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Chapter 1: Introduction

Dhamdhere: Operating Systems A Concept-Based Approach, 2 ed

Slide No: # Copyright 2008

What is an operating system ?

An operating system (OS) is a collection of programs that achieve effective utilization of a computer system by providing
Convenient methods of using a computer
* Saves users time and boosts their productivity

Efficient use of the computer

An OS has several kinds of users

The OS meets diverse requirements of different kinds of users Each user has a different view of what an OS is, and what it does. Each of these views is called an abstract view

Chapter 1: Introduction

Dhamdhere: Operating Systems A Concept-Based Approach, 2 ed

Slide No: # Copyright 2008

Abstract views

An abstract view focuses on the essential characteristics of a system

It contains some selected characteristics, and ignores others
* It helps to control complexity in designing and understanding a system, by hiding unnecessary detail

For example, two abstract views of a car:

* The drivers view contains the rear-view mirror, steering, gear shift, and speedometer but ignores engine details * The mechanics view contains fluid levels, electrical system,

Q: Give examples of abstract views

A: View of an abstract data type, object, ..

Chapter 1: Introduction Dhamdhere: Operating Systems A Concept-Based Approach, 2 ed
Slide No: # Copyright 2008

Abstract views

Abstract views are used in

Software requirements specification
* Specify what functions a system should perform

The abstract view of a specific function helps in understanding the system data and fundamental operations on them

Software design and implementation

* Hiding the details of functions and subsystems while designing or implementing other functions and subsystems helps to control complexity

Chapter 1: Introduction

Dhamdhere: Operating Systems A Concept-Based Approach, 2 ed

Slide No: # Copyright 2008

A designers abstract view of an OS

User interface: Accepts commands from users: GUI, command line interface Non-kernel programs: Implement user commands Kernel: Core of the OScontrols the computer, provides functions & services
Chapter 1: Introduction Dhamdhere: Operating Systems A Concept-Based Approach, 2 ed
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A designers abstract view of an OS

The abstract view consists of three components

The kernel programs
* interact with the computers hardware and implement the intended operation

The non-kernel programs

* implement creation of programs and use of system resources by them. These programs use kernel programs to control operation of the computer

The user interface

* interprets the commands of a user and activates non-kernel programs to implement them

Chapter 1: Introduction

Dhamdhere: Operating Systems A Concept-Based Approach, 2 ed

Slide No: # Copyright 2008

Goals of an OS

Two primary goals of an OS are

Efficient use of the computers resources
* To ensure cost-effectiveness of the computer

User convenience
* A user should find it easy to use the computer

These two goals sometimes conflict

Prompt service can be provided through exclusive use of a computer; however, efficient use requires sharing of a computers resources among many users An OS designer decides which of the two goals is more important under what conditions
* That is why we have so many operating systems!

Chapter 1: Introduction

Dhamdhere: Operating Systems A Concept-Based Approach, 2 ed

Slide No: # Copyright 2008

User convenience

The computing environment influences the notion of user convenience

The computing environment is comprised of
* The computer system
* Its interfaces with other systems * Nature of computations performed by its users

Computing environments change with the architecture and use of a computer, e.g. personal computing, online applications, embedded applications Hence the notion of user convenience has several facets that depend on the computing environment

Chapter 1: Introduction

Dhamdhere: Operating Systems A Concept-Based Approach, 2 ed

Slide No: # Copyright 2008

User convenience

User convenience has several facets

Fulfillment of a necessity
* Use of programs and files

Good service
* Speedy response

Ease of Use
* User friendliness

New programming model

* e.g., Concurrent programming

Web-oriented features
* e.g., Web-enabled servers

Evolution
* Addition of new features, use of new computers
Chapter 1: Introduction Dhamdhere: Operating Systems A Concept-Based Approach, 2 ed
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Operation of an OS

During operation, an OS performs two primary functions

Program management
* Perform program initiation/termination

* Provide means through which many programs can work toward a common goal
Helps in more convenient or faster fulfillment of user requirements

Resource management
* Ensure efficient use of resources Use of CPU, I/O devices

Chapter 1: Introduction

Dhamdhere: Operating Systems A Concept-Based Approach, 2 ed

Slide No: # Copyright 2008

Operation of an OS

Program management and resource management require three fundamental tasks

Scheduling
* Deciding which program should be serviced by the CPU and for how long

Resource allocation
* Sharing of resources among user programs

Security and protection

* Ensuring non-interference between programs Security: guarding against interference by external entities Protection: guarding against interference by internal entities

Chapter 1: Introduction

Dhamdhere: Operating Systems A Concept-Based Approach, 2 ed

Slide No: # Copyright 2008

Operation of an OS

To facilitate scheduling, resource management, and security and protection

OS maintains various kinds of information to facilitate operation
* Names of registered users
* identity of a user who is executing a specific program * status of a program * status of a resource

* which users can access a resource

OS performs several tasks repeatedly to implement scheduling, resource management, and security and protection

Chapter 1: Introduction

Dhamdhere: Operating Systems A Concept-Based Approach, 2 ed

Slide No: # Copyright 2008

Common tasks performed by operating systems

Chapter 1: Introduction

Dhamdhere: Operating Systems A Concept-Based Approach, 2 ed

Slide No: # Copyright 2008

Program management

A computational structure is a configuration of several programs. Three typical computational structures are:
A single program
* Execution of a program on a given set of data

A sequence of single programs

* A program should be executed only if previous programs in the sequence executed successfully

* Programs should pass their results to other programs through files

Co-executing programs
* The OS must execute these programs at the same time * The OS must provide an interface between co-executing programs so that their results are available to one another
Chapter 1: Introduction Dhamdhere: Operating Systems A Concept-Based Approach, 2 ed
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A schematic of scheduling

Programs waiting for CPU attention are entered in a pool The scheduler picks one program from the pool for execution on the CPU The CPU may be forcibly taken away from a program. This action is called pre-emption A pre-empted program is again entered into the pool

Chapter 1: Introduction

Dhamdhere: Operating Systems A Concept-Based Approach, 2 ed

Slide No: # Copyright 2008

Resource management

Criteria and techniques of resource management

Criterion: Resource utilization efficiency
* Share the resources wherever possible

* Avoid idling of resources

* Speedy resource allocation and de-allocation is desirable

Technique 1: Partitioning of resources

* A resource partition is a collection of resources

A resource partition is allocated to a process

Simplifies resources allocation and also speeds it up

Technique 2: Allocation from a pool

* Resources are allocated individually when needed

Q: Pros & cons of the two techniques?

Chapter 1: Introduction Dhamdhere: Operating Systems A Concept-Based Approach, 2 ed
Slide No: # Copyright 2008

Virtual resources

A virtual resource is an illusion presented to a program

A virtual resource is an abstraction; its implementation is hidden from a program Use of virtual resources simplifies resource allocation
* Virtual resources may be created if several programs need a resource. It permits more programs to execute at the same time

A virtual I/O device is a virtual resource

* The OS implements a virtual device as follows: When a program performs an operation on a virtual device, the operation may be actually performed on some real resource * Example: virtual printer When a program prints on a virtual printer, the data is actually stored in memory; printing takes place sometime later
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Chapter 1: Introduction

Dhamdhere: Operating Systems A Concept-Based Approach, 2 ed

Security and Protection

An OS must ensure non-interference with users programs and data

Aspects of non-interference
* Resources must not be used by un-authorized persons
* There should be no interference with use of resources by authorized persons and their programs

Terminology
* An intruder is a person or program that causes interference
* Security measures avoid interference by non-users and their programs * Protection measures avoid interference by users and their programs

Chapter 1: Introduction

Dhamdhere: Operating Systems A Concept-Based Approach, 2 ed

Slide No: # Copyright 2008

Security and protection techniques

Two key techniques of security and protection

Authentication
* Verification of a users identity

* Performed when a person logs in (typically through passwords)

Authorization: has two aspects

* The owner of a resource selectively permits other users to access them

* When a user/program tries to access a resource, the OS verifies whether the user has the permission to perform the access

Chapter 1: Introduction

Dhamdhere: Operating Systems A Concept-Based Approach, 2 ed

Slide No: # Copyright 2008

Overview of security and protection threats

Authentication checks whether a person is a registered user Threats posed by non-users are security threats Threats posed by a user are protection threats
Chapter 1: Introduction Dhamdhere: Operating Systems A Concept-Based Approach, 2 ed
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Preview of the book

Part I: Fundamental concepts

How an OS organizes its own functioning, manages user programs, and manages computer resources such as the CPU, memory and files

Part II: Advanced topics

Design of OS features that implement program interactions and file system services, and facilitate portability and extensibility of operating systems

Part III: Distributed Operating Systems

Chapter 1: Introduction

Dhamdhere: Operating Systems A Concept-Based Approach, 2 ed

Slide No: # Copyright 2008

Part I: Fundamental concepts

How does an OS keep track of activities in its various units and in user programs?
An activity causes an event at an appropriate time
* An event is a situation that requires the OSs attention

The OS keeps track of events in the computer system and in user programs. This way it knows the activities in its units and in programs. For example,
* A log in operation is an event
* An I/O operation is an event * Completion of a program is an event

Chapter 1: Introduction

Dhamdhere: Operating Systems A Concept-Based Approach, 2 ed

Slide No: # Copyright 2008

An operating system in its computing environment

The computer should be executing user programs most of the time When an event occurs, the OS should obtain control to handle the event Q: How is this achieved? A: Occurrence of an event raises an interrupt, which switches the CPU to OS
Chapter 1: Introduction Dhamdhere: Operating Systems A Concept-Based Approach, 2 ed
Slide No: # Copyright 2008

Execution of programs

An execution of a program is called a process

The OS keeps track of the activity of a process and performs scheduling to decide which process should be allowed to operate currently
* Scheduling is the key OS activity for providing fast response to users good resource utilization

Chapter 1: Introduction

Dhamdhere: Operating Systems A Concept-Based Approach, 2 ed

Slide No: # Copyright 2008

Managing memory

The OS services a large number of processes simultaneously

It must make efficient use of memory

It must perform memory allocation and de-allocation speedily

These requirements may conflict, hence special techniques are used to implement effective memory management

Chapter 1: Introduction

Dhamdhere: Operating Systems A Concept-Based Approach, 2 ed

Slide No: # Copyright 2008

Virtual Memory

Users may wish to write very large programs. Some of these programs may not fit in memory
The OS uses virtual memory to overcome this problem
* Only some portion(s) of the code and data of a process are present in memory at any time
* Other portions are loaded in memory when needed * Portions not presently needed may be removed from memory

Chapter 1: Introduction

Dhamdhere: Operating Systems A Concept-Based Approach, 2 ed

Slide No: # Copyright 2008

A schematic of virtual memory operation

The OS maintains information about portions of a process that are in memory A missing from memory event occurs if a required portion is not in memory The OS now loads it in memory
Chapter 1: Introduction Dhamdhere: Operating Systems A Concept-Based Approach, 2 ed
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File processing

The file system ensures effectiveness of file processing

Provides convenient methods for a user to create, access and share files
* Each file organization provides efficient access for a specific record access patterns

Provide assurance needed by users

* Security and protection techniques to ensure that files are not accessed by unauthorized persons * Reliability techniques to ensure that files are not lost or damaged due to failures in the system

Chapter 1: Introduction

Dhamdhere: Operating Systems A Concept-Based Approach, 2 ed

Slide No: # Copyright 2008

Part II: Advanced topics

Process synchronization
Enables processes to work harmoniously towards common goals

Message passing
Facilitates communication among processes

Deadlock handling
Avoids indefinite waits

Implementation of file operations

Techniques to ensure efficiency and reliability

Multiprocessor operating systems

Ensure effective and efficient use of the multiple CPUs

Structure of operating systems

Provides portability and extensibility of operating systems

Chapter 1: Introduction

Dhamdhere: Operating Systems A Concept-Based Approach, 2 ed

Slide No: # Copyright 2008

Process synchronization

Process synchronization is employed for two purposes

Data sharing
* Processes should share data or resources such that only one process uses a data item or a resource at any time It avoids data inconsistency

Coordination of activities
* Processes must perform their operations in a desired order

e.g., if a process wishes to use some data produced by another process, it must read the data only after the other process has assigned a value to it

Chapter 1: Introduction

Dhamdhere: Operating Systems A Concept-Based Approach, 2 ed

Slide No: # Copyright 2008

Two kinds of process synchronization

(a) The Credit and Debit processes share the account balance, hence only one of them should access it at any time (b) Generate produces a sample and Analyze analyzes it. Analyze must wait if Generate has not yet produced a sample

Chapter 1: Introduction

Dhamdhere: Operating Systems A Concept-Based Approach, 2 ed

Slide No: # Copyright 2008

Deadlocks

Some resources cannot be shared across processes; they must be used by only one process at a time
If a resource is in use by a process, another process wishing to use the resource must wait for the process to release it
* Indefinite waits would arise if processes wait for each other This situation is called a deadlock It degrades response time and efficiency of use

Chapter 1: Introduction

Dhamdhere: Operating Systems A Concept-Based Approach, 2 ed

Slide No: # Copyright 2008

A deadlock involving three processes

Pk needs a resource that is currently allocated to Pi Pi needs a resource that is currently allocated to Pj Pj needs a resource that is currently allocated to Pk
Each of the processes waits indefinitely

Chapter 1: Introduction

Dhamdhere: Operating Systems A Concept-Based Approach, 2 ed

Slide No: # Copyright 2008

Part III: Distributed Operating Systems

A distributed system consists of several computer systems connected through a network

Terminology
* A computer, which is called a host or node, exists in a site

A distributed OS manages computers in a distributed system in a well-integrated manner to provide two key benefits
* high reliability

Redundancy of resources in various computers is exploited to ensure that a process can complete despite failures
* speed-up of a computation by performing some of its parts in different computer systems

Chapter 1: Introduction

Dhamdhere: Operating Systems A Concept-Based Approach, 2 ed

Slide No: # Copyright 2008

Issues in Distributed OS

Individual computers in a distributed system have their own clocks and memories
Clocks in different computers are not synchronized, hence they may show different times It is difficult to obtain a consistent view of data and activities
* E.g., balances in two accounts, recorded while transferring funds between them, may not be mutually consistent (see next slide)

A distributed OS has to use special techniques to ensure consistency and reliability

Important during normal operation and recovery from a failure

Chapter 1: Introduction

Dhamdhere: Operating Systems A Concept-Based Approach, 2 ed

Slide No: # Copyright 2008

Consistency issues in a distributed OS

An observer in node Z records balances in accounts A and B while funds are being transferred Z may record balance of X before $100 are transferred from it to Y, and balance of Y after the transfer$100 are generated! Z may record balance of X after $100 are transferred from it to Y, and balance of Y before the transfer$100 are lost!
Chapter 1: Introduction Dhamdhere: Operating Systems A Concept-Based Approach, 2 ed
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Issues in Distributed OS

Theoretical issues
How to know the order in which events have occurred?
* Important for FCFS allocation, etc.

How to know the state of a system

* Important for avoiding inconsistencies and performing load balancing across nodes to obtain good performance

Distributed control algorithms

Parts of the algorithm run in different nodes
* Obviates the need to collect global state in one node * Special techniques are used to ensure consistency of actions

Used for resource allocation, scheduling, deadlock handling, etc.

Chapter 1: Introduction Dhamdhere: Operating Systems A Concept-Based Approach, 2 ed
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Issues in Distributed OS

Recovery
User computations should not suffer due to node or link failures
* OS restores computations in a failed node to a previous state

* Special techniques are used to ensure consistency across nodes

Distributed file systems

Files can be accessed from any node
* Special techniques are needed to ensure good performance when a non-local file is accessed * Special techniques are also needed to ensure reliability when nodes or network links fail

Chapter 1: Introduction

Dhamdhere: Operating Systems A Concept-Based Approach, 2 ed

Slide No: # Copyright 2008

Issues in Distributed OS

Distributed system security

Security threats arise from intruders, and viruses and worms OS must provide measures to
* Prevent intruders from corrupting or fabricating network messages
* Enable processes to verify identities of other processes * Ensure data security Enable users to know who created a document or data

Enable users to know whether documents or data have been tampered with

Chapter 1: Introduction

Dhamdhere: Operating Systems A Concept-Based Approach, 2 ed

Slide No: # Copyright 2008