Issue 1 · Price 5,50 E

Taijiquan-Lilun
Q Journal of the Theory of Wu Style Taijiquan

Focus:
Understanding basic
philosophical terms in
Taijiquan:

Q Ziran
Q Taiji
Q Shen
Q Xin
Q Qi

Forum for traditional Wu Tai Chi Chuan

Taijiquan-Lilun
Copyright 2012 by Martin Boedicker
Original Issue published in 2003 in German and English.
In this journal (also in the citations)
the official short characters and
the pinyin of the PR of China are used.
Cover picture: Ma Jiangbao and Michel Peeters

Graphic design: Martina Schughart

and Monika Ozdarska

Translations: Martin Boedicker

Forum for Traditional Wu Tai Chi Chuan

Kontakt:

Martin Boedicker
Zum Schickerhof 18
47877 Willich/Germany
Phone: +49-2154-885780

Email:
info@wu-taichi.com
Website:
www.wu-taichi.com
 Introduction/Contents

Dear Reader,

Welcome to the first edition of Taijiquan-Lilun. We are delighted that we have turned our project into
reality. It was Ma Jiangbao who suggested that we should concentrate not only on the movements of
Taijiquan but also on the theory. The journal is therefore named after the Chinese word for theory - lilun.
The contents will include the theory of Taijiquan, translation from the Chinese and commentary. We
would like to thank Martina Schughart for the layout, Manos Meisen and Michael Busch for photos
as well as Dr Michael Wenzel, Dr Harry Iman and Dr Nina Wagner for their support.

Special thanks to Dr Susanne Tietze for the trans-

lation, who made the Edition possible. Finally,
Rachel and David Barrow and Kit Gerould edited
the Journal and finished the adventure.

We hope you all enjoy our magazine.

Freya and Martin Bödicker

Susanne Tietze,
David Barrow,
Rachel Barrow

Imprint .......................................2
Introduction and Contents .......................................3
Focus: Yema fen zong .......................................4
Focus: Ziran .......................................6
Portrait: Zhou Dunyi .......................................8
Focus: Taiji . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Learning to write Taijiquan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
The names of the spear form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
The song of striking hands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Principles: Skilfulness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Focus: Xin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Focus: Shen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Focus: Qi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Taijiquan-Lilun · Issue 1 3
 Focus

Yema fen zong – on the difficulty

in translating Taijiquan
technical vocabulary
Taijiquan is an ancient martial art whose roots
are in Chinese philosophy and medicine. Accor-
dingly, it has developed its own technical voca-
bulary. This vocabulary includes concepts and
terms that describe specific bodily parts, positions
and movements as well as other terms that have
a psychological dimension and – typically for
Chinese thinking – which unite the bodily and
psychological dimensions. With regard to the
teaching of Taijiquan in the West, it is therefore
absolutely necessary to translate the exact mean-
ing of this technical vocabulary as completely as
possible.

It is possible either to translate such technical

terms directly into English or to use the original
Chinese term, but to include comments on it.
One advantage of the direct translation of a
Chinese term is that it is easier for Westerners to
pronounce such directly translated terms; however,
difficulties in translation occur:
1. The technical terms of Taijiquan often take
a sentence-like structure. In order to translate
them one must have mastered the Chinese lang-
uage. For example, yema fen zong is a movement
taken from the Taijiquan form. In the literature
on Taijiquan one finds the following translations:
Ma Jiangbao
Apparently, translators agree on the horse or wild
horse, respectively (ye means wild and ma means
horse). However, they disagree about whether
shaking, parting or patting takes place, and about
who shakes, parts or pats the mane of the horse.
Usually, it is the person practising Taijiquan who
is parting the wild horse’s mane. However, taking
Chinese grammar into account, this particular
translation is questionable. The structure of yema
fen zong is a typical grammatical Chinese con-
struction: Yema, the wild horse, is the subject,
which does fen zong. Fen means to part and zong
is the mane. Therefore fen zong is the typical
movement of a horse that “shakes its mane”. In
this case an optimal translation is only possible by
referring back to Chinese grammar (see Tai Chi
Magazine, p. 38): “The wild horse shakes its mane”.

2. Taijiquan technical terms may sometimes

Q The wild horse shakes its mane be words which are impossible to translate direct-
Q Separate the horse’s mane evenly ly because there is no English equivalent. For
Q Parting the wild horse’s mane example, the term yao is central to Taijiquan. In
Q Pat the horse’s neck the literature on Taijiquan there are two possible

4 Taijiquan-Lilun · Issue 1

translations: hip and waist. In dictiona-
ries yao is listed as waist, hip, waist-
band and middle. In the illustrated
dictionary, “Concise Chinese-German
Illustrated Dictionary”, p. 14, is a picture
of a human being with an arrow stuck in the
part between hip-bone and the lowest costal arch.
It is accompanied by the following explanation:
“hip”. In English, however, this part is more likely
to be referred to as waist. If one asks a Chinese
person about yao they usually refer to the part
without bones between the hip and ribs. Yao,
therefore, refers to a much larger part than our
“waist”, and for which no directly equivalent
term exists in English. The notion of waist comes
quite near the Chinese conception of yao, so that
the word waist can be used once the Chinese term
has been explained.
3. Taijiquan technical vocabulary quite often
uses ancient words which describe particular qua-
lities about movements or perceptions. Only a
Taijiquan expert can fully appreciate these. In these
instances, translating becomes particularly
difficult and one can only use a word that
may hint at the particular quality.
For example, lü is one of the eight basic
techniques of Tuishou. In the Taiji-
quan literature one often finds lü trans-
lated as “pulling”. But what is meant
by this? It may be some help to consider
that lü should be practised in a way that
resembles the pulling of a thread of silk out of a
cocoon in order to spin it afterwards.
Unfortunately, most Europeans have little expe-
rience of pulling threads of silk, but nevertheless
this image demonstrates that one must not pull
too quickly, otherwise the thread will tear, and
neither must one pull too slowly, otherwise it will
get into a tangle.
Another translation for lü is “to divert”. That means
that a force coming from a particular direction is
diverted into a different direction through the use
of a less strong force. This is a more concrete image,
which can help the Taijiquan learner to practice lü.
4. Taijiquan’s technical vocabulary may derive
from Chinese philosophy or from traditional Chi-
nese medicine. These fields of science have deve-
Taijiquan-Lilun · Issue 1
Focus
loped over a long time and contain a
plethora of thoughts. “It is high time to
abandon all backwoods ideas and to
accept, even in Europe, that traditional
Chinese thought is based on experience –
as all thinking is. Furthermore, ’Chinese think-
ing’, like ’European thinking’, is an equally over-
generalised term that stands for a vast body of
taught traditional knowledge. Hence this term
should be interpreted as referring to a geogra-
phical line rather than to collective patterns of
thought that make Chinese people think in radi-
cally different patterns from European people.
The Eurocentric perspective, with its insistence
on viewing Chinese culture as unitary, gives rise
to a denial of the richness of that culture.”
(Borges, p.14)
The meaning of technical terms can differ from
school to school in both philosophy and medicine.
In Taijiquan the meaning of a term is often not
strictly identical to its meaning in philosophy
and medicine. The translator of Taijiquan’s tech-
nical vocabulary will even find some Western
terms used, but their meanings only partly
overlap with the original terms. A trans-
lation into English can potentially be
quite misleading. In these cases it is
better to use the original terms and to
add some explanation.
For example, in this edition of Taijiquan-
Lilun the terms ziran, shen, xin and qi are
introduced and explained.
· Borges, Harald, “Drache, Einhorn, Phönix -
Über altchinesisches Denken”, Metzler, Stuttgart 1993
(“Dragon, Unicorn, Phoenix – on Traditional Chinese Thinking”).
· Illustriertes Chinesisch-Deutsches Kurzwörterbuch, Hai Feng,
Hong Kong 1989. (Concise Illustrated Chinese-German Dictionary).
· Tai Chi Magazine, vol 20, Los Angeles 1996.
5
 Focus
Ziran – the Chinese concept
of naturalness
Ma Yueliang
An essential concept of Taijiquan, whose impor-
tance is repeatedly stressed, is naturalness. This
concept is often used when referring to the exe-
cution of movements. For example, Wu Yinghua
says: “Whether in the form or in pushhands all
movements should be natural.” (Ma, p. 24) It is
also used to stress the naturalness of breathing.
In an interview with the journal “Martial Arts”,
(p. 8), Ma Yueliang answers the question of
whether the study of Taijiquan is associated with
any particular technique of breathing: “No, only
breathe naturally.” Ma Jiangbao expounds that
instead of controlling the breath or adjusting the
movements to the breathing, one should breathe
as usual when learning the form. A deep and full
breathing is achieved through regular practice,
and “breathing will adjust quite naturally to the
movements.” (Ma, p. 53)
6 Taijiquan-Lilun · Issue 1
In general, everyone understands and agrees that
the movements and breathing in Taijiquan should
be natural. However, students of Taijiquan – par-
ticularly Western students – react with a mixture
of amusement and helplessness when they meet
with difficulties in the execution of movements,
and are advised to conduct them, “completely
naturally”. This is usually attributable to a misun-
derstanding based on ignorance about the back-
ground meaning of the Chinese concept of ziran.
In Taijiquan, ziran is translated as “naturalness”.
But ziran is a concept that has both a colloquial
and a philosophical meaning.
Ziran is a two-character word that consists of
the characters zi and ran. A simple translation
would understand the word as a combination of
its single components. The dictionary (The New
Chinese-German Dictionary) translates the sign zi
with “self” and ran with “so”. Combining its single
components would thus render ziran: “self-so”.
This is quite a simple translation, and it does indi-
cate the original idea that informs the ziran con-
cept. In an expanded entry in the same dictionary,
we find under ziran: “nature, naturally, by itself,
to let something take its [natural] course”. Ziran
can simply be equated with nature, but it also in-
dicates the inner nature of all beings and things,
which are self-so.
If one studies the history of Chinese philosophy,
one finds the first usage of the concept of ziran
in Laozi, in Zhuangzi, in the mohistic canon, and
also in Xunzi (see also Röllike).

The concept of ziran was developed as an answer
to the question, ‘what is dao?’ In Laozi, verse 25
says, “Human beings follow the law of earth,
earth follows the law of heaven, heaven follows
the law of dao, and dao follows the law of ziran.”
Bauer explains: “the expression ziran literally means
“to be so by itself”. It is first used in the Daodejing
and refers to the structure of Tao, which cannot
be referred back to anything else.”
(Bauer, p. 202)
Within daoist tradition all of this implied that
through retreating back to nature, one could be
nearer to dao. In observing and imitating nature,
and through rejecting human culture, one could
perfect one’s own character. In the 2nd and 3rd
centuries AD these ideas changed. It was no longer
absolutely necessary to search for dao in nature,
but rather one’s own self became the mirror of dao.
Bauer says that, “it is the sole acknowledgement
of the own self in all expressions and activities
of life which is the decisive feature of ‘naturalness’
and ‘freedom’ , which can be found in nature and
dao as well as in the ideal/perfected human being.”
(Bauer, p. 203)
According to Wu Yinghua the demand for natu-
ralness can be explained by referring to the origin
of many movements of Taijiquan in traditional Chi-
nese martial arts. These movements were deve-
loped in accordance with human physiology and
the laws of nature.
In Taijiquan one says: “Shen xin ziran – body and
heart/mind are natural.” Through calmness of
movement and stillness in xin (heart/mind) stu-
dents/practitioners of Taijiquan shall find and
cherish their naturalness.
Taijiquan-Lilun · Issue 1
Focus
This form of naturalness refers to body and mind
and is not assumed to be automatically there, but
needs to be worked for and maintained in a con-
tinuous process. This becomes apparent when Ma
Jiangbao (Ma, p. 53) says about the practice of
breathing in Taijiquan, “Although breathing should
not be consciously directed, the correct breathing
can only be achieved if the body’s posture is cor-
rect: upright position of the head, upright coccyx,
upright back, lowered shoulders, elbows and pel-
vic hips.” These are the very preconditions, which
for most people are not given as matter-of-fact,
but need to be achieved and sustained through
regular Taijiquan practice.
· Bauer Wolfgang, China und die Hoffnung auf Glück, DTV,
Munich1989 (China and the Hope for Happiness).
· Das neue chinesisch-deutsche Wörterbuch,
The Commercial Press, Kong Kong 1989
(The New Chinese-German Dictionary).
· Ma Jiangbao, Tai Chi Chuan, Mach: Art, Ratingen 1998.
· Martial Arts, Heft No. 8, Martial Arts Verlag,
Stelle-Wittenwurth 1986.
· Rollike Hermann-Josef, Der Ursprung des Ziran-Gedankens
in der chinesischen Philosophie des 4. und 3. Jh. v. Chr.
Europäiche Hochschulschriften: Reihe 27, Asiatische und
Afrikanische Studien, Bd 51, Heidelberg, 1994.
(The Origin of the Ziran Idea in Chinese Philosophy in the
4th and 3rd Century B.C).
7
 Portrait
Zhou Dunyi, the first thinker
of Neoconfucianism
Zhou Dunyi (1017-1073 AD) lived during the time
of the Song Dynasty (960-1279 AD). His contri-
bution was essential in turning this time into a
watershed for the history of Chinese philosophy.
Before the Song Dynasty, from the second until
the 9th century AD, but in particular during the
time of the Tang Dynasty (618-906 AD), China
had been a cosmopolitan country with a strong
religious orientation. Both Buddhism and Daoism
had long been appreciated and were supported
by the state. The beginning of the Song Dynasty
saw the influence of both Buddhism and Daoism
declining. Confucianism again became the most
dominant philosophy, but it did not correspond
with the original Confucianism.
Joseph Needham writes:
“Yet there was no sense in returning to antique
Confucianism, for its lack of cosmology and philo-
sophy meant that it could no longer satisfy a ma-
turer age. There was, in fact, only one way out,
and this was taken by the Neo-Confucians: to
use a prodigious effort of philosophical insight
and imagination to set the highest ethical ideals
of man in their proper place against the back-
ground of non-human Nature, or rather within
the vast framework of Nature as a whole. In
such a view the nature of the universe is in one
sense moral, not because a moral personal deity
exists somewhere outside space and time direc-
ting it all, but because the universe has the pro-
perty of bringing forth moral values and moral
behaviour when the appropriate level of organi-
sation has been reached.” (Needham, p. 228)
The Neoconfucian School emerged through a
chain of different philosophers whose approaches
were to dominate China’s scientific and philoso-
phical thinking for more than 700 years. One of
the main issues was the theory of a deeply
structured concept of the world. Drawing on
systems or concepts such as taiji, li (principle of
8 Taijiquan-Lilun · Issue 1
structure), xin (heart/mind) and xing (nature) they
tried to form a concept of the world, which –
according to the knowledge of the time – was
able to explain the structure of the universe. One
of the outstanding achievements in this process
was the integration of Daoist and Buddhist con-
cepts into the Confucian way of thinking, which
resulted in a unique synthesis of these three phi-
losophies.
The Neoconfucianists saw the value of Daoism in
its naturalness, but its weakness in the lack of
interest in human society. Daoism did not offer
any explanation of how the highest human ideals
were to be connected with those of the non-
human world. With the increasing assertion of
Neoconfucianist ideas, interest began to focus on
cosmic ideas as well as their connection with Con-
fucian ideas and virtues. A central concept in this
thinking was cheng, the ideal of the sage, which
can be translated as loyalty or sincerity to one-
self. Later on, cheng was supplemented and then
substituted by zheng, sincerity towards others. This
demonstrates the development from individual
sincerity towards social responsibility expressed
in sincerity towards others. (see Bauer, p. 295)
The architect of Neoconfucianism is generally
acknowledged to be the philosopher Zhou Dunyi.
He was born in 1017 AD in the province of Hunan
into a family of scholars (see Adler). After his fa-
ther had died, his uncle Zheng Xiang, who provi-
ded him with his first public office, adopted him.
Even though Zhou was frequently praised for his
work as a civil servant, he never achieved a high-
er position. Similarly, he was hardly known as a
philosopher during his lifetime. Other than his
nephews Cheng Yi and Cheng Hao he had few
pupils. In 1073 AD he died of a fever. He was re-
membered as a kind man with high moral stan-
dards, who had a close relationship with nature
and deep insight into the dao, the right way.
 Portrait

He lies buried in a valley near the mountain Lushan. · Adler Joseph A.

After his death he was awarded the title Yuan
Gong and in 1241 he was given the name of Earl
of Yunan.
Despite this inconspicuous life story, Zhou Dunyi’s
www2.kenyon.edu/dets/religion/facAdler/Rein471/TSChou.htm.
· Bauer Wolfgang, China und die Hoffnung auf Glück,
DTV, Munich 1989 (China and the Hope for Happiness).
· Needham Joseph, The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1978.

“Explanations of the taiji-diagram (Taijitu shuo)

laid the foundation for Neoconfucianist cosmo-
logy and the basis for a structured conception of
the world (see the article on “Taiji, or the supreme
ultimate” in this edition). In his
second main work, the “Penetrating
the Classic of Change (Tongshu)”,
Zhou interprets the Yijing and fo-
cuses on the nature of the sage.
According to Zhou the ideal of the
sage is sincerity (cheng). It forms
the basis for the five virtues (wude)
humanity (ren), justice (yi), ritual
decency (li ), wisdom (zhi) and
trustworthiness (xin) and thus
forms the basis for all impeccable
moral conduct.

The following paragraph 20 from

the Tongshu exemplifies the suc-
cessful synthesis of Confucian
ethics and the Daoist worldview.

[Someone asked]:
“Can sagehood be learned?”
Reply: It can.
“Are there essentials (yao)?”
Reply: There are.
“I beg to hear them.”
Reply: To be unified (yi) is
essential. To be unified is to
have no desire. Without desire
one is vacuous when still and
direct in activity. Being
vacuous when still, one will be
clear (ming); being clear one
will be penetrating (tong).
Being direct in activity one
will be impartial; being impar-
tial one will be all-embracing.
Being clear and penetrating,
impartial and all-embracing, one is
almost [a sage]. (Adler)

Taijiquan-Lilun · Issue 1 9
 Focus
Taiji, or the
supreme ultimate
Taijiquan is the name of an ancient Chinese mar-
tial art. But what does this name mean? In Chi-
nese it consists of three characters.
The characters tai and ji form an independent
term, viz. taiji. Taijiquan is a combination of two
sub-units taiji and quan. The character quan can
be translated simply as “fist” or “fistfight”. It is
more difficult to explain the meaning of taiji, be-
cause taiji is a technical term taken from Chinese
philosophy. Since ancient times, the sign ji in
taiji has meant both “ridge” and “beam”, or respec-
tively “pole”, “extreme” or “ultimate”. In the words
“beiji” and “nanji” it is translated as pole – as
North and South Pole, respectively. Chinese uses
the character tai as the prefix for the superlative
case. Taiji could therefore be translated as “the
highest ridge or beam”, the “highest pole”, the
“supreme ultimate”. Taijiquan is therefore the
martial art of the supreme ultimate. But what is
meant by the supreme ultimate taiji?
The term taiji can be found in many Chinese
philosophical texts, which are frequently, but not
always, of Daoist origin. An important part of the
meaning of taiji can be found in the appendices
of the Book of Changes (Yijing): “The changes are
based on Taiji. Out of it [taiji] rise both instru-
ments [yin and yang ].” (Kubny, p. 298)
10
Although the term taiji can be found in pre-
Christian texts, it only became a key philosophi-
cal term during the Song Dynasty (960 - 1279 AD).
At that time Confucian scholars endeavoured to
unite the streams of Confucian and Daoist think-
ing. This resulted in the school of the Neocon-
fucians. Zhou Dunyi (1017 - 1073 AD) was the first
Neoconfucian scholar and became famous for his
“Explanations of the taiji-diagram (Taijitu shuo)”,
which became the basis for Neoconfucian cos-
mology, but it also found its way into the Daoist
canon (Daozhang).
Zhou Dunyi’s teaching and his taiji-diagram
(taijitu) are based in all likelihood on the system
of the Daoist master Chen Tuan (-989 AD). (see
Bohn, p. 310) The taiji-diagram consists of five
single images, which are arranged vertically. It is
assumed that originally Daoists read the dia-
gram from the bottom to the top. The diagram
describes the way back to the wuji. Drawing on
spiritual and physical techniques one was to be-
come a Daoist immortal. (see Kubny, p. 300)
According to Zhou Duny the diagram is to be
read from the top to the bottom. It describes the
genesis and the structure of the universe. The
taiji-diagram and the its explanation are available
in the form set out by Zhu Xi (1130 - 1200 AD).
Taijiquan-Lilun · Issue 1
 Focus

The taiji-diagram according to Zhou Dunyi

The first circle symbolises the connection

between wuji and taiji.

Next (left, top) to the second circle is the word

yang, below it is the word dong (movement),
at the top right is the word, yin, below it is
the word jing (stillness)

Below this, the five phases are set out

as follows:

Fire Water

Earth

Wood Metal

Next to the third circle the words “The dao of

qian will be the male” are printed and to the
right: “The dao of kun will be the female.”

Below the last circle one reads: “Creation and

transformation of the 10 000 things”.

Taijiquan-Lilun · Issue 1 11
 Focus

The literal explanation of the taiji-diagram is:

Wuji and then (respectively and yet) taiji. In movement taiji creates yang. When the movement
has reached its limit there is stillness. When still, taiji creates yin. When stillness has reached its
limits, there is a return to movement. Movement and stillness alternate. Each is the root of the
other. The two instruments rose out of the differentiation between yin and yang.

Yang changes and yin connects. This is how water, fire, wood, metal and earth come into being.
Then the five qi [phases] spread out and the four seasons emerge. The five phases are simply yin
and yang. Yin and yang are simply taiji. Taiji is in origin wuji. As soon as the five phases have
been created, each has its own nature. The truthfulness of wuji and the essence of the two [yin
and yang] and the five [phases] unite in a miraculous way and consolidations ensue. The dao of
[trigram] qian leads to the male [principle]. The dao of [trigram] kun leads to the female [prin-
ciple]. The two qi react with each other. They transform and generate the 10 000 things.

The 10 000 things continue to generate and there is no end to their transformation. Only human
beings receive the finest. They are spiritual beings. Their form emerges, their spirit [shen] deve-
lops knowledge. When their five agents are stimulated and move, good and evil become distin-
guishable and the 10 000 things occur. The sages ordered their lives by centrality, correctness,
humanity and rightness and always stress stillness. Sages establish the ultimate of humanity.
Therefore the virtue of the sage equals that of heaven and earth, his clarity equals that of sun
and moon, his timelessness equals that of the four seasons and his good fortune and bad fortune
equals those of ghosts and spirits. The noble [person] cultivates this and has good fortune.
Lesser people reject this and have bad fortune.

Therefore it is said: The establishment of the dao of heaven means yin and yang. The establish-
ment of the dao of earth means softness and hardness. The establishment of the dao of human
beings is called humanity and rightness. It is also said: Investigate the beginning and follow it
to the end. Thus will you know about death and life. The [book of] changes [Yijing] is great! It is
the most perfect.

A central part of the “Explanations of the
taiji-diagram” is the description of the highest
picture, the one of the simple circle. In the Chi-
nese original is written: “wuji er taiji ” . Wuji is a
term taken from daoist philosophy. It translates
directly into “without ji ”, therefore “without a
pole” or “without any ultimate”. In earlier Daoist
texts it is translated simply as “unlimited” or “in-
finite”. Later on, however, it was translated with
“original (primordial) chaos”, “the nothingness”
or “before the coming into being of yin and yang”.
Sometimes it was used as the equivalent of the
term dao. Er means “and nevertheless” or “and
yet”. Thus, “wuji er taiji ” can be translated as
“wuji and yet taiji” and wuji and taiji are the same.
This is based on the association that the universe
and its immanent power and structure in the
wuji have no cardinal point. However, through
the term taiji it is acknowledged that everywhere
in the universe there is an immanent power and
structure and the centre of organisation of this
power and structures is the same as the very power
and structure itself. (see Needham, p. 236)

12 Taijiquan-Lilun · Issue 1

A second possible interpretation is based on
a different tradition, which might even be in line
with Zhou Dunyi’s original: “The wuji creates
(sheng) the taiji.” (see Bohn, p. 312) The wuji is
structured by taiji during the genesis of the uni-
verse. The universe developed from a chaotic
state wuji via the taiji towards a state in which
yin and yang are separated. A parallel to the con-
cept of a gradual development of the universe
can be found in one of the ancient Chinese myths
of creation, for example in the Huainanzi, recor-
ded 2 AD:
“Long ago, before Heaven and earth existed,
there were only images but no forms, and all was
dark and obscure, a vast desolation, a misty ex-
panse, and nothing knew where its own portals
were. There were two gods born out of chaos
who wove the skies and designed the earth. So
profound were they that no one knew their low-
est deeps, and so exalted were they that no one
knew where they came to rest. Then they divided
into yin and yang and separated into the Eight
Poles. The hard and the soft formed, and the myriad
living things took shape.” (Birell, p. 32)
Zhou Dunyi has achieved two great things here:
1. In acknowledging this process he has intro-
duced Daoist terminology such as wuji into Con-
fucianism:
“In bringing this largely Daoist terminology into
Confucian discourse (chaos was generally frown-
ed upon by Confucians), Zhou may have been
attempting to show that the Confucian view of
humanity´s role in the cosmos was not really op-
posed to the fundamentals of the Daoist world-
view, in which human categories and values were
thought to alienate human beings from the dao.
In effect, he was co-opting Daoist terminology
to show that the Confucian worldview was actu-
ally more inclusive than the Daoistic: it could accept
a primordial chaos while still affirming the reality
of the differentiated, phenomenal world.” (Adler)
2. Not only has Zhou introduced these terms,
but he also placed them in a new relationship to
each other. For example, he was the first to con-
nect wuji and taiji. Also, the emergence of move-
ment and stillness out of taiji goes back to him.
Taijiquan-Lilun · Issue 1
Focus
“Zhou Dunyi also explained for the first time the
relationship between taiji and the two instru-
ments of movement and stillness (yin and yang).
This connection had never happened in the ex-
planation Yijing of the Han and Tang time. He
introduced the thesis that movement creates
yang, stillness creates yin, because he assumed
that the taiji or the yuanqi respectively can be
moved by itself or that it is still by itself, which
produces the two qi.” (Bohn, p. 318)
Zhou Dunyi’s “Explanations of the taiji-dia-
gram” brought to the fore of philosophical dis-
cussion the theory of taiji. The theory of the mar-
tial art Taijiquan follows Zhou’s ideas. In the im-
portant Taijiquan classic “Taijiquan treatise” it is
said – almost in line with Zhou: “The taiji has been
created out of the wuji. It is the origin of move-
ment and stillness. It is the mother of yin and
yang.” (Wu, Ma, p. 89)
· Adler, Joseph A.
http//www2.kenyon.edu/depts/religion/facAdler/Rein471/TSChou.htm
· Birell Anne, Chinese Myth, The Johns Hopkins University Press,
Baltimore 1993.
· Bohn G. Hermann, Die Rezeption des Zhouyi in der Chinesischen
Philosophie, von den Anfängen bis zur Song-Dynastie,
Herbert Utz Verlag, München 1998
(The Reception of Zhouyi in Chinese Philosophy, from Its
Beginnings to the Song Dynasty).
· Kubny Manfred, Qi, Lebenskraftkonzepte in China, Haug-Verlag,
Heidelberg 1995 (Qi, Concepts for Vitality in China).
· Needham Joseph, The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1978.
· Wu Yinghua, Ma Yueliang, Wu Shi Tai Ji Quan, Huanqiu Tushu
Zazhi Chubanshi, Hong Kong 1986.
13
 Writing Chinese

Learning to write Taijiquan

The numbers on the lines give the sequence and the directions of the lines. Position the brush or pencil
at the end of the line, where the number is.

1
3

6 5

3 4
7

2
1

4
6
7
10
8

14 Taijiquan-Lilun · Issue 1

The names of the
spear form
Ma Jiangbao
1) Begin with the hand, to the middle and
level; that’s the “royal” way.
2) Brush the knee, push with the spear and
stand proud and firm.
3) Push the spear into the crotch, then along
the knee and hit the head.
4) Push the spear into the crotch, then along
the knee and split the head.
5) Push the spear into the step and hit the
head, then turn and stab.
6) The golden child with jade-coloured arms
offers a book.
7) The wind shakes the plum blossoms,
then close the throat.
8) Turn, kick with heel and spit the snake
with the spear.
9) The golden dragon whips its tail;
turn continuously.
Taijiquan-Lilun · Issue 1
Spear form
10) Hung on a hook, then middle and level;
that’s the best method.
11) The wind sways the lotus leaves,
to turn continuously.
12) The golden cockerel stands on one leg and
the reckless one is calmed.
13) Pass the horse on one side, press down and
the middle, level form.
14) Brush the knee, hit the head and
sweep the floor.
15) The wild tiger vaults the mountain
stream; circle above the head.
16) The flood dragon rises from the water;
this is the best method.
17) Push the spear into the crotch, hit the
head, and the tiger whips its tail.
18) Left, right, into the middle; keep busy
changing steps.
19) A snake on the ground obstructs the way
and the hiding form.
20) The phoenix spreads its wings to the sun.
21) Circle over the head most skilfully.
22) The bird returns to sleep in the forest
and then a counter-thrust.
23) The golden dragon whips its tail
and return to the sea.
24) Embrace the pipa and return to
your birthplace
15
 Taijiquan Classics

The song of striking hands

Peng, lü, ji, an have to be practised conscientiously.
When up and down follow each other,
it is difficult for the other to advance.
No matter how strong he attacks me,
with the use of four ounces
one can easily deflect one thousand pounds.
Divert the attack into emptiness,
the counter-attack follows immediately.
Adhere, connect, stick, follow,
do not lose contact or resist.
It is also said:
If he does not move,
I do not move.
If he moves imperceptibly,
I move first.
The power appears to be relaxed, but it is not relaxed;
the power is ready to open, but it does not open.
Even when one’s own power breaks off,
the idea continues to exist.

16 Taijiquan-Lilun · Issue 1

Skilfulness
In the Wu style of Taijiquan
there are, besides the slow form,
a series of weapon forms and the
fast form. These forms are con-
ducted dynamically with many
changes in pace.
According to Wu Yinghua and
Ma Yueliang, in the slow form
the aspects stillness (jing), light-
ness (qing), slowness (man), con-
scientiousness (qie) and perse-
verance (heng) need to be taken
into account. The dynamic forms
are different from the slow form
with regard to the third aspect,
slowness. Slowness means that
the movements are conducted
in a controlled manner, yet lightly, evenly and
flowing smoothly without any interruptions.
(see Ma Jiangbao, p. 41)
In the dynamic forms the aspect of slowness is
substituted by skilfulness (ling). Skilfulness mani-
fests itself in four different characteristics, which
must be taken into account during training. Only
then can the qualities of the slow form translate
into the mastery of fast movements. Wu Yinghua
and Ma Yueliang write:
“In order to develop lightness (qing), skilfulness
(ling), suppleness (yuanhua) and dexterity (ziru),
one has to heed four characteristics:
1. Break (dun) and turn (cuo) alternate
(duncuo xiangjian)
2. Hard (gang) and soft (rou) support each
other (gangrou xiangji)
3. Fast (kuai) and slow (man) are in harmony
(kuaiman xianghe)
4. The front (qian) and the back (hou) are
connected. (qianhou xianglian)”
(Wu, Ma, p. 2)
Taijiquan-Lilun · Issue 1
Principles
Ma Yueliang
For Wu Yinghua and Ma Yue-
liang the break, dun, manifests
it self in central equilibrium
(zhongding) and cuo, the turn,
in the movements of jumping.
Ma Jiangbao explains that
most movements in the dynamic
forms end with a quick move-
ment, which are accentuated
by a brief break after them.
The next movement always be-
gins with a change in direction,
which is often accompanied by
a jump (which can also be a long
sliding step). A jump or change
of direction is cuo, the turn.
Expounding on their explanation
of the four characteristics, Wu Yinghua and Ma
Yueliang write:
“The hard power (gangjin) uses strong fajin. The
principle of softness (rouze) uses soft movements.
This means that the hard power (gangjin) is fol-
lowed by softness. The turn (cuo) has to be quick
(kuai). As far as the quickness (kuai) is concerned:
in it lies the turn (cuo). In the slowness (man) is
the stretching. The positions of the form have to
be exact. From its very beginning all of the form
has to be conducted naturally, the last move-
ments have to be calm. They must not be neg-
lected. This is the connection of the front (qian)
and the back (hou).”
(Wu, Ma, p. 2)
Ma Jiangbao explains that in the dynamic forms,
individual positions are more stretched than in
the slow form. Quite often this leads to a lower
position. In spite of that, skilfulness must not suffer.
· Ma Jiangbao, Tai Chi Chuan, Mach: Art, Ratingen 1998.
· Wu Yinghua, Ma Yueliang, Wushi Taijikuaiquan, Henan Kexue
Jishu Chubanshi 1988.
17
 Focus
Xin, the Heart
When reading the classical texts of Taijiquan
one will come across the word xin time and time
again. For example, it is said in the “Mental expla-
nation of the 13 basic movements”:
Xin is the commander, the qi is the flag and
the waist is the banner” or “first in the xin,
then in the body”. (Wu, Ma, p. 90)
In everyday Chinese, xin means heart or feeling
(the New Chinese-German Dictionary). Within tra-
ditional Chinese medicine the heart is the most
important of all internal organs. It carries a variety
of functions: it controls the blood and the ves-
sels. (see Maciocia, p. 71) It is also the location
where the human spirit (shen) lives. The state of
the heart (xin) influences the spirit (shen) and
vice versa. In particular, five functions are con-
cerned: mental activity (including emotions), con-
sciousness, memory, thinking, sleep.
It is said that if the heart is strong, mental acti-
vities are normal and the emotional life is balan-
ced. If the mind is clear, the intellect is sharp and
sleep is deep.
In both Chinese philosophy and Taijiquan theo-
ry the use of the term xin is linked to the mean-
ing of the mind so often that xin can be under-
stood to mean mind. The preconditions for the
functioning of xin are described as follows in
Guanzi (a book dated 330 BC that is intended to
explain the ideas of the philosopher Guan Zhong
from the 7th century BC): “The heart is the ruler
of the body. The bodily openings [sensory organs]
are the executing servants for purposes of diffe-
rentiation [of perception]. If the heart [according
to] its dao is empty, then the nine openings [sen-
sory organs] [function] according to their purpose.”
(Kubny, p. 128)
18
The empty heart is here to be understood as
a psychic phenomenon, viz. as an empty mind.
An empty heart is the ideal state of the human
mind and expresses the emotional stability of the
psyche. In this state it is possible for human be-
ings to avoid stress and to live life without fear
and with equanimity. Emptiness is generally spea-
king also a symbol for calmness, which is ex-
pressed in a human being through the calm heart:
Guanzi:
“If one calms the heart in the inside,
then the qi becomes stronger.
If one strengthens one’s heart, then the
[perceptions] of ears and eyes are clear,
and the four limbs are hard and firm.”
(Kubny, p. 129)
The notion that emptiness or calmness is the
ideal state of xin and thereby of the whole human
being (body and psyche) is an important part of
Chinese philosophical thinking, and can be found
in many authors’ writings. The development of
the heart towards an ideal state leads, according
to Daoists as well as Confucianists, to physical
health and to a kind of ideal personality.
For example, Mengzi expresses the idea of the
unmoved heart (bu dong zhi xin), which is the
basis for a firm personality of a high moral nature.
A person of this kind can achieve courage because
of their unmoved heart. This leads to fearlessness,
which is the basis for sincerity.
In the Taijiquan one finds the demand for a
calm or quiet heart. It is said: “Calm xin, quiet qi
(ping xin jing qi).” This saying describes as a whole
the demands that are put upon the personality
Taijiquan-Lilun · Issue 1
 Focus

of the student of Taijiquan. The ideal here is, quite
as it is with the Chinese philosophers, calm and
balanced human beings. This ideal is achieved
through continuous work on oneself. Calmness
plays a central part in this. It is part of the five
essential aspects of Taijiquan – jing (calmness),
qing (lightness), man (slowness), qie (conscien-
tiousness) and heng (perseverance). Following on
from Wu Yinghua and Ma Yueliang, it is in par-
ticular the development of calmness that poses
particular demands for the student of Taijiquan.
“The respiration is regular,
the qi has sunken into dantian.
This is called the calmness of the body.
The movements are light, dexterous,
supple, and flowing, without jerks.
This is referred to as the calmness
of the heart...”
(Ma Yueliang, in Wagner, Klüfer, p. 12)

“To calm the thoughts in the mind, which are

like turbulent water of a great river, is never easy,
and is the common problem encountered by lear-
ners. In our experience, the best way to achieve
· Das neue chinesisch-deutsche Worterbuch,
calmness is to concentrate the thoughts on do- The Commercial Press, Hong Kong 1986
ing the correct postures, and always try to keep (The New Chinese-German Dictionary).
the mind in harmony with the movements of · Maciocia Giovanni, The Foundations of Chinese Medicine,
hands, eyes, body and steps.” Churchill Livingstone, London 1989.
(Wu, Ma, p. 15) · Wagner Nina, Klufer Werner, Wu-Stil Tai Chi Chuan,
Mach:Art, Ratingen 1996.
Wu Yinghua and Ma Yueliang formulate here · Wu Yinghua, Ma Yueliang, Wushi Taijiquan,
one of the most essential tasks that the student Huanqiu Tushu Zazhi Zhubanshi, Hong Kong 1986.
of Taijiquan has to do. In concen-
trating on the conduct of
calm and even movements
of Taijiquan, breathing
ulti mate ly will be
po si ti vely con -
trolled and the
heart (xin)
calmed:

Taijiquan-Lilun · Issue 1 19
 Focus
Shen, the spirit
The word shen has many meanings, for example:
god, gods, spirit, soul, energy, appearance. (see
New Chinese-German Dictionary) In Chinese phi-
losophy and medicine it is taken to mean all men-
tal, emotional and spiritual aspects of human
beings. (see Macioca, p. 72) In connection with
Taijiquan, shen should be translated as “spirit”;
for example, in the classic text “Song of the 13
basic movements”:
“With coccyx centered,
and spirit rising up.”
(Wu, Ma, 1991, p. 156)
In Chinese understanding, human beings consist
of body, spirit (shen) and qi, which mediates bet-
ween body and spirit. In the Daoist Huainanzi it
says:
“It is like this,
that the ’bodily form’ xing is the
abode of life.
Qi is what fills life.
The ’spirit’ shen is what
controls life. If [only] one [of these]
components loses its position,
damage will occur.”
(Kubny, p. 154)
20
Parallel with this concept of human beings, Wu
Yinghua and Ma Yueliang say:
“Taijiquan is a three-in-one exercise
of heart/mind (xin), of qi and of the body.”
(Wu, Ma, 1986, p. 22)
The movement of body and the calming of the
heart/mind create an ideal unity of the physical
and spiritual aspects of human beings. This unity
creates harmony and strengthens the qi in a na-
tural way, without further influence.
It has to be pointed out here that the meaning
of xin (heart/mind) in Taijiquan texts closely ap-
proaches the meaning of shen. This is easily
understood if one considers that the heart (xin)
hosts the spirit (shen). So, in translations of Chi-
nese Taijiquan texts one finds frequently that xin
is translated as spirit, not heart/mind, or that
shen is translated as mind.
· Das neue chinesisch-deutsche Wörterbuch,
The Commercial Press, Hong Kong 1986
(The New Chinese-German Dictionary).
· Kubny, Manfred, Qi, Lebenskraftkonzepte in China,
Haug-Verlag, Heidelberg 1995 (Qi, Concepts of Vitality in China).
· Maciocia Giovanni, The Foundations of Chinese Medicine,
Churchill Livingstone, London 1989.
· Wu Yinghua, Ma Yueliang, Wu Shi Tai Jiquan,
Huanqiu Tushu Zazhi Zhubanshi, Hong Kong 1986.
· Wu Yinghua, Ma Yueliang, Wu Style Taichichuan,
Shanghai Book Co, Hong Kong 1991.
Taijiquan-Lilun · Issue 1

The meaning of qi
in Taijiquan
Qi: energy, vitality, breath ...
There have been many attempts to find an appro-
priate translation for qi. As early as 1682, Andreas
Cleyer translated qi into Latin as “spiritus sanctus”.
During the 19th century the term “pneuma” (Gr.:
breath) was favoured. But none of these transla-
tions fully covers the term qi, since qi is a com-
plex concept that has been used inconsistently
in the history of Chinese thought.
A first approach to the understanding of the con-
cept of qi can be taken from the etymology of
the written sign qi (here shown in its long form).
Taijiquan-Lilun · Issue 1
Focus
Qi consists of the written signs
Steam, Gas and (raw) rice
This offers images of mist over fields of rice or
steam over boiling rice. These images suggest that
qi can have either a material or an immaterial
component, or that qi is the medium between the
material and the immaterial. A more comprehen-
sive etymology of the written sign qi can be found
in Manfred Kubny.
Most of the important Chinese philosophies de-
scribe the development of the cosmos as a series
of separations from a unified state.
21
 Focus

For example, Laozi (verse 42) says: In these ideas about a developing cosmos, qi al-
most always plays an important role. However,
The way begets one; qi bears a different character in each philosophy.
one begets two; Qi can appear in the following forms:
two begets three;
three begets the myriad creatures. • As substance, which was present at the origin
The myriad creatures of the cosmos and which became differentia-
carry on their backs the yin ted from it during the cosmos’s development.
and embrace in their arms the yang (Daodejing, Yijing)
and are the blending of • As the finest matter (Guanzi)
the generative force [chongqi; flowing qi] • As undifferentiated truth, which precedes all
of the two. things (Xunzi)
(Lau, p. 63) • As the large emptiness, which takes on bodily
forms through compression (Zhong Zai)

Based on a thorough investigation of classic

Chinese sources, Manfred Kubny developed
a series of characteristics which are
to be associated with qi.

1. Qi is the very epitome

of “unity” in the sense
that there is only
“one qi”. Qi has the
characteristics of
unity and uni-
formity respec-
tively.

2. Qi is in its fundamental state “empty” and in

its formed state it takes on a “material nature”
and becomes visible for human beings. Qi there-
fore has the characteristic of emptiness.

3. Qi can be both “unmoving” as well as “moving”.

Qi therefore has the characteristic of “movement”
and “stillness”.

4. Qi tends towards “cyclic repetition” of move-

ment and the alternation between “movement”
and “stillness”, as they for example become visi-
ble in the seasons, the course of the day and the
changes of the stars.

5. Qi is continuous “transformation” (also called

change), which has to repeat itself cyclically, so
that life can occur and be sustained.

6. Qi has “penetrability” and “transcendence”.

22 Taijiquan-Lilun · Issue 1

7. In all its movements and states, qi tends to be
“balanced”; in particular within closed systems,
for example within living beings.
8. In the visible world qi is a phenomenon that
contains its opposites (for example, fire and water)
and it is therefore paradoxical. The absolute cate-
gories of these opposites are presented in yin and
yang and in the “diagram of taiji”. (Kubny, p. 422)
In order to understand the meaning of qi in Taiji-
quan it is necessary to understand both the breadth
of the concept of qi as well as the different func-
tions of qi in the human body. In Chinese thinking
and cosmology human beings consist of a body
and spirit as well as of qi. This qi, which is an in-
herent part of human beings, manifests itself in
different forms, which are in the end only the
expression of the universal qi. For example:
• yuanqi (original qi)
• zongqi (essential qi)
• yingqi (nourishing qi)
• weiqi (defence-qi)
In Taijiquan one uses two forms of qi.
(see Wu, Ma p. 20)
1. Qi as breath
One of the aims when practising Taijiquan is the
development of breathing. The evenness of the
Taijiquan form and the concentration of the body
relax the muscles and calm the spirit (shen) and
the heart/mind (xin). Thus deep breathing is
achieved in a natural way. Wu Yinghua and Ma
Yueliang comment:
“If the learner is skilled in taichichuan after a cer-
tain period of earnest practice with correct brea-
thing method and postures, his vital capacity may
be increased to 4000 c.c and the respiratory rate
decrease to ten times per minute. These effects
are usually attributed to intensified abdominal
breathing which allows the diaphragm to work
more strongly and effectively. It should empha-
sized that these effects develop spontaneously
after a long time of practising Taijiquan and can-
not be made intentionally.” (Wu, Ma, p. 20)
See “Ziran – the concept of naturalness” , p. 6.
Taijiquan-Lilun · Issue 1
Focus
2. Qi as yuanqi (original qi )
Yuanqi is in Taijiquan as well as in traditional Chi-
nese medicine the vital energy of the body which
stems from the time before birth and is stored in
the kidneys. Yuanqi spreads in the body and chan-
ges according to each part in a more specific qi.
The more yuanqi is in the body, the stronger are
the internal organs and the more resistant they
are to illnesses. The principle “In movement is still-
ness” and the harmonious and deep breathing of
Taijiquan strengthens the yuanqi in a natural way
and spreads through the whole body. In the classic
“The song of the 13 basic movements” it is written:
“The qi goes throughout the body
without any stagnating.”
(Wu, Ma, p. 156)
Ma Yueliang points out that one should not try to
imagine the circulation of the qi and refers to the
classic “The mental explanation of the 13 basic
movements”:
“Put stress on the spirit,
not the qi.
Too much preoccupation with the qi
results in stagnancy.”
(see Inside Kung-Fu, p. 49)
Answering the question posed by students of Taiji-
quan as to what one does when one begins to feel
the flow of qi, Ma Yueliang replies: “He should keep
practising as usual.”
(Inside Kung-Fu, p. 49)
· Inside Kung-Fu, 16 (12), Burbank 1988.
· Kubny, Manfred, Qi, Lebenskraftkonzepte in China, Haug-Verlag,
Heidelberg 1995 (Qi, Concepts of Vitality in China).
· Lau, D. C. (transl.), Tao Te Ching, The Chinese University Press,
Hong Kong 2001.
· Wu Yinghua, Ma Yueliang, Wu Style Taichichuan,
Shanghai Book Co., Hong Kong 1991.
23
24 Taijiquan-Lilun · Issue 1