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Mushahid Ali, Minaam William, Raza Ur- Rehman, Muhammad Ali Hashmi, Aneeq Ahmed,
Table of Contents
COAL TAR: .............................................................................................................................. 3 Types of Coal Tar: ................................................................................................................ 3 Low temperature tar: ........................................................................................................ 3 High temperature tar: ....................................................................................................... 3 Recovery of Tar:................................................................................................................... 3 Distillation of Tar: ................................................................................................................ 3 Uses of tar:.......................................................................................................................... 4 COAL TAR FUELS (C.T.F.): .......................................................................................................... 4 Uses of CTF: ........................................................................................................................ 5 Pitch Cresote Mixture (PCM): .................................................................................................... 5 Combustion Properties of Coal Tar Fuel (C.T.F.): ...................................................................... 6 KNOCK: .................................................................................................................................. 7 Reasons for knocking:........................................................................................................... 7 Effects of Knocking: .............................................................................................................. 7 OCTANE NUMBER:................................................................................................................... 7 Definition of Octane Number: ............................................................................................... 8 Determination of Octane Number:......................................................................................... 8 Octane number of Indian Petrol:............................................................................................ 8 Significance of Octane Number: ............................................................................................. 8 Limitation of Octane Number as a guide: ................................................................................ 8 Means to improve octane number: ........................................................................................ 8 Advantages of High Octane Number of Petrol: ........................................................................ 8 Anti-Knock Value: ................................................................................................................ 9 Lead Response:.................................................................................................................... 9 Octane Number of Blends: .................................................................................................... 9 CETANE NUMBER: ................................................................................................................... 9 Values of Cetane Number of Diesel: ....................................................................................... 9 Motor Fuel from Crude Oil: ..................................................................................................10 Production of Petrol (Gasoline) from Crude Oil: ......................................................................10 REQUISITE OF GOOD GASOLINE: ..............................................................................................11 Refining of Petrol: ...............................................................................................................12 Additives in Petrol (Gasoline): ..............................................................................................12 Aviation Gasoline: ...............................................................................................................12 1
DIESEL: ..................................................................................................................................13 Requisites of Good Diesel: ...................................................................................................13 FUEL OILS FROM PETROLEUM: .................................................................................................14 Properties of Fuel Oils: ........................................................................................................14 Analysis of Fuel Oil: .............................................................................................................15 Typical specification of Fuel Oil: ............................................................................................15 Combustion Characteristics of Fuel Oil: .................................................................................16
Recovery of Tar:
During the carbonization o fcoal in by-product coke oven, the tar vapors present in the coke oven gas are separated by cooling it by ammoniacal liquor resulting in its condensation. Remaining tar is separated in primary cooler and electrostatic tar precipitator thereby recovering the bulk of tar present in the coke oven gas.
Distillation of Tar:
Tar contains around 1000 chemicals. Hence to recover some of these chemicals economically and to produce better fuel, tar is distilled. The main fractions of tar (which are recovered by distillation), their constituents, yield and boiling ranges are given in the following table.
Fractions Light Oil Middle (or carbolic) oil Heavy (or creosote) oil Anthracene oil Pitch
Boiling range, o C Upto 170 oC 170 230 oC 230 270 oC 270 350 oC Residue
Main constituents of the fractions Benzol, Naphtha and Phenol Phenol, naphthalene and pyridine Naphthalene and creosote oil Anthracene and wash oil
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Uses of tar:
Tar is used as a furnace fuel. Its calorific value may be 8500 Kcal/Kg. Use of crude tar as a fuel possesses a number of disadvantages viz. The presence of volatile components which are lost on storage and which increase the fire hazard. The presence of water in tar which reduces the calorific value, causes corrosion and its irregular combustion. The presence of solid impurities such as a coke dust which may choke the burners and pipelines. Besides, the fact that tar is a storehouse of chemicals', its direct use as a fuel is discouraged. Coal tar is also used as a binder for coal briquettes and for road making purposes.
coating of roof and pipeline for guarding against corrosion. Soft pitch having a softening temperature of 30 oC can be used as liquid fuel after preheating.
Table1.2. Properties of Coal Tar Fuels (CTF)
Properties
Calorific Value, Kcal/Kg Water content (volume %) maximum Ash content (weight %) Softening point, oC Flash Point Sulfur Content (weight %)
Normally carbon content increases and hydrogen & oxygen content decreases in the series CTF 50 to 400. C/H ratio increases from 11 to 16.5 in this series.
Uses of CTF:
Because of low sulfur content and high flame emissivity, it is one of the ideal fuels for metallurgical furnaces. Besides, it is used for power generation, rotary kilns in calcination and cement units and glass melting furnaces.
ANTI-KNOCK VALUE
KNOCK:
When the fuel-air mixture undergoes very fast or intermittent combustion inside the combustion chamber of an internal combustion engine, then a sort of rattling noise develops from the combustion chamber (due to uneven, unsteady and uncontrollable combustion) which is called knocking or detonation.
Effects of Knocking:
Knocking is an engine results in wear and tear of cylinder, piston and other engine parts. Besides, it lowers the efficiency of the engine. Knocking reduces life of the engine.
OCTANE NUMBER:
Octane number expressed the anti-knocking characteristics of petrol. Normal heptane (a constituent of petrol) when burnt in a petrol engine knocks it very badly i.e., the anti-knock value of n-heptane is very poor and it is assigned an octane number equal to zero. On the other hand, iso-octane (also a constituent of petrol) has got very good anti-knock characteristics, hence it is assigned on octane number of 100.
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Anti-Knock Value:
Anti-knock value of the hydrocarbons present in petrol increases with increase in the compactness of the molecules, cyclic structure and double bond. Thus butane has an octane number of 90 whereas heptane has 0. Anti-knock value i.e., octane number increases in the order paraffins olefine naphthenes iso-paraffins aromatics. It means that aromatics have highest anti-knock value whereas paraffins have lowest anti-knock value (hence octane number). So, presence of maximum quantity of aromatic and minimum quantity of paraffins is desirable in petrol. In case of paraffins and olefins, anti-knock value (i.e., octane number) decreases with increasing chain length. In case of naphthenes, the larger the size of the ring and the length of the side chain, the lower is the anti-knock value. In case of aromatics, side chain addition up to 3 carbon atoms length improves the octane number, but afterwards, the octane number decreases in proportion to the length of the longest chain.
Lead Response:
The response of gasoline to the addition of tetra ethyl lead [(C2H5)4 Pb] for increasing its octane number is different for different for different categories of hydrocarbons. The order of decreasing effect of TEL addition (called lead response) is paraffins naphthenes olefins aromatics. Alcohols, sulfur compounds and lubricating oils respond negatively.
CETANE NUMBER:
Cetane number is the measure of knocking in a diesel engine. Cetane (C 16H34) has a very short ignition delay hence its cetane number is taken as 100 whereas alpha methylnaphthalene (C11H10) has a very large ignition delay hence its cetane number is taken as 0. The cetane number of a diesel is defined as the percentage of cetane (by volume) in a mixture of cetane and alpha methyl naphthalene which has same ignition delay as the diesel under test.
Cetane number increases in the order aromatics iso-paraffins naphthenes olefins paraffins (AINOP) whereas the octane number decreases in this order. Therefore, an oil of which gives petrol of high octane number gives diesel of low cetane number.
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Characteristic Color, visual Octane Number (Research Method), Min. Lead Content a) as lead, g/l, Max. Distillation a) Initial Boiling Point b) Recovery up to 70oC, percent by volume, Min. c) Recovery up to 125oC, percent by volume, Min. d) Recovery up to 180oC, percent by volume, Min. e) Final boiling point, oC, Max. f) Residue, percent by volume, Max. Reid vapor pressure at 38oC, Kg/cm2, Max. Sulfur, total, percent by weight, Max. Residue on evaporation, mg/100 ml,
360
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Refining of Petrol:
The crude petrol is refined by treating with sulfuric acid to remove sulfur compounds present in it (the process is called 'sweetening' of petrol). It is then passes through a bed of fuller's earth to remove its color, which is due to the presence of gum in it. Finally, the dissolved gases in it are driven off by a process called stabilization. Tetraethyl lead or other additives are then added to increase the octane number (if the need be) or to inhibit the gum formation before the petrol is ready for use.
Aviation Gasoline:
Petrol used in the airplanes has comparatively higher volatility and higher octane number (>100) than motor gasoline. Though higher proportion of TEL (4.6 c.c/U.S. gallon) is added in aviation gasoline, other additives are lesser in number and quantity. The main components of aviation gasoline are iso-paraffin alkylates and aromatic reformates. A typical specification of aviation gasoline is tabulated below in the table:
Table3.2. Typical Specification of Aviation Gasoline
S.No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Patameters Reid vapor pressure at 37.8 oC (100oF) Freezing point, maximum Performance number Aromatic content, minimum Diesel index, minimum Net calorific value, minimum Total sufur, maximum Tetra ethyl lead Oxidation stability (16 hours ageing)
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10.
mg/100 ml mg/100 ml o C
6 2 <75/170
DIESEL:
It is a straight run product of crude petroleum oil distillation obtained in between kerosene and lubricating oil. Diesel obtained from paraffinic crude are the most suitable as higher amount of paraffin present in it increases its cetane number. Diesel is also produced by cracking of heavy fuel oil and vacuum distillation of atmospheric distillation residue. Though the most desired components of diesel fuels are the straight run distillates from paraffin and mixed base crude oils, these are often used as feedstock for gasoline production via cracking. Since, there is some overlap in the boiling ranges of kerosene and diesel fuel hence diesel is prepared from heavy distillates obtained from catalytic cracking unit. Since, the distillates are rick in aromatics and iso-paraffins (having low cetane number), additives are added to improve the cetane number of diesel fuel. The suitable volatility is obtained by blending with light fraction. Residual oils are also used in significant proportions in meeting large demand of diesel fuel.
Characteristic
Grade Special
Grade A
Flash point, (Pensky-Martens, closed)oC, Min. Kinematic viscosity, centistokes at 37.8oC Carbon residue (Ramsbottom), percent by weight, Max Cetane number, Min Diesel Index, Min Distillation, percent recovery, at 366oC, Min. Copper-strip corrosion for 3 hours at 100oC
Grade B (LDO) Light Diesel Oil 66 2.0 to 7.5 1.50 ---Not worse than No. 2
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Water content, percent by volume, Max. Sediment, percent by weight, Max Ash, percent by weight, Max Acidity, inorganic Acidity, total percent by weight, Max. Sufur, total percent by weight, Max. Pour point, oC, Max.
Winter November to February Summer March to October Special grade and grade A cover distillates of low volatility. Grade B covers the class of more viscous distillates and blends of these distillates with residuum oil. Diesel fuel for naval application shall have a flash point of 66oC, Min. and cetane number of 45, Minimum.
Propeties Viscosity
Remarks It should be low for its proper atomization through burner and low pressure drop during pumping. Pour point and freezing It should be low to permit easy flow in cold weather. point Sulfur content Should be low to avoid corrosion, pungent odor and increase in dew point of flue gases. Sludge, gummy Should be low to avoid chocking of pipelines, erosion of material and ash furnaces/engines and contamination of products.
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Should be high. It varies between 9000-9400 Kcal/Kg. Should be low as the pressure drop on pumping it will be low. Should be high for avoiding evaporation loss and fire hazards Should be very low as it decreases the calorific value of oil.
Characteristic Low Viscosity Flash point (Pensky-Martens) (closed), C,Min. 66 Kinematic viscosity, centistokes at 50oC, Max. 80 Water content, percent by volume, Max. 1.0 Ash, percent by wt., Max 0.1 Sulfur, total percent by wt., Max. 3.5 Sediment, percent by wt., Max. 0.25 Acidity, inorganic nil
A typical specification of low sulfur heavy stock (LSHS) fuel oil produced at Barauni Refinery is given in the following table:
Table3.5. Typical Specification of LSHS
Characteristics
Kinematic viscosity (at 100 C), centistokes Specific gravity Gross calorific value, Kcal/Kg, minimum Pour point, oC, maximum Flash point, oC minimum Sulfur content, weight %, maximum Ash content, weight %, maximum Moisture, weight %, maximum
o
Value
26 0.93 10000 60 66 1 0.1 1 15
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