Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
By G. M. HOKE
Author of Refining Precious Metal Wastes
THIRD EDITION
All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced
in any form without permission of the publishers.
PRINTED IN U. S. A.
T H E JEWELERS TECHNICAL ADVICE COMPANY was founded in
1912, when platinum was first coming into use as a jewelry metal.
Its manager, Sam W. Hoke, was a pioneer in the technology of
platinum. He patented a series of oxygen-gas torches, used for
melting and welding platinum, soldering gold and platinum
jewelry, melting quartz glass, etc.
In 1912 the melting of platinum was possible in only a few
plants in the whole world; today it is a commonplace in even the
smaller jewelry factories.
C. M. Hoke, the writer of this book, has a background of uni-
versity training in chemistry and biology, as well as experience in
the teaching of chemistry. For years she has devoted her time to
instructing jewelers and others in refining, melting, salvaging and
finishing the precious metals, and in developing equipment for
the control of compressed gases.
Foreword
Foreword 7
Golds 11
Appendix 83
A. A List of Equipment.
B. When Handling Strong Acids.
C. How to Determine Specific Gravity.
D. A Table of Metals, their Melting Points and Specific
Gravities, and their Responses to Acids and to the
Oxy-Gas Flame.
E. Some Definitions and Formulas.
Index 91
CHAPTER I
THE FILE
The experienced gold-buyer always begins by filing a deep
notch in the article, in order to penetrate any outer layers, and he
may learn immediately that the gold is only skin deep. Medium-
priced jewelry—rolled-gold or gold-filled goods—consists of a core
of inexpensive metal to which an outer layer of karat gold has
been affixed. The core is usually brass; occasionally it is a gold al-
loy of lower karat; and during World War II use was made of a
sterling silver core, instead of brass, because wartime regulations
forbade the use of brass for jewelry manufacture. Low-priced
novelties are apt to be electroplated and their surface film of pre-
cious metal is very thin indeed.
Most high-grade articles are flash-finished with a light electro-
deposit of pure gold, and when new may be further protected by
lacquer. While these latter films can be removed by a few strokes
of the file, the heavier coatings, such as those found in gold-filled
or rolled-gold goods, are pierced only by a deeply-filed notch. Ac-
cordingly, as we said, the experienced buyer always begins by
filing a deep notch.
NITRIC ACID
The first acid bottle contains chemically pure (C.P.) nitric acid,
full strength, which can be bought from a drugstore or supply
house. This acid attacks the majority of metals, and will destroy
skin, clothing, woodwork, and so on, and therefore must be han-
dled with care. If you should get acid on your skin or clothing, im-
mediately wash it off with much water—hold your hand under the
faucet and let the water run on it freely—and very little harm will
be done. If no running water is nearby, provide a basin of water
for immediate use if needed.
Note that the glass stopper of the acid bottle is extended into a
long tongue. With this tongue, apply a small drop of nitric acid
to each of your metal articles, on a clean surface or in a freshly-cut
notch, and watch the results, noting the color changes, if any. After
a half minute, rinse the acid off with plenty of water, dry, and see
if the metal has been attacked.
Brass or copper boils up instantly and the acid turns green. Gold
of 6-karat# or lower will be attacked almost as promptly, and will
show a green color, due to the copper with which it is alloyed; 10-k
will darken; ordinary gold of 12-k or better will show little or no
reaction.
* The term karat means a twenty-fourth part, and expresses the proportion
of gold in an alloy. Thus pure gold is 24-k; 6-k gold is 6/24ths (or i/4) gold, the
remaining i8/24ths being some other metal or metals. Pure gold is also de-
scribed as "fine" gold, or as being "1000 fine," and 6-k gold is sometimes spoken
of as "250 fine."
In general, any metal of the yellow color of gold that will stand
this nitric acid test, may be assumed to be gold or a gold alloy.
Note that we say of yellow color, for there are several white metals,
such as platinum and stainless steel, that resist nitric acid.
If possible, get a friend to hand you some unstamped articles of
whose quality he is sure; examine these "unknowns" and report
to him regarding their character, repeating the tests until you have
learned how the various metals and alloys respond to the acid test.
AQUA REGIA
Aqua regia is a mixture of nitric acid and hydrochloric acid.
The name means royal water, and was used by the ancients be-
cause the mixture dissolves gold, the noble metal. Practically the
same results are obtained by adding a little table salt to diluted ni-
tric acid. When aqua regia is first made up, chlorine is evolved, a
noxious gas which attacks metals and should not be permitted to
reach machinery, balances, and so on. Nor should the mixture
be kept in a stoppered bottle, for the evolving gas might break the
container.
Because of this (and also because it spoils on standing) aqua
regia should be made up only as needed. Mix it the same way
every time; the exact proportions are not important, but get ac-
customed to a certain mixture and continue to use it.
It is possible to mix the two acids right on the stone, after mak-
ing the streaks; that is, draw a little nitric acid across the streaks,
then add a little hydrochloric acid, letting the two acids run to-
gether. This is not good practice, however, because each stopper
becomes contaminated with the other acid, creating confusion.
A better plan is this: With a medicine dropper measure out ten
drops of nitric acid into a tiny bottle; add ten drops of water, pre-
ferably distilled; then using a clean dropper add two drops of hy-
drochloric acid. This gives you enough aqua regia for about a
dozen tests. Wash your medicine droppers after every usage.
Returning then to the streak that was not affected by plain nitric
acid, wash and dry the stone, and apply aqua regia with a small
glass rod or a clean medicine dropper. Even fine gold is attacked
by aqua regia. By comparing the response with first one standard
needle, then another, you can determine the quality of your un-
known.
This test differs slightly in principle from the nitric acid test, in
that aqua regia dissolves the gold molecules as well as those of most
base metals.
Some workers make up their aqua regia with even more water
than above, because the reactions proceed more slowly with the
dilute mixture and therefore are easier to compare. Some workers
use a different proportion of hydrochloric acid.
Note the color changes. Fine gold when dissolved gives a yellow
color, but this is usually masked by the green color of the copper
that is almost always present in gold alloys. Nickel, used in most
white golds, also gives a green color. Silver when treated with
aqua regia, forms a cheesy white substance on the stone which may
well confuse a beginner. Because of the influence of the alloying
elements, it is well, if possible, to use yellow gold standard needles
when testing yellow gold unknowns, green gold needles with green
gold unknowns, and so on.
GREEN GOLDS
Green gold alloys, especially those of high quality, contain con-
siderable silver and little or no copper. The response of silver to
aqua regia is peculiar, as we shall find in a subsequent chapter.
Green golds respond more slowly to aqua regia than yellow golds
of the same karat, and may lead you to think that they are more
DENTAL ALLOYS
There are dozens of dental alloys in use, ranging in value from
iridio-platinum pins, through the wrought and casting golds and
high-karat solders, down to the amalgams, base metal "technic"
alloys, and occasional pieces of stainless steel and aluminum that
may find employment in dental work.
Some dental fillings are almost pure gold. If a piece of yellow
metal has been in use in the mouth for some time and still presents
a tarnish-free surface, it probably is gold of good quality, and
should respond to the acid and touchstone tests in much the same
manner as the jewelry alloys. Do not be deceived by the word
solder as used in dentistry; it may refer to a gold alloy of high value,
used to join together the parts of a denture.
The tendency today is away from the conspicuous yellow golds
and toward the white alloys—white golds and alloys containing
platinum-group metals—which will be discussed fully in a later
chapter.
Dental golds do not carry the quality stamps that are commonly
found on jewelry, hence gold buyers who distrust their own ability
to appraise metals often refuse to quote on dental alloys. For that
reason the buyer who can appraise properly, will find excellent op-
portunities in this field.
T H E FLAME TEST
If you can turn the flame of an air-gas or oxygen-gas blowpipe
on a piece of suspected metal, you can, within a few seconds, ob-
tain an excellent idea of its nature. Nickel, chromium, brass, and
most other base metals promptly turn black. Most base metals
will melt, forming oxides of characteristic color and form. White
gold alloys will melt promptly in the oxy-gas flame; more slowly in
air-gas. Or, if the flame is removed before actual melting occurs, a
definite darkening is visible. This is also true of sterling silver.
Fine silver when molten absorbs oxygen, and on cooling expells
it with violent spitting and "crabbing". This tendency is less con-
spicuous with sterling and coin silver.
Stainless steel soon shows a darkening; if heated further it will
ignite and burn with a hissing and sparkling flame; the final result
will be a shapeless lump of black oxides.
Tungsten, tantalum, and molybdenum change color at low tem-
peratures, and soon begin to burn in the oxy-gas flame, though they
will not become actually molten.
The response of platinum and its high grade alloys to a flame
is highly characteristic. (By high grade alloys we mean iridio-
platinum, or others in which only precious metals are present.)
Suppose you bring the metal to a brilliant red heat, then remove
the flame. There will be no darkening whatever. Heat it still fur-
ther using an oxy-gas flame, and melt it; it melts smoothly and
cleanly, without forming any oxide or crust. When the button
cools, it will be white and smooth. Base metals, treated in that
way, become a mass of clinkered oxides.
Palladium and alloys rich in palladium show colored oxides at
about 4000 C, but when heated further these disappear, and if
the metal is cooled quickly they will not have time to form again
and the cooled button will be free from tarnish.
Molten palladium absorbs very large volumes of gases, and if
the flame is removed suddenly the gases are expelled violently. The
button that remains will be distorted and honeycombed with
bubbles.
Low grade platinum alloys when heated strongly will darken,
in proportion to the base metal present.
Fine gold, heated to redness, will cool without changing color.
But if even small amounts of base metal are present, the surface
after cooling will show a film of oxide.
The oxy-gas flame, if properly handled, is thus one of the most
illuminating of all quick tests, and the air-gas flame is almost as
useful. This test will be discussed again in Chapter IV, and a
chart showing the responses of several metals to the oxygen flame is
given in the Appendix.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
In general the precious metals are heavier than base metals, and
the experienced worker can obtain a hint as to the value of an
article merely by "hefting" it in his hand. This ratio between the
bulk and the weight of a substance, called its density or specific
gravity, is often helpful in identification. The student soon ob-
serves that platinum and its high grade alloys are somewhat
heavier than the white golds; while steel, nickel, silver, and most
of the base metals are so much lighter than platinum that there
is small excuse for a mistake.
Tungsten and tantalum are two base metals of very high specific
gravity, comparable with that of platinum. However their leaden
color, and the fact that they ignite under the oxy-gas flame and
form colored oxides, reduce the chances of confusion.
This method of identification, which has both its advantages
and its limitations, will be discussed again in Section C of Chapter
IV, and in the Appendix.
SlLVERPLATED GOODS
The recognition of silverplated ware is usually easy. File a deep
notch and apply nitric acid to the cut, and note the difference in
appearance and behavior of the silver surface and the base-metal
tains no silver at all. Sometimes a brass core is found. Both of
these core materials react quickly to nitric acid, causing it to bub-
ble and turn a deep green.
core. The favorite core material is a copper-nickel-zinc alloy
which is called "nickel silver" or "German silver/' but which con-
Ordinary silverplated ware is of such small value that refiners
and gold buyers normally refuse to buy it, so it is important to be
able to recognize it every time.
GOLD-ON-STERLING
In Chapter I we mentioned "gold" jewelry which was found to
consist of a sterling silver core to which a thin surface layer of
gold has been applied. The wearer may think of such jewelry as
gold, but to the buyer it is silver. At present silver prices it is not to
Thin sheets of karat gold are welded to one or more surfaces of a thick
billet of less expensive metal—usually brass or a nickel alloy, sometimes
sterling silver—and the whole is then rolled very thin. The resulting thin
sheet is used in making gold filled or rolled gold plate jewelry. In order to
meet U. S. standards the gold layer must be of at least 10-k quality. If the
weight of the karat gold is more than 1/20 of the total weight, the jewelry
may be stamped "gold filled" The term "rolled gold plate" is used when
the gold layer is thinner.
be ignored, and sometimes there is enough gold present to add a
little to the buyer's price.
This combination is normally recognized in the preliminary
tests involving nitric acid and a deeply-filed notch. Fresh, well-
made goods present a handsome gold-like appearance, but if the
gold film is thin, the silver soon tarnishes underneath the gold.
This combination attained special vogue during World War II
at the time when silver and fine gold were available, while copper
and nickel—the metals so generally used in the cores of inexpensive
jewelry—were subject to wartime restrictions. The fact that silver
responds only feebly to aqua regia has led some careless buyers to
misjudge the value of this combination, to their loss. Fortunately
for them, it is apt to be clearly stamped "Sterling." Sometimes
the outer layer of gold is of sufficient thickness and quality to class
the goods as "rolled gold" or "gold filled"; but these goods are
generally stamped with a quality mark; e.g., "Rolled Gold Plate on
Sterling" or "Sterling -f- 1/20— 12K."
SILVER SOLDERS
Silver solders, also called silver brazing alloys, are of many
formulas, containing from five percent to about eighty percent
silver, the balance being copper and zinc and perhaps some cad-
mium. Large amounts of these alloys have been consumed in
recent years, in dozens of applications, not only in the manufac-
ture of jewelry, but also in such jobs as the assembling of incendi-
ary bombs, the repair of ice-cream freezers, the construction of
equipment for the chemical industries, and many others. While
not of high intrinsic value, these silver brazing alloys should not
be ignored by the metal buyer, especially as they may often be
found in large quantities.
NICKEL-SILVER
The terms "nickel-silver" and "German silver" are applied to
an important series of white alloys in which copper, nickel and
zinc are the principal components. Both terms are highly mislead-
ing, since no silver at all is present, and many other names have
been suggested, including "nickel-brass" and synthetic words like
"Cunizin" and "Nicuzin," none of which have received general
favor.
Tableware and hollow-ware made of nickel-silver and electro-
plated with silver, nickel, or chromium, have been made in enor-
mous quantities. Rolled and filled gold jewelry, especially that
whose outer layer is white gold, is generally made on a nickel-silver
base; and there are dozens of other applications.
Accordingly it is important that the gold buyer be able to recog-
nize these nickel-silver alloys wherever found. They are attacked
vigorously by nitric acid, showing a strong green color because of
the copper and nickel content. When heated strongly they
darken; under the oxygen flame they ignite and burn to a black
clinker, meanwhile conferring a green color to the flame.
STAINLESS STEEL
This handsome but inexpensive alloy, stainless steel, has had
quite a vogue for sports jewelry, men's belt buckles, wrist watches,
etc. In appearance it resembles white gold or platinum. Oddly
enough it is not readily attacked by nitric acid nor by aqua regia,
and for that reason it has occasionally deceived unwary appraisers.
As we have indicated, some kinds are attracted to the magnet, some
are not.
It is considerably lighter in weight than either white gold or
platinum, and most jewelers will at once notice this lack of "heft".
As we mentioned above, it darkens under the oxy-gas flame, then
ignites and burns to a dark clinker.
But if you are in doubt about any article of white color and
noticeable hardness, which resists the action of nitric acid and of
aqua regia, pause a moment and then test it with plain hydro-
chloric acid.
If possible, heat either the article or the acid somewhat; hydro-
chloric acid attacks the stainless steels promptly, making a definite
spot or dissolving the streak in a short time. Sulphuric acid also at-
tacks stainless steel; so does a solution of ferric chloride. None of
these affects white gold or platinum.
RESISTANCE ALLOYS
There are dozens of more-or-less white alloys on the market,
which though not stainless steels by definition (since they contain
little or no iron) are often confused with them. We refer to those
heat- and corrosion-resisting alloys of which Stellite, Nichrome
and Illium are only three examples of a long list. Chromium,
cobalt, nickel, tungsten, silicon, manganese and other elements
may be present, and the number of formulas is legion. Occasion-
ally such alloys present an appearance that might confuse the
metal buyer, and many of them resist nitric acid surprisingly well.
But mostly they are lighter in weight than platinum or white gold,
and their crystalline structure and their "feel" under the file give
sufficient warning. Their melting points are high, but under the
strong heat of the oxy-gas flame they will ignite and burn, after the
manner of other base metals.
CONTACT POINTS
Electrical contact points must have high heat and electrical
conductivity, hardness, strength, and resistance to corrosion at
the high temperatures of the electric arc. Many metals and alloys
are being used in their manufacture—silver, copper, platinum-
group metals, tungsten, tungsten carbide, cobalt, and others. Some-
times a point consists of two alloys welded together, the combina-
tion then being brazed or welded to the device of which it is a
part, and many of the alloys involved are quite complex.
Old contact points can be quite a problem to the metal buyer.
Knowing that much platinum and iridium go into this market, he
is tempted to buy the things, even after experience has taught him
that he is more apt to lose than to profit when handling them.
The task of appraising them and recovering the precious metals,
if any, is difficult, and many professional refiners refuse to buy
them. Accordingly the beginner is advised to approach this
market with caution.
CHROMIUM PLATE
Chromium is a hard white metal, unusually resistant to most
corrosive agents. Chromium plate, when properly applied, is a
handsome finish and sometimes is used on cheap white gold
jewelry, as well as on many base metal articles.
It resists nitric acid, and therefore is sometimes mistaken for
white gold or platinum. However, it is attacked readily by hydro-
chloric acid, and by sulphuric acid. When heated under the air-
gas or oxy-gas flame, it blackens promptly.
RHODIUM PLATE
Rhodium plate is also deceptive. Rhodium is a metal closely
related to platinum, costing more per ounce than platinum itself.
It can be deposited electrolytically in a very thin layer, on silver or
base-metal articles, to give them a handsome appearance, free from
tarnish. Rhodium is not attacked by nitric acid, aqua regia, nor
any other single acid. It is fairly hard to the file—almost as hard as
chromium plate. But the deposit is always so thin that a few
strokes of the file will expose the metal below. For that reason it
should not cause any great confusion to the buyer of precious
metals.
WHITE GOLDS
The tests described so far, when applied to most white golds, will
be suggestive, but not always conclusive. You may still be uncer-
tain as to whether the unknown is white gold or a platinum metal
alloy of some kind. We shall therefore return to the white golds
in a later chapter, with conclusive tests.
9 CARAT GOLD.
STANDARD SILVER.
Keystone, 100 East 42nd Street, New York. This book illustrates
several hundred trademarks, and in addition summarizes the
stamping laws and explains their application.
The manner in which the various silver alloys may be stamped
has already been discussed in this book—see Chapter II.
"TOLERANCE"
Our lawmakers have assumed that jewelers and silversmiths are
subject to human error, so they allow a "tolerance" between the
quality indicated by the stamp and the actual quality as deter-
mined by an assay. The law also allows for solder, and requires
that the article, solder and all, must approach within a certain
percentage of the stamp. Thus the law of June 13, 1906, as sum-
marized in the Handy Book, provides that:
"If an article is made of gold and is stamped gold, it must also bear a
quality mark such as *io karat' (10-K), '14 karat' (14-K).
"If an article of gold is given a quality mark, the fineness by assay must
not be lower than:—
Watch Cases and Flatware .003 less than stamped quality.
Other articles, not including solder 0208 (i/2 karat) less than the
stamped quality.
"However, the assay of a complete article, including solder, must not be
more than .0417 (1 karat) under the stamped fineness per karat.
"For example, the gold in a 14-karat watch case, free from solder, must
be at least .5803 by assay. The entire case, including solder, must assay at
least .547 (13 karat). A gold ring, not soldered, stamped '14-K' must assay
at least .5625 (13I/2 karat). The gold in a brooch stamped '10-K' must as-
say at least .3958 (gi/2 karat) and the entire brooch, solder and all, must
assay at least .3750 (9 karat).
"The silver in any article stamped 'Sterling Silver' should assay .925,
and the silver in an article marked 'Coin Silver' should assay .900. The
silver in an article, not including solder, must not be less than this by
more than .004. For example, an article marked 'Sterling Silver,' free from
solder, must assay at least .921.
"Soldered parts must not reduce the assay of the entire article, includ-
ing solder, by more than .010 under the standard assays of .925 and .900,
respectively, for sterling silver and coin silver. For example, an article
marked sterling silver when melted, including solder, must assay at least
ENFORCEMENT
While the marking of precious metals has, as we see, been sub-
ject to law for centuries, obedience to these laws is not yet perfect.
But the fight for honesty in marking and in advertising is being
carried on actively by a number of organizations, some of them
maintained directly by the precious metal industries. The reader
who finds instances of fraud or misrepresentation would report
them at once to the Better Business Bureau of his city; or, he or his
jeweler should communicate with the Jewelers Vigilance Commit-
tee, Inc., New York 19, N. Y. These groups, in co-operation with
the Federal Trade Commission and the National Bureau of Stand-
ards, have accomplished much, not only in the enforcement of
penal laws, but also in obtaining official condemnation of various
borderline cases. Also the American Gem Society of Los Angeles,
through its members, has done a great deal toward clarifying the
advertising and labeling of diamonds and other gem stones.
SOME PRECAUTIONS
If an article consists of more than one part, like the old-fashioned
watchcase with front, back, bezel and bow, test each piece sep-
arately, as those less exposed may be of lower value. Lockets and
big cuff links sometimes are re-inforced by a base-metal disk inside.
Examine the pin and safety catch on brooches. Do not hesitate to
file deep notches, maybe two or three, on different surfaces of each
piece. Remember that an old article may have been repaired,
with the addition of much solder or even a new low-karat segment.
Articles such as candlesticks are often made of a hollow metal
shell which is filled or loaded, sometimes with pitch, sometimes
with lead which has been melted and poured in. Sometimes the
base alone is loaded. This same scheme has been used with
heavy link bracelets, etc., and has occasionally deceived the in-
experienced observer.
Rolled or filled gold requires special care. It consists largely of
base metal such as brass, with a thin layer of karat gold on the
outside. Usually this outer layer is 10-k or 12-k. You may find a
stamp reading "1/10 12-k." Analyze this stamp and you will
realize that this article when new assayed only one-twentieth fine
gold, as the 12-karat alloy is only half fine gold, and the karat gold
shell is only one tenth of the total weight of the article. After
years of usage the outer gold layer, originally very thin, may be
worn down to almost nothing. Therefore, when estimating its
value, "let the buyer beware." Some professional gold buyers re-
fuse to handle this material.
ANTIQUES
Very old gold jewelry is sometimes worth more than you would
think. Years ago when platinum was cheaper than gold, it was
sometimes used as an alloy. It cheapened and stiffened the gold,
without increasing its tendency to tarnish, and in rare cases was
used in sufficient amount to increase the value of the article. On
the other hand, much old jewelry is dishonestly marked, and some-
times you will find that an antique with a handsome exterior is
nothing but soft solder inside.
FRAUD
Deliberate fraud occurs too often to be ignored. The Jewelers'
Circular-Keystone, in its issue of September, 1943, reports one in-
stance. A customer complained that a certain ring, stamped and
sold as 14-k gold, blackened his finger. The retailer tested it
hastily (by rubbing an edge on the stone and testing the streak)
and it seemed to be a full 14-k. But further examination dis-
closed that about nine tenths of the ring was silver, lightly gilded.
Thin circles of 14-k gold wire had been soldered to the top and bot-
tom edges of a heavy silver ring, so that if a touchstone test were
made in haste, only gold would rub off. The moral of this is: file
a deep notch if possible, and test more than one surface. Inci-
dentally, the buyer might have been warned by the fact that while
this ring bore a karat stamp, there was no maker's trademark—al-
ways a suspicious circumstance.
A poorly disguised fraud. Circles of thin gold wire were soldered to the
edges of a heavy silver ring, and the combination was gold-plated. The
quality stamp was not accompanied by a trademark. Part of the silver ring
and part of one gold circle have been cut away.
DENTAL ALLOYS
Metals that have been used in dentistry carry no stamp, and
their purity and suitability depend upon the integrity and knowl-
edge of the dental technician. Much dental gold is of high qual-
ity, especially inlays and crowns, but in the construction of a den-
ture it is often necessary to use considerable solder, which may be
16-k, 14-k, or even lower. Parts of metal that are covered by vul-
canite or porcelain may be of low grade gold or even of base metal,
and sometimes rivets of copper or silver are used, then covered
over with gold solder.
Old fashioned false teeth were, in many cases, provided with two
small pins of high-grade iridio-platinum. Much of the work done
today, while more satisfactory to the patient, may contain no
precious metal at all, so each job must be considered individually.
SCIENTIFIC APPARATUS
Enormous amounts of precious metals have been made up into
instruments and equipment for the various scientific industries
and professions. The laws applying to jewelry apply equally well
to these instruments, and quality stamps and makers' trademarks
should always be looked for. In other chapters we learn that in
these fields the precious metals may be alloyed with or combined
with each other, or with the base metals, in such a profusion of
forms that the beginner may well be discouraged. However, no
other field is potentially more profitable to the buyer of metals.
Never close tightly any bottle that contains aqua regia. Keep
the stopper turned so that the grooves coincide and the gases that
evolve may escape. If dropping bottles are unobtainable you can
manage with ordinary glass-stoppered bottles and a handful of
medicine droppers or small glass rods; but the dropping bottles
are much the better arrangement.
Add about four drops of aqua regia to each metallic streak, and
await results. With some streaks the acid goes to work at once.
With others the action is so slow that the hasty observer will con-
clude that they are not dissolving at all. But sooner or later, de-
pending upon the nature of the alloy and the temperature of the
plate, the aqua regia will take on a deeper color and the metallic
streaks will disappear.
In a notebook write down the order in which the streaks are at-
tacked.
To hasten matters, heat the plate until it is uncomfortably hot
to the hand, possibly by placing it on steam pipes, or on an asbestos
pad resting on an electric hotplate; or grasp it with tongs and slip
it into a pan of hot water.
We spoke just now of lower-grade platinum alloys—those con-
taining base metals. Compared with iridio-platinum and ruth-
enio-platinum, these may dissolve readily in aqua regia, therefore
may be confused with certain high-grade alloys in which palladium
or gold is present. On the other hand, low-grade alloys containing
much silver may be as slow to react as the very valuable "hard"
platinums. Thus we see that the mere rate of solution gives only
partial information as to the value of an alloy; thus copper or pal-
ladium hastens action, while silver, iridium, or ruthenium slows it
down, and observations based on speed alone can be quite mislead-
ing.
This brings us, then, to the modern extensions of this method,
whereby it is easy to detect palladium or gold (or both) in a plati-
num alloy; also to detect platinum, palladium or nickel in a white
gold or dental alloy; and to distinguish between iridio-platinum
and ruthenio-platinum. First we make a streak with our unknown
metal and dissolve it in aqua regia. Then we add certain chem-
icals to the drop, and by noting the color changes we learn the
composition of the unknown. That is the whole story in one par-
agraph.
STANNOUS CHLORIDE TESTING SOLUTION
This solution, often called "Testing Solution A," is extremely
useful. Rightly handled it reveals the presence of gold, silver,
platinum, iridium and palladium in solution, and suggests the
proportions in which they are present. It is easy to prepare and
the ingredients are inexpensive.
From your supply house purchase an ounce of stannous chloride
crystals, and an ounce or less of pure tin metal—mossy, granular, or
foil—but it must be pure tin. You will also need some hydro-
chloric acid, and by far the best container to use is a dropping
bottle, similar to that mentioned above. These quantities will
provide several hundred tests.
Make up only a little of Testing Solution A at a time, as it does
not keep well. Take about a pennyweight or less of the stannous
chloride crystals (also called tin salts) in the dropping bottle, add
a half pennyweight or so of tin metal, and fill the bottle three-
fourths full of water. Tap water will do. Now add about 20 to
30 drops of hydrochloric acid, more or less, to a 30 cc. bottle. This
gives a milky liquid that is ready to use. The tin metal will dis-
solve very slowly, and it serves to keep the solution in good condi-
tion. Label the bottle "Testing Solution A."
As we said, Testing Solution A when properly used shows the
presence of precious metals in solution. In order to get acquainted
with the color-changes involved, you should first make up some
solutions containing these precious metals. You should have a
solution containing gold, one containing platinum, and other con-
taining palladium. This method is so useful and fascinating that
most users wind up with a whole series of standard solutions, so
perhaps you might as well get a half-dozen dropping bottles in the
first place.
STANDARD SOLUTIONS OF GOLD, PLATINUM, PALLADIUM
To make up a standard solution, simply dissolve a small piece
of metal in a little aqua regia, then add water. For instance, take
exactly a grain of pure platinum wire; dissolve it in a little aqua
regia, using a small porcelain dish and heating gently until all the
metal dissolves. Use as little aqua regia as will do the work. Wash
the solution with water into a glass-stoppered two-ounce bottle,
and fill the bottle up to the mark with water. Label this bottle
"ONE GRAIN PLATINUM IN 2 FLUID OUNCES OF SOLUTION."
(When your only object is to become acquainted with the vari-
ous solutions, it is not necessary to use exact measurements. But
later on, when trying to approximate the amount of precious
metal in a solution, it will be extremely helpful to have standard
solutions made up with a definite weight of precious metal in a
definite volume of liquid. Therefore it saves time to make up
your solutions in the beginning according to a definite plan.)
WITH GOLD
In another cavity, place one drop of gold solution, and add a
drop of Solution A. After several moments add several more drops
of Solution A. Note the first intense dark color, deep purple or
black. This is characteristic of gold. After it stands a few minutes,
notice the purple stain on the white porcelain.
Do not let the liquids dry on the plate. Wash it promptly after
each test, removing any stains with a drop of aqua regia and rins-
ing well.
Now, in another cavity, take just one drop of your gold solution,
and dilute it with five drops of plain water. Take one drop of
this dilute gold, in another cavity, and add a drop of Solution A.
Note that the color is still definite. Dilute with five more drops of
plain water, and try again. See how dilute this gold solution
must be before it becomes so weak that you cannot detect a change
with Testing Solution A. If you figure this out, you will find that
this is a delicate test, one that will reveal the presence of a very
small percentage of gold.
WITH PALLADIUM
In the same way, learn the color-changes shown when mixing
standard palladium solution with Testing Solution A. This color-
change is even more interesting than the others. When the two
drops are first admixed, you see a deep yellow, not unlike the ef-
fect produced by platinum. After some minutes the yellow turns
blue-green. This blue-green color is characteristic of palladium.
WITH SILVER
Silver solutions, such as silver nitrate, do not give any color-reac-
tion with Testing Solution A. What you will see when the two
are mixed is a white cheesy precipitate of silver chloride, similar
to that obtained when table salt is added to a silver nitrate solu-
tion.
WITH BASE METALS
Solutions containing only such base metals as iron, copper, zinc,
nickel and cadmium give no color change with stannous chloride.
Lead may give a white precipitate that looks like silver chloride,
but if you employed the dichromate test in Chapter I this will
cause you no confusion.
ELECTROGRAPHIC TESTS
A clever electric method for detecting gold, chromium, and some
other metals in alloys or electrodeposits has been worked out by
J. A. Calamari, Robert Hubata, and P. B. Roth of the New York
Medical Laboratory in Brooklyn. The test is easy to perform*
need not injure the article, and requires only simple equipment.
The article to be tested is wired to the positive pole of a battery, 6
to 9 volts, and a pad of filter paper or white blotter, wet with a solu-
tion of sodium nitrate and hydrogen peroxide, is laid on it. A
graphite rod connected to the negative pole is touched to the wet
paper.
If the paper is in contact with gold, a purple spot appears. Most
base metals give no reaction, but chromium gives a blue spot, silver
a black spot, and so on, and the intensity of the color may suggest
the karat or composition of the surface layer. The method is de-
scribed fully in Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, July 16,
1942.
For our purposes this method has the disadvantage of centering
attention on the surface of the article, which as we know may be
quite different from the bulk of the piece. But when properly ap-
plied and understood, it is very useful.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Even in prehistoric days people noticed that some metals were
heavier than others, and that the precious metals in general are
heavier than the common ones. These differences are utilized in
many ways; thus the prospector shakes the gold-bearing gravel in a
pan, with water, and the heavier gold particles settle to the bottom.
These differences have also been used, for centuries, in identifica-
tion and appraisal.
The story is that Archimedes, a Greek mathematician of the
third century B.C., was asked by his king to determine if a crown,
purporting to be gold, did not actually contain some silver—a
problem of precisely the type that confronts the readers of this
book. Archimedes was puzzled, until one day as he stepped into
his bath and saw some water overflow, it came to him that the
excess of bulk caused by the introduction of a lighter alloying
element could be measured by putting the crown and equal
weights of gold and of silver, separately, into a bowl of water, and
noting the difference of overflow. The story continues that Archi-
medes was so overjoyed at this happy thought that he ran home
without his clothes, shouting "Eureka! Eureka!," meaning "I have
found it!"
This ratio between the weight and the bulk of an article is called
its density or its specific gravity—"specific" because each pure ele-
mental material has its own unique and specific ratio. The pro-
cedure for determining it is given in the Appendix.
Pure water is commonly used as a standard of comparison, with
the specific gravity of 1.00. A cube of water measuring 1 centi-
meter on a side weighs 1 gram. A cube of gold of the same size
weighs 19.32 grams, and has a specific gravity of 19.32. Silver,
lead, palladium and mercury occupy a middle group with gravities
running from 10 to 13. Tin, zinc and steel are all close to 7; alumi-
num is 2.7; platinum is 21.37. Gases, and things like cork that
float on water, have specific gravities of less than 1, usually repre-
sented by a decimal.
Alloys have densities that range between those of the compo-
nents. Thus a palladio-platinum alloy will come somewhere be-
tween pure platinum and pure palladium, and its specific gravity
will suggest its composition. Sterling silver can be distinguished
from silver alloys of lower grade. Iridio-platinum can be distin-
guished from ruthenio- or palladio-platinum. High karat golds
are heavier than low karat. And so on.
However, the method has its limitations. For example, by
manipulating the components it is easy to make up several alloys
of the same density but different compositions. If a bar contains
bubbles or blow-holes its density will be less than that of a homo-
geneous bar. If such a bar were drastically rolled its specific gravity
would increase. If a piece of jewelry contains stones, these must
be removed before a significant specific gravity determination can
be made. In general, the smaller the article, the less accurate the
determination.
The seller must remember that a swindler can use an honest bal-
ance but dishonest weights. Some of the itinerant old-gold buyers
that flooded the land during the depression of the '30's were said
to use a copper cent, weighing about 50 grains, instead of a penny-
weight (24 grains), thus obtaining twice as much gold as they paid
for. The difference between the troy ounce (480 grains) and the
lighter avoirdupois ounce (437.5 grains) has also been used to the
disadvantage of the unwary.
As we said, the troy system is in general use with all the precious
metals. However, scientific workers, accustomed to the metric
system, like to buy and sell their platinum group metals by the
gram or milligram, and the well-equipped metal buyer will have
a set of gram weights in addition to his troy weights.
A good balance is a sensitive and expensive instrument. It
should be sheltered from dust and draughts, and must stand on a
firm level table, free from vibrations. Weights should be kept in
a covered container, and should be picked up with tongs made of
a relatively soft metal—never touched with the fingers. You can
learn something about a person and his establishment by observ-
ing how he handles his balance and weights.
U. S. GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS
The regulations imposed by the United States Government were
designed originally to prevent hoarders who in 1933 had violated
the law by failing to turn in their gold coins at the old value, from
profiting when the price of gold was increased. These regulations
now apply to all transactions involving any substantial quantity of
gold, and have proven of great protection to the public and the
legitimate dealer.
During World War II all the metal industries, both base and
noble, underwent many changes due to shortages and war restric-
tions, and more regulations were imposed, mostly on the manufac-
ture of specific metal articles.
Since all such regulations are subject to change, it would be idle
to repeat them here. The interested reader should obtain copies
of current regulations from time to time, as he needs them, from
his nearest Federal Reserve Bank, or the Mint or Assay Office of
his district.
For many years the regulations regarding Uncle Sam's purchases
of gold were quite simple; he would purchase gold in almost any
form from anyone, and no questions asked. Each lot had to be of
a certain minimal quality and total value. A small charge was
made to cover the refining of the material, the rates varying slightly
from time to time. Shipments were made by hand or express to
the owner's nearest Mint or Assay Office. The government has
never employed any traveling agents, and has publicly stressed the
point that the Mint has no agents soliciting for it.
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
Practically every state in the Union maintains a bureau that
publishes authoritative information of interest to prospectors,
miners, and others concerned with the development of our min-
eral resources and industries. These bulletins usually are dis-
tributed free of charge to residents of the state, and at cost to non-
residents. For example, Field Tests for the Common Metals, by
George R. Fansett, is only one of the many useful publications of
the Arizona Bureau of Mines. It gives tests for over thirty min-
erals, including gold and silver (but not platinum), and may be ob-
tained from the University of Arizona at Tucson. The price is
twenty cents.
Most states also maintain laboratories for the identification of
minerals, and will reply to questions regarding probable markets.
This service is often supplied free if the specimens originate within
the state; a small charge is made for samples submitted from out-
side the state. When assays, quantitative chemical analyses, spec-
trographic analyses, microscopic or thin sections are desired, they
are furnished at rates established by law.
Many schools and universities, especially in regions with impor-
tant mineral industries, give instruction in mining engineering
and related subjects. For example, the University of California
at Berkeley gives a correspondence course in mineralogy, and sup-
plies each student with specimens of ore for study and comparison.
The United States Bureau of Mines, although it does not dupli-
cate the services rendered by state bureaus, is also glad to give ad-
vice on prospective markets and otherwise to assist in bringing to-
gether the buyers and sellers of mineral products. In addition it
has published much authoritative and intensely practical informa-
tion of a general character, for example its Information Circular
6148-R, entitled Selected Bibliography of Minerals and Their
Identification. This pamphlet was prepared in answer to the
many inquiries for the names of elementary books on geology,
mineralogy, methods of identification, prospecting, and so on. It
gives short notes on the character of each book, the number of
pages, and the price.
M. W. von Bernewitz' Handbook for Prospectors is written for
the man in the field. It discusses grubstaking; the clothing and
equipment needed; laws pertaining to mining; geology in pros-
pecting; occurrence of ores; what minerals to look for and where;
sampling; field tests and measurements; developing a prospect;
markets and prices; and so on. It devotes almost two hundred
pages to the occurrence, description, detection and uses of the
metallic and non-metallic minerals, and it concludes with a glos-
sary of terms used in mining. It is published by the McGraw-Hill
Book Company, Inc., of New York and London. It is only one of
the many helpful publications mentioned in Bureau of Mines In-
formation Circular 6148-R.
"BLACK SANDS"
Another source of platinum that has been the subject of much
talk is the so-called black sands that often accompany gold in al-
luvial deposits. These sands are a mixture of heavy grains of
various minerals, including magnetite, chromite, ilmenite, cassi-
terite, tourmaline and others, some of which are quite worthless.
Occasionally the platinum grains are fairly easy to identify. The
United States Bureau of Mines in its Information Circular I C
7000, dated March 1938, warns the public not to be too enthusi-
astic over the chances of striking it rich, and explains that for over
half a century much money, energy and time have been wasted on
black sands that generally were not worth the effort, partly because
the total platinum content was low, partly because the stuff with
which it was mixed was of a nature to make refining difficult and
expensive. Circular I C 7000 describes the occurrence of these
sands, machinery for grinding and concentrating them, and sug-
gestions for marketing such sands as may really be of value. The
metals in these sands dissolve very slowly in aqua regia; time, heat,
and patience are required. This should be remembered when-
ever tests such as the ammonium chloride reaction, described in
Section C of Chapter IV, are used to identify them.
SOME WORDS OF WARNING
Metals as valuable as those of the platinum group are bound to
inspire dishonest men to dishonest deeds. Much money has been
lost by the public to fraudulent stock promotions involving so-
called platinum mines that contained no platinum at all. The
reader should recall that most of our forty-eight states maintain
laboratories for the identification and assay of ores and minerals,
as well as bureaus that supply information on the marketing of
such materials. These bureaus are at the command of any res-
ident with legitimate need for their services, the prospective in-
vestor as well as the mining prospector, and there is no need to go
far from home for information.
By the same token, the jeweler or old-gold buyer in Boston or
Baltimore, for example, who receives a sackful of what looks like
gold nuggets from some stranger in a far-off mining town will do
well to be curious. He may learn that the stranger is merely one
who fears to entrust his secret to any home town neighbor. Or
perhaps he is a crank who has canvassed every testing laboratory
in his own region and will not believe what they tell him. Or
the situation may have a sinister aspect, for sometimes the
stranger is a promotor angling for a statement, on the stationery
of a reputable firm, that his sample contains gold, the whole thing
being merely a stock-selling scheme.
c.
How To DETERMINE SPECIFIC GRAVITY
It takes only a few minutes to determine specific gravity, and
the equipment is simple—a good balance with weights; a piece of
thin thread; a cup of water and a support to hold it.
Method: First weigh the article as usual, writing down the
weight. Next, weigh it while it is hanging in water; the weight
will be slightly less. Subtract the second weight from the first.
The specific gravity will be the first weight divided by this differ-
ence. To explain:
Most balances have a hook at the end of the beam where the pan
is hung; hang your object on this hook, using thin silk thread.
Weigh the object, and call this weight Wa. Now fill a small cup
with water, and bring it up under the hanging object until the
latter is completely immersed. Many balances are accompanied
by a support for this purpose—it is shaped like an inverted U, just
large enough to bestride the pan. You can make such a support
by bending a piece of sheet metal or cardboard.
Next, weigh the object while it hangs in the water. Call this
weight Ww. Find the difference between Wa and Ww and call it D.