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chapter
OVERVIEW
For the purposes of this chapter, building construction will concentrate mainly upon simple industrial/commercial building design and construction. Domestic dwellings are amply covered by other sources but it will be noticed that some of the design technology is very similar and therefore some items are included in the section in traditional buildings. At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
list the parts of a simple industrial/commercial building state the main functions of the components that make up a simple building list the principal services required of a simple building list how to gain safe access to services describe typical materials found in the MES sector describe how to deal with insulating materials found in the MES sector.
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Definition
Industrial buildings, e.g. factory, mill, warehouse, store. Commercial buildings, e.g. office, school, theatre, hospital. Can you think of any more examples?
Medium rise Low rise (four to seven storeys) (one to three storeys)
Semi-detached
Terraced
Detached
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Chapter 6 Understanding building construction methods and the materials used in the MES sector
Traditional buildings are those that are constructed along the lines of a typical domestic house, but larger. What we see today as a house has evolved over many centuries and, as building materials have improved in quality and availability, they have influenced what the building is constructed from. However, in real terms the features of the domestic house have changed very little, in that we have floors, walls and roofing the same design as in bygone days.
Wall construction
The walls are there to hold up the roof, keep out water and to keep the occupants warm. Solid walls do this quite well, but are expensive to construct and have to be very thick to stop water from penetrating the building. We now employ a double wall construction, a wet one on the outside and a dry one on the inside. The gap (or cavity) between the two walls acts as a barrier against damp and provides a measure of heat insulation. The gap is increasingly filled with an insulating material, which retains the original function of the cavity but slows down the transfer of heat from inside to outside, making the building more thermally efficient. A continuous damp proof membrane in the bricks above ground level prevents damp being drawn up the wall. On the inside, internal walls act in most parts as dividers to segregate each activity of the rooms. They do not require insulation and therefore are made thinner. Their construction could be of brick, plastered over and then decorated, or a timber framework (called studwork), which is covered with plasterboard and then finished off.
Outline of roof 6 mm cavity closer Block inner leaf (90 mm min.)
Window board 50 or 65 mm insulated cavity Solid ground floor Clear cavity DPM
Weephole Load-bearing concrete blocks Strip foundation Partially filled cavity Figure 6.02 Cavity wall section
Heinemann NVQ2 Plumbing 9pt Zurich BT fig0570 8/07/05
Cavity filling
Clear cavity
Clear cavity
400 mm Ceiling joists Folding wedges against wall Head plate Noggins Stud 75 x 50 mm headrail Noggins
Plan
Ceiling joists
Section
Flooring
Elevation
Internal ceilings in traditional buildings follow a similar framed walls, being made of timber joists, cladding and plaster.
Floor construction in domestic buildings comprises floorboards or sheets of chipboard laid over timber joists. Some ground floors are solid, made from concrete on a damp proof membrane and laid over hardcore or of block and beam construction. Can you identify any other examples where you live?
Insulation
Timber joist
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Chapter 6 Understanding building construction methods and the materials used in the MES sector
Poured concrete
Block
150 mm
150 mm min.
600 x 3000 mm
Roofing
In a cold and wet country the roof keeps out rain and snow. For centuries, a roof constructed on an angle, known as pitched, and covered with slate, tile, stone or metal sheeting, was the most efficient, as it sheds water quickly into gutters at the eaves or lowest edges of the roof. Commercial roof covering can sometimes include decorative finishes like copper, aluminium or lead as well as traditional roof coverings. There is no typical industrial/commercial building roof, even on traditional buildings. It can be pitched or flat. The only limiting factor is the practical ability to span distances. A roof must be able to support itself, plus any increase in weight brought about by the addition of rain or snow. Short spans could use a traditional timber design but longer spans require a different approach. Medium spans generally utilise the truss roof construction made from steel sections. Longer spans tend to be constructed using reinforced concrete, lattice beam or portal beam construction.
102 89 9.5 angle purlin 152 76 9.5 angle cleat 89 76 7.8 angle rafter
51 51 6.3 angle struts alternative ~ 200 75 s/w purlin screwed to 152 102 9.5 angle cleat 8 mm thick gusset plate
8 mm thick gusset plate 64 51 9.5 fixing cleats to both sides of gusset precast concrete padstone
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J6990
top flange
web
butt weld
Purlin cleat
UB spanning member
Angle purlin
Purlin cleat
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Chapter 6 Understanding building construction methods and the materials used in the MES sector
Punctured holes Galvanised steel plate Truss plate Alternative truss plate Weatherboard so t Spikes pressed out from plate Trussed rafter
Fascia Ridge
Heinemann NVQ2 Plumbing 9pt Zurich BT fig0581 9/07/05
Rafter
Purlin
Joist
Wallplate
Construction materials
Typical construction materials for traditional buildings are:
brick, concrete block or lightweight insulating block for walls timber for floor boards, stud work, roof beams, joists and rafters tile and slate for roofs plaster, plaster board and, in more recent years, PVC for window frames, gutters and drainage.
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roof and floor span between main beams Upstand beam as parapet
Columns
Floor slab spans between main beams and acts as a tie to frame
Typical framed building materials would be reinforced concrete, steelwork J6990 concrete block work and columns and beams, glass, aluminium, brickwork, HED Mechanical Eng BW PDF metal sheet cladding. AW_087
AW by HL Studios
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Chapter 6 Understanding building construction methods and the materials used in the MES sector
Filling with plastic material (a) Flexible services (b) Floor duct
Removable panel
Insulating board
Chase Frame Plaster Access door with insulating board at rear Plaster
Services typically are contained in a central service core and radiate out to the outer perimeter of each floor. Piped services may start from plant rooms in a basement (known as up feed systems) or more typically at roof level (down feed systems). Ease of access for installation and servicing is part of the overall plan. As walls are temporary partitions within the building, most heating and air conditioning equipment is suspended from the underside of the reinforced concrete floor above, concealed by a false ceiling. The ceilings also hang from the floor above and are removable to expose the cables, ductwork and pipes installed in the space between.
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Structural floor
Fire stopping
Steel angle cleat and hanger (length varies to suit service provision)
Luminaire
Cables
Pipes
Open plan offices now have a special floor above the structural, reinforced J6990 HED Mechanical Eng BWpurposely PDF concrete floor, with the small space between the two there to AW_090 accommodate services. The upper AW level of Studios the two floors can be entirely by HL formed of square sections, each of which can be lifted out for access. The concept was originally introduced for computer rooms but is now extended to general offices.
Countersunk screws into support plate Adjustable leg 600 600 mm floor panel. 3040 mm thickness
100 to 600 mm
Lock nut
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Chapter 6 Understanding building construction methods and the materials used in the MES sector
barriers around the work area with signs advising of the hazards a check on air quality if the shaft or duct is sealed ensuring that adequate lighting is available in some cases confined space procedure may be required.
The area should be cordoned off to warn others that work is in progress and notices posted to that effect. Access equipment used should be suitable for the purpose and carry a current safety certificate. Ceiling panels should be removed carefully with clean hands and placed where they will not be damaged. The area above the ceiling should be checked for dust and foreign objects left behind from previous operations. Adequate lighting should be arranged. Trailing leads should be not present as a trip hazard to others.
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Holes in structures
It is common practice, when cutting holes for services in building structures, to use a builder to cut the holes and make good. The role of the engineer is to indicate accurately where the holes are to be cut or formed by drilling. If there is no builder on site, for instance on a domestic property where the installer may be alone, then the engineer would be responsible for the task. Holes in brickwork are usually formed using a hammer and chisel. They should be cut carefully to conform to the structural features of the building, for instance cutting brickwork in sympathy with the bond of the bricks. Making good should also follow the original pattern of the bond and be of similar finish. Holes in reinforced concrete structures are normally cast into the structure as the construction proceeds, or core drilled. It is normal for the MES engineer on site to liaise with the builder to ensure that mistakes are kept to a minimum.
MES materials
There is wide range of materials used in the MES sector, including the following:
Definition
Extrusion is a process for forming pipes, which involves forcing the material out through a circular slot under high pressure
Low carbon steel (LCS). Steel is primarily an alloy of iron and carbon, with the amount of carbon determining its properties. Of the range of steels available, LCS is next to pure iron in being soft and easy to shape and form. It is a basic material for pipes, fittings, pipe supports, sections, sheet and plate. Stainless steel is a corrosion resistant steel. It is also an alloy of iron and carbon, but with the addition of other metals, like chromium and nickel, to provide the corrosion resistance. In its low carbon form it is used for the manufacture of pipes, fittings and components like sink units and work tops. Galvanised steel is a product that is made from LCS and coated with zinc, which is strongly resistant to oxidation. The galvanising process involves cleaning the manufactured object in acid and then hot dipping it in molten zinc, which adheres to the surface. Copper is a base metal, which is used in the formation of pipes and fittings. It can also be obtained as a sheet material for weather cladding on buildings. Alloys of copper are used extensively for the production of valves and other fittings. The principal copper alloys are brass, gunmetal and bronze. Aluminium is a base metal used in the MES sector as a material for producing cast components. It can also be obtained as extrusions and sheet materials. It can be alloyed with magnesium and silicon to improve its mechanical properties.
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Chapter 6 Understanding building construction methods and the materials used in the MES sector
Lead is a very soft material and corrosion resistant. It has been used extensively on roofs, guttering, and even internally for pipes, for many centuries. Its use is fast reducing but MES engineers will still come across it. It is toxic, and special skills and precautions are needed to work with it.
Identification, characteristics and some uses of common MES materials are covered below.
Remember
Copper pipe fittings intended for plumbing and heating systems are not compatible with RAC systems
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Definition
When referring to the condition of copper products, the terms half hard, and full hard relate to the final condition of the material. Copper is hardened by cold working and tempered to increase its toughness by controlled heating and cooling. Annealing also uses controlled heating and cooling to soften it, so that it is easy to work.
Refrigeration copper tube is manufactured to British and European Standards BSEN 1057 (BS2871 Part 2) and EN 12449, with EN378 being the standard for safety and environmental aspects of design and installation of refrigeration systems. Tables of copper tube suitable for water / plumbing applications are:
Table W. Produced for small bore heating installations, gas and oil installations. It is supplied fully annealed, and in coils. It may be plastic coated for installing in concrete floors. Standard sizes are 6 mm, 8 mm, 10mm and 12 mm diameter. Table X. Produced for all piped services in buildings. Supplied in half hard condition and in rigid lengths of 3 metres or 6 metres. Standard sizes are 15mm, 22 mm, 28 mm, 35 mm, 40 mm and 54 mm diameter. Table Y. Produced for underground services. It is available fully annealed and in 25 metre coils. It is the thickest copper tube available and can be obtained plastic coated, yellow for gas services and blue for cold water supplies. Standard sizes are 15 mm and 22 mm. Table Z. Available in rigid lengths, fully hard condition and with a very thin wall. Sizes range from 15 mm to 54 mm.
Fittings for copper tube are produced from copper or copper alloys. They are made to be compatible with heat jointing or mechanical jointing techniques.
Plastic materials
The types of plastic material used for piping are extensive, and new products are being developed all the time. The common plastic products in use for industrial/commercial installations are:
Unplasticised polyvinyl chloride (uPVC). Maximum operating temperature is 60C. It is light, easy to handle and install, and with a high resistance to chemicals and corrosion. It is used for process pipework, mains water, chlorinated water, and other liquids that normally would be incompatible for use with metals. (It is also sold as UPVC or PVCU.)
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Chapter 6 Understanding building construction methods and the materials used in the MES sector
High impact polyvinyl chloride (HIPVC). This is similar to uPVC but able to stand more external wear and abrasion. Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS). This has a higher operating temperature to 80C. It is suitable for all waste water systems and most corrosive chemicals. Polypropylene. This has an operating range up to 100C and is very resistant to attack by acids. Used extensively in laboratory waste systems. Low and high density polythene. This has a lower operating temperature range than polypropylene but with a higher resistance to attack by acids. Again, it will be found in laboratory waste installations.
The standard range of fittings are available, i.e. tees, elbows, unions, flanges etc. The materials that fittings and pipes are made from must be compatible with each other to ensure a good leak free system.
Thermal insulation
In the pursuit of enhanced thermal efficiency in buildings, all services are either insulated to keep heat in (as in heating systems) or to keep heat out (as in cooling systems). Sections of insulating material are either provided as sheet that is intended to be cut and formed to shape or preformed to fit around cylindrical items, like cylinders or pipework. The range of common insulation materials are:
Foam rubber. Produced for the RAC industry as an insulation for cold surfaces. Cork. A natural product that is used less and less but may be found insulating chilled water plant and pipework. Glass fibre. This tends to be on the way out for insulating building services but is still used extensively for building structure insulation. Polyurethane foam. It is now very common as an insulating medium, especially around pipes.
When handling insulation materials a risk assessment should be conducted to ascertain the degree of hazards involved. Although classified as inert, glass fibre and foam should be considered as irritants, therefore an operative having to work with these materials should wear full personal protective equipment, i.e. overalls, head covering, face mask and gloves. Other people in the area should also be advised of the work being carried out.
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Asbestos may be present in older buildings, in the form of insulation around pipework and steelwork, or as asbestos cement products, such as flues and building panels. Asbestos is responsible for many deaths each year due to uncontrolled exposure in the past. Asbestos cement products contain only a small amount of asbestos but still need careful handling when shaping and cutting. Wetting the surface and using only hand tools should suppress any dust created from cutting operations. Redundant materials should only be disposed of via licensed centres. Asbestos insulation is very hazardous and, if found on site, it may require the resources of a specialist contractor to remove and make safe. If white or grey flake-like powder is found on a job and is suspected to be asbestos, advice should be immediately sought from the site manager. Samples will be taken and analysed. Under a management of asbestos policy all that may be required is to seal the location and leave it undisturbed. An engineer always has the responsibility to be sensible when working around old heating and ventilating plant rooms and not to disturb old insulation. Ensure that any work carried out is completed within the site policy requirements.
Knowledge check
1. State the purpose of a wall in a traditional building. 2. List three roof covering materials. 3. Explain what a floor duct is used for. 4. Explain what is meant by the term low carbon steel. 5. List three copper alloys. 6. List the two grades of LCS pipe. 7. Explain where table X copper tube would be used in a building. 8. Explain what would need to done if white flaky powder covering pipework is discovered in a plant room. 9. Describe what Personal Protective Equipment may be required when handling insulation materials.
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Chapter 2 Identify the physical forces that have an impact on the MES sector
1. Boyles law relates to: a) pressure and temperature b) volume and mass c) pressure and volume d) mass and temperature 2. The amount of heat required to raise one kilogramme of a substance through one degree Celsius is its: a) specific heat capacity b) total heat capacity c) latent heat capacity d) sensible heat capacity. 3. A cubic metre of water at maximum density has a mass of: a) 100 kg b) 500 kg c) 900 kg d) 1000 kg
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Chapter 3 Interpret drawing, specifications and data and describe the use of IT in the sector
1. What is the colour of propane gas cylinders? a) Black b) Maroon c) Red d) Blue 2. What is the colour of an acetylene cylinder used for oxyacetylene welding? a) Orange b) Black c) Green d) Maroon 3. A specification for a project contains information on the: a) materials and workmanship b) terms of the contract c) labour cost of site employees d) stages of the work completed. 4. A 5mm length shown on a drawing to represent a true length of 1m is drawn to a scale of: a) 1:50 b) 1:100 c) 1:200 d) 1:500 5. The drawing used to show the relationship of a proposed building site to existing roads, buildings and spaces is: a) a detailed drawing b) an assembly drawing c) a site plan d) a block plan.
2. The device used to step the voltage up to grid values is a: a) transformer b) turbine c) alternator d) generator. 3. The tool used to mark the position of a hole in metal prior to drilling is called a: a) centre punch b) nail punch c) hole punch d) profile punch. 4. A burr inside a pipe should be removed by: a) a half round file b) a flat file c) a hacksaw blade d) a cold chisel 5. Why should painted ladders not be used? a) Because it can hide defects. b) Painting makes wood shrink. c) Painting makes the rungs slippery and unsafe. d) Painting makes the wood brittle. 6. A compression fitting which requires the end of the copper pipe to be worked is referred to as a: a) non-manipulative fitting b) primofit fitting c) manipulative fitting d) victaulic fitting.
Chapter 5 Calculate and quantify from drawings and set and mark out
1. One litre of water has a mass of a) 6.25 kg b) 1 kg c) 10 kg d) 14.7 kg 2. The formula for calculating the area of a circle is: a) r2 b) r c) 2r d) r3
Chapter 4 Tools and the work processes used in the MES sector
1. Who should operate a plant and equipment? a) Only people over 18 years old. b) Experience employers. c) Trained and authorised employees. d) Employee holding a full driving licence.
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3. How many litres of water can be stored in a tank measuring 3m 2m 1m high? a) 5000 litres b) 6000 litres c) 1600 litres d) 1200 litres 4. If a cylinder has a diameter of 500mm, what will be the minimum length of strap required to go round the cylinder? a) 1.67m b) 1.57m c) 1500mm d) 1600mm
4. Where a water service pipe enters the building it should be: a) taken up above the damp proof course before entering the building b) fixed in the cavity wall c) sleeved through the outside wall and brought up on an inside wall d) taken below the foundations e) taken through the wall and brought up on the inside face of an external wall.
Answers
Chapter 1 1. C 2. C 3. C 4. B 5. D Chapter 2 1. C 2. A 3. D Chapter 3 1. C 2. D 3. A 4. C 5. D Chapter 4 1. C 2. A 3. A 4. B 5. A 6. B Chapter 5 1. B 2. A 3. B 4. B Chapter 6 1. C 2. A 3. B 4. C
Chapter 6 Understanding building construction methods and the materials used in the MES sector
1. When working on a central heating system, you come across some pipe work insulated with a hard white powdery material that could be asbestos. What should you do? a) While wearing a face mask, remove the material and dispose of it safely. b) Remove the material, putting it back on the pipe work after finishing the job. c) Stop work immediately and tell your supervisor about the material. d) Damp the material down with water and remove it before carrying out the work. 2. When working with fibre glass roof insulation, which of the following items of personal protective (PPE) should you wear? a) Gloves, face mask and eye protection. b) Boots, eye protection and ear defenders. c) Ear defenders, face mask and boots. d) Barrier cream, eye protection and face mask. 3. To prevent the plaster cracking, when a copper pipe passes through a wall it should have a: a) flexible joint b) metal sleeve c) plaster filled joint d) cement mortar joint.
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Technical Certificate Core Units Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Page 1 Unit 101.1 Page 35 Unit 101.2 Page 65 Unit 101.3 Page 79 Unit 101.4 Page 115 Unit 101.5 Page 133 Unit 101.6
The following table details how the Hvacr training materials resource (joint initiative by Harcourt & SummitSkills) matches to the units requirements of the core units of the H&V and RAC Technical Certificate.
The MES sector, the main bodies & organisations within the sector & the basic safety & communication issues that apply
Identify the physical forces that have an impact on the MES sector
Interpret drawings, specifications, data and describe the use of IT in the sector
Calculate & quantify from drawings and mark and set out
Understand building construction methods and the materials used in the MES sector
The following table details how the Hvacr training materials resource (joint initiative by Harcourt & SummitSkills) matches to the common core units requirements of the Heating & Ventilating and Refrigeration & Air Conditioning S/NVQ Level 2. Heating & Ventilating and Refrigeration & Air Conditioning S/NVQ Common Core Units/elements Unit 2 Maintain effective working relationships Element 2.1 Element 3.1 Element 3.2 Unit 3 Contribute to the improvement of business products & services for Hvacr activities Element 3.3
Unit 1 Maintain the safe working environment for Hvacr work activities Element 1.2
Element 1.1
The MES sector, the main bodies & organisations within the sector & the basic safety & communication issues that apply Pages 11-18, 2029, 34 Pages 2-10, 14, 16, 18, 28-34 Pages 1-5, 13-16, 18, 27-34 Pages 43, 59, 60 N/A Pages 36-37, 4041, 43-45 Pages 66, 68-78
Identify the physical forces that have an impact on the MES sector Page 71 Pages 68, 71-73 Pages 66, 68-78
Pages 58-61
Interpret drawings, specifications, data and describe the use of IT in the sector
Pages 74-78
Page 76
Pages 80, 82, 86, 88, 90-92, 101, 105-106, 108, 112-114 N/A
Pages 115-116
Pages 91-92
Pages 88-92
Calculate & quantify from drawings and mark and set out N/A
Page 115-116
Pages 116, 120122 Pages 143, 147148 Pages 144, 147148 Pages 141, 144
Pages 120-121
Page 126
Understand building construction methods and the materials used in the MES sector
Pages 133-148
Mapping documents
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Index
Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Industry 5 engineers 80 alloys 89, 95 anaerobic adhesive 92 AMICUS 4 beam folder 100 bending 98-106, 127 hand bending 103 hot bending 101-102 pipe bending 127 safety 101 sheet materials 97 spring back 99 chemistry 53 combustion 59 corrosion 60-61 metals 57-59 reactions 54, 56 symbols 54 interpreting 115-117 MES 69 scaled views 67 sectional view 67 symbols and abbreviations 70 three dimensional view 67-68 title block 66 core drill 97 shanks 96-97 twist drill 96
chisel 113 chop saw 113-114 clamp folder see beam folder communication 30-33 face-to-face 30 letters/memos 33 phone 30 text message 31 time sheets 33 written 31
drilling 96-97
blades 109-110 bolts 81-82 boom lift see working at height buildings construction 134-135, 140 types 134
Construction Design and Management Regulations (CDM) 13 construction materials 139 Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) 8, 11 copper tube 144, 145-146 bending 103-105 marking out 130-131
elements 55 energy 38 engineers role 80, 116 excavations 23 files 107-109 fire safety 16-19 causes of fire 16 fire extinguishers 18, 19
building management systems 76 calculations area 118 quantity 118-119 volume 118
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Index
fire plans 12 fire prevention 17-18 fire triangle 17 first aid 12, 28 first aid for electric shock 28 fixing devices 92-96 heavy 94 light 93-94 screw 94-95
heat values 49 in building 143 jointing 88-91 properties 48 scales 48-49 transfer 51-52
manual handling 24-25 guide weights 26 Manual Handling Operations Regulations 8, 24 marking out 119-131 accuracy 120 and building structure holes 126 and drilling 125 and pipework 126 bends 127-128 errors 121-122 pipe offset 128-129 progressive errors 120-121 techniques 122-124 tools 119
Heating and Ventilating Contractor Association (HVCA) 4 heating and ventilation (H&V) 2 engineers 80 hot work permits 90-91 hydraulic press bender 105106 marking out 129-130
flange joint 81 floor construction 136-137 folding 97, 98 folding bar 99 force 38, 40, 44 action and reaction 41 centre of gravity 42 equilibrium 42-43 fusion welding 90
information technology (IT) 74-77 building management system 76 disadvantages 77-78 office based 74 on site 75
mass 38, 50-51 mechanical advantage 39 MES sector and building 141-142 drawings 69 joining 2-3 materials 144-148 principle organisations 45 qualified engineers see engineers service coding 71-72 trades 2
gas cylinders identification 72 hacksaw 110 hand bender 104 hand shears 111 Health and safety 8-12 electrical safety 26-28 heating 90 legal requirements 8 legislation 8 prevention of accidents 11 safety rules 10 soldering 89 tool care 88 health and safety plan 13
isolation 11 jointing 80-91 adhesive 91-92 crimps 87 electrofusion 90 heat 88-91 mechanical methods 8188
mobile scaffold tower see working at height moment theory 40-41 National Vocational Qualifications (NVQs) 2-3 oils 55 personal presentation 29 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) 10, 16
Ladders see working at height legislation access online 75 and specifications 71 health and safety 8
Health and Safety at Work Act (HASAWA) 9 heat 48-53, 88-91 capacity 49 density 50 expansion and contraction 52-53
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scale 67, 117 scissor lift see working at height screws 93 fixings 94-95 types 95
mobile scaffold tower 2122 scissor lift 22 offset hex 87 pipe 84 socket 81 spud 87 stillson 84 torque 81
wrenches
pipe cutting 112-113 pipe joints 83-92 compression 86-87 threaded 84-86
seaming 83 service engineers 80 SI units 36-37 soldering 88 brazing 89 safety 90, 91 silver soldering 89 soft soldering 88-89
pipe offset 128-129 pipelines identification 72 plastics 55-56, 146-147 plugs 93 power (measurement) 39 powered jigsaw 111 pressure 45-48 atmospheric pressure 47 gas pressure 47, 50 hydrostatic pressure 46 measurement 47-48 project roles 6-7
solvent weld 91-92 spanners 81, 82 specifications 71 stand bender 104 states of matter 50, 53 steel pipe 144-145 steel pipe bending 105 hot bending 106 marking out 129-130
project management 5 pulley system 44-45 radiation 51-52 Refridgeration and air conditioning (RAC) 2 engineers 80 repairs 92 reports 31 service/maintenance 31, 32 technical 31
velocity 40 wall construction 135-136 water 54-55 weight (measurement) 38 work (measurement) 38 working at height 12, 20-22 boom lift 22 ladders 20-21
residual current device (RCD) 27 riveted joints 83 roll bender 100 roofing 137-139 safety signs 14 sawing sheet 109
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