DST 125 MARKET MILK TECHNOLOGY

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MARKET MILK TECHNOLOGY

Dairy Development in Tamil Nadu

Tamil Nadu is one of the front line states of India in milk production. It occupies 4th place in milk procurement from cooperatives in the country. The total milk production of the state as per Animal Husbandry Department sample survey estimates is 54.74 lakh metric tones (LMT), that works out to 146 lakh litres per day (LLPD) of milk, out of which the producers for their own consumption retain 40% of the production. The remaining milk is handled by the cooperatives, private dairies and unorganized sectors.

To eliminate the middlemen and to protect the interest of the producers in the villages, milk producers cooperatives societies have been The Dairy Development Department was formed in the year 1958 in Tamil Nadu. The Co-operative system in Dairy is a unique setup with three tier structure with Primary Milk Producers Co-operative Society at the level, District Co-operative Milk Producers Union at District level the Tamil Nadu Cooperative Milk Producers Federation at State level.

Tenth Plan performance:

An amount of Rs.50 crore was provided during the X plan. An amount of Rs.6.56 crore is expected to be spent during the X plan period.

The milk procurement through organized sector has increased to 42 LLPD and remaining 46 LLPD is handled by the unorganized sector. During the Tenth plan period there is an appreciable increase in the milk procurement of the State. The average milk procurement/ day by Dairy Cooperative Societies (DSC) during the year 2000-01 were 19.94 LLPD. During 2006-07 year, the procurement by DCS at village level has increased to 26.35 LLPD, registering 32% growth. Consequently the milk sale by cooperatives, which was 13.77 LLPD during 2000-01, has steeply increased to 19.11 LLPD during 2006-07, registering 39% growth. Among the four metropolitan cities in India, Chennai metro dairies have registered highest incremental milk sales growth rate of 15% in milk sales, followed by Delhi with 13% (2004-05 and 2005-06 comparative milk sales). The per capita availability of milk in the state, which was 219 Gms in 2001 increased to 234 Gms, falling short only by 16 Gms, against the ICMR recommendation of 250 Gms.

XI Plan Strategies: The following are the strategies proposed for the XI Plan.

 from

Improving infrastructure for collection, transportation, handling and procurement of milk farmers

and

Improving infrastructure for processing, value addition, packaging and marketing of milk milk products

(ERP)

Emphasis on clean milk production Ensuring compliance of International Specifications (SPS &WTO) Creation of Management Information System (MIS) and Enterprises Resource Planning in Dairy industries

Schemes for 2007-08 Support to Training and Employment Programme For Women (STEP): A Scheme called Support to Training and Employment Programme for Women was introduced during 2002-03 with the objective of identifying women from Self-Help-Group, marginalized poor rural women of SC / ST to enhance the socio-economic conditions of the rural women who are interested in the Dairy sector. The Government of India had sanctioned a sum of Rs.649.463 lakh for a period of 3 years (2002-2005) as 90% Grant in-aid. The Govt. of Indias share is Rs.584.517 lakh and 10% share of Rs.64.946 lakh is to be borne by the Implementing Agency. An amount of Rs.207.28 lakh was utilized during 2006-07.

Intensive Dairy Development Programme:

The Government of India has sanctioned a sum of Rs.312.15 lakh with 100% grant under the scheme Intensive Dairy Development Programme to implement the scheme in Sivagangai and Ramanathapuram districts. Under this programme, infrastructure required for milk procurement, input activities, milk processing and marketing would be provided to increase milk procurement and improve dairying activities in these districts.

The Government of India released a sum of Rs.55.45 lakh to Sivagangai union and the entire amount has been utilized. During the year 2006-07, the Government of India has sanctioned Rs.102.44 lakh for the scheme.

Strengthening infrastructure for Quality and Clean Milk Production: The Government of India have sponsored a Scheme Strengthening Infrastructure for Quality and Clean Milk Production to strengthen the infrastructure facilities and to ensure the production of Quality and Clean Milk at the village level. Under this scheme, training will be given to farmers on the clean milk production. A sum of Rs. 285.28 lakh sanctioned by the Government of India has been fully paid to Kancheepuram-Thiruvallur, Erode and Nilgiris District Co-operative Milk Producers Unions to implement the scheme from the year 2005-06 to 2006- 07. Under these

schemes, 68 Bulk Milk Coolers will be installed and the chilling capacity of the state will be increased by another 2.67 lakh LPD.

Plan Outlay for 2007-08: An amount of Rs. 2.08 crore is expected to be spent during 2006-07. The agreed outlay of Rs. 6.41 crore is provided for the Dairy Development Sector for the year 2007-08. Of this, the outlay of Rs.1.28 crore is for Scheduled Caste Sub Plan.

DAIRY DEVELOPMENT

According to the 17th Livestock and Poultry Census (2004) the total white cattle population in Tamil Nadu is 91.41 lakhs and buffalo (black cattle) population is 16.58 lakhs. The cattle population, which was 105.72 lakhs in 1974, has reduced to 91.41 lakhs in 2004. Similarly, the buffalo population, which was 28.53 lakhs, has reduced to 16.58 lakhs during the same period. However, milk production in Tamil Nadu has increased tremendously over the last two decades. From only 35.24 lakh MT in 1993-94, it has risen to 47.53 lakh MT in 2003-04. This has resulted in increase in per capita availability of milk to 209 gm per day, which is close to the ICMR recommendation of 220 gm per day. This phenomenal increase is purely due to the breeding policy adopted in Tamil Nadu, which has been in tune with the national policy. Cross breed cattle account for 24% of the total white cattle population. Murrah and graded buffaloes account for 82% of buffalo population. Milk trade has become a cottage industry providing employment opportunity in rural areas, particularly to the women folk thereby supplementing the family income. To eliminate the middlemen and to protect the interest of the producers in the villages, milk producers cooperative societies have been formed. This has assured remunerative price and market support to the producers besides catering to the needs of the consumers. Dairy Development Programmes are being implemented through a network of co-operatives designed on the Anand model' of Gujarat State. Tamil Nadu was one of the States that adopted the Anand pattern of cooperatives for milk production and marketing. The institutional frame has a three tier structure with 10041 Primary Milk Producers Cooperative Societies at the Village level, the Union of Producers Cooperative Societies at the District level (17 District Cooperative Milk Producers' Unions) and the Federation of District Co-operative Milk Producers Union at the State level.

Dairy Development Department The State Dairy Development Department was established in 1958. The administrative and statutory control over all the milk cooperatives in the State was transferred to the Dairy Development Department on 1.8.1965. The Commissioner for Milk Production and Dairy Development was made the functional Registrar under the Tamilnadu Cooperative Societies Act. With the advent of 'Anand pattern' in the State of Tamilnadu, Tamilnadu Co-operative Milk Producers' Federation Limited was registered on 1st February 1981. The commercial activities of Department such as Milk Procurement, Processing, packing and sale of milk to the consumers etc., hitherto dealt with by the Tamilnadu Dairy Development Corporation Ltd., were transferred to the newly registered Tamilnadu Co-operative Milk Producers' Federation Ltd. In the wake of liberalization policy, private dairies have entered in the field of dairying and a number of mini and

large private milk processing units are coming up in the private sector. Priority has been accorded for improving the performance of Co-operatives by adopting a systematic approach and proper strategy implementation in Milk Co-operatives. The Milk Producers Cooperative Societies are formed and functioning at village level. In these societies only the milk producers are enrolled as members. The animals owned by producer members are provided with animal health cover at the doorsteps of the members by the Veterinary Assistant Surgeons of the Veterinary

Units, procurement teams and input wings. Breed improvement through artificial insemination is also carried out at a nominal rate. The milk produced at the village societies is collected by the District Unions after allowing some quantity to be retained at society level itself to meet the local demands.

There are 17 District Cooperative Milk Producers' Unions functioning in the State of Tamilnadu covering 30 Districts. There are 16 Dairies in District Cooperative Milk Producers' Unions with an installed processing capacity of 18.92 llpd. There are 39 Chilling Centers in District Co-operative Milk Producers' Unions with installed chilling capacities of 12.83 llpd respectively.

The functions of, and the thrust areas for, the Department are as follows: Formation of new milk routes to collect milk produced by the members of the societies Collection of milk from societies, processing and packing in modern dairy plants by maintaining quality standards Supply of quality milk to Chennai Metro under hygienic conditions. Fixation of procurement and selling price of Milk Increase of liquid milk sales by introducing innovative sales promotional activities Supply of inputs to the members of the societies. Rendering Veterinary Health Service and emergency service to the cattle of members of primaries Impart training on First aid and on Artificial insemination to the staff of member societies Extending Artificial insemination services to the cattle owned by the members of Milk Cooperative Societies Providing milk cans, milk 'O' testers and LN2 containers. Salem, Erode, Madurai and Dharmapuri Unions are the Feeder Balancing Dairies. Surplus milk in the District Unions, after meeting their local sales is diverted to the nearest Feeder Balancing Dairies for conversion into milk products, such as Skim Milk Powder, Butter and Ghee. The three Cattle Feed Plants at Madhavaram, Erode and Kappalur are run by the Kancheepuram Tiruvallur Union, Erode Union, and Madurai Union respectively. The production capacity of these cattle feed plants is 100 MT per day each. The balanced cattle feed produced in the form of pellets

and mash are supplied to the members of the Milk Co-operatives, livestock farms managed by the Animal Husbandry Department and to various local bodies including the Corporation of Chennai.

Tamil Nadu Cooperative Milk Producers Federation Ltd.

The Tamilnadu Co-operative Milk Producers' Federation Limited is an apex body of 17 District Cooperative Milk Producers' Unions. The Federation has four dairy plants in Chennai, one at Ambattur with a capacity of 4.00 lakh litres per day, another at Madhavaram with a capacity of 2.00 lakh litres per day and the third dairy at Sholinganallur with a capacity of 4.00 lakh litres per day. These dairies collect milk from District Unions process and pack in sachets and send for sale to the consumers in and around Chennai City. The fourth dairy at Ambattur is engaged in the manufacture of milk products such as Yoghurt, ice cream, khova, Gulab jamoon, buttermilk, curd and mysore pag. New products such as Aavin Delite, Curd in cup, Lassi, Flavoured Milk in bottles and SMP in retail pack have been introduced during year 2004.

The sales of milk in sachets is being carried out through 24 zones, 517 depots,390 distribution points, 40 whole sale milk distributors, 88 milk retailers and 50 Milk Consumers Co-

operative Societies. The sale of milk product is being carried out through 42 parlours, 154 Franchise Retail Outlets (FROs), 12 Wholesale dealers, and 2900 Retailers. The Federation also caters to the needs for functions like marriages by booking Special Orders. Standardised milk, Buffalo milk and double toned milk are being sold through 218 Automatic Vending Machines and 165 FRPs to the city consumers. Milk products are also sold in certain AVM Units.

Artificial Insemination and Animal Health Activities

The Artificial Insemination facilities are made available in 2392 Dairy Cooperative Societies. The village level workers in the Milk Producers Cooperative Societies are being imparted with training in artificial insemination technology. During the year 2004-2005, 11.52 lakh milch cattle were inseminated with frozen semen and 2.99 lakh calves of superior germ plasm were born out of which 1.40 lakh calves are females. District Co-operative Milk Producers' Unions are operating mobile veterinary units with qualified veterinary doctors. 5214 Dairy Cooperative Societies are covered under animal health programme. During the year 2004-2005, 65 regular veterinary units and 21 emergency units were functioning under the control of District Co-operative Milk Producers' Unions.

Milk Procurement

The average milk procurement in the DCMPUs has increased from 15.79 Llpd to 17.26 Llpd, which shows an annual growth of 9.31 percent. In order to ensure better price to members' level and procurement of quality milk, the system of testing of milk is introduced at primary level. The steps taken to improve the quality of milk have yielded good results. The Government of Tamil Nadu announced to raise the procurement price of the cow's milk from Rs.9.50 to Rs.10.50 per litre and that to the buffalo's milk from Rs.11.44 to Rs.12.50 with effect from 1.6.2004. Because of the above increase in procurement price, milk producer members are getting amount of Rs.7.16 crores per month. While increasing the procurement price, the selling price of milk has not been enhanced.

Compared to the average milk procurement of 17.26 Lakh litres per day during the year 2003-04 the average milk procurement during the year 2004-05 has been 20.53 lakh litres per day.

Milk product sale performance

From 1996-2001 the average sale of Ghee per year was only 3411 M. T. Similarly the average sale of Skim Milk Powder was 2647 M.T per year. The Federation and Unions have increased the average sales of Ghee to 6044 M.T in the year 2004-2005. Similarly the average sale of Skimmed Milk Powder has increased to 11201 M.T, a four-fold increase. Efforts were taken and orders have been obtained from Mother Dairy, New Delhi for continuous supply of SMP and butter during this year. Recently, Federation obtained a prestigious order for the supply of 1200 MT ghee to Tirupathi Tirumala Devasdanam for a period of six months.

Rehabilitation of Unions - Central Sector Plan Scheme - Assistance to Co- Operatives

The Government of India formulated a scheme called Assistance to cooperatives to rehabilitate the loss making District co-operative Milk unions and Federation to offset the losses and make them viable through a suitable rehabilitation plan. The plan envisages 50 percent grant from Government of India and 50 percent grant from state Government to wipe out cash loss in District Cooperative Milk Producers' Unions and make them viable with a suitable rehabilitation plan subject to certain conditions laid down on this issue.

National Dairy Development Board after their preliminary assessment has selected two District Unions namely Erode and Villupuram. Under this scheme Government of Tamilnadu and Govt. of India have released their equal share of Rs. 2.00 Crore and Rs.4.50 Crore for Villupuram and Erode Union respectively. Both the Unions have utilised the amount to settle the milk cost dues to the producers and started earning profit from the first year of the implementation. During the current year, National Dairy Development Board has selected Dharmapuri Co-operative Milk Producers Union for availing assistance under rehabilitation plan. NDDB has prepared the proposal submitted to Government of India. It is learnt from them that the assistance required would be around Rs.9.71 Crore.

Introduction of Insulated Puf Vehicles

The sachet milk distribution from all the three Metro Dairies is being done through the insulated PUF vehicles. The PUF vehicle maintains the temperature through out the distribution and ensures that the consumers get milk afresh through this cold chain. The distribution through PUF vehicle has enhanced the shelf life of the milk and strengthened the consumer confidence in the Aavin brand milk. The spoilage of milk at consumer end has sharply decreased.

Customer Care

24 Hours customer care and support cell has been established to serve the consumers for the compliance of complaints with regard to quality of milk and service. The cell is provided with toll free number 1600443300 and a 24 hours uninterrupted manpower is available to attend to the complaints of the consumers. Complaints are also received through website and E-mail.

Clean Milk Production

During the last two years, the Federation has been concentrating more on procurement of high quality milk from the Co-operatives. Measures have been taken to improve the quality of raw milk procured at the village level milk Co-operative societies and also to enforce clean milk practices at the society level so as to enhance quality of raw milk at the initial stage itself. This will in turn lead to the production of high quality milk and milk products.

The clean milk production programme includes not only the production of good quality milk but also to improve animal management, feed and fodder, artificial insemination, training to farmers and society personnel, installation of bulk coolers, maintaining milking yard free from flies, dirt, etc., usages of SS Vessels to maintain minimum level of bacterial load.

In dairy co-operatives the following measures are being taken under Clean Milk Production.

The milk procurement staffs are given Trainers training in Clean Milk Production at NDDB Training centre.

The milk producers are educated by our trained procurement staff for hygienic management of animals, milking methods and handling of milk.

Milk society staff is being imparted training on clean milk production and the Aluminum milk cans and milk collection gadgets are replaced with S.S. Materials.

Milk producers are provided with SS pails, antiseptic solution like Saff Kit for udder cleaning on pre and post milking.

Clean Milk Production posters are exhibited in the society premises. Booklets in Tamil about clean milk production are circulated among the producers for creating awareness. Quality Improvement and Strengthening of Infrastructure Facilities

All the three dairies in Chennai City have been certified for ISO 9001:2000 during February 2004. This certification is valid for three years from the date of certification. Efforts are being taken to obtain Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) by Dairies. Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) is the quality system, which ensures food safety. Getting HACCP certification for all the three dairies is more relevant as the consumers are becoming more and more aware of quality product and services. During the year 2005-2006, it has been proposed to strengthen the following additional infrastructure facilities at the District Unions. A boiler with a capacity of 5 Ton / Hr at a cost of Rs.25 Lakhs will be purchased and erected at Madurai Dairy. Action has been initiated to procure a 10000 lph Homogeniser for Tirunelveli Dairy at a cost of Rs. 42 Lakhs. Sophisticated Lab. Equipments will be purchased for Ooty union at a cost of Rs. 42 Lakhs. Action is being taken to install computer connected weigh scale in 19 Chilling Centers at an estimated cost of Rs.30 lakhs. Additional milk reception dock will be provided at Athur Chilling Centre in Salem at the cost of Rs. 81.66 lakhs. 5 numbers of Cream separator at Salem, Vellore, Erode, Dharmapuri and Villupuram unions will be installed at the cost of Rs.80 Lakhs. A new Dairy with a capacity of 2 LLPD and 20 MT powder plant is proposed to be installed at Tiruvannamalai District at the cost of Rs.28 crores.

Integrated Dairy Development Programme

Government of India has sanctioned around Rs.3.12 Crore under the scheme IDDP to be implemented in Sivagangai and Ramanathapuram Districts. The scheme is envisaged to increase the Milk Production through formation of DCS, providing input activities to the farmer members training to the milk producers, strengthening the milk processing facilities, marketing activities etc.,

Strengthening Infrastructure for Quality and Clean Milk Production

To improve the quality of milk right from the farmer level up to the point of consumption, the Government of India has approved the proposal to the tune of Rs.5.07 Crore. Initially, this scheme will be implemented in 4 Milk Unions namely Trichy, Villupuram, Dharmapuri and Salem. In this scheme 36 Bulk Milk Coolers will be installed to handle around 1.45 lakh litres of milk per day. In addition, the farmers will be provided training on Clean Milk Production antiseptic solutions and utensils required to effect Clean Milk Production.

Part II Scheme - 2005-2006

The Government of Tamil Nadu has granted Rs. 99 lakhs ( 50 % Subsidy) under Part II Scheme as detailed below:i. 1363 Stainless Steel milk cans will be supplied to 273 Milk Producers Cooperative Society at a total cost of Rs.30 lakhs. The Government of Tamil Nadu will bear the 50% of the cost and balance 50% will be met by the beneficiary societies. ii. 235 LN2 Containers with a storage capacity of 3 litres each will be supplied to 235 Milk Producers Co-operative Societies at a total cost of Rs.20 lakhs. The Government of Tamil Nadu will bear the 50% of the cost and balance 50% will be met by the beneficiary societies. iii. 7 Bulk Milk Coolers of 2000 litre capacity each will be installed at the level of societies through seven District Co-operative Milk Producers Union Ltd., at a total cost of Rs. 49 lakhs. The Government of Tamil Nadu will bear the 50% of the cost and balance 50% will be met by the beneficiary societies. For Dairy Development Sector an amount of Rs.59.56 lakhs has been provided for the year 2005-06 as against the likely expenditure of Rs.118 lakh for the year 2004-05.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY, DAIRYING AND FISHERIES DEPARTMENT DEMAND NO.8 DAIRY DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT Policy Note for 2007-2008 Dairy Development activities in Tamil Nadu have reached majority of the potential villages of the State through sustained efforts like organization of societies, good animal health care, breeding plan and infrastructure development. It has been observed that 50% of the revenue villages in Tamil Nadu have come under co-operative ambit when compared to 6% in West Bengal and Bihar, 7% in Madhya Pradesh 14% in Uttar Pradesh and 24% in Rajasthan1. The main reason for proper co-operative coverage in dairying activities in the State is due to regular and assured income to the farmers even at times of severe drought and flood.

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Introduction of Clean Milk Production practices by creating awareness and understanding among the persons handling milk from production point to milk processing and packing point, supported by strict quality assurance has given very good result. Raw chilled milk is brought directly from chilling Centers to dairies for processing and the era of milk processing twice has been totally eliminated. In Tamil Nadu, private and co-operative dairies together are procuring 43.45 Lakh Litres per Day (LLPD) of milk. Both the sectors together are marketing 37.82 LLPD of milk. The processing capacity of the cooperative dairy sector is being utilized to the maximum extent. Tamil Nadu co-operative dairies have catered to the milk needs of national milk grid successfully and had supplied milk and milk products to New Delhi, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal and Pondicherry.

Dairy sector has assumed much significance by generating income not only to the rural farmers but also to the urban and sub-urban population by providing employment opportunities. Further the women folk also have self-employment opportunities.

Average milk procurement by Dairy Co-operatives in Tamil Nadu during the year 2000-2001 was 19.94 LLPD. During 2006-2007, the above procurement has increased to 26.10 LLPD registering 31 % growth.

Milk sale by District Unions and Federation during 2000-2001 was 13.71 LLPD only. In the current year 2006-2007, average milk sales have reached 19.29 LLPD registering 40% growth. On 4.9.2006 the total milk sales reached the highest peak of 22.38 LLPD.

The market share of the Dairy Co-operatives has increased and aavin brand holds the major market share in Tamil Nadu. During current year 25.37 LLPD of milk was procured on 26.06.2006. This is the highest ever procurement by the unions. This has proved beyond doubt that the millions of small marginal farmers and landless agricultural labourers have taken up dairy activities as a prime alternate income generation activity.

Similarly the highest milk sales by Dairy Co-operatives have also reached the maximum of 10.77 LLPD on 21.2.2007 in Chennai and 12.27 LLPD in Districts on 4.9.2006. Village level Cooperatives have concentrated on milk quality improvement activities, and ensured improved quality milk to the consumers.

Global milk scenario is on the declining trend2 due to drought and global warming. Decline in milk procurement was also observed in India. The Co-operatives in Tamil Nadu through sustained efforts and effective market intervention have been able to increase the milk procurement by 5% compared to last year.

The total milk sales to the consumers also recorded 11% growth compared to previous year. Compared to other States, the price of aavin milk is the cheapest in the country.

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Tamil Nadu Co-operative Milk Producers Federation Limited has taken the following measures to maintain procurement.

MILK PRODUCERS WELFARE 1) Uniform milk procurement price chart for the payment of milk cost from the Union to Society and from the Society to the milk producers has been implemented. 2) The production in the cattle feed plant is maintained without any interruption and feed bags is being supplied to the producers. 3) With the co-ordination of Animal Husbandry Department preventive vaccination is being done for the milch animals belonging to the milk producers. 4) More number of Kaalnadai Paadukaapu camps is being conducted regularly. 5) Milk producers are at present covered under group insurance scheme with payment of a minimum amount of Rs.50/- per person. For Crossbred milch animals owned by the milk producers, insurance scheme with 50% premium contribution by milk producers and balance 50% grant by Govt. of India scheme is available through Tamil Nadu Livestock Development Agency in Vellore, Coimbatore, Salem, Namakkal and Erode Districts.

Further the following measures are being proposed for producers welfare.

1) Action will be taken to extend livestock insurance scheme to other districts. 2) Electronic Milk weighing machine at a cost of Rs.8500/- will be provided with monthly installment for repayment. 3) Automatic milking machines will be provided as a pilot project in Coimbatore and Namakkal District Primary Milk Co-operative Societies from out of their own fund. 4) Eligible milk producers will be enrolled as members in the Agricultural labour welfare board for any welfare benefits they are entitled to. 5) Cattle Feed packed in 30 kg bags will be introduced. 6) Technical Monitoring Committee will reconsider the recovery of 0.50 paise per litre of milk from milk producers at Erode, Dharmapuri and Dindigul District unions.

SOCIETY EMPLOYEES WELFARE

1) Productivity linked Bonus of Rs.825/- to all the society employees has been paid. 2) Regularization and fixation of scale of pay for the primary society employees will be done as per the provisions of the Act. 3) The administrative cost has been restricted to a maximum of 0.10 paise per litre of milk for the Union. Society will recover a maximum of 0.40 paise per litre of milk as administrative cost from the milk producers.

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LABOUR WELFARE

1) Provision of raincoat, enhancement of stitching charges, night shift Allowances and washing Allowance for the Dairy factory, transport and marketing employees. 2) Revision of scale of pay for Electrician grade I, Boiler man grade II and sanction of 5% personal pay and compensatory personal pay to the reinstated workmen who participated in strike. 3) Reimbursement of long pending medical reimbursement claim for the employees and their family members who have undergone hospitalization for treatment. 4) For the first time in the history of Tamil Nadu Co-operative Milk Producers Federation (aavin), Government have formulated a High Level Committee to update the service rules, i.e., recruitment, appointment and promotion as well as formulation of standing orders for the Tamil Nadu Cooperative Milk Producers Federation Limited.

CUSTOMERS CARE

Customers requirement and preference are given importance by aavin. Quality products are marketed. Milk is delivered in time. 24 hours consumer care cell is operating at Nandanam in Chennai and complaints are attended immediately. Consumers can approach aavin through Toll Free No.1800 4253300.

OBJECTIVES OF THE DAIRY DEVELOPMENT SECTOR

a. To assure remunerative price to the milk producers. b. To ensure the availability and supply of clean processed milk as per consumers need and to provide necessary milk products with requisite quality to the consumer at a competitive price.

STRATEGIES ADOPTED TO ACHIEVE OBJECTIVES

a. Veterinary health cover, breeding cover, feed supply etc., are provided to animals owned by the milk producers in co-operative sector. b. Milch animals up-gradation and improving their productivity in long run are also undertaken. Improved varieties of fodder are cultivated in union land and distributed to the milk producers. c. Training to society staff in first aid and artificial insemination are rendered. Modern animal husbandry methods and practices are inculcated to farmers through training

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and motivation. In addition to that, skill development in cost effective ration balancing technique for efficient and economic feeding is also provided. d. Initiated milk procurement system with quality testing at village level for milk collected from the members, formation of new milk collection routes to procure milk from the societies, undertake milk transport, processing and packaging in modern dairy plants after observing all quality assurance standards. e. Establishment of Chilling Centers / Bulk Milk Coolers at places where milk is available, provision of Stainless Steel (SS) milk cans, milk-o-testers, liquid nitrogen containers, artificial insemination equipments, automatic milk collection stations and other testing equipments to societies. f. Conversion of surplus milk into milk products such as Skimmed Milk Powder, Butter and Ghee in Feeder Balancing Dairies.

g. Strengthening of processing plants to handle surplus milk, maintaining the quality assurance (ISO/HACCP) at all stages in Chennai processing plants, adoption of modern processing system, providing necessary infrastructure facilities, thereby enabling supply of quality milk and milk products to the consumers. h. Government of Tamil Nadu / Government of India sponsored Dairy Development schemes are being implemented. i. Providing financial support to the milk producers unions to ensure up to date milk payment to the milk producers and support the weaker unions to prevent financial losses. Action is taken to maintain timely payment and to keep the societies economically viable.

j.

k. Manufacturing milk products such as Yogurt, Ice Cream, Khova, Gulab Jamoon, Butter Milk, Curd, Mysore pa, Lassi and introduction of Sugar free ice cream in Chennai.

The Federation co-ordinates the activities of the District Co-operative Milk Producers Unions and provides technical expertise as and when required and also undertakes planning, erection, expansion and commissioning of Dairy Plants and Bulk Milk Coolers in the milk unions on turnkey basis. Federation helps the unions in marketing their milk products like skim milk powder, ghee, butter, tetra pack products and cheese in Tamil Nadu and in other States.

DAIRY DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT

Formation of societies, registration of societies, supervision and control of Primary Milk Cooperatives, District Co-operative Milk Producers Unions and Tamil Nadu Co-operative Milk Producers Federation are being carried out by the Dairy Development Department.

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Dairy Development Department exercises statutory functions like Inquiry, Inspection, Surcharge and Supersession, election, Appointment of Special Officers, liquidators and winding up of dormant Societies etc. Commissioner for Milk Production and Dairy Development, Deputy Milk Commissioner (Co-operation), and Circle Deputy Registrars (Dairying) are vested with quasiJudicial powers in respect of settlement of disputes, appeal, revision and review under various provisions of Tamil Nadu Cooperative Societies Act, 1983 and the Tamil Nadu Co-operative Societies Rules, 1988 made there under.

Commissioner for Milk Production and Dairy Development has been designated as the State Registering Authority for the State of Tamil Nadu, under the provisions of Milk and Milk Products Order'92. All the Dairy units including private Dairies handling more than 10,000 LPD of milk or Milk Products containing milk solids in excess of 500 metric tones per annum have to obtain registration certificate under the provision of Milk and Milk Products Order'92. Commissioner for Milk Production and Dairy Development / State Registering Authority has been conferred with powers to register the dairy units which have handling capacity from 10,000 LPD to 2,00,000 LPD. Commissioner / State Registering Authority, Deputy Milk Commissioner (Co-operation) / District Collectors and Deputy Registrars (Dairying) have been authorised to carry out supervision and periodic inspection of the dairies functioning under Milk and Milk Products Order '92.

Centralized Quality Control Laboratory established with Government of Indias grant is functioning under the direct control of Commissioner for Milk Production and Dairy Development at Madhavaram. Milk Samples are being collected from various selling outlets and quality of samples are tested at the laboratory to ensure the supply of quality and clean milk to the consumers.

PROGRESS UNDER DAIRY DEVELOPMENT SECTOR (YEAR 2006-2007) PRIMARY SOCIETIES i. 352 new Milk Producers Co-operative Societies (MPCS) have been organised during the year 2006-2007, out of which 113 are women MPCS. ii. 7662 MPCS are functioning of which 7129 MPCS are functioning in profit. Steps are being taken to improve procurement and to make the balance 533 MPCS in profit. iii. 1210 Women Milk Producers Co-operative Societies are functioning.

DISTRICT UNIONS

There are 17 District Co-operative Milk Producers Unions functioning in Tamil Nadu, covering 30 Districts. In the District Co-operative Milk Producers Unions, under the Milch Animal Breeding Programme around 8 lakhs milch animals in 4696 societies are being covered through 2365 Artificial Insemination centers. In order to extend the coverage of milch animals under the breeding programme, to provide breeding services at the Door Step of the producers and to improve the rate of conception, Stationary Artificial insemination centers are being converted into Mobile Artificial Insemination centers. 12.78 lakhs Artificial inseminations have been carried out and 4.15

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lakhs crossbreed calves were born as on 31.3.2007. 3753 Dairy Co-operative Societies are covered under animal health programme through regular visits by qualified Veterinary Doctors. Further, exclusive animal health camps were conducted in 3873 Milk Producers Co-operative Societies during the year 2006-2007. 5.19 lakhs cases have been treated in the year 2006-2007. Emergency veterinary units are also operated to attend the distress calls from the members. 50 regular veterinary units and 56 emergency units are functioning under the control of District Cooperative Milk Producers Unions. The Artificial Inseminations carried out in the field is being closely monitored through the Artificial Insemination Monitoring System to assess the conception rate, calving rate and bull fertility.

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SIGNIFICANT INFORMATION

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MILK PROCUREMENT

The average quantity of milk procured by the District Co-operative Milk Producers Unions during the year 2005-2006 and 2006-2007 is furnished below:-

In 2005-2006, 7640 Co-operative Milk Producers Societies have procured 25.09 lakh litres of milk per day (LLPD). In 2006-2007, number of MPCS increased to 7662 and the milk procurement has also increased to 26.10 LLPD. Milk procurement by DCMPUs has increased from 21.59 LLPD (2005-2006) to 22.10 LLPD (2006-2007). MILK PROCUREMENT PRICE Milk procurement price has been increased from Rs.10.50 to Rs. 12.00 per litre for cow milk (4.5% FAT & 8.5% SNF) and from Rs.12.50 to Rs. 14.00 per litre for buffalo milk (7% FAT & 8.8% SNF) with effect from 07.03.2007. Uniform milk procurement price chart have been prepared and followed by all the 17 District Co-operative Milk Producers Unions. MILK SALES IN DISTRICT UNIONS AND CHENNAI METRO

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The average quantity of District Co-operative Milk Producers' Unions local milk sale during the year 2005-2006 and 2006-2007 is given below:TABLE III

METRO MILK SALES Sale of milk in sachet is being carried out through 24 zones, 516 Depots, 364 Distribution Points, 35 Wholesale Milk Distributors, 89 Milk Retailers and 48 Milk Consumers Co-operative Societies. Sale of milk products is being carried out through 42 parlours, 185 Franchise Retail Outlets (FROs), 12 Wholesale dealers, and 4824 Retailers. Federation also caters to the needs for functions like marriages by booking special orders. Standardised milk is being sold through 218 Automatic Vending Machines and 110 Fiber Reinforced Plastics Tubs (FRPs) to the city consumers. Milk products are also sold in certain AVM Units. Milk in sachets is also being sold through AVM units. The recent raise in selling price of milk has not impacted the sale and the Tamil Nadu Cooperative Milk Producers Federation and District Co-operative Milk Producers Unions maintain their sales volume. OTHER ACTIVITIES DURING THE YEAR 2006-2007

(a) INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT In order to meet the increasing milk procurement, infrastructure facilities were created in dairies and chilling centers of District Co-operative Milk Producers Unions and Federation at a cost of Rs.715.45 lakhs to handle additional quantity of milk procured.

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(b) CATTLE FEED During the year 2006-2007, 9935 MTs of cattle feed was produced and 9812 MTs of cattle feed was sold. (c) FODDER DEVELOPMENT 34 hectare of District unions land is covered under green fodder development activities. Out of which, 25 hectare are developed under Government of Indias Grass Land Development scheme (d) FROZEN SEMEN STRAW PRODUCTION 17.32 lakhs Frozen semen straws were produced at Nucleus Jersey and Stud Farm (NJF) at Udhagamandalam during the year 2006-2007.

CENTRALLY SPONSORED SCHEMES (1) SUPPORT TO TRAINING AND EMPLOYMENT PROGRAMME FOR WOMEN (STEP) The Government of India introduced "STEP" Scheme at a total cost of Rs.649.464 lakhs to improve the socio economic conditions of poor rural women belonging to SC/ST, asset less women and Self-Help-Group. The grants in aid of Rs.584.518 Lakhs will be met by Government of India as its 90% share and the balance 10% share of Rs.64.946 Lakhs to be met by the implementing Agency. The period of the scheme is 3 years from 2002 to 2005. Further, the Government of India extended the scheme period up to March 2008 and the balance funds of Rs.281.929 lakhs are awaited from the Government of India. This Scheme is implemented in 7 District Co-operative Milk Producers' Unions viz. Salem, Erode, Dharmapuri, Vellore, Villupuram, Coimbatore and Trichy comprising of 13 Revenue Districts. The Government of India has released a sum of Rs.227.839 lakhs for the 1st year and Rs.74.75 lakhs released as 1st installment for the 2nd year against Rs.197.999 lakhs. The STEP scheme implementing Unions and the Federation have utilised a sum of Rs.227.599 lakhs. The targeted 145 Women Dairy Co-operative Societies have been organised and 10150 women members enrolled. The average milk procurement from STEP Societies is 26,283 litres per day with an average income of Rs.60/- per day per beneficiary. With the implementation of STEP scheme the average income of beneficiary will be enhanced from Rs.7000/- per year to Rs.20, 000/- per year at the end of this project. (2) INTENSIVE DAIRY DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME The Government of India have accorded sanction for Rs.312.15 lakhs to Sivagangai District Co-operative Milk Producers Union as full grant to implement Intensive Dairy Development Programme in Sivagangai and Ramanathapuram Districts from 2005-2006. First year grant of Rs.55.45 lakhs was received and utilized. Second year (2006-2007) grant of Rs.102.14 lakhs has also been received and being utilised by the union. Under this programme, funds have been sanctioned to unions to improve milk procurement, milk sales, creation of infrastructure required for milk processing and marketing, extension of input activities, manpower development in districts for a period of five years. During the year 2006-2007, the Government of India accorded administrative approval for the implementation of Intensive Dairy Development Programme in Tirunelveli and Kanyakumari District Cooperatives Milk Producers Unions for a total outlay of Rs.554.06 lakhs and Rs.291.77 lakhs respectively. Tirunelveli, Thoothukudi and Kanyakumari Districts will be benefited under this scheme. The first year grant of Rs.49.83 lakhs was received and being utilised by Kanyakumari District Co-operative Milk Producers Union. The

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first year grant of Rs.204.50 lakhs for Tirunelveli District Cooperative Milk Producers Union is in process. Besides, a proposal for Rs.899.875 lakhs has also been sent to Govt. of India to avail financial assistance to improve dairy development activities in Thanjavur District Co-operative Milk Producers Union. (3) STRENGTHENING INFRASTRUCTURE FOR QUALITY AND CLEAN MILK PRODUCTION The Government of India sponsored a scheme called Strengthening Infrastructure for Quality and Clean Milk Production to strengthen infrastructure facilities and to ensure clean milk production at village level. The period of the scheme is two / three years. Objective of the scheme is to train farmers on quality and clean milk production activities, to provide chemicals and utensils to the milk pouring members, to strengthen district union dairies / chilling centers laboratory and to install bulk milk coolers at societies to improve initial quality of milk. The Government of India will release the entire amount as full grant for training, provision of antiseptic solutions, supply of stainless steel utensils and modernization of Quality Control Labs at Dairies / Chilling Centers. Government of India will release 75 percent as grant for installation of bulk milk coolers and the remaining 25 percent will be met by the concerned beneficiary District Cooperatives Milk Producers Union. The Government of India so far has sanctioned Rs.1224.21 lakhs to Vellore, Villupuram, Trichy, Dharmapuri, Salem, Kancheepuram-Tiruvallur, Erode, Nilgiris and Madurai milk Unions for implementation of the scheme. Under these schemes, 48001 members will be benefited, 90 Bulk Milk Coolers will be installed and the chilling capacity will be increased by another 3.71 lakh litres per day. (4) FIELD PERFORMANCE RECORDING OF ELITE ANIMALS Field Performance - Recording system is being implemented by the Federation with the financial assistance of Government of India through the Tamil Nadu Livestock Development Agency, (TNLDA) for production of crossbred bulls required for breeding of the milch animals belonging to the Milk Producers. Under this programme, Cows with a peak yield of 12 litres were identified and out of these, 1,898 disease free cows have been selected and these cows will be impregnated by way of Artificial Insemination and on calving their milk yield will be recorded. Among them, the high yielding cows will be selected as Bull Mothers for production of crossbred bulls. (5) PROGENY TESTING SCHEME Progeny Testing Scheme is being implemented by the Federation with the financial assistance of Government of India through the Tamil Nadu Live Stock Development Agency (TNLDA), in order to

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select superior cross bred bulls for breeding of the milch animals belonging to the milk Producers. In order to select the superior cross bred bulls, a minimum of 20 cross bred bulls were selected and the cows belonging to the milk Producers were impregnated using the semen collected from these bulls by way of artificial insemination. Based on the study of certain important economic traits like the quantity of milk produced in the first lactation, Fat and SNF, age at first calving of the heifers born to these cows, the best of the crossbred bulls are selected. (6) LIVESTOCK INSURANCE SCHEME Livestock Insurance Scheme is being implemented by the Federation as a pilot project with the assistance of Government of India through TNLDA. It was targeted to cover a total of 46,000 milch animals during the year 2006-07 under insurance cover in the districts of Coimbatore, Salem, Namakkal, Erode and Vellore. As against this, 53,114 milch animals have been provided with insurance cover. As per the scheme guidelines out of the total premium payable, 50% is provided as subsidy and the balance 50% is to be borne by the milk producers. (7) REHABILITATION PLAN - CENTRAL SECTOR PLAN SCHEME - ASSISTANCE TO COOPERATIVES REHABILITATION OF UNIONS. During 9th five year plan, Government of India formulated a scheme called Assistance to Cooperatives to rehabilitate the loss making District Co-operative Milk Producers Unions. The plan envisages 50 percent grant from the Government of India and 50 percent grant from the State Government to wipe off cash loss in District Co-operative Milk Producers Unions and make them viable with suitable Rehabilitation Plan. The Government of India accorded administrative approval for the implementation of rehabilitation plan at Dharmapuri District Co-operative Milk Producers Union at a total cost of Rs. 970.99 lakhs from 2005-2006. The Govt. of Indias share of Rs.175.00 lakhs and the State Governments share of Rs.350.00 lakhs have been sanctioned and disbursed to the union. The State Government has also recommended and forwarded the rehabilitation project proposal of Dindigul District Co-operative Milk Producers Union for Rs.180.00 lakhs to Government of India and the approval is awaited. LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT FOR TSUNAMI AFFECTED DISTRICTS The Federation has planned to introduce a special package in dairy sector at 12 coastal Tsunami affected districts, with 100% financial assistances from ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK for the creation of infrastructure. Under the Restoration of Livelihood of Tsunami affected people component of this project, a sum of Rs.619.15 lakhs has been approved. With this amount, the following activities will be carried out:(1) 200 New Milk Producers Co-operative Societies will be organized with 5000 beneficiaries belonging to various self-help groups. Rs.100.00 Lakhs worth of society equipments will be provided free of

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cost. (2) 19 Bulk milk coolers will be established at a total cost of Rs.309.00 lakhs. (3) Infrastructure assistance worth of Rs.201.15 lakhs will be provided to 45 Self Help Groups (SHGs) for the sale of milk and milk products at 45 locations. (4) Training will be given to SHG members in dairying at a total cost of Rs.9.00 lakhs. First installment of Rs.200.00 lakhs has been released by Government of Tamil Nadu. STATE GOVERNMENT SCHEME PART II SCHEMES FOR THE YEAR 2007-2008 It is proposed to implement the following schemes at a total value of Rs.418.00 lakhs under Part-II Scheme as detailed below:State Government's share is Rs.218.00 lakhs which is the highest amount proposed to the dairy sector and the balance amount of Rs.200.00 lakhs will be met by the beneficiary Unions / Societies.

(a) 5000 Stainless Steel Milk Cans will be purchased at the rate of Rs.4000 per can and supplied to 1000 Milk Producers Co-operative Societies at a total cost of Rs.200.00 lakhs. The Government will sanction 50% of the cost and the balance 50% will be met by the beneficiary societies. (b) It is proposed to procure 50 Stainless Steel Milk Collection Kits containing Stainless Steel Materials like Stainless Steel Collection Trays, Funnel, Filter Units, Measures and Sample bottles for milk testing at the rate of Rs.6000/- per kit to 50 Milk Producers Co-operative Societies. The total cost of the above kits works out to Rs.3.00 lakhs. (c) It is proposed to install 10 Bulk Milk Coolers of 5000 litre capacity at Milk Producers Cooperative Societies. The cost of each Bulk Milk Cooler is Rs.20.00 lakhs. The Government will sanction Rs.100.00 lakhs out of total cost of Rs.200.00 lakhs as its 50% share and the beneficiary union will meet the balance 50%. (d) It is proposed to install 10 Personal Computer based milk collection stations to Milk Producers Cooperative Societies (MPCS) at the rate of Rs.1.50 lakhs per unit. The entire amount of Rs.15.00 lakhs will be met by the Government. BACKWARD REGION GRANT FUND (RASHTRIYA SAM VIKAS YOJANA - RSVY) (a) The Government of Tamil Nadu has sanctioned a sum of Rs.100.361 lakhs for the installation of 2 bulk milk coolers and for the implementation of clean milk production programme in 119 Milk Producers Co-operative Societies at Sivagangai District Co-operative Milk Producers Union under RSVY scheme. The scheme is in progress. (b) Rs.110.29 lakhs is sanctioned to Thanjavur District Co-operative Milk Producers Union for improvement of milk production through veterinary camps, training to farmers, green fodder

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cultivation and creation of other infrastructure. (c) Rs.43.50 lakhs is sanctioned to Dindigul District Co-operative Milk Producers Union for purchase milk processing equipments.

MILK PRODUCTION, PLANNING AND CONTROL FOR THE YEAR 2007-2008 (1) ORGANIZATION / REVIVAL OF MPCS It is proposed to organize 250 MPCS and revive 50 MPCS during the year 2007-2008. (2) MILK PROCUREMENT It is proposed to procure 28 lakh litres of milk per day by the societies during the year 2007-2008. (3) MILK MARKETING 10.25 lakhs litre of milk will be marketed per day at Chennai Metro during the year 2007-08 compared to 9.87 LLPD during the year 2006-07. 9.95 LLPD of milk will be marketed in District Cooperative Milk producers Unions during the year 2007-08 compared to 9.42 LLPD in the year 2006-07. (4) EXPANSION OF PROCESSING CAPACITY Rs.1733.50 lakhs worth equipments for creation of additional infrastructure for increasing milk handling, processing, packing etc., will be provided in the year 2007-08. Feeder Balancing Dairies will be strengthened to act as Regional suppliers of Processed Milk and Milk Products to the smaller Unions. (5) INSTALLATION OF BULK MILK COOLERS 86 bulk milk coolers are proposed to be installed and made operational during the year 2007-2008. (6) TRAINING OF MILK PRODUCERS. 29600 milk producers will be trained at a cost of Rs.37.00 lakhs under quality and clean milk production activities. 8000 milk producers will be trained at a total cost of Rs.30.00 lakhs on Dairy animal management activities. XI FIVE YEAR PLAN PROPOSED PILOT PROJECT ACTIVITIES IN 2007-2008 LAB TO LAND-TRANSFER OF TECHNOLOGY TO THE VILLAGES (1) AUTOMATIC MILK COLLECTION STATION It has been proposed to install 30 personal computer based automatic milk collection stations at an estimated cost of Rs.45.00 lakhs in MPCS procuring milk more than 1000 LPD. Milk received at these MPCS will be handled hygienically and payment will be made to producers based on quality. (2) FEED MIXING UNIT It has been proposed to establish 50 feed mixing unit at MPCS procuring milk more than 1000 litres per day for the production of cattle feed in small scale with capacity to produce 1 ton of feed per day at a total cost of Rs.250.00 lakhs.

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(3) AUTOMATIC MILKING MACHINE To ensure hygienic milking and to reduce time, labour and additional cost to producers for milking high yielding cows, 4 automatic milking machines in selected societies at a cost of Rs.5.80 lakhs has been proposed. It will retain initial quality of milk by avoiding external microbial contamination. (4) FOOD PARK As a pilot project it is proposed to create one milk product Food Park at a total project cost of Rs.2.00 lakhs by the union at the society level with the technical support from the Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (TANUVAS). (5) FEMALE CALF REARING SCHEME 10,000 Crossbreed / buffalo female calf rearing scheme at a total project cost of Rs.600.00 lakhs has been proposed during the XI Five year plan period. POLICY INITIATVIES In order to maintain freshness and the initial quality of milk, as it comes out from the udder of the animal, it is proposed to introduce clean milk production activities at village levels. Tamil Nadu Cooperative Milk Producers Federation Limited proposes to implement the following activities at societies during the year 2007-2008. (a) ESTABLISHMENT OF BULK MILK COOLERS As a part of Quality and Clean Milk Production activities, Bulk Milk Coolers are being installed at MPCS on cluster basis. By installing Bulk Milk Coolers, milk is chilled within 30 minutes of milking. The bacterial growth in milk is arrested and freshness is retained. The milk products will also have long shelflife. Transport cost will also be reduced. 157 Bulk Milk Coolers under various schemes will be made operational before 31.03.2008 at an approximate total cost of Rs.15.00 Crores. 22 bulk milk coolers have been commissioned and orders have been placed for 49 bulk milk coolers. During the year 2007-08, it is proposed to install 86 Bulk milk Coolers at Milk Producers Cooperative Societies. By doing this, the chilling capacity of the state will be increased by 4 LLPD. (b) QUALITY AND CLEAN MILK PRODUCTION Federation is concentrating more on quality milk procurement from Milk Producers Co-operative Societies to improve the initial quality of milk. Clean Milk Production Programme envisages not only good quality milk production but also improvement of animal management, feed, fodder, artificial insemination, training of farmers and society personnel, installation of Bulk Milk Coolers, maintaining milk yard free from flies, dirt-less usage of Stainless Steel vessel for minimum level of bacterial load. In Dairy Co-operatives, the following measures are being taken under Quality and Clean Milk Production:(1) Aluminum milk cans and milk collection gadgets are gradually replaced with Stainless Steel materials. (2) Milk Producers will be provided with Stainless Steel Pails, antiseptic solution like saaf kit for udder cleaning on pre and post milking. (3) Clean milk production awareness programmes are being conducted.

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(4) Booklets in Tamil about Quality Clean Milk Production are being circulated among the Producers. (5) Dovetailing the activities of Animal Husbandry Department, TANUVAS and TNLDA are being carried out for milch animal health and breeding activities. MOBILE BREEDING FACILITY-TNLDA SCHEME With the Co-ordination of Tamil Nadu Livestock Development Agency (TNLDA) various breed improvement activities besides Livestock insurance scheme for cross bred cows will be carried out. The Private Mobile Artificial Insemination facility will be better utilized to provide coverage in uncovered areas of the Milk Producers Co-operative Societies. AUDIT DEPARTMENT OF AUDIT FOR MILK CO-OPERATIVES Department of Audit for Milk Co-operatives is functioning from 01.10.1987. This Department is entrusted with the statutory audit of village level Primary Milk Co-operative Societies, District Level Cooperative Milk Producers Union and the Tamil Nadu Co-operative Milk Producers Federation. In the Department of Audit for Milk Co-operatives, 335 employees are working under lean service basis from the Co-operative Department. GOVERNMENT REVENUE For the audit year 2005-2006, the total demand under audit fees is Rs.59.01 lakhs. The audit demand of Rs.56.07 lakhs has been collected. The total demand for F.R.Cost (Fundamental Rule audit cost) is Rs. 58.40 lakhs, out of which Rs.53.60 lakhs has been collected. JOINT ACTION PLAN The progress of Audit of Dairy Development Department, TCMPF, District Co-operative milk Producers Unions and Milk Producers Co-operative Societies are periodically reviewed by the Commissioner for Milk Production and Dairy Development. Audit co-ordination committee meetings every month on first Wednesday for Federation, second Wednesday for primary societies, third Wednesday for unions are being conducted respectively to sort out the pending audit issues. Audit defect rectification committee meeting is periodically conducted and suitable action is taken on the audit defects. APPRECIATION BY NATIONAL DAIRY DEVELOPMENT BOARD (NDDB) NDDB has appreciated the growth of the Tamil Nadu Co-operative Milk Producers Federation Limited. In their News Magazine for the month of November 2006, it has reported that One of the main contributing factors for the growth was identified as consistency in the quality of milk supplied. More emphasis is attributed to the quality of products being manufactured by the Federation and District Unions 3. The Tamil Nadu Co-operative Milk Producers Federation Limited has carried out an in-depth analysis regarding infrastructure gap in the Dairy Development sector in consultation with the Animal Husbandry Department, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Science University and Tamil Nadu Livestock Development Agency experts. Creating Disease Free Zones for milch animals, Quality and

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Clean Milk Production to meet international standards, value addition of milk and milk products,diversification of milk based products, improved marketing strategies are the goals of the Dairy Development Department, which are being achieved.

Milestones of Dairy Development in India

Year 1862

Achievement First Veterinary School opened at Poona mainly to meet the requirements of the Remount and Veterinary Corps in the Army.

1868

Indian Cattle Plague Commission was appointed to report on the prevalent cattle disease and suggest measures for their prevention and control. First Veterinary College was established at Lahore (Pakistan). After Independence and Partition, the college was shifted to Hissar.

1886

First Military Dairy Farm set up at Allahabad.

1889 of

Imperial Bacteriological Laboratory was established which became the forerunner Imperial (Indian) Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar.

1891

On the recommendation of the Cattle Plague Commission, Indian Civil Veterinary Departments were later named variously as Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Services Departments, some of those included the Dairy Development.

1907

First importation of Ayrshire stock.

1914 composition

As advised by the Board of Agriculture, a preliminary study concerning the of milk produced by indigenous cows and buffaloes was conducted and attempts were made to establish pedigree herds of Indian breeds.

1916

Impressed by the tremendous potentiality of milk in India, the Board of Agriculture advised the Government to appoint an Imperial Dairy Expert.

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1919

The First livestock census was carried out as a preparatory action for planned development.

1920

Mr. William Smith, the Imperial Dairy Expert, recommended: (i) scientific breeding, feeding and management practices to be followed at Military Dairy Farms, (ii) Establishment of a training centre to meet the manpower requirements for managing the farms on scientific lines.

1923 institute

Imperial Institute of Animal Husbandry and Dairying started at Bangalore. The was renamed in 1941 as the Imperial Dairy Institute. Later its headquarter was shifted to Karnal and it was again renamed (1955) as the National Dairy Research Institute. In 1923 two years diploma course (Indian Diploma in Dairying) was started at Bangalore & at Allahabad Agriculture Research Institute Allahabad.

1928

Royal Commission on Agriculture carried out a wide ranging study on all aspects of agriculture, animal husbandry and dairy development on a national scale and for identifying / formulating schemes with Central Government back up.

1929 and

The Imperial Council of Agriculture Research (now Indian Council of Agricultural Research ICAR) was set up on 16th July 1929. It was reorganised twice, in 1965 1973. (ICAR is an autonomous body under the Department of Agricultural Research and Education).

1930

Shri Pestonji Edulji Poison, establish Poison Model Dairy at Anand with the latest available technology and went into manufacture of sophisticated products like the famous Poison Butter.

1936 to

Study carried out by Dr. N.C. Wright, Director, Hannah Dairy Research Institute, UK recommend methods for further improvement of dairying in India. Madras Veterinary Colleges started a four year University level veterinary course BVSc.

Renamed Imperial Dairy Institute.

1937

The first milk union - The Lucknow Milk Producers Co operative Union Limited was

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established followed by organisation of such unions in other districts and states.

1938 and

Agmark Act enacted and laid down standards for grading purity and quality ghee butter (and later on other milk products).

1939

Isolated attempts in artificial insemination started.

1944 supply

Central Livestock and Research cum Breeding Station started at Haringhata, to processed milk to Calcutta, work restarted in 1947 and completed in 1949.

1945

Milk Marketing Advisor (Mr. R.A. Pepprall) appointed to the Government of India.

Famine Inquiry Commission emphasized the need for developing feed and the fodder supply for increasing milk production and recommended adoption of mixed farming.

Inauguration of the Government of Bombay Milk Scheme (GBMS) & setting up of the Array Milk Colony.

1946 course

Two weeks course in Artificial Insemination started at the IVRI. Duration of the extended to two months.

1947

Cattle Preservation and Development Committee appointed by the Government of India, to salvage dry cattle from cities and towns.

1948

First meeting of the Milk Producers held at Samarkha on 4th January under the presidentship of Shri Morarji Desai.

The First Farmers integrated dairy Co-operative - The Kaira District Cooperative Milk Producers Union was established at Anand which came to be known as Amul. After

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independence, both Amul and GBMS set together a faster pace of dairy development with emphasis on developing techniques of processing and marketing under Indian conditions.

Dr. H.D. Kay, Director, National Institute for Research in Dairying recommended that the Bangalore Institute be shifted to an area more typical of dairy region of the country and some regional station be established at Karnal and Bangalore became its Southern Regional Station.

1950

Pasteurized and bottled milk sold for the first time to the common man in India in Bombay.

Milk Sub Committee on the Policy Committee on Agriculture recommended constitution of milk control Board with powers to control purchase and sale prices of milk.

1951

Deep freezing of bovine semen in solid carbon dioxide.

1951-56

First Five Year Plan: Programme for dairy development were given a low priority.

1952

Central Council for Gosamvardhan set up a central coordinating agency and advisory body on cattle development.

Government of Bombay terminated its contract with the Poison Dairy and gave it to Amul, who also started handling surplus milk handled previously by the Poison Dairy. 1954 First Joint Indo American Team was appointed to study the need for Agriculture Research and Education in India. In its report in 1958, it recommended setting up of Agriculture Universities on the pattern of Land Grand Colleges affiliated to the US Universities, G.B. Pant Agriculture University, Pantnagar was the First to be set up in 1960.

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1955

National Dairy Research Institute was shifted and (NDRI) came into existence at Karnal, at the former Central Cattle Breeding Farm.

Bangalore facilities became Southern Regional Station of the Institute (NDRI).

In the year 1955, Government of India setup the Agriculture Machinery Utilisation Training Centre at Budni (M.P.). The Testing Wing was established in 1960.

1956 61 Second Five Year Plan.

Seven liquid milk plants completed, eight pilot milk schemes started, three creameries and two milk product factories started, civil works in 31 liquid milk plants in cities having a population of more than 100,000 in progress.

1957

Dairy Science college was established in 1957 & the first B.Sc. (Dairying) course started in July 1957.

1959

Delhi Milk Scheme (DMS) was set up in 1959 with the main object of supplying wholesome milk to the citizens of Delhi at reasonable price as well as to provide remunerative price to the milk producers. Manufacture and sale of milk products like Ghee, Table Butter, Flavoured Milk and Yoghurt was also undertaken as an allied activity.

1960 time in

Production of Baby Food and Milk Powder by Amul from buffalo milk for the first the world (and of course in India). Central Food Technological Research Institute Mysore, helped develop the process of manufacture.

Second Joint Indo-American Team was appointed to make specific proposals for setting up Agriculture Universities under the Third Five Year Plan.

G.B. Pant Agriculture University, Pantnagar. First Agriculture University was set up.

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1961-66 Third Five Year Plan

23 liquid milk plants and 27 pilot milk schemes in operation, 2 cheese factories and 4 cattle feed factories completed work, establishment of another 37 liquid milk plants started.

B.Sc. Dairying bifurcated into two branches namely B.Sc. (Dairy Technology) and B.Sc. (Dairy Husbandry), M.Sc. Dairying courses commenced at Karnal. 1961 The NDRI expanded to have a centre at Calcutta and Bombay.

1962

Western Regional Station established in Bombay.

Government of India constituted a working group to study development of dairying and animal husbandry through co-operative. The group recommended that at least 50% of the Milk Product factories be in the cooperative sector and the remaining in the public sector.

1963

Dr. V. Kurien, Chairman- NDDB got the Ramon Magsaysay Award for Community Leadership.

Farm Machinery Training & Testing Institute was set up in Hissar (Haryana) and facilities of testing sub station were also created in 1973.

1964

Eastern Regional Station was established in Kalyani (W.B).

1965

National Dairy Development Board was set up with Dr. V. Kurien, Chairman of the Statutory body.

Organized field use of frozen semen started by the Indo-Swiss Project, Kerala.

1966-69 Annual Plans

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1966

Scientific Panel on Animal Husbandry was appointed by the Union Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, 1966-69: Annual Plans (There was no five year plan) emphasized on consolidation of existing dairy projects.

Operation Flood project conceived and formulated.

1968

Foundation stone of NDDB office building was laid by Shri Tribhuvandas Patel.

1969-74 Fourth Five Year Plan.

Six milk supply schemes, 32 rural dairy centres were commissioned.

Until the end of 1974, (including the dairies under Operation flood) 100 dairy plants, 62 pilot dairy schemes had been completed of the 100, some 94 were managed by the Government, 2 were in the co-operative and 4 in the Private sector.

1969

NDDB submitted a proposal to Government of India for Operation Flood.

1970 transact the

Indian Dairy Corporation was set up because the NDDB was not authorized to any financial and commercial business. Both the IDC and the NDDB constituted Project Authority for implementation of Operation Flood.

The Five Year - Operation Flood Project was initiated in July. This was the Worlds biggest milk drive launched in any country.

National Co-operative Dairy Federation of India (NCDFI) was established in 1970 at New Delhi under the Delhi Co-operatve Societies Act and in 1984 under the Multistate Co-operative Societies Act. During 1986 on the bylaws were modified and the NCDFI was reorganised to become a true representative of State Level Milk Marketing

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Federations. Its headquarter was shifted from New Delhi to Anand in November, 1986.

1973 milk

NDDB developed a bulk vending system to dispense predetermined quantities of (Liquids) when activated by a coin operated mechanism.

NDDB took over the management of the Sabarmati Ashram Gaushala (SAG).

Department of Agricultuaral Research and Education (DARE) was established in the Ministry of Agricultural in December, 1973.

1974-78 Fifth Five Year Plan

1974 International were

58th Annual Session of the International Dairy Federation (IDF) and XIX Dairy Congress held in New Delhi. This was for the first time that these meetings held in a developing country. Dairying as an Instrument of Social and Economic Change was the theme of the Congress.

Dr. (Miss) Amrita Patel was assigned the responsibility of the Secretary- General, International Dairy Congress.

Gujarat Co-operative Milk Marketing Federation, an apex society of six unions registered for centralized marketing and purchase functions.

Mother Dairy Delhi, Commissioned.

1975

Operational Research Project initiated.

A Karan-Fries cow at NDRI established a record of highest milk production 44 Kg. Daily Peak yield. 1975-76 Evolution of National Milk Grid begins. Milk movement through rail milk tankers began on Anand - Delhi, Anand - Bombay, JalgaonBombay, Dhulia - Bombay, Erode - Madras routes.

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1976

National Commission on Agriculture set up in 1970 by the Government of India to review the past progress and recommend strategy for integrated development of agriculture, animal husbandry, dairying, specialised area development programme for the rural population in general and for the poor people in particular. It submitted its interim report in 1973 and formal report in 1976.

Department of Human Nutrition and Dietetics established at NDRI Karnal.

Sugum Shrikhand and tea enricher were introduced by NDDB milk products development Laboratory.

1977

Regional Advisory Council were set up for co-ordination of animal husbandry and dairying activities between NDDB-IDC-state Governments and Milk producers Cooperative Unions.

Dairy Machinery Advisory Council was set up to increase indigenisation of the dairy and related equipment.

Milk and Milk Products Advisory Council was set up to maintain close contact between the NDDB-IDC and the organisations responsible for marketing of liquid milk and milk products.

The Oilseeds and Vegetable Oil Wing was set up within the NDDB for restructuring the edible oil and oilseeds production, processing and marketing.

Meeting with the World Bank for funding of Operation Flood II.

NDDB took over the management of the Bhavnagar Vegetable Products Unit.

1978-80

Annual Plans operated, Before Sixth Five Year Plan.

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1978 and

The first international workshop on Co-operative Dairy Programme for member countries of the Animal Production and Health Commission of Asia, the Far East South and West Pacific (APHCA) was helf at NDDB.

Operation Flood was approved by the Government of India.

Shri Morarji Desai, Prime Minister of India, inaugurated UNIDCO sponsored Conference of the International Forum on Appropriate Industrial Technology hosted by the NDDB.

NDDB took over the management of Mother Dairy, Calcutta from the Government of West Bengal. Mother Dairy was commissioned in December, 1978.

1979 and

Operation Flood II was launched by the Prime Minister of India, Shri Charan Singh Mother Dairy Delhi, was dedicated to the milk producers and consumers of the Nation.

Institute of Rural Management sponsored by the NDDB-IDC set up at Anand under the Societies Act, 1960 to train young executives in Cooperative Management and Intergrated Rural Development and to under take consultancy and research projects.

For the first time liquid fresh milk traversed the long distance of 2,000 Km from Anand to Calcutta by a 40,000 litrre Rail Milk Tanker. The concept of National Milk grid became a reality.

Sugam Dairy-a unit for research and development of indigenous milk products started by NDDB-IDC in collaboration with the Baroda District Cooperative Milk Producers Union. The Sugam Dairy produced Shrikhand (Sweetened, Flavored Yoghurt) and Tea Enricher (reconstituted from double toned milk and vegetable protein.)

36

 M.Sc., Ph.D. Programme in Dairying Engineering Commenced at Karnal. Institute of Rural Management sponsored by the NDDB-IDC set up at Anand under the societies Act, 1960 to train young executives in cooperative Management and Integrated Rural Development and to under take consultancy and research projects.

Central Institute for Research on Goats was established at Village Makhdoom near Tehsil Farah on 12th July, 1979 by the ICAR.

1980-85 Sixth Five Year Plan

1980

NDDB established Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory (renamed in 1988 as the Animal Disease Research Laboratory) at Anand.

The NDDB developed Mixed Integer Linear Programming Technique for least-cost formulation of balanced cattle feed concentrates and assisted Dairy Co-operatives in using computerised formulae. NDDB helped the Government of Gujarat to develop Inland and Marine Fisheries Projects on the Anand Pattern of Co-operatives.

Tribhuvandas Foundation registered to implement Integrated Rural Development Project formulated by the NDDB. The Project aimed at enabling all villages in a Milkshed to build into Milk Co-operatives their own organisation for maternal and infant health care, nutrition, environmental improvement and elimination of proverty.

NDDB helped indigenisation of milkotester for testing fat in collaboration with N.Foss Electric, Denmark and Instrumentation India Ltd., Kota (Later the NDDB helped indigenise the major model of the machine that could test fat, protein and other ingredients in milk).

Paper Laminating Plant was set up by the Indian Dairy Corporation in technical

37

collaboration with Tetrapak, Switzerland (later incorporated as Hindustan Packaging co. Ltd.) to manufacture laminated paper required for aseptic packaging of milk, commissioned in 1983.

For increased productivity in cattle and buffaloes launched by the Department of Biotechnology, Government of India. Other collaborating agencies were National Institute of Immunology, Indian Veterinary Research Institute and the National Dairy Research Institute.

International Bureau of Tropical Dairying set up at New Delhi to promote dairy development in tropical countries and to act as an information exchange centre for the dairy activities in the tropics. Argentina, Brazil, Cuba, India, Pakistan, Thailand and Venezuela were founder members.

1981 On its

Government of India constituted a group on Perishable Agriculture Commodities. recommendation NDDB set up a fruit and vegetable wing to initiate work on restructuring of perishable commodity systems. To get first hand experience the NDDB arranged marketing of oranges through Mother Dairy Calcutta and helped orange producers of milk (Darjeeling) to get three times the price paid to them by traditional middlemen.

Seminar on Breeding and Feeding for milk production in Operation Flood II was organised in Anand with its plenary session held in Delhi.

The Sugam Dairy launched the marketing of Sugam Gulab Jamun in Baroda. 1982 In 1981-82 Milk Production reached to 34.3 Million Tonnes which is double of 1950-51 production. 1983 IDD (DH) started at Bangalore.

Farm Machinery Training & Testing Institute for Southern Region was established at

38

Garladinne in Anantapur (A.P.)

NDDB developed & tested urea molasses lick to increase the ruminants ability to digest coarse roughages.

First Aseptic Packaging Station set up at Surat. 1984 Western Regional Station closed in Bombay.

The NDDB launched a pilot project on purchase and marketing of fruits and vegetable in Delhi.

Indian Veterinary Council Act 1984 was introduced to regulate veterinary practices and to maintain register of veterinary practitioners.

Indian Immunologicals set up as a unit of the Indian Dairy Corporation managed by the NDDB, to produce foot and mouth disease vaccine, other vaccines, sera and veterinary biologicals.

1985-90 Seventh Five Year Plan

1985 as

Farm Advisory Bureau and Industrial Consultancy Cell. The institute recognised Centre of Excellence in Animal Biotechnology.

Embryo Transplantation Technology Project started by the NDDB at SAG, Bidaj. This was an advance action for launching a national level project, which was sanctioned in 1988. 1986 NDDB to on Advisory Board on Energy constituted by the Government of India, requested

launch, on behalf of the National Wastelands Development Board, a pilot project

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Meeting Rural Fuel/Wood and operatives

Forage Needs through Tree Growers Co-

Societies. The NDDB started a Tree Growers Co-operative Project.

1987

Embryo Biotechnology Centre established.

At the request of the Government of Gujarat, the NDDB undertook study of the inland salt production in the state and formulated a proposal aimed at improving the economic conditions of the salt producers and reducing their exploitation. A pilot project was launched at Surendranagar District to gain first hand experience.

At the request of the Government of Gujarat, the NDDB took up a pilot project in the co-operative sector for generation, transmission and distribution of electricity in Kheda district.

The World Bank, Government of India and the NDDB signed an agreement for implementation of Operation Flood over 1987 - 1994 period (World Bank National Dairy Project II). Total outlay of the revised project was Rs. 9,150 million from the IDAIIBRD credit/loan and gift of dairy commodities from the EEC equivalent to US $ 150 million.

Indian Dairy Corporation was dissolved and merged with the National Daily Development Board under the Indian Parliament Act 37 of 1987. The NDDB was declared as an institution of national importance.

On 25th September, 1987 an agreement was signed between the Government of India and the Govt. of Swiss Confederation for the implementation of a Daily Development Project (Swiss Aided North Kerala Diary Project (NKDP)) in North Kerala. The project is to be implemented in the Districts of Calicut, Cannore,Kasargode, Wynad, Malapuram and Palghat in North Kerala.

Operation Flood-Ill (of-Ill) in June, 1987. The third of Operation Flood Programme

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namely Operation Flood-HI (of-Ill) was approved by the Government of India in Jun,. 1987 for a total outlay of Rs. 681.29 crore for the period 1985-90, with the provision of external assistance from the World Bank and EEC.

1988 by

Dairy Technology Mission was proposed to extend the co-operative structure to 275 districts covering 60% of the country. Milk production targeted at 70 million tonnes A.D. 2000 so as to increase per capital availability of milk to 200 gin per day.

With the NDDB as the lead implementing agency, national level Embryo Transplantation Technology Project for increased productivity in cattle and buffalo sanctioned by the Department of Biotechnology, Government of India. Other collaborating agencies were the National Institute of Immunology, Indian Veterinary Research Institute and the National Dairy Research Institute.

The National Research Center for study on Mithun was established in June

1998. centre was

The centre was to be located in the Nagaland state of the region. However the initially started operating from a rented house at Shillong (Meghalaya). The office shifted to Nagaland in 1993, (Jharnapani Medziphema).

1989 Gujarat

First of the Indian Institute of Dairy Technology set up at Anand campus of the Agricultural University. B.Sc. (Dairying) was revised and termed as B.Tech. (DT).

The Institute (NDRI) granted Deemed to be University status. M.Sc, in Biotechnology started.

The Technology Mission on Dairy Development (TMDD) was launched in September, 1989. The mission envisages to cover all the milksheds included under Operation Flood. The main objective of the Technology Mission was to accelerate the pace of increasing rural imcome and employment.

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 The National Research Centre on Yak (ICAR) was established at Dirang, West Kemeng District of Arunachal Pradesh at the end of VII Plan (1989). 1990 Birth of Pratham, first IVF buffalo calf of the world.

A national programme on Rinderpest Eradication was launched with financial assistance from the European Economic Commission by Government of India to eradicate Rinderpest from India by 1998. 1991 The Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying (AH & D), one of the Departments in the Ministry of Agriculture came into existence, w.e.f., 1st February, 1991, by converting two divisions of the Department of the Agriculture Development funded through World Bank. and Co-operation namely Animal Husbandry and Dairy

into a separate Department. National Agricultural Research Project (NARP)

Farm Machinery Training & Testing Institute for Northern Eastern Region was established at Bishwanath Chariali in Sonitpur Distt. (Assam).

North Kerala Dairy Project - A joint Planning Mission in March, 1991 recommended the implementation of phase II of the project from 1.4.1991 to 31.3.1995 with an investment of Rs. 15.52 crores.

1992-97 Eighth Five Year Plan

1992 milk

Government of India promulgated Milk and Milk Products Order 1992 making registration compulsory for all dairy plants processing more than 10,000 litres of daily. The MMPO 1992 identified stringent requirements for hygiene and sanitation of equipment and premise where milk products were produced. The Department of Animal Husbandry issued Milk and Milk Product Order (MMPO) on 9th June, 1992

42

under the provisions of Section-3 of the Essential Commodities Act 1955, with a view to maintain and increased supply of liquid milk of desired quality to the general public. Milk and Milk Product Order seeks to regulate the production, supply and distribution of milk and milk product throughout the country.

North Kerala Dairy Project- An agreement was signed on 25/9/87 between the Swiss Govt. and the Govt. of India for implementing the first phase of the Dairy Development Project in North Kerala with an investment of Rs. 6.60 crores over the period from June, 1987 to May, 1992.

The latest census which stands 15th in the series was conducted with 15th Oct., 1992 as the reference date.

The embryo transplantation technology stabilised as the N.D.D.B. produced eleven calves from a Holstein Friesian crossbred cow belonging to a farmer in Bhajwanagle village in Nainital District. 1993 NDDB undertakes constructions of the first vertical dairy in India at NOIDA near Delhi to process and pack 400,000 litres milk daily.

Government of India opens up the import and export of milk products removing canalisation of exports through the NDDB.

On 27th August, 1993, the MMPO was amended authorising the State Govt. to register units handling less than 75,000 litres of milk per day or less than 3,750 MTs of milk solids per annum. The Central Registering Authority was granted registration for units handling more than 75,000 litres of milk per day or 3,750 MTs of milk solid per annum. 1994 The Polson Dairy and the brand name once made extinct by AMUL announced to come back.

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 The first convocation of NDRI University held on 9th Nov., 1994. The Institute got recognition as Centre of Advanced Studies in Dairy Technology and Dairy Cattle Breeding.

1996 30th

The third and last phase of Operation Flood Programme came to an end on April 1996.

Two year National Dairy Diploma (NDD) course started at Southern Regional Station of NDRI at Bangalore.

The ICAR award (1993-94) for outstanding KVK conferred on the KVK located at NDRI. 1997-2002 Ninth Five Year Plan

1997 of

An automated Model Dairy Plant with a processing capacity to process 60,000 litres milk per day commissioned at NDRI through financial assistance of the NDDB, for providing training to the students.

Meeting of the Technical Committee of Direction for Improvement of Animal Husbandry & Dairying Statistics held on 7th & 8th July under the Chairmanship of Prof. Bal B.P.S. Goel - Director IASRI.

1998

Scientists of the Indian Institute of Science in Bangalore tested a DNA based rabies vaccine as an alternative to the existing rabies vaccine.

In September an indigenous vaccine Rakska Ovac manufactured by Hyderabad based Indian Immunologicals was launched in Hyderabad for foot and mouth disease (FMD) in cattle.

The Maharashtra Government proposed to set up 131 co-operative milk producers

44

societies managed by women, the scheme would be implemented over the next three years. The scheme would cost Rs. 3.57 crores, of which 90% would be born by the Department of Women and Child Welfare of the Central Govt. Altogether 41, 52 & 38 such societies would be set up during the first, second and third year respectively, the Honble Minister of Maharashtra for Revenue and Dairy Development said.

By September, 1998, 78945, (estimated) Anand Pattern dairy co-operative societies were organised in 170 milksheds involving about 100 lakh farmer members.

Dr. V. Kurien Chairman of the National Dairy Development Board since its inception, resigned and following his resignation Dr. (Ms.) Amrita Patel appointed as Chairman with effect from 26th November, 1998.

Dairy Expo 98 was organised concurrently with Agro Tech 98 from 2nd - 6th December at Chandigarh.

1999 Award

India became the No. 1 - The highest producer of milk in the world. Mother Dairy, Asias biggest milk plant was conferred with the best Productivity Performance for the year 1996-97 by the National Productivity Council in the category of Dairy Development and Production in the Co-operative and Public Sector.

Vidya Dairy, Anand has been recommended for HACCP-9000 accreditation by Quality Assurance Services (QAS), Australia. The HACCP-9000 is considered as one of the highest quality assurance certifications. Vidya Dairy is the first dairy in the country to be recommended for the HACCP- 9000 certification by QAS, Australia.

Nestle India was given the National Export Award for outstanding export performance during 1997-98. During the period Nestle India achieved an export turnover of Rs. 330

45

crore with export of Nescafe and Sunrise Instant Coffee, Instant tea and other food products to nearly 30 countries.

1999 held

First Convocation of West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences was on 25th Feb., 1999. Dr. N.C. Ganguli was conferrred with the Doctor of Science (Honoris Causa) degree by the Chancellor of the University, H.E. the Governor of West Bengal, Dr. A.R. Kidwai. This distinction was given to Dr. Ganguli in recognition of his outstanding contribution to Dairy Science.

Dr. R.S. Gandhis (Dairy Scientist and Specialist in animal breeding, NDRI Karnal) biography selected for publication in Outstanding People of the 20th Century by the International Biographical Centre, Cambridge, England.

The co-operative milk development programme in Uttar Pradesh made a remarkable success and the State has emerged as the largest producer of milk in the country. (PCDF) claimed that PCDF has set a new record by procuring 11.36 lakh litres of milk in a single day during the current year while another record of sale of 8.50 lakh litres of milk was also achieved on the day of Id this year.

A women Dairy project of the Haryana Dairy Development Co-operative Federation involving an amount of Rs. 448.85 lakhs was sanctioned for three years by Govt. of India. It would be implemented in 6 districts of Haryana - Ambala, Kurukshetra, Jind, Sirsa, Rohtak and Faridabad.

A Karan-Fries cross-bred cow (KF-5374) Kamdhenu evolved by the NDRJ achieved a record peak milk yield of 44.2 kg in a single day breaking the earlier record of 44 kg of 1975.

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 The tenure of TMDD (Technology Mission of Dairy Development Launched in 1988) was up to March 1997 but it was continued during the year and has been taken as closed on 3 1-3-99.

An Agreement was signed between the Govt. of Republic of India and the Govt. of Russian Federation on 16th April, 99 for co-operation in the veterinary field. The Agreement would contribute significantly in mutual cooperation in the field of animal health by eradicating diseases in veterinary sectors and encouraging exchange of information by both sides.

Dr. (Miss) Amrita Patel Chairman NDDB was conferred with the Doctor of Science (Honoris Causa) degree by Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Science University (TANUVAS) at their 6th convocation held on April 23,

1999.

Dr. Per Pinstrup Andersen-Chief Executive Officer of the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) Washington US, was the other recipient of the Doctor of Science (Honoris Causa) Degree.

The Kerala Govt. has asked the centre to amend The Prevention of Food Adulteration Act. with a view to decrease the minimum required level of solid-not-fat (SNF) content in milk, from 8.5 to 8.2%.

Andhra Pradesh Dairy Development Co-operative Federation (APDDCF) is setting up the Andhra Pradesh Livestock Development Agency, an autonomous body to coordinate restructuring of the cattle breeding programme. In association with a Maharashtra based non Governmental organisation, it has set up mobile artificial insemination unit to cover the estimated 8 lakh breedable cattle in the state.

Food and Beverages India 99 and Agro Tech 99 held at Ahmadabad from 22-25 Oct. these are part of Gujarats first international exhibition which also covers Dairy Industry.

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 The Govt. of Kerala in collaboration with Department of Animal Husbandry & Dairying hosted the International Conferences on the 58th Executive Committee Meeting of the Animal Production and Health Commission for Asia Pacific (APHCA) during 4-9th September 99.

The Department of Animal Husbandry Dairying conducted the first Election of Veterinary Council of India in November, 99 and full Council notified.

2000 Livestock

The Department of Animal Husbandry & Dairying organised the 3rd National and Poultry Show as part of Krishi Expo-2000, organised by the Indian Trade Promotion Organization of Pragati Maidan, New Delhi from 25th January to 1st February, 2000.

The cross-bred cow of the dairy farm of Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana produced 52.5 kg of milk in a day with a fat content of 3.35%. This is the record, milk production by a cow in the university according to Mr. Jagtar Singh Sandhu, head Department of Animal Breeding and Genetics, PAU.

Operation Flood: one of the world's largest rural development programmes Launched in 1970, Operation Flood has helped dairy farmers direct their own development, placing control of the resources they create in their own hands. A National Milk Grid links milk producers throughout India with consumers in over 700 towns and cities, reducing seasonal and regional price variations while ensuring that the producer gets fair market prices in a transparent manner on a regular basis. The bedrock of Operation Flood has been village milk producers cooperatives, which procure milk and provide inputs and services, making modern management and technology available to members. Operation Flood's objectives included: Increase milk production ("a flood of milk")

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Augment rural incomes Reasonable prices for consumers

Programme Implementation Operation Flood was implemented in three phases. Phase I Phase I (1970-1980) was financed by the sale of skimmed milk powder and butter oil gifted by the European Union then EEC through the World Food Programme. NDDB planned the programme and negotiated the details of EEC assistance. During its first phase, Operation Flood linked 18 of India's premier milk sheds with consumers in India's four major metropolitan cities: Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai. Phase II Operation Flood's Phase II (1981-85) increased the milksheds from 18 to 136; 290 urban markets expanded the outlets for milk. By the end of 1985, a self-sustaining system of 43,000 village cooperatives covering 4.25 million milk producers had become a reality. Domestic milk powder production increased from 22,000 tons in the pre-project year to 140,000 tons by 1989, all of the increase coming from dairies set up under Operation Flood. In this way EEC gifts and World Bank loan helped to promote self-reliance. Direct marketing of milk by producers' cooperatives increased by several million litres a day. Phase III Phase III (1985-1996) enabled dairy cooperatives to expand and strengthen the infrastructure required to procure and market increasing volumes of milk. Veterinary first-aid health care services, feed and artificial insemination services for cooperative members were extended, along with intensified member education.

Operation Flood's Phase III consolidated India's dairy cooperative movement, adding 30,000 new dairy cooperatives to the 42,000 existing societies organised during Phase II. Milksheds peaked to 173 in 1988-89 with the numbers of women members and Women's Dairy Cooperative Societies increasing significantly. Phase III gave increased emphasis to research and development in animal health and animal nutrition. Innovations like vaccine for Theileriosis, bypass protein feed and urea-molasses mineral blocks, all contributed to the enhanced productivity of milch animals. From the outset, Operation Flood was conceived and implemented as much more than a dairy programme. Rather, dairying was seen as an instrument of development, generating employment and regular incomes for millions of rural people. "Operation Flood can be viewed as a twenty year experiment confirming the Rural Development Vision" (World Bank Report 1997c.) Operation Flood To know about the Father of White Revolution in India (dairy), see Verghese Kurien. For Father of Green Revolution in India (crops), see M. S. Swaminathan.

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Operation Flood was a rural development programme started by India's National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) in 1970. One of the largest of its kind, the programme objective was to create a nationwide milk grid. It resulted in making India one of the largest producers of milk and milk products, and hence is also called the White Revolution of India. It also helped reduce malpractices by milk traders and merchants. This revolution followed the Indian green revolution and helped in alleviating poverty and famine levels from their dangerous proportions in India during the era. Gujarat-based Amul (Anand Milk Union Limited) was the engine behind the success of Operation Flood and in turn became a mega company based on the cooperative approach. Verghese Kurien (chairman of NDDB at that time), then 33, gave the professional management skills and necessary thrust to the cooperative, and is considered the architect of India's 'White Revolution' (Operation Flood). His work has been recognised by the award of a Padma Bhushan, the Ramon Magsaysay Award for Community Leadership, the Carnegie-Wateler World Peace Prize, and the World Food Prize.[1] [2] Introduction Operation Flood has helped dairy farmers, direct their own development, placing control of the resources they create in their own hands. A 'National Milk Grid', links milk producers throughout India with consumers in over 700 towns and cities, reducing seasonal and regional price variations while ensuring that the producer gets a major share of the price consumers pay. The bedrock of Operation Flood has been village milk producers' cooperatives, which procure milk and provide inputs and services, making modern management and technology available to members. Operation Flood's objectives included :

Increase milk production ("a flood of milk") Augment rural incomes Fair prices for consumers

Programme Implementation Operation Flood was implemented in three phases. Phase I Phase I (19701980) was financed by the sale of skimmed milk powder and butter oil gifted by the European Union (then the European Economic Community) through the World Food Programme. NDDB planned the programme and negotiated the details of EEC assistance. During its first phase, Operation Flood linked 18 of India's premier milksheds with consumers in India's major metropolitan cities: Delhi, Mumbai, kolkata and Chennai. Thus establishing mother dairies in four metros. Operation flood, also referred to as White Revolution is a gigantic project propounded by Government of India for developing dairy industry in the country. The Operation Flood 1 originally meant to be completed in 1975, actually the period of about nine years from 1970-79, at a total cost of Rs.116 corers. As start of operation Flood-1 in 1970 certain set of aims were kept in view for the implementation of the programmers. Improvement by milk marketing the organized dairy sector in the metropolitan cities Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, Delhi. The objectives of commanding share of milk market and speed up development of dairy animals respectively hinter lands of rural areas with a view to increase both production and procurement.

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Phase II Operation Flood Phase II (19811985) increased the milksheds from 18 to 136; 290 urban markets expanded the outlets for milk. By the end of 1985, a self-sustaining system of 43,000 village cooperatives with 4.25 million milk producers were covered. Domestic milk powder production increased from 22,000 tons in the pre-project year to 140,000 tons by 1989, all of the increase coming from dairies set up under Operation Flood. In this way EEC gifts and World Bank loan helped promote self-reliance. Direct marketing of milk by producers' cooperatives increased by several million litres a day. Phase III Phase III (19851996) enabled dairy cooperatives to expand and strengthen the infrastructure required to procure and market increasing volumes of milk. Veterinary first-aid health care services, feed and artificial insemination services for cooperative members were extended, along with intensified member education. Operation Flood's Phase III consolidated India's dairy cooperative movement, adding 30,000 new dairy cooperatives to the 42,000 existing societies organized during Phase II. Milksheds peaked to 173 in 1988-89 with the numbers of women members and Women's Dairy Cooperative Societies increasing significantly. Phase III gave increased emphasis to research and development in animal health and animal nutrition. Innovations like vaccine for Theileriosis, bypassing protein feed and urea-molasses mineral blocks, all contributed to the enhanced productivity of milch animals. Summary From the outset, Operation Flood was conceived and implemented as much more than a dairy programme. Rather, dairying was seen as an instrument of development, generating employment and regular incomes for millions of rural people.

MILK PROCUREMENT Introduction Milk procurement includes all the activities starting from the activity of milking the animals at the farm to the activity when milk is received at the dairy plant and stored in the storage tank. Specially, in developed countries milk procurement comprises the activities at three level, i.e. at the producers level, at the collection level and at the dairy plant level. The role of the production field starts after the, completion of mi1king at the farm, i.e. milking the animals, cooling of milk and making it available for collection, cleaning and storage and/or transport containers. Actual milk collection, i.e., the collecting field comprises all functions occurring during collection and transport of milk. The dairy field comprises the divisions of milk reception, raw milk storage, can or tank cleaning, payment to the milk producers and reception laboratory. In these divisions, all the functions related to milk procurement are carried out. In the Indian context, milk procurement involves those activities which are performed in collection, assembling and chilling of milk at the field level. It also includes plant level activities performed for the milk procurement. It consists of n1ilk reception testing, chilling, storage of raw milk in tank, washing cans/road milk tankers collection a supply of chemicals, payment to the in producers activities, etc. Dairy factory management is continuously faced with adjustment problem in an economy of rapidly changing technology and institutions. Inter-relations of price wars. polyethylene pouches a

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bulk vending, changing milk sheds a products distribution area, changing, erating capital, plant capacity, milk supply, sales requirements (i.e. demand), are few of the factors complicating margerial decisions through optimization best product line. The economic efficient of a dairy plant whether small. medium or large - is mainly governed the optimal utilisation of milk and of' resources at their disposal within a se socio-economic environment. This chapter has been divide into four sections namely modes of the procurement. designing milk transportation routes, pricing and costing of and finally optimisation in dairy plant. Modes of Milk Procurement Modes of milk procurement depend the size of collection, types of the in structure available at the disposal at or types of dairy plants. It may be classified in the following manner based on the six of collection. (i) (ii) (iii) Can collection Bulk collection Can and bulk collection both

Can Collection In this case, the plant does not have chilling facilities in the rural areas. Milk is collected from the milk producers at the village level, milk producers cooperative society or collection centres. Milk collection is done twice a day, i.e. in the morning and evening separately. Milk is collected in the cans, unchilled and untreated. Milk cans are lifted twice a day by the transporting vehicles and transported to the milk plant. The transporting vehicle may be plant-owned or contracted from the private transporters. This type of system is not suitable when milk shed area of the milk plant is vast. The time period for a vehicle route is decided keeping in mind the time taken in transporting milk to the reception dock of the milk plant in good quality, i.e. without sourage or curdling. Bulk Collection In the milk shed are of a dairy plant, chilling centres are established so that milk collected is chilled at the centre and may be transported daily or on alternate days to the dairy plant depending upon the milk availability and/or installed capacity of the centre. Each centre has its own network of village level milk collection centres or milk producers cooperative societies. Milk chilling facilities at the chilling centres are of two types, chilling by refrigeration system or ice water. In refrigeration (compressor). System, brine water is first cooled and then circulated through the plate type chiller. But in case of ice-water, ice-slabs are procured from the market or ice factory. In a water tank, these ice-slabs are used to chill water, then this water is circulated through the plate type chiller for chilling the milk. the milk chilled below 10C is transported in bulk by road milk tankers to the central dairy. The chilling centre may have its own boiler, cream separator, ghee kettle and other equipments as per its requirements. Can and Bulk Collection Together A big milk plant may have both types of milk procurement. The radius of milk shed area is divided into two halves. Up to the first half radius of having approximate length of 30-35 km, Can collection system is adopted and chilling centres are not required. Beyond the radius of 30-35 km of milk shed area, chilling centres are established for bulk collection. The purpose for adoption of both types of milk procurement is to get the milk in good quality at the milk plant from its vast milk shed area.

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Another way of classification of modes of milk procurement is based on the types of business whether cooperative, contractor, public or private. It is discussed below: (i) (ii) (iii) Contractor system Cooperative system Village level collection centres

Contractor System The contractors engage milk vendors for collection of milk from the rural areas. Depending upon the size of business they establish their milk collection centres in their rural and/or urban area. At the collection centres, the system of milk collection is very crude. They have equipments like 200 litres empty oil drums, fat testing, centrifugal machine, buckets, plunger, cans, etc. At the collection centres, milk is purchased on fat basis. The contractors generally have their own milk tanks mounted on contractors generally have their own milk tanks mounted on trucks which are also equipped with hand pumps to pump milk manually from 200 litres drums to the milk tanker. These contractors-have contracts with ice factories to chill their milk and make payment to them on the basis of quantity of milk chilled. The milk so collected, is transported and sold to the dairy plants in public or private sector. Cooperative System Cooperative societies of the milk producers are established at the village level. The milk is purchased on fat and two axis pricing policy from the members and non-members of the society. The expenses of the chemicals, glassware, labour used are borne by the society. The plant-owned or hired vehicle lifts the milk from these societies. Another way is also that milk of these societies may be transported in cans by bicycles, motor-bikes or tractor to the nearby milk collection or chilling centres for their onward transportation to the dairy plant. Village Level Collection Centres (VLCs) These centres are established by the daily plant itself whether it is in the public or the private sector. The building for VLCs may be rented or owned. The expenses for glasswares, chemicals, labour, commission, etc. are all borne by the plant. The milk may be purchased from the milk producer based on fat and two axis pricing policy. The milk, from these VLCs are sent to nearby milk collection or chilling centres for its further transportation to the plant. A daily plant in public and private sector may adopt a. combination of above two or three milk procurement system. Pricing and Costing of Milk Milk is perishable commodity. Its shelf life is very low. With its processing and cold storage, the keeping quality of milk is prolonged. But it is a well known phenomenon that there are two invisible hands, i.e. demand and supply which determine the price of a commodity. Similarly demand and supply of milk of are region determine the price in that area. If the demand is given, there is a seasonal changes in milk supply, or the supply in a season is given, the demand for milk varies due to festivals or marriages, the prices of the milk also change accordingly. But the costing of milk will only help to know whether the dairy business is profit or loss giving. Besides demand and supply, pricing of milk within a region is based on many criteria which are discussed as below: Cost of Production The cost of production is the expenditure occurred on milk production at the farm level. The

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cost of milk production varies from farm to farm, region to region and time to time. The milk yield and the use of conventional and non-conventional inputs even vary from animal to animal. The availability of inputs vary from region to region. All these factors have impact on cost of production. Items on cost of production are grouped into fixed and operational costs. The total cost of production is the total of fixed and operational cost less the income from the sale of by-products like dung cake, manure, etc. The total cost is divided by the animal yield to calculate cost of production per litre of milk. the time period for such calculations is agriculture financial year. The items of fixed and operational costs are described as follows: Fixed Costs These costs are fixed in nature and do not change with change in production levels. The fixed cost includes: Depreciation on milch animal Depreciation on building, equipment and machinery Interest on capital investment Salaries and wages to permanent employees

Depreciation on milch animal is calculated in many ways. The simplest method is straight line method. It may be calculated on the basis of the original value of the animal and its productive life. For example, if the original value of animal is Rs.10,000 and the productive life of the animal is expected to be 10 years. The yearly depreciation of the animal will be Rs.1,000 (10,000/10). Similarly, the depreciation of machinery and equipments is calculated with slight modification. The salvage or zunk value of the machinery and equipments is taken into consideration along with the original value and productive life. While calculating depreciation the original value minus the salvage value is divided by the productive life. For example, the original value of the machinery is Rs.5,000 it salvage value is Rs.1,000 and its productive life is 5 years. The yearly depreciation of the machine will be Rs.800=((5,000-1000)/5). Depreciation of building, stock be calculated by this method of land is not included. International on bank rate is charged on the value of the farm excluding cost of land. If the farm deploys permanent lable their salaries and wages becomes the of fixed cost. Operational costs These costs are variable in nature a changes with the level of production. The operational cost includes; Cost of fodder and concentrates Cost of labour Veterinary chargers Miscellaneous expenditure like repairs, electricity charges etc.

The cost of green fodder, dry fodder and concentrates are worked out separated by multiplying quantities fed with their respective prices prevalent in the area. The cost of labour (imputed or actual) is calculated by multiplying the prevalent wage rate and the duration of labour time period actually used for milk production. Expenditures incurred on vaccination, medicines and medical feeds, etc, for animals form part of the veterinary charges. Miscellaneous expenses are repairs, electricity, ropes, minerals (salt lick), water, eetc. Volumetric and Weighment

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The milk vendors and other intermediary persons purchase milk from producers and sell to consumers in litres (by volume). The milk producers cooperative societies or village level milk collection centres procure milk in litres and supply it to the plants in kg. Quality of Milk The milk may be skimmed, toned, standardized or whole cow or buffalo milk. based on the types of milk, the prices of milk are charged. Even milk vendors sell milk at different prices to different customers by varying adulteration. Product Yield The Khoa (or chhena) manufacturers/contractors purchase milk say from milk vendors on the basis of khoa yield. If the khoa yield is below that of its normal yield (e.g. 25 per cent of milk) the prices of milk are reduced accordingly. Competition The exploitation of the milk producers is negligible if in a village or an area both private contractors/milk vendors and public cooperative plants are operating. Under such situation the milk vendors try to pay more than the prices paid by the dairy plant to procure more quantity of milk. Pricing on Fat Content Basis The prices of milk is fixed proportional to the fat content of milk. this method is very popular and generally used by the dairy plants or Milk Producers Cooperative Unions to purchase milk from the milk producers. The price is calculated by simply multiplying the kg fat rate with fat content. The little variation in SNF of milk does not affect the price of milk as its price is inbuilt in the kg fat rate itself. It means that one kg of fat in milk with the minimum SNF percentage will be paid say Rs.100 per kg fat or as the rate declared. The cost of one kg of fat is fixed by the management of the dairy according to the prevailing market forces which differ from season to season. The fat rate is low in the flush season when availability of milk is high and in lean season to fat rates are highest because of low fat availability. Calculation Price of 100 litres of milk=kg fat rate % fat content of milk. Assuming that the Union/Milk plant has declared milk price at Rs.100.00 per kg fat, then (a) The cost of 100 litres buffalo milk with 6 per cent fat and 9 per cent SNF will be 6.00 X 100 = 600.00 or Rs.6.00 per litre of milk (b) Similarly the cost of 100 litres of buffalo milk with 6 per cent fat and 9. percent SNF will be = 6.00 X 100 = 600.00 or Rs.6.00 per litre of milk (c) The cost of 100 litres of cow milk with 4.5 per cent fat and 8.5 percent SNF will be = 4.50 X 100 = 450.00 or Rs.4.50 per litre of milk Hence the buffalo milk cost Rs. 6.00 litre and cow milk will cost Rs.4.50/litre. Advantages =

55

Advantages of this method are Simple to calculate the price of milk Easy to adopt, as this method requires only fat estimation Easy to understand by milk producers/employees Can be used for any type of milk without changing the procedure and calculations.

Disadvantages Disadvantages of this method are Chances of adulteration by milk producers are more because there is in check on SNF content of milk. Does not provide remunerative price for cow milk. Method suits to buffalo dominated areas.

To check adulteration in this method generally penalty and premium are used. For example, if the milk fat of milk is below 5% fat, the payment is made at the rate of 50% of the actual rate. Similarly for milk with SNF below 8.80 per cent deduction is made at the rate of 1.5 paise per kg milk per point up to 8.00 per cent SNF. The premium for SNF above 8.8 per cent and up to 9.00 per cent is paid one paise per point. For sour milk the deduction is @ Rs.5.00 per kg fat. The rate for curd milk is @ 25 per cent of per kg fat value. The penalty and premium given here are for the example sake. These are not standards. Each plant/Union adopts their own standards for penalty and premiums. Pricing on Two Axis Basis This method is used in pricing cow as well as buffalo milk. the pricing on fat contents basis, underestimates the price of cow milk as no consideration is given to SNF content of the cow milk. thus, two axis formula is used in which both fat and SNF contents are taken into account. The two main constituents fat and SNF are considered in this method. The standard rate for fat and SNF is decided keeping in view for fat and SNF is decided keeping in view the market price of Ghee and skimmilk powder, respectively. The SNF was priced at two third (2/3) in the recent past and now it is priced at three fourth (3/4) the price of fat. Calculation Price of 100 litres of milk = (kg fat rate X fat %) + (kg SNF rate X SNF%). Assuming that, price declared by the Union/ dairy plant- is Rs 50 per, kg fat and SNF is priced at 2/3 the priced of fat. This cost of 100 litres of buffalo milk with 6% fat and 9% SNF, will be as follows: Price of Fat = Rs 50. Hence, the price of SNF =(50 x 2/3) = Rs 33.33. Cost of 100 litres milk = Rs (50 x 6)+(33.33 x 9) = Rs (300 + 299.94) = Rs 599.94 or = Rs 5.99 per litre.

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In the same way, the cost of 100 litres of cow milk having 4.5 per cent fat and 8.5 per cent SNF will be = Rs (50 x 4.5 + 33 33 x 8.5 = Rs (225 + 283 30) = Rs 508.13 or = Rs.5.08 per litre Advantages Advantages of this method are 1. 2. 3. Due to consideration of SNF content, the cow milk is reasonably priced. For any level of fat and SNF the price can be paid. The system does not discriminate cow milk against buffalo milk.

Pricing on Equivalent Fat Unit Basis The concept used in this method is same as in case of two axis pricing method, but the calculation method is slightly different. In this method. the SNF units are converted into equivalent fat units (e.f.u.) in proportion to the relative market price of fat and SNF. The cost of e.f.u. is worked out by taking previous year average fat and SNF percentage in milk received by Union/Dairy plant as base. The SNF is valued at two-thirds or three-fourth price of fat on unit basis. The provisional price of buffalo milk on kg fat rte basis is declared. On this basis, the cost of e.f.u. is caluculated. And finally the price of milk is worked out. Calculation Price of 100 litres of milk=(e.f.u.x rate per e.f.u.). Suppose the average fat and SNF content of buffalo milk in previous year was, 6% and 9% and the Union Dairy plant declared buffalo milk price at Rs. 100 per kg fat. Then the cost of 100 litres of buffalo milk having 6% fat and 9% SNF will be = 6 x 100 = Rs 600 or = Rs6.00 per litre. The SNF units of milk are converted into fat units on the basis of 2/3 value. The total e.f.u. in the milk will be = 6 +.(9 x 2/3) , = 6+6 = 12 e.f.u. The cost of each e.f.u. will be = cost of milk /e.f. u. = 600/12 = Rs 50. To work out cost of 100 litres of cow milk having 4.5%~fat and 8.5% SNF. first SNF content is converted into e.f. u. and then total e.f.u. in milk is worked out. The total e.f. u. in cow milk

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= 4.5+8.5x2/3 = 4.5 + 5.66 = 10.16.

The cost of 100 Htres of milk will be =10.16 x 50 =508 or =5.08 per litre. Advantages The advantages of this method are Cow milk get better price The method does not disc against cow or buffalo milk

Revenue Earning Capacity In no profit no loss business, can be valued corresponding to earned through the products natured by the profit making dairy. Lastly the prices of milk of or country also depends on the its imports and exports which at demand and supply. Designing Milk Transportation Routes In a dairy the cost of milk collection, transportation (milk procurement as marketing) is one of the operating costs, which is under control of the management. The transportation cost ranges from - 0.20 paise per litre to as high 1.50 litre or even more in hilly milk production areas. Due to ous rise in cost of petroleum I this cost has drawn attention management. In this area large in cost could occur. A dairy picks up milk from Dairy Cooperative Societies in its a area twice a day using various to transportation like head loads carts. auto-rickshaws, tempos, commercial vehicle (6mt) , heavy-duty (10mt), etc. Milk is collected twit once in the morning and once evening, depending on availability. Societies which do not have n approach road, deliver the collected at nearby point on the road on collection point. Milk collected in cans can hold 40 litres of mflk.. The collected milk has to be transported to the nearby plant or chilling centre within 4-5 hours and also during milk receiving dock working hours. In many cases milk be collected only after a particular time be cause the farmers cannot milk their animals before that time. So the truck may need to wait for around 10-15 minutes at the first two societies due to late arrival of milk. The routes have to be so designed that the truck arrivals are sped out uniformly to avoid problems at RMRD (Raw Milk Reception Dock). It is to be taken care that the truck capacity is not exceeded during the flush season. Similarly the dairy has to supply its liquid milk to various retail outlets and nearby towns twice a day. The milk should reach to consumers quickly and in time, to ensure this milk routes for city are designed. The dairy decides on the milk routes once a year and puts up the milk routes for tender bidding. Generally milk is collected and distributed by the dairy using trucks of private contractors. The transport cost can be reduced by designing better routes, changing routes twice a year, using the space capacity to transport cattle feed. etc.

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Formulation of milk transportation routes depends upon the types of milk and also on types of milk transportation problems which may vary from plant to plant or situation to situation or time to time. The milk is treated or untreated. The treated milk may be Pasteurised, UHT, sterilised or condensed. Thus with treatment self-life of the milk varies. Methods of designing milk transportation routes efficiently for each possible problem are given and discussed below briefly: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Thumb-rule or visual method Travelling salesman problem Vehicle scheduling problem Transportation problem/linear programming problem Transportation problem and vehicle, scheduling problem Separable programming problem.

Thumb-rule or Visual Method If the plant has a single transporting vehicle and a small number of milk collection or supply points, a circular path by visual method is designed for the vehicle. Allowing vehicle to follow a circular path would lead to shortest route. The following points should be considered while designing milk routes for milk collection using thumb-rule. (i) The time lapse between reception of milk at first society and the dairy dock must be fixed. This should be fixed under given climatic conditions. So that the milk does not become sour before it reaches the dairy dock. Similarly the time between two societies must be fixed according to the conditions of road. On kuccha road a truck can ply at the speed of not more than 25 km per hour. whereas on: puccka road the speed can be more than 40 km per hour. The holding time (during the time milk is loaded on to the truck) of a truck in a village should not exceed 5-10 minutes. The quantity ,of milk to be collected will depend upon the size of truck. Normally a medium size truck can transport 70-80 cans of 40 litres capacity each. While fixing minimum number of cans, the economic viability of the route must be re-established. Approachability of the milk collection centre by the truck during monsoon.

(ii)

(iii) (iv)

(v)

Travelling Salesman Problem Under such situation a transporting vehicle has to visit n milk supply (delivery) points (say villages) for lifting (delivery) milk. the transportation problem is that the vehicle has to start from the plant ( with given location), visit each village once and then return to its starting point. The objective is to select the sequence in which the villages are visited in such a way that its total travel time/distance is minimized. Starting from the dairy plant, the vehicle will have a total of (n-1) different sequences of possible round trips. This problem is then converted in assignment problem and is solved by Hungarian method of assignment. Vehicle Scheduling Problem When the dairy plant has a large milk shed area, the vehicle scheduling is applicable. The milk shed (delivery) area has a large number of milk supply (delivery) centres to be visited once.

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The plant has as many transporting vehicles as many number of routes. The problem or objective is to lift all the available milk from all the supply points such that the vehicles travel distance (as a proxy of travel time or cost) is least without deterioration of milk quality. The plant has a finite number of supply points whose location are given. The place of destination (dairy plant) is given. It has a given number of transporting vehicles. The quantities of milk available at each supply point is given. Period of time for which a transporting vehicle should remain on the routes is dictated by quality consideration of milk. Tea/lunch/dinner break is also allowed to the driver on the route. Like wise many other constraints/condition existing in the real situation can be incorporated into the problem. Such type of transportation problem can be solve by vehicle scheduling model. Transportation Problem/Linear Programming Problem Suppose there are m number of milk plants manufacturing sterilised flavoured milk in 200 ml bottles and these plant are located in m cities of a state. The total supply of these m plants are to be used by n milk bars located in n cities of the state. The transportation schedule is to be determined in order to minimise the total cost of transporting sterilised flavored milk in bottles from various plant locations to various milk bars. The output supply of each plant and demand requirements of each milk bar is preknown. Such a transportation problem can be sovled by MODI METHODOD or the ear programming technique. Transportation Problem and Vehicle Scheduling Problem A state cooperative dairy federation in n number of milk plants located in cities. These milk plants have to collect milk from milk shed area of that start. Each district has given milk supply available. Firstly different m supply are located to n milk plants optimal by converting this problem into transportation problem and then vehicle scheduling model is used separately for respective milk shed area of each dairy plant in order to formulate efficient transportation routes for the whole state. Separable Programming Problem Let there be "m" number of milk shed areas from where given quantities of milk available (from. each area) are to be supplied n number milk plants where the milk is processed, where in cost of processing with regard to (w.r.t.) quantity of milk (handled in each plant) follows curvi-linear relationships. Milk so processed is to be further supplied to "d" number of delivery points. This type of problem can be solved by separable programming technique in order to determine optimum quantity of milk to be transported (to "n" plants from "m" milk shed area), to be processed at least cost and further to be delivered optimally to "d number of delivery points. Optimisation in Dairy Plant Optimisation means profit maximization or cost minimisation in daily plant operations. Maximisation of the profit is the major consideration for any business enterprise for its success in the long run. The profit may be maximised either by increasing the volume of output with given resources and cost or by producing the same quantity of the product with minimum cost. The linear programming technique has been successfully applied with the objectives of profit maximisation or cost minimisation in different manufacturing concerns and the daily industry is not an exception. The linear programming techniques can be used to obtain the minimum cost solution for different problems of dairy enterprise e.g. least cost balance mix of inputs for manufacturing a product of given standards, multi component detergent formulation, transportation Problems, feed formulation. Etc. To illustrate the use of linear programming to find out least cost balanced mix, it would be interesting to start with a simple case where only two dairy products are used to prepare the mix of

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given standard. For example, one dairy product may be cream which is assumed to contain 35 per cent of fat and 5.5 per cent SNF and the other may be unsweetened condensed whole milk (UCWM) containing 9.5 per cent fat and 22.5 per cent SNF (Table 3.1). The price of cream is assumed Rs 12.00 per kilogram and the price of unsweetened condensed whole milk (UCWM) as Rs 16 per kilogram. The minimum requirement of the fat in ice-cream as per PFA Standard is 10 per cent and that of SNF is 10.50 per/cent.

Price and constituents of cream and unsweetened condensed milk (UCWM) and the PFA requirements (a hypothetical case) Cream (X) (kg) Prices (Rs.) Fat SNF 12.00 0.350 0.055 Unsweetened condensed whole milk (X) (kg) 16.00 0.095 0.225 10.00% 10.50% Minimum PFA requirement

To make 100 kgs of ice-cream mix, 15.0 kg of sugar and 0.5 kg of gelatin are to be added and the rest 84.5 (i.e. 100-15.5) kg of ice-cream mix is to be obtained from cream (XI) and unsweetened condensed whole milk (UCWM) (X2). It means that X1 + X2 total weight must be equal to or less than 84.5 kg. If it is less than 84.5 kg, the less weight can be compensated by the addition of water. With the above information, the objective is to minimize, the cost of ice-cream mix keeping in view the minimum PFA standard and the prices of X1, and X2 activities. The mathematical objective function ma be written as: Minimise =12xX1 + 16xX2 (Cost Equation) Where C=Cost of the mix (Rs) X1 = Quantity of Cream (kg) X2 = Quantity of UCWM (kg) The objective function is to minimise under the restriction of the fat, SNF and weight which may be stated as: 0.350xX1 +0.095xX2 10 (Fat Inequality) 0.055xX1 +0.255xX2 10.5 (SNF Inequality) X1 +X2 84.5 (Weight Inequality) and X1 +X2 0 The inequalities X1 X2 0 refers to as non-negative restriction, i.e. negative use or negative purchase of ingredients is not allowed.

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In short, then, there are three essentially required constituents in a linear programming an objective function, a set of constraints and a set of non-negative restrictions. It may be noted that the linearity prevails throughout because no variable is raised to power. It is this fact, of course, that gives rise to the name of linear programming. The linear programming problems be solved which means that the values of two activities, ie. X1 and X2 can be obtained by following methods; Graphical Method Simplex Method

By using these methods the problems can be solved manually. But now a days by using personal computers these problems can be solved quickly with ease. Various computers software like LP88, quantitative Business System (QBS), Matlab, Microsoft Excel version 5.0 for Windows are easily available.

PHYSICAL CHEMISTORY OF MILK Milk is the physiological secretion of normally functioning udder. It is a very complex substance having many characteristic physical properties. The knowledge of which is essential since it will be useful when milk is used to prepare products and when it is subjected to many processing to make it safe. Water is the dispersion media for other solids. It is a continuous phase of liquid to which the constituents are dispersed. Solids exist in 3 states of dispersion. They are, 1. Coarse dispersion [particles greater than 0.001 mm] 2. Colloidal dispersion [particles between 0.001 mm and 0.000001 mm] 3. Molecular dispersion [particles Less than 0.000001 mm]. Materials in solution: Materials in solution are called materials in molecular dispersion. These include most of salts, lactose, part of albumin, globulin. A true solution is defined as one in which the molecules are dispersed individually. Some of the albumin and globulin, which are large in size, also exist in colloidal state. Materials in colloidal dispersion: Here the particles are microscopic but they are large enough to be held by an ultra filter. Eg. Calcium caseinate, part of albumin and globulin and calcium phosphate. These can be separated by dialyzing through appropriate membrane [semi permeable membrane]. For the suspension of these colloids certain materials are required and these are called as stabilizers. In milk the colloids themselves function as stabilizers to each other. Materials in coarse dispersion: Butterfat is suspended as tiny spherical particles called fat globules. Cellular constituents also come under this category [ex. In mastitis milk leucocytes exceed 5 lakes]. Fat particles varies in size from 0.1 to 10 in diameter, with an average of 3.1 ml of milk will contain approximately 2-4 million fat particles.

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PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MILK Milk acidity: PH of milk is approximately 6.6, which lies on the acid side of neutral (7). Fresh milk drawn from the udder possesses a certain acidity termed as natural acidity which to be distinguished from developed acidity in the farm of lactic acid. Normal acidity or natural acidity is due to casein, acid phosphates and citrates and to a lesser extend by albumin, globulin and CO2. Natural acidity varies from one cow to another. It ranges from 0.08-0.30% colostrums has high natural acidity because of its high protein content. Acidity is higher than normal during the early lactation period. It falls to normal in about 2 months of lactation where a further decline occurs. Titrable acidity or total acidity is equal to natural acidity developed acidity. Natural acidity is also called as apparent acidity. Developed acidity is also called as real or true acidity. Titrable acidity is used as rapid platform test for rejecting milk or suitable for converting the milk into evaporated milk, because the developed acidity lowers the temperature of heat coagulation of casein. 0.18 to 0.19% is taken as a deciding line between satisfactory and unsatisfactory milk samples. Milk of high natural acidity is usually high in their total solids content. They have fairly a butter capacity like proteins, phosphates and citrates, which resist changes in ph when acids or alkali are added. So milk of high natural acidity is highly buffered. Such milk requires more lactic acid to develop before the PH reached the isoelectic point of casein [PH 4.6] which means that a longer time will be required before such samples curdle at ordinary temperature. High natural acidity increases the keeping quality. Colour: Characteristic white colour or white opalescence of the milk is due to scattering of light by the colloidal particles. Yellow colour of the milk is due to the carotene. The intensity of yellow colour increase in cows milk when they are fed with green fodder. Buffalo milk is white in colour due to the absence of carotene which is efficiently converted to vitamin A. Dilute acid or rennet when added coagulation of casein and fat and the separated whey will be having a distinct greenish yellow colour due to the pigment riboflavin. The colour of the opaque objects is the colour if results. The colours of the visible spectrum are absorbed. Thur am object is yellow because more yellow light is reflected to the eye then any other colour. (A white object results all the colours of the light that fall on it while a black object absorbs all of them). Flavour: A property very difficult to define. It is a combination of taste and smell. Milk has characteristic mild, pleasant flavour. Sweet taste of lactose is balanced against the salty taste of chlorides. Some research workers attributes the rich flavour of milk is a delicate and balanced property. As lactation advances lactose declines while chloride increases the taste is deflected towards salty. A similar effect is caused by udder infections. When odouriferous substances like garlic are fed milk gets the characteristic taste, by its passage to the milk from the blood. They absorb the volatile vapours present in the atmosphere. Both these types can be avoided by feeding such feeds immediately after milking. Feeding molasses and beet by-products sometimes causes fishy flavour. Metals like copper act as a catalyst to develop oily taints if it is present in a

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concentration of 3 ppm it imparts a metallic taste. Cows suffering from ketosis produce milk with cowy odour due to entry of ketone bodies from blood to milk. As lactic acid develops the flavour of milk changes towards characteristic sour odour. This is due to the production of various by products like butyric acid, di acetyl,etc. Specific gravity: The term specific gravity as applied to milk means the weight of the given volume of milk compared with the weight of same volume of water at the same temperature Average specific gravity of milk fits components at 60F (15.60c) Cows milk Skim milk Buffalo milk Water Fat Protein Lactose Salts SNF : 1.028-1.030 : 1.035-1.037 : 1.030-1.032 :1 : 0.93 : 1.346 : 1.666 : 4.12 : 1.616

The variation in specific gravity of different individuals milk is due to the flocculation in water, fat, protein, lactose and minerals of milk. There will be difference in specific gravity of liquid fat and solid fat. One of the peculiarities of milk fat is that there is appreciable time lag in adjusting its physical condition to a change in temperature. Addition of water lowers the specific gravity. High fat milk has low density. Removal of fat results in separated milk or skim milk or defatted milk, which has a higher specific gravity, can be restored by adding water. Specific gravity is lowered by addition of water, addition of cream or by increasing the temperature, while the contrary effect is caused by addition of separated milk on skim milk, removal of fat or lowering the temperature. Recknagel phenomenon: The specific gravity of freshly drawn milk is low. It increases by 0.001 as time advances. This is due to a) Partial cooling and solidification of fat b) Hydration of protein c) Loss of CO2 d) Escape of air bubbles. Surface tension: Surface tension is due to the force of attraction between molecules. When compared to water surface tension of milk is low. The surface tension of milk at 200 c is 54.5 dynes/cm. It decreases as the temperature is raced (at 600c it about 40-45 dynes/cm). The presence of fat lowers the surface tension. Whole milk has a slightly lower surface tension than skim milk and that of cream is still lower. Milk and cream on aging undergo a slight decrease in surface tension. Colloidal constituents like proteins also lower the surface tension along with fat globules. There

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substances which lowers the surface tension will get concentrated at the liquid air inters pace. When milk is warmed calcium casein ate gather at the liquid air inters pace together with small amount of fat globules, albumin & globulin. If milk is agitated similar concentration occurs around the air bubbles & the phenomenon of frothing or foaming occurs. Rocknagel found that the sp.gravity of freshly drawn milk was lower than the sp.gravity subsequently obtained, after an hour or later. He found that the rise in sp.gr to be regular, more rapid at lower temperatures than at higher ones and to amount on an average of 0.001. This is called Recknagel's phenomenon. Viscosity: The viscosity of a substance refers to its resistance to flow. It is a measure of the friction between molecules as they slide. Milk is considerably more viscous than water mainly on account of fat emulsion & colloidal particles. Homogenization increases viscosity. Increase in temperature causes reduction in viscosity. At 200c milk will have as viscous as it is at 00c and at 400c, 1/3 of the value as it is at 00c. Oxidation-reduction potential: Incase of organic materials oxidation is defined as the uptake of oxygen or loss of hydrogen. In the same manner reduction may be defined as the process of loosing oxygen or gaining hydrogen. In ionic system it can be demonstrated that phenomenon may involve loss or gain of electrons. In practice the potential difference created by platinum electrode in a solution of an oxidant or reluctant is measured by completing a circuit through calomel half cells and a potentiometer. The voltage measured under there conditions reflect the oxidizing or reducing capacity of the solution. This potential is called as oxidation, reduction potential or O.R. potential (or) redox potential and is designated by Eh. The O.R. potential of milk normally falls within the range of +0.2 to +0.3 volts. In milk the O.R potential is controlled by the following substances. a) Dissolved O2 b) Ascorbic acid c) Riboflavin d) Lactose e) Cysteine f) Cystine

Milk under anaerobic conditions as udder has O.R. potential of 0.13 volts. It increases to 0.3 volts on contact with air in the atmosphere. The bacterial action reduces the O.R. potential Methylene blue dye based on the principle of lowering of the potential through use of available or by the microorganisms. Refractive index: Milk has a refractive index of about 1.35 and that of water is 1.33. So addition of water lowers the refractive index. Boiling point: Boiling point of any liquid is the temperature at which at the given pressure the material is in equal bruin both as a liquid and as a gas. This is the temperature at which the liquid phase will vaporize and the gas phase condense or liquefy according to the heat supply.

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Water boils at 100C under normal atmospheric temperature and pressure. The presence of dissolved substances increases the boiling point of a solution. Since milk contains several dissolved substances it has higher boiling temperature than that of water. Because there is variation in the dissolved substances the boiling point of milk also varies between 100.15100.17C [100.2-101.02]. Freezing point: The freezing point is the temperature at which, at a given pressure, a material is in equilibrium as both a solid as a liquid. This is the temperature at which the liquid phase may breeze or crystal ire & the solid phase may melt or liquefy. Pure distilled water freezes at o c under normal atmospheric pressure. Milk at the temperature slightly lower than that of water due to soluble constituents lactose, soluble salts [chlorides] which lower & deepness the freezing point [to an extend of 75% total depression]. Fat & protein, two variable constituents of milk will have very little influence on the freezing point depression. The range of value is 0.525 to 0.5650c [-0.550c]. Season has no influence on freezing point. By determining the freezing point in milk it can be ascertained whether water is added or not. The equipment used to determine the freezing point of milk is Hortvet cryoscope. Percentage of water added to milk = T-T' T T = normal freezing point [-0.550c] T' = observed freezing point of the given sample. X 100

The addition of 1% water to milk will raise the freezing point by 0.0060c. Limitations of freezing point estimation: a) It is unable to find out addition of separated milk. b) It is unable to detect the removal of fat in milk. c) Freezing point is seriously affected by the developed acidity. Electrical conductivity: In a pure solution the conductivity is a function of the ionic concentration. In a heterogeneous system such as exists in milk the fat and the colloidally dispensed substances obstruct the ions in their migration and decrease the conductivity. The electrical conductivity increases with increase in temperature. About 80% of current in milk is carried by chloride ions [chloride content increases during mastitis]. The electrical conductivity value of cow's milk is 0.005 ohm-1 cm-1 at 250c.

Adhesiveness of milk: When a piece of paper is moistened with milk. It sticks to surface of wood or glass or metal due to casein glue. Cream Raising:

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When milk is allowed to stand Fat raises to the top and eventually forms a layer packed with fat globules called cream. This is due to the difference in the specific gravity of serum and fat. One drop of milk contains about one lakh globules with the diameter vary from 0.3 to 10. Foaming: It is due to materials that lower the surface tension like milk protein and Fat. Milk fat not only increases the forming but also increases the stability of the foam.

Factor affecting the amount composition of milk Factor affecting the amount composition of milk can be broadly classified into two (i) (ii) Physiological factors Environmental factors i) Physiological factors: 1) Breed individual; inheritance 2) Persistency 3) Stage of lactation 4) Oestrus of pregnancy 5) Calving interval 6) Stage of milking 7) Age 8) Size of the cow ii) Environmental factors: 1) Feeds 2) Length of dry period 3) Condition of cow at calving 4) Frequency of milking 5) Irregular milking 6) Change of milker 7) Temperature 8) Season 9) Day to day variation 10) Diseases 11) Drugs.

i)

PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS:

1) Breed & Individual Inheritance

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Variation in the ability of cow to produce total milk, fat & solids not fat is an inherited character. There is both a breed difference & an individual difference. In general higher the production, lower will be the fat % by breeds in the following order:

Holstein, Brown Swiss, Ayrohire, Guernsey, Jersey Breed Holstein Friesian Brown Swiss Ayrshire Guernsey Jersey Sindhi Gir Tharparkar sahiwal Total solids 12.4 13.3 13.1 14.4 14.6 13.6 13.3 13.2 13.3 Fat 3.7 4.0 4.1 5.0 5.1 4.9 4.7 4.5 4.5 Protein 3.1 3.6 3.6 3.8 3.9 3.4 3.3 3.3 3.3

Within a Holstein breed a range in fat from 2.6 to 6% has been reported and within a Jersey breed a range in fat from 3.3 to 8.4% has also been reported. Similar variations exist between breeds & individuals in total milk production. There is a variation in the recreation of yellow pigment carotene in the milk of many breeds [Guernsey, Jersey, Holstein-Friesian]. The size of the fat globules is largest in Guernsey & Jersey. Holstein-Friesian & Ayrshire have the smallest fat globules. Size of fat particles varies with the percentage of fat. Higher the fat percentage larger will be the size of the fat globules. 2) Persistency: This refers to the level at which milk production is maintained. As lactation progresses, cow with the same initial production may very as much as 50% in the production for the year because of difference in persistency. 3) Stage of lactation: The greatest variation in the composition of milk takes place immediately following parturition within the first 5 days after freshening. The secretary product colostrum contains more vitamin A, vitamin D, iron, calcium, magnesium, chlorides, and phosphorus than normal milk. But it contains less lactose & potassium than normal milk. Milk yield generally increases up to 50th day of location & declines steadily to the end of the period. But the fat percentage increases to wards the end of location. Colostrum changes to normal milk in about 10 days. Then remains generally constant in composition to about 90th day of location. From this day the protein % increases until the end of the location period. Lactose remains practically constant for the colostral for the entire location period except in the colostral period. During advanced location milk becomes bitter after standing for a shorter period. This is due to an enzyme lipase, which splits fat into glycerol & fatty acids. The free fatty acids, which taste rancid, unite with the cations of the milk to form soap, which contributes the bitter taste.

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4) Oestrus and pregnancy During oestrus period there is a decrease in milk yield & increase in fat %. Some animals hold up the milk due to excitation thus milk with low fat % will result. A marked drop in milk production occurs during the latter period of gestation. It begins about the month of gestation of continues with an increasing rate of inhibition until parturition. Reasons: i) ii) Growing fetus requires nutrients, which complete with the requirement for milk production. Possibly due to large amounts of oestrogen of progesterone flow into the blood.

5. Calving interval: Researches indicate that it is profitable for cows to calve at 12 months interval rather than longer intervals, with 60 days dry period. This means a location period of 10 months. 6. Stage of milking: The fat % in last drawn milk is higher than that of first drawn milk.

Yield Foremilk Middle milk Strippings 15% - 58% - 27%

Fat 1.9% 2.3% 6.8%

Among the milk drawn from each quarter fat alone varies of not other constituents. In an average fore quarters produce 40% of the rear quarter remaining 60% of the milk. 7. Age: The age of the cow has a definite effect on production. Most cows reach maturity and maximum production at about 6 years of age following which there is a decline in production Records indicate that cows produced approximately 2%, 15%, 8%, and 2% more milk at maturity than they did at 2 years 3, 4, and 5 years old. After 6 years fat gradually decreases with advancing age. 8. Size: There is a direct relationship between milk production and size of the cow. Larger cows have more udder secretory tissues and larger digestive system and hence more in milk yield. ii) ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS: All animals including dairy animals are the result of two forces, heredity and environment. The environmental factors affecting the yield and composition of milk are, 1. Feeds: Quality and quality of feed has direct effect on quality of milk. Underfeeding brings about a marked decline in the milk yield. The fat content of milk can be increased to some extend by feeding. The increase is usually temporary in nature and rather impractical. Feeds high in fat such as cottonseed oil, linseed oil, butte at, lard, tallow, and soya bean oil increase the fat content of milk. However feeding of cod liver oil causes a marked depression in milk fat%. This

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effect is due to the presence of unsaturated fatty acids. But high proportion of saturated fatty acids increases the fat content. Hydrogenation of cod liver oil removes this specific effect. A minimum amount of fat in the ration is necessary for normal milk production. A feed ration devoid of fat but adequate in all other factors results in cow milk yield and also fat%. High fat diets tend to cause a decrease in the casein content and thus the protein content of milk. Fat of the feed also affects the composition of milk fat. Cottonseed oilcake produces very hard fat because of less butyric acid. Researches show that the hardening effect of cottonseed oil is due to fatty acids containing cyclopropane ring such as malvalic acid which cotton seed oilcake contains small quantities [up to 2%]. This acid apparently inhibits the action of the enzyme which desaturates stearic acid to oleic acid leading to accumulation of the stearicavid. Linseed oil containing high amount of linoleic and linolenie acids produce soft fat. Soya bean meal also produces soft fat. Pasture grass containing more of butyric, cap roil and caprlic acids [volatile acids] produces soft butter. Legumes of hays low in fat content produce hard butter. Cornmeal produces fat of moderate hardness. Generally feeds which are responsible for an increase in oleiln content produces a soft fat of low melting point. Some rations which cause a decrease in the milk fat% are a) High concentrates b) Low roughage c) Grass from lush spring, pasture d) Finely ground hay e) Heat treated feeds f) Feeds in pellet form esp. forages.

These rations depress the acetic acid production and increased prop ionic acid production in the rumen, hence milk fat depression. The fat depression caused by feeding can be overcome by daily feeding of NaHCO3, KHCo3, MgCo3, Ca (OH) 2 and partially delactosed whey. There increase the rumen ph and cause a decrease in propionate production and an increase in rumen acetic acid production. However most of them are unpalatable and decrease the appetite. Dietary guidelines to prevent milk fat depression: a. Feeding underground forage at a minimum rate of 1.5% of body weight /day. b. Feeding a ration containing at least 19% acid detergent fiber. c. Using a screen that is more than 1/8 of an inch in diameter of ground forage. Feed forages and concentrates together. d. Limit corn to 1/3 of the total ratio. Other nutrients like vitamin C and B complex are synthesized in the rumen. Vitamin A, D and E are not synthesized in the rumen. Hence their amounts in milk are influenced by their amounts in feed. Minerals like Ca, P, Mg, Na, K and C cant be changed by feed but Fe and I can be changed. [Iodine to a greater extend, Fe to a lesser extend].

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Arsenic, Mercury and Lead are normally absent. When heavily contaminated fed is given sufficient quantities may pass into milk to make it toxic. 2. Length of dry period: A dry period of approximately to days is recommended following each location period. This is important because it permits the cows body to store up reserves to meet the resource demand of the next lactation and it permits proper involution and conditioning of udder. A short dry period usually results in lower milk production. 3. Condition of cow at calving time: A cow maintained in good condition will generally give 25% higher yield than by one maintained in poor condition. Cows in very fat condition at calving time produce milk of much higher fat content for a considerable time after calving.

4. Frequency of milking: Cows milked 3 times a day produce more milk than those milked twice a day. Cows milked 4 times a day produce more milk than those milked 3 times daily. Also it has been observed that cows milked more frequently are persistent in their production throughout their location i.e., milk production declines as lactation progresses. Frequency of milking has no effect on butterfat. 5. Irregular milking: Unequal intervals between milking affect both quantity and composition of milk. More milk of slightly lower fat content is obtained following longer intervals. 6. Change of milker: High producing milk cows may be under stress with the result that they are usually very sensitive to any changes, including that of the caretaker. Greeting a pleasant, quiet and comfortable environment causes a cow to perform more efficiently. 7. Temperature: If the temperature is between 40F and 70F it is termed as comfort zone and has no effect on milk production. If the temperature goes below 40F there is no adverse effect on milk production. But extra feed is required. Cold temperature [5for less] may have detrimental effect on milk yield. Larger breeds are [Holstein] more tolerant of low temperature than smaller breeds. Milk fat content as well as SNF and total solids% increases with the decreasing temperatures. With increased temperature there is a slight decrease in yield and slight decrease in milk fat, SNF and total solids. At temperatures above 75F a decrease in milk yield occurs. This decrease is milk yield may cause an increase in milk fat. The smaller breeds particularly Jersey is more tolerant to higher temperatures. 8. Season: In summer milk production is less and milk production is 15-50% more in monsoon season. 9. Day-to-day variation: Research has shown that day-to-day butterfat varies from 0.1-2%. 10. Diseases: Diseases of udder and other digestive disturbances and systemic diseases reduce the milk yield and quality. In mastitis composition of milk changes depending on the severity of infection.

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a) Lactose content decreases b) Chloride content increases c) Decrease in casein and increase in heat coagular protein [increase in soluble nitrogen]. d) Ph changes to alkaline side. e) In severe mastitis fat percentage drops to 0.3%. Casein number reduced in mastitis.

Microbiological quality control tests for raw milk The microbiological quality of raw milk meant for processing is tested the receiving platform before being accepted in a dairy plant. The raw milk graded based on tests which may vary with the product to be manufactured brief description of such grading of milk is also discussed under individual products, wherever deemed necessary. A general list of such tests is as follows. I. Rapid platform tests. Organoleptic, clot-on-boiling (COB), pH titratable acidity, sediment, alcohol alizarin, 10 min-resazurin reduction and direct microscopic count (DMC). Microbiological tests. Total bacterial count (standard plate count), reduction tests (methylene blue and resazurin reduction-tests), coliform to thermoduric count, thermophilic count, psychrotrophic count, and spore on proteolytic and lipolytic counts. Tests for abnormal milk

II.

III.

1. Mastitis milk ph, chloride content, resazurin rennet test, somatic count, sodium lauryl sulphate test, Hotis test, blood agar test, CAMP test. 2. Milk with antibiotic residues Different for residual antibiotics. Rapid platform tests The extent of microbial contamination of milk depends on the type of milk that received at the plant or dairy. Milk of low bacteriological quality is unsuitable for processing or manufacture of milk products and if pooled together with good quality milk, such milk will spoil the whole lot. Hence, inferior quality milk supplies should be weeded out at the collection centres and dairies. The tests should be simple as well as rapid since a large number of consignments of milk have to be screened for their quality. A number of platform less based on the rapid assessment of the changes brought about in milk as a result of bacterial growth have been recommended by ISI (1960). These tests are described in this section and save as the basis for acceptance or rejection of the milk. 1. Organoleptic test 2. Clot-on-boiling (COB) test 3. Sediment test 4. Alcohol test 5. pH determination 6. Alcohol-alizarin test 7. Titratable acidity

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8. 10-min resazurin reduction test (RRT) 9. Direct microscopic count (DMC) The platform tests give information regarding (i) degree and types of bacterial contamination in milk, and (ii) physical and chemical changes in milk as a result of bacterial growth. Such an information is useful for market milk control, grading of milk, improvement of farm and dairy sanitation practices, and judging the suitability for processing. 1. Organoleptic tests

a) Test for colour. Normal milk has yellow (cows milk) or white (buffalos milk) colour. Any other colour gives an indication of abnormality which might be due to growth of certain bacteria, e.g. blue (Ps. syncyanea, Ps. Pyocyanea), red (Micrococcus roseus, Serratia marcescens), Yellow (Sarcina lutea, Microbacterium flavum) and black (Ps. nigrificans). b) Flavour. Milk samples giving may foul or abnormal smell (acid or sour, rancid, putrid, metallic, oxidized, weedy and stale flavour) should be rejected. The rancid, fishy and phenolic flavours are due to Ps. fragi, Ps. fluorescens and B. circulans, respectively. Cooked flavour is due to the sufthydral groups. The cause of the defect is useful in correcting it. c) Taste: The plant employees generally are scared of tasting raw milk because of the possible presence of pathogens. The milk giving bitter taste (which may be due to S. liquefaciens, and aerobic sporeformers) should be rejected. 2. Clot-on-boiling test (COB)

This test is generally performed to assess the suitability of milk for heat processing and also gives an indication of the keeping quality of milk. It provides a rapid method to determine the developed acidity as the milk with high developed acidity (more than 0.17% LA) gets coagulated when heated to boiling temperature. In this test, 5 ml of milk is taken in a test tube and the tube is kept in a water bath at boiling temperature for 5 min. The formation of flakes or clot is taken a positive test. Samples of mille having poor heat stability due to disturbed salt balance or due to the growth of bacteria capable of producing rennin-like enzyme also give positive COB test. All such supplies should be rejected, as these are unfit for heat processing. 3. Sediment test (off-the-bottom test)

Sediment test is performed to judge the cleanliness of milk. However, there is no correlation between the amount of sediment and the bacteriological quality. Measured quantity of milk is filtered or centrifuged and checked for sediment. A good quality milk gives no visible dirt whereas poor quality milk shows a dark or blackish deposit on the filter pad. The milk is accepted or rejected on the basis of the following ISI standards. Sediment (cog) 0.0 0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0 Grade Excellent Good Fair Poor Very poor

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4.

Alcohol test

This test is used to know the suitability of milk for high heat treatments like sterilization (milk to be used for condensing and drying) and the keeping quality as well as to weed out abnormal milks. The positive tests indicated by the formation of flakes which is due to developed acidity or mineral imbalance (colostrum, late lactation milk, mastitic milk). Alcohol (65-70%) is slowly added along the sides of the tube containing 5 ml of milk. If there is formation of flakes, milk is rejected. A negative test indicates low acidity and good heat stability. Milk showing positive test should not be used for manufacture of concentrated Milk, milk powders, sterilized milk etc. 5. pH determination

The pH value is a measure of the true acidity of milk. Normal milk has pH 6.6-6.8 whereas milk from infected udders gives alkaline pH (7.0-7.4). The pH can be determined by using pH meter, pH indicator strips and pH indicators like bromocresol purple (BCP) and bromothymol blue (BTB). The colour changes in the milk with the two dyes as a result of pH variations are as follows. BCP-pH range 5.2-6.8, yellow to purple BTP-pH range 6.0-7.6, straw yellow to bluish-green

6.

Alcohol-alizarin test

The test is based on the same principle as alcohol test except that here alizarin is added which indicates the approximate percentage of acidity. An equal amount of alcohol-alizarin solution is added to 5 ml of milk in a test tube and the quality is judged on the basis of formation or flakes/clots and also the colour as indicated in Table below.

Table Interpretation or results in alcohol-alizarin test of milk Colour Lilac or pale red Lilac or pale red Violet or (alkaline) Reddish (acidic) purple brown Size of flakes No flakes Small flakes Small flakes Small flakes Large flakes Approx. acidity(% LA) Upto 0.14 0.14-0.17 0.17 0.17-0.20 0.20 Heat stability Good (low acidity) Poor (sweet-curdling) Poor (late lactation or mastitis) Very poor Very poor

Brownish yellow to yellow (highly acidic) 7. test. 8.

Titratableacidity This test has been explained under the following section on Microbiological quality control 10-min resazurin reduction test Microbiological quality control tests

Standards

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Resazurin disc number 6, 5 or 4 3.5 to 1 0.5 to 1 9. Direct microscopic count

Keeping quality Satisfactory Doubtful Unsatisfactory

Remarks Accept the milk Hold for further tests Reject

Microbiological quality control tests Standards DMC/ml Less than 5 lakhs 5 to 40 lakhs 40 lakhs to 2 crores More than 2 crores Good Fair Poor Very poor Grade of milk

Significance of antimicrobial substances in milk i) Health benefits. The primary significance of the antimicrobial substances detected in milk can be related to their possible role in conferring protection to the mammary gland and the neonates in mammals. The new borns, therefore, should essentially be given the colostrums, which is very rich in most of these antimicrobial factors. The slogan breast-feeding is the best for infants derives its substance from the abundance of antimicrobial factors in mother's milk as against animal milk based infant formulae. ii) Preservation of milk. Although the presence of antimicrobial factors can not solely be depended upon to prevent or even to retard significantly the development of mixed populations of micro-organisms in raw milk, some micro-organisms get markedly affected. However, ail artificial exploitation of milk's natural antimicrobial systems called LP-system, for developing a 'cold sterilization' like process, can prove quite effective in the preservation of raw milk (Reiter and Harnulv, 1982). Such a process holds great promise under tropical farm conditions in countries like India, iii) Processing problems. Where raw milk is used for product making, e.g. the certain cheeses, the acid development in cheese vat may be retarded by inhibition of starter activity due to the presence of antimicrobial factors. In starter culture propagation, the heating (80C) of milk is essential inactivates factors which may interfere with the normal starter growth.

Synthesis or vitamin B complex which helps in infant growth ii) In infants receiving baby foods. - The following adverse effects can be resulted in such infants. a) Overgrowth of E. coli in the intestine.

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b) Increase in pH (alkaline) of stools due to overgrowth of E. coli. c) Decrease in the synthesis of vitamin B12. In such case, the Bacteroides conjugate with bile salts in the intestine and reduce their function in fat absorption. B. Non-specific factor

1. Lactanins. The concentration of lactanin fractions, viz.,lactanin 1 (L1) and lactanin 2 (L2) in milk varies; the bovine colostrum is richer in L1 and normal milk contains higher quantities of L2 fraction. Recently, a third fraction (L3) has also been detected in raw milk. This differs from L1 and L2 on the basis of its source and inhibitory action. On heating raw milk to 70C for 20 min at pH 7.0, L1 is completely destroyed leaving behind L2 fraction in relatively higher concentration. There is partial inactivation of L1 at 65C for 30 min. It is proved that these two components (L1 and L2) when interact are more bactericidal than either one alone. The lysozyme activity is almost non-existent in milk with high lactanins activity. Compounds like cysteine, H2O2, p-chloromercurobenzoate appear to destroy the activity of lactanins in milk. The activity is reduced by the addition of whole blood or peptone to milk and also by a temperature of 22C rather than 37C. According to other workers, the activity of lactanin lasts longer at low temperature even though the level of activity may be lower at anyone time. Lactanin is mostly active against Streptococcus pyogenes. The ability of this organism to grow in the udder is due to the fact that lactanin has little activity under anaerobic conditions prevailing therein. Addition of glutathione, cysteine and other reducing substances in the milk reduce the antimicrobial action of lactanins in milk. However, other factors in milk are stimulatory for the growth of S. pyogenes in the udder which causes mastitis. 2. Lysozyme. Lysozyme is present in different amounts in milks of different species. The average lysozyme content of human milk (30 mg/ 100 ml) is 3,000 time: more than that of bovine milk. Such significant differences in the lysozyme content may have physiological or nutritional implication on infant feeding. Breast fed infants have greater resistance to enteric infections than those fed on artificial foods, and lysozyme is possibly associated with the mechanism of natural immunity and local resistance. Most of the Gram-positive bacteria are very sensitive to the lytic action of lysozyme due to the hydrolysis of beta 1.4-glycosidic linkage of the peptidoglycan component of their cell wall. However, Gram-negative bacteria are normally lysozyme resistant. 3. Lactoferrin (iron-binding protein). Lactoferrin (earlier called lactotransferrin or lactosidcrophilin) is one of the important anti-microbial substances in milk. It is a red glycoprotein, which resembles blood serum transferring and is found in varying concentrations in milks of different species. Human milk has a higher amount of this protein than cow or buffalo milk The concentration, of lactoferrin in human and buffalo colostrum is very high (1.2g/100 ml and 100 mg/100 ml, respectively) and falls during lactation to 160 mg/100 ml and 50 mg/ml, respectively in mature milk. One to 4% of the lactoferrin in human milk is saturated with iron. It is mainly a whey protein (70% found in whey whereas 30% bound to casein and fat). The inhibitory effect of lactoferrin is based on its ability to squeeze iron out from the medium, thereby, making it unavailable t. the bacteria which compete with the lactoferrin for the limited amount of iron as an essential growth factor. Its bactericidal action is potentiated by the presence of specific antibodies inhibited or abolished by adding iron ill vitro or due to the high citrate and low bicarbonate concentrations as in bovine milk. It has antibacterial property against organisms like

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Staphylococcus aureus, Staphalbus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Vibrio cholerae, Clostridium tyrobutyneum. Bacillus stearothemiophilus and B. subtilis. Apoladoferrin (iron-free lactoferrin) at 0:02 mg/ml concentration in milk inhibits growth of Klebsiella Pneumoniae, Enterobacter aerogenes and E. coli. 4. Lactoperoxidase. Lactoperoxidase is present in cow milk in considerable amount (30 mg/ml) but is absent in human milk. This enzyme has been found to be identical with L2 fraction of lactanin. In bovine milk (raw), the inhibitor action of this enzyme is due to formation of an antimicrobial system (called Lactoperoxidase, Thiocyanate/Hydrogen peroxide system or LLP system) under normal conditions. The secretion of thiocyanate component in milk is governed by nutrition of the cow. The third component, viz., hydrogen peroxide can be contributed by either the polymorpho-nuclear-leucocytes (PMN) or by hydrogen peroxide producing udder flora (e.g. streptococci). The LP-system is bacteriostatic (inhibitory to the growth of bacteria) for organisms like group B and group N (lactic) streptococci whereas it is bactericidal (killing of bacteria) for group A streptococci, E. coli, Salmonella typhimurium etc. It protects calf against enteritis problem and may have some role in providing defence mechanism to mammary gland against infections. Lately, attempts have been made to exploit the LP system as a method of preservation (cold sterilization) for raw milk. Unlike in the conventional method of preservation by heat treatment. There is no inactivation of antimicrobial substances and other heat labile constituents (like certain vitamins) of raw milk in this process. In these efforts, the two components or LP system, viz. thiocyanate and hydrogen peroxide arc added from outside to attain their balanced proportions, a factor which governs the antimicrobial property of the system. 5. Vitamin-binding proteins. There are certain proteins present in the mi1k of some species, which bind with some essential vitamins firmly, thereby. Making bacteria (which are fastidious for such vitamins) starved. These proteins particularly bind with vitamin B12 and folate in milk. In the milk of both cow and human, the binding capacity of folate-binding proteins is far in excess of the natural folate content. The same is true for vitamin B12 in human milk but in row mille there is little or no excess of unsaturated binding proteins. Hence, in presence of unsaturated binding proteins, the growth of bacteria requiring vitamin B12 or folate is inhibited. The vitaminbinding proteins may have the following different functions. i) Regulate bacterial growth in gastro-intestinal tract of the suckling animals by denying the vitamins to specific bacteria. ii) iii) iv) Aid in the absorption of vitamins in the gut. Conserve vitamin B12 by aiding the reabsorption of vitamin BI2 lost in the bile. Play a role in the mammary gland prior to milk secretion,

6. Fatly acids. Milks of different species also contain free fatly acids in appreciable concentrations. Generally, medium chain saturated fatly acids (C8:, 0 to C12: 0) especially octanoic and decanoic acids and some unsaturated (long chain) fatty acids (C18:1 and C18:2) are more active against Gram-positive organisms (virtual absence of living organisms in the stomach and the intestine of suckling rabbits is attributed to the action of decanoic and octanoic acids released from milk). Lower fatty acids, after being freed from the glycerides of milk fat, are inhibitory to many bacteria including lactobacilli and lactic streptococci. Free fatty acids in milk result either from the action of lipase naturally present in milk or from the lipolytic activity of certain micro-organisms. Although many bacteria require fatty acids as nutrients for growth but when their concentration exceed certain limits in !he medium, growth is strongly inhibited. 7. Miscellaneous enzymes. About 23 enzymes have been identified in milk and, in general. Their

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activity is higher in human milk than in cow milk. However, xanthine oxidase though abundant in cow milk, is absent in human milk. Most of the enzymes are secreted into milk from blood or mammary tissue and their antimicrobial significance in milk is not clearly established as yet. II. Non-inherent antimicrobial substances in milk

Antibiotics. sanitizers and other chemical substances used at some stage in dairy industry may gain access into milk and exert antimicrobial effect therein as explained in earlier pages under abnormal milks.

Pasteurization

A. History. The term pasteurization has been coined after the name of Louis Pasteur of France, who in 1860-4 demonstrated that heating wine at a temperature between 122 to 140 F (50 to 60c) killed the spoilage organisms and helped in its preservation. The application of this process gave rise to the new term Pasteurization, which soon became current in technical language, Although Louis Pasteur pioneered studies on heat-treatment for preservation, pasteurization of milk was first attributed to Dr. Soxhelt of Germany in 1886. B. Definition. The term pasteurization, as applied to market milk today, refers to the process of heating every particle of milk to at least 63 C* (145 F) for 30 minutes, or 72C (161 F) for 15 seconds (or to any temperature-time combination which is equally efficient), in approved and properly operated equipment. After pasteurization, the milk is immediately cooled to 5 C (41 F) or below.

Pasteurization of milk Pasteurization of milk/cream refers to the process of heating every particle of cream to not less than 71C and holding it at such a temperature for at least 20minutes, or to any suitable temperature time combination using approved and properly operated equipment. Objectives of pasteurization i) ii) iii) iv) v) Methods i) Holding pasteurization: The cream is heated to 71C for 20 minutes and then promptly cooled. To destroy the pathogenic microorganism in cream so as to make it, and also resultant butter, safe for human consumption. To destroy undesirable micro organisms and inactivate the enzymes present , so as to prolong the keeping quality of the cream and butter, To complete the neutralization process. To eliminate some of the gaseous tainting substances. To make possible the removal of some volatile off-flavours

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ii)

HTST pasteurization:

The Plate Pasteuriser is better suited to freshly separated sweet cream than neutralized cream, as the latter more easily forms burnt-on films on the plates. The maximum heating temperature may be 95-100C for 5-16 seconds. iii) Vacuum paseurisation: This is a continuous process and removes the off-flavours effectively. This process dilutes the cream and it will lower the fat percentage of cream up to 6 - 8 %.

C. Object (purpose)

(a) To render milk safe for human consumption by destruction of cent per cent pathogenic micro-organisms;

(b) To improve the keeping quality of milk by destruction of almost all spoilage organisms (85 to 99 per cent).

*While converting Fahernheit Centigrade, the latter has been rounded off throughout this book so as to avoid fractions (as per the latest thinking in ISI).

D. Need. As it is difficult to exercise strict supervision over all milk supplies, it becomes necessary to pasteurize milk so as to make it safe for human consumption. Any impairment of nutritive value is of the slightest extent.

A. Objections

(a) Pasteurization encourages slackening of effects for sanitary milk production.

(b) It may be used to mask low-quality milk; (c) It diminishes significantly the nutritive value of milk; (d) It reduces the cream line or cream volume; (e) Pasteurized milk will not clot with rennet; (f) Pasteurization may be carelessly done; it gives a false sense of security; (g) It fails to destroy bacterial toxins in milk; (h) in India pasteurization is not necessary, as milk is invariably boiled on receipt by the consumer.

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B. Formation of standards. The following considerations were involved in the formulation of the standards of pasteurization

(a). Bacterial destruction. 100% for pathogens. Mycobacterium tuberculosis, being considered the most heat-resistant among pathogens, was chosen as the index organism for pasteurization. Any heat treatment (i.e. temperature-time combination), which killed T.B. germs, also destroyed all other pathogens in milk.

(b) Cream line reduction. The cream line or cream volume is reduced progressively with increase in the temperature-time of heating. (The consumer judges the quality of milk on the basis of the cream line)

(c) Phosphatase inactivation. The complete destruction of phosphatase by pasteurization. (The phosphatase test is used to detect inadequate pasteurization.

Bactofugation of milk Bactofugation is a special form of separation in which specific types of microorganisms (mainly spore-forming bacilli) are removed from milk and inactivated thereafter. Generally all active (vegetative) microorganisms are inactivated by pasteurization (as described in Section 4.2.7) to such an extent that both hygienic and technological requirements are met. However, the highly heat-resistant spores are surviving the pasteurization process as precursors of sporeforming bacilli and clostridia. Spores can form new vegetative cells by growing under favorable conditions and then propagating very rapidly. They can lead to significant quality defects in hard cheese, semihard cheese or long-life products due to proteolysis, lipolysis and gas formation. Therefore bactofugation is used mainly in the manufacture of these product groups. Technology. Bactofuges are special nozzle clarifying separators with high separation precision that can remove microorganisms from milk based on their higher density. This is applicable especially for spore-forming cells or spores, as the density difference from milk is enhanced by the concentrated cell plasma of the spore, and it permits complete separation of this group of microorganisms by a bactofugation. Design and operating principle of a bactofuge (Figure 4.134). Separated microorganisms are concentrated on the periphery of the bowl, are transported in milk highly enriched with bacteria (bactofugate) to the outside via the nozzles (1), and arc then collected in the sludge discharge pipe (2). The bactofugate, which still corresponds to 2- 3% of the treated milk, is transferred into a cyclone (3), de aerated and transferred toward the discharge. The air, highly contaminated with microorganisms, goes into an overflow (5), avoiding the contamination of environmental air. The relatively high quantity of buctofugate must be treated in such a way that all microorganisms are inactivated the milk must be used suitably. Bactotherm processes (Figures 4.135). Clarified and standardized milk is pumped into a plate heat exchanger (1), where it is heated up to the bactofugation temperature of 60-75C, and into

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the bactofuge (2). Then it is pasteurized in a plate heat exchanger (3) and rechilled for further processing. The bactofugate is transferred by means of a pump (4) into another preheating section of the plate heat exchanger (5), then into the vacuum de aerator (6), and from there by a pump (7) into the steam injector (8). Heat Treatment of milk Thermal treatment is an energy transfer of heat into milk. Heat treatment is often referred to as heating, leading to terms of heat treatment processes. Just by looking at the formulas for energy quantities we realize which energy requirement in necessary for heating the milk and why these processes merit such importance. The objective of the heat treatment is to completely inactivate all microorganisms which are contained in milk. This results however-whether desired or not-in a modification of the natural milk components, especially inactivation of the enzymes found in milk. Primarily, heat treatment is a hygiene-oriented activity within the entire framework of processing. On the other hand, it is a dominant factor for improving the shelf life of all fresh milk products and is a legal obligation. The most common thermal process, not only in dairy technology, is pasteurization. Pasteurization is the thermal inactivation of microorganisms at temperatures below 100C, which improves the hygienic quality of food and achieves a certain level of preservation. The main objective is to inactivate pathogens in order to avoid a health hazard for human beings and animals. At the same time, a significant reduction of the total count is a good hose for further processing of milk into a multitude of products. Apart from the hygiene aspect, gentle heat treatment must be achieved which results in time-temperature profiles meeting the following requirements: a) b) c) The inactivation effect (percent of inactivated microorganisms) has to be >99%; for pathogenic germs it must be 100%) Milk must be treated gently in order to retain the maximum amount of nutrients and vitamins as well as the organoleptic quality. Process economics must be profitable, and the installation

Alternative processes for the heat treatment. Other processes are known for the reduction of the germ count in milk. The removal of microorganisms by bactofugation was discussed later. For the inactivation of microorganisms, other processes should be mentioned such as: a) b) c) d) e) Radiation with UV. X-rays or gamma-rays. Ohmic heating. The product is the electrical resistor in the circuit, especially for highly viscous material. High-pressure process, using pressures of 2000-6000 bar and temperatures of 40-60C. Ultrasound process. Microwave treatment.

The last process is a very interesting one for the thermal treatment of foods. When heating with microwaves, the product is exposed to an electromagnetic field having a frequency of 8003000 Hz. The heat is caused by the rotation of the dipoles and oscillation of ions in the food. The microwave energy is created by transforming a current in a generator (magnetron or klystron), from which the microwaves are fed through rectangular channel (to conduct the waves) into an applicator and heat treatment unit. The product enters the sealed and protected chamber, and the microwaves are fed into it (with an antenna, slit and/or other sharp inserts and other facilities for

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distributing the microwaves), and penetrate the food evenly. It is recommended that milk be pasteurized at 65C and 30 min residence time. These processes are not yet widely applied. Their main disadvantage are their low inactivation effect, legal barriers, and high costs, and they also result in very noticeable organoleptic modifications of the milk. In a review of how to best meet the (primarily) hygienic requirements, thermal treatment with steam or hot water is still an acceptable compromise and will be discussed in detail hereafter. Influences during the heat treatment The inactivation effect and the chemical-physical, nutritional and organoleptic changes in milk during heat treatment are characterized by the following parameters: a) b) c) d) Temperature and time (time-temperature profile) Type of microorganisms and initial level of contamination Acidity of milk Flow conditions and heat transfer in the installations

The quotient, which expresses the decrease in inactivation time when the temperature is increased by 10C is called the Q10 factor. This value indicates how much the time for a complete germ inactivation is reduced when the temperature is increased by 10C. The Q10 factor for microorganisms is 9-13, for sporeformers about 30. If a type of bacteria is inactivated at 11.5 times more rapidly at 90C than at 80 C, then the Q10 -factor is 11.5. The velocity of chemical reactions in milk increases by a factor of 2-4 when temperature is increased by 10C; the physical changes increase by a factor of approximately 2. Another indicator for complete inactivation (sterility) is the F value (see 9.3.1.5) Changes of milk components. The relatively low Q10 values for chemical and physical modifications appear to permit very high heat treatment for a short time; however, we have to consider modification of the milk components even with temperatures slightly above 70C and residence times of only a few seconds. With increasing temperatures and residence times, whey proteins are modified; e.g., the solubility decreases to such an extent that they coagulate with casein at a pH of 4.6. Another consequence of the heat treatment of proteins is the liberation of sulfhydryl groups (SH-groups), thus increasing the anti oxidative properties of the milk and leading to the development of a cooked taste. At the same time, we observe a percent decrease of whey proteins and a quantitative increase of casein. In particular, we observe complex formation between k-casein and -lactalbumin, resulting in an additional protective colloidal effect. This results, e.g., in delayed release of the peptides when the lab enzyme is added to milk during cheese manufacture, leading to a significant delay of the enzymatic precipitation. On the other hand, a firmer gel is created due to the concomitantly increased wilier-binding capacity of the proteins with reduced syneresis (see 7.3.3.1), which is favorable in the manufacture of yogurt but impedes the release of whey during cheese manufacture. Casein remains nearly unchanged at normal pasteurization temperatures. The heat treatment also leads to a more or less pronounced disturbance of the salt equilibrium in milk. Soluble calcium and phosphorus are bound in calcium phosphate, which precipitates on the casein micelle. This activity is reversible up to a temperature level of 80C; at higher temperatures, calcium precipitates and forms stonelike deposits on the heat exchange surface of machines.

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Longer residence times at temperatures >100C can lead to complex compounds between casein and lactose. The observed browning of such treated products is called the Maillard reaction. At this temperature level nearly all enzymes are inactivated, and vitamin losses of 20-30 % are observed. But even at lower temperatures) more or less significant vitamin degradation must be foreseen, especially for the B complex. Heat treatment has only a minor effect on fat. Only the membranes of the fat globules with their heat-sensitive protein compounds experience some modifications, influencing the agglomeration of fat globules and their creaming. Types of microorganisms and initial level. The germ inactivation effect depends largely on the type of microorganisms which can be found in milk. Most of the vegetative forms, especially the lactic acid bacteria, and pathogens are inactivated at temperatures of 70-90C and residence times of a few seconds to a few minutes. Excluded are the thermophilic lactic acid bacteria which can survive slightly higher temperatures and the spores of surviving bacilli for which temperatures >100C are necessary. The time required for germ inactivation is a function of the total count, and the initial count determines the total count of the milk which is to be treated. Heat transfer in machines. If heat passes from a liquid medium M1 to another medium M2 through a wall with a thickness S1 the process is called heat transfer, and it consists of both heat transfer (convection) and heat conduction. heat transfer from M1 to the left area (heat transfer I)

heat conduction through the wall

heat transfer II from the right area to M2 Heat transfer depends upon the type of flow and other factors. These include the specific heat conduction number of the material (Steel = 30-45; Water=0..50; Air at 0C=0.022), temperature differences of he media, wall thickness s1, and the fluid velocity. The heat conduction number can be calculated from these parameters. The heat transfer number can be reduced significantly by burning and stone-like deposits of milk components on the heat exchanger surfaces, incorporation of air into the milk and too low high fluid velocities of the heating media, and this results in a reduction of the microorganism inactivation. Hat treatment process In view of the requirements for heat treatment and modifications, which can be assumed in milk, time-temperature profiles have been established for heat treatment process and are shown in Overview 4.14. The holding time of those temperatures is a function of the residence time in the heating section proper of the installation, where milk reaches the preset temperature due to heat transfer, as well as residence time of a post heating holding section, where no heat transfer takes place. The time-temperature combinations of the heating process for milk are shown graphically in Figure 4.138. The influence of the individual technologies on microorganisms and chemical changes of milk is shown in Figure 4./39. Which process must be selected for an actual application is governed primarily by the products as well as legal requirements. The short-time treatment guarantees relatively gentle milk treatment and is the most widely

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applied system. Due to the large-scale requirements, the low-heat, long-time treatment is without any industrial significance. Thermization is used mainly for heat treatment of raw milk in order to stabilize its quality during longer storage by inactivating psychrotrophic microorganisms. However, additional processes are required. The high heat process is used mainly for heating of cream. It is also used eventually for a very low quality of raw milk. The high heat process with direct steam injection is used in order to increase the shelf life of fresh milk under conditions similar to those for the short-time process. This process is also used for cheese milk and milk concentrates for long-shelf-life products Type Temperat ure range in C Holding time for heat effect Probable inactivatio n effect in % Confirmation method Remarks

Heating Thermization 57-68 Min.15s

Holding Without <95 Phosphatase positive Thermization process for raw milk and cheese milk Batch wise heating Pasteurizatio n with indirect heat transfer

Batch method Short time

62-65 71.7-74

8.12s 8.12s

30 min >=15s

=95 99.5

Phosphatase positive Phosphatase negative Peroxidase positive

High heat

85-90

8.15s

Without

99.9

Peroxidase negative Peroxidase negative

Pasteurizatio n with indirect heat transfer high heat with direct steam injection in heating section With direct or indirect heat transfer Indirect heat transfer

High pasteurizatio n

Ca.125

0.71s

Without

Upto 100

Ultra-high heat

135-150

>-1s (2-8 sec)

Without

Upto 100

Peroxidase negative

Sterilization

109-115

20-45 min

100

Using the ultra high temperature (UHT) process leads to organolcptic changes in milk without changing the nutritional value significantly. This process, with direct or indirect heat transfer, is used mainly for the manufacture of UHT milk. Sterilization is used only, when filled products, must be preserved for a period longer than 5 months. Heat treatment processes can also be used in combinations. A thermization or a short time

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heat treatment can be used before applying a high-heat pasteurization, ultra-high heat treatment or sterilization. The second test is a negative enzyme test. If the high heat treatment process is done property, then the enzyme peroxidase (inactivated at temperatures 85C) is absent; if a shorttime heat treatment is applied, the enzyme alkaline phosphatase is absent (inactivated at temperature 71 C). Equipment and installation for heat treatment Here we present only installations for pasteurization and ultra-high heat treatment; installations for sterilization are described in the section. long-shelf-life products. Each heat treatment installation must be approved or certified by the corresponding authorities and must include legally prescribed minimum equipment. This includes: a) b) Automatic temperature control and recording devices. Automatic safety device to avoid insufficient heating of the milk (bypass installation) with recording device for time/temperature and valve position for the flow, as well as passage and recirculation of the milk or cleaning. c) Safety device with automatic recording against unplanned blending of pasteurized or sterilized milk with nonheated milk, based on pressure increase after the heating or holding section of the heat exchanger.) Further each machine must have a plaque, which indicates the manufacturer, type, serial number, capacity, heat treatment and certification number. The heat transfer (see Overview 4.14) can be done in a direct way by blending two different media or in an indirect way, where the media are separated by a wall. The heat transfer can take place between media in a vapor state and a liquid state or between two liquid media. The basis is a temperature difference between the two media. The energy which is required, to raise the mass of a material to a defined temperature is calculated as follow: W = m.c (T2-T1) If the mass is linked to a time unit, then we have the heat flow = m.c. T energy quantity in J or kcal m mass in kg T1 lower material temperature in C T temperature difference T2 T1 [K] W c T2 energy flow W specific heat in j/kg K higher material temperature in C

M mass flow in kg/s The mass can be replaced by volume, and then we obtain the volume now V in m3/s or, as is usually indicated, in l/h. The most widely used installations for the heat treatment of milk are plate heat exchangers. For reasons related to the flow conditions, tubular heat exchangers are used when operating at temperature levels >100C, e.g., in ultra-high heal treatment. Plate heat exchangers are designed in a modular form; i.e., all sections required for the pasteurization process are installed in a frame. Individual sections are installed in such a way that the hottest section is followed by the section at the next lower temperature, resulting in thermodynamic advantages. The following guidelines

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should be maintained (considering accepted deviations) when operating a plate heat exchanger: Steam pressure Hot water inlet temperature In heating section 1.01-1.03 bar at 65% heat recovery 3-4K above milk outlet temperature; at 80% heat recovery 2-3K above milk outlet temperature Flow rate tolerances short time +5 to -10% High heat +10 to -30% Temperature tolerance (compared to calibrated thermometer) Recording tolerance (compared to calibrated thermometer) Deviation to temperature indicator Max difference of control input at setpoint 0.2k 0.5 K 0.5 K

Design and operating principle of a plate heat exchanger. The configuration of the individual sections of a plate heat exchanger is shown in Figure 4.140. Several heat exchange plates are assembled and are installed section wise in a frame. In many cases plate heat exchangers for short-time heating have no holding section, but they have a tubular holding pipe (see Figure 4.153) besides the plate heat exchanger. This makes it possible to keep plate heat exchanger very small and space efficient. Heat exchanger plates. Heat exchanger plates such as the single flow plate (Figure 4/41) are made from stainless steel-as other heat transfer plates and have a heating surface of 0.2-0.4m2. A relatively large surface, considering the overall dimensions, is achieved by the fishbone-like pressed surface pattern. At the same time, very good turbulence is achieved between the plates (Figure 4.142), thus creating nearly identical heat transfer conditions for all product particles, and a different thermal load is excluded. Close to the passage openings and between the fishbones, distance holders are shaped into the plates, which maintain a uniform distance between the plates. Additional longitudinal-shaped cams in the area of the inlet serve for good product distribution over the entire surface of the plate. Sealing the flows from each other and from the outside is done on the periphery of the plates and around the inlet/outlet openings with profiled gaskets, which are glued into the correspondingly shaped grooves. Further the plates are set up for hydrodynamic reasons in such a way that the inlet and outlet for the media are on the same side of the plate. This means that the inflow of the medium is on one side and the outflow is on the other side, resulting in simplified piping connections and reduced assembly costs. In each section, wherever there is heat transfer, one medium enters through the inflow and a second exits into the return flow. In order to have a uniform fluid velocity between the plates and fluid distribution over the entire plate surface, the fluid velocity of the media must be 0.25 m/s. This fluid velocity depends among other things, on the flow rate and pressure drop. As the pressure drop decreases with longer distance, between the inflow and the outflow. Flow patterns and circuits. A flow is formed between two plates of a plate assembly. By

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sequencing the various plates, flow patterns and stages are established in a section. Parallel flow mostly from one stage. The stages are installed in series in a section. The number of parallel flows per stage and the serial stages are chosen according to circumstances; the heating and holding section should not be modified by the operator. A simple flow pattern is shown in Figure 4./45, another one is the flow of a plate heat exchanger for a short-time heat treatment. The description of the flow can be found in Section 4.3. Heating in a plate heat exchanger. Heating is done with either steam or hot water, which is made by using steam. Constant pressure and temperature conditions in the steam supply pipes are the basis for a non interrupted process. The choice of a correctly calculated pipe diameter of the steam pipe lines and effective pressure control are the basis for constant conditions. For heating purposes, saturated steam (no superheated steam) is used, which should have the quality of a wet steam (2-8% water content). Pressure should be 0.96-1.96 bar. Steam injection is used in plate heat exchangers both for the high-heat process and for heating cream. Due to the relatively wide differences between the steam temperature and the product temperature as well as the high steam temperatures (>100C), the risk of burning milk is high, and therefore enhanced deposition in the heating section must be considered. Short-time heating and thermization use hot water, which can be obtained in three different ways: a) c) In a separate section of the plate heat exchanger b) In a mixing nozzle In a hot water battery

The flow in Figure 4./46 shows that the pressure-reduced steam passes through a membrane valve into the hot water mixing battery, where it is mixed with water. The membrane valve controls the steam quantity as a function of the set temperature, and the valve is actuated pneumatically, adjusting the hot water temperature accordingly. The steam distributor can be eliminated if wet steam can be supplied directly from the steam boiler, as wet steam cools down along its way in the steam pipes. Steam is dried by pressure reduction; it does not superheat. PRINCIPLES OF HEAT EXCHANGE HEAT EXCHANGE UNITS Definition of Heat: Heat is a form of energy, which will flow into or out of a body when a temperature difference exists between the body and its surroundings. Heat will always flow naturally from a body of high temperature to one at lower temperature. A standard unit of heat is the B.t.u. (British thermal unit). Heat exchange units are used to increase or decrease the heat content of a product, either in separate or nearly simultaneous operations. The multipurpose vat and the continuous pasteurizer are common heat exchange units. In the multipurpose vat the contents may be heated, cooled or stored. Heating requires the admission of hot water or steam into the space of the vat wall. Cooling requires tap water or chilled water in this water space. Both require agitation of the product during heat exchange. For a given area of plant floor space required by the unit, plate heat exchangers provide a greater heat exchange surface area than a tube heat exchanger. The plate heat exchanger contains a series of corrugated plates designed and assembled to force the product to flow in one direction through alternate inter-plate space, while the heating and cooling medium flows countercurrent through the remaining inter-plate spaces. In both case the movement is sufficient to

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assure that the product attains the desired temperatures at each of several points in the unit. The continuous H.T.S.T pasteurizer is a plate heat exchange unit. It is designed to heat, hold and cool the milk continuously. Its capacity is usually between 1000 and 10,000 litres per hour. Milk enters the units though a balance tank. This is a small tank or reservoir containing a float valve that regulates the inflow of product to assure a constant level. This provides a continuous and constant supply of milk to the pump, which supplies the pasteurizer, thus assuring greater uniformity of milk volume during operation. The plates in the exchanger are arranged in groups, with inlets and outlets provided in each group for the product, for the heating medium, and for the cooling medium. The milk first enters the regeneration section, or that group of plates in which the incoming cold milk serves as the cooling medium for hot milk and cold milk that consequently warms up. From the regeneration section, the milk moves to the heating section where its temperature is raised by use of hot water or steam to the pasteurization temperature is raised by use of hot water or steam to the pasteurization temperature. The milk then enters the holding section or tube. This is either a group of plates or only a product line or tube. It is designed in either case to hold the milk at a constant temperature for the required length of time before it re-enters the regeneration section where it's cooling begins. At the exit of the holding tube or section is a temperature-activated valve, designed either to divert the flow of milk back to the balance tank or allow it to continue to the regeneration section. If at the time it leaves the holding section or tube, the milks temperature has dropped below that required for proper pasteurization, the flow diversion valve opens to divert the milk back to the balance tank so that is re-enters the pasteurizing cycle. This diversion prevents improperly pasteurized milk from continuing on as though pasteurization were complete. Milk, which reaches the flow diversion valve at the temperature required for proper pasteurization, is allowed to pass to the regeneration section of the pasteurizer. There it acts as the heating medium for raising the temperature of the incoming cold milk. From the regeneration section this milk then moves on to the cooling section, where its temperature is reduced by the use of chilled water to that at which the milk is to be held or bottled. In the heating section the hot water or steam cools off as some of its heat is transferred to the milk. Water is usually reheated and reused to conserve the heat it still holds as it is discharged from the heating section. If steam is used, it condenses in the heating section because of its loss of heat. The condensate may be recovered and returned to the boiler feed water supply. In the cooling section the chilled water warms up as it takes on heat from the warm milk; this water is normally returned to the chilled water tank to be recooled and reused. In the regeneration section both heat and refrigeration are conserved by using the heat in the hot milk, which must be cooled, for warming the cold milk which must be heated. The conservation of heat or the economy in the use of heat in the regenerator may be illustrated by the following: Milk entering at Heated in regenerator to Heated in heating section to Cooled in regenerator to Cooled in cooling section to 4C 34C 74C 44C 4C

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Because the volumes, rates of flow, and temperature differentials of cold milk and hot milk are the same throughout regenerator, thee same changes of temperature in the two may be expected. In the illustration above, the increase from 4 to 34C is a change of 30C, and the decrease from 74 to 44C is also a change of 30C. Without regeneration, the milk would need to be heated by hot water or steam from 4 to 74C, a difference of 70C. With regenerative heating, however, hot water or steam need not be used for the temperature change between 4 and 34C. This temperature change is brought about by use of the hot outgoing milk. The savings of heat due to regeneration here is thus (30 70) x 100 = 43%. HEAT TREATMENT OF MILK The term pasteurization has been coined after the name of Louis Pasteur of France, who in 1860-64 demonstrated that heating wine at a temperature between 122 to 140F killed the spoilage organisms and helped in its preservation. The application of this process gives rise to the new term pasteurization, which soon became current in technical language. Although Louis Pasteur pioneered studies on heat treatment for preservation of the wine, pasteurization. of milk first attributed to Dr Soxhlet of Germany in1886. The term pasteurization as applied to market milk today, refers to the process of heating every particle of milk to at least 63C for 30 minutes, or 72C for 15 seconds or to any temperature time, which is equally efficient, in an approved and properly operated equipment. After pasteurization the milk is immediately cooled to 5C or below. The objectives of pasteurization are, a) To render the milk safe for humans consumption by destruction of cent percent pathogenic microorganism. b) To improve the keeping quality of milk by destruction of almost all spoilage organisms. (85-99 per cent.) The standards for Pasteurization were such to ensure: 1.complete destruction of pathogens. 2.Negativate phosphatase test and 3.Least damage to the cream layer. As Coxiella burnetti are destroyed by a heat treatment slightly lower than that for phosphatase inactivation, pasteurization. is carried out at a heat treatment temperature above that for phosphatase inactivation and below that for cream line reduction.

DIFFERENT METHODS OF PASTEURIZATION: 1. In- bottle pasteurization: Bottle filled with raw milk and tightly sealed with special caps is held at 63-66c for 30 minutes. Then the bottles pass through water sprays for decreasing temperature, which cools both the product and the bottle. Advantage:

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1. Prevents the possibility of post pasteurization contamination. Disadvantage: 1. The transfer of heat is very slow and there is greater risk of bottle breakage. 2. This method at present is out dated, although in bottle sterilization is widely prevalent. 2.Batch or holding pasteurization (LTLT): This is also called the low-temperature long time method. The milk is heated to 63C for 30 minutes and promptly cooled to 5 C. The pasteurizes may be of three types

1. Water-jacketed vat: This is a double walled around the sides and bottom in which hot water or steam under partial vacuum circulates d for heating and cold water for cooling. The outer wall is usually insulated to reduce heat loss. The heat exchange takes place through the wall of the inner lining. The milk is agitated by slowly moving paddles or propellers. When heating, the vat cover is left open for escape of off-flavours, and when holding, the cover is closed. Advantage: Flexibility in use. 2. Water spray type A film of water is sprayed from a perforated pipe over the surface of the tank holding the product. 3. Coil vat type: The heating /cooling medium is pumped through a coil placed in either a horizontal or vertical position, while the coil is turned through the product. The turning coil agitated the product.

Continuous Method Basic Component Equipment of HTST Pasteurize Balance Tank The balance, or constant level tank provides a constant supply of milk. It is equipped with a float valve assembly which controls the liquid level nearly constant ensuring uniform head pressure on the product leaving the tank. The overflow level must always be below the level of lowest milk passage in regenerator. It, therefore, helps to maintain a higher pressure on the pasteurized side of the heat exchanger . The balance tank also prevents air from entering the pasteurizer by placing the top of the outlet pipe lower than the lowest point in the tank and creating downward slopes of at least 2%. The balance tank provides a means for recirculation of diverted or pasteurized milk. Regenerator Heating and cooling energy can be saved by using a regenerator which utilizes the heat content of the pasteurized milk to warm the incoming cold milk. Its efficiency may be calculated as follows: % regeneration = temp. increase due to regenerator/total temp. increase For example: Cold milk entering system at 4 C, after regeneration at 65 C, and final

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temperature of 72 C would have an 89.7% regeneration: 65 - 4 / 72-4 = 89.7

4. High Temperature Short Time (HTST) pasteurization: It is the modern method of pasteurizing milk and is invariably used where large volume of milk is handled. The HTST pasteurizer gives a continuous flow of milk, which is heated to 72C for 15 sec. and cooled promptly to 5C or below. The following steps or stages are involved as milk passes through the HTST pasteurization system: float controlled balance tank; pump; regenerative heating; holding; regenerative cooling; and cooling by chill water or brine. An arrangement for incorporation of the filter / clarifier, homogenizer, etc., in the circuit is also made when desired. Float controlled balance tank (FCBT): Maintains a constant head of milk for feeding the raw milk pump; also receives any subtemperature milk diverted by FDV. Pump: Either a positive pump between the regenerative and heater or a centrifugal pump with a flow control device to ensure constant flow, after FCBT is used. Plates: The plate heat exchanger also called Par flow is a compact, simple, easily cleaned and inspected unit. Its plate may be used for heating, cooling, regeneration, and holding. A space of approximately 3-mm is maintained between plats by a non-absorbent rubber gasket. These plates are designed to provide a uniform turbulent flow of product with rapid heat transfer. Corrugations on the plate in the form of knobs, diamonds, and channels, help to provide the turbulent action required. Regeneration (heating): The raw incoming milk is partially and indirectly heated by the hot outgoing milk. This adds economy of HTST process. For example, Milk entering at Heated in regenerator to Heated in heating section to Cooled in regenerator to Cooled in cooling section to 4C 34C 74C 44C 4C

Here, the increase from 4C to 34C is a change of 30C, and the decrease from 74C to 44C is also a change of 30C. Without regeneration, the milk would need to be heated by hot water or steam from 4C to 74C, a difference of 70C. With regenerative heating, however, hot water or steam need not be used for the temperature change between 4C and 34C. This temperature change is brought about by use of the outgoing hot milk. The saving of heat due to regeneration here is thus 43%. On the other hand, without regeneration the milk would need to be cooled by chilled water from 74C to 4C, a difference of 70C. With regenerative cooling, however, chilled water need not be used for the temperature change from 74C to 44C, a

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difference of 30C. This temperature change is brought about by use of cold incoming milk. The savings of refrigeration due to regeneration are thus 43%. Currently, as much as 90% efficiency has been achieved by the use of countercurrent flow.

Filter: Variously shaped filter units to connect directly to the HTST system are placed after the regenerative heating section. Holding: The holding tubes or plated ensure that the milk is held for a specified time not less than 15 sec at the pasteurization temperature of 72C or more. Flow diversion valve (FDV): This valve diverts the unpasteurized milk automatically back to the FCBT for reprocessing. Regeneration (cooling): The pasteurized hot outgoing milk is partially and indirectly cooled by the incoming cold milk. This again adds to the economy of the HTST process. Steam or hot water is used for the heat treatment of milk. For the cooling chilled water is used. The milk to be heated flows across the one side of the plate and heating or cooling medium flows across the other side in the opposite direction. Inserting more plates can increase the capacity of this heater. Advantages: Capacity of the equipment to heat treat the milk can be done quickly and effectively, while maintaining the quality control over both the raw and finished product. Less floor space is required Lower initial cost Milk packaging can be started as soon as pasteurization begins thus permitting more efficient utilization of labour for packaging and distribution. Easily cleaned and sanitized, this system adopts itself well to CIP-cleaning. Lower operating cost. Reduced milk losses. Development of thermophiles is not a problem.

Disadvantages: This system isnt well adopted for small quantities of several liquid milk products. Gaskets require constant attention for possible damage and lack of sanitation. Complete drainage is not possible. Margins of safety in products sanitary control are so narrow that automatic control precision instruments are required in its operation. Pasteurization efficiency of high thermoduric count raw milk is not as great as it is when the holder system is used. Greater accumulation of milk stone in the heating section.

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Electric pasteurization Electric pasteurization of milk or Electro pure process: This method employs electricity, as the heating agent and is fairly popular in America. Milk is heated in a small specially constructed chamber. This pasteurizer is a rectangular, vertical chamber of 2 feet height, and about 2 inches in cross section, with two sides made up of carbon electrode separated by intervening walls of plate glass. The cold milk passes through the regenerative section on which it is preheated to about 120F by the outgoing hot milk and then pass through the electric heating chamber, here it is heated to a temperature of 161F to 1663F by the resistance offered by the milk to the passage of a 110-volt alternating current. The milk is exposed at this temperature for 15-20 sec. after which it is cooled. Vacuum pasteurization (vacreation): This refers to pasteurization of milk /cream under reduced pressure by direct steam. This process removes feed and other volatile flavors from cream, and to pasteurize it for butter making. The equipment used in this process is called vacreator and the process is called vacreation. The vacreator consist of three stainless steel chambers connected to one another for steam heating and vacuum treatment with continuous product flow. The product in the form of droplet enters the first chamber of the vacreator where pasteurization occurs. The chamber is operated under a vacuum of 5 inches Hg, which maintains a temperature of 90-95c. While steam is fed from the top and falls by gravity to the bottom of the chamber, then the product and free steam is removed from the bottom of the first chamber to the top of the 2nd chamber. The temperature of 2nd chamber is maintained at 71-82c under a vacuum of 15 20 inch Hg. A portion of the steam previously added is removed and the product moves down through the chamber. Some of the tainting substances and off-flavours are removed by heat and vacuum treatment. The product then moves on to the 3rd chamber at 43c by maintaining a vacuum of 26- 28 inched of Hg. And here more water and off flavours are removed. A multistage centrifugal pump is removes the product from the 3rd chamber. This process takes about 10 seconds to pass through the three chambers. Stassanization: Henri Stassano invented it in France. This method of pasteurization is carried out in a tubular heat exchanger consisting of the concentric tubes. The principle of its operation is the heating of milk to the desired temperature by passing it between two water-heated pipes through the narrow space of 0.6 to 0.8 mm. The milk is heated to about 74c for 7 sec. and then promptly cooled. Ultra high temperature pasteurization: Ultra high temperature pasteurization was developed in the 1950s this usually encompasses temperature time combination of 135 to 150C for no hold. The success of UHT heat treatment of milk depends on immediate aseptic packaging. Uperization: This other wise called as ultra pasteurization that has been developed in Switzerland. In this process milk is heated with direct steam up to 150c for a fraction of a second. This is a continuous process.

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The first step in the uperization process is fore warming of milk to 50C and departed to remove most of the dissolved oxygen ad volatile off-flavours by vacuum treatment. In the second part, the milk is first preheated to about 80-90Cc and then heated on the uperization chamber with high-pressure steam to around 150C for to th of a second. After this heating the product moves into an expansion chamber at near atmospheric pressure, thereby forcing some evaporation of moisture. The product is then moved to a cooler ad then into storage. The advantages of uperization are a. Long keeping quality. b. Removal of feed and other volatile off-flavours: c. Appreciable homogenization effect. d. Reduction in acidity. e. Efficient destruction of microorganism. f. Effect of uperization on nutritive value and flavour are not greater than that of pasteurization. Boiling of milk: The boiling of milk brings about important changes in milk. Milk boils at a temperature of 212.3 F at sea level. At this temperature the milk sugar is burnt causing a condition called caramelisation in which the milk is brown in colour. The casein and albumin are somewhat hardened. The calcium: magnesium, and phosphoric salts are partially precipitated, all of which renders milk less digestible. The enzymes are destroyed. Prolonged heating at high temperature causes a destruction of vitamin C, A, and D in that order, but boiling under ordinary conditions does not destroy vitamin A. When milk is brought to the boiling point in the air, a thin film forms over the surface due to the coagulation of small amount of casein, albumin, small amount of calcium salts, and fat. Sterilization: The term sterilization when used in association with milk means heating continuously to a temperature of 115c for 15 min. or 145c for 3 sec. or equivalent approved temperature time combination to ensure preservation of milk at room temperature for a period of not less than 15 days from the date of manufacture. Sterilized milk shall show absence of albumin by a negative turbidity test. Sterilized milk shall be sold only in the container in which the milk was sterilized. Irradiation: This process consists of very short exposure of a thin film of milk to the rays of a mercury vapour lamp or other reliable source of ultra violet radiation. The object of the process is primarily to improve the food value of milk without diminishing the nutritive value already present. Milk develops anti-rachitic properties when exposed to irradiation, by increasing the vitamin D content. When consumed in the customary quantities, such milk will thus give adequate protection against rickets in infants or tooth decay in adults. In addition irradiation of milk exerts a bactericidal action. A greater bactericidal effect was obtained with ultra violet radiation applied to smooth flowing milk film than a film flowing over a corrugated cooler surface. Percentage reduction in bacterial counts on raw mixed milk is 90% and frequently up to 95 to 98%. ULTRA-HIGH TEMPERATURE INSTALLATIONS The acronym UHT (ultra-high temperature) is used mostly when describing plants or

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process lines for ultra-high temperature treatment. UHT automatic mode; have monitoring, control and recording functions; and consist of three basic process steps: a) b) c) Presterilization and startup Manufacturing Cleaning

In case of need, an additional process step can be added, aseptic intermediate cleaning. UHT installations have a wide array of safety devices, which exclude mixing of sterile with nonsterile product. Plants can be distinguished by very characteristic differences in the heat transfer sections of the UHT sections. We distinguish between direct and indirect processes. From a storage silo into a buffer tank (1). From there it is transferred by a centrifugal pump (2) into a plate heat exchanger (3) and is heated to 75C with hot water. The water used for preheating the milk is heated by-condensate from the vacuum vessel (8) and is brought up to temperature by adding fresh steam with a steam injector (4). The steam quantity is controlled by a temperature controller in such a way that the milk leaves the plate heat exchanger with a constant temperature of 75 C. A high-pressure pump (5) transfers the preheated milk to the steam injector (6), where the temperature is raised to 140C by injecting saturated steam. This temperature is maintained for 36 s in the holding tube, and then the milk reaches the vacuum vessel (8) after passing through a switching valve (7), where a constant vacuum is maintained. Here the milk is cooled to 76C by expansion, and exactly the same quantity of water is removed which has been added previously by steam injection. The dry matter content of the milk is exactly maintained with a special control device. Condensation of the evaporated water takes place in a spiral condenser, which is integrated into the vacuum vessel. Sterile milk is then transferred with an aseptic centrifugal pump (10) from the vacuum vessel to the aseptic homogenizer (11), where it is treated with 250-300 bar. Then it is pumped to the aseptic cooler (3), where it is cooled down to 20C with cooling water from the preheating section. This water circulates between return flow cooler, condenser, preheater and aseptic cooler with considerable heat recovery. From the aseptic cooler UHT product is then pumped into the sterile tank or straight into a filling machine(s). Switching devices. If the UHT temperature after the steam injector (6) falls below the set temperature, then switching valve (7) is actuated, which diverts the milk to a plate heat exchanger, cooling down the milk to 75C, and then transfers it to a storage tank. This prevents insufficiently heated milk passing into the aseptic pan of the plant and causing a recontamination. As soon as the switching valve is actuated, the product pump (10) and homogenizer (11) are stopped. Further, the milk supply is stopped, and the plant changes over to sterile water circulation. Once the circulating water has reached the UHT temperature of 140C, production can be restarted after a delay of 2-3 min without presterilizing the plant again. Indirect UHT process. The entire heat transfer, including the UHT stage, takes place in a plate heat exchangers, tubular heat exchangers or a combination of both types. For the UHT section proper, tubular beat exchangers are more advantageous. Due to their geometry, fluid velocities of 2.5 m/s at pressure levels of 40-60 bar are possible, which resulting in very short heating times and therefore reduced residence times. Using, plate heat exchangers in the UHT section means using a lower pressure (due to their geometry) and more complicated sealing requirements, which result in fluid velocities of 0.250.35 m/s. The advantage of indirect heating is high energy recovery (heat recovery) of 88-90%, leading to significantly improved economies. The disadvantage of the

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higher thermal product degradation has been minimized constantly, so this approach is applied often in reality because of the economic advantages. Design and operation of a process line with indirect heat transfer are shown in Figure 4.157. Before start-up of production, the plant is personalized like all other UHT plants. For this, water at 140C, which has been heated up with hot water and steam, circulates through the aseptic part of the plant. After a treatment of some 30 minutes, the plant temperature is reduced to the operating temperature and production can commence. Milk is transferred with a centrifugal pump from the buffer tank to the plate heat exchanger (1) and is preheated with water to a temperature of 77C. Deaeration of the milk takes place in the vacuum vessel (2) with simultaneous cooling by expansion to 70C. The condenser, integrated in the vacuum vessel, immediately condenses the evaporated water and adds it back to the product, whereas the noncondensable gases and odors are removed by the vacuum pump. This plant can also be operated without vacuum deaeration. Milk is then transferred with a pump (3) to the UHT section of the plate heat exchanger (4), where the product temperature is raised to 140C in a countercurrent flow, and the product is kept at this level for 3-4 sec. In the first cooler (5) the milk temperature is reduced to 105c (by using water), and is then reduced further to 76C in cooler (6). At this temperature, the milk enters the aseptic homogenizer (7), is further cooled to 20C and is tilled into a sterile tank (9). In case of interruptions in the plant or UHT temperature deviations, the control unit switches valve (11) to the circulation mode, and the milk flows into an intermediate storage vessel. At the same time, the milk supply is stopped, and water for another Presterilization is pumped into the feed vessel. The total treatment times for the products are very different from plant type to plant; they range between 20 and 120 s, but can also reach 400-450 s. All plant sections (e.g., pumps, homogenizer) which are in contact with the product in the UHT section are designed for aseptic operation; i.e., the transfer or treatment areas are sealed by steam. This steam seal excludes microbiological contamination. The capacity of UHT process lines usually ranges from 1000 to 12,000 1/h. Sterile tanks serve as buffers between the UHT plant and the aseptic tilling lines. Design and operation of a sterile tank. The design calls for either a vertical or horizontal construction, and the insulated sterile (or aseptic) double-walled tank is pre-sterilized for about 45 min at 135C; the same process is applied to the pipelines going into and out of the tank. The next operation is a water cooling of the double walled tank, and sterile air is injected into the tank to remove the condensate from it. Once the tank has reached 20C, product can be tilled into it. Compressed air, which has passed two sterile air tilters (20 and 21) enters the tank. In order to maintain a constant pressure in the tank, an air pressure sensor (11) has been installed, which transmits the data to a control unit (12), which then actuates the control valves (9) and (10). These valves control the air flow and the air pressure inside the tank. Pressure in the product pipeline is controlled by the sensor (14) and the controllers (15) and (16). During discharge and storage of the product, connection valves (V) and (VI) are protected by steam seals from the outside. The pipeline system can be set up for a direct connection between the UHT plant and the tilling installation, and then valves (I), (V) and (VI) are activated and valves (VII) and (VIII) are protected by a steam seal.

PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION Refrigeration, which is the extraction of heat from a body at a temperature lower than that of the surroundings, is one of the most importance processes in the dairy industry. It is through

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holding at low temperature that most dairy products are carried over from time of plenty to times of scarcity, thus making them available to man-kind at reasonable prices throughout the year. Refrigeration is essential in the preservation of the rich natural flavors of dairy products and is an integral part of many processes as applied to the dairy industry. Refrigeration is accomplished when a cool body is brought near to a warmer body, according to the fundamental principle that heat always passes from a warm body to a cooler one, the exchange being capable of continuing until the two bodies are at the same temperature. There are two principal types of refrigeration, natural and artificial. Natural refrigeration utilizes ice water, water ice, or ice-and- salt mixtures; artificial refrigeration makes use of refrigerating machinery. Cooling by ice is a very old process; it is effective because, as the ice melts, it takes up great quantities of heat before the temperature changes. Each pound of ice in melting will absorb 144 B.t.u. of heat, which is sits heat of fusion. Cooling by Ice and Salt: It is frequently desired to obtain temperatures below 32F when using ice and this can be done easily if salt is mixed with the ice. By adding 10% salts we can reduce the temperature up to 20F and with 25% salt reduce up to - 10F. Cooling by Dry Ice: So-called dry ice, or solid carbon dioxide, is one of the interesting developments in refrigeration; it has found a wide use in the industry, principally because it refrigerates without the formation of water or other liquid as a by-product. Dry ice is also utilized for cooling truck bodies and ice-cream cabinets, where lightness in weight is essential. It is necessary to insulate dry-ice coolers very well for the sake of economy. Artificial Refrigeration: Artificial refrigeration is accomplished principally by the mechanical compression system or the absorption system, both of which have a number of variations. The compression system is by far the most widely used on account of its dependability, ease of control, and simplicity. The principle of this system is most easily understood if it is likened to a steam boiler plant, the cold evaporating coils taking the place of the boiler, and the refrigerant, which is a liquid a low boiling point, taking the place of the steam. The low boiling point is an essential characteristic, for the refrigerant must be capable of boiling at temperatures lower than that which is needed for cooling a product. The most common refrigerants are ammonia, sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide, methyl chloride, and Freon. Cooling by Evaporation of Volatile Liquid: In order to understand the operation of the refrigeration machine, let us firsts consider that we have a drum or pipe, containing ammonia, which boils at - 28F at atmospheric pressure. We attach a discharge pipe to this coil and lead it outdoors. Now, if we watch, we will find that the ammonia in the coil will boil, just as water does in a boiler, and as it boils or changes to a vapor, it absorbs heat just as water does when it changes to steam. If this cold is in a brine tank, it will absorb heat from the brine, thus lowering the temperature. The vapor formed by the boiling ammonia is carried outdoors by the discharge pipe, and is lost in the illustration we have assumed. This cooling action goes on as long as any liquid ammonia is left in the coil.

Compression Refrigeration System:

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In the compression system we connect a gas pump or compressor to the ammonia vapor line, then draw the vapor from the evaporator and force it into a pipe-shaped cooler called a condenser, where the ammonia vapor is cooled by water or air, and it condenses back into a liquid which can be used over again continuously as long as the pump operates and cooling is supplied in the condenser. The ammonia vapor, when forced into the condenser, under pressure, is cooled by the water and condenses, giving up its latent heat of vaporization. The exact pressures will depend upon the temperature to which it is cooled. The principle is the same whether the refrigerant is ammonia, carbon dioxide, or methyl chloride, but the pressures will be different, and the size and speed of compressor will vary with different refrigerants to produce the same capacity. Evaporator: The evaporator or expansion coil, which is the part of the system in which the refrigerant boils and absorbs heat, is usually constructed of pipe or tubing. The materials depend upon the refrigerant used. For ammonia, steel is most practical. With Freon 12 or sulfur dioxide, copper tubing is very frequently used, principally on account of its ease of installation and its somewhat better heat transfer. Copper is not permissible in an ammonia system on account of its chemical action with the ammonia. Compressor: The compressor has two functions: first, to draw the cold vapor from the evaporator, thereby maintaining a pressure in the evaporator sufficiently low to give a boiling point of the refrigerant low enough to maintain the desired evaporator temperature; and second, to pump the vapor into the condenser where it can be liquefied at ordinary temperatures by means of cooling water or air.

HOMOGENISERS The homogenizer consists of a high-pressure pump fitted with a minute orifice having an adjustable opening through which fluids are forced at high pressure, thereby causing a marked change in the physical properties of the product treated and producing a very intimate mixture of the ingredients of the fluid. The effect of homogenization upon milk may bee described as follows. 1. The fat globules in normal milk are usually in sizes varying from 1 to 15 microns, depending upon the breed of cow and various other factors. By means of homogenization, the fat globules are broken up into numerous smaller ones and all the fat globules are under 2 microns in size. 2. The fat globules no longer rise to the top to form a cream layer, as a normal milk, for they are so small that few of them have the power to rise against the pull of gravity. 3. The curd tension of the homogenized milk is reduced. 4. An increase in viscosity of the milk, and an apparent increase in creaminess and richness. Homogenization: The process of making a stable emulsion of milk fat and milk serum by mechanical treatment is termed as homogenization. The machines used for this purpose are called homogenizer. The size of the fat globules in milk is between 1 and 20 microns, the average being

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4-6 microns. When milk or cream is passed through the homogenizer, there is decided reduction in the size f the fat globules. Most of them are reduced to 2 microns or less. No cream line is formed on milk after homogenization or butter granules are produced from the homogenized cream by churning. Furthermore, there is an increase in the viscosity of milk pr cream, which means that the smaller fat globules encounter greater resistance. The increase in viscosity is attributed to the fact that a larger proportion of the milk protein will be adsorbed on the surfaces of the greater number of the fat lobules. When milk is homogenized its clotting properties are altered, so that the curd produced when rennet or pepsin is added is said to be softer. Homogenized milk or cream may become rancid more quickly than untreated products owing to the hydrolysis of fat by lipolytic enzymes adsorbed on the additional surfaces furnished by the more numerous small fat globules. To avoid these changes the milk or cream must be pasteurized immediately before or after homogenization. The milk is usually homogenized following primary heating before it is pasteurized. Heated milk is forced through a small valve against hard surfaces and is subjected to a pressure of between 2500 psi. and in a second stage to 500 psi. The aperture through which the liquid is forced is extremely minute, having a diameter of 1/10000 inch. The following types of homogenizes are at present in use. 1. High pressure type 2. Low-pressure rotary type 3. Sonic vibrator or oscillator. In the manufacture of evaporated milk it is important that the fat globules be reduced in size to avoid churning upon agitation. In the preparation of ice cream mix, the entire mixture is passed thorough the homogenizer immediately after pasteurization. The result is a smoother texture in the finished ice cream.

HOMOGENISERS The homogenizer consists of a high-pressure pump fitted with a minute orifice having an adjustable opening through which fluids are forced at high pressure, thereby causing a marked change in the physical properties of the product treated and producing a very intimate mixture of the ingredients of the fluid. The effect of homogenization upon milk may bee described as follows. 5. The fat globules in normal milk are usually in sizes varying from 1 to 15 microns, depending upon the breed of cow and various other factors. By means of homogenization, the fat globules are broken up into numerous smaller ones and all the fat globules are under 2 microns in size. 6. The fat globules no longer rise to the top to form a cream layer, as a normal milk, for they are so small that few of them have the power to rise against the pull of gravity. 7. The curd tension of the homogenized milk is reduced. 8. An increase in viscosity of the milk, and an apparent increase in creaminess and richness.

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Other possibilities for homogenization. Clarifixator: In this machine, which works on the same principle as the separator, cream enters the chamber; the rotation of the chamber causes a fluid ring to develop around a disk with spikes. During constant immersion in the cream, these spikes break up the fat globules (mainly through cavitation). The cream is then transferred via a ring slit between the inlet pipe and another central pipe into the bowl and is then blended with milk. When passing over the disk assembly in the bowl, the disintegrated fat globules are not separated and remain emulsified in the milk. The product is then discharged through the chamber: The larger fat globules that still remain are then separated, retransferred into the chamber and disintegrated or circulate in the bowl until they cannot be separated further. The homogenization effect in the clarifixators is significantly lower than in a homogenizer; therefore this process is rarely used in milk processing. Pumps. A similar effect is achieved in centrifugal pumps (see Section 4.4.4) due to the rotation of the impeller (rotor), which is comparable to what happens in the paring chamber of the Clarifixator. The effect, however, is very small, and in general is insufficient for homogenization of milk. Ultrasound. A membrane, vibrating in the ultrasound frequency range of 20-30 kHz, creates small voids in a liquid, which collapse after the transfer of a certain amount of energy. This disintegrates the fat globules in the same manner as during cavitation. Only a few applications are, known in dairy technology.

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Flow chart for preparation of Sterilized milk

Receiving milk

Cooling (5C) and bulk storage

Preheating (40C)

Filtration / Clarification

Standardization

Preheating heating (60C)

Homogenization (2500 psi,)

Clarification (60C)

Filling and capping

Sterilization (108111C / 2530 min)

Cooling to room temperature

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Storage at room temperature

Flow chart for preparation of flavoured milk

Receiving milk

Cooling (5C) and bulk storage

Preheating (40C)

Filtration / Clarification

Standardization

Preheating heating (60C)

Homogenization (2500 psi,)

Addition of colour / flavour / sugar / stabilizer

Clarification (60C)

Pasteurization (71C / 30 min)

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Cooling (5C)

Filling and capping

Storage (5C) Reconstituted / Rehydrated Milk

Definition

This refers to milk prepared by dispersing whole milk powder (also called dried whole milk) in water approximately in the proportion of 1 part powder to 7-8 parts water. (Usually spray-dried powder is used, since it is more soluble and produces less sediment.)

Merits

(i) Helps in making up the shortage of fresh milk supplies in developing countries; (ii) used by the Armed Forces in other countries. (ii) Details of manufacture. The calculated amount of potable water is received in the pasteurizing vat / tank equipped with an agitator. The water is heated, while the agitator is kept in motion, to 38-43 C. Then the calculated amount of spray dried whole milk is slowly added at the point of agitation, and the mixture thoroughly agitated till it dissolves completely. Special Powder Mixer equipment may be used for this purpose. The mixture is then pumped through a filter, pasteurized at 63 C for 30 minutes, and promptly cooled to 5 C or below until distribution.

Recombined Milk

Definition

The refers to the product obtained when butter oil (also called dry / anhydrous milk fat), skim milk powder and water are combined in the correct proportions to yield fluid milk. The milk fat may also be obtained from other sources, such as unsalted butter or plastic cream.

Under the PFA Rules (1976), Recombined Milk should contain a minimum of 3.0 per cent fat and 8.5 per cent solids-not-fat throughout the country.

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Merits

(i) Helps in making up the shortage of fresh milk supplies in developing countries; (ii) helps prevent price rise of liquid milk in cities. (ii) Details of manufacture. A calculated amount of potable water is received in the pasteurizing vat/tank equipped with an agitator. The water is heated, while the agitator is kept in motion, to a temperature of 38-43 C. A proportionate amount of spray dried skim milk is slowly added at the point of agitation. When the water reaches a temperature of 43-49 C, another proportionate amount of butteroil is added. These constituents are thoroughly agitated till a homogeneous mixture is obtained. The mixture is then pumped through a filter and later pasteurized at 63 C for 30 minutes. It is then homogenized at the pasteurization temperature at 2500 psi single stage to ensure proper emulsification of the milk fat. The product is quickly cooled to 5 C, packaged and stored at 5 C or below until distribution.

Note. Recombined milk was extensively produced under the Operation Flood scheme in the four major cities of India, viz. Bombay, Calcutta, Delhi and Madras, during 1970-5, from the butter oil and skim milk powder donated under the World Food Programme Project by the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations. Flow chart for preparation of Recombined milk

Receiving milk

Cooling (5C) and bulk storage

Preheating (40C)

Filtration / Clarification

Standardization

Preheating heating (60C)

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Homogenization (2500 psi,)

Addition of colour / flavour / sugar / stabilizer

Clarification (60C)

Pasteurization (71C / 30 min)

Cooling (5C)

Filling and capping

Storage (5C) Toned Milk

Definition

Toned Milk (also called Single Toned Milk) refers to milk obtained by the addition of water and skim milk powder to whole milk. In practice, whole buffalo milk is admixed with reconstituted spray dried skim milk for its production.

Under the PFA Rules (1976), toned milk should contain a minimum of 3.0 per cent fat and 8.5 per cent solids-not-fat throughout the country.

History

Toned Milk is the brainchild of D.N.Khurody (India), who is also credited with coining its name. Under his auspices, it was first produced in 1946 in the Central Dairy of the Aarey Milk

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Colony and marketed in Bombay City. Soon other cities, notably Calcutta, Madras and Delhi started producing and marketing Toned Milk, which has become a permanent feature ever since of the market milk industry in India. In the works of Mr Khurody: By merely adding water to whole buffalo milk, both the fat and solids-not-fat content are reduced. But by adding skim milk powder to the mixture, solids-not-fat is toned up or increased to the original level. As the product was neither whole milk nor standardized, a new name Toned Milk was given to it. (All skim milk powder was earlier imported.)

Flow chart for preparation of Toned milk

Receiving milk

Cooling (5C) and bulk storage

Preheating (40C)

Filtration / Clarification

Standardization

Preheating heating (60C)

Homogenization (2500 psi,)

Addition of colour / flavour / sugar / stabilizer

Clarification (60C)

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Pasteurization (71C / 30 min)

Cooling (5C)

Filling and capping

Storage (5C)

Flow chart for preparation of double toned milk

Receiving milk

107

Cooling (5C) and bulk storage

Preheating (40C)

Filtration / Clarification

Standardization

Preheating heating (60C)

Homogenization (2500 psi,)

Addition of colour / flavour / sugar / stabilizer

Clarification (60C)

Pasteurization (71C / 30 min)

Cooling (5C)

Filling and capping

Storage (5C) Standardized Milk

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Definition

This is milk whose fat and / or solids-not-fat content have been adjusted to a certain predetermined level. The standardization can be done by partially skimming the fat in the milk with a cream separator, or by admixture with fresh or reconstituted skin milk in proper proportions.

Under the PFA Rules (1976), the Standardized Milk for liquid consumption should contain a minimum of 4.5 per cent fat and 8.5 per cent solids-not-fat throughout the country.

Note: Standardized milk may be marketed as such or used for making certain products: in the latter case, the fat and solids-not-fat contents may be varied according to the product requirement.

Merits

(i) Ensures a milk of practically uniform and constant composition and nutritive value to the consumer; (ii) (ii) the surplus fat can be converted into butter and ghee; (iii) (iii) possible to supply cheaper milk; (iv) (iv) more easily digestible (because of reduced fat content). Note. The initial reaction of the consumer may be that standardized milk is thinner than whole milk.

Flow chart for preparation of Standardized milk

Receiving milk

Cooling (5C) and bulk storage

Preheating (40C)

Filtration / Clarification

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Standardization

Preheating heating (60C)

Homogenization (2500 psi,)

Addition of colour / flavour / sugar / stabilizer

Clarification (60C)

Pasteurization (71C / 30 min)

Cooling (5C)

Filling and capping

Storage (5C)

Sterilization (108111C / 2530 min)

Cooling to room temperature

Storage at room temperature

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History and Development of UHT Processing

Year 1938 1942 1951 1953 1961 1964

Product and Process Description Chocolate milk heated at 149C for 15 seconds using a hot-cool-fill (HCF) unit. Cream heated at 127 to 138C using direct steam injection. Pea soup heated at 140 to 150C for 8.8 seconds using indirect heat and a tubular heat exchanger. Milk heated at 150C for 2.4 seconds using direct steam injection and then packaged in cans Milk UHT heat treated using direct steam injection and packaged in paperboard cartons. Ice cream mix and concentrated milk formulations UHT heat treated with direct heat and packaged in four liter cans. This represented the first commercial aseptic production in Australia. Milk indirectly heat treated using a plate heat exchanger. This represented the first UHT milk in the U.S. marketplace.

1969

The first system consisting of indirect heating with continuous flow (125C for 6 minutes) was manufactured in 1893. Patented in 1912, the continuous flow direct heating method mixed steam with milk to achieve temperatures of 130 to 140C. Development was hindered due to contamination potential without commercial aseptic systems. In 1953, UHT milk was filled

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aseptically into cans after heat treatment with an Uperiser processor. This was followed in 1961 by packaging milk aseptically in tetrahedral paperboard cartons.

The development of aseptic processing in the U.S. started through the efforts of C. Olin Ball. The HCF (hot-cool-fill) process was commercialized in 1938 for a chocolate milk beverage. The Avoset process followed in 1942 and eventually was used to package a cream product by utilizing a continuous hot air system and UV lamps in the filling and sealing area. The technology advanced again in 1948 with the Dole aseptic process developed by William McKinley Martin. These systems were used in 1951 for pea soup and sterilized milk. The Med-O-Milk brand also employed the Graves-Stambaugh process, which prevented milk from being exposed to air from the milking through the packaging processes. Real Fresh, Inc. became the second dairy in 1952 to use ultra high temperature and aseptic packaging (UHT-AP). In 1981, Real Fresh, Inc. was the forerunner in using hydrogen peroxide to sterilize packaging material, whereas Tetra Pak introduced the Brik Pak carton.

Commercial sterility is defined as a condition in which equipment and packages do not contain viable microorganisms of public health significance or microorganisms of non-health significance, which could reproduce under normal storage and distribution conditions. In the canned food industry, commercial sterility is achieved by heat treatment of a food product inside a sealed container. Aseptic processing uses separate systems to sterilize the product and package. The sterile product is filled into sterile packages within the sterile zone of an aseptic packaging system.

In the U.S., traditional pasteurization of milk requires a minimum heat treatment of 72 C for 15 seconds with subsequent refrigeration. The ultra-high temperature (UHT) treatment is dependent upon process filings. The UHT treatment and aseptic package protects dairy foods from bacteria and external contamination. The shelf life of milk is extended from 21 days in traditional pasteurization to over four months with UHT and aseptic technology.

Principles of Ultra-High-Temperature Processing UHT processing uses continuous flow, which renders less chemical change to the product in comparison to retort processing. Minimum processing times and temperatures are determined by the inactivation of thermophilic bacterial spores (Datta and Deeth 2007). Product characteristics such as pH, water activity, viscosity, composition, and dissolved oxygen dictate the processing conditions necessary to achieve commercial sterility (Overman 1998). The selection criteria of UHT and aseptic packaging systems reflect customer preferences. The production process must be designed to ensure commercial sterility and acceptable sensory attributes throughout shelf life (Anonymous 1996/1997).

Types of Processing Systems Steam, hot water, and electricity are heating methods for UHT equipment. The sterilizers utilizing steam or hot water can be subcategorized as direct or indirect heating systems. In the indirect system, the product and heating medium do not have contact, as a barrier (stainless steel)

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is present. Direct heating systems mix pressurized culinary steam directly into the product. Regeneration allows heat transfer between sterile product and the raw product (Burton 1988). Regeneration heat transfer reduces energy consumption and is used for direct and indirect heating systems. Direct heating modes include steam injection, steam infusion, and scraped surface. Indirect heating modes include indirect spiral tubes, indirect tubes, indirect plate, scraped surface, and electricity. Indirect heating with electricity includes electric elements, conductive heating, and friction (Burton 1988). Table 5 lists commercial UHT systems and their respective heating modes. Commercial UHT systems and heating modes

Commercial UHT Sterilizer Actijoule Gerbig, Sterideal System High Heat Infusion, Tetra Therm Aseptic Plus Two Languilharre System, Thermovac, Palarisator, Steritwin UHT Sterilizer, Ultra Therm, Da-Si Sterilizer Rotatherm Spiratherm Ultramatic, Ahlborn Process, Sordi Sterilizer, UHT Steriplak-R, Dual Purpose Sterilizer

Heating Mode Indirect electrically heated Indirect heat with tubes Combined heating modes

Direct heat with steam infusion

Direct heat with scraped surface Indirect heat with spiral tubes Indirect heat with plates

Votator Scraped Surface heater, Thermutator Heater Indirect heat with scraped surface Direct heat with steam injection VTIS, ARO-VAC Process, Uperiser, Grindrod

Direct heating systems include steam injection (steam into milk) and steam infusion (milk into steam). The culinary steam must be high quality and impart no off-flavors to the product. The product temperature increases almost instantly due to the latent heat of vaporization. The condensed steam dilutes the milk and is removed later as the heated milk is cooled in a vacuum chamber.

Plate or tubular heat exchangers are two heating modes for indirect heating. Heat conducts from the heating medium through a metal surface to the product. Heating in the indirect system occurs at a slower rate; therefore, the milk is subjected to the overall heat treatment for a longer time. Additional considerations are taken into account with tubular and plate heat exchangers. Medium to high viscosity products are processed most frequently using tubular heat exchangers. The heat transfer coefficient is greater with plate heat exchangers due to turbulence. Production run time is limited more with plate heat exchangers than tubular heat exchangers due to fouling or burn-on (Datta et al. 2002). The potential for contamination due to pinholes in the stainless steel

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barrier is minimized by maintaining a greater product pressure on the sterile side compared to the raw side. Table 6 summarizes the attributes of direct and indirect UHT heating systems.

Attributes of direct and indirect UHT systems

Criteria Culinary steam Down time Fat separation Flavor attributes Fouling Heat regeneration Heat resistant spore formers

Comments Culinary steam is required for direct systems but not for indirect systems. Direct systems have longer processing times than indirect systems. Fat separation is more common for indirect systems than for direct systems. Indirect systems impart more cooked flavor than direct systems. Fouling is an issue with indirect systems but not direct systems. Heat regeneration is approximately 50% in direct systems and 90% in indirect systems. Indirect systems have a lower ability than do direct systems to destroy spore formers without chemical damage to the product. Contamination is more likely due to pinholes in indirect systems than direct systems. Pressure differential is monitored to control this issue. The homogenizer is located post processor for direct systems and pre or post processor for indirect systems. Oxygen levels of product at packaging are greater for indirect systems (7 to 9 ppm) than for direct systems (< 1 ppm). Plasminogen is the precursor for plasmin, which is a protease in milk contributing to gelation and flavor problems (David et al. 1996). Plasmin is typically inactivated in indirect systems but not in direct systems.

Heating medium failure

Homogenizer location Oxygen levels

Plasmin and plasminogen levels

Power Preheating Process control

Power Direct systems have greater power requirements than indirect systems. Preheating is common for indirect systems but not for direct systems. Water removal is important for direct systems in controlling total solids. Temperature and pressure

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differentials for indirect systems can be affected by fouling. Product gelation Product viscosity Sterilizing temperatures Sediment formation System costs Temperature capacity Water Vitamin retention Gelation issues are lower for indirect systems than for direct systems. High viscosity is more limiting in indirect systems than in direct systems. Temperatures are 3 to 4C greater for direct systems to accomplish sterilization comparable to indirect systems. Sediment formation is less for indirect systems than for direct systems Costs associated with direct systems are greater than indirect systems. Direct systems can reach greater temperatures than indirect systems. Indirect systems require less water than direct systems. Folic acid and vitamin C retention are less for indirect systems than for direct systems due to higher oxygen levels

Indirect Heating

Burton (1988) stated plate heat exchangers used in UHT processing must withstand greater temperatures and internal pressures than equipment used for HTST pasteurization. The gasket material must be durable and replaced at scheduled intervals. Plate heat exchangers provide greater turbulence and heat transfer area when compared to tubular heat exchangers (Burton 1988). David et al. (1996) state plate heat exchangers are used primarily for preheating functions due to the difficulty in maintaining plate sterility. Concentric tubes and shell-and-tube heat exchangers are two types of tubular heat exchangers. Concentric tubes consist of two or three stainless steel tubes separated by spacers and wound into coils. The two-tube design simultaneously heats and cools (regeneration) product flowing in opposite directions. The triple tube system doubles the heat transfer area in the final heating stage and can be used in the final cooling sections. Tubular systems typically have thicker metal transfer barriers in comparison to plate heat exchangers. Therefore, tubular systems can withstand higher internal pressures with less susceptibility to contamination. Scraped surface heat exchangers use mechanical forced convection to increase heat transfer. Scraper blades minimize fouling and provide turbulence as heated product passes through a heat transfer cylinder. Scraped surface heat exchangers are used only for highly viscous products due to lower energy efficiency and higher equipment cost in comparison to the other indirect heating systems (Burton 1988).

Time and Temperature Validation

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The scheduled process is considered adequate when manufacturing conditions for a specific product achieve commercial sterility (Anonymous 1995). The thermal process is dependent upon the following factors:

1. Product (pH, water activity, viscosity, specific gravity) 2. Microbial profile (number, type, heat resistance) 3. Equipment design 4. Package

A process filing is a joint effort between the UHT-AP dairy operation and the process authority. The F0 value and thermophysical properties of the dairy food are determined through experimentation and research (David et al. 1996). The F0 value represents a 12 decimal reduction in Clostridium botulinum spores and is considered the absolute minimum process in conventional canning to guarantee food safety (Burton 1988). Calculations for microbial destruction consider the time and temperature of the heat treatment. FDA accepts Fo values for thermal processes calculated only from the time and temperature of the product in the holding tube (David et al. 1996). The D-value is defined as the required time to decrease microorganism numbers tenfold at a given temperature (Singh 2007). The process filing and supporting documentation (trial run data, critical factors, equipment sterilization, quality control procedures, and operational procedures) are submitted to FDA for approval of a scheduled process (David et al. 1996).

Ideal time-temperature profiles inactivate bacterial endospores and limit chemical changes with minimal decrease in nutritional and sensory quality (Datta et al. 2002). The major challenge in UHT milk production is sufficient heat treatment with minimal flavor change. Direct heating imparts less flavor change but requires more energy in comparison to indirect heating. Total microbial lethality at constant time and temperature varies between direct and indirect heating systems (Westhoff 1981). The residence time distribution (RTD) is the time range for a fluid product such as milk to enter and exit the holding system (Singh 2007). Flow through the heating system is controlled by timing or metering pumps. The residence time is determined by hold tube volume, flow rate, and flow rate attributes (viscosity) of specific products (Anonymous 1995). Positive reactions in the hold tube include destruction of bacteria, inactivation of enzymes, and hydration of thickeners. Negative reactions include development of off-flavor, initiation of off-color, and destruction of vitamins (David et al. 1996).

Processing Requirements Common attributes for all aseptic processing systems include: 1. Product must be pumpable. 2. Flow rate of product must be controlled and verified. 3. Process time and temperature must sterilize the product.

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4. Product must be held at temperatures to achieve sterilization. 5. Product must be cooled before the aseptic fill. 6. System must be pre-sterilized and must maintain sterility throughout production. 7. System must be engineered to keep non-sterile product from entering the filler.

The processing steps for UHT milk include preheating, homogenizing, holding at preheat temperature, heating to sterilization temperatures, and cooling (Datta et al. 2002). The UHT-AP system must be cleaned prior to equipment sterilization. CIP (clean-in-place) circuits are utilized to clean UHT systems. Alkaline detergents (caustic) remove protein deposits and saponify fat whereas acid detergents remove mineral deposits (Burton 1988). The cleaning cycles consist of 3 basic steps:

1. Water pre-rinse to remove loose deposits. 2. Chemical treatment to solubilize deposits. 3. Final rinse to remove the chemicals. The flow velocity and circulation temperature are critical in the CIP process (Holdsworth 1992). Intermediate cleaning is completed at predetermined intervals throughout production without losing sterility. An in-line aseptic surge tank allows filling to continue during the intermediate cleaning of the processor. The water/caustic/water is circulated at production temperatures and flow rates until pressures decrease (Burton 1988).

Cleaning should be completed at established frequencies to prevent residue and biofilm buildup. Biofilms may contain bacteria and spores within the matrix, adhere to equipment surfaces, and resist removal during cleaning and sanitizing. The biofilms can detach and contaminate the product being manufactured (Faille et al. 2001). Monitoring programs such as ATP swabbing should be implemented to verify cleaning effectiveness (Grow 2000).

For sterilizing the process, heated water can be circulated for a prescribed time and temperature. Recording devices and thermocouples are used to verify equipment sterilization (Anonymous 1995). The homogenizer is typically sterilized in-line with the processor and associated pipes. Sterilization cycles can be automated to ensure proper sequencing, to ensure minimum temperature requirements are met, and to ensure the timing starts/stops only when the system is above the minimum temperature set point (Burton 1988).

Fouling Varzakas and Labropoulos (2007) stated that fouling is a term used to describe burn-on, which occurs within indirect heating systems. Processing times are limited by the quantity and location of fouling deposits. Fouling is the primary reason for decreased heat transfer in a UHT processor. The lower product temperature after the hold tube is compensated by the system increasing the steam temperature (Varzakas and Labropoulos 2007). Fouling results in greater down time, chemical costs, and capital costs. There are two types of fouling deposits: Type A and

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Type B. Type A fouling is mainly protein (50 to 70%) and results from process temperatures below 110C. Type A deposits are described as soft and curd-like, and can occupy a significant volume of space. Type B fouling contains mostly minerals (70 to 80%) and occurs when process temperatures exceed 110C. Type B deposits are described as gritty and brittle. Type A deposits typically form in the preheating section, whereas type B deposits form in the high temperature section of the UHT processor (Datta and Deeth 2007).

Holdsworth (1992) identified several factors that affect fouling: product characteristics (e.g., pH, seasonal variation of milk, age, ammonia concentration, composition), process variables (e.g., velocity, exposure time, wall temperature, processing temperature, bulk fluid temperature), combined variables (e.g., heat barrier-product temperature difference, heating media-product temperature difference), and pre-treatment heating.

Datta and Deeth (2007) list methods for reducing fouling. Preheating the product increases whey protein denaturation, which inversely affects the quantity of type A deposits. Additives in the product formulation that increase milk pH reduce fouling. For example, sodium pyrophosphate decahydrate stabilizes the casein micelles, which in turn reduces calcium phosphate fouling during high temperature heating. Calcium phosphate contributes to type B fouling due to reverse solubility at high temperatures (Datta and Deeth 2007). Bansal and Chen (2006) stated fouling can be accentuated by prolonged raw milk storage, which allows for proteolytic action to occur and air bubbles to form.

Ultra-high temperature installations The acronym UHT (ultra-high temperature) is used mostly when describing plants or process lines for ultra-high temperature treatment. UHT plants are mostly operated in automatic mode; have monitoring, control and recording functions; and consist of three basic process steps; a) Pre-sterilization and start-up b) Manufacturing c) Cleaning In case of need, an additional process step can be added, aseptic intermediate cleaning. UHT installations have a wide array of safety devices, which exclude mixing of sterile with nonsterile product. Plants can be distinguished by very characteristic differences in the heat transfer sections of the UHT sections. We distinguish between direct and indirect processes. Direct UHT process. Milk is blended directly with steam in the hating section by either steam injection into milk or milk injection into steam. Preheating and cooling are done indirectly in plate or tubular heat exchangers. The heating temperatures are in the range 140-150oC with a heating time of <1 sec. Water which has been added to the milk is removed by subsequent expansion in a welldefined vacuum, thus obtaining the initial milk composition. At the same, energy is removed by the expansion and the milk temperature is reduced well below the critical temperature range. The advantage of this is an extremely short heating time of 0.5-1.0 s and subsequent mild product treatment. Disadvantages are the high quality requirements for steam (culinary steam) and a low level of heat recovery (only 40-50%).

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Mil is pumped from a storage silo into a buffer tank. From there it is transferred by a centrifugal pump into a plate heat exchanger and is heated to 75oC with hot water. The water used for preheating the milk is heated to 75oC with hot water. The water used for preheating the milk is heated by condensate from the vacuum vessel and is brought up to temperature by adding fresh steam with a steam injector. The steam quantity is controlled by a temperature controller in such a way that the milk leaves the plate heat exchanger with a constant temperature of 75oC. A high-pressure pump transfers the preheated milk to the steam injector, where the temperature is raised to 140oC by injecting saturated steam. This temperature is maintained for 36 s in the holding tube, and then the milk reaches the vacuum vessel after passing through a switching valve, where a constant vacuum is maintained. Here the milk is cooled to 76oC by expansion, and exactly the same quantity of water is removed which has been added previously by steam injection. The dry matter content of the milk is exactly maintained with a special control device. Condensation of the evaporated water takes place in a spiral control device. Condensation of the evaporated water takes place in a spiral condenser, which is integrated into the vacuum vessel. Sterile milk is then transferred with an aseptic centrifugal pump from the vacuum vessel to the aseptic homogenizer, where it is treated with 250-300 bar. Then it is pumped to the aseptic cooler, where it is cooled down to 20oC with cooling water from the preheating section. This water circulates between return flow cooler, condenser, preheater and aseptic cooler with considerable heat recovery. From the aseptic cooler, the UHT product is then pumped into the sterile tank or straight into a filling machine. Switching devices. The UHT temperature if falls below after the steam injector the set temperature, then switching valve is actuated. Which diverts the milk to a plate heat exchanger, cooling down the milk to 75oC, and then transfers it to a storage tank. This prevents insufficiently heated milk passing into the aseptic part of the plant and causing a recontamination. As soon as the switching valve is triggered, the product pump and homogenizer are stopped. Further, the milk supply is stopped, and the plant changes over to sterile water circulation. Once the circulating water has reached the UHT temperature of 140oC, production can be restarted after a delay of 2-3 min without pre-sterilizing the plant again. Indirect UHT process. The entire heat transfer, including the UHT stage, takes place in plate heat exchangers / tubular heat exchangers or a combination of both types. For the UHT section proper, tubular heat exchangers are more advantageous. Due to their geometry, fluid velocities of 2.5 m/sec at pressure levels of 40-60 bar are possible, which resulting in very short heating times and therefore reduced residence times. In case using plate heat exchangers in the UHT section means using a lower pressure (due to their geometry) and more complicated sealing requirements, which result in fluid velocities of 0.25-0.35 m/sec. The advantage of indirect heating is high energy recovery (heat recovery) of 88-90%, leading to significantly improved economies. The disadvantage of the higher thermal product degradation has been minimized constantly, so this approach is applied often in reality because of the economic advantages. Before start-up of production, the plant is personalized like all other UHT plants. For this, water at 140oC, which has been heated up with hot water and steam, circulates through the aseptic part of the plant. After a treatment of some 30 minutes, the plant temperature is reduced to the operating temperature and production can commence. Milk is transferred with centrifugal pump from the buffer tank to the plate heat exchanger and is preheated with water to a temperature of 77oC. Deaeration of the milk takes place in the vacuum vessel with simultaneous cooling by expansion to 70oC. The condenser, integrated in the

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vacuum vessel, immediately condenses the evaporated water and adds it back to the product, whereas the non-condensable gases and odours are removed by the vacuum pump. This plant can also be operated without vacuum deaeration. Milk is then transferred with a pump to the UHT section of the plate heat exchanger, where the product temperature is raised to 140oC in a counter current flow, and the product is kept at this level for 3-4 sec. In the first cooler the milk temperature is reduced to 105oC (by using water), and is then reduced further to 76oC in cooler. At this temperature, the milk enters the aseptic homogenizer, is further cooled to 20oC and is filled into a sterile tank. In case of interruptions in the plant or UHT temperature deviations, the control unit switches valve to the circulation mode, and the milk flows into an intermediate storage vessel. At the same time, the milk supply is stopped, and water for another pre-sterilization is pumped into the feed vessel. The total treatment times for the products are very different from plant type to plant; they range between 20 and 120 sec, but can also reach 400-450 sec. All plant section (e.g., pumps, homogenizer) which are contact with the product in the UHT section are designed for aseptic operation; i.e., the transfer or treatment areas are sealed by steam. This steam seal excludes microbiological contamination. The capacity of UHT process lines usually ranges from 1000 to 12,000 I/hr. Sterile tanks serve as buffers between the UHT plant and the aseptic filling lines. The design calls for either a vertical or horizontal construction, and the insulated sterile (or aseptic) double walled tank is pre-sterilized for about 45 min at 135oC; the same process is applied to the pipelines going into and out of the tank. The next operation is a water cooling of the double-walled tank, and sterile air is injected into the tank to remove the condensate from it. Once the tank has reached 20oC, product can be filled into it. Compressed air, which has passed two sterile air filters, enters the tank. In order to maintain a constant pressure in the tank, an air pressure sensor has been installed, which transmits the data to a control unit. This then actuates the control valves. These valves control the air flow and the air pressure inside the tank. Pressure in the product pipeline is controlled by the sensor and the controllers. During discharge and storage of the product, connection valves (V) and (VI) are protected by steam seals from the outside. The pipeline system can be set up for a direct connection between the UHT plant and the filling installation, and the valves (I), (V) and (VI) are activated and valves (VII) and protected by a steam seal.

Advantages and Challenges

Alves (2001) credited the growth of UHT in the Brazilian market to the following advantages over traditional pasteurization: refrigeration not required in storage and distribution, extended shelf life up to five months, and increased product options for consumers. Dairy operations utilizing UHT-AP have reduced energy requirements in processing (due to heat regeneration) and in ambient shipping/distribution. Food quality attributes such as flavor, nutrient loss, and color are improved with UHT versus traditional methods of rendering food commercially

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sterile. Vitamin C and thiamin retention in aseptically processed soups (tomato, chicken) was much higher in comparison to retort processing. Another advantage of UHT-AP is the diverse range of package sizes. Large containers such as drums, tanks, and tankers are filled through the continuous flow process. This is not practical with conventional canning due to heat transfer rates and handling issues. Laminated packages could replace semi-rigid containers since product is filled aseptically at cooler temperatures. Graphics can be applied to laminated packaging. Finished product storage and transportation costs are reduced due to lightweight packaging.

Comparison of aseptic processing/packaging of dairy foods to conventional canning and the corresponding advantage or disadvantage

Criteria

Aseptic Advantage

Aseptic Disadvantage

Container speeds in production Downtime potential

Lower

Resterilize processor and/or filler when sterility of system compromised

Energy costs

Energy costs 30% savings or greater

Heat delivery during sterilization

More precise

Nutrient loss

Minimum

Overall product quality

Independent of size & shape of container

Product handling costs /labor

Low

Sensory quality

Superior

Spoilage troubleshooting

Complex

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Sterilization of products containing particulates

Complex

Sterilization equipment

Complex

Survival of heat resistant enzymes Traceability Easier

Possible

Value added perception

Higher

Challenges are present in all aspects of food processing and UHT is not an exception. According to Zadow (1998), major problems associated with UHT-processed milks include age gelation, component separation, flavor degradation, post-process contamination, slow packaging speeds, and limited shelf life knowledge. Currently, effective UHT processing for products containing particulates has not been achieved due to solids settling and over processing risks (Goff 2008). UHT-AP processing requires substantial management knowledge and operator skill.

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