould is another important step in achieving a good quality product. We can say that there are nearly no limits to the shape of jewellery pieces that can be produced by investment casting with the presently available materials. The only limit is the imagination and the creative power of the person who should design and make the mould. Mould engineering is an indispensable skill that should be cultivated inside the jewellery company. By mould engineering, we refer to designing the mould, choosing the correct material, deciding how many parts will form the mould and if metal inserts will be necessary, deciding how the mould will be cut to facilitate the extraction of the wax pattern, with minimum interference with the surface of the pattern itself. In a Handbook such as this, we cannot teach mould-making technology, we can only illustrate it through some examples. Mould-making should be learnt with practice and prolonged, assiduous exercise. We recommend practitioners to attend training courses on this particular subject, for example, those given by the producers of mould rubber. In recent years, there has been a steady improvement in the materials, as has occurred also for wax and investment powder. Therefore, regular updating courses meet the need of understanding the new materials and refining the basic technology.
Figure 2.2.7 b
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2.3.1 Types of mould rubber

Many different rubber types are commercially available, both natural and synthetic and also including the silicone rubbers. Each type of rubber has a different balance of properties and should be chosen for use in specific situations, consistent with the objects to be cast. Usually, natural rubber is stronger and more wear resistant. Silicone rubber is less strong, but enables a better replication of fine detail to be obtained. Two component systems, that are not vulcanisable rubber, have been the most recent to become commercially available. Apparently, they are simpler to use, but they show significantly lower wear resistance compared with other rubber types. The advantages and disadvantages offered by the most common rubber types are listed in Table 1. All types of rubber should be used with care and the recommendations of the supplier should be followed accurately. In particular, vulcanisable rubbers have a finite shelf life. Some of their characteristics can gradually deteriorate when this time has elapsed. The producers recommend storage of the rubber (before vulcanisation) away from heat and light sources, at a temperature not higher than 20C (68F). If these simple rules are followed, the rubber will keep its favourable properties unchanged for one year at least. This is what producers guarantee. In practice, if correctly stored, a rubber can last much longer, still giving very good results. All batches of vulcanisable rubber are marked with a code number. In the case of
Table 1 Advantages and disadvantages of different rubber types for mould making Type Natural rubber (requires vulcanisation) Advantages Excellent tear resistance Ideal for intricate models Requires only few release cuts Very limited shrinkage Disadvantages More difficult to cut Requires more time for filling the frame It is relatively soft Gives a matt surface Requires the use of spray or talcum Tarnishing of silver models Requires more release cuts Shrinkage slightly higher than natural rubber Good tear resistance but lower than natural rubber Suitable only for simple wax or metal models, without undercuts Moderate tear resistance Difficult to burn (to enlarge feed sprue) Difficult to burn (to enlarge feed sprue) Moderate tear resistance High cost
Silicone rubber (requires vulcanisation)
The frame is filled easily Easy to cut Different hardness levels available Doesnt require spray or talcum powder Gives a polished finishing Very fine surface finishing Short time for preparation Negligible shrinkage Doesnt require spray or talcum powder Very fine surface finishing Doesnt require spray or talcum powder Very easy to prepare Can be used with wax models Negligible shrinkage Good surface finishing Transparent Soft and flexible Easily vulcanised Very low shrinkage Very good surface finishing
Room temperature silicone rubber (two components)
Liquid silicone rubber (two components)
Transparent, vulcanisable silicone rubber
Shrinkage not negligible Costly
No shrink pink
Vulcanising temperature (143C +1C) must be strictly complied with
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complaints, the producer can trace the production date. Therefore, keeping a record of the code number is important. Above all, we should not store large quantities of rubber and we should use the older batches first (first purchased, first used).
2.3.2. Making the mould

Before making the mould, the master model should be carefully cleaned with a degreasing solution in ultrasonic cleaning equipment. In the case of vulcanisable rubber, the mould should be prepared by carefully packing the rubber layers inside a suitable metal frame (preferably forged aluminium). The model is placed in the centre of the rubber layers and is then covered with an equal number of rubber layers, Figure 2.3.1 (a and b). The vulcanising press should have temperaturecontrolled platens, preferably with independent thermostatic control. The calibration of the temperature controller should be checked periodically with a reference thermocouple or some other suitable device. Two types of test should be done: with the first one, we verify that both heated platens are at the same temperature. The test can be carried out by putting a small wood block, the same size of the mould and with grooves on the upper and lower surface, between the platens of the vulcaniser. The reference thermocouple is then inserted in the grooves and temperature is measured at different points of the upper and lower surface. The temperature readings should be the same in all positions. The second test aims to verify the correct calibration of the temperature controller. In this case we can use a small aluminium block, of the same thickness as the mould, with a mid height hole for inserting the reference thermocouple. Then we turn the vulcaniser on and we verify that the pilot light of the thermostat turns on and off at the desired temperature of 152-154C (about 305-309F). If the light turns on and off at a different temperature, we should adjust the temperature setting knob until the correct temperature is obtained. An incorrect vulcanising temperature is the most common cause of poor quality moulds or of excessive shrinkage. The recommended temperature for vulcanising natural rubber moulds is typically 152-154C (about 305-309F). For the silicone rubber moulds, this rises up to 165-177C (about 329-351F). Vulcanising time varies with the thickness of the mould: usually a time of 7.5 minutes per rubber layer is recommended (a rubber layer is about 3.2mm/1/8 in. thick). Therefore, a mould 19mm (about 3/4 in.) thick will require vulcanising for about 45 minutes. With particularly complex master models, if good results are not obtained under the conditions cited above, we could lower the vulcanising temperature by about 10C (18F) and double the time. In this way the rubber will remain in a putty-like state for a longer time and will have more time to conform to the model perfectly.
Figure 2.3.1 Steps for making a rubber mould a The model is positioned in the centre of the mould
b The mould is completed with other rubber layers
Figure 2.3.2 Protective glove made from stainless steel reinforced fibre for mould cutting a The glove fits either hand b Cutting with a protected hand
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2.3.3 Cutting the mould

To cut the moulds after vulcanising (or curing/setting, for non-vulcanising rubbers), we use blades that should be sharpened or replaced frequently, because the cuts must be sharp and perfect, otherwise we will have moulds that will produce defective wax patterns. To make cutting easier, the blade should be wetted frequently with an aqueous solution of surface-active agents. Two important safety recommendations: the blades are very sharp and so we work with the blade moving away from the hand holding the mould. A second recommendation is to protect the hand holding the mould with a cut-resistant glove, knitted with steel wire, Figure 2.3.2 (a and b). As we proceed with cutting, the cut surfaces should be kept well open, by pulling the rubber strongly apart: this is difficult to do with only one hand. For this purpose, it is very helpful to use a simple, but effective device, called a Third hand: it will facilitate your work significantly, Figure 2.3.3. The mould should be cut in different ways, depending on the type of injector used for making the wax patterns. This is to avoid the presence of air bubbles in the wax patterns, which will unavoidably lead to the formation of defects. Presently, injectors are frequently used which exhaust the air from the mould before injecting the wax. In this case, the moulds should be vacuum tight. However, traditional injectors are still used in many workshops that do not use the vacuum technique. In this case, the moulds should have suitable vents cut, enabling the air in the mould to escape at the moment of wax injection. In workshops where both vacuum and traditional injectors are used, problems can arise if the moulds are interchanged between the two types, with unfavourable consequences on the quality of the wax patterns. Teaching how to build a perfect mould is quite difficult in a Handbook, but a few examples are given to show what can be obtained from taking the mouldengineering approach. The importance of having a good mould maker in the factory is clearly evident from the following example: the model, Figure 2.3.4, is apparently very simple: a ring with a smooth surface, which has a marked undercut on its inner side. At the insistence of the production department, the initial solution has been to produce the wax pattern in two halves, Figure 2.3.5 (a and b). So there was a single mould for each half of the ring. To produce an entire ring, either two wax patterns are joined together or two half rings are cast in carat gold and soldered together. As we can see from the figure, the mould had locating pegs for connecting the two halves, which were removed after soldering. Both solutions showed considerable disadvantages and required a long finishing operation to obtain an acceptable but never perfect quality level. A better solution was found later, thanks to a skilled mould maker, and is shown in
Figure 2.3.3 Bench fixture to facilitate mould cutting (third hand) a The third hand b The third hand in use
Figure 2.3.4 Convex ring, with a pronounced internal undercut
Figure 2.3.5 a A single rubber mould is used to produce half of the ring shown in Figure 2.3.4
Figure 2.3.5 b Two halves must be joined to make the entire ring
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c
Figure 2.3.6 Mould designed to produce the wax pattern of the ring in Figure 2.3.4 as a single piece
the Figure 2.3.6. It is a complex mould, formed in several parts, where the part corresponding to the undercut has been cut in such a way as to be easily removed without damaging the wax pattern. The wax pattern is obtained as a single piece, the quality of the product is perfect and finishing labour has been reduced to a minimum. We emphasize an important detail that should always be kept in our mind when cutting a mould. The cut between the two halves of the mould has been done to coincide with an edge of the ring: in this way there are no traces of separation lines on the main surfaces of the wax ring and finishing operations of the casting are simplified. So a significant improvement of product quality and a reduction in manufacturing cost have been achieved. Another example, similar to the one described above, is shown in Figure 2.3.7. In this case, a metal insert has been used to prevent mould deformation during wax
Figure 2.3.7 Mould made of two types of room temperature-curing silicone rubber with a metal insert, to produce a ring similar to the ring of Figure 2.3.4 a The metal master model b to h The mould. The metal insert prevents mould deformation during wax injection
Figure 2.3.8 a Preparation of a self-parting mould, first half.
Figure 2.3.8 b The red hatched zones should be dusted with talcum or protected with other means, because they should not bond during vulcanising
injection, because two types of two component silicone rubber have been used for making the mould, instead of natural rubber: one type for the inner part of the ring and another one for the actual mould. If we do not have a skilled mould maker in our factory, we can resort to a solution that should never be considered as optimum, i.e. to use self-parting moulds. In this case, the vulcanised mould will be opened with the simple action of the fingers. Before vulcanising, the mould is assembled in the usual way, by packing the rubber layers in the frame. When nearly half of the layers have been packed, we put small cubes of vulcanised rubber or metal pegs at the outer edge of the mould. These rubber cubes or metal inserts act as locating pegs for the two halves of the mould. Then the free surface is dusted with talcum powder, Figure 2.3.8 (a & b), or is sprayed with a suitable silicone product, or is covered with a thin plastic film. Then a further rubber layer is added, on which the master model is positioned, Figure 2.3.9 (a & b). The previous operation of dusting with talcum or silicone spraying or covering with plastic film is repeated. Then we also repeat all other operations in an inverted order for the second half of the mould, Figure 2.3.9c. The mould is then vulcanised. After vulcanising, the mould will open by the simple pressure of the fingers and will comprise four parts. Two outer parts - the mould shell - and two thin inner parts, formed by the two inner layers, which are the true mould. These two parts will easily separate from the wax pattern, without damaging it, Figure 2.3.10. In this mould type, the separation line is in the centre and will always leave a witness mark, which must be removed later. Moreover, this mould type is not suitable for vacuum injectors.
2.3.4 Storing and using the mould

After making, the mould should be numbered, referenced and stored in a closed container - a drawer or a cupboard - away from sunlight and dust. The mould should always be carefully cleaned after use. It is recommended that a register of the moulds is maintained, where all parameters for the production of wax patterns are recorded for each mould (wax type, wax temperature, injector temperature, vacuum, pressure, cooling time). With some latest generation injectors, it is possible to record these parameters on an electronic chip that is inserted in the mould and is read by the injector at the moment of wax injection. When a new mould is made, manufacturing parameters should be recorded with care. If necessary, specific tests should be carried out to obtain a perfect mould. With an optimised manufacturing process, mould shrinkage can be minimized. Recently, some vulcanisable rubber types have become available on the market that are claimed to be no shrink. The shrinkage of these rubbers can really be zero or nearly zero, but to achieve this, the recommended vulcanising temperature should be accurately adhered to. If the vulcaniser is not equipped with a very accurate temperature control system, no shrink rubber can show some degree of shrinkage, maybe even more conspicuously than with conventional rubber types. This can occur if the temperature is only a few degrees higher or lower than the optimum temperature.
Figure 2.3.9 Preparation of a self-parting mould. a The model
Figure 2.3.9 b Positioning of the model in the mould
Figure 2.3.9 c Covering the model
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Table 2 Common problems in the production of rubber moulds Problem Mould is soft and sticky Causes Too low temperature or too short time for vulcanising Remedies Check with a suitable instrument the real temperature of the vulcaniser Comply with temperature and time recommended by the producer Use lower pressure Verify the temperature displayed by the vulcaniser Comply with time and temperature recommended by the producer Reject the defective mould and improve cleanliness Improve filling of the frame
The mould is hard and distorted
Pressure is too high, too long vulcanising time and/or too high temperature
The different layers of the mould tend to separate Bubbles or depressed areas on the larger surfaces of the mould White dust on the rubber surface before vulcanising The rubber is hard and doesnt vulcanise Rubber is hard and stiff Excessive shrinkage
Pollution of the surface of the rubber layers during mould making (dirty hands, grease, talcum, etc.) Insufficient filling of the frame
Normal occurrence
Do not mind it Do not try to remove it Reject the rubber batch and verify that the rubber is stored correctly Heat very slowly the rubber up to about 38C (100F) Check with a suitable instrument the real temperature of the vulcaniser Comply with temperature and time recommended by the producer Alternatively, lower vulcanising temperature to 143C (289F) and double vulcanising time Insert small pieces of rubber in cavities and undercuts Check the temperature displayed by the vulcaniser
The rubber is already partially or completely vulcanised because of an accidental exposure to heat or because of aging The rubber is frozen after a prolonged storage at a too low temperature Too high vulcanising temperature
The rubber doesnt fill all The frame has not been correctly packed cavities and undercuts Rubber is too old
2.3.5 Common problems

Some of the most common problems we can meet when making a mould are listed in Table 2, along with their causes and some simple remedies.
Figure 2.3.10 Details of the self-parting mould of the previous figures, after vulcanisation
2.4 PRODUCTION OF THE WAX PATTERNS 2.4.1 Types of wax

The use of a wax with a narrow melting range is recommended. A range of waxes is available to the goldsmith: the wax type should be selected on the basis of the object to be produced. Therefore, it is very important to know the physical characteristics of the different types of wax as thoroughly as possible. Usually, the wax producers give only one quantitative datum: the recommended injection temperature. All other information given is purely qualitative. But this information exists and should be available to the goldsmith if he is to make a correct selection of the wax grade.
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Table 3 Characteristics of some commercial wax types Ring & Ball Softening point C (F) A B C D E F Cps = Centipoises 703 (1585) 703 (1585) 723 (1625) 683 (1545) 743 (1655) 683 (1545) .954 .960 .940 .950 .955 .960 5,8 8,2 6,4 8,4 9,6 7,6 >50% 50C >50% 52C >50% 54C >50% 54C >50% 54C >50% 52C Hardness -penetration (100g load) mm Viscosity Fluidity test 77C 170F CPS 252 204 622 764 217 248 RPM 100 100 100 50 100 100 71C 160F CPS 311 282 759 952 267 307 RPM 100 100 100 20 100 100 66C 150F CPS 550 348 998 400 413 RPM 50 100 100 100 100 Volume expansion From 24C (75.2F) 48C 118F 4% 3,5% 3,0% 3,3% 3,5% 4,6% 60C 72C 140F 162F 9,1% 11,6% Injection temperature C (F) 68-71 (154-160) 71-74 (160-165) 71-74 (160-165) 73-76 (163-169) 71-74 (160-165) 683 (1545)
Wax type
Density g/cm3
10,0% 11,6% 7,3% 8,6% 9,2% 10,3% 12,8% 11,6%
10,6% 11,8%
Rpm = Revs. per min.
Information on hardness, density, ash content, viscosity, linear and volume thermal expansion is important for making the correct choice. For example, thermal expansion can be used for evaluating the cooling shrinkage of the wax patterns and calculating the real dimensions of the cast pieces. Viscosity will give information on the ability of the wax to fill the mould completely and the density can be used for calculating the precise amount of precious alloy required for casting. The values of some physical parameters for different wax types are shown in Table 3. The values of these parameters should be available from all serious suppliers. We can see that the values of some parameters can change by more than 20% from one wax type to another. Therefore, the usual qualitative information offered, like high, low, etc., should not be considered sufficient. We should also note that wax grades are often differentiated by wax colour; however, different suppliers use different colours for similar grades. Thus, a blue grade from one will be different from the blue grade from another!
2.4.2 Wax injection

Temperature is also a fundamental parameter for the production of wax patterns. Not only wax temperature, but also the injector nozzle temperature and mould temperature are important. Injectors fitted with devices to monitor and control nozzle temperature as well as wax temperature can be most effective in attaining good quality wax patterns. While too low a wax temperature can cause incomplete filling of the mould, too high a wax temperature can give rise to bubbles and excessive pattern shrinkage. It is recommended that the wax patterns of a given type produced throughout the day are weighed systematically, to verify the operation of the wax department. Too large a weight variability of wax patterns says that something is not running as expected. The first thing to consider is the use of mould clamping devices for
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Table 4 Common problems in the production of wax patterns Problem Bubbles Causes Insufficient wax quantity in the injector Wax is too hot or too cold Poor fitting between mould and nozzle Too high injection pressure Using vented moulds on vacuum injector Injection pressure is too low Wax temperature is too low Cold mould The feed sprue is too thin Insufficient vents (no vacuum injectors) Vents are obstructed or dirty (no vacuum injectors) Obstructed injector Pressure is too high Incorrect clamping pressure on the mould Wax is too hot Too long injection time Sticky wax pattern that is easily bent The mould has been opened too early Wax is too hot Mould too hot Wax is too hot Insufficient pressure Injection time too short Feed sprue too thin The mould is too cold Wax with excessive shrinkage Incorrect selection of wax type Injection time too short Wax is too hot Insufficient injection pressure Feed sprue too thin The mould is too cold Wax is too cold Remedies Add wax in the wax pot Calibrate wax temperature Set the mould correctly or adjust the mould mouth Use lower pressure Dont use vacuum Increase injection pressure Increase wax temperature Heat the mould with repeated use Use a wider feed sprue Increase vents in the mould Clean the vents and keep them open with talcum Clean injector and nozzle Decrease pressure Use correct clamping pressure Make a new mould and cut it with improved tools Lower wax temperature Shorten injection time Longer cooling time Lower wax temperature Increase cooling time of mould before re-use Lower wax temperature Increase injection pressure Longer injection time Use wider feed sprue Heat the mould with repeated use Turn to low shrinkage wax Turn to a depression resistant wax type Longer injection time Lower wax temperature Increase injection pressure Enlarge the feed sprue Heat the mould with repeated use Increase wax temperature Increase injection pressure Clean mould and reduce spray quantity Clean mould and reduce talcum quantity (add a layer of cloth to the linen bag) Clean mould and use spray only Lower injection pressure Make a new mould and improve cutting Increase clamping pressure Clean the mould and the vents accurately Cut additional vents Lower wax temperature Use more spray Improve mould opening and pattern removal methods Make a new mould and improve cutting Shorten cooling time Prefer a more flexible wax
Incomplete filling of the mould
Excessive filling of the mould
Excessive shrinkage
Sinks (depressions in large patterns)
Poor surface finishing (also wrinkling)
Poor surface finishing (rough surface, cavities are present) Too low injection pressure Too much spray for releasing the patterns Too much talcum Spray and talcum have been used at the same time Fins Too high injection pressure Mould imperfectly cut Insufficient clamping pressure Vents are insufficient or obstructed Wax is too hot Wax patterns tend to break Not enough spray for releasing The mould has been incorrectly open or the pattern has been removed badly The mould has not been cut properly to facilitate pattern removal Cooling time too long A brittle wax has been used
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Figure 2.4.1 Mould clamp, allowing clamping pressure control during wax injection
Figure 2.4.2 Quality control of wax patterns. Generally different colours denote different physical characteristics of the wax
Figure 2.4.3 Perfect seal between injector nozzle and mould mouth is very important a Correct geometry b Incorrect geometry that can favour entrainment of air with the wax and does not ensure a satisfactory vacuum in the mould before wax injection
Figure 2.4.4 Mould frame with screwed-in sprue former ensuring correct geometry of mould mouth
controlling mould pressure during wax injection, to avoid the variability that occurs when the mould is held by hand, Figure 2.4.1. Weight variation can exceed 10% for different operators or even for the same operator at different moments during the day. An initial quality control should be done on the wax patterns, Figure 2.4.2. The patterns should not be dirty (talcum powder, for example) and should not show bubbles. When investing the flasks, bubbles can break open and fill up with investment. So they can give rise to more serious defects in the castings. The presence of bubbles can readily be detected by looking at the patterns against a light source. Defective wax patterns should be immediately rejected and should never be used for production. They will unavoidably give rise to defective castings, with considerable loss of time and money. The removal of fins and witness marks of the mould separation line, when very evident, are the only repair operations acceptable for a wax pattern. We should record the number of rejected wax patterns for each model type. High figures suggest that the mould is badly made or has deteriorated. Otherwise, the injection parameters are incorrect and should be modified, or the wrong wax type has been used. Recycling of used wax and defective waxes should be totally avoided. It is a useless and harmful economy that will invariably lead to poor products. We should also avoid using too much talcum powder to facilitate removal of the wax patterns from the mould. The aim should be to use as little as possible. During the dewaxing process, it is difficult to remove all the powder remaining on the surface of the patterns or embedded in the wax. Certainly, talcum powder will not disappear during burnout (talc is an inorganic silicate): it will lead to a poor surface or defects! It will also accumulate in the rubber mould. To facilitate easy removal of the wax from the mould, the use of a fine starch powder or a silicone spray is preferred. Excess starch powder will burn in the burnout furnace, leaving no residues. The main parameters involved in wax injection are temperature and pressure. For vacuum injectors, a third one, vacuum, should be included. We can start by discussing the last parameter, vacuum. To get a good effect from vacuuming, the mouth of the mould must be perfectly matched with the nozzle of the injector, Figures 2.4.3 and 2.4.4. If there is a gap between the mould mouth and the nozzle, not only will we not exhaust the mould sufficiently, but in the subsequent step of wax injection some air can be entrained by the wax and enter the mould. This air will be added to the air already present in the mould cavity, with a considerable danger of producing air bubbles in the wax pattern. We should keep in our mind that moulds for vacuum injectors dont have vents, so the air will find it rather difficult to escape from the mould cavity during wax injection and will never be completely removed. As far as temperature is concerned, usually we should work at the temperature recommended by the supplier of the wax. A higher temperature can lead to wax patterns with air bubbles, while at lower temperatures wax fluidity can be insufficient and the model could be inaccurately replicated, with loss of fine surface detail. Lastly, pressure is the only parameter requiring a real adjustment for each single model. When we have found the correct pressure level, allowing the replication of the model accurately, we should not change it. Changes of injection pressure can cause very significant variation of the weight of the wax patterns and, consequently, of the weight of the gold alloy castings.
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Each mould and each wax type are different and require a specific pressure level, a specific temperature and an appropriate time for cooling. The best compromise among these different parameters can be achieved only with experience and experimentation on that specific mould with a specific wax type. Moreover, the characteristics of the mould change as we continue with the injection of hot wax. Maybe the combination of parameters giving good results initially (when the mould is cold) will no longer work well when the mould has been heated by a prolonged use. Therefore, we should take into account the time of cooling between subsequent injections. Lastly, we should note that waxes should be stored on flat trays in a cool place and covered to prevent dust settling on the surface by electrostatic attraction. They should not be piled in heaps, as they are liable to distort or to surface damage.
Figure 2.5.1 Two traditional rubber base types: with conical or hemispherical sprue button
2.4.3 Common problems

Some common problems that can occur in the production of wax patterns are listed in Table 4, along with the possible remedies.
Figure 2.5.2 Possible problems with a hemispherical sprue button
2.5 ASSEMBLING THE TREE 2.5.1 Bases and sprues

The rubber base for the tree is the starting point for building the wax tree. It should be selected with care. Usually, the rubber base includes the part that becomes the sprue button of the cast tree. We should check carefully that the base is clean and free from residues of used investment. Residues of used investment can appreciably change the setting time of the new investment, thus impacting on mould quality. Bases with a cone-shaped sprue button are preferable to those rubber bases with a hemispherical sprue button, Figure 2.5.1. A hemispherical sprue button can cause pressure losses and induce turbulence during casting, Figure 2.5.2, with the consequent possibility of gas entrapment in the liquid metal. These problems are more evident when we cast with centrifugal machines rather than with static machines. We should always check that the selected base does not show signs of wear on the tip of the cone of the sprue button, where the main wax sprue is inserted, Figures 2.5.3 and 2.5.4. As before, the presence of a step between the rubber base and the wax sprue can cause turbulence and pressure loss during casting. Each rubber base should be identifiable with a code number and weighed. It is considered better to use main sprues made from a wax with lower melting range than the wax of the patterns. In this way, when dewaxing, the main sprue will melt first and stress generation inside the invested flask will be avoided, when the wax patterns begin to melt. Slightly tapered main sprues are preferred to standard cylindrical ones. Tapering gives a better heat balance: the solidification will progress from the top of the tree (smaller diameter) to the bottom, favouring a directional solidification, Figure 2.5.5. The danger of shrinkage porosity formation in the cast items is reduced.
Figure 2.5.3 Rubber base to reject: the conical sprue button shows wear on the tip
Figure 2.5.4 A worn out rubber base (see Figure 2.5.3) forms an undesirable step in the sprue button
Figure 2.5.5 Variation in temperature distribution in the tree resulting from the use of a cylindrical or tapered main sprue
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Figure 2.5.6 Assembling system for the NeuSprue sprue and base
A few years ago, a new patented system was developed, comprising an innovative rubber base, onto which the tapered main sprue is screwed through a special device, Figure 2.5.6. The main wax sprue includes a narrower conical sprue button that is designed to facilitate mould filling with minimum turbulence, Figure 2.5.7. In this way, the rubber base can be removed without stress or torque being applied to the tree and the patterns, Figure 2.5.8, and any danger of cracks in the investment near the sprue button and the main sprue is avoided. Such cracks can cause defects in the castings. In the authors opinion, this system, tradenamed NeuSprue, is one of the most interesting new products to appear on the market in recent years, Figure 2.5.9. At first sight, it is a very simple fixture, but its development was based on a rigorous study, using finite element analysis. An optimised dimensioning of the main sprue has been achieved, which enables a reduction in the weight of alloy required for each cast and allows control of the progression of solidification. In all cases, the cross-sectional area of the main sprue should be decided with care, because it depends on the size of the tree and on the items we want to cast (shape, size etc.). Some goldsmiths use a tubular main sprue. It is a tube, with a diameter much larger than a conventional sprue, but it is hollow and its weight is lower. This particular kind of main sprue is used for two reasons: it permits many more pieces to be placed on the tree, because a larger surface area is available on the main sprue, and a smaller amount of precious metal is required for casting, because the main sprue is hollow. Therefore, a higher yield per flask can be obtained and the amount of precious metal reduced. In the authors opinion, even if the reasons for choosing a hollow sprue are accepted, a hollow central sprue does not allow directional solidification to be obtained in the best way, because of the different distribution of heat release. Therefore, it may be better to stick to the more traditional practice: a solid, slightly tapered, main sprue.
Figure 2.5.7 The NeuSprue sprue with its rubber base
Figure 2.5.8 Release system of the rubber base of the NeuSprue (right) eliminates stress caused by removal of old style sprue base (left)
Figure 2.5.9 a Preparation of a tree with the sprue shown in Figure 2.5.7.
Figure 2.5.9 b The sprue holder can be tilted to facilitate attaching the wax patterns to the main sprue
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2.5.2 Tree design

As far as possible, we should put wax patterns of similar shape, size and weight together on the same tree. Thin patterns and thick patterns should not be cast on the same tree. When the temperature is high enough to cast the thin patterns beautifully, then the temperature will be too high to get good castings from the thick patterns, if they are treed together. In general, where different patterns are included on the same tree, thin or lighter patterns should be put at the top of a tree, because pressure is higher there than near the sprue button. If thin patterns will not fill at the bottom of the tree, then the feed sprue may not be large enough nor attached to the main sprue in the best way (presence of constrictions) or the temperature of the metal and/or of the flask may be too low. Patterns that cast well at the same flask and metal temperature can be mixed on the same tree with more challenging patterns at the top and easy to fill patterns at the bottom. The joints between the main sprue and the feed sprues must be smooth and well filleted. Constrictions at the junction point should be carefully avoided, Figure 2.5.10. When casting, the investment will protrude at this junction and can be eroded or broken off by the flow of liquid metal. Such investment fragments could obstruct the feed sprue and/or form non-metallic inclusions in the castings, Figure 2.5.11. Traditionally, the angle between the feed sprue and the main sprue has been recommended at about 45 60. More recently, a larger angle of 70 80 has been recommended for static vacuum casting Figure 2.5.12. Recent research has shown that the best results are obtained when the wax patterns are welded perpendicularly to the main sprue. So we obtain a double advantage: solidification takes place more directionally - and the probability of formation of shrinkage porosity in the casting is lower - and the escape of the gas from the mould cavity is easier, because there is a thinner investment layer to go through to reach the outer surface of the flask. In this way the probability of formation of gas porosity from trapped gas is reduced.
Figure 2.5.12 Optimum angle between the main sprue and the feed sprue. A 90o angle is now preferred (see text)
Figure 2.5.13 Homogeneous tree with thin patterns
Figure 2.5.10 Joint constriction between the main sprue and the feed sprue: to be avoided!
Figure 2.5.11 Possible problems when constrictions are present (see Figure 2.5.10). During pouring, particles can break off from the investment, resulting in non-metallic inclusions in the cast piece
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The length of the feed sprues should be such that the furthest part of the patterns is no more than 10mm (0.4 in) from the wall of the flask, Figures 2.5.13 and 2.5.14. Figure 2.5.15 shows the drawing of a tree, with the names we use for its different parts. Finally, assembled trees should be weighed to determine the weight of wax (subtract the weight of the rubber base), as this allows the amount of carat gold for casting to be calculated. Prior to investing, the trees can be washed in water containing surfactant to remove any electrostatically attracted dust.
2.6 INVESTING THE MOULD 2.6.1 Flasks

Steel cylinders or flasks are used to contain the investment mould. Stainless steel is preferred. Before use, the flasks should be cleaned with a wire brush to remove all traces of old investment, because residues of used investment can reduce the work time of the new investment, thus influencing mould quality. The flask is placed around the wax tree and sealed at its base. Before filling, the perforated flasks, used in modern static casting machines, should be wrapped or in suitable sleeves, made from rubber or special paper or plastic, to seal the holes until the investment is fully set. In the case of solid flasks, used mainly in centrifugal casting machines, the use of a wax net is recommended, to assist in gas evacuation during casting. The wax net should be positioned near the flask wall, Figure 2.6.1, and will be removed during dewaxing, leaving escape channels for the gases present in mould cavities.
Figure 2.5.14 Wax tree with heavy patterns
2.6.2 Investment powders

Two basic types of investment are used for jewellery production. These differ in the type of bonding material used, while the true refractory material is always the same: a mixture of quartz and -cristobalite. The bonding material can be calcium sulphate (gypsum) or a mixture of one or more phosphate-containing materials. Calcium sulphate-bonded (also known as gypsum-bonded) investment is used for casting gold and silver alloys, while phosphate-bonded investment is used for alloys melting at higher temperature, such as palladium white gold and, in particular, platinum alloys. The investment powders contain also a small percentage of proprietary additives to control the rate of setting and the properties of the set investment. There are also special grades with additives that allow for casting with gemstones in place. Alternatively, a standard grade of investment can be used for this purpose which is mixed with water containing about 3.3 grammes (maximum 4 grammes) of boric acid per 100 ml of water. Dissolve the boric acid in the water at 82C (180F) and then cool it down before using. These investments must be dry dewaxed only, as will be discussed later. Of the 2 types, the goldsmith prefers calcium sulphate-bonded investment for two main reasons: (1) It is less costly. (2) It is easier to remove. After solidification of the castings, it is sufficient to quench the hot flask in water, which breaks the investment mould and allows recovery of the cast tree.
Figure 2.5.15 The tree and its different parts
Figure 2.6.1 Wax webs to facilitate gas evacuation from a solid flask
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The most common investment type consists of a mixture of 25-30% bonding material (Plaster of Paris (or gypsum), i.e. calcium sulphate hemihydrate: CaSO4.1/2H2O) and 70-75% silica, the true refractory material, in the form of quartz and -cristobalite. The ratio between quartz and -cristobalite varies with grade and from producer to producer, Figure 2.6.2. There are several grades of investment powders on the market, Table 5. The quality of an investment powder depends on many factors, such as particle size and purity of minerals. Cheaper grades often contain coarser, less pure powders. These, together with the proprietary additives, affect the performance of an investment. In recent years, research work has led to an improvement of quality and reliability of the product. Investment is now stronger and more reliable and has a wider field of application.
Table 5 Typical grades of powders for investment casting Ransom & Randolph USA Standard grades for gold Ultravest (Advantage) KerrLab USA Satin Cast 20 Kerrcast 2000 Supervest 20 Satin Cast regular Platinite PT Satin Cast 20 Hoben International UK Gold Star Ultima Gold Star XL Gold Star 21 Gold Star Plus Investite Platincast Gemset Stonecast SRS, UK Classic (18 carat+) Eurovest (up to 14 carat)
Figure 2.6.2 Investment structure. The larger prismatic crystals are calcium sulphate (the binder) and the smaller crystals are silica (the true refractory material)
White gold/platinum Stone-in-place casting
Platinum Astrovest Solitaire
Nevertheless, making the investment mould is always the most critical step in the investment casting process. It consists of a sequence of operations, requiring adherence to some strict but simple rules. Unfortunately, these are often neglected, maybe because of their simplicity, with adverse effects on product quality. In the authors view, there is no argument about using good investment powders, produced by well respected companies, and on the necessity of accurately following the procedure recommended by the producer.
2.6.3 Safety and storage of investment powders

Two aspects must be highlighted before discussing the investment process. Firstly: Safety! Fine silica dust, as used for the investment powder, is very dangerous. When inhaled, it remains in pulmonary alveoli and can cause silicosis, a progressive, irreversible lung injury. Silicosis is a serious disease that can result in premature death and the warning labels, which are now a standard part of investment containers, should be taken very seriously. The Materials Safety Data Sheets, supplied by the investment manufacturers should be obtained and heeded. Therefore, it is recommended that investment powder is handled in a separate area, fitted with good exhaust ventilation and regularly cleaned to keep dust to a minimum. When handling investment powder, the operator should always wear special approved dust masks, rated for use with investment. Normal dust masks dont stop
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the fine silica particles, which are the most dangerous! Protective clothing, including hats, should be worn and regularly laundered. Two operations are the most hazardous: (1) Opening the container of investment powder and taking out the powder. When the container of the investment powder is opened and investment powder is scooped out, the finest particles become suspended and float in the air (2) Quenching the flask. When the flask is quenched after casting, the escaping water vapour (steam) entrains fine silica dust into the surrounding environment. The second point refers to the method of investment storage. We should keep in mind that Plaster of Paris (gypsum) used as the bonding material, is hygroscopic. The Plaster of Paris absorbs moisture when it comes in contact with a humid atmosphere, and becomes unable to play its function. Therefore, investment powder must always be kept in dry conditions. The containers should be closed and sealed after use. Where possible, the containers of the investment should be kept in a room with controlled humidity and temperature, because investment temperature is also an important parameter. Bulk investment powder is a bad heat conductor: if stored in a cold or hot area, it can take a long time to reach the correct process temperature, required for mixing. So the temperature of the investment should also be checked. This can be done with a digital thermometer, now available cheaply. If a room with controlled humidity and temperature is not available, the containers should be preferably kept in a sheltered area, preferably on pallets, not resting on the floor, rather than in open air. Air circulation will prevent the condensation of harmful humidity. Investment powder is the most perishable material used in the process of investment casting. It has a typical shelf life of one year, when correctly stored. Therefore, it is recommended not to store large quantities of investment powder in the factory. The date of manufacturing is normally printed on the containers plainly or in some easily readable code by the manufacturer and should always be checked. In overseas locations, delivery of investment to the local wholesaler or agent by ship can result in investment already well into its storage life.
2.6.4 Checking the condition of the investment: the gloss-off test

Before using a new batch of investment for production, it is advisable to test it, by measuring the gloss-off time. This is a very simple test, requiring no special instrument. Only a plastic coffee cup and a stop watch are required. We weigh a small quantity of investment (30-50 g) and a quantity of water at room temperature (20C/68F) in the ratio recommended by the producer. We add the investment powder to the water in the plastic cup and start the stopwatch. We mix with a glass rod for the recommended time and then observe the surface of the slurry. The moment when the mixture starts setting is denoted by a change in appearance of the surface from a bright gloss or shine to a dull matt. This is the gloss-off point. With a good quality investment, with water at 20C (68F), the gloss point is reached
38
after 9-10 minutes (all commercial investment types fall in the range 7-10 min.). If a considerably longer time is required to reach the gloss-off point, the investment is not behaving properly (probably due to the hydration of calcium sulphate) and has deteriorated. The working time of an investment is the gloss-off time less 1 minute. The glossoff test is useful for checking the condition of a batch of investment, if problems (defects) occur in casting, attributable to a poor mould. It is a way of checking if the problem is due to the investment or to the burn-out cycle.
Temperature Effect
Pour Time 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 60 65 70 75 80 Temperature (F) 85 90 Set Time
Figure 2.6.3 Effect of temperature on pour time and set time
2.6.5 Mixing the investment

The setting time is very important, because it is the basis for performing all the operations involved in creating the invested flask (mould). If we do not respect the required time, weak or poor moulds will result, leading to various defects such as watermarks, sandy surfaces and fin formation. Setting of the investment slurry is due to hydration of calcium sulphate hemihydrate; this is a chemical reaction, so it is strongly influenced by the temperature of both water and investment powder, Figure 2.6.3. Therefore, it is very important to use water at the recommended temperature, typically about 20C/68F, to ensure a consistent behaviour of the investment. Investment made with water that is too hot will set faster. Water that is too cold will slow down the setting time and lead to weak moulds and defects such as watermarks. Recent work shows some tap waters can substantially extend the setting time, Figure 2.6.4. As for water quality, it is preferable to use deionised water, because the setting time can be appreciably changed (lengthened) by the substances dissolved in tap water. The gloss-off test will demonstrate this difference if batches of investment are made with both deionised and tap water. Clearly, we can assume that for most locations, the tap water composition will be nearly constant, but we cannot be certain. In some locations, it can change significantly with the seasons. The use of deionised water will remove such uncertainty and variability and thus contribute to the most profitable use of investment powder in quality terms. We should note that the producers of investment powder develop their powders for use with deionised water and their advice on its use is based on deionised water at 20C/68F. Should it be difficult to obtain deionised water, the measurement of gloss-off time is even more important, because it is the base for determining the time available for all investing operations. The sequence of steps for investing the flask is as follows: 1. Weighing investment powder and water This must be done accurately. A measuring cylinder should be used for the water, scales for the powder 2. Mixing the powder in the water Always add the powder to the water to ensure good mixing without lumps 3. Vacuuming the mixture This removes entrapped air
Water Quality
Pour Time 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 Set Time
Delta Time (min)
Time (min)
10
11
Water Source Number
Figure 2.6.4 Effect of water quality on pour time and set time
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Figure 2.6.5 Watermarks on a cast item as seen under the scanning electron microscope
b
Figure 2.6.6 Watermarks on a ring, as cast
Figure 2.6.7 Hand mixing in air
4. Filling the flask To fill the flask around the wax tree 5. Vibrating the flask under vacuum To remove any remaining air bubbles that may stick to the wax surface and ensure good surface replication 6. The flask is left to stand for investment setting The investment is weak at the setting point and it strengthens over time. Any movement at this stage risks cracking the investment. Time is a critical parameter: the first five operations must be carried out before the slurry starts setting. This is known as the working time. A good rule is to vibrate the flask until 1 minute before the slurry starts setting (hence the importance of measuring the gloss-off time!). We should keep in our mind that we deal with a liquid-solid mixture, not a solution. If we dont mix enough or if we let the slurry rest for too long a time between vibrating and final setting, the water will tend to separate at the interface between wax and investment, forming watermarks, Figures 2.6.5 and 2.6.6, a kind of veining that accurately replicates the tiny water streams creeping between the wax surface and the investment. The watermarks will be faithfully reproduced on the castings and will be superimposed on the surface details of the cast item, which will be ruined. The slurry can be prepared by hand, Figure 2.6.7, with very simple equipment, like kitchen mixers, Figure 2.6.8, bell jars for vacuuming the slurry, or rotary vacuum pumps, etc. But, if we want to obtain a consistently good quality, it is advisable to use investment mixing and pouring units, where the whole process, up to filling, vibrating and vacuuming the flask is carried out in an automatic and programmed way. It is important that the recommendations of the invesment manufacturer on powder/water ratio, mixing times, temperatures, etc. are followed. Just as an indication, the data for an investment powder with about 9 min. gloss-off time are: 1. powder to water ratio: 100:38 2. mixing time: about 3 min. 3. vacuuming: about 1.5 min. 4. pouring the slurry in the flask: about 1.5 min. 5. vacuuming and vibrating the flask: 2 min. total working time: 8 min. According to most recent theory, after vacuuming we should let the flasks sit undisturbed from a minimum of 1 hour to a maximum of 2 hours, before dewaxing. The flasks should never become thoroughly dry: if this happens, they should be abundantly sprayed with water before dewaxing. It is not advised to prepare batches of filled flasks and use them in subsequent days. If the flasks become completely dry, there is a high risk of crack formation, rupture or even major blowouts during casting, Figure 2.6.9. The preferred practice is to prepare the flasks, to let them set and to send them directly to dewaxing and burnout. The programmed burnout cycle will be carried out overnight and, on the following day, when equilibrated at the casting temperature, the flasks will be cast.
Figure 2.6.8 Machine mixing in air
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2.7
DEWAXING THE FLASK
Recent research carried out by the producers of investment powder suggests that after complete setting of the investment, i.e. 1 to 2 hours after flask filling, the wax of the patterns should be removed, to empty the mould cavities where the liquid metal will be poured. Dewaxing can be carried out in two ways: dry - it is the older method - or by steam. Dry dewaxing is often done in the burnout oven as part of the burnout cycle, but can be done in a separate dewaxing oven, prior to the main burnout cycle. Originally, steam dewaxing was introduced for ecological reasons, to avoid air pollution from the smoke generated by large scale burning of wax, particularly in places where many jewellery factories were operating in close proximity. Later it has been realized that steam dewaxing can lead to better product quality, with reduced gas porosity in the castings. Research performed on this subject, particularly by the German Research Institute for Precious Metals (FEM) of Schwbisch Gmnd, has shown that there are two types of gas porosity: from trapped gas and from reaction gas. The first type comes from the gas present in mould cavity, in combination with metal turbulence during casting. The second type comes from the decomposition of calcium sulphate (investment binder), which produces gaseous sulphur dioxide, which largely remains in the metal filling the form. Under normal conditions, this decomposition reaction begins around 1140C (2084F), Figure 2.7.1, but it is accelerated by silica and, even more, by reducing substances like carbonaceous residues from wax, Figure 2.7.2. In this case, the decomposition temperature of calcium sulphate is lowered to values near to the investment temperature at the moment of casting. The studies have also shown that, with dry dewaxing, the wax impregnates investment surface pores, Figure 2.7.3, and is difficult to remove completely. So, during burnout, carbonaceous residues are formed that favour calcium sulphate decomposition both during burnout, with reduction of investment strength, and during casting, with formation of gas porosity, Figures 2.7.4 (a & b), 2.7.5 and 2.7.6. On the contrary, with steam dewaxing, humidity saturates the porosity of investment and inhibits wax absorption. So the probability of calcium sulphate decomposition is reduced. For this reason steam dewaxing has been preferred or, at least, recommended for some time.
Figure 2.6.9 Burst flask, arising from process errors
Figure 2.7.1 Thermal decomposition curve of calcium sulphate
Figure 2.7.2 Thermal decomposition curve of calcium sulphate when reducing substances are present
400m
Figure 2.7.4 Gas porosity observed under the optical microscope. a Surface Figure 2.7.4 b Cross section. It can be seen that porosity affects not only the surface but also the inner part of the object Figure 2.7.3 Evidence of wax penetration into investment porosity during dry dewaxing (paler halos)
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Figure 2.7.5 Usually, the sprue button shows a bulge in the centre when calcium sulphate decomposition occurs
More recent research has introduced some doubt: steam dewaxing could modify the morphology of the components of the investment, reducing investment permeability, important in removing air from the mould. Research on this subject is still under way, so at present we cannot clearly recommend one method over the other unless gas porosity is a significant problem. Irrespective of the preferred dewaxing method, the flask should not be allowed to cool down between dewaxing and burnout. The investment will suffer thermal stress and its strength will be decreased. We should note that steam dewaxing should not be used when casting with gemstones. The investment used for this special purpose contains boric acid to protect the stones. Boric acid is dissolved and removed by steam and no longer available to protect the stones. A warning about steam dewaxing! It is important that the steam be vented out, preferably upwards, before removing the flasks from the chamber. Steam burns are nasty and should be avoided!
2.8
BURNOUT
Figure 2.7.6 In some cases, the sprue button shows a single inner cavity, produced by strong reaction gas evolution (see also Figure 2.7.5)
Burnout, as the name implies, is carried out to burn out the last traces of wax and to give the investment mould the refractoriness and characteristics required for casting. The final characteristics of the mould will depend strongly on the burnout cycle selected and particularly on the heating rate and temperature homogenisation in the holding periods. Therefore, it is important to accurately follow the burnout cycle recommended by the producer of the investment. The ratio between quartz and -cristobalite varies with investment grade and manufacturer and, consequently, the optimum burnout cycle may change.
2.8.1 The burnout cycle

There are two critical points in the heating cycle. The first one is at about 100-120C (212-248F), when absorbed water and part of the gypsum crystallisation water evaporate. This is a slow process, taking place with volume contraction. Therefore, the temperature should be increased slowly, to avoid the creation of stresses that could cause cracks in the mould, with consequent formation of fins on the cast items, Figure 2.8.1. The second critical point is around 250C (482F), when -cristobalite transforms to -cristobalite. This transformation takes place with a volume increase. In this case temperature should be held constant for sufficient time to ensure that the transformation occurs uniformly in the whole mould. Lastly, with gypsum-bonded investment, we should not exceed the maximum temperature of 750C (1382F). Above 750C (1382F), because of the presence of silica, calcium sulphate decomposition can start, with consequent degradation of investment strength. This can result in the formation of a sandy surface on the castings, Figure 2.8.2.
Figure 2.8.1 Fins on cast rings, caused by cracks in the investment
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On the other hand, to guarantee complete combustion of carbonaceous residues left by the wax, we should exceed 690C (1274F). A nearly universally accepted compromise gives 730C (1346F) as maximum burnout temperature. The critical role of temperature comes out clearly from what has been said. Therefore, it is very important to check the temperature control equipment of the burnout oven periodically with a calibrated thermocouple, Figure 2.8.3. The following is a typical burnout cycle. After dewaxing, ramp slowly to 250C (482F) in 1 hour, hold at 250C (482F) for 2 hours, ramp to 450C (842F) in 1 hour, hold at 450C (842F) for 2 hours, ramp to 730C (1346F) in 11/2 hours, hold at 730C (1346F) for 3 hours, then slow cooling to the selected flask casting temperature and equilibrate at the casting temperature for at least 11/2 hours. The casting temperature of the mould is chosen as a function of the pattern being cast and the alloy used. The timing given for the cycle will vary, depending on the size of the flask. Larger flasks require longer cycle times, Table 6.
Table 6 Flask size and typical burnout cycle time Flask size 2.5 x 2.5 in. (63 x 63 mm) 3.5 x 4 in. (89 x 100 mm) 4 x 8 in. (100 x 200 mm) Total cycle time 5 hours 8 hours 12 hours Times to & at step temperatures* (hrs) 1 + 1 + 2 +1 2+2+3+1 2+2+2+4+1
Figure 2.8.2 Sandy surface on a cast item, caused by investment crumbling during casting
*300F/150C; 700F/370C; (900F/480C); 1350F/730C; Casting temperature Source: KerrLab
Figure 2.8.3 Reference thermocouple
It is very important to keep the flask at the holding temperature long enough to equilibrate temperature in the whole volume of the mould. We should remember that investment is a poor conductor of heat. Temperature measurements carried out by inserting thermocouples in different points of the moulds have shown that, independently from temperature level, at least 11/2 hours are required for the centre of the mould to reach oven temperature. The same holds for the heating and the cooling part of the burnout cycle. Flasks should not be allowed to cool down to room temperature during the burnout cycle and then be reheated. They will crack and be of poor quality. If the burnout oven fails or there is a power failure and the temperature of the flask falls below about 250C (482F), throw the flasks away! The oven atmosphere must be strongly oxidising, to guarantee complete burning of carbonaceous residues. For the same reason, overfilling the oven with flasks touching each other should be avoided. Sufficient space should be left for air circulation among the flasks. As with investing, the investment manufacturers recommended burnout cycle should be followed. Where stones-in-place casting is being done, the burnout cycle must be modified to prevent damage to the stones. Maximum temperature is only 630C (1166F) but times may be longer to ensure wax burnout. Follow the recommendation of the investment manufacturer. An example is shown in Figure 2.8.4.
800
Temperature (C)
600
400
200
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Hours
Figure 2.8.4 Example of a burnout cycle for stones-in-place casting. (Courtesy SRS Ltd.)
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2.8.2 Behaviour of calcium sulphate-bonded investment during burnout

After dewaxing, when the temperature of the flask rises above 100C (212F), free water evaporates and gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) begins to lose its water of hydration, but the complete transformation of gypsum into the anhydrous form of calcium sulphate (anhydrite) occurs over a wide temperature range, through complex transformations of the crystal lattice. From the point of view of the goldsmith, it is important to note that these transformations take place with a considerable volume contraction, which is particularly severe at 300-450C (572-842F). If gypsum alone were used to produce investment for lost wax casting, the moulds would crack in service and would also produce castings a great deal smaller than the original patterns. Silica is used to compensate for this gypsum shrinkage and to regulate the thermal expansion of the mould. Silica exists in several crystalline forms, and two of them are used in the production of investment powders. Quartz is the most readily available form and its conversion from to crystal forms is accompanied by an increase in volume at around 570C (1058F). Cristobalite is the other major constituent of investment powder and this form of silica also undergoes a significant increase in volume as it transforms to crystal structure at around 270C (518F). Thus, these from its two allotropic forms of silica are used to override the shrinkage effect of the gypsum binder. A typical thermal expansion curve of a jewellery investment powder, Figure 2.8.5, shows how the cristobalite provides the expansion between 250 and 300C (482572F). Then, there is a temperature band up to about 570C (1058F) where the gypsum shrinkage dominates. Above 570C, we see the contribution of quartz transformation. It is important to remember that, when the investment mould cools, it will pass through the silica transformations which, being reversible, will contract an equal amount to the original silica expansion. But the contraction of the plaster is permanent, so there is no more volume compensation. This cooling curve can be used to understand the final casting size and explains why the flasks cannot be cooled too much between burnout and casting. After casting and on cooling the plaster becomes very weak and, coupled with the disruption caused by the cooling contraction of silica, enables the cast investment to be readily removed during quenching.
Figure 2.8.5 Thermal expansion curve of a typical calcium sulphate bonded investment for jewellery casting
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2.9
MELTING
Not all jewellery workshops buy ready-made carat gold alloys from precious metal alloy producers, so very often melting coincides with the formation of the alloy for casting. Generally fine gold is added to a suitable master alloy. This is generally preferable than producing carat gold alloys in situ, starting from pure metals. The use of reliable master alloys, produced by reputable companies and correctly utilized, can help to avoid many problems and guarantee a consistently good quality of the end product. The alloy to be melted should preferably be used in the form of grains of similar size. This gives an advantage in temperature control. When the alloy is in small pieces, melting is easier and faster and the risk of overheating can be avoided. Many goldsmiths prefer to make the carat gold alloy in a preliminary melt, casting it into water to make grain. Graining is carried out by pouring the molten metal from suitable crucibles, preferably with bottom pouring, into stirred water. Basically, there are three methods for melting: the gas torch, the electric resistance furnace and induction heating. The torch is the most ancient method and finds little use for melting in modern jewellery factories. Propane or natural gas is preferred for heating, supposedly because they give a cleaner flame than acetylene. The flame for melting should be reducing: a reducing flame has an irregular contour, is bright blue and makes little noise. A reducing flame has a low oxygen content, so it captures oxygen from the surrounding atmosphere and shields the melt from oxidation. Nearly all alloy types can be melted with a torch. Electrical resistance heating has been largely used for melting until the more recent introduction of induction heating. Resistance heating allows working in a closed environment, where atmosphere control is possible. Melting can be performed in inert gas (nitrogen or argon) or in slightly reducing atmosphere (forming gas). With resistance heating, it is difficult to obtain the high temperature required for melting some white golds. In all cases melting is rather slow. Induction heating is the most modern method and is used in nearly all latest generation casting machines. Induction melting is very fast and induces stirring of the molten metal, with rapid thermal and chemical homogenisation. The stirring effect is greater, the lower the frequency of the induction heating. Melting is probably the step of investment casting with the highest metallurgical content. Therefore, it is very important to follow some basic rules or guidelines. 1. Before melting, the required amount of precious metal alloy should be calculated: the weight of the wax tree multiplied by the density of the alloy gives the minimum weight of alloy required for melting. A further amount of alloy will be added to allow for the sprue button. 2. The amount of recycled scrap in the melt charge should be kept to a mininum but never more than 50% scrap metal should be used for the charge. 3. Any scrap metal to be remelted must be perfectly clean and free from oxides and investment residues.
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Figure 2.10.1 Patterns with different shape factor
4. For preference, grained alloys should be used. When scrap from preceding operations is used, it is recommended to remelt and grain it prior to use for casting. 5. The melt should be stirred after melting, to ensure complete homogenisation. In modern induction heated casting machines, stirring is induced by electromagnetic interaction. In open furnaces, torch or electric resistance heated, stirring should be done manually with a suitable refractory rod, to avoid pollution of the melt. 6. The metal should be kept in the molten state for the shortest possible time, to limit oxidation and the loss of alloying elements by evaporation. 7. Before casting, the molten metal should be heated to a temperature higher than the melting temperature of the alloy (superheat). The required amount of superheat depends on the alloy, on the type of items to cast and also on the casting equipment. In all cases, the degree of superheat should be kept as low as possible: it could range from about 50C (122F) with a bottom pouring crucible in a modern casting machine to typically 75100C (167- 212F) in an open top pouring crucible.
2.10
CASTING
Figure 2.10.2 Experimental patterns with different shape factor
In modern melting/casting machines, pouring of the molten metal into the mould is carried out automatically. Melting and casting are controlled by the machine through dedicated software. For most current static machines, pouring takes place through the bottom of the crucible, so metal temperature loss is reduced to a minimum. If the machine has a tilting crucible, an additional temperature loss up to 80-100C (144180F) should be considered when determining the casting temperature of the molten alloy (i.e. amount of superheat). The liquid metal and flask temperatures should be kept as low as possible to minimise the formation of defects, in particular gas porosity. Therefore, before starting the production of new items, a set of tests should be performed to find the optimum system temperature. The term system temperature is used to indicate the set formed by the molten metal and flask temperatures. Solidification starts immediately after the liquid metal has filled the cavity of the mould. The temperature difference between the liquid metal and the flask is always considerable (about 400C/720F or higher). Therefore, the liquid metal filling the mould cavity will start freezing from the investment mould surface, Figure 1.8 (a - d), and solidification will progress rapidly to the inner part of the pattern. If the tree has
Table 7 Pattern size and relative surface area Pattern Size in mm 15 x 15 x 1 15 x 15 x 2 15 x 15 x 4 Total Surface Area, mm2 510 570 690 Heat Increase Over 1mm thick pattern 0 2x 4x Percent Increased Surface Area increase (over 1 mm Pattern) 0% 11 % 27 %
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been assembled correctly, possibly with the patterns making a 90 angle to the main sprue, if the feed sprues have been properly designed and if a main sprue of the right diameter has been used to perform correctly, without exceeding its duty as a heat reservoir, solidification will take place directionally towards the sprue and shrinkage porosity will collect in the main sprue and in the sprue button. If, on the other hand, shrinkage or gas porosity is present in the cast items, the process parameters should be modified in a rational way, after due consideration of the situation. To find the optimum temperature combination for the liquid metal and the flask, it is necessary to clarify some concepts concerning the shape of the items to be cast and, specifically, the shape factor (surface to volume ratio). If we cast three patterns that are 15 x 15 mm x 1, 2 and 4 mm thick respectively, Figure 2.10.1, on the same tree, we could say that the casting conditions were the same for all three patterns because the investment and the metal were at the same temperature when the metal was cast. The surface area on the top and bottom of all the patterns is constant; the only increase in surface area on the larger patterns is on the sides; thus, the volume increases much faster than the surface area, Table 7. All the heat lost to the investment from the metal must go through the mouldmetal interface. Investment is a poor conductor of heat and measurements show that after the metal is cast, only 1 to 1.5mm thickness of investment material next to the metal will experience any temperature change; naturally, as the metal cools, the adjacent investment heats. The temperature of the metal may have been the same when it was cast, but each pattern holds a different amount of metal and, therefore, a corresponding amount of heat energy. The 4mm thick pattern will discharge 4 times the heat to the investment relative to the 1mm pattern. This means the temperature rise of the investment will be much greater around the 4mm pattern than around the 1mm pattern and the 2mm pattern should lie in-between. If the metal temperature and the flask temperature are correct for the 1mm pattern (this is the hardest to fill and requires higher temperature), then the temperature will be too high for the larger patterns and gas porosity is likely. Casters have a practice of classifying their patterns for flask temperature in terms of heavy, medium and light. Most casters would classify two of the patterns on the tree in Figure 2.10.2 as heavy and one each as medium and light. Therefore, the concept of system temperature is also useful for taking into account the effect that surface area and volume (surface area to volume ratio) have on the cooling of the metal and the subsequent increase in the temperature of the investment at the metal interface for a specific pattern, flask and metal temperature and alloy. The pattern with the grooved surface has less volume of metal as the other 4mm thick pattern and the surface area is somewhat larger. Because of that, it might cast better at the medium flask temperature. It can be concluded from this that: a) System temperature is pattern specific. When considering which patterns can be on the same tree, the surface to volume ratio should be noted, not just the cross-sectional thickness.
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b) When the pattern has high surface area and low volume (thin patterns), the flask temperature influence is greater than that of the metal temperature. As volume increases in ratio to surface area (thick patterns), the flask temperature influence on the system temperature decreases. c) Flask temperature is controlled by the hardest to fill pattern on the tree. d) When thin and thick patterns are on the same tree, the flask temperature has to be high enough to fill the thin patterns, and would be too high to cast the thick patterns at their best system temperature. e) System temperature is alloy specific. The casting temperature for a metal has to be above the liquidus temperature and since various alloys melt at different temperatures, the casting temperatures will vary as well. For a particular alloy, the casting temperature will generally be lower for thick section patterns and higher for thin section patterns, but in every case the casting temperature of the metal is strongly influenced by size, shape and attachment point of the feed sprue. Better-designed feed sprues will allow casting at a lower system temperature.
2.10.1 Test for system temperature

Figure 2.10.3 Experimental tree for system temperature selection
A simple experiment can be used to quickly find the best system temperature for a range of patterns cast with a specific alloy. Build five trees alike with five or six different patterns on each tree, as seen in Figure 2.10.3. The selection of patterns should represent the variety of patterns you cast, for example thin, medium, thick, large and small. Inspect all the wax patterns before using them and attach them the same side up. The patterns are attached in a vertical row at the top, centre and bottom of the main sprue. Do not expect all the different patterns to cast well on any one tree; rather, the purpose is to find out how each pattern casts at a temperature combination. If there are five patterns on the tree, one cast will give a good idea how each of these different patterns will cast at a given temperature set and, therefore, five experiments are performed in one cast. This is called a designed experiment, whereby the normal methodical testing process is shortcut. A set of test trees, as described above, are cast using a grid of flask and metal temperatures. The grid should note the alloy and the patterns being cast. Put the presumed temperature sweet spot in the centre of the grid as shown, Table 8.
Table 8 System Temperature Test Grid Date: Alloy: 18KY Patterns Tested: A, B, C, D, E Flask Temperature, C (F) Metal Temperature, C (F) 960 (1760) 980 (1796) 1000 (1832) 1020 (1868) 1040 (1904) Flask 1 Flask 2 Flask 3 Flask 4 Flask 5 500 (932) 550 (1022) 600 (1112)
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In this case, the flask temperature is 550C (1022F) and metal 1000C (1832F). Cast one flask at each temperature combination on the grid above, below and at each side of the sweet spot. Make sure all the flasks are well soaked at the casting temperature before casting. Holding the flask for three or four hours at casting temperature is considered prudent to get good experimental results. After casting, inspect the castings in the as-cast condition, record the results and send any promising casting through finishing and normal quality inspection. A simple inspection criterion can be used to grade the castings for evaluating test results.
2.10.2 Inspection criteria

All inspected castings are rated as a 1, 2 or 3 where 1 = any casting that can be finished and would pass internal quality control 2 = any casting that can be repaired, finished and would pass internal quality control 3 = any casting that is rejected, not economic to repair In most cases, the castings graded #3 will be sorted out in the as cast condition. Some #2 castings may be identified in the as cast condition, or subsurface defects may show up later. Wax patterns must be free of any powder. By careful inspection of wax patterns before casting, defects attributed to the mould and wax pattern can be eliminated. Care should be given to identify any defect that can be attributed to investment or burnout. Fins from cracked investment, or voids caused by investment inclusions, for example, are not temperature related casting defects and should be excluded from this test grading. A short list of defects that should be attributed to wrong system temperature are incomplete filling, gas porosity, shrinkage porosity, rough surface (where the wax was smooth), and cracks. After the castings are graded, the score (1, 2 or 3) for each pattern number is recorded on a test results chart, Table 9. The test data are easy to understand in this form and trends can quickly be seen. The example in Table 9 clearly shows the best flask and metal temperature for casting pattern A in alloy 18KY (18 carat yellow).
Table 9 System Temperature Test Results Chart Date: Alloy: 18KY Pattern A Flask Temperature, C (F) Metal Temperature, C (F) 980 (1796) 1000 (1832) 1020 (1868) Top / Centre / Bottom 2/3/3 500 (932) 550 (1022) 1/1/1 1/2/2 2/2/2 3/3/3 600 (1112)
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Table 10 System Temperature Test Results Chart Date: Alloy: 18KY Pattern B Flask Temperature, C (F) Metal Temperature, C (F) 980 (1796) 1000 (1832) 1020 (1868) Top / Centre / Bottom 3/3/3 500 (932) 550 (1022) 3/3/3 2/2/2 1/2/2 1/1/2 600 (1112)
Pattern A was picked to represent a larger selection of patterns that were judged to have similar surface-to-volume ratios and, therefore, would be expected to cast well at similar flask and metal temperature. So all patterns that are represented by pattern A in the test should be cast at metal 980C (1796F) and flask 550C (1022F). The goal is to get all grade one castings and it is possible that that is not achieved for a pattern in the temperature grid that was picked for the test. In Table 10, pattern B is used to show how the chart can identify trends. Metal 1000C (1832F) and flask 600C (1112F) is the best combination, but not good enough. Since metal 1020C (1868F) and flask 550C (1022F) is much better than metal 980C (1796F) and flask 550C (1022F), the trend to improve would be to increase metal temperature to 1020C (1868F). This could be done as a single cast test, or a new grid could be formed with a new presumed sweet spot.
2.10.3 Test for best feed sprue design

b
Figure 2.10.4 Selection of best feed sprue design
After the system temperature is found and applied to the range of pattern styles produced, it may become evident that not all the patterns are casting with the desired quality at the system temperature chosen for it. This leaves two options: find a new temperature set for that pattern, or experiment with the feed sprue. If the casting surface is rough and such things as powder in the wax, or a rough wax coming from the mould are eliminated, then the temperature may be too high for that pattern and a lower temperature can be explored. If the surface is very fine but details such as prongs are not filling, the feed sprue may be to blame. Another designed experiment can be
Figure 2.10.5 Often it is necessary to consider the model as an integral part of the feed system, to position feed sprues correctly
a
Figure 2.10.6 Examples of cast trees
50
used to find the feed sprue design that works best for any pattern. This time, only one pattern design will be used on the tree, but it will be attached with five different feed sprue configurations. Using wax wire (or wax feed sprues made in a rubber mould, Figure 2.2.7), attach feed sprues to the patterns in different locations. Build a tree in the same manner as the system temperature and test with three patterns on the tree with each of the five or six feed sprue configurations, Figure 2.10.4. One flask may be all that is required to solve the defect, but if the results are not satisfactory, then make and cast additional flasks on a new temperature grid. In some cases also the pattern should be considered as part of the feed system, Figure 2.10.5. Some examples of successfully cast trees are shown in Figure 2.10.6.
2.10.4 Casting with stones in place

The technique of producing jewellery by investment casting with stones in place (stones are set in the wax pattern) is no longer a novelty, but its use has increased considerably in the last 10 years. At the beginning, this technique has been used for large scale industrial setting of synthetic stones, mainly cubic zirconia, where the cost of manual setting was not justifiable, but later its use has rapidly been extended to natural stones, like diamond, ruby, sapphire, etc., Figure 2.10.7. The same steps of the conventional investment casting process are used for stone-in-place casting, but some modifications are required. The master model should be suitably designed for positioning the stones correctly and the stones should have a small groove, just below the girdle, to favour firm clamping by the metal. Wax patterns must be flexible and springy and the stones are set in the wax. This operation is much simpler and faster than setting in the metal. The use of a special vacuum tweezer is advised to facilitate handling of the stones. Invisible setting is the most suitable technique for stone-in-place casting. The use of the special investment grades or classic gypsum-bonded investment, but with a very fine grain, is recommended. In the latter case, boric acid should be added to the investment slurry, to protect the stones during burnout and casting, as described earlier. Dewaxing should be performed dry, to avoid dissolution of the boric acid by steam. The maximum temperature in the burnout cycle should be lower than usual, to avoid spoiling the stones. Consequently, holding time at maximum temperature will be longer than usual, to remove carbonaceous residues left from wax completely. Maximum burnout temperature and recommended holding time should be approximately: for diamond and emerald: 630C (1166F)/6 hours flask casting temperature 480-530C (896-986F), for zircon, ruby, sapphire and synthetic stones 680C (1256F)/5 hours flask casting temperature 550-600C (1022-1112F).
Figure 2.10.7 Example of a cast tree with stones in place
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The cast flasks must not be water quenched immediately, to avoid cracking of the stones by thermal shock. The flasks set with diamonds can be water quenched after at least 20 min. from casting. Flasks with other types of set stones can be quenched after 60-120 minutes.
2.11
COOLING AND RECOVERY OF THE CAST ITEMS
The flasks cast with simple yellow or red gold should be water quenched about 3 minutes after casting but this time will depend on other factors, such as the flask temperature on casting and specific alloy composition. With a longer cooling time, cast items in 18 or lower yellow and red carat gold can harden, because of the precipitation of intermetallic gold-copper phases in the gold matrix. If we want to have the alloy in the condition of maximum softness (e.g. if heavy cold working is required) it is necessary to heat to a high temperature (600-700C (1112-1292F)) and then water quench the castings. Flasks cast in low carat golds containing silicon must be cooled longer to avoid quench cracking, preferably to 400C (750F) before quenching. Flasks cast with nickel white gold should cool for slightly longer time (5-6 minutes) before water quenching. Nickel white gold can crack if cooled too fast, because of strong internal stresses. The higher is the quenching temperature of the cast flask, the easier is the recovery of the cast tree. The investment crumbles into pieces because of the thermal shock. Safety note: As said earlier, quenching of the flask must be done in a well ventilated area and the operator should wear special protective masks, approved for protection from silica dust. Inhalation of fine silica dust is dangerous and must be avoided. The steam produced by quenching hot flasks entrains very fine silica particles that remain airborne and can be inhaled by an unprotected operator or passer by! The recovered tree should be thoroughly cleaned of investment residues adhering to its surface. Cleaning is performed with high pressure water guns or by wet grit-blasting. The above mentioned process refers only to calcium sulphate-bonded investment. In the case of phosphate-bonded investment, the separation of the cast tree from the investment can be realised only by mechanical means. Subsequently, if the surface of the tree is oxidised (a frequent occurrence), it should be pickled carefully in an acid bath. The most frequently used pickling solution is 20% sulphuric acid in water at a temperature of 50C (122F). The cast tree is dipped in the solution for about 2 minutes. Some workshops use safety pickle as an alternative to storing and mixing sulphuric acid. This is sodium hydrogen sulphate that, when dissolved in water at a concentration of 220 g/litre, gives what is essentially a dilute solution of sulphuric acid. If phosphate-bonded investment has been used, good results are obtained with a 50% water solution of hydrofluoric acid at 50C (122F). The cast tree is dipped in the solution for about 5 minutes. Safety note: Acids can be dangerous: they are strongly corrosive and can cause serious problems, if they come into contact with the skin or the eyes.
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Hydrofluoric acid is more dangerous than sulphuric acid and must be handled with considerable care under an exhaust system and avoiding contact with the skin. Glass containers or beakers cannot be used; it should be contained in plastic containers and bottles. When diluting a concentrated acid to make a pickle, the acid must be added slowly to water, while stirring, and not the other way round. The exothermic reaction that occurs when adding water to concentrated sulphuric acid produces intense heat and may cause instantaneous boiling and spillage. The operator should always wear protective clothing when handling acids and, most important, suitable eye protection! In the case of contact of an acid with the skin or the eyes, wash immediately with abundant water, then see a doctor. Acids and spent pickle solutions can be polluting and should not be discharged into the drainage system without treatment: all requirements for safety, health and environmental protection should be complied with. After pickling, the cast tree is washed with water and dipped in a sodium carbonate solution, to neutralize acid residues. Then it is carefully washed, to remove all traces of pickle solution, and dried, preferably with a pressure jet of steam. After drying, the cast tree is subjected to visual inspection. Possible defects, like incomplete filling, shrinkage or gas porosity, etc. should be accurately described and the position of the defective castings on the tree should be recorded. The more information collected on the defects, the higher will be the probability of being able to explain what happened and to take corrective action. The subsequent step is cutting the castings off the main sprue. This can be done with hand cutters or pneumatic sprue cutters that largely eliminate physical strain, Figures 2.11.1 and 2.11.2. After a second and deeper quality inspection, the cast items are sent for assembly and finishing. The recommended finishing procedures are described in the Finishing Handbook, published by World Gold Council in 1999.
Figure 2.11.1 Bench sprue cutter
Figure 2.11.2 Hand held sprue cutter
2.12
SUMMARY OF THE BASIC RULES FOR THE DIFFERENT STEPS OF INVESTMENT CASTING
In this section, a summary is given of the basic rules and guidelines to be followed in the different steps of investment casting, necessary to obtain good quality cast product. These rules have been distilled from what has been discussed in the preceding sections. Design (2.1): A good knowledge of the whole process is required. The designer should be in continual contact with the production staff. Castable objects should be designed. Sharp changes of cross-section (e.g. thick-thin-thick) should be avoided. Otherwise adequate feed sprues should be provided. Possible production problems should be discussed before launching a new model. Master model (2.2): Prefer alloys with suitable hardness.
53
Finishing must be perfect. Rhodium plating is recommended. Also rapid prototyping techniques should be considered. The design of the feed system must take into account size and complexity of the model. In the feed system, bottlenecks (thick-thin-thick patterns) and abrupt changes of direction should be avoided. The principles of fluid mechanics should always be considered. Rubber mould (2.3) You should cultivate the skill of an expert mould maker. Knowledge of the characteristics of materials (natural rubber, silicone rubber, etc.) should be the basis for selection of the correct material. Store the products for mould making as recommended by the producer. The geometry of the mouth of the mould should be accurately designed (it must fit exactly on the nozzle of the injector). Vulcanisers with a reliable temperature monitoring and control system should be used. The temperature in the vulcaniser should be frequently checked with a calibrated instrument. The moulds should be kept perfectly clean and stored away from heat and light. They should be numbered for identification. Wax patterns (2.4) Prefer wax types with a narrow melting range. Understand the properties of different wax types to allow correct selection. Prefer injectors that apply vacuum in the mould prior to injection. Use a mould clamp with controlled clamping pressure. Record production parameters for each model. Weigh the wax patterns to evaluate weight variability for a single model. Verify wax quality accurately before use. Reject faulty wax batches. Dont use too much talcum powder to facilitate pattern extraction from the mould. Dont use recycled wax. Assembling the tree (2.5) Prefer a main sprue designed for optimum performance. In any case, prefer a rubber base with a conical sprue button (not hemispherical!). The rubber base should not show signs of wear. The rubber base should not contain residues of investment from preceding flasks. If necessary, clean the base thoroughly! The welds between the main sprue and the feed sprues should be well filleted. Avoid constrictions! Prefer a 90 angle between main sprue and feed sprue. The outer end of the wax patterns should be at about 10 mm distance from the flask wall.
54
Investing the flask (2.6) Use investment powders produced by reputable companies. Store the investment in a well-sealed container and in a dry place. Check the production date of each new batch. Before use, clean the flask with a wire brush, to remove all traces of used investment. Use powder and water at the recommended temperature. Mix the powder with the water in the ratio recommended by the producer. Prefer deionised water. Check the gloss-off time of each new batch of investment. Let the flasks set for at least 1 hour and no more than 2 hours before dewaxing. Dewaxing (2.7) There is not clear understanding if dry or steam dewaxing should be preferred. The most important thing is to start the burnout cycle immediately after dewaxing, without letting the flask cool. Burnout (2.8) In the case of electric resistance heating, prefer ovens with forced ventilation. Verify that temperature is uniform throughout the oven also during heating. Avoid loading too many flasks in the oven. Enough space should be left for air circulation. Follow the burnout cycle recommended by the producer. Observe the holding times in the heating ramp. Dont exceed 750C (1382F) maximum temperature (for gypsum bonded investment). Temperature should be allowed to homogenize in the whole flask before casting. Preferably, the oven should be equipped with a double control system, with a thermocouple in the work chamber and another one near the heating elements. Melting (2.9) Calculate the weight of alloy required for casting (from the weight of the wax tree). Use grained alloy or alloy cut in small pieces. Use clean metal. Dont make a charge with more than 50% scrap metal. Dont remelt the alloy more than three times. Avoid unnecessary overheating. Stir the molten metal for perfect homogenisation. Casting (2.10) Keep the alloy molten for the shortest possible time. Use the minimum degree of superheat consistent with good casting. Cast in the shortest possible time. Cooling (2.11) Water quench 3 minutes after casting (yellow and red gold castings) or 6 minutes after casting (nickel white gold). After recovering the tree, clean it accurately and make a visual inspection. Type and position of defects should be recorded.
55
2.13
SCHEMATIC LIST OF POSSIBLE DEFECTS
As mentioned in the introduction, this Handbook will not deal with defects in detail. The analysis of most common defects, along with a description of their causes and possible remedies to avoid their occurrence, has been dealt with in the Handbook on Casting and Other Defects in gold jewellery manufacture, published by World Gold Council in 1997. The reader should refer to this Handbook. Here it is emphasized that, in most cases, defects dont have a single cause. Frequently, there are many causes acting together to cause a specific defect. Consequently, corrective action will require compromises, in order to minimize defect formation and improve end product quality. A schematic list of most frequently observed defects is given below, along with most common causes. These causes can act separately or in combination. Shrinkage porosity Pattern is improperly sprued. Sprues may be too thin, too long or not attached in the proper location. Not enough liquid metal reservoir after filling mould cavity. Gas porosity: it can consist of trapped or reaction gas. Distinguishing the two causes is very difficult: Too much turbulence during pouring. Incorrect assembling of the patterns on the tree. Too much distance between the extremity of the patterns and the outer surface of the flask. Too high metal and/or flask temperature. Metal is contaminated with gas. Too much moisture in the flux, if used. Too much recycled scrap has been used. Always use at least 50% new metal. Poor mould burnout. Incomplete filling Insufficient feeding system. Too low metal and/or flask temperature. Pattern was improperly sprued, creating turbulence when casting in a centrifugal casting machine. Centrifugal casting machine had too high revolution per minute. Fins on the edges The investment has absorbed humidity before the preparation of the slurry. Flask was disturbed while investment was setting. Rubber base was removed too soon. The flask has been allowed to partially dry before dewaxing. Too high burnout temperature. The flask has been allowed to cool between dewaxing and burnout. Flask was improperly handled or dropped. Speed was set too high on centrifugal casting machine. Flask was placed too close to heat source in burnout oven. Flasks were not held at low burnout temperature long enough.
56
Bubbles or nodules on the surface of the cast items Air bubbles in the wax patterns because: Vacuum pump is leaking air. Vacuum pump has water in the oil. Vacuum pump is low on oil. Investment not mixed properly or long enough. Invested flasks were not vibrated during vacuum cycle. Vacuum extended past investment working time. Depressions in the surface of the cast items The defect was already present in the wax patterns (see Table 4). Watermarks The correct water to investment powder ratio has not been observed. The flask has been vibrated for too short a time (too long time between end of vibration and investment setting). Inclusions (Foreign particles: oxides, investment, graphite) in castings Patterns were improperly sprued to wax base or tree or not filleted, causing investment to break at sharp corners during casting. Flask was not sufficiently cured before placing in the burnout oven. Improper dewaxing cycle was used. Flask was not cleaned from prior cast. Loose investment in sprue hole. Molten metal contains excess flux or foreign oxides. Crucible disintegrating or poorly fluxed. Improperly dried graphite crucible. Investment was not mixed properly or long enough. Flask was not held at low burnout temperature long enough. Flask was placed too close to heat source in burnout oven. Contaminants in wax patterns. Rough surface Too much talcum powder has been used to facilitate the extraction of the wax patterns. Talcum powder and spray have been used at the same time. Sandy surface: often associated with investment particles enclosed in the surface of the metal: Too high burnout temperature. The investment has absorbed humidity before the preparation of the slurry. Flask was not sufficiently cured before placing into burnout oven. Flask was held in steam dewaxer too long. Metal, flask or both were too hot. Patterns were improperly sprued. Flask was placed too close to heat source in burnout oven. Shiny castings Carbonaceous residues have been left in the mould, creating a reducing condition on the mould surface.
57
58
Temper
600 500 400
A L L O Y S F O R I N V E S T M300 N T C A S T I N G E
200
???
???
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Ag Cu
Atomic per cent copper
Temperature C
3 ALLOYS FOR INVESTMENT CASTING

The result of the casting process depends strongly on the properties of the alloys used. The alloy composition should be selected to suit the casting process. That means that alloys tailored for casting should be used. In the past, mainly general purpose alloys have been used. This was (and still is, in part) possible for yellow carat gold based on gold-silver-copper due to the beneficial working properties. However, the situation is different for white gold alloys. The steadily increasing requirements for quality and economy have led to the development of alloys modified for casting in recent decades. Such development is difficult because the modifications have to be achieved without any change in fineness and colour. Because of this, the modifications have been restricted to relatively small alloying additions. The development of white gold alloys suitable for casting has been somewhat different. General information on jewellery alloys is Y available in the literature.
Y 1000
960 A
Liquid L
D 1083
800
B L+ 8.8
E 28.1 Solid +
779C
L+
C 92.0
600
400
F G
200
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Ag X Cu
Composition weight, percent copper

Figure 3.1.2 Silver-copper phase diagram
3.1 3.1.1
binary systems, especially gold-copper and silver-copper, Figures 3.1.1 and 3.1.2. The 600 low melting eutectic in the silver-copper phase diagram influences the melting (and casting) behaviour of yellow gold. A relatively small variation in the silver/copper ratio changes the melting range of the alloy considerably. In addition, a separation into 400 two phases, a silver-rich and a copper-rich phase, will occur (especially in 14 carat alloys, see later). 200 F Age hardening can occur below approximately 410C (770F) due to the ordering process originating from the gold-copper system.
Weight percent copper
1100 1064.43C 1000 900 800 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Temperature C
B L+ The properties of the ternary alloy, gold-silver-copper, are strongly influenced by the8.8 800
YELLOW AND RED GOLD ALLOYS Metallurgy and its effect on physical properties
1000 960 A
Liquid L L+ E 28.1 Solid + 779C C 92.0
0
70 80 90100 Ag X 1084.87C
10
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 20 Composition weight, per cent copper
L
910C 44
Temperature C
700 600 500 400 300

240
(Au, Cu)
AuCuII
410C
AuCu3II390C
64 285
385
AuCuI
AuCu3I
200 100 0
38.6
Au3Cu
Au
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Atomic percent copper
Cu
100
Figure 3.1.1 Gold-copper phase diagram
59
A L LOYS F O R I N V E S T M E N T C A S T I NG
Au
1050
10 20
We igh tp er c ent silv er 90
10 00
90 80
ld go ent er c tp igh We
30
70
40
60
50
50
60
40
70
30
95 0
85 0
80 90 Ag
20
1050
Cu 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Weight per cent copper
Figure 3.1.3 Liquidus surface of gold-coppersilver system
Au
20 40 60 80 100 Ag 0
80 60 40 20
1/AuCu3 1 + 2
1/AuCu
It is not within the scope of this chapter to discuss the ternary alloy system in detail (this is more fully discussed in the literature see Further Reading at the end of this Handbook). As an example, Figure 3.1.3 shows the influence of the composition on the liquidus temperature. There is a deep valley in the liquidus temperature, starting from the eutectic composition on the silver-copper side and continuing in the direction of the gold-copper side (for more practical diagrams see Figures 3.1.7 and 3.1.8). Figure 3.1.4 shows the phase distribution at a temperature of about 300C (572F). The formation of a heterogeneous, two phase field and the formation of age hardening intermetallic compounds can be recognised. The diagram gives the situation for an ideal equilibrium state, which is never fully attained under the practical conditions of investment casting. However, it conveys an idea what might happen in yellow gold, with consequences for mechanical properties and tarnishing behaviour. The separation into two phases decreases the tarnishing resistance; the formation of so-called ordered intermetallic compounds increases hardness and strength but reduces the ductility (increases tendency to embrittlement). Table 11 give some examples of the compositions of yellow gold alloys at various finenesses (caratages). Data for melting range, density and standard colour are included as far as available. The data for the melting range are not very reliable in some cases and have to be used with care.
Table 11 Examples of yellow gold alloys used in the jewellery industry Gold 585 585 585 585 585 750 750 750 750 750 750 750 750 750 875 875 875 916,6 916,6 917 917 Silver 90 100 140 200 260 20 45 90 90 125 140 155 160 210 0 17,5 45 21,4 62 32 55 Copper 320 277 270 200 140 220 205 160 155 125 90 90 90 40 125 107,5 80 62 21,4 51 28 Zinc 5 38 5 15 15 10 0 0 5 0 20 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Solidus Liquidus temperature temperature Density C C g/cm3 860 835 835 825 830 897 890 880 880 885 865 870 895 960 926 928 940 959 1010 964 995 890 865 865 835 845 917 895 885 895 895 903 900 920 990 940 952 964 982 1035 982 1020 13,1 13,1 13,25 13,5 13,7 15,45 15,15 15,3 15,3 15,45 15,36 15,6 15,7 16,7 16,8 16,8 17,8 18 17,8 17,9
900
1000
950
80 0
Carat
20 40 60 80 100 Cu
Colour* 5N 3N 4N 2N 1N 5N 4N 4N 3N 2N 2N 1N Red pink yellow-pink
Figure 3.1.4 Two phase region in goldcopper-silver alloys
14 14 14 14 14 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 21 21 21 22 22 22 22
* Based on ISO 8654 classifications
60
All the alloys are based on gold-silver-copper. Most of the 14 ct alloys contain an addition of zinc. About 50% of the 18 ct alloys also have small additions of zinc. Zinc additions are not common in higher carat alloys. The influence of zinc additions on properties are considered separately in section 3.3. Low carat alloys (10, 9 and 8 ct) are, with few exceptions, based on copper- gold-(silver)-zinc (in this order). Zinc can be considered as a main alloying element in this case. In addition to these traditional alloying elements, in recent times small additions of other elements are in use, e.g. for grain refining (iridium) and deoxidation (silicon, boron). The influence of these additions is also discussed separately in section 3.3. Recently, to improve the mechanical properties of high carat alloys (20 ct up to micro-alloyed pure gold) special alloy systems have been developed. They are not in frequent use and shall be mentioned only briefly. The density of 14 and 18 ct yellow gold is strongly influenced by the silver/copper ratio (at constant gold content), Figures 3.1.5 and 3.1.6. Small additions of zinc have a small influence on density, especially with 14 ct alloys where zinc is added more frequently (Note: Figure 3.1.5 also contains alloys with small additions of zinc). The densities of 21 ct alloys (875 gold) lie in the range of 16.7-16.8 g/cm3; for 22 ct (917 gold), the values lie between 17.8 and 17.9 g/cm3. Variations in the silver/copper ratio are very limited and have no significant influence on density. The solidification range of a yellow gold alloy depends on the composition in a rather complicated way. In principle, it can be read from the ternary phase diagram. However, for practical purposes, diagrams which demonstrate the melting range for the most important 14 and 18 ct alloys as a function of silver content are more useful, Figures 3.1.7 and 3.1.8. For the 18 ct alloys, an increasing silver content mainly influences the liquidus temperature, which also increases, but has less influence on the solidus temperature. For the 14 ct alloys, the liquidus temperature is increased at higher silver concentrations to a limited extent, but the solidus temperature is significantly decreased. Therefore, the solidification range itself is increased for both 14 ct and for 18 ct alloys at higher silver contents. The consequence of a larger solidification range is increased (micro-) segregation and a more pronounced dendritic structure. The solidification behaviour of an alloy during casting is not only influenced by the temperature range of solidification but also by the heat introduced by the melt into the flask. Table 10 shows some examples for the heat of solidification and the specific heat of jewellery alloys and the pure alloying metals. The values are based on mass (as it is common). Gold has the lowest and copper has the highest heat of solidification
13.8 13.7
Density
Density (g/cm3)
13.6 13.5 13.4 13.3 13.3 13.2 13.1 60 100 140 180 220 260 300
Silver ()
Figure 3.1.5 Density of 14 carat yellow gold as a function of silver content
15.7 15.6 18 ct YG Density as a function of silver content Density
Density (g/cm3)
15.5 15.4 15.3 15.2 15.1
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Silver ()
Figure 3.1.6 Density of 18 carat yellow gold as a function of silver content
960 940 920
Influence of silver content on the solidification range of 200 yellow gold 80 120 160 14 ct 240 280
Temperature
900 880 860 840 820 800 780 80 90 100 110 260 280 300 320 340 360 SOLIDUS LIQUIDUS
Silver ()
Figure 3.1.7
945 Solidification range of 18 ct YG 940 as a function of silver content 2N 935 930 925 SOLIDUS 920 LIQUIDUS 915 910 905 900 5N 3N 895 890 4N 885 880 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Table 12 Data of thermal analysis for some typical jewellery alloys
% 91.7 75.0 58.5 100
% 6.2 16.0 30.0 90 100
% 2.1 9.0 11.5 10
J/g 60 72 76 111 65* 107* 205*
J/cm3 1002 1123 1048
100 * Source: Edelmetall Taschenbuch
0.174 0.212 0.242 0.320 0.157* 0.310* 0.494*
1032.8 933.3 891.4 901.6
1009 902.8 850.9 779.8
17 21 24
Temperature (C)
Gold
Silver
Copper
Heat of solidification
Specific Heat J/(g*K)
Liquidus Temp. C
Solidus Temp. C
Superheat 100 K (C) J/g
Silver ()
Figure 3.1.8
61
Table 13 Shrinkage at solidification, examples Metal Gold Silver Copper 18ct yellow gold Shrinkage at Solidification, volume,% 4.8 7.3 5.4 6.0
Table 14 Influence of atmosphere on interfacial tension (14 ct yellow gold) Casting atmosphere Vacuum 0.1mbar Forming gas (N2+H2) Argon Air Contact angle (deg) 144 148 <50 Interfacial tension (N/mm2) 1210 1330 660 (low value) investment wetted by melt
with silver lying in between. Therefore, alloys with more silver and copper deliver more heat at solidification related to the mass. For practical purposes, it is more important to know values related to the volume. The difference between different jewellery alloys are now equalised to some extent. The table also shows that the heat introduced by a melt superheat (casting temperature above liquidus temperature) of, for example, 100C (180F) adds approximately a third of the solidification heat to the total amount of heat introduced in the flask. The sudden decrease of volume at solidification is responsible for the occurrence of shrinkage porosity in jewellery castings Table 13 presents some estimates for solidification shrinkage of some pure metals and a typical jewellery alloy. The overall porosity in a complete casting will be smaller than these values because the shrinkage can be compensated to some degree by supplying additional melt through the sprue and the gating system. However, in certain critical areas of the casting, the porosity can be concentrated and exceed the mean value. The interfacial tension between the melt and the investment is a critical factor influencing the degree of form filling, the reproduction of fine surface details and the surface roughness. Yellow gold, based on gold-silver-copper, has a relatively high interfacial tension if the formation of oxides is avoided (i.e. if casting is performed in oxygen-free surroundings, e.g. in vacuum or a reducing atmosphere). However, the formation of copper oxide reduces the interfacial tension considerably. Some values of interfacial tension for 14 ct yellow gold are given in Table 14. The relatively low value obtained with argon may indicate that oxygen was not completely removed before filling the chamber with argon. A high interfacial tension produces a characteristically rough surface structure, mainly on thick walled items. This is due to dendritic solidification and shrinkage. The microstructure is strongly dendritic. At solidification, initially a framework of dendrites is formed. At final solidification, shrinkage sucks up the interdendritic melt from the surface, leaving a dendritic relief. If the interfacial tension is low, the wall of the investment is wetted and its smooth structure is reproduced, as long as no decomposition of the investment occurs. As seen in Table 14, the tension can be simply reduced by casting on air. However, no improvement in surface quality will be achieved. The benefits of low surface (interfacial) tension are compensated by the detrimental influence of oxidation and scaling. The more effective approach is through varying the alloy composition (see later).
62
Table 15 Typical hardness (as cast) of gold-silver-copper alloys

280
Carat 14 18 18 21 22
Gold 585 750 750 875 917
Composition () Silver 300 160 125 45 55
Copper 115 90 125 80 28
Hardness HV 130 -147 135 170 96 65
Hardness of 18 ct yellow gold (as cast) as a function of silver content
260
Hardness HV
240 220 200 180 160 HV
Table 15 gives some approximate values of hardness for yellow gold alloys of different fineness in the as cast state. The hardness at a given fineness varies strongly with silver/copper ratio and also with the treatment of the flask after casting (cooling conditions). Therefore, the hardness may vary over a wide range. The strong influence of the silver/copper ratio on the hardness of 18 carat alloys is shown in Figure 3.1.9. Values ranging from hard (and brittle) to relatively soft (ductile) are possible. The main reason for the increase in hardness with increasing copper content is the age hardening (ordering) effect, as mentioned earlier. Copperrich alloys can form the ordered state very quickly and the hardness will be increased considerably, with loss of ductility. Silver-rich yellow alloys undergo, firstly, a separation into copper-rich and silver-rich phases, followed later by age hardening. However, the amount of hardened phase is smaller. The hardening process is less pronounced and the cast material remains soft and ductile. The embrittlement of copper-rich pink and red alloys frequently causes cracks, especially when the items are subsequently deformed, e.g. for widening or during stamping. Fig. 3.1.10 shows a broken shank of a red gold ring. Theoretically, the embrittlement can be avoided by quenching from a temperature of about 600700C (1112-1292F). In practice the flask cannot be quenched fast enough to avoid the problem with some red/pink gold alloys. The only way to get a ductile material in this case is by subsequently annealing the cast items at approx. 600C (1112F) and quenching them quickly into water.
140 120 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Silver ()
Figure 3.1.9
Figure 3.1.10 Cracks in red gold ring shank
63
3.1.2
High carat golds with enhanced properties
Traditionally, high caratage gold jewellery is in great demand in the Middle and Far East markets. High carat alloys (21 carat and higher) alloyed only with copper and/or silver additions are soft, so in recent years, improved strength high caratage gold alloys have been developed. Obviously, these are yellow gold alloys, because of the very high gold content. The main challenge has been to find small alloying additions, which increase the strength. However, many of the new alloys are more difficult to make and use, needing more sophisticated melting and working facilities, compared with traditional alloys. Gold-titanium The gold 1% titanium alloy, Au990Ti, has a hardness of approximately HV180 in the age-hardened state. The hardness is comparable with standard carat alloys. Also the ductility and wear behaviour are excellent. The disadvantages are: The high reactivity of titanium requires a protective atmosphere (argon) for melting and annealing. The high strength is only obtained after age hardening. Subsequent soldering will weaken the material again. Frequently, a pale greyish colour is observed after finishing. Investigations showed that this effect is not a property of the alloy but caused by non-optimum polishing conditions. Gold-gallium A gold 1% gallium alloy, Au990Ga, is easy to work with, but the hardening effect in the as cast state is moderate. It is more pronounced after deformation. Gold-cobalt-antimony This patented alloy, 99.5% gold-0.3% antimony-0.2% cobalt, Au995Sb3Co2 (), recently developed by Mintek, can be hardened by cold work plus age hardening up to HV140. Investment casting is possible. Micro-alloyed fine gold 24 carat, fine gold alloys of 99.5% + purity, alloyed with very small amounts of calcium, rare earth etc., have been developed and patented. In the annealed or as cast condition, the hardness is slightly increased, but more significant increases can be attained by working and aging. However, as noted above, these new alloys are more difficult to make and use, needing more sophisticated melting and working facilities. The use of these alloys is restricted to special applications.
3.2
WHITE GOLD ALLOYS
White gold alloys have an extremely wide composition range. They are essentially 3 types: the nickel whites, the palladium whites and the mixed (nickel and palladium containing) white golds. More recently, another class of nickel-free alternative white golds have been developed, based on use of metals such as manganese and chromium as the primary whitener. In each class, a large variety of alloys are possible. In general, high concentrations of nickel or palladium (circa 12%+) are required for a good white colour. Many commercial alloys are thrifted in nickel (less hard) or palladium (less expensive), often with copper additions, and are not a good colour, so requiring rhodium plating.
64
In Table 16 and Table 17, some examples of 18 and 14 carat classical alloys are given. Many other combinations are possible. Nickel white gold Nickel-containing white gold alloys tend to be hard and less ductile. Table 18 illustrates how the hardness of 18 ct gold increases with increasing content of nonprecious metals. These values are for the soft annealed state. The mechanical properties of investment cast nickel white gold are not predictable. At a low cooling rate, a nickel-rich phase segregates, causing embrittlement. Fast quenching can cause cracking. As it is almost impossible to cool the tree in a flask under defined conditions, the properties are not fully predictable. This disadvantage is not only true for mechanical properties, but also for corrosion resistance and, consequently, for nickel release. The corrosion resistance decreases if segregation of nickel-rich phases occurs. Alloys with such segregation will release more nickel than homogeneous alloys. A relatively high zinc content is necessary to avoid undue brittleness. However, zinc-containing alloys should not be melted in a vacuum due to excessive evaporation of zinc. Because of this, frequent re-melting of scraps will cause an unwanted change in composition, again resulting in increased brittleness.
Table 16 Typical 18 carat white gold alloys Au Nickel white gold 750 750 Palladium white gold 750 750 751 751 750 750 Mixed white gold 750 750 110 135 50 75 30 20 20 60 1050 950 1110 1025 100 150 118 80 40 60 150 100 130 170 170 130 1240 1180 1180 1300 1200 2 1090 1300 1225 1235 1315 1290 1185 0 0 0 0 55 10 50 75 145 165 895 888 945 902 Ag Concentration, Pd Cu Zn Ni Temperature, C* Solidus Liquidus
Table 18 Influence of composition on hardness of 18 ct white gold Au+Ag+Pd % 100 90 75 Cu+Ni+Zn % 0 10 25 HV soft annealed 65 180 220
Au gold, Ag silver, Pd palladium, Cu copper, Zn zinc, Ni nickel
40 58
Au gold, Ag silver, Pd palladium, Cu copper, Zn zinc, Ni nickel * approximate values Table 17 Typical 14 carat white gold alloys Au Nickel white gold 585 585 Palladium white gold 585 Mixed white gold 585 585 180 180 140 140 65 45 10,0 20 50 1010 995 1080 1090 215 150 50 1080 1165 270 185 50,0 75,0 95 155 920 915 990 1020 Ag Concentration, Pd Cu Zn Ni Temperature, C* Solidus Liquidus
Au gold, Ag silver, Pd palladium, Cu copper, Zn zinc, Ni nickel * approximate values
65
Whereas melting of clean alloys in graphite crucibles is possible, the use of gypsum-bonded investment is problematic. An increased reaction with the investment is likely. This has a detrimental effect on surface quality and can increase gas porosity. This effect depends strongly on the mass of the cast item and on the flask and melt temperatures. A further disadvantage of nickel-containing alloys is the pronounced affinity of nickel for sulphur, present in the gypsum. Nickel sulphide can be formed which segregates on grain boundaries and causes embrittlement. For this reason, re-melting of scraps and pieces is especially critical, due to adhering old (gypsumbonded) investment. Sulphate (gypsum) will be reduced to sulphide on melting in a graphite crucible. Nickel sulphide segregation results. Additionally, silica (the main component of investment) can form silicide compounds, with a similar embrittling effect as sulphide, if melting unclean scrap under reducing conditions. Nickel white gold can cause allergic skin reactions in nickel-sensitised people. Therefore, the European Community has promulgated a Directive, EN 1811, to protect the consumer. This Directive forbids the use of nickel only in the jewellery used for piercing or in a healing wound. In all other cases where jewellery is in direct and prolonged contact with the skin, the use of nickel is not forbidden, but a maximum nickel release rate has been defined. This is determined with a specific test in an artificial sweat solution. Alloys releasing nickel exceeding the limit are not allowed. Palladium white gold The most important properties of palladium white gold of relevance to the caster are: High melting temperature, which requires suitable casting equipment. High casting temperature, which might exceed the thermal stability of the investment. The wide use of induction melting techniques reduces the problem of high melting temperatures. However, measuring the temperature with nickel/nickel-chromium thermocouples is not possible; platinum/platinum-rhodium thermocouples are necessary. The question of the use of graphite crucibles is discussed frequently. Palladium in pure or low-alloyed form reacts with carbon (solubility of carbon in palladium). However, the small concentration of palladium in gold alloys does not give problems if the alloy is melted in graphite crucibles. The great amount of heat, which is introduced into the mould by the melt, can decompose gypsum-bonded investment, which leads to surface defects and gas porosity. The danger of decomposition depends strongly on the mass of items. Thin walled items may be cast using gypsum-bonded investment without too much problem. On the other hand, heavy items can produce problems. In this situation, the only solution is the use of phosphate-bonded investment. Another disadvantage is the softness of the alloys for many applications. Some addition of nickel (i.e. mixed alloys) will improve hardness and strength.
66
Alternative alloys As mentioned earlier, alternative white gold alloys have been developed as a nickelfree substitute for the expensive palladium white alloys. Additions with a bleaching effect used in such alloys are manganese and chromium. Alloys with small additions of manganese have been known for many years. Higher concentrations of manganese are necessary for a sufficient bleaching effect if nickel and palladium are to be substituted completely. Such alloys have proved brittle and susceptible to corrosion. Chromium-containing alloys with a narrow specified composition show a good colour and a good workability. However, casting and annealing of such alloys is difficult due to the high reactivity of chromium. Chromium reacts not only with oxygen but also with nitrogen and carbon. Investment casting must be performed in a very clean argon atmosphere and in a special ceramic crucible. Phosphate-bonded investment should be used. At present, these requirements cannot be fulfilled in standard casting shops.
3.3
INFLUENCE OF SMALL ALLOYING ADDITIONS
Over recent decades, efforts have been undertaken to improve the casting behaviour of carat gold alloys and/or the properties of cast jewellery items. Any modification to alloys has ensured that neither the gold content nor the colour will be influenced. Therefore, only small additions are appropriate. Depending on the addition, the term small ranges from less than 100 ppm to several percent. It is essential that recommended maximum concentration limits are followed. Also, the processing conditions may have to be adapted to suit the modified alloys.
3.3.1 Improving properties

In the following, a brief overview is given about the properties where improvement is desirable: The interfacial tension between the melt and the investment is a critical factor influencing form-filling, the reproduction of fine surface details and surface roughness. Form-filling is strongly influenced by casting conditions; however, some additions have a beneficial effect (e.g. zinc, silicon). Reducing shrinkage porosity is highly desirable. Unfortunately, no addition can influence this. Gas porosity might be reduced to some limited extent by a suitable addition of zinc (perhaps also with silicon). The grain size of investment cast items often tends to be rather coarse (large). The consequences are: Strong segregation and a pronounced dendritic structure, with inferior corrosion resistance and mechanical properties. Increased sensitivity to cracking. Formation of a rough surface (orange peel) if the cast items are deformed subsequently. Poor polishing behaviour. The influence of coarse grains on shrinkage porosity is not unambiguous.
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18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2
Effect of grain size on porosity 14 ct yellow gold Porosity mean value Porosity maximum
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4
Grainsize (ASTM)
Figure 3.3.1
910 900 890 880 870 860 850 840 830 820 810 800 790
Influence of zinc on solidification range of 14ct alloy (copper concentration 115) SOLIDUS LIQUIDUS
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Zinc content ()
Figure 3.3.2
Investigations have shown that a smaller grain size apparently does not reduce all the porosity, but does reduce the formation of large pores and nests of pores, Figure 3.3.1. Whilst the maximum amount of porosity in a specific region of a cast item is reduced dramatically with decreasing grain size, the mean value is not influenced significantly. Grain refining improves the deformation and polishing behaviour (as mentioned above) and inhibits cracks in critical cases. Zinc at higher concentrations reduces the sensitivity to age hardening (makes the alloy softer, important for wire drawing). Unlike the high carat golds, no special additions are in use to improve the strength or the age hardening properties for 18 or lower carat gold alloys. In alloys consisting only of gold-silver-copper, copper can be oxidised with formation of copper oxide. Casting of such yellow gold usually results in a black copper oxide layer at the surface, formed while cooling down the flask. This blackening can be avoided or, at least, reduced by the addition of zinc or silicon (see later). On the other hand, the formation of copper oxide inclusions can be caused by re-melting of dirty scrap material, by use of oxygen-containing copper for alloying or by melting and casting in an oxygen-containing atmosphere. The oxide, on its part, can cause gas porosity through a rather complicated reaction. However, copper oxide can be reduced easily by melting in a reducing atmosphere or by melting in a graphite crucible in a neutral or reducing atmosphere. Time and a sufficiently high temperature are necessary for completion of this reaction. No special deoxidising addition is necessary for removing oxides from the melt if the melting and casting conditions are correct.
Temperature (C)
Porosity %
920 910
Temperature (C)
Influence of zinc on the solidification range of 18ct yellow gold Copper constant 90
3.3.2 Effects of individual additions

The effects of the elements most commonly used as small additions to carat gold alloys are discussed in the following paragraphs. Zinc Some quantity of zinc can be alloyed in yellow gold without changing the microstructure. The specific amount of zinc which can be tolerated depends on fineness (caratage) and the silver to copper ratio. Gold can dissolve approximately 3% zinc (by mass) without any change in microstructure. Higher concentrations cause the formation of new phases, including intermetallics; a detrimental influence on properties can be expected. In 14 and 18 carat alloys, higher concentrations of zinc are possible due to the higher solubility of zinc in silver and copper. However, zinc is usually a small addition in casting alloys with some beneficial effects. The recommended upper limit of addition is approximately 2% in 14 and 18 carat yellow gold. In low carat golds (8-10 carat) and in nickel white golds, zinc is a standard alloying element and is often present in higher amounts.
900 890 880 870 860 850 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 SOLIDUS LIQUIDUS
Zinc ()
Figure 3.3.3
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a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
The effects of zinc additions in 14 and 18 carat yellow gold are: Reduction in liquidus and solidus temperatures: The influence of zinc is shown in Figures 3.3.2 & 3.3.3, whereby silver is substituted by zinc and gold and copper are kept constant. Substituting copper by zinc might lead to a somewhat different effect; it will certainly bleach the colour. Increase in form-filling: The influence of zinc additions up to 2% on the form-filling of 14 and 18 ct yellow gold is shown in Figure 3.3.4. All the tests were performed with a test grid under constant conditions. The beneficial effect is remarkable. Reduction in surface roughness: The surface of cast items is much smoother if the alloy contains up to 2% zinc. The effect is more pronounced with heavy parts. A roughness reduction to approximately a third can be achieved. Both increased form-filling and reduced roughness can be related to the effect of zinc on reducing the interfacial tension, which, in turn, improves the wetting of the investment with the melt and reduces capillary forces. Thus, the melt can more easily fill thin cavities and reproduce the smooth surface of the pattern. This avoids the formation of a dendritic surface structure. Reduction of reaction with investment and gas porosity: Small zinc additions have proven able to reduce the reaction of the melt with the investment and in this way decrease the incidence of gas porosity. The reason for this is not quite clear. Probably, the formation of a dense layer of zinc oxide at the surface of the solidifying melt prevents the interaction of melt with the investment. Tensile tests on cast samples has shown that a small addition of zinc improves the elongation (ductility) by reducing the porosity, Figure 3.3.5. There is also an increase in tensile strength, indicating that the effect is really related to physical integrity of the samples. However, it should be recognised that zinc additions higher than the recommended value (approximately 2-3%) might have an adverse effect, e.g. increase the reaction with investment and, therefore, increase gas porosity. Brighten the surface in the as-cast state: Zinc has a stronger affinity to oxygen. During the cooling period of a casting, a thin, relatively dense layer of almost colourless zinc oxide is formed on the surface, inhibiting the formation of a thick voluminous black scale of copper oxide, Figure 3.3.6. The pieces have a bright yellow appearance. Pickling removes the zinc oxide layer easily without de-coloration of the surface.
80 75 70
Influence of zinc on formfilling of a grid 14 ct 18 ct
Formfilling (%)
65 60 55 50 45 40 35 0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Zinc content (%)

Figure 3.3.4
35 30
Influence of zinc addition on elongation
Elongation (%)
25 20 15 10 5 14 ct 18 ct 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Zinc content (%)

Figure 3.3.5
without Zn 2% Zn Influence of zinc on surface oxidation (14 ct)
Figure 3.3.6
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Figure 3.3.7 Inclusions of zinc oxide
Zinc has a high vapour pressure; it boils at 907C (1665F) at atmospheric pressure. Thus, adding pure zinc to the melt is difficult. A great deal of zinc evaporates (in air, with formation of white fumes of zinc oxide). This effect can be reduced by wrapping the zinc in copper foil and immersing it very fast into the melt.The better way is the use of brass as a master alloy. Alloyed already with copper, the vapour pressure of zinc is significantly reduced. Use of brass with 70% copper or higher is recommended. (Note: Brass with 60% copper and less often contains lead (as an alloying element) and some other impurities. Lead contamination in gold is undesirable). Once zinc is alloyed in yellow gold alloy, the alloy is stable. Significant loss by evaporation is prevented if the level of approximately 2% is not exceeded. Even a moderate vacuum can be applied. However, melting in air causes formation of zinc oxide and therefore reduces the zinc concentration in the alloy. The main defects arising are inclusions of zinc oxide in the alloy. For example, surface defects can be generated, Figure 3.3.7. This defect is mainly caused by remelting of dirty material, e.g recycled sprues. Higher zinc concentrations (exceeding the recommended level) increase the reaction of the melt with the investment. The result is a bad surface and more gas porosity. Silicon Silicon lies on the border between being a beneficial addition and deleterious impurity. It has several merits: silicon increases the melt fluidity and form-filling. Its effect is more pronounced than that of zinc. In yellow carat gold alloys, silicon produces a clean, yellow surface without the dark scale of copper oxide. The reason for this effect is the same as for zinc. A thin colourless, dense layer of its oxide, silica, forms at the expense of copper oxide. The high affinity of silicon for oxygen makes silicon a strong deoxidiser. However, this use is not essential in yellow gold alloys. Silicon additions have some disadvantages: a) Embrittlement The disadvantage of silicon additions is rooted in its limited solubility, particularly in high carat jewellery alloys. Its solubility depends mainly on the copper content of the alloy, as it is insoluble in gold and silver and forms low melting eutectics (gold-silicon 363C/685F, silver-silicon 835C/1535F). In copper, silicon is soluble up to almost 5%. If the solubility of silicon is exceeded, a low melting eutectic is formed in the jewellery alloy, causing embrittlement and cracks. Most critical are silver-rich, high carat alloys. For an 18 ct alloy of composition gold 75% - silver 4.5% - copper 18% - zinc 2.5%, the critical silicon concentration is 0.05%. Higher silicon additions can cause embrittlement. 14 carat alloys can tolerate approximately 0.1% and 10 ct alloys ~0.3% silicon.
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Table 19 Grain refiners in yellow gold alloys Type 1 1a 1b Field of appliance Casting Working mechanism High melting temperature, limited solubility in the alloy High reactivity with oxygen, low solubility, formation of fine dispersed intermetallics or oxides Probably formation of intermetallic compounds Soft annealing Formation of fine dispersed segregations at annealing temperature Examples iridium, ruthenium, (cobalt) rare earth (yttrium), boron, barium, (calcium) e.g. zirconium/boron cobalt/boron Cobalt, All type 1 additions can also decrease grain size on soft annealing
1c 2
The allowable silicon addition has to be determined for any given alloy composition. It decreases with increasing (gold + silver) content and should not be used in high (21/22) carat golds. b) Grain coarsening effect Another disadvantage of silicon is its pronounced grain coarsening effect. It causes an extremely coarse grain, even at a very low concentration. The main consequence is a tendency to intergranular cracking. The appearance of the defect is very similar to that in Figure 3.1.10. Inclusions of silicon dioxide occur in castings, especially where remelting dirty material such as recycled scrap is done. Grain refiners To compensate for the undesirable grain coarsening effect of silicon and to refine the grain size of jewellery alloys in general, many attempts to apply grain refiners have been made. Published work has shown that additions (and combinations) of: iridium, ruthenium, zirconium, cobalt, boron, yttrium, (zirconium + boron), (cobalt + boron) and barium were effective as grain refiners. In almost all cases, the additions were in the range of 0.005 to 0.05% weight. Cobalt was added up to 0.2%. They all act in a similar way: they form very fine dispersed nuclei as starting points for the formation of grains at solidification. The mechanism of nucleation can be different. In all cases, small concentrations are effective. In Table 19 the grain refiners are classified in terms of application and working mechanism. Frequently used grain refiners are the high melting platinum group metals, iridium and ruthenium, with limited solubility in gold alloys, and also some very reactive elements. In the latter case, intermetallic compounds or even oxides or nitrides form the effective nuclei.
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Figure 3.3.8 Iridium clusters at surface
Iridium Iridium is the most frequently used addition for grain refining of gold alloys. Investigations have mainly been performed with 14 and lower carat alloys. In high carat alloys, the effect would be expected to be less pronounced, due to the extremely small solubility of iridium in gold and silver. In contrast, iridium is miscible in copper, more than 10% (by weight), forming a homogeneous solid solution. Discrepancies exist between observations by different investigators. Some have found a grain refining effect in the range of 50 ppm iridium, whilst others could not demonstrate such an effect even with concentrations of 0.1% and higher. The grain refining effect of iridium in silicon-containing alloys is uncertain. The main causes of these different results are variations in alloying and melting techniques as well as the basic composition of the alloys studied. A master alloy has to be used to achieve good results. Preferably, a master alloy with copper should be used, where the iridium concentration should not be too high (<2%). Extreme care has to be taken to obtain a homogeneous iridium distribution in the carat gold alloy. An addition of approximately 0.01% iridium in the alloy is usually sufficient. A higher concentration has an adverse effect. Use of iridium can lead to two types of defect: - insufficient and inhomogeneous grain refining effect. - segregation and hard spots. Inhomogeneously distributed grain refiner or a too high concentration leads to hard inclusions causing polishing problems (comet tails) and, in extreme cases, cracks, Figure 3.3.8. Ruthenium Ruthenium is another addition used for grain refining in carat gold alloys. The effect of ruthenium as a grain refiner is similar to that of iridium. It shows a remarkable refining influence in the concentration range of 0.001 to 0.01%. Again, a higher concentration is detrimental due to the formation of coarse particles. Obtaining a homogeneous distribution of ruthenium in yellow gold is difficult, and so iridium is preferred.
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4 EQUIPMENT
At least six steps of the investment casting process require specific equipment. That is: the vulcaniser (vulcanising press), to make the rubber moulds, the wax injector, to make the wax patterns, the investment mixer, to make the investment slurry, a dry or steam dewaxer, the burnout oven, a melting/casting machine. A wet sand or grit blasting machine can be added to this list, to complete the removal of the investment from the cast tree. Also, other less costly equipment, which is not strictly required but can simplify some steps of the process, can be considered. As remarked in the introduction, we should select qualified producers and suppliers who have a technical knowledge of the process as well as give good aftersales service for the supplied equipment. These are essential. First of all, we should establish our goals (our production requirements) and what we need to attain them. This decision can be taken only by the goldsmith. Otherwise, there is always the risk that vital decisions on equipment for our workshop could depend heavily on the opinions of the local vendor. Frequently, a production line made from poorly matched equipment will be the result of such policy. There are many trade fairs around the world, where you can obtain up-to-date information on production equipment from a range of manufacturers. Examples include: VicenzaOro, each year in January and June, in Italy Basel Fair, March/April in Switzerland Inhorgenta, February, Munich, Germany Hong Kong Trade Fair, September, Hong Kong Las Vegas Trade Fair, June, USA Catalog In Motion. This fair is held in February each year in Tucson, Arizona, USA. At such events, we can see and try equipment, compare different manufacturers products and technical production problems and requirements can be discussed with leading experts in the field. When you have clarified your ideas and established your objectives, it is useful to prepare an evaluation chart for each type of equipment. In this chart you will record a description of the different technical features of the equipment, along with competence and efficiency of the producer or vendor. In this way you will be able to make a more objective final choice, especially if you also make an evaluation of costs versus benefits and of the return on investment. So many unpleasant surprises will be avoided or at least mitigated.
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Figure 4.1.1 Vulcanizer with digital temperature control
In addition to these general rules, we recommend that you add the following guidelines: Never buy equipment without seeing it and without discussing every detail. You should test it and evaluate ease of use, controls, possibility of programming, ease of servicing. Find out if the producer himself has developed and built the equipment or if the offered equipment is a cheap copy of something developed by someone else. Discuss the offered guarantee in depth. Find out how many pieces of the offered equipment have been sold and to what company. Talk to some of their customers about their experiences. Ensure the producer will offer adequate training of your staff and will commission the equipment in your factory so that it operates at the agreed specification Never choose equipment on the basis of price only. Cheap is rarely good economy! Whatever equipment you buy, you should schedule the required servicing, i.e. what tests should be done and when, and who should do them. All servicing operations will be recorded on suitable charts. For example, for a melting/casting machine, the cooling system should be checked daily, the filters of the exhaustion fixture weekly, the oil of vacuum pumps monthly, etc. Now we will discuss the specific equipment.
4.1
VULCANISERS
Apparently, a vulcaniser is a very simple item of equipment. It is basically a simple screw press, with two heated platens and a temperature controller. However, in practical use even such a simple piece of equipment can give unpleasant surprises. If the temperature control system is crude and unreliable, it will be hard to obtain good quality rubber moulds, with all consequent problems. The characteristics to consider here are: the operating temperature range, the size of the heating platens, the maximum opening between the platens (i.e. the maximum thickness of the rubber mould). We should keep in our mind that several modern silicone rubbers dont tolerate temperature inaccuracies larger than 1C (1.8F). Other factors include uniformity of temperature across the platens and the control system. An accurate temperature control, without wide swings of temperature, is fundamental for a good vulcaniser. It should be possible to check the calibration and the correct operation of the temperature controller. For this purpose, in many vulcanisers there are proper holes in the platens, where a calibrated thermocouple or other suitable device can be inserted to check temperature level and distribution at different points of the platens. The approximate cost of a vulcaniser can range from about 350 Euros/US $ for a very basic model to 650 Euros/US$ for a more sophisticated one with electronic temperature control, Figure 4.1.1. A multiple vulcaniser, with multiple temperature control and digital temperature display, can cost up to about 2,200 Euros/US$.
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4.2
WAX INJECTORS
When investment casting was first introduced in jewellery production, the spinning of wax patterns in a centrifuge was the standard procedure, but it has now been superseded by wax injection and is no longer used in jewellery workshops. Modern wax injectors are airtight and the controlled temperature wax pot is placed inside. A pressurization system allows the injection of the wax into the rubber mould. The more sophisticated types are equipped with temperature control for both the pot and the injection nozzle and with a vacuum system, to exhaust the air from the mould before injecting the wax, Figure 4.2.1. With this type of injector, a clamping system for the rubber mould can be used to keep a constant mould clamping pressure. This avoids the variations in wax pattern weight caused by clamping pressure variability, that occurs if the mould is held manually by the operator during wax injection, Figures 4.2.2 and 4.2.3. This attachment is very useful for ensuring a consistent weight of the wax patterns. Another type of injector where the mould is filled under suction is also commercially available. These injectors require specific moulds designed with two openings. One opening is used for suction, while at the same time the wax enters through the second opening, Figures 4.2.4, 4.2.5 and 4.2.6. In the field of wax injection, the present trend is towards an increasing automation, with equipment able to identify the mould through a specific code. After identifying the mould, the working parameters are automatically set to the required value, Figures 4.2.7 and 4.2.8. Recently, a completely automated, programmable injector
Figure 4.2.5 Rubber mould for the injector of Figure 4.2.4
Figure 4.2.6 Wax pattern produced with the mould of Figure 4.2.5
Figure 4.2.7 Automated injector with mechanical identification of the different moulds
Figure 4.2.1 Low cost wax injector, equipped with different fixtures for temperature control
Figure 4.2.3 Wax injector more sophisticated than the type shown in Figure 4.2.1
Figure 4.2.8 Moulds for the injector of Figure 4.2.7 and wax patterns produced
Figure 4.2.2 Detail of a wax injector with mould clamp
Figure 4.2.4 Wax injector with suction during injection. The wax is sucked into the mould
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Figure 4.2.9 Automated injector able to identify the mould from a microchip inserted in the mould
has been put on the market. It uses rubber moulds equipped with a microchip, where the relevant parameters of the mould (temperature, vacuum, pressure, time and wax type for that particular model) are recorded, Figures 4.2.9, 4.2.10 and 4.2.11. With this injector, wax patterns with the same weight can be obtained consistently. It is particularly useful for mass production. The cost of wax injectors varies widely and depends on the level of specification. The cost can range from about 200 Euros/US$ for the more basic, completely manual, types up to about 15,000 Euros/US$ for the completely automated injector just described.
4.3
INVESTING MIXING MACHINES
Figure 4.2.10 Control panel of the injector of Figure 4.2.9
Figure 4.2.11 Detail of the clamp of the injector of Figure 4.2.9
The investment slurry is obtained by adding investment powder to the water in the weight ratio recommended by the manufacturer. Mixing can be done manually with a suitable stirrer or with an electric mixer, and, after vacuuming, the slurry is poured in the flask. The invested flask will be vacuumed again under a bell jar for removing air bubbles from the slurry. Then the flask is put on a vibrating plate and is vibrated until about 1 minute before the gloss-off point. This method is still used today in many small workshops and good results can be obtained, if care is taken, but it is difficult to ensure consistency. Investment powders are becoming more sophisticated and specialized, and it has been recognised that investment mixing, handling and filling of the flask are steps in the investment casting process that critically affect performance of the mould. These steps must be done correctly and accurately to obtain consistent results. Therefore, most jewellery producers prefer investment mixing and pouring units that perform the whole cycle in a regular, consistent manner and can fill one or more flasks in the same operation, Figure 4.3.1. Many are automated and programmable. Such equipment is available in many sizes to fit specific needs. Equipment with stainless steel tanks and stirrers should be preferred, Figure 4.3.2. Certainly, it is more expensive, but it is more robust and easier to clean. Cleanliness is very important, because residues of old slurry can modify the setting behaviour of the new investment appreciably.
a
Figure 4.3.1 Automated investment mixing and pouring unit that can fill six flasks in a single pour Figure 4.3.2 Vacuum investment mixers
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Fully manual equipment can cost about 800 Euros/US$. A programmable, fully automated mixing and pouring unit with vacuum and vibration can cost from 1500 up to 8,000 Euros/US$, depending on the materials of construction, and even more for large equipment for mass production.
4.4
DEWAXERS
As discussed in chapter 2.7, dewaxing can be carried out dry or by steam. Often, dry dewaxing is done in the burnout oven, but can be done in a separate dewaxing oven prior to the burnout cycle. Such ovens need to be fitted with fume extraction and a gas scrubbing facility to comply with health, safety and environmental pollution regulations. Steam dewaxers are simple in concept; they are basically a stainless steel cabinet containing a grid, on which the flasks are placed to dewax, above a layer of boiling water, Figure 4.4.1. The water is heated with thermostatically controlled electric resistance heaters, to avoid violent boiling. The cost depends on the size and ranges from about 350 Euros/US$ for a dewaxer containing up to 6 flasks to about 1,000 Euros/US$ for a dewaxer containing up to 24 large flasks.
Figure 4.4.1 Steam dewaxer
4.5
BURNOUT OVENS
To many, the burnout oven seems to be quite a simple piece of equipment. Consequently, the goldsmith often cannot understand why the cost of a burnout oven should vary over such a large range. Many burnout ovens are available on the market that are suitable for treating 10 flasks, but their price can range from about 2,000 Euros/US$ up to about 25,000 Euros/US$! A major problem with many burnout ovens is their poor temperature control and lack of uniformity of temperature within the oven. Temperature within an oven can vary, typically, by 50-75C/122-167F. Thus, flasks in different positions receive different thermal cycles and, because of the position of the control thermocouple, may not reach the set temperatures. Thus, casting quality can vary from flask to flask and from one side of a flask to the other. Overfilling the oven with too many flasks can exacerbate this problem. Temperatures should be monitored regularly with a calibration thermocouple and the temperature distribution within the oven measured with the oven containing its normal load of flasks. Many specialized companies can supply ovens with good technical characteristics, Figures 4.5.1 and 4.5.2. A good oven should have the following characteristics: good thermal insulation. Apart from energy saving, usually the oven runs in a confined space: it should not act as a radiator and must not burn when accidentally touched. The temperature of the outer surface of the oven should not exceed 37-40C (98-104F).
Figure 4.5.1 Good quality traditional burnout oven
Figure 4.5.2 Burnout oven equipped with air circulation in the first phase of heating. Note the presence of two control thermocouples
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Figure 4.5.3 Drawing of a forced ventilation burnout oven
Figure 4.5.4 Detail of the loading door of the oven of Figure 4.5.3. It is opened with a foot lever drive
if the oven is heated by electrical power, the heating elements should be shielded, to avoid direct radiation on the flasks. Therefore, ovens where a shield is inserted between the heaters and the flasks is preferable. Direct radiation can cause uneven heating of the flasks, leading to some sides being overheated, causing deterioration of the investment and consequent formation of defects in the castings. A rotary table in the oven is not sufficient: the outer flasks will always show the same side to the heating elements, so this side will heat more rapidly and to a higher temperature than the rest of the flask. Temperature should be homogeneous in the whole work chamber of the oven during the holding periods at constant temperature and, if possible, also during the heating phase. In gas-heated kilns, temperature homogeneity is favoured by air circulation caused by the burner. To ensure temperature homogeneity in all phases of the cycle, electric ovens should be equipped with a fan to assist air circulation and hence temperature uniformity throughout the entire burnout cycle, Figures 4.5.3 and 4.5.4. Most electric ovens in service are not equipped with a fan, or the fan runs only in the cooling phase of the cycle, to shorten the time required to reach the temperature suitable for starting a new cycle. In other cases, the fan runs only in the heating phase up to 200-300C (392-572F). The oven should be equipped with a temperature programmer suitable for the heating cycle required by the investment within the flasks. As noted for dewaxers, burnout ovens should be fitted with fume extraction and a gas scrubbing facility to comply with health, safety and environmental pollution regulations.
Table 20 Comparison between centrifugal casting and static casting for gold Centrifugal casting Basic programming It is possible to have an inert atmosphere, but only in a few models Relatively small flasks Max. charge weight ~ 800 g High pouring turbulence Risk of investment erosion, because of high metal flow & pressure Feed system not critical Relatively low productivity (8-10 casts/hour) Relatively lower cost Static casting Sophisticated programming, up to self-programming It is easy to have a controlled atmosphere. It is also possible to have different atmosphere composition in crucible and flask chambers Larger flasks (h > 200 mm ( 8 in)) Max. charge weight even > 1500 g Lower pouring turbulence (with a correct feed system) Lower risk of investment erosion Critical feed system (it should be suitably designed) Higher productivity (20 casts/hour in the most sophisticated machines, using larger flasks too) High cost (for the more sophisticated machines)
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4.6 MELTING/CASTING MACHINES 4.6.1 Comparison between centrifugal and static casting machines
The purchase of a casting machine is the largest financial investment made by the goldsmith or caster. Choosing the right machine is no easy decision when there are so many available on the market. Having decided on his requirements in terms of production, the first decision is whether to buy a static casting or a centrifugal casting machine. There are no special reasons to prefer one system or the other. Here the decision is up to the goldsmith and will depend on his needs, experience and preference. A centrifugal casting machine is really needed only in the case where investment casting of platinum is to be done. (Platinum is less fluid than gold and a stronger push, that only a centrifugal machine can give, is required for filling the mould cavity.) For gold and other precious metals, in recent years the preference has shifted strongly towards static casting machines, which are favoured because of their higher level of technological evolution. In the more advanced models, they are nearly fully automated. Automated machines remove, to a large extent, the technical responsibility from the goldsmith or caster in the casting phase of the process and result in a more consistent quality product. Human error is minimised. The main differences between static and centrifugal casting are summarized in Table 20. Centrifugal casting Centrifugal casting has two weak points: more turbulence in the liquid metal during pouring and a higher liquid metal pressure. On the other hand, higher pressure facilitates form-filling and makes the feed system less critical, particularly with very thin patterns. As discussed in preceding chapters, high turbulence increases the probability of having gas porosity from trapped gas. Perforated flasks are not used in centrifugal machines, so the escape of gas from mould cavity is more difficult, even with suction from the bottom of the flask. High casting pressure favours complete filling of the mould, but also increases the risk of investment erosion (and mould collapse in the extreme case). Eroded investment particles become entrained in the flowing metal, leading to inclusions in the castings. Such erosion can also lead to sandy surfaces on the castings. This occurrence has been demonstrated by recent studies that have shown that surface defects caused by crumbled investment, formerly ascribed to incorrect burnout, were instead caused by investment erosion produced by the centrifugal force pushing the liquid metal in the mould, Figures 4.6.1 and 4.6.2. Moreover, in centrifugal casting, the pressure exerted on the liquid metal is not constant over the entire length of the tree, but is highest at the top of the tree and lowest at the sprue button. Therefore, the patterns near the sprue button can be incompletely filled, while the patterns near to the treetop can show finning, caused by investment cracks produced by the high pressure.
Figure 4.6.1 Defective surface on centrifuge cast rings, caused by investment erosion
Figure 4.6.2 Another example of defective surface caused by investment erosion during centrifugal casting
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Figure 4.6.3 Sketch of a variable geometry centrifugal casting machine
Figure 4.6.4 Trace of the liquid metal on the crucible wall in a traditional centrifugal casting machine
Static casting In contrast, in static casting, the pressure is due to gravity and is nearly uniform over the full length of the tree, because the only difference is due to the hydrostatic pressure of the liquid metal from top to bottom. With static machines, maintaining a controlled atmosphere in the crucible and flask chambers is not difficult, whereas only few centrifugal machines can operate in a controlled atmosphere. Productivity Lastly, let us consider productivity. In centrifugal casting machines, the metal high pressure also sets a limit to the weight of the charge that can be safely used; it should not exceed 800 g (1.76lb). Flask height is also limited to 150 mm (6 in). The limit on flask size is not so onerous in static machines, where the weight of the charge can be larger than 1.5 kg (3.36lb) and the flasks can be taller than 250 mm (10 in). Higher charge weight and larger flasks mean better process economy. With a centrifugal machine, the operator will struggle to make more than 8 casts per hour, using 130-150 mm (5-6 in) high flasks. With a vacuum assisted (maybe also pressure assisted) fully automated, latest generation, static casting machine, the operator can carry out up to 20 casts per hour without difficulty, using 250 mm (10 in) high flasks. Obviously, these are extreme cases, but they give an idea of the different potential of these two systems. Even if productivity not always is a critical factor in a workshop or factory, we should consider that the operator working with a static automatic machine has more time available for his other work, i.e. it is less labour intensive.
4.6.2 Centrifugal machines

Probably, centrifugal machines are the most widely used for casting jewellery. In recent years, there has been considerable progress in motor technology and programming systems, but the original basic design remains nearly unchanged. In comparison with older centrifuge equipment, the most important innovations include the variable geometry arm, the flask with bottom-applied suction (in some models), the temperature measurement attachment, induction heating and a controlled atmosphere chamber (in some models). Variable geometry In the variable geometry machines, the angle between the flask axis and the centrifuge arm is not longer fixed at 0, but can change from 90 (in its rest position) to 0 as a function of rotation rate, Figure 4.6.3. In this way, the combination of centrifugal and tangential-inertial forces acting on the molten metal flowing out of the crucible and entering the flask, is taken into account. This device helps to improve the symmetry of metal flow into the mould, Figures 4.6.4 and 4.6.5, and prevents the liquid metal from flowing preferentially along the side of the main sprue cavity opposite to the rotation direction, as occurs in conventional fixed geometry equipment, where this phenomenon can cause incomplete filling of some patterns on the cast tree.
Figure 4.6.5 Trace of the liquid metal on the crucible wall in a variable geometry centrifugal casting machine. Note the symmetry of the metal flow
Figure 4.6.6 Sketch of a centrifugal casting machine with suction through the flask bottom
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EQUIPMENT
Applied suction To ease the outflow of the gas contained in the mould cavity, suction systems have been designed that are connected to the flask bottom, Figures 4.6.6 and 4.6.7. These systems form a single unit with the rotating centrifuge assembly and facilitate filling of very thin mould cavities. Temperature measurement As for temperature measurement, the best systems make use of a thermocouple dipping into the molten metal in the melting crucible. The thermocouple is clamped on the rotating system and the electric signal is transmitted through suitable contacts on a commutator, that open when rotation starts, Figures 4.6.8 and 4.6.9. Temperature measurement is less accurate and reliable when a thermocouple contacting the outer crucible surface is used. Crucible and thermocouple have different electrical potential and electric discharges can occur; these oxidise the thermocouple junction and contribute to errors in temperature readings. Optical pyrometers also tend to be less accurate and reliable. Process control Generally, in centrifugal casting machines, the operating parameters must be programmed by the operator and the interaction with the operator is very tight, Figure 4.6.10. The operator chooses the rotation rate and, consequently, the level of the centrifugal force that will push the molten metal into the mould during pouring. There are no fully automated centrifugal casting machines. The best machines are equipped with induction heating and, recently, machines operating under a protective atmosphere have been put on the market. Developing a centrifugal machine to operate under a protective atmosphere is more complicated than for a static machine, not least because of the larger volume involved. Cost The cost of a centrifugal casting machine can range from about 2,000 to about 4,000 Euros/US$ for basic equipment, not programmable, with torch melting. The cost of a machine with some programming and induction heating can reach 10,000 Euros/US$, while machines with more sophisticated programming, induction heating, controlled atmosphere, temperature measurement with a dipping thermocouple and suction from the flask bottom can cost up to 40,000 Euros/US$ or more.
Figure 4.6.7 Centrifugal casting machine operating in an inert atmosphere, with suction through the flask bottom
Figure 4.6.8 Detail of the crucible zone, without the flask
Figure 4.6.9 Detail of the crucible zone, with the flask and the thermocouple for liquid metal temperature measurement
4.6.3 Static machines

All modern, good quality static casting machines are vacuum assist, i.e. are equipped with a suction system, acting through the flask, which facilitates mould filling, Figure 4.6.11. The best machines are equipped with separate crucible and flask chambers. In this way, process time can be shortened further. Nearly all static casting machines operate under an inert atmosphere, usually nitrogen or argon although some use a hydrogen/nitrogen reducing atmosphere. Presently, argon is frequently preferred, even if it is more costly than nitrogen. The machines can also be equipped with a pressure system, acting (after pouring) only in the flask chamber on the sprue button to facilitate better mould fill and surface detail. In some very recent machines, pouring is also carried out under pressure.
Figure 4.6.10 Detail of the programming system of a high performance centrifugal casting machine
Figure 4.6.11 Modern basic level static casting machine
83
EQUIPMENT
Figure 4.6.12 Computer assisted static casting machine: a General view b Detail of the crucible chamber c Detail of the control panel d Display with operation parameters
In many machines, pouring takes place through the crucible bottom; this minimises heat loss during pouring, allowing a lower degree of superheat and also reduces the risk of oxide entrapment in the casting, since any oxide on the surface of the melt will tend to fill the sprue button. Many casting machines can be equipped with a grain-making accessory, for making casting grain. Heating and temperature measurement Many static machines are induction heated, although more basic small machines can be electrical resistance heated. In general, the better quality machines have medium low frequency induction. Heating depth and hence melting speed as well as electromagnetic stirring forces increase with decreasing frequency. Temperature measurement can be by optical pyrometer or, better and preferable, by a sheathed thermocouple dipped into the melt, often via the central stopper in bottom pouring crucibles.
e a b c
Figure 4.6.13 Computer controlled static casting machine: a General view b Only the essential process parameters are displayed, because the machine is computer operated c Flask temperature measuring attachment equipped with optical pyrometer d Operation scheme of the machine e Graining attachment for making alloy grains f Connection with the computer for recording process parameters g Process evolution can be observed on the computer screen
84
EQUIPMENT
Trends in process control For all the leading machine manufacturers, the trend is towards an even more complete automation of the machines. In some cases, artificial intelligence software is being utilised. These control systems remove the risk of operator error. He only feeds the metal charge into the crucible and sets the casting temperature. Then the control system takes all other technical decisions on the subsequent steps of the melting and casting process. There are two trends in the technical development of static machines: programmable machines or self-programming machines. We could say computer assisted machines, Figure 4.6.12, or computer controlled machines, Figure 4.6.13. In the first group, the operating cycle is planned by the operator, who inputs a set of instructions. Generally, with these machines, data collection must be done by the operator, who should write down all data recorded by the machine. In contrast, computer controlled machines are self-programming. They can automatically evaluate the weight of the charged metal and correct the thermocouple temperature readings in real time. This correction is needed, because thermocouples are always enclosed in a refractory sheath and temperature readings always lag slightly behind in comparison with the true metal temperature (they are lower in the heating phase and higher in the cooling phase). Data collection is carried out automatically: the data are recorded in the computer and can be retrieved for subsequent processing. The most recent developments involve the use of pressure assistance in casting, as shown in, Figures 4.6.14, 4.6.15, 4.6.16 and 4.6.17.
Figure 4.6.14 Operation of a pressure casting machine: 1 Preparation for melting 2 Crucible and flask chambers are exhausted (vacuumed) 3 Inert gas is introduced in the crucible chamber and slowly, also in the flask chamber; induction heating of the crucible is started
4 The crucible chamber is filled with inert atmosphere with controlled pressure 5 (Optional) the flask chamber can be put under dynamic vacuum 6 Pouring is started: the crucible chamber is pressurized, while the flask chamber is vacuumed
Figure 4.6.15 a Detail of the crucible of the machine of Figure 4.6.14. The thermocouple is off-centre to facilitate crucible filling b Detail of the control panel
7 Pouring ends. The flask chamber is pressurized, to facilitate mould filling and prevent shrinkage porosity 8 The cast tree is solidified. The pressure in the flask chamber is lowered 9 The crucible chamber is filled with inert gas, to protect the heating assembly. In the meanwhile the flask chamber is opened, to recover the cast flask
85
EQUIPMENT
Cost The price range is even wider than for centrifugal casting machines. Electric resistance heated, non programmable machines may cost a few thousand Euros/US$, and resistance heated, programmable machines can cost up 7,000-8,000 Euros/US$. But induction heated machines with a good level of programming capability can cost up to 20,000 Euros/US$ and more sophisticated, fully automatic machines that can be interfaced with a computer for data collecting and processing may cost even more than 60,000-70,000 Euros/US$. A typical range of machines produced by one manufacturer is shown in Table 21.
Table 21 Range of static casting machines from a US manufacturer Model Heating Max. Crucible Temperature capacity*, Grammes 1204C 1513C 1513C 1513C 1513C 900 1440 1440 1960 1960 Flask size, Typical maximum, mm cycle time (dia. x height) Mins 102 x 229 127 x 229 152 x 254 152 x 254 152 x 254 6-8 4 4 <3 <3 Casting rate, flasks/hour 8-10 12-15 12-15 20-25 20-25 Yes Yes Yes Yes Optional features
J-2 J-z J-5 Figure 4.6.16 A machine for static casting under pressure (made in U.S.A.) J-10 J-15
Resistance Induction Induction, 5kW Induction, 10kW Induction, 15kW
* 14 carat gold
Figure 4.6.17 Another machine for static casting under pressure (made in Germany)
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EQUIPMENT
87
EQUIPMENT
88
SOURCES OF EQUIPMENT AND CONSUMABLES
5 SOURCES OF EQUIPMENT AND CONSUMABLES

It is impossible to give a comprehensive list of manufacturers and suppliers. Good advice is to visit an International (or your local) Jewellery Trade Fair and visit the material and equipment stands to see who supplies in your region. Note: The following lists of suppliers do not imply endorsement of the company, their products or technical service by the authors or by World Gold Council. In the list there are companies normally present at two or more international fairs. The companies are listed in alphabetic order and are subdivided according to the process steps, starting from general suppliers. The latter are mainly commercial companies that sell a wide range of machines, consumables and tools, necessary for the investment casting process.
5.1
GENERAL SUPPLIERS
4 KerrLab (sds Kerr) 1717 West Collins Avenue Orange, CA 92867 USA Tel: +1 714 516 7650 Fax: +1 714 516 7649 E-mail: kerrteam@kerrlab.com Web: www.kerrlab.com 5 Lasso Co. Letnikovskaya 6A Moscow 113114 Russia Tel: +7 095 7257741 Fax: +7 095 9563473 E-mail: sales@lasso.ru Web: www.lasso.ru 6 Luigi Dal Trozzo Via Accademia 48 20131 Milano Italy Tel: +39 02 288587.1 Fax: +39 02 2870812 E-mail: info@luigidaltrozzo.it
1 FOV Srl Via del Progresso 45 Z.I. I-36100 Vicenza Italy Tel: +39 0444 566211 Fax: +39 0444 566830 E-mail: info@fovsrl.it Web: www.fovsrl.com 2 Gesswein & Co Inc 255 Hancock Ave. Bridgeport, CT 06605 Tel: +1 203 366 5400 Fax: +1 203 331 8870 E-mail: info@gesswein.com Web: www.gesswein.com 3 Gold International Machinery Corp PO Box 998 Pawtucket, RI 02860 USA Tel: +1 401 724 3200 Fax: +1 401 728 5770 E-mail: mail@goldmachinery.com Web: www.goldmachinery.com
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7 Mario Di Maio Spa Via Paolo Da Cannobio 10 I-20122 Milano Italy Tel: +39 02 809926 Fax: +39 02 860232 E-mail: info@mariodimaio.it Web: www.mariodimaio.it 8 Quimijoy S.A. C/Gaia 49 Poligon Industriel Pla DEn Coll E- 08110 Montcada I Reixac-Barcelona Spain Tel: +34 93 565 0990 Fax: +34 93 575 1556 9 Rio Grande 7500 Bluewater Road NW Albuquerque, NM 87121-1962 USA Tel: +1 505 839 3011 Fax: +1 505 839 3016 E-mail: info@riogrande.com Web: www.riogrande.com also: www.cataloginmotion.com 10 Romanoff International Supply Corporation 9 Desforest Street Amityville, NY 11701 USA Tel: +1 631 842 2400 Fax: +1 631 842 0028 E-mail: romanoff1@aol.com Web: www.romanoff.com
5.2
MACHINE SUPPLIERS
Vulcanisers See General Suppliers and other companies listed Wax Injectors 11 DIK-Vacutech Adolf-Sautter-Strasse 78 D-75181 Pforzheim-Wrm Germany Tel: +49 7231 979860 Fax: +49 7231 979862 E-mail: DIK-Vacutech@t-online.de
12 HISPANA de Maquinaria, S.A. Calle Pallars, 85-91 E-08018 Barcelona Spain Tel: +34 93 3091707 Fax: +34 93 3090702 E-mail: hispana@hispanaspain.com Web: www.hispanaspain.com 13 Maxmatic 53 Avenue de la Republique F-33450 Saint Loubes France Tel: +33 5620 4344 Fax: +33 5668 6003 E-mail: maxmaticfrance@hotmail.com 14 MPI Inc 165 Smith Street Ploughkeepsie, NY 12601 USA Tel: +1 845 471 7630 Fax: +1 845 471 2485 E-mail: sales@mpisystems.com Web: www.mpi-systems.com 15 M.Yasui & Co Ltd. Yasui Building, 3-7-4 Ikejiri, Setagaya-ku Tokyo 154-0001 Japan Tel: +81 3 5430 7211 Fax: +81 3 5430 5813 E-mail: cast@yasui.co.jp Web: www.yasui.co.jp
90
16 SH. Benbassat Int. 5 Simtat Hashach St. 66079 Tel-Aviv Israel Tel: +972 3 6830216 Fax: +972 3 6822862 E-mail: sh_benba@netvision.net.il Web: www.benbassat.com 17 Tanabe Kenden Co Ltd 1-9-14 Fukasawa, Setagaya-Ku, Tokyo 158-0081 Japan Tel: +81 3 3704 3044 Fax: +81 3 3702 3044 E-mail: honsin@tanabekenden.co.jp Web: www.tanabekenden.co.jp 18 H. Seltsam u. Sohn GmbH Bleichstrasse 56-58 D-75173 Pforzheim Germany Tel: +49 7231 259 22/23 Fax: +49 7231 265 32 E-mail: seltsam@s-direktnet.de 19 Yoshida Cast 3-17-24 Bessho, Urawa Saltama 336-0021 Japan Tel: +81 48 862 5621 Fax: +81 48 862 5627
22 H. Seltsam u. Sohn GmbH See opposite 23 Italimpianti Orafi Spa Via Provinciale di Civitella 8 I-2041 Badia Al Pino (Arezzo) Italy Tel: +39 0575 4491 Fax: +39 0575 449300 E-mail: info@italimpianti.it Web: www.italimpianti.it 24 KWS Kachele GmbH Parkstrasse 18 D-75175 Pforzheim Germany Tel: +49 7231 33408 Fax: +49 7231 106548 E-mail: info@kws-kachele.de
Steam Dewaxers See General Suppliers and other companies Burnout Ovens 25 Allmet Maschinen GmbH Zeppelinstrasse 6 D-75446 Wiernsheim Germany Tel: +49 7044 96190 Fax: +49 7044 961919
26 HISPANA de Maquinaria See page 90 27 Maule srl Via N. Copernico 13/15 I-6057 Arcugnano (Vicenza) Italy Tel: +39 0444 289202 Fax: +39 0444 289209 E-mail: maulesrl@goldnet.it or info@maulesrl.it Web: www.maulesrl.it
Vacuum Investment Mixers 20 HISPANA de Maquinaria See page 90

21 Hoben International Ltd Spencroft Road Newcastle-under-Lyme Staffordshire ST5 9JE England Tel: +44 1782 622285 Fax: +44 1782 636982 E-mail: invest@hoben.co.uk Web: www.hoben.co.uk
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28 Promec (Burnout Ovens, tailor-made) Via Stelvio 2 I-27010 Siziano (Pavia) Italy Tel: +39 0382 617945 Fax: +39 0382 679504 29 Ruf Maschinenbau Brauereistrasse 1a D-75181 Pforzheim Germany Tel: +49 7231 562287 Fax: +49 7231 562628 E-mail: ruf-industrieofen@t-online.de Web: www.ruf-industrieofen.de 30 Schultheiss GmbH Pforzheimer Strasse 82 D-71292 Friolzheim Germany Tel: +49 7044 94540 Fax: +49 7044 945440 E-mail: Info@Schultheiss-GmbH.de Web: www.Schultheiss-GmbH.de 31 Neutec USA 7500 Bluewater Road NW Albuquerque, New Mexico 87121-1962 USA Tel: +1 505 839 3550 Fax: +1 505 839 3525 E-mail: neutecusa@tbg.riogrande.com Web: www.neutec.com
33 M. Yasui & Co Ltd. See page 90 34 Flli Manfredi Spa Via Valpellice 72 I-10060 San Secondo Di Pinerolo Italy Tel: +39 0121 501561 Fax: +39 0121 500456 E-mail: manfredi@piw.it Web: www.manfredi-saed.it 35 Indutherm GmbH Bahnhofstrasse 16 D-75045 Walzbachtal Jhlingen Germany Tel: +49 7203 9218-0 Fax: +49 7203 9218-70 E-mail: info@indutherm.de Web: www.indutherm.de 36 Inresa GmbH Am Hasenbiel 7 D-76297 Stutensee (near Karlsruhe) Germany Tel: +49 7244 94411 Fax: +49 7244 96181 37 L. Buysschaert & Co bvba [Buko machines] Engelse Wandeling 5 B-8500 Kortrijk Belgium Tel: +32 5622 0549 Fax: +32 5622 9021 38 Linn High Therm GmbH Heinrich-Hertz-platz 1 D-92275 Escheenfelden Germany Tel: +49 9665 91400 Fax: +49 9665 1720 E-mail: info@linn.de Web: www.linn.de
Investment Casting Machines 32 Aseg Galloni spa Via Caravaggio 16 I-20078 San Colombano (Milano) Italy Tel: +39 0371 200233 Fax: +39 0371 898705 E-mail: info@galloni-aseg.com Web: www.galloni-aseg.com
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39 McFerrin Engineering & Manufacturing Co. / Memco International Fsc Inc 4849 Olsen Drive Dallas Texas 75227 USA Tel: +1 214 388 5656 Fax: +1 214 388 8479 40 Neutec USA See page 92 41 Opticom Via Spin 96 I-36060 Romano dEzzelino (VI) Italy Tel: +39 0424 513210 Fax: +39 0424 513211 E-mail: opticom@tin.it Web: www.opticom-sas.com 42 Oy Diacast Finland Ltd c/o Sirokoru Ltd Karhunkatu 2 FIN-20760 Pilspanristi Finland Tel: +358 2 242 4600 Fax: +358 2 242 4050 43 Seit Elettronica Zona Industriale Localita Zecchei I-31409 Valdobbiadene (TV) Italy Tel: +39 0423 975767 Fax: +39 0423975785 E-mail: info@seitel.it Web: www.seitel.it
44 Vetter Technik GmbH Benzstrasse 1 D-75203 Knigsbach-Stein Germany Tel: +49 7232 2548 Fax: +49 7232 2272 E-mail: info@vetter-technik.de Web: www.vetter-technik.de
5.3
CONSUMABLES
See also General Suppliers Mould Rubber 45 Castaldo 120 Constitution Blvd. Franklin, MA 02038-2697 USA Tel: +1 508 5201666 Fax: +1 508 5202402 E-mail: info@castaldo.com Web: www.castaldo.com
46 KerrLab See page 89
Wax 47 Castaldo See above

48 Ferris Division, Kindt-Collins Co 12651 Elmwood Avenue Cleveland, Ohio USA Tel: +1 216 2524122 Fax: +1 216 2525639 E-mail: info@kindt-collins.com Web: www.kindt-collins.com 49 KerrLab See page 89
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Investment Powder 50 Hoben International Ltd See page 91

51 KerrLab See page 89 52 Ransom & Randolph 3535 Brianfield Boulevard Maumee, OH 43537 USA Tel: +1 419 8659497 Fax: +1 419 8659997 E-mail: info@ransom-randolph.com Web: www.ransom-randolph.com 53 WestCast 121 Dale Street SE Albuquerque, NM87105 USA Tel: +1 505 839 3581 Fax: +1 505 839 3525 Web: www.WestCast.com 54 S.R.S. Ltd Amber Business Centre Riddings Derbyshire DE55 4BR England Tel: +44 1773 608969 Fax: +44 1773 540195 E-mail: sales@srs-ltd.co.uk Web: www.srs-ltd.co.uk 55 UCPI 3, Avenue dAmiens F-93380 Pierrefitte France Tel: +33 1 49711444 Fax: +33 1 48230608 E-mail: ucpi@worldnet.fr Web: www.ucpi.fr
Alloys & Master Alloys 56 Allgemeine Kanzlerstrasse 17 D-75175 Pforzheim Germany Tel: +49 7231 9600 Fax: +49 7231 68740 E-mail: info@allgemeine-gold.de Web: www.allgemeine-gold.de
57 Alpha Guss Metal & Legierungen GmbH Bleichstrasse 92 D-75173 Pforzheim Germany Tel: +49 7231 927166 Fax: +49 7231 927168 E-mail: info@agsmagic.de 58 Argen (Pty) Ltd PO Box 509 Edenvale 1610 South Africa Tel: +27 11 609 8640 Fax: +27 11 452 3918 59 Argex Ltd Silver House 130 Hockley Hill Birmingham B18 5AX U.K. Tel: +44 121 523 4344 Fax: +44 121 523 4354 60 Argor-Heraeus SA Via Moree 14 CH-6850 Mendrisio Switzerland Tel: +41 91 646 0191 Fax: +41 91 646 8082 61 C. Hafner GmbH & Co Bleichstrasse 13-17 D-75173 Pforzheim Tel: +49 7231 9200 Fax: +49 7231 920207 E-mail: c.hafner@s-direkt.net.de Web: www.c-hafner.de
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62 Cookson Precious Metals Ltd 59-83 Vittoria Street Birmingham B1 3NZ U.K. Tel: +44 121 200 2120 Fax: +44 121 200 3222 Web: www.cooksongold.com 63 O.M. Group (formerly Degussa AG/DMC2) See Allgemeine Precious Metals Division Rodenbacher Chaussee 4 PO Box 1345 D- 63403 Hanau Wolfgang Germany Tel: +49 6181 590 Fax: +49 6181 593030 64 Engelhard-CLAL Platexis SA 49 Rue de Paris F-93136 Noisy-Le-Lac France Tel: +33 1 48505050 Fax: +33 1 48505151 65 Engelhard Corp. 700 Blair Road Carteret, NJ 07008 USA Tel: +1 732 205 7900 Fax: +1 732 205 7453 Web: www.engelhard.com 66 Heraeus Edelmetall Halbzeug GmbH Lameystrasse 17 D-75173 Pforzheim Germany Tel: +49 7231 200961 Fax: +49 7231 200957 Web: www.heraeus.com
67 Hilary Stern (Pty) Ltd PO Box 2149 Bramley 2018 South Africa Tel: +27 12 316 3562 Fax: + 27 12 316 3574 68 Imperial Smelting & Refining Co of Canada Ltd 451 Denison Street Markham Ontario L3R 1B7 Canada Tel: + 1 905 475 9566 Fax: +1 905 475 0703 Web: www.imperialproducts.com 69 John C. Nordt Co Inc 1420 Coulter Drive NW Roanoke, VA 24012 USA Tel: +1 540 362 9717 Fax: +1 540 362 2160 Web: www.jcnordt.com 70 Leach & Garner 57 John L. Dietsch Square N. Attelboro, MA 02761 USA Tel: +1 508 695 7800 Fax: +1 508 699 4031 Web: www.leach-garner.com 71 Leg.Or Srl Via San Benedetto 14/34 Z.I. I-36050 Bressanvido (Vicenza) Tel: +39 0444 467911 Fax: +39 0444 660677 E-mail: info@legor.com Web: www.legor.com
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72 Melt Italiana Sas Via Martiri della Resistenza 3 I-20090 Fizzonasco di Pieve Emanuele (MI) Italy Tel: +39 02 90781900 Fax: +39 02 90722892 E-mail: info@melt.it Web: www.melt.it 73 Metaux Precieux SA Metalor Avenue Du Vignoble CH-2009 Neuchatel Switzerland Tel : +41 32 720611 Fax : +41 32 7206609 E-mail: info@metalor.ch Web: www.metalor.ch 74 Pandora Snc Via Massarenti 15 I-20148 Milano Italy Tel: +39 02 4075886 Fax +39 02 48706026 E-mail: info@pandoralloys.com Web: www.pandoralloys.com 75 Precious Metals West/ Fine Gold Inc 608 Hill Street, #407 Los Angeles, CA 90014 USA Tel: +1 213 689 4872 Fax: +1 213 689 1654 E-mail: daniel@westworld.com Web: www.pmwest.us 76 Pro-Gold Srl Via Molinetto 40 I-36075 Montecchio Maggiore (Vicenza) Italy Tel: +39 0444 492493 Fax: +39 0444 498336 E-mail: progold@tin.it Web: www.progold.com
77 Stern-Leach 49 Pearl Street Attelboro, MA 02703 USA Tel: +1 508 222 7400 Fax: +1 508 699 4030 Web: www.stern-leach.com 78 Stuller Inc. PO Box 8777 302 Rue Louis XIV Lafayette, LA 70598-7777 USA Tel: +1 800 877 7777 or 337 262 7700 Fax: +1 800-444-4741 E-mail: info@stuller.com Web: www.stuller.com 79 United Precious Metal Refining Inc 23120 West Lyons Avenue, #5-491 Newhall, CA91321 USA Tel: +1 805 254 0523 Fax: +1 805 254 0525 E-mail: sales@unitedpmr.com Web: www.unitedpmr.com 80 Valcambi SA Via Passeggiata CH-6828 Balerna Switzerland Tel: +41 91 695 5311 Fax: +41 91 695 5353 81 Wieland Edelmetalle GmbH Schwenninger Strasse 13 D-75179 Pforzheim Germany Tel: +49 7231 37050 Fax: +49 7231 357959
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FURTHER READING
6 FURTHER READING
Literature references are subdivided by subject and are listed in chronological order. Where possible, the same order of subjects has been followed as in the Handbook. Many references are quoted from the Proceedings of the Santa Fe Symposium on Jewelry Manufacturing Technology, which has been held every year since 1987. For the sake of brevity, in the references only Proc. SFS has been written, followed by the year instead of the full quotation. The Proceedings of SFS for each year can be purchased directly from Rio Grande in Albuquerque, NM, USA, either via the web site: www.riogrande.com or directly (address in list of suppliers). Articles in Gold Bulletin and Gold Technology can be obtained from World Gold Council or via the archives on its website, www.gold.org Many relevant articles can also be found in jewellery magazines, such as AJM magazine published by MJSA (www.ajm-magazine.com)
HISTORY OF THE PROCESS

1. T.G. Jungersen, British Pat. 449,062 & 503,537 & U.S. Pat. 2,354,026 & 2,362,136. 1935 2. L.B.Hunt, The long history of lost wax casting, Gold Bulletin, 13 (2), 1980, 63-79 3. D. Schneller, The cave of treasures Lost wax castings from 3500 B.C., Proc. SFS 1987, p. 1 4. P.E. Gainsbury, Jewellery investment casting, in Investment Casting, Edited by P.R. Beeley & R.F. Smart, published by The Institute of Materials, London, 1995, p. 409
THE INVESTMENT CASTING PROCESS

5. J.P. Nielsen, Advanced technology for the jewelry caster, Proc. SFS 1987, p. 77 6. J.C. McCloskey, The application of commercial investment casting principle to jewelry casting, Proc. SFS 1987, p. 203 7. D. Ott, Metallurgical and chemical considerations in jewelry casting, Proc. SFS 1987, p. 223 8. D. Ott, Methods for investment casting in the jewelry industry Principles, advantages, disadvantages, Proc. SFS 1988, p. 203 9. L. Diamond, Casting as a total system, Proc. SFS 1989, p. 235 10. M.F. Grimwade, Basic metallurgy for goldsmith Melting, alloying and casting, Gold Technology, No 3, 1990, p. 3 11. A.M. Schaler, Recent developments in casting techniques, Gold Technology, No 11, 1993, p. 28 12. C. Walton, Modern commercial workshop practice in gold jewellery investment casting, Gold Technology, No 11, 1993, p. 28 13. A.M. Schaler, Use of computers in gold jewellery casting, Gold Technology, No 14, 1994, p. 18 14. T. Santala, An overview of casting technologies currently used in industry and emerging technologies, Proc. SFS 1995, p. 213 15. S.M. Howard, A. Manou, Computer simulation of investment casting process using Rapidcast software, Proc. SFS 1995, p. 229 16. A.M. Schaler, Cutting casting costs, Proc. SFS 1995, p. 247 17. A.M. Schaler, Take no shortcuts, Proc. SFS 1996, p. 187
FURTHER READING
18. V. Faccenda, Advances in investment casting machines technology, Gold Technology, No 20, 1996, p. 3 19. A.M. Schaler, Design and casting: the tale of a symbiotic relationship, Proc. SFS 1997, p. 357 20. T.L. Donohue, H. Frye, Process control: power, value and advancement for the jewelry industry, Proc. SFS 1998, p. 179 21. K. Wiesner, Bi-metal casting techniques for jewelry applications, Proc. SFS 1998, p. 271 22. J. Maerz, Casting gold to platinum, Proc. SFS 1998, p. 321 23. D. Ott, Physical, metallurgical and chemical processes in jewelry casting, Proc. SFS 1998, p. 457 24. V. Faccenda, Investment casting: centrifugal or static vacuum assisted?, Gold Technology, No 23, 1998, p. 21 25. S. Grice, The effect of quench temperature on silicon-containing low carat investment casting alloys, Proc. SFS 1999, p. 205 26. D. Ott, Properties of melt and thermal processes during solidification in jewelry casting, Proc. SFS 1999, p. 487 27. S. Grice, The effect of Si-content versus quench temperature on low carat casting alloys, Gold Technology, No 28, 2000, p. 18 28. D. Ott, Metallurgical and chemical factors influencing working conditions, Proc. SFS 2000, p. 227 29. C.W. Corti, Investment casting: choice of equipment Paper presented at World Gold Council Technical Seminars, India, 2000 30. C.W. Corti, Back to basics: Investment casting Part 1, Gold Technology, No 28, 2000, p. 27 31. V. Faccenda, Investment casting: an integrated process, Proc. SFS 2001, p. 97 32. S. Bezzone, D. Zito, Is it possible to recast scraps? This is what jewellers ask, Proc. SFS 2002, p. 61 33. J.T. Teague, Finding hidden money in your manufacturing system, Proc. SFS 2002, p. 511
MODEL AND SPRUING

34. L. Diamond, Casting defects from model to finished product, Proc. SFS 1987, p. 149 35. A.M. Schaler, Gating and spruing, Proc. SFS 1991, p. 191 36. H. Solidum, Hollow tree casting technology, Proc. SFS 1996, p. 535 37. K. Wiesner, Metal flow optimising An important step to successful casting, Proc. SFS 1999, p. 1 38. J. Matthews, Making master models from thermoformed plastic, Proc. SFS 2000, p. 169 39. E. Bell, Sprues, feed sprues and gates, Gold Technology, No 36, 2002, p. 2
MOULD AND WAX

40. D. Schneller, Wax degassing, Proc. SFS 1988, p. 293 41. L. Sanchez, Molding methods and shrinkage factors, Proc. SFS 1990, p. 105 42. L. Sanchez, Effects of injection pressures on different mold compounds, Proc. SFS 1991, p. 135 43. A.M. Schaler, Pressed soft metal moulds, Proc. SFS 1998, p. 33
FURTHER READING
INVESTMENT
44. C.H. Schwartz, Chemical and physical properties of investment, Proc. SFS 1987, p. 99 45. D. Ott, Properties and testing of investment, Proc. SFS 1988, p. 47 46. P. Pryor, Silica hazards and safety procedures in the handling of investment, Proc. SFS 1988, p. 131 47. E. Bell, Heating and cooling characteristics of investment molds, Proc. SFS 1988, p. 259 48. L. Diamond, A semiquantitative method for flask temperature determination, Proc. SFS 1988, p. 309 49. P. Pryor, Silica hazards in the handling of investment Part II, Proc. SFS 1989, p. 257 50. D. Schneller, Appendix Santa Fe Silica project, Proc. SFS 1989, p. 279 51. E. Bell, Heating and cooling characteristics of investment molds Research update, Proc. SFS 1989, p. 357 52. D. Ott, Reactions of molten metal with investment, Proc. SFS 1990, p. 165 53. G. Normandeau, The effect of investment and metal casting temperatures on the quality of castings, Proc. SFS 1990, p. 209 54. E. Bell, Wax elimination, burnout and the molds effect on porosity in castings, Gold Technology, No 11, 1993, p. 21 55. G. Normandeau, R. Roeternik, Metal/mold reaction with white golds, Proc. SFS 1997, p. 245 56. C.J. Cart, Evaluating investment powders, Proc. SFS 1997, p. 369 57. C.J. Cart, Advances in investment casting materials, Gold Technology, No 23, 1998, p. 18 58. G.M. Ingo et al., CaSO4 bonded investment for casting of gold based alloys: study of the thermal decomposition, Proc. SFS 1999, p. 163 59. R. Loewen, The effect of additives on the high temperature chemistry of investment materials, Proc. SFS 1999, p. 181 60. J.C. McCloskey, An evaluation of permeability of a jewelry casting investment, Proc. SFS 1999, p. 431 61. P.J. Horton, Investment powders and investment casting, Gold Technology, No 28, 2000, p. 17 62. R. Carter, Effects of water quality and temperature on investment casting powders, Proc. SFS 2000, p. 1; also: Gold Technology, No. 32, 2001, p7 63. H. Frye et al., Basic ceramic considerations for the lost wax processing of high melting alloys, Proc. SFS 2000, p. 101 64. G.M. Ingo et al., Thermochemical and microstrutural study of CaSO4 bonded investment as a function of the burnout process parameters, Proc. SFS 2000, p. 147 65. C.W. Corti, Investment casting: Producing a refractory mould, Paper presented at World Gold Council Technical Seminars, India, 2000 66. V. Faccenda, G.M. Ingo, Advances in investment and burnout furnace design, Gold Technology, No 31, 2001, p. 22 67. R. Carter, Effects of changing the water-to-powder ratio on jewelry investments, Proc SFS 2001, p. 31 68. P.J. Horton, Investment powder technology The present and the future technology, Proc. SFS 2001, p. 213
FURTHER READING
69. G.M. Ingo et al., Thermochemical and microstructural study of modified CaSO4 bonded investment with inorganic and organic additives, Proc. SFS 2001, p. 241 70. I. McKeer, A comparison of burnout cycles using an electric furnace, Proc. SFS 2001, p. 279 71. S. Aithal et al., Evaluation of mold burnout by temperature measurement and weight loss technique, Proc. SFS 2002, p. 1 72. P. Du Bois et al., Temperature measurements in mold cavities during vacuumassisted, static pouring of 14 ct yellow gold, Proc. SFS 2002, p. 131 73. A. Eccles, R. Loewen, Rapid wax elimination and reaction chemistry of sulfatebonded investment, Proc. SFS 2002, p. 157 74. J.C. McCloskey, Temperature measurements in 14 ct yellow gold during counter-gravity pouring of investment casting molds, Proc. SFS 2002, p. 353 75. R. Carter, Getting optimum performance from your investment powder, Gold Technology, No. 34, 2002, p. 22,
CASTING
76. C.J. Raub, Casting: introduction and problem areas, Gold Technology, No 7, 1992, p. 8 77. D. Ott, C.J. Raub, Casting: gas pressure effects, Gold Technology, No 7, 1992, p. 10 78. A. Menon, Casting gemstones in place, Proc. SFS 1996, p. 69 79. H. Schuster, Stone casting process with invisible setting, Proc. SFS 1999, p. 369 80. H. Schuster, Problems, causes and their solutions on stone-in-place casting process: latest developments, Proc. SFS 2000, p. 315
SOLIDIFICATION
81. J.P. Nielsen, Solidification modes of jewelry in temperature-gradient molds, Proc. SFS 1987, p. 337 82. L. Diamond, Temperature gradient casting A practical approach, Proc. SFS 1991, p. 225
DEFECTS AND QUALITY

83. D. Ott, Examples of defects in jewelry making, Proc. SFS 1989, p. 297 84. D. Ott, Defects in jewelry A new version of an old problem, Proc. SFS 1991, p. 171 85. D. Ott et al., Casting: porosity causes and prevention, Gold Technology, No 7, 1992, p. 18 86. D. Ott, C.J. Raub, Casting: surface properties, Gold Technology, No 7, 1992, p. 28 87. D. Ott, Porosity in investment casting, Gold Technology, No 11, 1993, p. 15 88. D. Ott, Analysis of common casting defects, Gold Technology, No 13, 1994, p. 2 89. D. Ott, Shrinkage porosity in investment casting A consideration of the factors affecting its formation, Gold Technology, No 13, 1994, p. 16 90. D. Ott, Control of defects in casting, Gold Technology, No 17, 1995, p. 26 91. D. Ott, Chaos in casting: an approach to shrinkage porosity, Proc. SFS 1996, p. 383
FURTHER READING
92. D. Ott, Handbook on casting and other defects, publ. World Gold Council, London, 1997 93. V. Faccenda, P. Oriani, Quality level improvement in investment casting: are last generation casting machines the only solution?, Proc. SFS 1999, p. 271 94. T.L. Donohue, H.F, Frye, Characterization and correction of casting defects, Proc. SFS 1999, p. 413 95. E. Bell, Know the disease before trying the cure. Quality casting: identify the defects, Gold Technology, No 31, 2001, p. 2 96. D. Ott, Relationship between casting conditions and gas porosity, Proc. SFS 2001, p. 353 97. K. Wiesner, Cracks in cast parts What can we do?, Proc. SFS 2001, p. 439
INVESTMENT CASTING ALLOYS

98. W.S. Rapson, T. Groenewald, Gold usage, publ. Academic Press, London, 1978 99. G.P. OConnor, Improvement of 18-carat white gold alloys, Gold Bulletin, 11 (2), 1978, p. 35 100. G.P. OConnor, Investigation of alloying additions for 18-carat white gold jewellery alloys, Metals Technology, 6, 1979, p. 261 101. L. Gal-Or, M. Riabkina-Fishman, Grain refining in 14 K gold alloys, Proc. SFS 1987, p. 125 102. R.V. Carrano, J. De Rohner, The effect of common additives on the cast properties of 14 K alloys, Proc. SFS 1988, p. 11 103. D. Ott, C.J. Raub, Gold casting alloys 14 and 18 K, Gold Technology, No 7, 1992, p. 2 104. G. Normandeau et al., White golds: a review of commercial alloys characteristics and alloy design alternatives, Gold Bulletin, 25 (3), 1992, p. 94 105. Degussa AG Edelmetall taschenbuch publ. Heuthig-Verlag Heidelberg, 1995 106. G. Normandeau, R. Roeterink, The optimisation of silicon alloying additions in carat gold casting alloys, Gold Technology, No 15, 1995, p. 4 107. G. Normandeau, The effect of various additives on the performance of an 18 karat yellow gold investment casting alloy, Proc. SFS 1996, p. 83 108. D. Ott, Effect of small additions and impurities on properties of carat golds, Gold Technology, No 22, 1997, p. 31 109. J.C. McCloskey et al., The effect of silicon deoxidation and grain refinement on the production performance of a 14 karat yellow gold casting alloy, Gold Technology, No 30, 2000, p. 4 110. J.C. McCloskey et al., Silicon microsegregation in 14 K yellow gold jewelry alloys, Gold Bulletin, 34 (1), 2001, p. 3 111. J. Fischer-Buehner, D. Ott, Development of new nickel-free chromium-based white gold alloys Results of a research project, Proc. SFS 2001, p. 131 112. M. Poliero, White gold alloys for investment casting, Gold Technology, No 31, 2001, p. 10 113. D. Zito, Coloured carat golds for investment casting, Gold Technology, No 31, 2001, p. 35 114. A. Basso, M. Poliero, 14-18 Kt yellow gold alloys for investment casting: a new approach, Proc. SFS 2002, p. 39
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Authors thank many companies who have supplied information on different aspects of the investment casting process. In particular, we thank Pomellato S.p.a., Italy for the permission to publish photographs of its products, Aseg Galloni S.p.A., Italy, Neutec USA, Rio Grande, Castaldo and Ransom & Randolph in the USA, Hoben and SRS in the UK and Schultheiss GmbH and Indutherm GmbH of Germany, who have made available their technical material and knowledge for the preparation of this Handbook. The Authors also thank the editor, Dr Christopher W. Corti and World Gold Council for their support and advice and Professor Giovanni Baralis, Torino, for the translation of the manuscript into English and for his precious comments.
102
WORLD GOLD COUNCIL TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS

Prices are current for 2003 1. Technical Manual for Gold Jewellery A practical guide to gold jewellery manufacturing technology. Published 1997. Reprinted 2001. Cost 45 sterling (US$70; Euro 74), including postage. 2. Investment Casting A technical advisory manual for goldsmiths. Published 1995. Cost 10 sterling (US$16; Euro 16) including postage 3. The Assaying and Refining of Gold a guide for the gold jewellery producer. Published 1997. 2nd Edition published 2001 Cost 5 (US$8; Euro 8) including postage 4. Handbook on Casting and Other Defects in Gold Jewellery Manufacture. Published March 1998. Reprinted 2001. Italian edition published 2002. Cost 14 sterling (US$23; Euro 23), including postage. 5. Finishing Handbook. Published March 1999. (English & Italian editions available) Cost 16 sterling (US$26; Euro 26), including postage. 6. Handbook on Soldering and Other Joining Techniques. Published 2002 (English and Italian). Cost: 16 sterling (US$26; Euro 26), including postage. 7. Handbook on Investment Casting. Published May 2003 (English & Italian). Cost: 16 sterling (US$26; Euro 26), including postage.
Note: Some publications may be available in other languages contact your local WGC office.
TECHNICAL JOURNALS
Gold Bulletin published quarterly, a journal on the science, technology and applications of gold. Recent issues available on the World Gold Council web site: www.gold.org Gold Technology a journal on gold jewellery materials and production technology and best practice (in English and Italian); ceased publication end 2002. Some Arabic and Turkish editions available from local WGC offices). Available also on the WGC web page: www.gold.org. Copies of back issues available (English, also some Italian & German). Complete set of 36 back issues: Cost 30 ($50, 50) for postage and packing. All publications are available from: International Technology (Publications) World Gold Council, 45 Pall Mall, London SW1Y 5JG, England Tel. + 44 20 7930 5171 Fax. + 44 20 7839 6561 E-mail: industry@gold.org Or contact your local World Gold Council office.
Payment in sterling, US $ or Euros by cheque or money order (no credit cards) or into the World Gold Council bank account: Barclays Bank plc., PO Box 15165, 50 Pall Mall, London SW1A 1QF, England Bank Sort Code: 20 67 59 Account No: 70964271 All charges to your account. Please send confirmation of payment with order.
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WORLD GOLD COUNCIL

HANDBOOK ON INVESTMENT CASTING

WORLD GOLD COUNCIL

HANDBOOK ON INVESTMENT CASTING

3 Alloys for Investment Casting

2 The process of investment casting

5 Sources of equipment and

6 Further reading 7 Acknowledgements 8 World Gold Council technical

Handbook on Investment Casting

Handbook on Investment Casting

Handbook on Investment Casting

Handbook on Investment Casting

Handbook on Investment Casting

Figure 1.1.1 Greek ring, fourth century B.C. (Schmuckmuseum, Pforzheim)

DEVELOPMENT OF THE MODERN PROCESS

Figure 1.1.2 Byzantine earring, sixth century A.D. (Schmuckmuseum, Pforzheim)

THE MODERN PROCESS AND PRODUCT QUALITY

CHOICE OF EQUIPMENT AND CONSUMABLES

HEALTH AND SAFETY

Handbook on Investment Casting

Handbook on Investment Casting

Handbook on Investment Casting

THE PROCESS OF INVESTMENT C ASTING

2. THE PROCESS OF INVESTMENT CASTING

THE PROCESS OF INVESTMENT C ASTING

THE PROCESS OF INVESTMENT C ASTING

MAKING THE MASTER MODEL

2.2.1 Alloy of manufacture

2.2.2 Feed sprue

THE PROCESS OF INVESTMENT C ASTING

Handbook on Investment Casting

THE PROCESS OF INVESTMENT C ASTING

MAKING THE RUBBER MOULD

Handbook on Investment Casting

THE PROCESS OF INVESTMENT C ASTING

2.3.1 Types of mould rubber

Silicone rubber (requires vulcanisation)

Room temperature silicone rubber (two components)

Liquid silicone rubber (two components)

Transparent, vulcanisable silicone rubber

Shrinkage not negligible Costly

Vulcanising temperature (143C +1C) must be strictly complied with

Handbook on Investment Casting

THE PROCESS OF INVESTMENT C ASTING

2.3.2. Making the mould

b The mould is completed with other rubber layers

Handbook on Investment Casting

THE PROCESS OF INVESTMENT C ASTING

2.3.3 Cutting the mould

Figure 2.3.4 Convex ring, with a pronounced internal undercut

Handbook on Investment Casting

THE PROCESS OF INVESTMENT C ASTING

THE PROCESS OF INVESTMENT C ASTING

Figure 2.3.8 a Preparation of a self-parting mould, first half.

2.3.4 Storing and using the mould

Figure 2.3.9 Preparation of a self-parting mould. a The model

Figure 2.3.9 b Positioning of the model in the mould

Figure 2.3.9 c Covering the model

Handbook on Investment Casting

THE PROCESS OF INVESTMENT C ASTING

The mould is hard and distorted

2.3.5 Common problems