Form 5

Chapter5 Chemicals for Consumers

Name: Nur Amirah Akmal Binti Kamal Aris Class: 5 Al-Abqari Teacher: Yeap Soo Fong

Chemicals For Consumers 2013

CONTENTS
PAGE 3 4 5 6-7 8 9 10 11 12 13-14 15 16 17-22 23 24-26 27 28

Introduction 5.1 Soap and Detergent 5.1.1 The History Of Soap Manufacturing 5.1.2 Preparation Of Soap By Saponification How to prepare soap by using saponification in the laboratory 5.1.3 Types Of Soap 5.1.4 Detergents Preparation Of Detergents 5.1.4a The Structure Of Detergent Molecule 5.1.4b The Cleansing Action Of Soap And Detergent 5.1.4c Additives In Detergents 5.1.5 The Effectiveness Of Soaps And Detergents As Cleansing Agents 5.2 Food Additives 5.2.1 Effect Of Food Additives On Health 5.3 Medicines 5.4 The Existence Of Chemicals Conclusion

Chemicals For Consumers 2013

INTRODUCTION
Chemistry is the science of matter. All objects that exist around us are made of chemical substances. Without chemistry, life itself would be impossible. All objects contributed an endless of benefits to mankind. As time continued to unravel, humans had done their best to delve into this subject to ensure that all the chemical substances are exploited and utilized to the fullest and simultaneously, improve the quality of life of mankind. The discovery of chemicals manufactured for consumers such as cleaning agents, food additives and medicines has helped us improve our health and standard of living. Today, different types of chemicals are produced to meet the needs and preferences of consumers. Therefore, understanding the chemistry of these chemicals will help a consumer select and use them wisely.

Chemicals For Consumers 2013

5.1 SOAP AND DETERGENT

What is soap?

Soap are sodium or potassium salts of long-chain carboxylic acids The general formula of a soap : RCOO-Na+/ RCOO-K+, where R is an alkyl group which contain 12 to 18 carbon atoms. R can be saturated or unsaturated.

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5.1.1 THE HISTORY OF SOAP MANUFACTURING

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5.1.2 PREPARATION OF SOAP BY SAPONIFICATION

Soaps are prepared by hydrolysing fats or oils under alkaline condition. The reaction is called saponification. Fats/Vegetable oils + Concentrated alkalis Soap + Glycerol
(Fats: tallow from cow) (Vegetable oils: Palm oil/Olive oil)

Chemicals For Consumers 2013

The soap molecule has two parts: a polar group (-COO-Na+) and a non-polar group (R-hydrocarbon part). The polar group is called the head and the non-polar group is called the tail. Thus, the soap molecule has a polar head and a non-polar hydrocarbon tail. The polar head is hydrophilic in nature (water loving) and the non-polar tail is hydrophobic (water repelling) in nature.

The saponification reaction is exothermic in nature, because heat is liberated during the process. The soap formed remains in suspension form in the mixture. Soap is precipitated as a solid from the suspension by adding common salt to the suspension. This process is called Salting out of Soap.

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How to prepare soap by using saponification in the laboratory

Take 25 ml of coconut oil in a measuring cylinder and pour it into a 250 ml glass beaker. Measure 30 ml of 20% NaOH solution in another measuring cylinder and add it into the beaker containing vegetable oil. Then the mixture is stirred vigorously

Place the beaker on a wire gauze placed over a tripod stand. Heat the beaker using a Bunsen burner till the mixture become a whitish paste. Remove the beaker from the flame and allow it to cool.

To the above suspension, add 15g of common salt and stir it well with a glass rod. After adding common salt, soap in the suspension gets precipitated out as solid.

Pour the contents of the beaker into the funnel over a glass rod and filter the contents of the beaker. After filtration, soap is left behind in the filter paper.

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5.1.3 TYPES OF SOAP

Depending upon the nature of alkali used in the production of soap, they are classified into two types. I. Hard soap

The sodium salt of long chain fatty acid is known as hard soap. It is difficult to dissolve in water. It is used as laundry soap. II. Soft soap

The potassium salt of long chain fatty acid is known as soft soap , as it produces more lather. It is used as toilet soap and shaving soap. In aqueous solution, soap ionises to form alkali ions.

Since soaps have free alkali ions, they are alkaline in nature. Hence, the soap solutions are slippery to the touch. Some examples of soaps are shown below. Sodium palmitate, C15H31COONa Sodium oleate, C17H33COONa Sodium stearate, C17H35COONa Additives such as perfume, colouring matter and sometimes antiseptics are added to soaps to enhance their marketability.

a) b) c)

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5.1.4 DETERGENT
Detergent is a synthetic cleansing agents which is made from hydrocarbons obtained from petroleum fraction.Thus, detergents are petrochemicals.

Detergents
Anionic detergents
where the head of the detergent particle contains anegatively charged ion. R O SO3-Na+ (Sodium alkyl sulphate)
Further divided into

Cationic detergents
Cationic detergents where the head of the detergent particle contains apositively charged ion. R N (CH3)3+BR-

Non ionic detergents

R O CH2CH2OH

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Preparation Of Detergents
Sodium alkylbenzene sulphonates Starting materials - long chain alkene, RCH = CH , obtained from the cracking of petroleum. Step 1 : Alkylation ( introduction of the alkyl group to an organic molecule)

Sodium alkyl sulphate

- can be prepared from alcohols with chain

lengths of 12 to 18 carbon atoms. - Step 1:

Reaction with Concentrated sulphuric acid

Step 2 :

Neutralisation with sodium hydroxide solution

Step 2 : Sulphonation ( introduction of the sulphonic acid group to an organic molecule to form sulphonic acid)

Example : An example of a long chain alcohol is didecan 1 ol, CH3(CH2)10CH2OH Detergent prepared from dodecan 1 ol is called sodium dodecyl sulphate / sodium lauryl sulphate CH3(CH2)10CH2O-SO3-Na+

Step 3 : Neutralisation Alkylbenzene sulphonic acid produced reacted with sodium hydroxide to form sodium alkylbenzene sulphonate, the detergent

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5.1.4a THE STRUCTURE OF DETERGENT MOLECULE

When a detergent is dissolved in water, it dissociates to form sodium ions (Na +) and detergent ions. The detergent ions have the same basic structure as the soap ions, that is consist of two parts : a) The head is the sulphate group (-OSO3-), which is negatively charged and hydrophilic (dissolves readily in water but not in oils and grease). b) The tail is the long hydrocarbon chain, which is neutral and hydrophobic (dissolves readily in oils and grease, but not in water).

Hydrophilic head

oso3

Hydrophobic tail (Hydrophobic)

Ionic head (Hydrophilic)

Figure 5.1.4a - Alkyl sulphate ion

so3
Hydrophobic tail (Hydrophobic)

Ionic head (Hydrophilic)

Figure 5.1.4b - Alkylbenzene sulphonate ion

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5.1.4b THE CLEANSING ACTION OF SOAP AND DETERGENT

The cleansing action of soap and detergent The cleansing action of soaps and detergent results from the ability to lower the surface tension of water, to emulsify oil/ grease and to hold them in suspension in water This can be occurred due to their chemical bonding and the structure. Oil cannot be washed away from clothing with water only as it is a covalent molecule which is insoluble in water.
I. Lifting greasy dirt from the surface cloth. When soap or detergent is added to the dirty surface of a piece of cloth covered with a layer of oil or grease. a) The negatively charged head (hydrophilic) of soap ions or detergent ions dissolves in water. b)The hydrocarbon tail (hydrophobic) of soap or detergent ions dissolves in the layer of grease. II. The water is agitated slightly, the grease begins to be lifted off the surface. This cause by the forces of attraction between the water molecules and the negatively charged heads.

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III. IV. On further agitation during washing, the greasy dirt is lifted from the surface. Emulsifying dirt in water

a) Soaps and detergents can act as emulsifying agents to emulsify oils and grease. b) The process of emulsification breaks large drops of grease into smaller droplets that floats in water. The greasy droplets repel on another because they carry the same charge. As a result, the grease is suspended in the solution. c) When the cloth is rinsed with the water, the droplet will be carried away. d) The cleaning process become more efficient in the water containing the soap or detergent solution is stirred

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5.1.4c ADDITIVES IN DETERGENTS

ADDITIVES
Builders

FUNCTION
-To enhance the cleaning efficiency of detergent by softening the water. -To increase the pH value of water. -To ensure that the detergent in powdered form is always in dry condition. -To add to the bulk of the detergent and enable to pour it at ease. -To add fragrance to both detergent and fabrics. -To control foaming in detergent. -To add brightness and whiteness to white fabrics. -To prevent dirt particles removed from redepositing onto cleaned fabrics. -To remove protein stains such as blood. -To break down fat and protein molecules in food stains. -To convert stains into colourless substances. -To make the fabrics whiter and more beautiful.

EXAMPLE
Sodium tripolyphosphate

Drying agents

Sodium sulphate Sodium silicate

Fragrances Foam control agents Optical whitener Suspension agents Biological enzymes

Fluorescent dyes Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) Amylases ,proteases, cellulases and lipases Sodium perborate Sodium hypochlorite (NaClO)

Whitening agents

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5.1.5 THE EFFECTIVENESS OF SOAPS AND DETERGENTS AS CLEANSING AGENTS

Cleansing agents Soap Advantages 1. Very effective in soft water to wash clothes.( water does not contain Mg+ & Ca+ ions) 2. Do not cause pollution as soaps are made from fats and oils and can be decomposed by the action of bacteria. Disadvantages 1. Ineffective in hard water. 2. A grey scum (Magnesium stearate & calcium stearate) will be produced in hard water. 3. Not effective in acid water.( exist as molecules & do not have hydrophilic ends) - H ion from rainwater (acid) will react with soap ions to produce carboxylic acid molecules of large molecular size that are insoluble in water. Example, 1. Non-biodegradable 2. Water pollution occurs. 3. Decrease in oxygen content in water and the aquatic lives are given the harm.( phosphates in detergents) 4. a lot of foam will be produced in water that prevent oxygen from dissolving in water. As a result, fish and other aquatic lives face the death. 5. Additives (sodium hypochlorite) releases chlorine gas that is highly toxic and kills aquatic life.

Detergent

1. Effective in soft water and hard water. ( magnesium salt and calcium salts are formed and soluble in water) ( scum is not formed) 2. Synthetic cleansing agents - Structure of hydrocarbon chain can be modified to produce detergent. 3. Effective in acidic water as H ions is not combining with detergent ions.

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Chemicals For Consumers 2013

5.2 FOOD ADDITIVES

Food preservative have been used since ancient times. Ancient civilization used salt to preserve meat and fish, herbs and spices to improve the flavor of food. Food additives are chemicals that are added to food in small quantities for specific purposes such as protection against bacterial attack or restoring the colour of food destroyed during food processing.

Food additives are used : i) ii) iii) iv) v) prevent spoilage improve its appaerance , taste or texture prevent growth of microorganisms prevent oxidation of fats and oils by oxygen in air restore the colour of food destroyed during food processing.

Two Main Group of Food Additives

Preservatives and Antioxidants
to protect food from being spoiled by bacterial attact or atmospheric oxidation.

Flavouring agents, stabilizers, thickening agents (thickeners), and dyes

to enhance the taste, smell and appearance of the food.

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Table below show a list of different types of food additives and examples of each types.
Type of food additive Preservatives Antioxidants Flavouring agents Stabilisers and thickening agents Dyes (colouring agents) Examples of food additive Sodium nitrite ; sodium nitrate ; benzoic acid ; sodium benzoate ; sulphur dioxide ; sodium sulphite ; sorbic acid ; sodium sorbate Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) ; BHA (butylated hydroxyanisole) ; BHT (butylated hydrixitoluene) ; citric acid ; sodim citrate Monosodium glutamate (MSG) ; aspartame Gelatin ; acacia gum (agar) Azo compounds ; tripheny compounds

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I. PRESERVATIVES
Preservatives are chemicals that are added to food to retard or to prevent the growth of microorganism such as bacteria, mould or fungus, so that the food can be stored for a long time.
In ancient times, food additives from natural sources such as salt, sugar and vinegar were used to preserve food and to make the food taste better.

Nowadays, synthetic preservatives are used, table below shows the types of preservatives commonly used. Many of the preservatives are organic acids and salts of organic acids.

Examples;
PRESERVATIVE MOLECULAR FORMULA NaNO2 NaNO3 C6H5COOH C6H5COONa SO2 Na2SO3 Used as bleaches and antioxidants to prevent browning in fruit juices. Maintain the colour and freshness of vegetables. To prevents the growth of yeast USES

Sodium nitrite Sodium nitrate Benzoic acid Sodium benzoate Sulphur dioxide Sodium sulphite

To preserve meat, cheese and dried fish. To prevent food poisoning in canned foods. To maintain the natural colour of meat and to make them look fresh To preserve sauce (olyster, tomato or chilli), fruit juice, jam and margarine

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II. ANTIOXIDANTS
Antioxidants are chemicals that are added to foods to prevent the oxidation of fats and oils by oxygen in the air.
Foods containing fats or oils are oxidized and become rancid when exposed to air. When the fats and oils are oxidized, rancid product are formed. This makes the food unpalatable. The rancid product are volatile organic compound with foul odours (for example , butanoic acid, C3H7COOH). Antioxidants are added to fats, oils, cakes, sausages, biscuits and fried foods to slow down the oxidation process so that these foods do not become rancid.

III.

FLAVOURING AGENTS

There are two types of flavouring agents : artificial flavours and flavour enhancer. They are added to foods to make them taste better.
1. Flavour enhancer have little or no taste of their own. They are chemicals that are added to food to bring out the flavours or to enhance the taste of food. 2. An example of a flavour enhancer is monosodium glutamate (MSG). MSG is used to enhance the flavours of other foods. 3. Artificial flavour includes sweeteners and other flavours such as peppermint or vanilla. Aspartame and saccharin are examples of artificial sweeteners. 4. Both aspartame and saccharin can be used as a substitute for sugar to enhance the sweetness in food and drink. However, the used of saccharin is banned in many countries because it is carcinogenic. Aspartame has largely replaced saccharin as the artificial sweetener or choice. 5. Many esters have fruity odours and tastes and are used as artificial flavours. Table below shows some examples of esters that are used in making drinks.
Ester Benzyl ethanoate Strawberry Octyl ethanoate Ethyl butanoate Flavour Orange Pineapple

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IV. STABILISERS & THICKENING AGENTS

Stabilisers and thickening agents improve the texture and the blending of foods. Stabilisers are chemicals that are used to enable oil and water in the food to mix together properly in order to form an emulsion of oil and water. Examples of stabilizers are gelatin and acacia gum.
1. Stabilisers are added to improve the texture of foods. For examples, stabilisers are added to ice-cream and peanut butter to keep them smooth and creamy. 2. In the presence of stabilisers, the emulsion of oil does not separate from water. This means that the stabiliser improves the stability of some foods such as ice-cream and salad dressings (mayonnaise). 3. Without stabilisers, ice crystals would form in ice-cream, particles of chocolate would settle out of chocolate milk, oil and vinegar in salad dressing will separate as soon as mixing is stopped.

Thickening agents are chemicals that are added to foods to thicken the liquid and to prevent the foods from becoming liquid. Thickening agents (also called thickeners) absorb water and thicken the liquid in foods to produce a jelly-like structure.
1. Most thickening agents are natural carbohydrates. Gelatin and pectin are added to help jams and jellies to set.

Thickeners
Modified starch pectin

Explanation
Used in instant soups and puddings. Used in jams and jellies. Forms a firm jel when there is sufficient sugar in a mixture. Is not digested. Can be considered as a beneficial and dietary fibre. To thicken chewing gum, jelly and wine. To thicken yogurt.

Acacia gum Gelatine

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V. DYES Dyes (colouring agents) are chemicals that are added to foods to give them colour so as to improve their appearance.
1. Some foods are naturally coloured, but the colour is lost during food processing. The foods industry uses synthetic food colours to : a) Restore the colour of food lost during food processing. b) Enhance natural colours, so as to increase the attractiveness of foods. c) Give colour to foods that do not have colour. 2. Some dyes are naturally plant pigments while others are synthetically prepared. The synthetic colours used in foods are azo and triphenyl compounds. Both these compounds are organic compounds. 3. The synthetic dyes , brilliant blue, is an example of triphenyl compound. The synthetic dye, tartrazine and sunset yellow are examples of azo compounds. 4. Azo compounds are organic compounds containing the diazo group, - N = N -, and are usually yellow , red, brown, black in colour. Triphenyl compounds are organic compounds containing three phenyl groups, -C6H5, and are usually green. Blue or purple in colour.

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5.2.1 EFFECT OF FOOD ADDITIVES ON HEALTH

Effects
Allergy

Explanation
Caused by Sodium sulphite, BHA and BHT , MSG and food dyes( yellow No.5). Cause an diseases named Chinese restaurant syndrome (giddiness, chest pain and difficulty in breathing) Cause blue baby diseases occuring on babies which iits synptoms is lacking of oxygen and the presence of sodium nitrate /nitrite. Caused by carcinogens(sodium nitrite) Nitrite reacts with amines to produce nitrosamine( cause cancer) Caused by excessive intake of nitrites. Caused by tartrazine (additives) Difficul to sleep or relax and felt restles.

Cancer

Brain damage Hyperactivity

The Rationale for Using Food Additives

Advantages
To prevent food spoilage. To improve nutritional value

Medical reasons

Life without food additives

Food spoilage always occur

Diseases will occur often

Malnutrition will occur particularly.

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5.3 MEDICINES
A medicine is a substance used to prevent or cure diseases or to reduce pain and suffering due to illnesses.
It is classified as; a. Traditional Medicines Traditional medicines are medicines derived from natural sources such as plants and animals without being processed chemically. Since ancients, mankind had used various types of plants and roots, animals and animal part to cure diseases.

Medicines obtained from plants are known as herbal medicines. The sources and uses of some herbal medicines are shown in table below : Plant Garlic Ginger Part of the plant used Corm Rhizome (horizontal underground stem) and leaves Leaves Fruits Uses
For preventing flu attack For reducing high blood pressure For treating stomach pain due to wind in the stomach For supplying heat energy to keep the body warm For preventing flu attack For preventing itchy skin For treating burns (scalding) on the skin For treating boils or abscesses on the skin For preventing flu attack For treating skin diseases For treating malaria For preventing muscle cramps As a tonic to improve the overall health of human beings For increasing energy, endurance and reducing fatigue Has antibacterial and antifungal properties For treating cough

Aloe vera Lemon (lime)

Quinine Ginseng

Bark of Chinchona tree Roots

Lemon grass

Stem/leaves

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b. Modern Medicines Modern medicines can be classified as follows based on their effects on the human body. Some examples of modern medicines are analgesics, antibiotics, psychotherapeutic drugs. Modern medicines usually contain a mixture of active ingredients prepared in different forms, such as capsules, pills, solutions or suspensions.

Type ANALGESICS To relieve pain without causing numbness/affectin g conciousness

Example Aspirin

Function Used for pain relief such as arthritic pain and dental pain

Side Effects - Cause internal bleeding and ulceration - Can cause brain and liver damage if given to children with flu/chicken pox If overdose, it can cause liver damage

Paracetamol

Codeine

Used for relieve mild to moderate pain such as headache, muscle and joint pain Used in headache tablets and in cough medicines

Can cause drowsiness If overdose, it can lead to addiction, depression and nausea headache, allergic reaction, diarrhoea

ANTIBIOTICS To kill/slow down the growth of bacteria

Penicillin

Used to cure tuberculosis and pneumonia

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Streptomycin

PSYCHOTHERA PEUTIC DRUGS To alter abnormal thinking, feelings and behaviors

Stimulant Eg: Methylpenidate

To reduce fatigue and elevate mood

Antidepressant Eg: Tranquilisers Eg: Barbiturates

To reduce tension and anxiety

If overdose, can lead to anxiety, hallucinations and severe depression Drowsiness, poor coordination If overdose, can lead to respiratory problems, coma and even death Addiction Can lead to involuntary death especially for people who used it to fight against insomnia

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5.4 THE EXISTENCE OF CHEMICALS

The chemicals for consumers such as soap, detergents , food additives and medicine play an important role in our life . However, they can contribute negative effects to our health and the environment if these chemicals are not used wisely . Some proper management of these chemicals :Detergents Wear gloves when working with strong detergents to protect your hands . Use biodegradable detergents . Use appropriate amounts of detergents. Food additives Be wise when we consume the food with food additives. Avoid consuming too much salt and sugar . Avoid foods with additives which you are sensitive to . Avoid rewarding children with junk food . Medicines No self medication . Do not take medicine prescribed for someone else . Check for expiry date . Follow your doctors instruction for taking medicine . Keep away from children . Do not overdose .

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CONCLUSION
Without doubt, these chemicals have improved our standards of living. But we have to remember that these chemicals must be used accordingly not abusively and intensive scientific research must be carried out to produce new substances and this takes more time . Scientists must patient and persevere for their research and development to produce new chemicals in future .

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