Neural basis for memory

The role of the neuron in memory formation Kandel Kandel experimented on Aplysia (sea slugs). His research suggests that, during learning, neurons increase production of neurotransmitters ejected into the synapse, resulting in an increase in synaptic transmission and the formation of a chemical trace of the information. Three changes to the neurons of Aplysia: 1. Function more neurotransmitters are released 2. Axons and dendrites create more branches to strengthen connections between neurons 3. Synaptic growth more synaptic connections are formed that also strengthen connections between neurons STM storage increase in release of neurotransmitter, but no structural changes. LTM storage - all three changes occur Temporal lobe Assists in memory of language specifically for naming familiar objects, places and faces and for constructing fluent, articulate and coherent speech. Also involved in the memory of facts, personally significant events and familiar routines. The left temporal lobe stores information such as names of familiar people, animals and tools as well as factual information and personal event that can be expressed in words. The right temporal lobe stores information for recognising familiar faces, music and pictures. Hippocampus Assists memory formation, sorting and storage and the transfer of information from STM to LTM. Damage can lead to permanent short-term and long-term memory dysfunction. People with hippocampal damage find it difficult to learn new factual information, however, their ability to learn new skills or procedures appears unaffected.

Role of the amygdala The amygdala (pronounced uh-MIG-duh-luh) isa small structure (about 1.5 centimetres long) located next to and interconnected with the hippocampus in the medial temporal lobe. Like most other brain structures, we have an amygdala in each hemisphere. The amygdala plays crucial roles in processing and regulating emotional reactions, particularly strong emotions such as fear and anger. For example, your amygdala enables you to detect possible danger when approached by a snarling dog and to recognise fearful expressions in others from their facial expressions before they even say a word. The amygdala has memory functions as well. In particular, it is involved in the encoding and storage of memories that have a significant emotional component (sometimes called emotional memories). People and animals with amygdala damage show reduced ability to acquire conditioned (learned) emotional responses and to interpret or express a variety of emotions.
Consolidation theory The theory that it takes approximately 30 minutes for information to be transferred from STM to LTM, during which time brain cells change as a chemical memory trace of the information is laid down. Interruptions to the consolidation process can result in information loss or damage. 1

Amnesia; neurodegenerative diseases.

Amnesia Involves permanent or temporary, partial or complete memory loss. Retrograde Amnesia is memory loss for events prior to the amnesia-causing event. Backward acting memory loss. Retrograde amnesia is usually temporary. The period of time immediately before the accident or trauma is never recovered. Anterograde Amnesia is memory loss following the amnesia causing event. Forward acting memory loss. New memories cannot be formed. Korsakoffs Syndrome is a neurodegenerative disease involving damage to brain structures and occurs mainly in chronic or long-term alcoholics. The disease is linked to a deficiency of vitamin B in the diet. People with this syndrome have difficulty forming new memories. Neurodegenerative diseases A disease characterised by a progressive decline in the structure, activity and function of brain tissue. Neurons are damaged or die and lose their function. This tends to happen as we age. Dementia Dementia is a term used to describe a variety of symptoms of a large group of illnesses that cause a progressive decline in a persons mental functioning. Most common symptoms: memory loss, decline in intellectual ability, poor judgment, poor social skills and abnormal emotional reactions. Memory loss is typically the first symptom. Alzheimers disease is the most common form of dementia. Alzheimers Disease An irreversible, progressive and fatal neurodegenerative disease that attacks the brain and kills brain cells, causing severe cognitive and behavioural decline. Symptoms: memory loss, forgetfulness, confusion, poor judgment, disorientation, impaired attention. As it progresses, mood and personality can change and loss of other functions (ability to talk, walk, control bladder, etc) can occur. Earliest damage occurs in the hippocampus. This is slowly followed by a loss of neurons and synapses in the cerebral cortex, particularly in the temporal lobe, parietal lobe and frontal lobe. There is no single known cause of Alzheimers disease. There are unusual webs and tangles in brain cells leading to and from the hippocampus. This causes the neurons to die and the brain shrinks. Amyloid placques form in the brain. Amyloid is a protein. The placques collect on the outside of neurons and attach to them. The amyloid reacts with the copper and iron which are naturally occurring in the brain and rust the neurons. This destroys the synapses and neural messages can no longer be sent. In Alzheimers disease the brain also has neurofibrillary tangles, an abnormal build-up of proteins within neurons. The placques and tangles disrupt the normal organisation and communication between brain cells, causing them to die. 2

Alzheimers brains also have lower levels of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, which plays a role in the formation of memory. First decline in declarative memory, followed by procedural memory, as the disease progresses. Memory decline over the lifespan Memory function does not automatically decline with age, but information is processed more slowly. This is due to the slowing down of the nervous system. Memory performance for older people can be influenced by the retention measure chosen, the memory type tested, the meaningfulness and complexity of learnt information, the persons attitude to their memory ability, t he effort they put into memorising information and how they actively try to strengthen their memory. Older people will be able to remember more information if asked to recognise it, rather than recall it. Episodic memory is affected more by normal ageing than other memory types.