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On August 15, 1961, young photographer Peter Leibing took the famous photograph of border guard Schumann of East Germany leaping over a barbwire fence. That same fence would later become a highly secured concrete structure that divided the city of Berlin and become known as the Berlin Wall. Two days after this photograph was taken Berlin was sealed off and the image became a symbol of the people of Berlin being torn apart by a physical barrier that divided their city and their families (Epler 73). The Wall was actually two concrete barriers with a wide strip in between. In some areas the Wall almost touched the houses (Epler 61). It was 28 miles long where it cut through the center of Berlin. It split the city into two sides. East Berlin, that represented communism, the political and economic system of the Soviet Union (USSR), and West Berlin that represented democracy and capitalism, the political and economic system of the United States of America and of Western Europe. Many historians believe that the Cold War

began with the construction of the Wall.***** They also believe that the massive revolt that lead to the fall of the Wall on November 9th 1989, almost thirty years later, symbolized that the Soviet Union was beginning to lean towards democracy, that it was weakening, and that the Cold War was coming to an end. After World War II Berlin became a keystone in the balance of power between east and west (Parker 2003). This is one of the many reasons why the construction of the wall became a symbol of the Cold War. The construction of the Berlin Wall was the final step in a series of events that lead to the rise of the two superpowers the, US and the USSR, and the rivalry between them that became known as the Cold War. The Wall represented this division, and the people of Berlin were caught in this terrible game for almost thirty years. In order to understand how the Berlin Wall became this powerful symbol, it is necessary to

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describe the events that lead to the construction of the Wall.

Despite their mistrust for each other, during World War II the United States (US) and the Russia were allies against Germany and the Nazis, along with Britain and France. Germany surrendered in the spring of 1945 when Russia invaded Berlin. Berlin had paid a very high price during the war and it was completely destroyed. At the end of the war, the European Advisory Commission decided to divide Germany into four sectors that would be controlled by the Allies in order to ensure that Germany would not be able to build their military strength. In Berlin, twelve boroughs, or 188 square miles were given to Britain, France and the US. This became the Western Sector. The Soviet Union was given 10 boroughs, about 144 square miles. This became known as the Eastern Sector. ******This arrangement was intended to be temporary, but tension between the West and the East became evident very quickly. The West mistrusted the East under Stalins oppressive dictatorship. The West encouraged democracy and several political parties were formed. Industry remained in private hands. The East formed the German Socialist Party and dismantled the factories and sent everything to Russia (Epler 24). Immediately after the war, the Soviets set up communist governments in the countries where they had driven the Germans away: Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, and Romania. These countries were increasingly cut off from the West. In 1954, Winston Churchill declared, An iron curtain has descended across the continent (Buckley 13). Soon after, the U.S. announced the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan, both were initiatives designed to provided aid and technical support to rebuild Europe. President Truman described these interventions as Americas answer to the challenge

Helena Torres Page 3 of 10 facing the free world (Epler 30). Stalin considered these interventions a threat and he strengthened the Iron Curtain with fences guarded with watchtowers, dogs and armed soldiers. Eventually Berlin became the only crossing point. By 1948 the tension between the East and West Berlin had escalated dramatically. In Berlin the movement of people between East and West was becoming more and more difficult. The Western powers had decided to use one single currency, but the Soviets refused to agree. The West introduced the German Mark, and the soviets began to use their own currency. They also began to shut West Berlin from the rest of the world. This became know as the Berlin Blockade. The Soviets cut off all access to all ports, railroads and roads. Without transportation, the West would starve in a matter of weeks. The Soviets demanded that all Western troops leave Berlin. However, the West fought back. Planes from all over the world began to drop supplies, and the people of West Berlin showed courage by rationing their supplies and not giving in. If Stalin shot the planes down, it would make him look very bad. The Americans stationed B-29 bombers in Britain prepared to bomb the Soviets if necessary. The Blockade lasted almost a year, until finally the Soviets gave up and backed-off. The Blockade showed that the both sides were willing to fight back and the Cold War had begun (Nigel 13). Germany was no longer the enemy, now it was the Soviets, and the Germans did not see the Western Armies as occupiers, but as protectors from the Soviets. The blockade motivated Western Europe to form the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1949. The original twelve countries were the United States, the United Kingdom (UK), Canada, France, Denmark, Iceland, Italy, Norway, Portugal, Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxembourg. NATOs goal was to create a general alliance

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between these countries, allowing them to lend weaponry, provide money, and overall be one large community. Of course, one of their main goals was to rid Berlin of communism and unite Berlin, and most of all, to control Soviet power and its threat to the Western world. As countries behind the iron curtain became more isolated, and the Cold War tension developed, the only crossing point between East and West was Checkpoint Charlie, an intersection in Berlin. It was the only place where foreigners and members of the Western Allies could cross into East Berlin. It was becoming more and more difficult for people to move from East to West. Life in the West offered more freedom and more economic benefits. Life in the East was sad. Freedom was restricted, and the city looked gray and run-down (Nigel 15). Living on the East was very difficult. The East was loosing workers to the West, especially young professionals. Suddenly there were rumors that a Wall would be built to stop the movement of people. Ulbricht, who was the Chair of the German Democratic Republic, (East Berlin) convinced Khrushchev, the Premier of the USSR (after Stalin), that a Wall was necessary. On August 13, 1961, Berlin woke up to city divided by barbed wire, and armed soldiers who stopped anyone who tried going from East to the West. Within days there were giant cement blocks next to the barbed wire and within two months the Berlin Wall was built. The Berlin wall became almost like a stage where both East and West played out each side of the Cold War conflict and it represented the division and differences between East and West. It was also the most recognized symbol of the harsh rules, repressive policies, and denial of freedom of communism. East Berliners were not allowed to cross to the West, they were not allowed near the Wall or they would be shot, the Wall had to

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remain blank, grey, untouched. If anybody tried to put graffiti they would be shot. Saying anything negative about the Soviet Union or communism was illegal and you would be arrested or publicly executed. Speaking rudely or offensively to a soldier could result in being shot. In the beginning, East Germans tried to jump over the Wall, by jumping from second story windows. Many succeeded, but others died. Then people tried to climb over the Wall, using ropes and pulleys, while people in the West tried to help them. One of the saddest stories is of Peter Fechter, and 18-year-old East Berliner, and his friend, who discovered an empty building with a window where they could jump. After they landed and ran towards the West, they had to cross barbed wire and climb the Wall. His friend made it, but Peter panicked and the border guards shot at him, he began to climb, but got stuck on the barbed wire and could not move. West Germans, including journalists, came to the scene. People wanted to help him but were afraid of being shot. He slowly bled to death crying for help and repeated Hilfe, the name of his sister who was on the West. Almost an hour passed and people on the West cried out for someone to help Peter. Finally the East German police finally took his body away. After his death riots broke out in West Berlin. He was the 50th Berliner to die trying to cross the Wall (Nigel 72). There were attempts to drive through the Wall in buses, and even a train conductor who tried to drive the train carrying his family and friends over the track to the West. There were many stories of tunnels that were used to escape. Perhaps the best known is Harry Seidel, a cycling champion, who helped hundreds of people escape through a tunnel, before he was captured and sentenced to life in a hard labor camp. Others tried to swim across canals. One couple built a hot air balloon and after several attempts, were able to carry 8 people to freedom. In the first two years after the Wall was built 16, 500 people

Helena Torres Page 6 of 10 escaped, 68 people died and 618 were shot at. Maaz, an East Berlin psychiatrist wrote, I am sure that for most East German citizens the question of staying or fleeing became enormously important and had to be addressed almost daily. Every time it was discovered that a friend or acquaintance was suddenly gone, the subject of flight came us with a new intensity (Maaz 139) On the West, people were free. They could leave Berlin, they could cover the Wall with graffiti, they could travel to the East if they had a special pass, they could protest or help East Berliners escape (catch people jumping to the West, encourage East Berliners to escape, etc.), they could yell and complain about communist governments and the Soviets, and they were also allowed throw explosives such as gas bombs, teargas, and other things into East Berlin. Time passed and West Germany became one the strongest economies in Europe. There was new construction, the war damage began to disappear, university students were active, independent and spoke openly and freely, and tourists were welcome. On the other hand East Germany was dull, with little shops with few items for sale. Food was scarce and so was gas and fuel. We in West Berlin, especially the ones in West Germany who didn't really see and feel the Wall, it was different then. We got kind of, well, familiar (Conan). Also, the quality of the food in East Berlin was terrible. I remember walking through and seeing an outdated playground for kids. Everything was rusty and everything was kind of stale. We were really hungry and we saw what looked like a restaurant, and they had outside, in the window, cakes. And it's - boy it looked good. When went inside, and the cake was terrible. (Conan). Maaz described the East Berliners mental attitude The loss of vitality, emotion, and flow of pleasureThe impaired autonomy that followed the

Helena Torres Page 7 of 10 repressive compulsion to conform (Maaz 103). In 1968 in East Germany the right to emigrate and to strike were eliminated. Information was controlled and the secret police kept file on citizens. Many families were split and communication was limited until 1971, when telephone service between both sides was reconnected. On June 1963, 22 months after the Wall was built, President Kenney visited West Germany and gave a speech, All free men, wherever they may live, are citizens of Berlin, and, therefore, as a free man, I take pride in the words "Ich bin ein Berliner!" (Epler 79). His words let Khrushchev, the first leader and secretary of the communist party, know that the United States was not going to stand by and let East Germany occupy West Germany. During the 60s and 70s the Cold War continued to escalate throughout the world and these events indirectly impacted the city of Berlin. Many of these events played out the same drama of a divided Berlin and the conflicts between East and West that occurred in there, only at a larger scale. The Cuban Missile Crisis was when an American spy found nuclear weaponry in Cuba, and learned that Cuba was planning to threaten the US with the missiles that were partially from the Soviet Union. Kennedy put a Blockade around Cuba and told Khrushchev to disable the missiles in Cuba. This event had many of same characteristics of the Berlin Blockade; The Vietnam War began when North Vietnam, a communist country, wanted to overthrow South Vietnam, an anti-communist country. The US was worried that if South Vietnam became communist, all the countries around it Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Burma, India, and Bangladesh would fall into communism. This was called the Domino Theory. The war in Vietman, and division in this country between North and South resembled the divided city of Berlin in many ways. Civil wars broke out

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in Nicaragua and El Salvador with the US and USSR and funding and arming opposing factions. In the 80s new political leaders emerged, and the Cold War slowly began to thaw. Ronald Reagan became the US president, and Helmut Kohl became the Chancellor of West Germany and he helped Germany become one of the richest countries in the world. In 1981, in Poland the Solidarity movement emerged as a movement against communism. The leaders of the movement were stopped by the soviets, but this triggered changes. When Gorbachev became the chosen as the Secretary of the Communist Party in the Soviet Union, things really began to change. He began to talk about changes that needed to be made to the soviet economy. In the USSR the situation had gotten worse. Then he established glasnost meaning that things would be more open, emigration control would be less strict, and human rights would be respected. Then he introduced perestroika, or restructuring. This meant very big changes to the government and the introduction of democracy. In East Germany they were watching these changes but they were sure that if they did the same, people would flee to the West. Gorbachev knew the USSR was bankrupt, so he wanted to lessen spending in military weaponry. Reagan was suspicious, but he was convinced that the time had come to have a peaceful relationship with the Soviet Union. November 1985, the two leaders met in Switzerland and established good relations. They agreed to reduce nuclear missiles in Europe and discussed reducing non-nuclear weaponry as well. In 1987 President Reagan visited Germany and gave his famous speech:

We welcome change and openness; for we believe that freedom and

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security go together, that the advance of human liberty can only strengthen the cause of world peace. There is one sign the Soviets can make that would be unmistakable, that would advance dramatically the cause of freedom and peace. General Secretary Gorbachev, if you seek peace, if you seek prosperity for the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, if you seek liberalization, come here to this gate. Mr. Gorbachev, open this gate. Mr. Gorbachev, Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this Wall! (Reagan 1987).

The fall of the Soviet Union came soon after the agreement was made between the two leaders. Gorbachev had a weak hold on the Soviet Union and his government was quickly collapsing. The USSR became bankrupt and the communist opponents realized that they were falling. Between May of 1989 and March of 1990, Hungary, East Germany, Bulgaria, Romania, and Czechoslovakias communist governments were overthrown. The Iron Curtain began to dissolve and crumble. On November 3rd 1989, The Final Protest occurred in Berlin on the West. It was made up of over 500,000 people and lasted 3 days. Gorbachev made the decision to remove the wall Orly three days after the protest. The protest would have continued if he had not changed his mind. November 6th, 1989, Gorbachev spread announced that the border would open. A border guard yelled from a watchtower, The Berlin Wall will fall in a matter of days! Berlin rejoiced, but the wall was yet to fall (Maaz 67). Then on November 9th, From my 18-year-old perspective, the wall had always been there, and I had no reason to doubt that it would remain there forever. The news of the wall coming down was like somebody telling me that the Eurasian and North American tectonic plates

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had reversed course overnight, and that from now on you could stroll from Hamburg to Boston. (Niemman).

The Berlin Wall played a key role at the beginning of the Cold War and at the end. The Berlin Wall was the last brick in the line that divided Europe, and the day it fell it let the world know that the Cold War was coming to an end and people wanted more freedom and democracy. The images that were broadcast around the world of Berliners with sledgehammers pounding and tearing down the Wall that had divided their families, their city and their country, impacted the world, and became a symbol of freedom. In December 1989 Gorbachev and Bush announced the end of the Cold War. There is a photograph, with no credit, that appears frequently when researching the Berlin Wall: a little boy, perhaps six or seven years old, breaking the wall with a pickaxe. His parents were most likely born after the wall was built and but lived through the division of Berlin. This child had the opportunity to grow in a city that continues to struggle with many aspects of reunification, even after 20 years. At least the people of Berlin are struggling together.

By October 3, 1961, the Berlin Wall was completed. It ranged from nine to twelve feet in height, there were 193 watchtowers, and 208 bunkers. Over 30,000 troops stood guard with their dogs, weapons, alarms and floodlights.