Assessment of Geo-Environmental Hazards and Natural Resources of Sylhet Region, Bangladesh

Assessment of Geo-environmental Hazards and Natural resources of Sylhet Region, Bangladesh
Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University Savar, Dhaka-1342
Assessment of Geo-environmental Hazards and Natural resources of Sylhet Region, Bangladesh
Submitted By Bodrud-doza Exam Roll: 101401 Reg. No: 28863 Session 2009-10 Submitted To Dr. Mohammad Amir Hossain Bhuiyan Assistant professor Date February 16, 2012
Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University Savar, Dhaka 1342
Preface
Study Tour is an important part for the students of Environmental sciences. With the knowledge of theoretical classes, practical knowledge is also important to get introduced with many unknown subjects. It can be done in laboratory or field. Book is not only the store of knowledge this theme was in front of us. The necessity and importance of study tour is realized from the tendency to observing the practical implementation of education while receiving it theoretically, and from here study tour is initiated. Here our subject is to observe field and survey related subjects. For this we must need study tour. In the department of Environmental sciences, we visualized everything. We analyze everything based on its location and resource. So in the view of this point, the students of Environmental sciences went in different places to learn about that place and the people of that community. We the students of 12th batch of the Department of Environmental Sciences went out for the2nd year study tour. We had a very nice study tour to the greater Sylhet region. In this tour we visited the Sunamganj and Sylhet district. We studied Ponatirtho river, Barikkar tila, Takerghat Limestone Mining Project, Lakma chora, Flash Flood area, Tanguar Haor in Sunamganj district and in Sylhet district we studied Amolsidh, Zakiganj Upazila where Barak-Surma and Kushiyara river met, Madhabkunda waterfall, Haripur Utlarpar gas blowout area Jafflong-tamabil areas. We started for Sunamganj on 24th January and after completing our tour we back to Jahangirnagar campus in 30th January 2012. Our respected teachers helped us by their direction and experience throughout the study tour and also given us many surprise fairly in many aspect. And at last we completed our great and enjoyable study tour. We are grateful to them very much.
Acknowledgement
Practical implementation of analyzed knowledge is very important for developing the problem solving ability of a student. Environmental science, like all other brunches of science requires a proper practical knowledge and ability to implement knowledge in environment to minimize possible adverse environmental degradation and maximizing possible beneficial events. If an environmental scientist doesnt have a good knowledge about problems and possibilities in implementing environmental knowledge, he/she will have to suffer a lot. By realizing this fact, the department of Environmental Sciences of Jahangirnagar University runs a course on field work as an academic study course each year. This year, with the cordial Cooperation of our three honorable teachers, we have completed our field work in Sylhet region. First and foremost I offer my deepest gratitude and Im cordially grateful to my almighty Allah and may His peace and blessings be upon all his prophets for granting me the chance and the ability to successfully complete this field tour in Sylhet region. I would like to express my best regards to my honorable teacher Dr. Mohammad Amir Hossain Bhuiyan, Assistant professor, Department of Environmental Sciences, Jahangirnagar University for his scholarly guidance, sincere inspiration and generous support. I want to give special and heartiest thanks and also acknowledge the excellent support from my honorable sir S. M. Nazrul Islam, Lecturer, Department of Environmental Sciences, Jahangirnagar, University. I would like to express my best regards to my learned guides and respected madam Ms. Fahmida Parvin, Lecturer, Department of Environmental Sciences, Jahangirnagar, University. I am very much grateful to them all for their precious information and important guidelines and their spontaneous inspiration and friendly discussion about various difficult topics. And, thanks to Mr.Ataur Rahman(office assistance) of the Department of Environmental Sciences. I want to express my special thanks to Mahmudul Hasan and Md. Shawon Zoarddar for there extra ordinary and outstanding performance in accommodation and transportation system as well as for well ending of such kind of adventurous field tour. I also want to give thanks to Imran who gave us shelter and important information, Kashem (Boatman of Tanguar Haor) who gave us proper and fruitful information about Tanguar Haor. Finally heartiest thanks are extended to my friends who joined with me and helped anyhow to complete the task successfully.
Content
Topic Page n0.
1. Introduction
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Background of the study Location of the study area Routes of Our Study Area Aims and Objectives Methodology Preparation 01 02 03 04 05 06-07
2. Geology and Geography of the study area 2.1 Geomorphology 08 2.2 Structural geology and Tectonics 08 2.3 Landforms 09 2.4 Sylhet Trough 11 2.5 Rivers and drainage system 12 2.6 Geography and climate 13 2.7 Demography 14 3. Biodiversity 3.1 Flora of the study area 16 3.2 Fauna of the study area 18 4. Natural Resources 4.1 Natural Gas 21 4.2 Crude oil 24 4.3 Limestone 25 4.4 Peat 26 4.5 Silica/Glass Sand 26 4.6 Hard Rock: 26 4.7 Water resource: 27 5. Natural Hazards and Manmade Hazards 5.1 Natural hazards 30 5.2 Vulnerabilities of Tanguar Haor area 33 5.3 Manmade hazards 38 43-53 6. Impact Study of Tipaimukh Dam Project of India on Bangladesh 7. Environmental condition of the eastern folded belt of Bengal Basin 7.1 Environmental condition 54 7.2 Environmental problems 59 7.3 Law and Restriction 61 63 8. Conclusion and Recommendation 64-65 9. Appendix 66 10. References
Chapter One
Introduction
Introduction
1.1 Background of the study

Due to the Environmental significance of Sylhet and Sunamganj District we have visited this area for our field tour this year. Sunamganj (Town) stands on the bank of the river Surma. Takerghat(one of the most important place) Hillocks small low hills. The Takerghat Hillocks are situated in the Sunamganj district and have a maximum elevation of about 22m above mean sea level. They consist of Palaeogene sediments belonging to the Tura and Sylhet Limestone formations. Although the sandstone of the Tura forms four small hills in the Takerghat area the top of the formation lies buried under the ALLUVIUM. Alternating white, pink and brown, fine to coarse grained extensively crossbedded SANDSTONEs, light-grey, ash-grey shales, mudstones and streaks of carbonaceous matter make up the Tura Formation in that area. Outcrops of the Sylhet limestone in Bangladesh are confined to the narrow strip of the E-W aligned Dauki Fault zone along the southern spur of the Shillong Massif. The exposed limestone occurrences are located at the bank of the Dauki Nala, in the Takerghat-LalghatBhangerghat area and near Bagali Bazar, all in the Sylhet district. Sylhet Traps the andesitic Sylhet Trap unconformably underlies the Upper Cretaceous which is considered as the probable continuation of the Rajmahal Traps. The geological and mineral map of northeast India published by the Director General of Geological Survey of India in 1973 show 4 areas of Sylhet Traps in the southern part of Khasi Hills, their age being Lower Cretaceous. In southwest of Shillong Plateau, Sylhet Traps (Upper Jurassic/Lower Cretaceous) overlies the granitic/ gneissic Archean basement unconformably which is overlain by the Mesozoic Tertiary sedimentary sequence. It can be best studied in Jadukata River gorge. In the south about 150 m of Sylhet Trap was encountered in a well below 2,390m. It is dark green to greenish-grey, frequently vesicular and amygdoidal. These are microporphoric with phenocrysts of labradorites and olivine. Though this area is full of environmental significance sometimes it contains different problems so, the authority should take necessary steps to remove the problem of this area.
Assessment of Geo-environmental hazards and Natural resources of Sylhet region, Bangladesh
Introduction
1.2 Location of the study area

Sunamgonj Jadukata nodi (Ponatirtho river) Barikkar tila. Takerghat Limestone Mining Project. Lakma chora. Flash Flood area Tanguar Haor.
Sylhet Amolsidh, Zakiganj Upazila where Barak, Surma and Kushiyara river meet Madhabkunda waterfall Haripur Utlarpar gas blowout area Jafflong-tamabil areas
Introduction
1.3 Routes of Our Study Area

Day-4 Jahangirnagar University Kushiyara River, Zakiganj Upazila Amalshid
Kallanpur Bus Counter, Dhaka
Slyhet, Amborkhana (Base Camp)
Madhabkunda waterfall
Sunamganj Bus Counter Day-1 Saheb Barir Ghat
Sunamganj
Base Camp
Day-3 TLMP area and Lakma Chora Tamabil
Day-5
Surma River
Base Camp
Jafflong
Monipuri Ghat
Tanguar Haor
Haripur, Utlarpar
Ponatirtho River or Jadukata River
Patlai River
Sylhet Bus Counter
Day-6 Barikkar Tila Damper Bazar Kallanpur Bus Counter, Dhaka
Takerghat Limestone Mining Project (Base Camp)
Lakma gram
Jahangirnagar University
DAY-2
Introduction
1.4 Aims and Objectives

Geomorphological change detection (river, channel, Shute-cut, bar, channel shifting process) Geological structure observation of the study areas Soil and water condition (constituents of soil, elemental analysis) Ecological observation (deforestation, types of plants and biodiversity) Environmental impact assessment Vegetation of the study areas Water resources management To know and familiar with the Natural resources Food and agriculture resources To familiar with environmental condition of the Sunamganj, Sylhet as well as Tanguar haor. To know and familiar with the flora and fauna of the study areas. Physical, socio economic and cultural aspect, bioderversity of the study areas To know the impact of hazardous processes. Collect the GPS reading of the selected sites. Listing the characteristics of the different landforms. Upstream and Downstream observation at pona tirtho nodi Observation of hilly fountain Takerghat Limestone Mining Project observation and its environmental impact assessment Observation of Flora and Fauna of Tanguar Haor area Lifestyle and Socio-economic condition of the haor people Socio-economic condition of the area where surma and kushiara meet. Study of probable consequences in Bangladesh which may occur after building the dam in tipaimukh
Introduction
1.5 Methodology
Methodology means the way or manner by which the study is accomplished, which refers to the full outcome of the process at a glance. It includes some chronological steps that are necessary to complete the study successfully. Mode of operation differs with the nature of the study. Methodology is always a compromise between options and choices and is frequently determined by the availability of relevant resource and time. It is very important in the sense that it gives one an idea about how the study has been conducted. A proper methodology is always necessary for any report, which helps to organize experiences, observations, examinations, analysis of data and information and their logical expression in a systematic process to achieve the ultimate goals and objectives of the report. Primary data source: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) Observation method Field survey Interviewing survey Photography Arranging class Group discussion Secondary Data Sources: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) Satellite image Internet Published and unpublished document From journals From map From different organization From related books.
Equipment: We have used some instruments in study tour. The list of these instruments given belowIndividual Haversack, Cap, Sunglass, Box, Knife, Camera, Trouser, water bottle etc. Field Instrument pH meter, DO meter, EC meter, Acid, Soil sieve, Tape, Binocular, Hand mike, Sample bag, Sample bottle etc.
Introduction
1.6 Preparation
First of all, our honorable teacher Dr. Mohammad Amir Hossain Bhuiyan and S. M. Nazrul Islam took a class on the topics of preparation of the tour. They advised us how we can complete a successful field work. Dr. Mohammad Amir Hossain Bhuiyan Sir makes some committee. Such as Forward team Medical team Food committee Transport committee Accommodation committee Banner committee Instrument management committee Logistic committee Our honorable teachers divided the duties and advised to do the duty according to committee. Within some days all the committees do their duty sequentially and honorable teachers fixed the date of our field work on 24th January, 2011. Activities of different committees: All the committees had done some duties which explain belowForward team: Forward team started their trip two days before the fixed date of study tour and ensures our accommodation, location of the study area, and transport in the local areas. They informed us about the weather condition and way to the destination. Medical team: Medical team managed medicine from J.U medical centre and the members of this team served that medicine to the sick student . Food committee: The duty of Food committee was to manage good food in each abode for the student. This committee did their duty simultaneously. All the students and the teachers are pleased above food committee.
Introduction Transport committee: Transport committee controlled all the transportation systems with the help of teachers directly. Accommodation committee: The duty of accommodation committee was to manage the best accommodation for the teachers and the students. Instrument management committee: The duty of this committee was to carry the instrument carefully and use them in the field work. Banner committee: Banner committee managed two banners for study tour. One banner of an organization named CHANGE (Committed to Humanitarian Alternative for Nature and Green Environment) and the other one was the Department of Environmental Sciences. That banners we used first to last in the medium of transportation. Logistic committee: A lot of duties had done by logistic committee. They produced map and managed a lot of things for study tour. Guide Line: Teachers gave us guide line for every student. The guide line was fulfilling with the law of study tour. It helps us to complete a successful study tour.
Chapter Two
Geology and Geography of the study area
2.1 Geomorphology
Geomorphology is the scientific study of landforms and the processes that shape them. Geomorphologists seek to understand why landscapes look the way they do, to understand landform history and dynamics, and to predict future changes through a combination of field observations, physical experiments, and numerical modeling. Geomorphology is practiced within geography, geology, geodesy, engineering geology, archaeology, and geotechnical engineering, and this broad base of interest contributes to a wide variety of research styles and interests within the field Bangladesh, our country occupies major part of the bengal delta, one of the largest in the world. The Ganges-Brahmaputra delta basin or the bengal basin includes part of the Indian state of West Bengal in the west and Tripura in the east. Geological evolution of Bangladesh is basically related to the uplift of the Himalayan Mountains and outbuilding of deltaic landmass by major river systems originating in the uplifted Himalayas. This geology is mostly characterized by the rapid subsidence and filling of a basin in which a huge thickness of deltaic sediments were deposited as a mega-delta outbuilt and progressed towards the south. The delta building is still continuing into the present Bay of Bengal and a broad fluvial front of the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna river system gradually follows it from behind. Only the eastern part of Bangladesh has been uplifted into hilly landform incorporating itself into the frontal belt of the Indo-Burman range lying to the east. All the above has been the result of the Indian plate colliding with the Asian plate as explained by the universally accepted theory of plate tectonics. The geology of Bangladesh may be discussed under the following headings: (i) Tectonic framework (ii) Stratigraphy and (iii) Economic geology.
2.2 Structural geology and Tectonics

Geologically, the region is complex having diverse sacrificial geomorphology; high topography of Plio-Miocene age such as Khasi and Jaintia hills and small hillocks along the border. At the centre there is a vast low laying flood plain of recent origin with saucer shaped depressions, locally called Haors. Available limestone deposits in different parts of the region suggest that the whole area was under the ocean in the Oligo-Miocene. In the last 150 years three major earthquakes hit the city, at a magnitude of at least 7.5 on the Richter Scale, the last one took place in 1918, although many people are unaware that Sylhet lies on the earthquake prone zone of Bangladesh.
Geology and Geography of the study area Structural geology is the study of the three-dimensional distribution of rock units with respect to their deformational histories. The primary goal of structural geology is to use measurements of present-day rock geometries to uncover information about the history of deformation (strain) in the rocks, and ultimately, to understand the stress field that resulted in the observed strain and geometries. This understanding of the dynamics of the stress field can be linked to important events in the regional geologic past; a common goal is to understand the structural evolution of a particular area with respect to regionally widespread patterns of rock deformation (e.g., mountain building, rifting) due to plate tectonics. The study of geologic structures has been of prime importance in economic geology, both petroleum geology and mining geology. Folded and faulted rock strata commonly form traps for the accumulation and concentration of fluids such as petroleum and natural gas. Faulted and structurally complex areas are notable as permeable zones for hydrothermal fluids and the resulting concentration areas for base and precious metal ore deposits. Veins of minerals containing various metals commonly occupy faults and fractures in structurally complex areas. These structurally fractured and faulted zones often occur in association with intrusive igneous rocks. They often also occur around geologic reef complexes and collapse features such as ancient sinkholes. Deposits of gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, and other metals, are commonly located in structurally complex areas. Structural geology is a critical part of engineering geology, which is concerned with the physical and mechanical properties of natural rocks. Structural fabrics and defects such as faults, folds, foliations and joints are internal weaknesses of rocks which may affect the stability of human engineered structures such as dams, road cuts, open pit mines and underground mines or road tunnels. Geotechnical risk, including earthquake risk can only be investigated by inspecting a combination of structural geology and geomorphology. In addition areas of karst landscapes which are underlain by underground caverns and potential sinkholes or collapse features are of importance for these scientists. In addition, areas of steep slopes are potential collapse or landslide hazards.
2.3 Landforms
The Sylhet region may be divided four distinct landforms. These are 1. Eroded hills; 2. Alluvial fan; 3. Alluvial plain; 4. Basin plain. 1. Eroded hills: The eroded hills are mainly formed by the hill ranges and hillocks (locally called tila) appearing the north east and south of Greater Sylhet and also round about the Sylhet town. These hill ranges attain a low elevation and have gentle slope. To the north of Sylhet town
Geology and Geography of the study area there are numerous isolated tilas of approximately 70 meters height. The Khasia-Jainta hills, laying outside the international border in India as well as some tilas within the districts of Sunamgonj ad Sylhet lie in an east-west direction. A small part to the tila lands is lying in the north of Tahirpur. To the north-east of Sunamgonj there is an area of scattered hills both west and east are Kashimara river. The Chattak hills to the south-east are continuation of these tilas. Further east, there are two hills, close to Bhologonj. To the east of Piyain river, there is a five mile long hills known after Jaflong. To the south-east there is a continuous hilly area covering Jainatpur and part of Kanairghat. The Jainta series are mainly composed of sandstone and nummulatic limestone and the Surma conglomerates, nummulatic limestone and pebble beds of the Pliocene age (about 10-12 million years B.P) these hills are continuation of the Chittagong hills running in north-south direction. These hills gradually slope down to the Sylhet plain with alternating valleys between them. Form east to west the hill ranges are: 1. The Patharia, 2. Harargaj, 3. Rajkandi-Ita, 4. Bharugaj, 5. Tarap, 6. Raghunandan. The overlying deposits of these hills are Pleistocene clays and sands over a coarse ferruginous sandstone, mottled sandy clays and shales of middle Miocene age. 2. Alluvial Fan: The Alluvial fan, mainly composed of the tipam and Dupi Tila sediments, occupies the narrow strip of discontinuous low foothills starting from Jaflong in the east to the Jamuna in the west. Among these fans, the Jaflong fan attains a maximum height of 61m above sea level with the elevation decreasing westward. Alluvial valleys frequently separate the Alluvial fans. 3. Alluvial Plain: the alluvial plain, primarily formed by the river Surma and the Kushiyara, merges with Meghna to the south. Elevation varies from 3m to 10m above mean sea level. 4. Basin Plain: A large number of swamps have developed within the alluvial palin; some of thses are locally called haor. It is believed that the present saucer shaped depression may be connected with the rise of Madhupur Tract. These saucer shaped, perennial water bodies covering a total area of about 6,000 km are considered the largest single inland depression in the country. Small permanent water bodise within the haors are called beels which occupy the lowest part of the depressions. The minor hilly steans like Manu, Khowai, Jaqdukata, Piyain, Mogra and Mahadao ofrm the dense reainage network of the reaion. The river are primarily responsible ofr devel0oping low floodplains of Sylhet . the floodplains remain deeply flooded ofr about 7-8 months. During the rainy season the haors turn into a vast inland sea, the villages appearing as islands. Occasional high winds during July to September generate large
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Geology and Geography of the study area waves which cause considerable damage to homesteads. There are 35 big haors and 475 small haors in Greater Sylhet. The most prominent haors are: 1. Hakaluki haor, 2. Tenguar haor, 3. Santeer haor, 4.Hail haor, 5. Dekar haor.
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2.4 Sylhet Trough

situated on the southern side of the Shillong Massif and corresponds to the vast low lands of Surma Valley with numerous swamps (haors) where absolute elevation marks even below the sea level. It is a sub-basin of the Bengal Foredeep in the northeastern part of Bangladesh and is characterised by a very pronounced, vast, closed negative gravity anomaly up to 84 mgl (Milligal). Shillong Massif forms the northern boundary of Sylhet Trough while the great Dauki Fault separates the trough from the Massif. The Trough is bounded on the east and southeast by the sub-meridional trending folded belt of Assam and Tripura as the frontal deformation zone of Indo-Burman Ranges. Indian Platform bounds the trough from the west while it is open in the southwest to the main part of Bengal Basin. It is an oval shaped trough about 130 km long and 60 km wide. Sub-meridional trending anticlinal folds of Chittagong-Tripura Folded Belt gradually plunge northward to the Sylhet Trough. In cross-section the Sylhet Trough is sharply asymmetrical with comparatively gentle southern and steep faulted northern slope. Dauki Fault with 5 km wide fault zone forms the contact between Shillong Massif and Sylhet Trough. The evolution of Sylhet Trough includes (i) a passive continental margin (Pre-Oligocene) to (ii) a foreland basin linked to the Indo-Burman Ranges (Oligocene and Miolene) to (iii) a foreland basin linked to south-directed over thrusting of Shillong Plateau (Pliocene-Holocene). The anticlinal folds of Habiganj, Rashidpur, Bibiana, Maulvi Bazar, Katalkandi, Fenchuganj, Harargaj, Patharia, Beani Bazar (Mama Bhagna) and Kailas Tila, which occupy the southern rim of Sylhet Trough have sub-meridional trend in contrast to sub- latitudinal trending Chhatak, Jalalabad, Sylhet, Dupi Tila and Jatinga structures. These two structural trends form a syntaxial pattern at the northeastern tip of Sylhet Trough. The Neogene sediments have excellent development in Sylhet Trough while the Paleogenes are at greater depths. Sylhet Trough is the most prospective petroliferous province of Bangladesh with 10 gas fields (Chhatak, Jalalabad, Sylhet, Kailas Tila, Beani Bazar, Fenchuganj, Rashidpur, Maulvi Bazar, Bibiana and Habiganj) of which Jalalabad, Sylhet, Kailas Tila, Rashidpur and Habiganj are producing now about 1000 million cubic feet per day (MMCFD) for generation of power, manufacture of FERTILISER besides
Geology and Geography of the study area meeting the industrial, commercial and domestic needs to a great extent thus contributing immensely to the economic development of Bangladesh.
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2.5 Rivers and drainage system

Surma-Kushiyara Floodplain comprises the floodplain of the rivers draining from the eastern border towards the Sylhet Basin (Haor Basin). Some small hill and piedmont areas near the Sylhet hills, too small to map separately, are included within its boundaries. Elsewhere, the relief generally is smooth, comprising broad ridges and basins, but it is locally irregular alongside river channels. The soils are mainly heavy silts on the ridges and clays in the basins. This area is subject to flash floods in the pre-monsoon, monsoon and post-monsoon seasons, so the extent and depth of flooding can vary greatly within a few days. Normal flooding is mainly shallow on the ridges and deep in the basins, with flood depths tending to the Haor Basin. The basin centres (haors) stay wet in the dry season Haor bowl-shaped large tectonic depression. It receives surface runoff water by rivers and khals, and consequently, a haor becomes very extensive water body in the monsoon and dries up mostly in the postmonsoon period. In Bangladesh haors are found mainly in greater Sylhet and greater Mymensingh regions. During monsoon a haor is a vast stretch of turbulent water. The word haor is a corrupt form of the Sanskrit word Sagar (SEA). In Sylhet and northeast Mymensingh, The haors are of tectonic origin and possibly connected with the rise of madhupur tract. BEELs do not subside but haor basins do. In its original form, the haor basin comprising the floodplains of the meghna tributaries would have consisted of a rich mosaic of permanent and seasonal lakes and ponds with abundant aquatic vegetation. But through gradual sedimentation, the basin becomes shallower leading to the formation of reeds and sedges. This resulted in providing enough food and shelter for FISH and other aquatic, fauna and attracted the migratory birds which, in their turn, added to the fertility of the waterbodies by their excreta promoting rich growth of phytoplankton and macrophytes thus partly contributing to the process of eutrophication. The haor basin is bounded by the hill ranges of Meghalaya (India) on the north, the hills of Tripura and Mizoram (India) on the south, and the highlands of Manipur (India) on the east. The basin includes about 47 major haors and some 6,300 beels of varying size, out of which about 3,500 are permanent and 2,800 are seasonal. Numerous rivers rising in the hills of India provide an abundant supply of water to the plains and
Geology and Geography of the study area cause extensive flooding during the monsoon upto a depth of 6m. Small permanent water bodies within the haors are called beels, which occupy the lowest part of the depressions. During the dry season, most of the water drains out leaving one or more shallow beels which become mostly overgrown with aquatic vegetation or completely dry out by the end of dry season exposing rich alluvial soils extensively cultivated for rice. The Surma and Kushiyara in association with other minor hilly STREAMs like Manu, Khowai, Jadhukata, Piyain, Mogra and Mahadao form the dense drainage network of the haors. The rivers are primarily responsible for providing inputs - rainwater and sediment load to the plains including haors. The plains remain flooded for about 7 to 8 months. During the rainy season, the haors turn into a vast inland sea within which the villages appear as islands. Occasional high winds during July to September generate large waves in the haor, which may cause considerable damage to homesteads. The entire Sunamganj district, major portion of Habiganj district, some parts of Sylhet Sadar upazila and Maulvi Bazar district are covered by many haors. In greater Sylhet the most prominent haors are Saneer haor, Hail haor, Hakaluki haor, Dekar haor, Maker haor, Chayer haor, Tanguar Haor, and Kawadighi haor.
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2.6 Geography and climate

Sylhet Sylhet is located at 245330N 915300E in the north eastern region of Bangladesh within the Sylhet Division, within the Sylhet District and Sylhet Sadar Upazila. The climate of Sylhet is humid subtropical with a predominantly hot and humid summer and a relatively cool winter. The city is within the monsoon climatic zone, with annual average highest temperatures of 23 C (Aug-Oct) and average lowest temperature of 7 C (Jan). Nearly 80% of the annual average rainfall of 3,334 mm occurs between May and September. Sunamganj Sunamganj is located in the Sylhet Division with the Sylhet District to its east, Habiganj District to its south and Netrokona District to its west. TheSurma River and Kushiyara River run through the district. The annual average temperature of Sunamganj has a maximum of 33.2C and a minimum 13.6C, with annual rainfall of 3334 mm. There are manyhaors and beels (wetlands ecosystems) in Sunamganj.
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Climate data for Sylhet region, Bangladesh, Source: Weatherbase

Month Average high F (C) Average low F (C) Precipitati on inches (mm) Jan 73 (23) 50 (10) 0.4 (10) Feb 80 (27) 55 (13) 1 (25) Mar 86 (30) 64 (18) 4.1 (104) Apr 88 (31) 69 (21) 13.7 (348) May 85 (29) 71 (22) 21.9 (556) Jun 86 (30) 75 (24) 32 (813) Jul 88 (31) 77 (25) 31.5 (800) Aug 87 (31) 76 (24) 24.5 (622) Sep 86 (30) 75 (24) 20.2 (513) Oct 83 (28) 70 (21) 9.5 (241) Nov 81 (27) 62 (17) 1 (25) Dec 75 (24) 55 (13) 0.3 (8) Year 84 (29) 66 (19) 160.1 (4,067)
2.7 Demography
Sylhet The population of Sylhet within the city corporation, was approximately 427,265 as of 2007 and estimated 463,198 in 2008 (density population is 17,479 per km). Together with the metropolitan area it has a population of 2,675,346 as of 2001, constituting 2.06% of the national population. The population growth rate of the city is 1.73%, which has reduced from 1.93% in 1991. As of 2001, It had average literacy rate of 69.73%. The highest literacy rate was 84.24% in Ward 22 and the lowest was 48.15% in Ward 10 (2001). The total number of households in the city was 55,514. The Sylheti language is the main language spoken in the city as well as throughout the division, and is considered as a dialect of Bengali, which contains a separate written form that is not widely known, where in this case Bengali is written, and sometimes spoken. The majority of Sylhetis are Muslims (85%), other religious groups include Hindus (15%), and very few numbers of other religions, mainly Buddhists and Christians (less than 0.1%). Sylhet has high rates of power shortage, including water shortage. According to the Power Development Board, Sylhet is only receiving 50MW, which is half than the demand of 100MW. The city corporation is also supplying only 22,500 gallons of water, far less than the demand of about 65,000. The major sources of water to the city is the tube wells and the Surma River. There are also high levels of arsenic in the water in Sylhet than in most other regions, this is mainly due to the multiple depth screening in the tubewells. According to the World Health Organization in 1997, about 61% are highly contaminated by arsenic, however in 1999, the percentage of boreholes tested where arsenic levels are above 50 micrograms per litre, was under 25%. There are about 331 registered restaurants in the city, only 15% maintain
Geology and Geography of the study area sanitary facilities and 85% have unhygienic conditions that are unsafe for the public. Thousands of foreigners have origins in Sylhet. The largest numbers of people from Sylhet living abroad is in the United Kingdom, with a population of about 300,000 (95% of the Bangladeshi population). Sunamganj Sunamganj has a total population of 1,968,669; males constitute 50.89% and females 49.11%.There are also some 6,643 person with ethnic affiliations of Manipuri, Khasia, Garo and Hajong ethnic groups from neighbouring countries.
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Chapter Three
Biodiversity
Biodiversity Biodiversity is the degree of variation of life forms within a given ecosystem, biome, or an entire planet. Biodiversity is a measure of the health of ecosystems. Biodiversity is in part a function of climate. In terrestrial habitats, tropical regions are typically rich whereas Polar Regions support fewer species. Biodiversity (jib-baichitra) the wealth of life forms found on earth including the millions of plants, animals and microorganisms, the genes they contain, and the ecosystems they form. It is considered at three different levels genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity. Genetic diversity is the variability within a species, measured by the variation in genes within a particular species, variety, subspecies or breed. Species diversity is the variety of living organisms on earth, measured by the total number of species in the world or in a given area. Ecosystem diversity is a measure of the variety of the ecological complexes of organisms and is related to physical and ecological variations in an area. The place we visited that is sylhet region of Bangladesh is very much rich with biodiversity. Short description of Biodiversity of sylhet region by dividing in flora and fauna are given below.
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3.1 Flora of the study area

Flora is a word of Latin origin referring to Flora, the goddess of flowers. Flora can refer to a group of plants, a disquisition of a group of plants, as well as to bacteria. Flora is the root of the word floral, which means pertaining to flowers. Flora is plant life of an area. More than 6,000 plant species occur in Bangladesh, of which about 300 are exotic and 8 are endemic. Flora of the Takerghat area: Takerghat area is very much rich area with flora. We observed many kinds of flora. Some of them were medicinal, hilly, fruity, flower and so on. A large number of plants are cultivated as fruit crops. JACKFRUIT and MANGO are the most abundant and popular of these plants. The other common but economic fruits are blackberry, GUAVA, PINEAPPLE, litchi, banana, COCONUT, Indian jujube, PAPAYA, sapodilla etc. Some medicinal plants are Ulatkambal, Muktajhuri, Apang, Basak etc. Various water bodies and wetland ecosystems provide habitats for diverse kinds of aquatic plants (hydrophytes), e.g. Potomageton (Ghechu), Lemna (duckweed), Pistia (Topa pana), Hydrilla, Vallisneria (dog grass), and various insectivorous plants including Utricularia (Jhanji). Some woody plants were also present there.
Biodiversity
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Fig: Flora of the Takerghat area Flora of the Tanguar haor area: Aquatic plants: Tanguar Haor is filled with a myriad of aquatic and semi-aquatic plants and shrubs. Every inch of marshland and open water is choked with plant life. Many of the herbivorous fishes and birds owe their survival to this abundance of vegetation. Dense vegetation provides shelter to many small birds that skulk along the water's edge, as well as many larger migratory ducks such as these Northern Pintails (Anas acuta). A cluster of with frilled white flowers Nymphoides indicum. Singa Paan is one of the most important aquatic plants of that area. Terrestrial plants: Each year flood waters inundate and destroy these pink perennial flowers and surrounding grasses. However these vegetation spring back to life once the water recedes; almost six months after the onset of floods. A threatened species of plant, theWild Rose of Bengal (Rosa bengalensis) still thrives in Tanguar Haor. Koroj is one of the most important terrestrial plants of that area. There was a large number of Koroj trees with a vast line. Hijal (Barringtonia acutangula), Karach (Pongamia pinnata), Gulli, Balua, Ban Tulsi (Ocimum americanum), Nalkhagra (Phragmites karka) and some other important threatened species of freshwater wetland trees are available in this haor.
Fig: Aquatic plants and Terrestrial plants of the Tanguar haor area
Biodiversity Flora of the Jokigonj, Utlar par and Jaflong area: Sylhet district is very much rich in various plants. The fruity plants we have observed are as follows- jackfruit, mango, kool etc. The medicinal plants we have observed are as follows Ulatkambal, Muktajhuri, Apang, Basak, neem etc. We also observed bamboo, shim, mehagani etc. Main crops Paddy, mustered, betel nut. Main fruits Mango, jackfruit, orange, litchi. We observed a vast line of tea garden. It was an outstanding experience for us. Main exports Paddy; tea, betel nut. Among them tea is the best. Some flowers species were also present that was very much nice to look at. Each year flood waters inundate and destroy these pink perennial flowers and surrounding grasses. However these vegetation spring back to life once the water recedes; almost six months after the onset of floods. The delicate flower is known as Murta. Many of the aquatic and semiaquatic plants come into bloom with the arrival of the dry season such as these Polygonum glabrum and Rotala indica.
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Fig: Flora of the Jokigonj, Utlar par and Jaflong area
3.2 Fauna of the study area

Fauna can refer to the animal life or classification of animals of a certain region, time period, or environment. Fauna is also of Latin origin. In Roman Mythology Fauna was the sister of Faunus, a good spirit of the forest and plains. Fauna of Takerghat area: Takerghat area is very much rich with fauna. Some important fauna of this area are as follows. Fishes-Rui, Katla etc. Amphibians - frogs and toads. Birds - shalik, Chorui, balihash, pankouri etc. Domestic fauna cow, goat, pigeon. Reptiles snake. Others fauna includes butterfly, various insects, foring etc.
Biodiversity
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Fig: Fauna of the Takerghat area Fauna of Tanguar Haor area: Wetlands are some of the most fragile ecosystems and they are extremely vulnerable to degradation. An entire ecosystem can be destroyed or changed dramatically by the over exploitation of its natural resources or changes in land-use such as draining the area for farming. It is vitally important for animals, plants and the associated communities that natural environment of areas such as Tanguar Haor remains as pristine as possible. While safeguarding large areas of grasslands, which emerges only after flooding abates, may seem unproductive, it is still essential to be left fallow for the wildlife. Cattle grazing and duck farming, in areas where huge congregation of water birds gather is a huge risk to both the wild bird population and domestic flocks from cross contamination of diseases. The haor is an ideal place for the migratory birds. Every winter about 200 types of migratory birds come to this haor and make their temporary habitat here. Once upon a time the zamindars of Sunamganj area used to make cruise into this haor with large Pansi boats for hunting birds. The main birds name is kaium, balihash, Boroaal, Pankouri, Kalovodor and so on. The haor is an important source of fisheries. More than 140 species of fresh water fishes are available here. Among them the notables are Air, Gang Magur, Baim, Tara Baim, Gutum, Gulsha, Tengra, Titna, Garia, Beti, Kakia,Rui, Katla etc. In the 1999-2000 fiscal year, government earned Taka 70,73,184 as revenue only from fisheries of the haor. Two NGOs (IUCN and CNRS) are working in this haor for fishes by taking lease a fixed area from government. Birds hunting and trapping of wildlife poses a serious threat to the survival of many species of water birds. Tanguar Haor is a wetland of international significance; let it remain a safe haven for the thousands of wild birds and fishes. So, Tanguar haor is very much in biodiversity. Everybody should come forward to conserve and save from illegal work.
Biodiversity
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Fig: Fauna of Tanguar Haor area (Birds and Fishes) Fauna of the Jokigonj, Utlar par and Jaflong area: Jokigonj, Utlar par and Jaflong area is the main sub area of Sylhet district. This district is full of various kind of fauna some of them are available and some of them are in indanger. Some important fauna of this area are as follows. Fishes-Rui, Katla etc. Amphibians - frogs and toads. Birds - shalik, Chorui, balihash, pankouri etc. Domestic animal cow, goat, pigeon. Reptiles snake. Others fauna includes butterfly, various insects, foring etc. In this area we found different types of animals. We found both primary secondary and tertiary animal in our field tour. Some of them were unknown.
Chapter Four
Natural Resources
Natural Resources The grater Sylhet region is the most enriched area of Bangladesh in mineral resources. A large quantity of the total proven gas reserve and the only oil field of the country are located here. The area has also vast deposit of limestone, peat, glass-sand hard- rock grave. But the economic values of hydrocarbon reserves are overwhelmingly dominant. The region is geologically known as the Surma Basin and covers the north-eastern parts of the foredeep and Folded-Belt division of the Bengal Basin which happens to be one of the most prominent tectonically-active sedimentary basins of the world. Parts of the Sylhet region which are apparently flat having are within the foredeep division while the hilly areas are called folded Belt. Thickness of the sedimentary pile with the foredeep area is in excess of 15 kilometers; the Folded Belt representing the uplifted parts of this sedimentary pile. This huge sedimentary body is dominantly composed of sand and mud with subordinated limestone which started depositing in a deep-basement (bottom of the basin being composed of igneous-metamorphic complex) basin about 5o million years ago with the gradual rise of the Himalayas due to collision between Indian and Burmese Plates and subsequent erosion. The sand-mud composition of the sedimentary body, along with technically-developed favorable structural set up (exposed and covered folds and faults mainly) have made the Sylhet region highly potential for occurrence of natural resources. Muds act as sources, sands as reservoirs, while folds (anticlines) act as traps for hydrocarbons (gas and oil). Age of the sediments, local geothermal gradient, pressure of the overburden etc. have been sufficient for the source materials to be "cooked" to from hydrocarbon.
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4.1 Natural Gas:

There are eight gas fields located in Sylhet region. Also the first 3 gas fields of the country were discovered in this region between mid-1950s and early 60s Sylhet gas field in 1955, Chatak in 1959 and Rashidpur in 1960. These predate the discovery of Titas gas field which is at present the largest natural gas supplier of the country. Other gas fields of the region according to their year of discovery are Koilastila 1962, Hobigonj 1963, Beanibazar 1981, Fenchugonj 1988 and Jalalabad 1989. All these reserves have been discovered in structural traps formed by mild folds (anticlines) that occur in the subsurface and have no direct surface expressions. The intensity of these folds increase west to east in the direction of the Folded Belt region; which relates to the development of grater thrust in that direction due to tectonic activity. However, the discovery gas fields are mostly located in the nearly-plan lands of along the western fringe zones of the intensively folded areas. Gas is discovered within sandstone layers of Bhuban and Bokabil formations in the
Natural Resources subsurface, which is about 35 million years old. Sandstone act as good reservoirs because of their high porosity; however, the gas is generated in some neighboring clayey layers with high organic contents and lager migrates to the sandy units, which are sealed by impervious sedimentary layers. Impervious layers prevent further migration of the gas. Total reserve of the gas fields of the Sylhet region is about 14 trillion cubic feet with a recoverable reserve of about 8.5 tcf.
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Fig: Natural Gas Blow Out and Gas Field
Natural Resources
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Table 1: Gas in Place and Reserve of Different Gas Fields As Declared By Petrobangla S. No Fields Year of Discovery Reserve GIIP Recoverable Cumulative Net Estimated by (proven + proven + Production Recoverable Company... Year probable) probable) (Dec. 2000)
A. Producing 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Bakhrabad Habiganj Kailashtilia Rashidpur Sylhet Titas Narsingdi Meghna Sangu Saidanadi Jalalabad Beanibazar Total A B. Non-Producing 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Begumganj Fenchuganj Kutubdia Shahbazpur Semutang Bibiyana Mbazar Subtotal B Subtotal A+B) 1977 1988 1977 1995 1969 1998 1999 Welldrill Bapex Welldrill Bapex HHS Unocal Unocal 1991 1988 1991 1995 1991 2000 2000 25 350 780 514 164 3150 500 5483 240087 C. Production Suspended 20 21 22 Chattak Kamta Feni 1959 1981 1981 Niko/Bapex 1998 Niko/Bapex 1998 Niko/Bapex 1998 447 33 178 24745 24.745 268 23 125 15507 15.507 27 21.1 40 4083.52 4.08 241.5 1.9 85.49 11423.48 11.42 15 10 468 333 98 2401 400 3925 15091 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3996.4 15 210 468 333 98 2401 400 3925 11094.59 1969 1963 1962 1960 1955 1962 1990 1990 1996 1996 1989 1981 IKM IKM KM IKM HHS IKM IKM IKM Bapex IKM 1992 1992 1992 1992 1986 1992 1992 1992 1996 1992 1432 3669 3657 2242 444 4138 194 159 1031 200 1195 243 18604 867 1895 2529 1309 266 2100 126 104 848 140 815 167 11166 586.568 818.315 231.820 194.920 166.084 1783.400 29.205 23.278 91.026 14.816 52.298 4.681 3996.411 280.432 1076.685 2297.180 1114.080 99.916 316.600 96.795 80.722 756.974 125.184 762.702 162.319 7169.589
Cairn/Shell 1997 Unocal/PB 2000
Grand Total (A +B+ C) in BCF Grand Total (A +B+ C) in Tcf
Source: Marketing and Production Division, Petrobangla (Revived on 15/02/2001)
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4.2 Crude oil:

The only oil field of the country is located in Haripur of the Sylhet district, which, was discovered in 1986. Although a relatively large quantity of gas has been discovered in the county, the amount of oil discovery is very small. This is in a sharp contrast to many hydrocarbon provinces of the world where large volumes of both gas and oil co-exist. Geologists of our country are somewhat confused by this reality and most opine that exploration into even deeper sedimentary layers then those producing gas may help discover oil. The Horipur oil is discovered in sandstone layers within a subsurface fold called Sylhet Anticline which is about 13 kilometers long and 3 kilometers wide; producing horizons are around 2000 meters depths and two closely spaced oil-horizons have been detected. Maximum oil reserve is estimated to be around 21 million barrels. Oil production under natural pressure was 400 barrels per day in 1987 which dropped to about 100 barrels in 1994 and since then it has remained suspended due to necessity of further development of the field. Between 1987 and 1994, a total of 0.56 million of crude oil have been produced. The quality of the Haripur oil is similar to that discovered in Assam.
Fig: Crude oil in Haripur oil
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4.3 Limestone:
Limestones of Eocene time are exposed on or close to the surface in the Takergaht-Lalghat areas of the north-western part of the Sylhet region along its border with the Indian state of Meghalaya. Reserve is about 30 million tons and it is the second largest discovered limestone in the country after the Jaipurhat. Preliminary reserve estimation was done in the sixties and seventies while the Geological Survey of Bangladesh in 1982 ascertained the reserve by putting 5 depths of about 30 to 100 meters below the surface, the deposit has a thickness of 152 meters and the reserve is estimated to be 17 million tons. In Lalghat and Takerghat areas limestone deposits occur at much shallow depths and their reserve are estimated to be about 10 and 2 million tons respectively. In these areas, limestone deposits are also sporadically exposed. The limestone body has brought to the surface by upliftment due to techtonic activity; most of its parts fall within the Indian Territory and Bangladesh sharply disappear under the alluvium cover in the south with a very high angle of dip. The Takerghat limestone deposit is being extracted since the Independence of Bangladesh and its reserve is fast diminishing.
Fig: Takerghat Limestone Deposit
Natural Resources
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4.4 Peat:
Peat, Glass-sand, hard rock Gravel: about 2.5 million tons of peat reserve was discovered in the Maulvibazar area in the early fifties. The deposit occurs 1.5 meter from surface, 1.6 meter thick and extends over an area of about 10 square kilometers. Peat deposits also exist in the Pagla and Chorka areas of the Sunamgonj district, has an estimated reserve of about 3 million tons and at comparable thickness and deposits occur as modern sediments within valleys and floodplains.
4.5 Silica/Glass Sand:

Shahzibazar of the Hobigonj district has Glass-sand reserve of about 1.41 million tons which discovered in the early fifties is dominantly composed of silica (over 95%) and occur in centimeter scale lenses that appear within 1-2 meter from the surfacee.
4.6 Hard Rock:

Hard-rock gravels of up to 1 meter in diameter are found on the stream beds that drain the hilly areas of Meghalaya and fall on the flat land within Bangladesh territory along the northern parts of the Sylhet region. This is particularly prominent in Jadukata river and Jafflong-tamabil areas where total estimated reserve is about 45.6 million cubic meters. Gravels occur both on the present streambeds and up to several meters depth.
Fig: Hard-rock of Jadukata river and Jafflong area
Natural Resources
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4.7 Water resource:

A river is a natural watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing towards an ocean, a lake, a sea, or another river. In a few cases, a river simply flows into the ground or dries up completely before reaching another body of water. Small rivers may also be called by several other names, including stream, creek, brook, rivulet, tributary and rill. River long water course that flows down a slope along a bed between banks. It originates from a 'source' and culminates to a sea or lake at its 'mouth'. Along its length it may be joined by smaller rivers called 'tributaries'. A river and its tributaries form a 'river system'. The main river of Sylhet region are surma and kushiyara. Trere are 82 haors in Syhlet region; Shingua Beel (12.65 sq km) and Chatla Beel (11.86 sq km) are notable; Tanguar Haor a large haor lies within Sunamganj district. Tanguar Haor lies in the floodplain of the Surma River, one of the main tributaries of the Brahmaputra in Bangladesh, at the base of the Meghalaya Hills (in adjacent India). It is one of the last remaining (semi-) natural floodplain wetlands of Bangladesh, as only a few minor dikes and canals have been constructed. Locally, these floodplain depression wetlands are called haors, and the deeper sections that retain water in the dry months are called beels. Here, an attempt has been made to present list of rivers in Sylhet regionSurma, Piyain, Sharigoyain, Bagra Gang, Noiya Gang, Shawla, Dhamalia, Manai Bardal, Juri, Manu, Dhalai, Langla (Karangi), Khowai, Sutang, Kushiyara, Madhabpur, Mahasing, Khajanchi, Vattakhal, Kalni, Jamalpur, Boraba, Lova, Hari, Bogapani, Dhariana, Dhoai, Jadukata, Dhala-Dhalai Gang, Gopla-Langla, Mogai-Chalti, Rakti, Poiyanda, Vera, Mohana, Dhanu-Baulai: (36 rivers).
Description of the main Rivers and Haor are given belowSurma River: The Surma River is a major river in Bangladesh, part of the SurmaMeghna River System. It starts when the Barak River from northeast India divides at the Bangladesh border into the Surma and the Kushiyara rivers. It ends in Kishoreganj District, above Bhairab Bazar, where the two rivers rejoin to form the Meghna River. The waters from the river ultimately flow into the Bay of Bengal. The River surma, the right bank tributary of the Barak originating from Manipur and Mizoram of India, passes along Sylhet town and joins the kushiyara west of Baniachong,
Natural Resources the combined flow of which is the mighty meghna river. The average depth of river is 282 feet (86 m) and maximum depth is 550 feet (170 m). Kushiyara River: The Kushiyara River is one of the many rivers in Bangladesh that crosses international boundaries. It is a branch of the Barak River, which originates in the state of Manipur in India and runs along the border of the Indian states of Manipur & Mizoram before getting split into Surma and Kushiyara prior to entering Bangladesh. The total length of the Kushiyara is about 161 km. The average width of the river is 30 feet (9.1 m) and in the rainy season the mean depth of the Kushiyara reaches up to 33 feet (10 m), the maximum depth of river is 40 feet (12 m). The river carries a huge amount of water as well as sediments from Karimganj in Assam and the hilly areas of Hill Tripura. The highest and lowest discharges have been measured at Sherpur amounting to 3,700 cubic metres per second and 33 cubic metres per second respectively. Tanguar Haor: Tanguar Haor a large haor lies within Sunamganj district extending over 10 mauzas of Dharmapasha and Tahirpur upazilas of the district. The mauzas covering the Tanguar haor are (1) Jagadishpur, (2) Bhabanipur, (3) Lamagaon, (4) Ramsinhapur, (5) Mahajampur, (6) Maindag, (7) Mayajuri, (8) Bhangachara Purba, (9) Noagaon, and (10) Tanguar Haor. The haor consists of 120 beels of various sizes. The area of Tanguar haor including 46 villages within the haor is about 100 sq km of which 2802.36 ha is wetland. Waters in Tanguar haor consist mainly of water backing up in the Baulai-Surma river system, although some water is received from streams flowing from the Meghalaya hills, in India, to the north. Although rich in nutrients, waters are generally clear, especially in the dry season. The Jadukata River, to the north-east, brings large amounts of silt to this part of the haor. The entire area is flooded during the summer monsoon (June-September) and waters may 6-10 metres deep in the beels; in the dry winter months, water depth in the beels ranges from 2-6 metres. Small submersible dikes have recently been constructed to the north-west and north of the haor, to protect rice crops. Villages are constructed on artificial hillocks called kandas, which rise 3-6 metres above the haor plain. Tanguar Haor buffers floodwaters from the Baulai/Surma system, and from the Meghalaya Hills in India, mitigating peak floods and maintaining water levels in dry months. It also acts as a sediment retention area for vast amounts of silt from the Meghalaya Hills (esp. via the Jadukata River). Deep flooding has always been a season event with which the local community has had to cope. The small submersible dikes constructed to the north-west and north,
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Natural Resources only serve to prolong the growing period by several weeks, thereby giving a limited amount of crop protection.
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Fig: Surma and Kushiyara River
Surma
Kushiyara
Fig: Origin of Surma and Kushiyara River
Fig: Tanguar Haor

Chapter Five
Natural Hazards and Manmade hazards
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5.1 Natural hazards

Flash flood A flash flood is a rapid flooding of geomorphic low-lying areas washes, rivers, dry lakes and basins. It may be caused by heavy rain associated with a storm, hurricane, or tropical storm or melt water from ice or snow flowing over ice sheets or snowfields. Flash floods may occur after the collapse of a natural ice or debris dam, or a human structure such as a man-made dam. Flash floods are distinguished from a regular flood by a timescale less than six hours. The temporary availability of water is often utilized by foliage with rapid germination and short growth cycle, and by specially adapted animal life. Tekerghat area: The area is situated beside the Meghalaya hilly zone and over the Shilong plate. As we have observed the area is recently flashed flooded that comes from the hill. During the hazard the area is heavily inundated with mud and limestone. That causes massive destruction and the flood gives a trail of stones and boulders along its pathway. During flood coal, peat, sand stone and even the trees from the hill is washed to the plain area. That disrupts the natural agricultural process by disturbing the soil condition, disrupting the equilibrium of the natural systems of soil. This flash flood brings tipam sand to the agricultural field that destroys the crops and delays the harvesting season. Tanguar haor: The greater haor basin in the northeastern part of the country covering vast area is a flash flood zone. In the haor areas, flash flood comes from the very steep uplands in Meghalayan hills causing immense damage to the standing crops and properties. The flash flood of the region of tanguar haor erodes calcium carbonate to the water of the haor that increases the basicity of the water and make nutrition for the fish species. But on the contrary the flood carries huge amount of mud and pollutants to the water that destroys the breeding system of the fish species. Thus there may occur some poisonous submerged plants that disrupt the natural environment and quality of water. Jaflong: In Jaflong, flash flood hits the bank area beside the river Jaflong. It carries huge amount of stones, mud, boulders and the speedy water that damages the structures of the area, washes the vegetation and destroys life. The extreme flashy character of the hilly rivers and sudden excessive rainfall in the region causes frequent flash floods.
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Fig: Map of Flash Flood area of Bangladesh and Flash Flooded area Land slide A landslide or landslip is a geological phenomenon which includes a wide range of ground movement, such as rockfalls, deep failure of slopes and shallow debris flows, which can occur in offshore, coastal and onshore environments. Although the action of gravity is the primary driving force for a landslide to occur, there are other contributing factors affecting the original slope stability. Typically, pre-conditional factors build up specific sub-surface conditions that make the area/slope prone to failure, whereas the actual landslide often requires a trigger before being released. Landslides are a major cause of erosion, causing the strongest degradation known, often exceeding 10,000 tons per sq km in a year. Tekerghat, Tahirpur: Landslides are common in the hilly areas of Bangladesh. These areas have a long history of instability. Although written records of landslide incidents are very rare, they have been a hazard to people ever since they have been living there. In fact, every year especially in the rainy season landslides take place in both natural and man-induced slopes. As we have observed that the area of Tekerghat, Tahirpur is laid beside the Meghalayan hilly range and the area shows the trace of landslide that occurred during the time. The local people cut the hill or make slopes for collecting coal and limestone. As a result during the rainy season landslide occurs. There are also geological reasons behind this hazard. Certain plate movement is also responsible for it. Deforestation is one of the major causes for landslide in the area. Because trees helps to make slopes stable and absorbs or reduce the risks. Jaflong: In a landslide or rock falls, movements of the materials depend on the slope. In most cases, material movement happens because of the
Natural Hazards and Manmade hazards slope instability. Several geological, morphological, and human induced changes cause these slope instabilities. Presently indiscriminate hill cutting is one of the major causes of landslide in this area. For collecting stones from the hill, people cut hill and makes unstable slopes. When it rains, water dissolves the minerals of the soil of the hills that loosen its compaction. Soils of the hills also become heavy by absorbing rainwater. If rain intensity is too high, minerals of soil dissolve very quickly and the soil turns into mud and becomes very heavy. The steep slope of the hill cannot bear the mass weight of the wet soil or mud that results the landslide. Deforestation in the hill areas is another major reason of landslide in Chittagong. Deforested areas are more prone to landslide than a forested area. Vegetation protects the soils and makes slope stable which reduce the risk of landslides. Large trees provide strong root structures into the earth that anchor the soil and protect it from any erosion.
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Fig: Sample image of Landslide in our study area Erosional hazard Major cause of erosion is the land slide which is caused by the geological and morphological reasons. Soil erosion brings worst effects for the locality and over all for the total environmental condition. Erosional hazards causes agricultural loss and the loss of habitate of the certain area. Tekerghat, Tahirpur: From our field observation it can be said that the area is a victim of erosional hazards. The landslides and the flash flood erodes the top soil and causes sedimentation on the agricultural fields and carries tipum sand that endeavors the whole area. Due to this erosional process the environmental quality is disrupted. Water pollution, air pollution etc are occurred for the process. Dust particle percentage is abruptly high than the normal condition. Tanguar haor: Water quality of tanguar haor is hampered due to this erosional process. Sedimentation process can lessen the depth of the
Natural Hazards and Manmade hazards haor and cause disruption of the haor ecology. Erosional hazard is a curse for the haor ecology. Local hydrophytic species may be extinct in the long run. It may confirm total economy and environmental loss for our country. Jokigonj: Due to the erosional process the normal flow of the Surma and Kushiara River is disturbed. The river bank area is disrupted, the local vegetation is hampered. River bank area in Bangladesh portion is breaking in a great extent and that is causing land loss and decreasing the boundary area of Bangladesh. Jaflong: Erosion of soil and embankment causes devastation for the area. During the rainy season the Jaflong river fills to the brim and the heavy flow of water associated with stones and boulders hits the flowing area that causes loss of structures and damages the systems of soil formation.
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Fig: Flash flood and landslide causes erosion in hilly region and River bank erosion
5.2 Vulnerabilities of Tanguar Haor area

Vulnerabilities (Climatic and Non-climatic) of Tanguar Haor areas: Siltation of Haor: Rate of siltatoin of sand and alluviam is high Erosion of suface soil in hilly area for cultivation of Pine-apple Destruction of forest Cuttinng down of hills Reduction of fish species: Overharvesting because of increase in number of fishermen and Haor-leasing
Natural Hazards and Manmade hazards Using improper and destructive fishing technique like, dewatering the entire Haor, applying poison, using of small geared net destroying the spawning of fish because of poison late or early arrival of rainfall in monsoon
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In addition, Breakinng law in case of fising and leasing uncertainity of rainfall catching fish by destroying aquatic herbs with poison (Bishlata) fishing practices in breeding season peticides which are used in tea garden mix with water cause reduction of fish Removal of gas from Urea-fertilizer in upstream Fising practice is done yearly in case of leasing Destruction of Haor-biodiversity: Due to population pressure and thus over extraction Siltation of Haor Destruction of swamp forest by the ranching of domestic animal and using as fuel wood Leasing of Haor Water flow is reduced in stream due to destruction of vegetation Maximum streams are getting closed Less amount of sanctuary By using of small geared net a lot of planktons are captured Vulnerabilities (Climatic and Non-climatic) of Agricultural Land: Reduction of land fertility limited availability land for cultivation in contrast of increasing population pressures
Natural Hazards and Manmade hazards dividing of land in too many small pieces and excessive use of fertilizer and chemicals for getting higher production Additional climatic or non-climatic (developmental or socioeconomic) threat to Agricultural Land are: Early flash flood that is very risky for Boro crop Rate of destroying crop for flash flood is very high than previous Reduction of water retention capacity of soil Invasion of insect is increased Vulnerabilities (Climatic and Non-climatic) of River: Decrease in water flow Siltation due to the destruction of upstream vegetation and erosion Outlet of river is becoming narrow day by day Vulnerabilities (Climatic and Non-climatic) of Kanda: Cattles eat herbs Birds do not come for the cattles Increased insects and use of insecticides Total ecosystem is disrupted Fishing Communities Vulnerabilities: Reduction in the availability of fish species Increasing cost of fish catch Limited availability of fishing ground Cause of Vulnerabilities Leasing of Haor restricted the common fishing grounds to the poor and marginal fishermen (but beneficiary for powerful people) Haor lessee use improper fishing technique (like, dewatering of entire haor, poisoning, using small mesh size net) and thus destroys the present, as well as future stock of fish, fry and egg Late arrival of monsoon interrupt the spawning of certain fish species
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Natural Hazards and Manmade hazards Siltation of beels due to excessive erosion reducing the habitat of fish species Destruction of beel vegetation destroys the food and habitat of fish species Population pressure, unemployment and low tendency of livelihood mobilization put a pressure on the fish resources Additional (developmental or socio-economic) threat to the Fishing community are: Lobour cost is comperatively high in local area In breeding season marginal fishermen have no capital for doing another work No available alternative livelihood Farmer Communities Vulnerabilities: Water unavaibality for irrigation Increasing temperature Fallow land, Kanda and wet land are becoming agricultural land Mitigation Probable Ecosystem-base Adaptation to reduce these vulnerabilities: Haor Leasing should be stopped using of small geared net should be stopped Fish conservation act should be maintained Proper monitoring and enforcement should be needed Identify the proper place for making dam In making dam proper hydrological survey should be needed Tree plantation is necessary in the bank of the Beels Legal protection and help is necessary from govenment Besides these Major Ecosystem Based Adaptation are listed below: Good management plans or integtrated management plans Digging Beels as wel as outlet
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Natural Hazards and Manmade hazards Management for extraction of water Long timed sanctuary should be establised Bank of the large Beels should be got bound Co-management based ecosystem conservation Probable Ecosystem-based Adaptation to reduce these vulnerabilities: (Agricultural Land) Horizontal plantation may be done instead of vertical plantation in case of pine-aple cultivation in hilly area. Joint environmental commission can be made with India Proper land use policy should be made Crop varity may be introduced that can stand in flood People can depend in altenative cash crop Probable Ecosystem-base Adaptation to reduce these vulnerabilities: (River) To protect the rivers from silting up due to excessive erosion in upstream or dam construction and consecutively dying, Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) should be practiced through the negotiation of Joint watershed management committee. To prevent excessive siltation, silt control measures should be taken with the suggestion and discussion of multidisciplinary committee and experts to minimize any environmental impact. In addition; In case of water shed management water development board should have concern about environment
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Probable Ecosystem-base Adaptation to reduce these vulnerabilities: Environment For conservation of threatened fish species captive breeding may be done Copies of swamp forest should be protected Coservation can be done by local protection practices
Natural Hazards and Manmade hazards In addition Leasing should be stopped, using of small geared net should be stopped, fish conservation act should be maintained strictly, proper monitoring and enforcement should be needed, identify the proper place for making dam, in making dam proper hydrological survey must be needed, tree plantation is necessary in the bank of the beels, legal protection and help is necessary from government. The steps that should be done for the sustainable use of Haor: Good management plans or integtrated management plans Digging Beels as wel as outlet Management for extraction of water Long timed sanctuary should be establised Bank of the large Beels should be got bound Co-management based ecosystem conservation Sanctuary sustainability should be made by group-fisheries
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5.3 Manmade hazards

Water pollution Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans and groundwater). Water pollution occurs when pollutants are discharged directly or indirectly into water bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds. Water pollution affects plants and organisms living in these bodies of water. In almost all cases the effect is damaging not only to individual species and populations, but also to the natural biological communities. Tekerghat, Tahirpur: Due to the collection process of limestone in the Tekerghat area the surface area is polluted. The local collection process for coal disturbs the water quality of the river Patlai and Jadukata. On the other hand the surface water is also polluted by the unwise activites of the people. Wastes and oil from the boat engine decreases the water quality and make the poisonous environment for the species of the water. Tanguar haor: Wastes from the locality and polluted materials flow to the haor area and make water quality unstable. On the other hand coal
Natural Hazards and Manmade hazards transportation causes pollution to the haor water. Unplanned sanitary system also polluting water of haor area. Alamnagor, Jokigonj: Borak river enters into Bangladesh and divided into surma and kushiara river. From the upstream wastage is carried to the downstream and thus water is polluted in the downstream and that affects the surrounding area. Jaflong: Stone collection process and the crushing system creates dust and other pollutants that pollutes the river water and hampers the natural system of the area.
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Fig: Image of Water pollution Health hazards Tekerghat, tahirpur: Air pollution is one of the major problems of this area. Here coal is collected by traditional methods and reserved in open place. Thus the air is polluted by the dust of the coal. Inhabitants of this area are affected by mainly air borne diseases. The surface water of this area is polluted by the indigenous pollutants. Malnutrition is one of the health problems of this area. Respiratory system of the people of this area is hampered largely. Skin problem is another problem of this area. Utlarpar, Horipur gas field: As we observed that Utlarpar is an area from where continuously gas with slight oil is coming out naturally after an accident in 1965 during extraction process. From that day till now natural gas and a few amount of crude oil is coming out through seepage space in a pond. Here gas is going to the atmosphere for a long time and disrupting the spheres quality. Nobody is concerned about the air quality of this area but it is confirmed that local environment is polluted by uncontrolled gas come out. And that affecting the local people who are not concerned at all about their health and the hazard by which they are affecting till now. Jaflong: Dust is a major problem of this area. Air is polluted at a large extent of this area. On the other hand jaflong is a tourist place and for this reason human wastage also causes pollution in this area. The local
Natural Hazards and Manmade hazards people of this area are affected by the polluted air and their respiratory system is hampered. Pure drinking water is scarce here. For this the people of this area have to take polluted water and they are attacked by the water borne diseases as a result.
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Fig: Impact of Coal and Gas on Human Health There are some other Manmade Hazards which will turn into more devastating in near future. These are discussed belowSand extraction: We observed sand extraction at Ponatirtho river. It is one kind of manmade hazard. It causes a great extent of air pollution at the area. It also causing problem for the natural movement of the river. Limestone extraction: We studied the area of Ponatirtho river. Here we saw that local people extracting limestone from the river. These limestones come from the Meghalaya hilly area with many natural water falls. These extractions are not maintained in a controlled manner. It may cause problem for the natural depth of the river. Hill cutting: We observed hill cutting at the Takerghat area. This accelerates the landslides from the hills. Peat extraction: We saw peat extraction at the Takerghat area. It causes severe soil pollution. Extraction of peat causes the pure sulfur content to be dissolved within the soil. It also causes a grat health hazard.
Natural Hazards and Manmade hazards Peat transportation: At Takerghat area we studied the Dumper bazar area. This is the place which has been used for peat transportation. Here we saw the color of the soil and the river water is black. Pure sulfur content get mixed with soil and river water. It causes a great amount of pollution. Temporary sanitation: We observed many temporary sanitation systems within the Patlai river bank. These causes the river water to be get polluted. Fishing at the haor: Excess and nonseasonal fishing at the Tanguar haor is another kind of manmade hazard. It causes the extinction of fish species. Bird hunting: Bird hunting at the haor is another kind of hazard. Birds are very important for the balane of haor ecosystem. But people are illegally hunting birds and causing problems. Deforestation at the haor: Deforestation at the haor is another major manmade hazard. It imbalances the natural ecosystem. Waste dumping: We saw a great amount of waste dumping at the Patlai river. This causes problem for the river water quality. Gas seepage: We observed gas seepage at the Utlarpar area. Pure methane released at the atmosphere. That causing a great pollution of environment. This seepage is a result of gas explosion which was caused at the moment of gas extraction at 1965. Dust pollution: We observed a great extent of dust pollution at the Dawki river of Jaflong. This is caused by the limestone transportation vehicles.
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Some Image of Manmade Hazards
Chapter Six
Impact Study of Tipaimukh Dam Project of India on Bangladesh
Impact Study of Tipaimukh Dam Project of India on Bangladesh Bangladesh and India is sharing as many as 54 trans-boundary rivers with each other. Being a lower riparian country of the GangesBrahmaputra-Meghna (GBM) Basin, Bangladesh receives as much water as it is allowed to enter into Bangladesh through these rivers. The question of allowance is used to bring the fact to the surface once again that out of those 54 trans-boundary rivers, annual flow of 48 rivers are now heavily modified by the respective Indian water management authorities. In this epoch of modification, there remain in one hand, rivers like the mighty Ganges on the western part of the country, everunpredictable Teesta on the northeastern part, violent Gumti on eastern part, flashy Manu on the northeastern, and on other hand, many other small river courses entering into Bangladesh. The nature of modification varies from storage and withdrawal to regulate the seasonal flows to sudden opening the gates of those regulators to release out the extra water holding upstream of those regulators. The very consequences of those modifications, as we now understand, are unprecedented. The impacts bear numerous dimensions eco-hydrological, morphological, geological, biodiversity and environmental, climatic change and desertification, socio-economical, and finally political. We have already experienced those very badly in the northwest and southwest region of Bangladesh due to Farakka Barrage on Ganges River, we are going to observe more and more in future for the other rivers also. Currently Central Water Commission of India is planning to divert, control, and withdraw more and more water from those common rivers between Bangladesh and India. Barak River flow alteration and withdrawal by constructing a hydroelectric dam at Tipaimukh and Fulertal Barrage is one of those planning. The last havoc that Bangladesh can ever imagine is about to come when it is being strongly believed that India is planning to divert the Brahamaputra flow to the water deficit states of India. This report though is on the study to understand the most probable scenario that will be seen in the northeast region of Bangladesh in near future, in terms of hydrological change if there is a 168.5 meter rock-filled earthen dam constructed on the Barak River at Tipaimukh. The Tipaimukh Dam on the Barak River is now neither a concept nor just a mere proposal of the Central Water Commission of India. It is very much on its way to be constructed with an aim to produce an estimated 1,500 MW electric power with firm power generation of 401 MW. The proposed Tipaimukh Dam- a 162.8 m high rock-filled earthen dam is going to be constructed on the Barak River at 500 m. downstream of the confluence of the Barak and Tuivai River near Tipaimukh village in Manipur state, where the Barak River takes a 2200 bend from southwest ward direction to northerly direction and flows through a stretch of more than 24 km. downstream of Tipaimukh. It has been confirmed that the
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Impact Study of Tipaimukh Dam Project of India on Bangladesh whole project would submerge nearly 311 sq. km. of land permanently in India, of which around 229.11 sq. km. areas are reserve forest, remaining are agricultural and settlement land. The local and indigenous people of Manipur and Mizoram state of India, eminent engineers, geologists, and environmentalists have opposed the dam proposal right from the beginning of its conceptualization. It is being claimed from their side that this project would result in a massive socio-economic, ecological and environmental disaster, at both riparian of upstream and downstream of the dam.
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Fig: Location of Tipaimukh Dam, India However, overruling those claims the Central Water Commission of India and NEEPCO (North Eastern Electric Power Corporation Limited), the assigned organization for carrying out the project, have asserted that the project would moderate the annual flood in the Barak sub-basin along with potential power generation facilities of 1500 MW. They have also enforced their statement in favor of the dam by saying that it would make feasible the proposed pick up barrage near Fulertal, about 100 km. upstream from Amalshid (Bangladesh-India border) and 95 km downstream of the dam to develop the Cachar Irrigation Project and enhance the navigability of the Barak and its tributaries during the dry season as a complementary benefit of the Tipaimukh Dam Project. However, overruling those claims the Central Water Commission of India and NEEPCO (North Eastern Electric Power Corporation Limited), the assigned organization for carrying out the project, have asserted that the project would moderate the annual flood in the Barak sub-basin along with potential power generation facilities of 1500 MW. They have also enforced their statement in favor of the dam by saying that it would make feasible the proposed pick up barrage near Fulertal, about 100 km.
Impact Study of Tipaimukh Dam Project of India on Bangladesh upstream from Amalshid (Bangladesh-India border) and 95 km downstream of the dam to develop the Cachar Irrigation Project and enhance the navigability of the Barak and its tributaries during the dry season as a complementary benefit of the Tipaimukh Dam Project. Meanwhile, this is the brief introduction of the Tipaimukh Dam Project on which so many claims and counter claims are continuing on both sides of the project, by pro-dam side and anti-dam people of India. But this is only the one side of the whole issue. The other side lies on the much concerned perspective of potential hydro-morphological, ecological, socio-economical impacts of the dam project on the Barak River which are likely to be happened in the downstream region, particularly in the northeast region of Bangladesh in future. Some of the impacts may be realized within a very short time as an immediate impact, while some of the environmental effects of the dam may not be realized for hundreds of years after construction. Thats why it has been claimed, as Patrick McCully said in his book Silenced Rivers, The Ecology and Politics of Large Dams that, A dam can thus be regarded as a huge, long-term and largely irreversible environmental experiment without a control. This type of apprehension has not been aroused for not only that Bangladesh is the downstream riparian of the Meghna Basin but also for the core hydrological misconception of how we understand and characterize the river basin and the eco-hydrological system it produces. How natural phenomena like rivers and its flood have been conceptualized in psychologically, materially and the symbolically in an era of supremacy of modern science and how this supremacy can be maneuvered to meet the nationalistic development goal of a modern country that is also a question to ponder about. So there are many dimensions of such a mega project aiming to exploit the natural resources like water. Meghna Basin and Northeast Region of Bangladesh Location and Geography: Bangladesh is the site of the worlds largest alluvial delta, and the formation of this delta is solely associated with the very distinguished water and sediment carrying features of the mighty GangesBrahamaputra-Meghna (GBM) Basin. The total drainage area of these river systems is more than 1.55 million sq.km. of which about 0.12 million sq.km. (7.5 per cent) lies within Bangladesh. GBM river system is, therefore, a continental system stretching across five countries: India, Nepal, Bhutan, China and Bangladesh, of which Meghna Basin is the smallest but one of the most unpredictable and chaotic basins in the world by hydrologic means. About 10 percent of the worlds humanity lives in GBM region, which contains only 1.2 percent of the worlds
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Impact Study of Tipaimukh Dam Project of India on Bangladesh landmass. The region is characterized by endemic poverty-being home to about 40 percent of the total number of poor people residing in the developing world. Larger portion of the northeast region of Bangladesh falls within the Meghna Basin. Meghna Basin, on the other hand, bounded by Indian Shield on the west, by Madhupur tract on southwest, by Meghalaya Foothills, Shillong Plateau and North Cachar Hills on the north, by Tripura Hills on the south; and the basin extends towards the northeastern states of India comprising western part of Manipur and northern part of Mizoram and Tripura. The total basin area of Meghna is 82,000 sq.km. out of which 47,000 sq.km. and 35,000 sq.km. lie in India and Bangladesh, respectively. The northeast region of Bangladesh encompasses 2.42 million hectares of land. The topography is irregular, falling from the piedmont hills near India across gently sloping plains to the Sylhet Depression near the geographic center of the region. The region is a triangular shaped wedged, roughly 250 km east to west and 120 km north to south. The region is bounded by the Old Brahamaputra River on the west, by the Meghalaya Foothills and Shillong Plateau on the north, and by the Tripura Hills on the southeast. It consists of two portions, the larger comprising 20,261 sq.km. or 83.5 per cent of the region, lying within the Meghna Basin. The smaller portion comprising 4,004 sq.km. or 16.5 per cent of the region, lies on the left bank of the Old Brahamaputra and Lakhya River.
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Fig: Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna (GBM) Basin Although the two portions of the region experience essentially the same climate and are similar geologically, they differ significantly in the number and nature of their cross-boundary inflows. The Meghna portion receives many flashy inflows from the adjacent Indian states of Tripura, which lies south of the region, and Meghalaya to the north. It also receives the substantial outflow of the Barak River Basin, which lies to the east and occupies parts of the Indian states of Assam, Mizoram and Manipur. In contrast, the Old Brahamaputra and Lakhya portion receives only floodwaters spilling into the Old Brahamaputra from the Jamuna and Brahamaputra River.
Impact Study of Tipaimukh Dam Project of India on Bangladesh The Contemporary State of the Hydrologic System: The Meghna Basin comprises five main river sub-basins: Sylhet Basin (Surma-Kushiyara river system) within the northeast region of Bangladesh and on the western part of Meghna Basin, Barak Basin on the eastern part, Meghalaya Foothills Basin and Susang Hill on the north and Trpira Hill Basin on the south. Sylhet (Surma-Kushiyara) Basin: Sylhet sub-basin actually comprises larger portion of northeast region of Bangladesh (83.5 per cent). The basin is bordered by floodplain land from the Old Brahmaputra River on the west and from the Barak River on the east, by uplands of the Meghalaya Foothills on the north and by uplands and Piedmont floodplains along the south. As it has been mentioned earlier discussing on the northeast region, the topography is of the basin is irregular, falling from the piedmont hills near India across gently sloping plains to the Sylhet Depression near the geographic center of the region.
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Fig: Meghna Basin and northeast region of Bangladesh The interfluvial depressions, commonly known as the Haor are the dominant features of this basin. The large saucer shaped haor region covering an area of 8,000 sq.km., which is the largest single inland depression in the country. There are as many as 47 major haors in the whole haor region. The main streams traversing the Depression include Surma, Kalni, Kushiyara, Baulai and Dhanu River. Highly sinuous, meandering sand-bed channels with cohesive banks characterize the streams. Between May to October the entire central portion of the basin becomes deeply flooded in most years. Across the Sylhet Basin, rainfall during the southwest monsoon ranges from around 1400 mm (about 65 per cent of annual total in this particular region) in southwest to around 4100 mm (69 per cent) in the northeast at the border of Meghalaya. In contrast, the northeast monsoon brings dry air into the region basin
Impact Study of Tipaimukh Dam Project of India on Bangladesh China and rainfall in this season ranges from around 85 mm (4 per cent) in the southwest to around 220 mm (4 per cent) in the northwest. The spring reversal from around 493 mm (23 per cent) in the southwest to around 1287 mm (21 per cent) in the northeast, and the autumn reversal by decreasing sporadic rainfall, the rainfall ranging from around 171 mm (8 per cent) in the southwest to around 316 mm (6 per cent) in the northeast. All the surface water originating in the Barak, Meghalaya Foothills, Tripura Hills sub-basin actually enter to the Sylhet (SurmaKushiyara River) sub-Basin, flow towards the outlet of the whole Meghna Basin. Bhairab Bazar is considered as the outlet, which is 20 km. downstream of Bilapur, the joining point of the Surma and Kushiyara river system after being bifurcated at Amalshid from the Barak River. The recorded maximum discharge of the Meghna Basin at Bhairab Bazar was 19, 800 m3/s. Barak Basin: The Barak River drains 25,260 sq.km. of land in the states of Assam, Manipur and Mizoram in India. The basin has a relief of over 3,000 meter and much of the land is extremely mountainous. The Barak River is the main channel of this basin, originates from the hill complex near Mao at the border of Nagaland and Manipur, southeast of Japvo peak. It runs westward for some distance forming the boundary of Nagaland and Manipur and then suddenly turns southward and flows through Manipur until it reaches Tipaimukh at the southwestern corner of that state. It then takes a sharp northward turn, forms firstly the boundary of Manipur and Mizoram and then Manipur and Cachar district of Assam. Thus, flowing northward for about 60 km, it again sharply turns westward at Jirimukh and flows through Cachar Plain sluggishly. In the western part of the Cachar plain the river gives out two branches near Indo- Bangla border, close to Amalshid of Sylhet district. The northern branch is known as the Surma, the southern branch is called the Kushiyara. The river system of both the branches again join together at Bilapur on the Upper Meghna River in Bangladesh. The total length of the Barak-Surma-Kushiyara River is about 902 km. of which 403 km. is in Bangladesh. Its important right-bank tributaries include Makru and Jiri in Manipur and Labak, Madhura , Dalu, Jatinga and Larang in the Barak Plain. The major left-bank tributaries are Irang and Tuivai (Tipai) in Manipur and Sonai, Rukni, Katakhal, Dhaleswari, Singla and Langai in Cachar Plain. Mean annual rainfall varies from about 3,000 mm in the western part of the basin to about 1,700 mm in the east. The river sedimentation and morphological study carried by FAP 6 suggests that roughly 1,440 tonnes/km2 of sediment is yield in the Barak River and the corresponding annual sediment inflow from the Barak River at Amalshid is 36.5 million tones/year. The study also mentioned that the presented figure is estimated using the regional
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Impact Study of Tipaimukh Dam Project of India on Bangladesh analysis of Jansen and Painter, while it includes both the wash load and suspended material load components. The description on the hydrological process involved in the Meghalaya Foothills, Susang Hills and Tripura Hills watershed have been reproduced here briefly from the discussion presented in the report of River Sedimentation and Morphology, Northeast Regional Water Management Project (FAP 6).
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Fig: Discharge hydrograph of Amalshid on the Barak River Meghalaya Foothills Basin: Streams draining the Meghalaya Foothills include Lubha River, Hari River, Dauki River, Ohalai gang, Chela River, Jhalukhali River, Jadukata River, Lengura River and Someswari River. The watersheds are all located in the Shillong Plateau, a large elevated block of Pre-Cambrian Basement rock that has been draped over by late Mesozoic and Cenozoic sediments. The total Meghalaya catchment area amounts to 13,466 sq.km. which represents 20.4 per cent of the regions external catchment area. The two largest catchments are the Jadukata River catchment (2,500 sq.km.) and Someswari River catchment (2,480 sq.km.). The average annual rainfall tends to increase with elevation, reaching up to 12,000 mm/year near the headwaters of the Cheala River catchment. In general, rainfall amounts decrease towards the eastern and western limits of the Foothills. Even so, annual rainfalls still exceed 10,000 mm over the headwaters of the Jadukata River and Jhalukhali River. Runoff generated from the Meghalaya Foothills streams is very flashy and of very high intensity. Published records indicate peak daily discharges reached around 2,800 m3/s in 1988 and 1991 on the Ohalai Gang (8.2 m3/s/km2), and around 3,150 m3/s on the Someswari River in 1988 (1.5 m3/s/km2). Daily discharges exceeded 5,000 m3/s twice on Jadukata River in 1991, with the maximum discharge intensity being 2.07 m3/s /km2. These flows are more than twice the highest daily discharge recorded on the Surma River at Sylhet. Given the huge flood flow volumes that can be generated, steep catchment slopes and the presence of relatively erodible
Impact Study of Tipaimukh Dam Project of India on Bangladesh sedimentary rocks, it is expected that the sediment yields from these basins would be extremely high. Site observations and air photo interpretation indicate the Someswari River, Jadukata River, Jhalukhali River are indeed transporting huge quantities of predominately sandsized sediments. Sediment yields from the Dhalai gang and Dauki River are also very large, although the sediment is much coarser, being composed of a mixture of coarse sand, gravel, cobbles and boulders. Susang Hills Basin: The Susang Hills are drained by three main rivers: Bhogai River, Chillikhali River, Malijhee River. These catchments range in size from 453 sq.km to 118 sq.km. The Chillikhali and Malijhee catchments are of low relief (150 meter) while the Bhogai River catchment is more mountainous. Rainfall volumes range between 2,700 - 3,500 mm/year, generally decreasing to the west. Runoff intensities, although lower than the Meghalaya streams, are still high. For example, measurements on the Bhogai River indicated maximum daily discharges have reached 1,240 m3/s, which corresponds to a runoff intensity of 2.74 m3/s/km2. The long-term mean discharge between 1964-1991 was 38 m3/s, which corresponds to a depth of runoff of 2,645 mm. No information is available on the sediment yields from these streams. However, given the lower relief and lower rainfall over the basins it is believed that the sediment yields would be relatively low. Using the regional sediment yield data, a figure of 1,000 tonnes/km2 was adopted as a preliminary estimate for these streams. This implies the three catchments supply in the order of 700,000 tonnes/year of sand load. Tripura Hill: Streams draining the Tripura Hills include the Juri River, Manu River, Dhalai River, Karangi River, Khowai River and Sutang River. The catchment areas are defined by five prominent north-south trending ridges that project from India into the region. These long linear ridges are plunging anticlines composed primarily of sandstone, siltstone and shale. The intervening basins are long and narrow and have wide, flat valley floors. Relief is relatively low; typically less than 1,000 meter. Rainfall averages around 2,300 mm/year in the headwaters. There have been several extreme floods in the 1980's and comparatively lower flood discharges in the 1960's and 1970's. However, the runoff rates are substantially lower than the catchments draining the Meghalaya or Susang Hills catchments. For example, the flood of record on the Khowai River was reported to reach 1,050 m3/s in 1988, which corresponds to a runoff of 0.94 m3/s/km2. This is less than half of the runoff intensity from recent floods on the Jadukata River. A review of satellite photos and topographic maps from the 1950's suggests the sediment yields from the headwaters of the Tripura watersheds has increased substantially in recent years. Land clearing for agriculture and plantations is one likely
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Impact Study of Tipaimukh Dam Project of India on Bangladesh cause of the changes. Estimated annual loads are approximately 1.2 million tonnes/year on Khowai River and 3.5 million tonnes/year on Manu River. The year-to-year variation in sediment loads was found to be particularly high on the Khowai River. For example, the load in transported during five days of high flows in 1988 exceeded the sediment load supplied during the previous five years! This illustrates the critical effect that extreme flood events can have on the sedimentation processes in the region. Impact of Tipaimukh dam on downstream co-riparian Bangladesh The construction of Tipaimukh dam will have serious adverse impact on the downstream part of the Barak river basin, which is in northeastern part of Bangladesh, and known as Surma-Kushyiara-Meghna river basin. Institute of Water Modelling (IWM), an autonomous research institute in Bangladesh has recently conducted a study on the impact of Tipaimukh dam on Bangladesh . The study predicts that, the dam, once operational, will change the hydrological pattern of the Barak River. According to the report, the overall nature of impact can be summarized in six broad categories, like hydrological impact, impact on flooding pattern and on river-floodplain-wetland ecosystem, impact on morphology, impact on water quality, dam-beak and general.
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Impacts on Hydrology:
The IWM study estimate that once the Tipaimukh dam is fully functional, average annual monsoon inflow from the Barak River at Amalshid point to the Surma-Kushiyara-Meghna River system would be reduced around 10% for month June, 23% for month July, 16% for month August and 15% for month September. Water level would fall by more than 1 meter on average during the month July at Amalshid station on the Kushiyara River, while this would be around 0.25 meter, 0.15 meter and 0.1 meter at Fenchuganj, Sherpur and Markuli station, respectively. On the other hand, at Kanairghat and Sylhet station on the Surma River, average water level would drop by 0.75 meter and 0.25 meter, respectively in the same month. During relatively drier monsoon year, dam would have more impact on the availability of monsoon water in the Barak-SurmaKushiyara River than the average annual monsoon year. Like for the month July, August and September, flow would be reduced as much as 27%, 16% and 14%, respectively, 4%, 2% and 2% higher than the volume reduction found for average monsoon year.
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Impact on Inundation Wetland Ecosystem:
Pattern
and
River-Floodplain-
Sylhet and Moulvibazar district in northeastern part of Bangladesh will be effected more due to the Tipaimukh Dam operation regarding their natural monsoon-flooding pattern. For Sylhet district, total inundated area would be reduced by 30,123 ha. (26%) during post-dam scenario than it actually happens in pre-dam average monsoon season. For Moulvibazar district, this would be around 5,220 ha. (11%). 71% of the Upper Surma-Kushiyara Project area would no longer be flooded during average monsoon season for post-dam condition. The Kushyiara River would cut its connection with its right bank floodplain for around 65 km. reach. As a result the river at this part will become reservoir river; rather than a most valuable floodplain river. The Kushiyara-Bardal haor (wetland) on the left bank of the Kushiyara River would become completely dry during average monsoon year dry due to Tipaimukh dam operation. The Kawardighi haor (wetland) would also lose around 2,979 ha. (26 %) of its usual inundated land during average monsoon year. Impact on Damrir haor and Hakaluki haor would be relatively less in comparison to other haors of the Sylhet and Moulvibazar district. The above impacts on the river-floodplain-wetland would destroy the natural integrity of the ecosystem involved within these physical system, thereby, the consequences of that will be the loss of riverine habitat and species, lack of enrichment of land with the nutrient full silt leading to the ultimate decline in the natural productivity of the two most abundant resources of Bangladesh land and water.
Impact on Morphology:
The erosion just downstream of the Tipaimukh Dam would be excessively high and this erosion would continue as long as hundred kilometers downstream or more. This excessive erosion in the first 100 or 150 km. of Barak River downstream of the dam would increase the overall deposition in the lower Barak River, thereby, in the Surma- Kushiyara River system. Low flow during late monsoon and post-monsoon will accelerate this deposition in the region. The probable deposition during late monsoon and post-monsoon season will raise the overall bed level of the rivers, and for an extreme case it would block the mouth of certain tributaries originating from the Kushiyara River. Bed level would rise and that will induce the average monsoon flood to become a moderate to severe flood in the floodplain of the Surma-Kushiyara. There would be possibility of increasing erosion in the upper Kushiyara River, and this will cause more deposition in the downstream of Kushiyara River and in Kalni River.
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Dam Break and Its Consequences:

The communities living in the downstream of any dam remains in a constant threat of catastrophe being occurred by dam-bursts and dam induced other floods. The apprehension like this is intensified further when the very seismic characteristics, its activities as well as the instability of the Tipaimukh Dam site and the region as a whole is taken into the consideration. The claimed Reservoir Induced Siesmicity (RIS) is another important feature of any large dam project that should be considered in the analysis of safety ground of Tipaimukh Dam Project . Construction of Tipaimukh dam is violation of co-riparian rights: India and Bangladesh share many rivers and water resources. The rivers that flow across the northern parts of India are mostly international rivers or their tributaries. In the North Eastern region, the Brahmaputra River and the Barak River are both international rivers. The joys and sorrows that these two rivers mean for the peoples of Bangladesh and northeastern India are shared. This issue has been well recognized and many efforts are in place to address this unhappy state of affairs. International water treaties have been made and even a Joint Rivers Commission was set up to examine and settle disputes . The Tipaimukh Dam project was entirely developed and approved without once informing the government of Bangladesh or involving its people in any meaningful exercise to assess the downstream impacts of the dam. This is clearly a gross violation of co-riparian rights of Bangladesh. The unilateral construction of Tipaimukh dam on an international river is also violation of UN Convention on the Law of Non-navigational Uses of International watercourses.
Chapter Seven
Environmental condition of the eastern folded belt of Bengal Basin
Environmental condition of the eastern folded belt of Bengal Basin
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7.1 Environmental Condition

Regional geology Bangladesh constitutes the eastern continuation of the central broad IndoGangetic plains of India, which serve to physiographically divide the Peninsular (shield) area to the south from the extra-Peninsular region (Himalayan mountain ranges) to the north and northeast. The Bengal basin is located primarily in Bangladesh, with a lesser part in the West Bengal State of India. The basin is surrounded by India on three sides. The Shillong Plateau of Assam lies to the immediate north, and the Himalayas to the distant north. The IndoBurmese Arakan-Chin uplifts lie to the east and the Indian shield to the west.
Fig: Map showing major tectonic elements in and around the Bengal basin. The Dauki fault separates the Sylhet trough from the uplifted Shillong Plateau at the north. The area is open toward the south and drains into the Bay of Bengal in the northern Indian Ocean. Sediment carried by three major rivers, the Ganges, the Brahmaputra, and the Meghna, is distributed to the Bengal deep-sea fan by turbidity currents through the Swatch of No Ground, a submarine canyon. The Bay of Bengal has beenidentified as a remnant ocean basin because the basin has been closing by easterly subduction beneath the IndoBurman ranges and the Andaman and Sunda Arcs. Stratigraphy The stratigraphy of the basin is incompletely known because of thick sequences of alluvium cover and relative paucity of fossils. Comparative lithologic studies have been the only means to establish and to interpret
Environmental condition of the eastern folded belt of Bengal Basin the stratigraphy. The nomenclature and classification of the stratigraphy of the Bengal basin is established on the basis of type sections in the Assam basin (northeast India). Stratigraphically, only the Tertiary rocks are exposed in the folded flank of the Bengal basin (Chittagong Hills and flanks of the Sylhet trough; and the Permo Carboniferous Gondwana coals are the oldest Phanerozoic sediments at the holes drilled into the Precambrian Indian platform tectonic zone in northwest Bengal basin. These intracratonic, faultbounded Gondwana coal deposits are exposed at the western fringe of the Bengal basin, in the Bihar State of India. There are also subsurface occurrences of volcanic rocks, equivalent to the Rajmahal traps of India, followed by trap-wash sediments present above the Gondwana coal formations at the NW of the Bengal basin. Repeated submergence and emergence of the Bengalbasin must have taken place in the shelf region during Late CretaceousMiddle Eocene time, whenthe deeper parts of the Stable shelf of West Bengal, Bangladesh and Assam were invaded by the sea, whereas freshwater sedimentation of sandstone and carbonaceous mudrocks continued in most of the shallow shelf regions. In the Bengal foreland and Indo Burman ranges, sedimentation took place in a marine environment and turbidites probably played an important role in sedimentation. The Eocene interval is marked by an extensive marine transgression caused by conspicuous basin-wide subsidence. Clastic sediment input on the Stable shelf was reduced and the shelf became the site of deposition of shallow, clear water, open marine, limestone. These limestones, commonly known as the Sylhet Limestone, are very rich in fossil nummulites. This limestone is exposed at the northern fringe of the Sylhet trough on the south slope of the Shillong plateau.
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Fig: Stratigraphic framework of the Bengal basin.

Environmental condition of the eastern folded belt of Bengal Basin The Oligocene to Earliest Miocene time was characterized by a major marine regression exposing most of the Stable shelf. The Bengal basin is bounded from the Burma basin to the east by the IndoBurman ranges. The Oligocene clastic rocks (Barail Group) are exposed in part of the Sylhet trough and drilled in some holes. The Miocene Surma Group is a diachronous unit consisting of a succession of alternating mud rock, sandstone, siltstone and sandy shale with occasional thin conglomerates. Overlying the Surma Group, the Upper Marine Shale represents a regional marine transgression in the region. By Early Miocene time, a major phase of sedimentation started and huge amounts of clastic sediment were funneled into the basin from the northeast and the major MioPliocene delta complex started to build from the northeast. A considerable amount of sediment was also coming into the basin from the northwest and small deltas were building on the western side of the basin. Sedimentation was in deltaic and open-shelf environments along the basin margins, whereas turbidities were controlling the sedimentation in the central and southern areas. Deltaic sedimentation during the Miocene has been documented based on extensive studies of lithofacies, and fossil assemblages (mostly palynology; as cited in, confirmed by studies of seismic reflection character. Many investigations of lithofacies have reported mainly coastal to shallow water deposits, with some reports of deep marine strata in SE Bangladesh. Tests of foraminifers and hystrichospherids from the more shaky sequences in the Chittagong Hills also indicate brackish to marine environments. Remains of gastropods, lamellibranchiate, echinoids and burrows discovered in cross-bedded sandstone of the Bhuban Formation indicate nearshore depositional environments. A paleogeography reconstruction of the Bengal basin in the Miocene shows several deltaic complexes programing from the northeast, east, west and northwest into the basin. Strata of the overlying Tipam Formation were laid down under continental fluviatile conditions. During this time, strata along the eastern margin of the Bengal basin began to be actively deformed. The stratigraphy of Bangladesh is somewhat problematic because the greater part of the country is covered by thick alluvium and almost all the strata are devoid of faunal fossils. The works leading to the establishment of stratigraphy in Bangladesh are mainly based on lithological interpretation. The lithostratigraphic units are defined and described in terms of their lithological composition and geographical location only. Bangladesh occupies most of the Bengal Basin - a major geotectonic element of the Assam -Himalayan region and is considered apparently the largest depositional feature in the world today. The Bengal Basin is the site of the worlds largest delta (about 60,000 km2) formed by rivers (Ganges,s Brahmaputra/Jamuna, Padma, Meghna) that drain a
56
Environmental condition of the eastern folded belt of Bengal Basin large proportion of the Himalayas. Structural architecture of the Bengal Basin has been strongly controlled by the collision pattern of the Indian plate with the Burma and Tibetan plates. The eastern fold belt (EFB) of the basin, comprising a series of northsouth-trending curvilinear anticlines and synclines, represents a fold-and-thrust belt that constitutes the westward continuation of ArakanChin fold system of the IndoBurman Ranges. The present study is mainly concerned with the 2D modeling of the anticlinal structures in order to develop an understanding about the processresponse relationships between the structural style and tectonic evolution of the eastern fold belt. The dominant fold-generating mechanism is believed to be the eastwestdirected compressional force arising from oblique subduction of the Indian plate beneath the Burma plate that resulted in the growth of faultpropagation folds above a detachment or decollement at depth, giving rise to the Neogene accretionary prism complex development. A prominent feature of the region is the major east-dipping thrusts separating successive accretionary wedges. In seismic sections, evidence for several phases of compressional deformation suggests that multiphase stress conditions were responsible for the structural expression of the fold belt. Deep seismic sections reveal that the base of folding is characterized by a low-interval velocity horizon that represents a detachment separating the upper folded zone from the lower, seismically coherent, nearly unfolded zone. This detachment coincides with the under compacted pressured shale unit, which is thought to have played an important role in the structural development of the eastern fold belt. Clay mineralogical analysis reveals the presence of a low-density shale horizon within the dense and thick shale sequence that is thought to be an under compacted pressured shale during the geological past, and was responsible for the initiation of decollement and incipient diapirism involving thin-skinned tectonics. It is suggested that the salient structural features of the eastern fold belt, e.g. multiphase fold development, series of east-dipping thrusts and a basal zone of detachment or decollement, are the products of thin-skinned tectonics resulting from the Indo-Burmese plate convergence. The eastern fold belt (EFB) of the Bengal Basin, also known as the ChittagongTripura fold belt (CTFB) represents the Neogene post collision tectonic element that developed due to oblique convergence of the Indian plate with the Burma and Tibetan plates. Tectonically, the EFB is regarded as the western part element of the compressional ArakanChin fold system of the IndoBurman Ranges that migrated westward from the early Miocene, and reached Bangladesh territory in late Miocene/ early Pliocene times. The EFB is bounded on the west by the present-day deep basinal part of the basin and on the east by the thrust sheets of the
57
Environmental condition of the eastern folded belt of Bengal Basin IndoBurman fold system that extends linearly from the Arakan Hills of Myanmar (Burma) in the south to the Naga Hills of India in the north. The Neogene sedimentary succession of the EFB, consisting predominantly of thick clastic sequences of shale, sandy shale, and sandstone, remains relatively less deformed in comparison with the rock strata in the adjacent Indo Burman fold belt to the east. The structural style in the EFB is commonly expressed as a series of overall north south-trending elongate anticlines and synclines, the former commonly associated with faults. The intensity of tectonic deformation is relatively severe in the east and gradually diminishes towards the west of the EFB. The Bengal Basin, especially the EFB, has been the focus of geological investigation over the past few decades owing to its hydrocarbon potential. Significant contributions have been made by several workers in relation to the regional geology, hydrocarbon prospects, sedimentology, and tectonic evolution of individual parts of the basin and adjoining areas. However, very few studies relate the structural style of the EFB to the tectonic evolution of the Bengal Basin. Accordingly, there remains a major gap in our understanding regarding the structural evolution and development of the EFB.s
58
Fig: Regional tectonic setting of the Bengal Basin showing its tectonic elements Tectonic setting The Bengal Basin is located between the Precambrian Indian Shield platform to the west and the mainly Tertiary and partly Mesozoic Indo Burman fold belt to the east, and bounded by the Precambrian Shillong Plateau in the north. To the south, the basin extends into the Bay of Bengal with its present-day shelf edge near the 200-m bathymetric contour. The basin is believed to have evolved largely over a remnant ocean basin and rifted continental margin of eastern India, with at least
Environmental condition of the eastern folded belt of Bengal Basin its northern and northwestern portion underlain by continental crustand the southern and southeastern part underlain by oceanic crust. From a regional perspective, the tectonic elements surrounding the Indian subcontinent are thought to have started developing with northward drift of the Indian plate since Cretaceous and its collision with the Tibetan landmass by early/middle Eocene. Several independent geological and geophysical evidences suggest that the Indian plate has been subducting beneath both the Tibetan and Burma plates during the greater part of the Tertiary. Towards north, the collision between the Indian and Tibetan plates has led to development of the eastwest-trending Himalayas, and towards east, the subduction process developed the roughly northsouthtrending IndoBurman fold belt with the EFB as its westward extension. The IndoBurman Ranges and the Andaman Islands form a tectonically continuous belt displaying various geological elements of an arctrench system, and the development of the EFB is closely related to the easterly subduction of the Indian plate within this arc-trench setting.
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7.2 Environmental Problems

There are various environmental problems is the eastern folded belt of Bengal basin which are described in the various chapter of this report. Among them acute environmental problems are described here. Environmental problems with coal, oil, and gas This problem is severe in various areas of eastern folded belt of Bengal basin. Over the past quarter century, we have come to realize that there is more to life than material goods and services, that "some of the best things in life are free." The pleasure we derive from breathing fresh air, drinking pure water, and enjoying the beauty that nature has provided is priceless and must not be sacrificed. Moreover, losing them will lead directly or indirectly to incalculable economic losses. We have come to appreciate the importance of our environment. Wide variety of environmental problems in burning fossil fuels coal, oil, and gas. They probably exceed those of any other human activity. The ones that have received the most publicity in recent years have been the "greenhouse effect," which is changing the Earth's climate; acid rain, which is destroying forests and killing fish; and air pollution, which is killing tens of thousands of people every year, while making tens of millions ill and degrading our quality of life in other ways Coal, oil, and gas consist largely of carbon and hydrogen. The process that we call "burning" actually is chemical reactions with oxygen in the air. For the most part, the carbon combines with oxygen to form carbon dioxide (CO2), and the hydrogen combines with oxygen to form water vapor (H20). In both of these chemical reactions a substantial amount of energy is released as
Environmental condition of the eastern folded belt of Bengal Basin heat. Since heat is what is needed to instigate these chemical reactions, we have a chain reaction: reactions cause heat, which causes reactions, which cause heat, and so on. Once started the process continues until nearly all of the fuel has gone through the process (i.e., burned), or until something is done to stop it. Of course, the reason for arranging all this is to derive the heat. The carbon dioxide that is released is the cause of the greenhouse effect we will be discussing. A large coal-burning plant annually burns 3 million tons of coal to produce 11 million tons of carbon dioxide. The water vapor release presents no problems, since the amount in the atmosphere is determined by evaporation from the oceans if more is produced by burning, that much less will be evaporated from the seas. Environmental impact of fishing This problem is acute in Tanguar Haor area. The environmental impact of fishing can be divided into issues that involve the availability of fish to be caught, such as overfishing, sustainable fisheries, and fisheries management; and issues that involve the impact of fishing on other elements of the environment, such as by-catch. These conservation issues are part of marine conservation, and are addressed in fisheries science programs. There is a growing gap between how many fish are available to be caught and humanitys desire to catch them, a problem that gets worse as the world population grows. Similar to other environmental issues, there can be conflict between the fishermen who depend on fishing for their livelihoods and fishery scientists who realise that if future fish populations are to be sustainable then some fisheries must reduce or even close. Effects on habitat: Some fishing techniques also may cause habitat destruction. Dynamite fishing and cyanide fishing, which are illegal in many places, harm surrounding habitat. Overfishing: Overfishing has also been widely reported due to increases in the volume of fishing hauls to feed a quickly growing number of consumers. This has led to the breakdown of some sea ecosystems and several fishing industries whose catch has been greatly diminished. The extinction of many species has also been reported. Ecological disruption: Fishing may disrupt food webs by targeting specific, in-demand species. There might be too much fishing of prey species such as sardines and anchovies, thus reducing the food supply for the predators. It may also cause the increase of prey species when the target fishes are predator species such as salmon and tuna. Fisheries can reduce fish stocks that cetaceans rely on for food.
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Environmental condition of the eastern folded belt of Bengal Basin Possible remedies: Many governments and intergovernmental bodies have implemented fisheries management policies designed to curb the environmental impact of fishing. Fishing conservation aims to control the human activities that may completely decrease a fish stock or washout an entire aquatic environment. Fish farming has been proposed as a more sustainable alternative to traditional capture of wild fish. However, fish farming has been found to have negative impacts on nearby wild fish. Further, farming of predatory fish like salmon can rely on fish feed that is based on fish meal and oil from wild fish.
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7.3 Law and Restriction

Environmental recourses are limited. It should be kept in mind that it is our duty to keep the environment free from pollution. Usually the Sylhet area is full of recourses. The dwellers maintain their daily basis depending on the natural recourses. At takerghat we saw a very significant pollution from extracting natural recourses. Limestone extraction causes an outstanding amount of air pollution. This kind of operation should maintained in a controlled manner. Government should make a strict rule to minimize the pollution. The N.G.O should be more careful about this type of mining. The general people who do not know much about this kind of pollution but suffering from it should be concerned about this pollution. Takerghat area containing a massive amount of peat in the soil. It spoils the normal properties of soil. Extraction should be maintained more carefully. Government can control the peat extraction. The area is surrounded by Meghalaya hilly region. The main problem of this area is flash flood from Meghalaya hill. Government should follow a more planned way to free the area from pollution. The use of natural water should be in a planned manner. For cultivation and drinking the water has been used. But the pollution from Dumper bazaar area causing a vulnerable situation. Government should take a great measure to minimize the pollution from peat. The Tanguar haor is one of the most resourceful area. There are government based rule to preserve biodiversity. But dishonest people are causing problem. So there should be strict rule for the conservation of biodiversity. The CNRS and IUCN are working for the conservation. But general people should also be more aware about the situation. Government based awareness campaign should be made for welfare of the environment. It is not possible for the local authority to maintain the balance of haor. N.G.O can make this tusk easy for the government. So N.G.O based activity should be accelerated to maintain the natural balance. The
Environmental condition of the eastern folded belt of Bengal Basin people who are extracting limestone from the Ponatirtho river do not know about the consequences. This people should be taught well to make aware about the natural depth and current of the river. Sand extraction from this river should be done at a controlled wayGovernment should make people aware about the pollution of the river. When we studied the Alomnogor area of Jokiganj we saw Kushiyara river. We saw that the portion of Bangladesh has been erosional. Government should make a solution about the erosion the river. There are many problems within the pollution at Utlarpar, Horipur. It was the first gas and crude oil exploration project. But the drilling equipments were destroyed because of the high pressure beneath the surface. So for this kind of mining project the workers should be appointed who are more potential. We observed a massive amount of air pollution at jaflong area beside the Dawki River. Government should be more aware this pollution. Stone containing vehicles can be finned if it is causing pollution above an optimum level. This environment is ours. And its resources are limited. The utilization should be done in such a way that doesnt harm the natural balance of the environment. Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act (BECA) is set of laws enacted by the government of Bangladesh in 1995. The Act gives operational definitions of terms that historically did not exist in the legal regime of the country, including ecosystem, pollution, waste and hazardous substance. Seven areas in Bangladesh are defined as Ecologically Critical Areas under this law beyond the scope of the Forest Act of 1927 enacted by the British Raj. Other major preservation laws enacted by the government of Bangladesh include the Bangladesh Wild Life (Preservation) Order of 1973, the Marine Fisheries Ordinance of 1983 and the Brick Burning (Control) Act of 1989. Other major preservation laws enacted before the independence of Bangladesh include the Public Parks Act of 1904, the Agricultural and Sanitary Improvement Act of 1920, the Protection and Conservation of Fish Act of 1950. In September 2009, the four rivers around the capital city Dhaka Buriganga River, Shitalakshya River, Turag River and Balu River -- have been declared by the Department of Environment as ECAs. The Act followed the establishment of the Ministry of Environment and Forest in 1989 and the National Environment Management Action Plan (NEMAP) in 1992, as well as the Forest Policy in 1994 and the Forestry Master Plan (19932012) in 1993. Despite the Act and its supporting laws and policies the environmental degradation of Bangladesh continues principally under the population pressure.
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Chapter Eight
Conclusion and Recommendation
Conclusion and Recommendation The Sylhet Division with its hills and basins constitute one of the most distinctive regions in Bangladesh. The physiography of Sylhet comprises mainly of hill soils, encompassing a few large depressions known locally as "beels" caused by tectonic subsidence. It is flanked by the Indian states of the Meghalaya in the north, Assam in the east, Tripura in the south and the Bangladesh districts of Netrokona, Kishoregonj and Bramanbaria in the west. At the center there is a vast low laying flood plain of recent origin with saucer shaped depressions, locally called Haors. Available limestone deposits in different parts of the region suggest that the whole area was under sea in the Oligo-Miocene. Earlier we crossed the Surma river. We studied the features of the river. We studied that how iron content is coming out from the river bank. We observed a hilly region along with river and drainage system. Sylhet division consists of a great amount of natural gas, lime stone. The most resourceful area is the Tanguar haor. We observed the Ponatirtho river(Jadukata river). Which is evoluted from the natural falls from Meghalaya hills. We observed a massive flash flood hazard at Shunamgonj area. The river system of total sylhet area is interlinked with Meghalaya hilly area, tanguar haor, and rivers entering into Bangladesh from India. We observed many mineralogical resources in Takerghat. Such as (limestone, peat etc). the Tanguar Haor is one of the most important for biodiversity in Bangladesh which we also studied. Takerghat area is also significant for air pollution and health hazard. We observed the area called jakiganj which area is beside India. The Barak river entered Bangladesh from India through this upazilla. We studied Alomnagar area. Kushiyara river is flowing alongside of the area within India. This river showed the erosional hazard. This river is one of the trans-boundary river of Bangladesh-India. The Borak river entering point at Amolshid area is the most important for Bangladesh now a days. We observed the evolution of kushiara and Surma from Barak river. We can understand the consequences if Tipaimukh dam is built. We observed how a river converts into multiple number of rivers. Barak river entered Bangladesh as a river, but it is a distributary river of Surma and kushiara. There we studied the impact of erosion and deposition. If Tipaimukh dam is constructed then surma and kushiara will be no more. Total Sylhet region will turn into a desert land. We went to the Haripur area where we observed the Utlarpar gas explosion area. Release of free methane is very significant for the destruction of ozone layer. Here we also observed the layer of Tipum sand at the side wall. We observed the Madhobkunda eco-park. Where we observed Madhobkunda natural water fall, geologic feature and many flora. At jaflong we studied the Dawki River and some portion of dawki fault. The most important thing is that we can now understand the lifestyle of such area. Finally we can say that Sylhet area is very significant for environmental study.
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Chapter Nine
Appendix
Appendix
64
Appendix
GPS Location of the Study Area
Area
Barikkar tila, laurer gor Lakma chora Base camp : TLMP, tahirpur Lakma village Dumper baazar Dumper ghat Row of koroch tree Poncho haor dam Chiragao village Tanguar haor entering route Laowa bill Loichchamara khanda bill Roa bill Chordynna bill CNRS project area Hatikada chor Water seepage in lakma chora ICP, Alamnagar, jokigonj Meeting point of borak-surmakushiyara Madhabkunda, Moulovibazar Utlapukur gas accident zone Oil drilling pipe, Haripur
GPS Location
231520N, 901445E 251118N, 910947E 251140N, 911015E 251140N, 910957E 251044N, 910931E 251037N, 910928E 250938N, 910801E 250934N, 910706E 250844N, 910636E 250821N, 910613E 250819N, 910553E 250817N, 910531E 250814N, 910525E 250738N, 910503E 250810N, 910829E 250857N, 910808E 250926N, 910650E 295223N, 922154E 245233N, 922916E
243815N, 921324E 245851N, 920144E 245855N, 920156E
Appendix
65
Chemical Properties of Water Body of Tanguar Haor

7.8 pH 9.1 8.6 6.18 mg/l 7.50 mg/l DO 7.06 mg/l 7.80 mg/l 90 Micro siemens EC 78 Micro siemens 10.6 mg/l 8.3 mg/l TDS 11.0 mg/l 9.5 mg/l Salinity 0.03%
Chapter Ten
References
References
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References
www.Wikipedia.Com www.Banglapedia .com Aziz A, Tanbir M(1999) Newly recorded algal taxa from some northern districts of Bangladesh. Coates, J., 1945. The construction of geologic sections. J. Geol. Min. Met. Soc. India 18, 1 20. Imam, M.B,1987. Implication of shale diagenesis on cementation of reservoir sandstone in the Neogene Surma Group of Bengal Basin, Bangladesh. J. Geol. Soc. India 30, 477 492. Sabir B. Muzaffar, Fakhruddin A. Ahmed, The effects of the flood cycle on the diversity and composition of the phytoplankton community of a seasonally flooded Ramsar wetland in Bangladesh. Johnson, S.Y., Alam, A.M.N., 1991. Sedimentation and tectonics of the Sylhet Trough, Bangladesh. Md. Salauddin and A.K.M Saiful Islam, IDENTIFICATION OF LAND COVER CHANGES OF THE HAOR AREA OF BANGLADESH USING MODIS IMAGES. R.K. Ranjan Singh, Tipaimukh in The Ecologist Asia, Vol. 11 No. 1 January-March 2003, Mumbai, p. 77. Abu Saleh Khan, Md. Sohel Masud, Wahid Palash, Hydrological Impact Study of Tipaimukh Dam of India on Bangladesh.

Assessment of Geo-Environmental Hazards and Natural Resources of Sylhet Region, Bangladesh

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Assessment of Geo-environmental Hazards and Natural resources of Sylhet Region, Bangladesh

Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University Savar, Dhaka-1342

Assessment of Geo-environmental Hazards and Natural resources of Sylhet Region, Bangladesh

Department of Environmental Sciences Jahangirnagar University Savar, Dhaka 1342

1.1 Background of the study

Assessment of Geo-environmental hazards and Natural resources of Sylhet region, Bangladesh

1.2 Location of the study area

Assessment of Geo-environmental hazards and Natural resources of Sylhet region, Bangladesh

1.3 Routes of Our Study Area

Kallanpur Bus Counter, Dhaka

Slyhet, Amborkhana (Base Camp)

Sunamganj Bus Counter Day-1 Saheb Barir Ghat

Day-3 TLMP area and Lakma Chora Tamabil

Ponatirtho River or Jadukata River

Sylhet Bus Counter

Day-6 Barikkar Tila Damper Bazar Kallanpur Bus Counter, Dhaka

Takerghat Limestone Mining Project (Base Camp)

1.4 Aims and Objectives

Assessment of Geo-environmental hazards and Natural resources of Sylhet region, Bangladesh

Assessment of Geo-environmental hazards and Natural resources of Sylhet region, Bangladesh

Geology and Geography of the study area

Geology and Geography of the study area

2.2 Structural geology and Tectonics

2.4 Sylhet Trough

2.5 Rivers and drainage system

2.6 Geography and climate

Assessment of Geo-environmental hazards and Natural resources of Sylhet region, Bangladesh

Geology and Geography of the study area

Climate data for Sylhet region, Bangladesh, Source: Weatherbase

Assessment of Geo-environmental hazards and Natural resources of Sylhet region, Bangladesh

3.1 Flora of the study area

Assessment of Geo-environmental hazards and Natural resources of Sylhet region, Bangladesh

Fig: Flora of the Jokigonj, Utlar par and Jaflong area

3.2 Fauna of the study area

Assessment of Geo-environmental hazards and Natural resources of Sylhet region, Bangladesh

4.1 Natural Gas:

Fig: Natural Gas Blow Out and Gas Field

Assessment of Geo-environmental hazards and Natural resources of Sylhet region, Bangladesh

Cairn/Shell 1997 Unocal/PB 2000

Grand Total (A +B+ C) in BCF Grand Total (A +B+ C) in Tcf

Source: Marketing and Production Division, Petrobangla (Revived on 15/02/2001)

Assessment of Geo-environmental hazards and Natural resources of Sylhet region, Bangladesh

4.2 Crude oil:

Fig: Crude oil in Haripur oil

Assessment of Geo-environmental hazards and Natural resources of Sylhet region, Bangladesh

Fig: Takerghat Limestone Deposit

Assessment of Geo-environmental hazards and Natural resources of Sylhet region, Bangladesh

4.5 Silica/Glass Sand:

4.6 Hard Rock:

Fig: Hard-rock of Jadukata river and Jafflong area

Assessment of Geo-environmental hazards and Natural resources of Sylhet region, Bangladesh

4.7 Water resource:

Fig: Surma and Kushiyara River

Fig: Origin of Surma and Kushiyara River

Fig: Tanguar Haor

Natural Hazards and Manmade hazards

Natural Hazards and Manmade hazards

5.1 Natural hazards

Assessment of Geo-environmental hazards and Natural resources of Sylhet region, Bangladesh

Natural Hazards and Manmade hazards

5.2 Vulnerabilities of Tanguar Haor area

Assessment of Geo-environmental hazards and Natural resources of Sylhet region, Bangladesh

5.3 Manmade hazards