WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES

1. INTRODUTION
With mobile phones becoming a basic part of life, the recharging of mobile phone batteries has always been a problem. The mobile phones vary in their talk time and battery standby according to their manufacturer and batteries. All these phones irrespective of their manufacturer and batteries have to be put to recharge after the battery has drained out. The main objective of this current proposal is to make the recharging of the mobile phones independent of their manufacturer and battery make. A new proposal has been made so as to make the recharging of the mobile phones is done automatically as you talk in your mobile phone. This is done by use of microwaves. The microwave signal is transmitted from the transmitter along with the message signal using special kind of antennas called slotted wave guide antenna at a frequency 2.45 GHz. There are minimal additions, which have to be made in the mobile handsets, which are the addition of a sensor, a rectenna, and a filter. With the above setup, the need for separate chargers for mobile phones is eliminated and makes charging universal. Thus the more you talk, the more your mobile phone will be charged. With this proposal the manufacturers would be able to remove the talk time and battery standby from their phone specifications. Thus this seminar successfully demonstrates a novel method of using the power of the microwave to charge the mobile phones without the use of wired chargers. Thus this method provides great advantage to the mobile phone users to carry their phones anywhere even if the place is devoid of facilities for charging. A novel use of the rectenna and a sensor in a mobile phone could provide a new dimension in the revelation of mobile phone.

Electronics & Communication Engineering, BBDESGI

WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES

1.1 The Electromagnetic spectrum

Spectrum results, when a white light is pass through a prism it is separated out into all the colours of the rainbow. This is the visible spectrum. So white light is a mixture of all colours . Some physicists pretend that light consists of tiny particles which they call photons. They travel at the speed of light. The speed of light is about 300,000,000 meters per second. When they hit something they might bounce off, go right through or get absorbed. What happens is depends on a bit and how much energy they have. If they bounce off something and then go into eye will cause to see the things they have bounced off. Some things like glass and Perspex will let them go through. These materials are transparent. Black objects absorb the photons so it results not be able to see black things. This is the problem has to be sorted out. These poor old physicists get a little bit confused when they try to explain why some photons go through a leaf, some are reflected, and some are absorbed. They say that it is because they have different amounts of energy. Other physicists pretend that light is made of waves. These physicists measure the length of the waves and this helps them to explain what happens when light hits and leaves. The light with the longest wavelength (red) is absorbed by the green stuff (chlorophyll) in the leaves. There is green light, this is allowed to pass right through or is reflected. (Indigo and violet have shorter wavelengths than blue light.) It is easy to explain some of the properties of light by pretending that it is made of tiny particles called photons and it is easy to explain other properties of light by pretending that it is some kind of wave. The visible spectrum is just one small part of the electromagnetic spectrum. These electromagnetic waves are made up of two parts. The first part is an electric field. The second part is a magnetic field. So they are called as electromagnetic

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WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES

waves. The two fields are at right angles to each other. The Various other parts of the emf spectrum and their location can be seen diagrammatically as shown below.

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WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES

1.2 Electromagnetic waves

Electromagnetic waves can be imagined as a self-propagating transverse oscillating wave of electric and magnetic fields. This diagram shows a plane linearly polarised wave propagating from left to right. An electromagnetic wave is a wave in space with electric and magnetic parts. Electromagnetic radiation is classified into types according to the frequency of the wave. These types include, in order of increasing frequency, radio waves, microwaves, terahertz radiation, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays and gamma rays. In some technical contexts the entire range is referred to as just light.

Fig 1: An EM wave

Microwaves are electromagnetic waves with wavelengths ranging from as long as one meter to as short as one millimeter, or equivalently, with frequencies between 300 MHz (0.3 GHz) and 300 GHz as shown in the Fig 1. This broad definition includes both UHF and EHF (millimeter waves), and various sources use different boundaries. In all cases, microwave includes the entire SHF band (3 to 30 GHz, or 10 to 1 cm) at minimum, with RF. Engineering often putting the lower boundary at 1 GHz (30 cm), and the upper around 100 GHz (3mm).

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WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES

Apparatus and techniques may be described qualitatively as "microwave" when the wavelengths of signals are roughly the same as the dimensions of the equipment, so that lumped element circuit theory is inaccurate. As a consequence, practical microwave technique tends to move away from the discrete resistors, capacitors, and inductors used with lower frequency radio waves. Instead, distributed circuit elements and transmission-line theory are more useful methods for design and analysis.

Fig 2: Lumped element circuit

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WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES

Open-wire and coaxial transmission lines give way to waveguides and stripline, and lumped-element tuned circuits as shown in the Fig 2 are replaced by cavity resonators or resonant lines. Effects of reflection, polarization, scattering, diffraction and atmospheric absorption usually associated with visible light are of practical significance in the study of microwave propagation. The same equations of electromagnetic theory apply at all frequencies. While the name may suggest a micrometer wavelength, it is better understood as indicating wavelengths very much smaller than those used in radio broadcasting. The boundaries between far infrared light, terahertz radiation, microwaves, and ultra-high frequency radio waves are fairly arbitrary and are used variously between different fields of study.

1.3 Need and processing of micro waves

EM wave posses some kind of energy with it. This repots explains about the usage of this valuable energy for recharging of mobile phones, becoming a basic part of life, to avoid the problem of electricity. The mobile phones vary in their talk time and battery standby according to their manufacturer and batteries. All these phones irrespective of their manufacturer and batteries have to be put to recharge after the battery has drained out. In this aspect a new proposal has been made so as to make the recharging of the mobile phones is done automatically while using the mobile phone. This is done by use of microwaves. The microwave signal is transmitted from the transmitter along with the message signal using special kind of antennas called slotted wave guide antenna at a frequency is 2.45GHz. With minimal additions, which have to be made in the mobile handsets, which are the addition of a sensor, a rectenna and a filter. With the above setup, the need for separate chargers for mobile phones is eliminated and makes charging universal. Thus charging the mobile phone batteries without

Electronics & Communication Engineering, BBDESGI

WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES

the more you talk, the more is your mobile phone charged . With this proposal the manufacturers would be able to remove the talk time and battery standby from their phone specifications. EM wave posses some kind of energy with it. This repots explains about the usage of this valuable energy for recharging of mobile phones, becoming a basic part of life, to avoid the problem of electricity. charging the mobile phone batteries without

2. Wireless charging
Wireless charging is any of several methods of charging batteries without the use of cables or device-specific AC adaptors. Wireless charging can be used for a wide variety of devices including cell phones, laptop computers and MP3 players as well as larger objects, such as robots and electric cars.

2.1 Different types of wireless charging

There are three methods of wireless charging:

Inductive charging, radio charging Resonance charging.

2.2 Inductive charging It is used for charging mid-sized items such as cell phones, MP3 players and PDAs. In inductive charging, an adapter equipped with contact points is attached to the device's back plate. When the device requires a charge, it is placed on a conductive charging pad, which is plugged into a socket.

2.2.1 Advantages

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WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES

Inductive charging carries a far lower risk of electrical shock, when compared with conductive charging, because there are no exposed conductors. The ability to fully enclose the charging connection also makes the approach attractive where water impermeability is required; for instance, inductive charging is used for implanted medical devices that require periodic or even constant external power, and for electric hygiene devices, such as toothbrushes and shavers, that are frequently used near or even in water. Inductive charging makes charging mobile devices more convenient; rather than having to connect a power cable, the device can be placed on a charge plate.

2.2.2 Disadvantages
One disadvantage of inductive charging is its lower efficiency and increased ohmic (resistive) heating in comparison to direct contact. Implementations using lower frequencies or older drive technologies charge more slowly and generate heat for most portable electronics, [excitation needed] the technology-is nonetheless commonly used in some electric toothbrushes and wet/dry electric shavers, partly for the advantage that the battery contacts can be completely sealed to prevent exposure to water. Inductive charging also requires drive electronics and coils that increase manufacturing complexity and cost.

2.3 Radio charging

It is used for charging items with small batteries and low power requirements, such as watches, hearing aids, medical implants, cell phones, MP3 players and wireless keyboard and mice. Radio waves are already in use to transmit and receive cellular telephone, television, radio and Wi-Fi signals. Wireless radio charging works similarly. A transmitter, plugged into a socket, generates radio waves. When the receiver attached to the device is set to the same frequency as the transmitter, it will charge the device's battery.

2.4 Resonance charging

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WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES

It is used for items that require large amounts of power, such as an electric car, robot, vacuum cleaner or laptop computer. In resonance charging, a copper coil attached to a power source is the sending unit. Another coil, attached to the device to be charged, is the receiver. Both coils are tuned to the same electromagnetic frequency, which makes it possible for energy to be transferred from one to the other. The method works over short distances (3-5 meters). The idea of wireless power transmission is not new. In 1899, Nikola Tesla wirelessly transmitted 100 million volts of electricity 26 miles to light 200 bulbs and run an electric motor.

3. Microwave Region
3.1 Microwave frequency bands
Designation Frequency range

L Band l to 2 GHz S Band 2 to 4 GHz C Band 4 to 8 GHz X Band 8 to 12 GHz K11 Band 12 to 18 GHz K Band 18 to 26 GHz Ka Band 26 to 40 GHz. Q Band 30 to 50 GHz U Band 40 to 60 GHz V Band 46 to 56 GHz W Band 56 to 100 GHz

The S band of the Microwave Spectrum is useful for wireless charging.

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WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES

3.2 Properties of microwave links

Involve line of sight (LOS) communication technology. Affected greatly by environmental constraints, including rain fade. Have limited penetration capabilities. Sensitive to high pollen count. Signals can be degraded during Solar proton event.

3.3 Electro Magnetic Spectrum

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WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES

Fig 3: Electromagnetic spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum as shown in the Fig 3 is the range of all possible frequencies of electromagnetic radiation. The "electromagnetic spectrum" of an object is the characteristic distribution of electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed by that particular object. The electromagnetic spectrum extends from low frequencies used for modern radio to gamma radiation at the short-wavelength end, covering wavelengths from thousands of kilometers down to a fraction of the size of an atom. The long wavelength limit is the size of the universe itself, while it is thought that the

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WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES

short wavelength limit is in the vicinity of the Planck length, although in principle the spectrum is infinite and continuous.

Some physicists pretend that light consists of tiny particles which they call photons. They travel at the speed of light. The speed of light is about 300,000,000 meters per second. When they hit something they might bounce off, go right through or get absorbed. What happens is depends on a bit and how much energy they have. If they bounce off something and then go into eye will cause to see the things they have bounced off. Some things like glass and Perspex will let them go through. These materials are transparent. Black objects absorb the photons so it results not be able to see black things. This is the problem has to be sorted out. These poor old physicists get a little bit confused when they try to explain why some photons go through a leaf, some are reflected, and some are absorbed. They say that it is because they have different amounts of energy. Other physicists pretend that light is made of waves. These physicists measure the length of the waves and this helps them to explain what happens when light hits and leaves. The light with the longest wavelength (red) is absorbed by the green stuff (chlorophyll) in the leaves. There is green light, this is allowed to pass right through or is reflected. (Indigo and violet have shorter wavelengths than blue light.) It is easy to explain some of the properties of light by pretending that it is made of tiny particles called photons and it is easy to explain other properties of light by pretending that it is some kind of wave. The visible spectrum is just one small part of the electromagnetic spectrum. These electromagnetic waves are made up of two parts. The first part is an electric field. The second part is a magnetic field. So they are called as electromagnetic waves. The two fields are at right angles to each other.

4. Transmitter Design

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WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES

The Magnetron is a self-contained microwave oscillator that operates differently from the linear-beam tubes, such as the TWT and the klystron CROSSEDELECTRON and MAGNETIC fields are used in the magnetron to produce the highpower output required in radar and communications equipment. The magnetron is classed as a diode because it has no grid. A magnetic field located in the space between the plate (anode) and the cathode serves as a grid. The plate of a magnetron does not have the same physical appearance as the plate of an ordinary electron tube. Since conventional inductive-capacitive (LC) networks become impractical at microwave frequencies, the plate is fabricated into a cylindrical copper block containing resonant cavities that serve as tuned circuits. The magnetron base differs considerably from the conventional tube base. The short in length and has large diameter leads that are carefully. The cathode and filament are at the center of the tube and are supported by the filament leads. The filament leads are large and rigid enough to keep the cathode and filament structure fixed in position. The output lead is usually a probe or loop extending into one of the tuned cavities and coupled into a waveguide or coaxial line. The plate structure, shown in Fig 4 is a solid block of copper. The cylindrical holes around its circumference are resonant cavities. A narrow slot runs from each cavity into the central portion of the tube dividing the inner structure into as many segments as there are cavities. Alternate segments are strapped together to put the cavities in parallel with regard to the output. The cavities control the output frequency. The straps are circular, metal bands that are placed across the top of the block at the entrance slots to the cavities. Since the cathode must operate at high power, it must be fairly large and must also be able to withstand high operating temperatures. It must also have good emission characteristics, particularly under return bombardment by the electrons. This is because most of the output power is provided by the large number of electrons that are emitted when high-velocity electrons return to strike the cathode. The cathode is indirectly heated and is constructed of a high-emission
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magnetron base is

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WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES

material. The open space between the plate and the cathode is called the INTERACTION SPACE. In this space the electric and magnetic fields interact to exert force upon the electrons.

Fig 4: Transmitter Design

The plate structure, shown in Fig 4 is a solid block of copper. The cylindrical holes around its circumference are resonant cavities. A narrow slot runs from each cavity into the central portion of the tube dividing the inner structure into as many segments as there are cavities. Alternate segments are strapped together to put the cavities in parallel with regard to the output. The cavities control the output frequency. The cathode and filament are at the center of the tube and are supported by the filament leads. The filament leads are large and rigid enough to keep the cathode and filament structure fixed in position. The output lead is usually a probe or loop extending into one of the tuned cavities and coupled into a wave guide or coaxial line.

5. Receiver Design
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WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES

The basic addition to the mobile phone is going to be the rectenna. A rectenna is a rectifying antenna, a special type of antenna that is used to directly convert microwave energy into DC electricity. Its elements are usually arranged in a mesh pattern, giving it a distinct appearance from most antennae. A simple rectenna can be constructed from a schottky diode placed between antenna dipoles. The diode rectifies the current induced in the antenna by the microwaves. Rectenna are highly efficient at converting microwave energy to electricity. In' laboratory environments, efficiencies above 90% have been observed with regularity. Some experimentation has been done with inverse rectenna, converting electricity into microwave energy, but efficiencies are much lower-only in the area of 1%. With the advent of nanotechnology and MEMS the size of these devices can be brought down to molecular level. It has been theorized that similar devices, scaled down to the proportions used in nanotechnology, could be used to convert light into electricity at much greater efficiencies than what is currently possible with solar cells. This type of device is called an optical rectenna. Theoretically, high efficiencies can be maintained as the device shrinks, but experiments funded by the United States National Renewable Energy Laboratory have so far only obtained roughly 1% efficiency while using infrared light. Another important part of our receiver circuitry is a simple sensor. This is simply used to identify when the mobile phone user is talking. As our main objective is to charge the mobile phone with the transmitted microwave after rectifying it by the rectenna, the sensor plays an important role. The whole setup looks something like this. As our main objective is to charge the mobile phone with the transmitted microwave after rectifying it by the rectenna, the sensor plays an important role. The whole setup looks something like this.

5.1 Process of Rectification

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WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES

Studies on various microwave power rectifier configurations show that a bridge configuration is better than a single diode one. But the dimensions and the cost of that kind of solution do not meet our objective. This study consists in designing and simulating a single diode power rectifier in hybrid technology with improved sensitivity at low power levels. We achieved good matching between simulation results and measurements thanks to the optimization of the packaging of the Schottky diode. Microwave energy transmitted from space to earth apparently has the potential to provide environmentally clean electric power on a very large scale. The key to improve transmission efficiency is the rectifying circuit. The aim of this study is to make a low cost power rectifier for low and high power levels at a. The cathode and filament are at the center of the tube- and are supported by the filament leads. The filament leads are large and rigid enough to keep the cathode and filament structure fixed in position. The output lead is usually a probe or loops extending into one of the tuned cavities and coupled into a waveguide or coaxial line. The plate structure, is a solid block of copper. The cylindrical holes around its circumference are resonant cavities. A narrow slot runs from each cavity into the central portion of the tube dividing the inner structure into as many segments as there are cavities. Alternate segments are strapped together to put the cavities in parallel with regard to the output. The cavities control the output frequency. The straps are circular, metal bands that are placed across the top of the block at the entrance slots to the cavities. Since the cathode must operate at high power, it must be fairly large and must also be able to withstand high operating temperatures. It must also have good emission characteristics, particularly under return bombardment by the electrons. This is because most of the output power is provided by the large number of electrons that are emitted when high-velocity electrons return to strike the cathode. The cathode is indirectly heated and is constructed of a high-emission material. The open space between the plate and the cathode is called the INTERAC
Electronics & Communication Engineering, BBDESGI

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WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES

TION SPACE. In this space the electric and magnetic fields interact to exert force upon the electrons. Arranged in a mesh pattern, giving it a distinct appearance from most antenna. A simple rectenna can be constructed from a schottky diode placed between antenna dipoles. The diode rectifies the current induced in the antenna by the microwaves. Rectenna are highly efficient at converting microwave energy to electricity. In laboratory environments, efficiencies above 90% have been observed with regularity. Some experimentation has been done with inverse rectenna, converting electricity into microwave energy, but efficiencies are much lower-only in the area of 1%. With the advent of nanotechnology and MEMS the size of these devices can be brought down to molecular level. It has been theorized that similar devices, scaled down to the proportions used in nanotechnology, could be used to convert light into electricity at much greater efficiencies than what is currently possible with solar cells. This type of device is called an optical rectenna. Theoretically, high efficiencies can be maintained as the device shrinks, but experiments funded by the United States National Renewable Energy Laboratory have so far only obtained roughly 1% efficiency while using infrared light. Another important part of our receiver circuitry is a simple sensor. This is simply used to identify when the mobile phone user is talking. As our main objective is to charge the mobile phone with the transmitted microwave after rectifying it by the rectenna, the sensor plays an important role. A Schottky barrier diode is different from a common P/N silicon diode. The common diode is formed by connecting a P type semiconductor with an N type semiconductor, this is connecting between a semiconductor and another semiconductor; however, a Schottky barrier diode is formed by connecting a metal with a semiconductor. When the metal contacts the semiconductor, there will be a layer of potential barrier (Schottky barrier) formed on the contact surface of them, which shows a characteristic of rectification. The material of the semiconductor usually is a semiconductor of n-type (occasionally p-type), and the material of metal generally is chosen from different metals such as molybdenum, chromium, platinum and tungsten. Sputtering technique connects the metal and the semiconductor.
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WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES

A Schottky barrier diode is a majority carrier device, while a common diode is a minority carrier device. When a common PN diode is turned from electric connecting to circuit breakage, the redundant minority carrier on the contact surface should be removed to result in time delay. The Schottky barrier diode itself has no minority carrier, it can quickly turn from electric connecting to circuit breakage, its speed is much faster than a common P/N diode, so its reverse recovery time Trr is very short and shorter than 10 nS. And the forward voltage bias of the Schottky barrier diode is under 0.6V or so, lower than that of the common PN diode. So, The Schottky barrier diode is a comparatively ideal diode, such as for a 1 ampere limited current PN interface. Frequency of 2.45GHz with good efficiency of rectifying operation. The objective also is to increase the detection sensitivity at low levels of power. Different configurations can be used to convert the electromagnetic wave into DC signal, the study done in showed that the use of a bridge is better than a single diode, but the purpose of this study is to achieve a low cost microwave rectifier with single Schottky diode for low and high power levels that has a good performances. This study is divided on two kinds of technologies the first is the hybrid technology and the second is the monolithic one. The goal of this investigation is the development of a hybrid microwave rectifier with single Schottky diode. The first study of this circuit is based on the optimization of the rectifier in order to have a good matching of the Input impedance at the desired frequency 2.45GHz. Besides, the aim of the second study is the increasing of the detection sensitivity at low levels of power. This study is divided on two kinds of technologies the first is the hybrid technology and the second is the monolithic one. The goal of this investigation is the development of a hybrid microwave rectifier with single Schottky diode. The first study of this circuit is based on the optimization of the rectifier in order to have a good matching of the input impedance the desired frequency 2.45GHz.

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WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES

5.2 Antenna Design

The characteristics of an antenna, i.e. Impedance, gain and polarization depend on the shape of antenna, with the dimensions normalized to the free-space wavelength. Spirals are supported to have a nearly frequency independent behavior between a certain lower and upper frequency, given by the finite size and feed size respectively. An ideal self-complementary antenna of infinite dimensions has a theoretical impedance of Zspiral at the feed point and the large bandwidth, no matching section is used.

Fig 5: Antenna Design Design of single spiral antenna. Layout of the 8x8 array with 64 diodes (black devices). In the Fig 5 of single spiral antenna there is diode at centre of antenna which converts microwave energy to Dc power. From which it can be used to charge cell phone.

5.3 Sensor circuitry

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WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES

The sensor circuitry is a simple circuit as shown in the Fig 6, which detects if the mobile phone receives any message signal. This is required, as the phone has to be charged as long as the user is talking Thus a simple F to V converter would serve our purpose. In India the operating frequency of the mobile phone operators is generally 900MHz or 1800MHz for the GSM system for mobile communication .Thus the usage of simple F to Y converter would act as switches to trigger the rectenna circuit to on.

Fig 6: Sensor circuitry A simple yet powerful F to V converter is LM2907.using LM2907 would greatly serve our purpose. It acts as a switch for triggering the rectenna circuitry .The general block diagram for the LM2097 is given below Thus on the reception of the signal the sensor circuitry directs the rectenna circuit to ON and the mobile phone begins to change using the microwave power.

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WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES

5.4 Advantages The main advantage of Sensor circuitry is Reduce the usage of high electricity. Make the recharging of the mobile phones independent of their manufacturer. Make use of valuable EM energy. If Sensor circuitry is Very small circuitry in size. More economical than wired charging.

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WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES

6. Conclusion
With mobile phones becoming a basic part of life, the recharging of mobile phone batteries has always been a problem. The mobile phones vary in their talk time and battery standby according to their manufacturer and batteries. All these phones irrespective of their manufacturer and batteries have to be put to recharge after the battery has drained out. The main objective of this current proposal is to make the recharging of the mobile phones independent of their manufacturer and battery make. A new proposal has been made so as to make the recharging of the mobile phones is done automatically as you talk in your mobile phone. This is done by use of microwaves. The microwave signal is transmitted from the transmitter along with the message signal using special kind of antennas called slotted wave guide antenna at a frequency 2.45 GHz.

Thus this seminar successfully demonstrates a novel method of using the power of the microwave to charge the mobile phones without the use of wired chargers. Thus this method provides great advantage to the mobile phone users to carry their phones anywhere even if the place is devoid of facilities for charging. A novel use of the rectenna and a sensor in a mobile phone could provide a new dimension in the revelation of mobile phone. Wireless charging of mobile phones using Electromagnetic waves can reduce the problem of electricity and will be helpful for automatic recharging of mobile phones, which is very much useful in the future

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WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES

References
[1] Tae-Whanyoo and Kai Chang, Theoretical and Experimental Development of 10 and 35 GHz rectennas IEEE Transaction on microwave Theory and Techniques. [2] 9th Conference of NASA/USRA Advanced Design Program and Advanced Hawkins, Joe, Etal, "Wireless Space Power Experiment," in Proceedings of the Space Design Program. [3] MW Medley, 'Microwave and RF circuit analysis, synthesis, and design. [4] Falcone, Vincent J., "Atmospheric Attenuation of Microwave Power", Journal of microwave Power. [5] California EMF Program 2001 - An Evaluation of the possible risks from electric and magnetic fields [6] Glenn Elert. "The Electromagnetic Spectrum, The Physics Hypertextbook". Hypertextbook.com. Retrieved 2010-10-16. [7] "Definition of frequency bands on". Vlf.it. Retrieved 2010-10-16. [8] Mohr, Peter J.; Taylor, Barry N.; Newell, David B. (2008). "CODATA Recommended Values of the Fundamental Physical Constants: 2006". Rev. Mod. Phys. 80: 633730.doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.80.633. Direct link to value. [9] J. J. Condon and S. M. Ransom. "Essential Radio Astronomy: Pulsar Properties". National Radio Astronomy Observatory. Retrieved 2008-01-05. [10] A. A. Abdo et al. (2007-03-20). "Discovery of TeV GammaRay Emission from the Cygnus Region of the Galaxy". The Astrophysical Journal Letters 658: L33. doi:10.1086/513696.

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