Physics Notes PDF

Chapter 2 Motion along a Straight Line
Terms we will use: Position, distance, displacement Speed, velocity (average and instantaneous) Acceleration (average and instantaneous)
Coordinate Systems
A coordinate system is used to describe location. A coordinate system consists of: a xed reference point called the origin a set of axes a denition of the coordinate variables
coords
Example
(-3,5)
y The arrow indicates the positive direction. (4,2) (0,0) x

(0,0) = the origin
Distance and displacement

Distance is the total length of travel. It is always positive. It is measured by the odometer in your car. Displacement is dened as the change in position of an object.
It can be positive, negative or zero. Displacement is a vector (see Chapter 3)
x x2 x1 x
cartesian
The position of an object is its location in a coordinate system.
Today well deal only with one-dimension, and usually call it x
Average Speed and Velocity

Speed and velocity are not the same in physics!
(always positive, or zero) (positive, negative or zero) velocity is a vector SI units of speed and velocity are m/s. x2 x1 x
Example
What is the average speed of a person at the equator due to the Earths rotation?
What is the average velocity of a person at the equator due to the Earths rotation?
The Dragster
Graph of the Position of the Dragster as a Function of Time
Position vs. Time Plots
Instantaneous Velocity
The velocity at one instant in time is known as the instantaneous velocity and is found by taking the average velocity for smaller and smaller time intervals:
(e.g. the speedometer indicates the magnitude of instantaneous velocity)
The average velocity between two times is the slope of the straight line connecting those two points.
average velocity is positive average velocity is negative
in the limit this gives the tangent to the curve
Velocity as a Slope of Tangent Line on a Graph of x vs. t

On a graph of position as a function of time, the slope of the tangent line at any point is the velocity at that point.
Acceleration
Often, velocity is not constant, rather it changes with time The rate of change of velocity is known as acceleration
positive, negative or zero
This is the average acceleration Acceleration is a vector The SI unit of acceleration is m/s2
Acceleration
for example: car is advertised to do zero to sixty in 6 seconds in this case 60 is 60mph = 27m/s so the average acceleration is
Instantaneous Acceleration
If we wish to know the instantaneous acceleration, we once again let t 0:
Graph of Velocity vs. Time for Accelerating Object
Four Ways to Represent the Motion of a Race Car Moving with Constant Acceleration
in a few slides well see that we can describe these graphs by some simple equations
Deceleration
Deceleration refers to decreasing speed is not the same as negative acceleration occurs when velocity and acceleration have opposite signs Example: A ball thrown up in the air. The velocity is upward but the acceleration is downward. The ball is slowing down as it moves upward. (Once the ball reaches its highest point and starts to fall again, it is no longer decelerating, but is accelerating)
Velocity vs. Time Plots

For these curves, the average acceleration and the instantaneous acceleration are the same, because the acceleration is constant.
in what region do we have deceleration? can we sketch the position versus time?
Example: Velocity vs. Time Plot

velocity (m/s) 6 4 C 2 0 -2 -4 A B 5 10 time (s) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. What is the velocity at time t = 3 sec? What is the velocity at point A? When is the acceleration positive? When is the acceleration negative? When is the acceleration zero? When is the acceleration constant? When is there deceleration? What is the acceleration at point C? What is the acceleration at time t = 6 sec? During what 1 s interval is the magnitude of the average acceleration greatest?
Example be careful with signs

A car moves from a position of +4.0 m to a position of -1.0 m in 2.0 seconds. The initial velocity of the car is -4.0 m/s and the nal velocity is -1.0 m/s. (a) What is the displacement of the car? (b) What is the average velocity of the car? (c) What is the average acceleration of the car? Answer: (a) x = x2 x1 = -1.0 m - (+4.0 m) = -5.0 m (b) (c) vav = x/t = -5.0 m / 2.0 s = -2.5 m/s deceleration!
Motion with Constant Acceleration

If acceleration is constant, there are four useful formulae relating position x, velocity v, acceleration a and time t:
v0 = initial velocity x0 = initial position t0 = initial time assumed here to be at 0 s. If t0 0, replace t in these formulae with t t0
Understanding the equations
Understanding the equations

straight line, slope a parabola
always check what is being plotted !
Example: Lets go back to our previous example of the car and assume that the acceleration is constant. We found that the average acceleration was = 1.5 m/s2 Lets calculate the acceleration. Recall v = v0 + at -1 m/s = -4 m/s + a(2 s) 3 m/s = a(2 s) a = 1.5 m/s2
better still - rearrange the equation for a - then we can use it for any values:
Whats the use of these equations?

Much of physics involves knowing the values of some quantities and using equations to nd the values of unknowns
e.g. say we know that a car was moving with velocity 4 m/s when it was 10m down a track, and we wanted to know how fast it was moving 50m down the track if we also know its acceleration is constant at 3 m/s2 which equation do we use?
this was our denition of average accn (with t0 = 0) - if the accn is constant then it is the same as the average
Whats the use of these equations?

Much of physics involves knowing the values of some quantities and using equations to nd the values of unknowns
Freely Falling Objects

Near the earths surface, the acceleration due to gravity (g) is roughly constant: g = aEarths surface = 9.80 m/s2 toward the center of the earth Free fall is the motion of an object subject only to the inuence of gravity (not air resistance). An object is in free fall as soon as it is released, whether it is dropped from rest, thrown downward, or thrown upward Question: What about the mass of an object? Answer: The acceleration of gravity is the same for all objects near the surface of the Earth, regardless of mass.
e.g. now say we were traveling at constant acceleration of unknown value and moved from rest at the origin to a position 10 m away where we had velocity of 3 m/s which equation do we use to nd: (a) the time taken? (b) the acceleration?
Example 2.10 - Falling Euro in Pisa

Coin is dropped. Starts from rest and falls freely. Compute its position and velocity after 1.0, 2.0, 3.0 seconds. Calculate y and v as a function of t.
t (s) 1.0 2.0 3.0
y (m) -4.9 -19.6 -44.1
v (m/s) -9.8 -19.6 -29.4
throwing a ball in the air

velocity vector acceleration vector

velocity vector acceleration vector
at the highest point
A: B: C:
v=0 a=0 v=0
v=0
a t
-9.80 m/s2
constant a = -g = -9.80 m/s2
v
v0
0
t
v = v0 + a t = v0 - g t
Example 2.11 - A ball on the roof

Suppose you throw a ball vertically upward from the at roof of a tall building. The ball leaves your hand at a point level with the roof railing, with an upward velocity of 15.0 m/s. On its way back down it just misses the railing. Find (a) the position and velocity of the ball 1.00 s and 4.00 s after it leaves your hand (b) the velocity of the ball when it is 5.00 m above the railing (c) the maximum height reached and the time at which it is reached Ignore the effects of the air.

What do we know? initial velocity (v0 = 15.0 m/s) acceleration (constant) ( a = -g = -9.80 m/s2) initial height (y0 = 0)
Problem Solving Strategy

Make a list of given quantities Make a sketch Draw coordinate axes identify the positive direction Identify what is to be determined Pick the right equation(s) Be consistent with units Check that the answer seems reasonable
10
Reviewing what weve learnt

Vectors components
Reviewing what weve learnt

Velocity, acceleration and equations of motion for constant acceleration
slope of tangent of x vs. t graph adding vectors, by components A+B=C

y y Ay 4.0 m 45 Ax A B Cy y 3.0 m 30 Bx x B Ay By A C
slope of tangent of v vs. t graph
+
x
By
Ax Cx
Bx x
note B = C - A
Chapter 3 Motion in Plane

Motion in the x direction is independent from motion in the y direction. We use the same equations as in Chapter 2, but for each dimension separately. There are not really many new equations in this chapter.
Motion in a plane
Often, motion in three-dimensions is really motion in a plane (two-dimensions). e.g. if theres no wind, a eld-goal kick can be considered to move in vertical plane In this lecture well consider some generalities then two specic, common examples: projectile motion (in a plane, with gravity vertically) uniform circular motion
Position Vector Species Location and Displacement of an Object in an x-y Coordinate System
A position vector points from the origin to the particle.
recall: co-ordinates indicate position relative to xed axes (here x, y) position vector points from the origin to the object vector has components - for the position they are the co-ordinates
Velocity in two-dimensions
Velocity is a vector: average velocity dened as the change in position vector in time
note: y vs. x
note: y vs. x
Velocity in two-dimensions - components

Velocity is a vector: average velocity dened as the change in position vector in time
The velocity vector has a magnitude equal to the speed of the object and points in the direction of motion.
can completely separate into components - hence nothing new in this chapter !
be careful here - this is not a graph of x vs. t, so the slope is not the velocity. all were getting here from the tangent is the direction
The velocity vector has a magnitude equal to the speed of the object and points in the direction of motion.
A model car
Radio-controlled model car on a tennis court. The surface of the court represents the x-y plane and you stand at the origin. At time t1 = 2.00 s the car has x, y co-ordinates (4.0 m, 2.0 m) and at t2 = 2.50 s it is at (7.0 m, 6.0 m). For the time interval t1 to t2 nd (a) the components of the average velocity (b) the magnitude and direction of the average velocity
recall the trig. properties of vectors:
Dragony
A dragony follows the path shown, moving from point A to point B in 1.50 s. Find (a) the x & y components of its position vector at A (b) the magnitude and direction of its position vector at A (c) the x & y components of the average velocity between A&B (d) the magnitude and direction of the average velocity between A & B (e) indicate the direction of the instantaneous velocity at A and B on the diagram
Acceleration Vector
Just as in one-dimension, we can dene an acceleration in terms of the change in velocity average
instantaneous
Acceleration Vector
Important point: If the velocity changes direction, there is an acceleration, even if there is no change in speed
this is what we considered in the last chapter
this is new to twodimensional motion
Acceleration Vector Components

Acceleration, just like all vectors, can be expressed in components
The Model Car Again

Were given more info. Suppose that at t1 =2.00 s the car has components of velocity vx=1.0 m/s and vy=3.0 m/s and that at time t2=2.50 s the components are vx=4.0 m/s and vy=3.0 m/s. Find (a) the components of the average acceleration (b) the magnitude and direction of the average acceleration
Projectile Motion
= motion in two-dimensions under gravity (well neglect air resistance) Project a body with some initial velocity and watch it travel e.g. ring a cannon kicking a eld-goal throwing a baseball many other things Only acceleration is in the vertical direction, is constant, and is due to gravity
Components of Projectile Motion

The motion separates into components. We separately solve the equations for the x -direction, then the y-direction
y
y-position doesnt change if the particle has an xcomponent of velocity
Components of Projectile Motion

y
Equations for Projectile Motion

y
notice that the velocity points in the direction of the tangent to the curve
x x
Shape of Projectile Motion

y
demo - cup catch

using our equations we can prove the trajectory has this parabolic shape take the simplied case of x0 = 0, y0 = 0
Paintball Gun
A paintball is red horizontally at a speed of 75.0 m/s from a point 1.50 m above the ground. (a) for how many seconds is the ball in the air? (b) nd the maximum horizontal displacement (or range) Ignore air resistance
A home-run hit
Hit with an initial speed 37.0 m/s at an initial angle of 53.1o. Find (a) the balls position and magnitude and direction of velocity when t =2.00 s (b) the time when the ball is at its highest point and its height at that time (c) the horizontal range of the ball
for (a) we can solve the y-component problem: y0 = 1.50 m, v0y = 0, y = 0, t = ? = 0.553 s for (b) we must solve the x-component problem: x0 = 0, v0x = 75.0 m/s, x = ?, t = 0.553 s = 41.5 m
well neglect the fact that the ball is probably hit about 1 m above the ground, and treat it as though it were at ground level initial velocity components:
A home-run hit
A home-run hit
(a) @ t=2.00 s x = 44.4 m y = 39.6 m vx = 22.2 m/s vy = 10.0 m/s (b) highest point, so not getting higher any more, i.e. vy = 0 t = 3.02 s y = 44.7 m
(c) horizontal range? many ways to solve this a simple way is to notice that the trajectory is symmetric about the midpoint then t 2 = 2 t1 = 6.04 s x = 134 m
Getting angry at the physics book

A physics book slides off a horizontal tabletop with a speed of 1.10 m/s. It strikes the oor in 0.350 s. Ignore air resistance. Find (a) the height of the tabletop above the oor (b) the horizontal distance from the edge of the table to the point where the book strikes the oor (c) the horizontal and vertical components of the books velocity, and the magnitude and direction of its velocity, just before the book hits the oor
person jumping off a cliff

A daring swimmer dives off a cliff with a running horizontal leap, as shown below. What must her minimum speed be just as she leaves the top of the cliff so that she will miss the ledge at the bottom?
Uniform Circular Motion

If a particle moves along a circular path with constant speed, it is said to be in uniform circular motion

Instantaneous acceleration vector is perpendicular to the tangential velocity vector It thus points toward the center of the circle centripetal acceleration a bit of geometry and algebra will give us a useful new formula:

Instantaneous acceleration vector is perpendicular to the tangential velocity vector It thus points toward the center of the circle centripetal acceleration
Fast car, at curve

A car claims a lateral acceleration of 0.92 g. If this represents the maximum centripetal acceleration that can be attained without skidding out of a circular path, and if the car is traveling at a constant 45 m/s (about 100 mi/hr), what is the minimum radius of curve that the car can negotiate?
R = 230 m
Carnival Ride
The passengers in a carnival ride travel in a circle with radius 5.0 m. They make one complete circle in a time T = 4.0 s. what is their acceleration? in 4.0 s they travel a distance so their circular speed is v = 7.9 m/s
Stone on a string
You swing a 2.2 kg stone in a circle of radius 75 cm. At what speed should you swing it so its centripetal acceleration will be 9.8 m/s2 ?
= 12 m/s2 about 1.2g !
Chapter 6: Circular Motion and Gravitation

We briey discussed motion at constant speed in a circle Now we know about forces we can look again at this Well also introduce Newtons theory of gravitation which often causes circular motion
Uniform Circular Motion - a reminder

An object moving at constant speed around a circular path has an acceleration pointing radially inward no acceleration component parallel to the velocity? - that would change the speed!
we found a formula
Uniform Circular Motion - dynamics

In Chapter 4 we learnt that accelerations are caused by forces - Newtons second law there must a radial force causing the acceleration

So what happens if we remove the force? e.g. what if the string is cut? vote: 1. 2. particle stops where it is particle moves at constant speed along the radial direction particle moves at constant speed in the tangential direction
what this force is depends upon the problem e.g. ball on a string - force is the tension in the string 3.

Newtons second links the force to the radial acceleration
Example 6.1 Model airplane on a string

Fly a propeller-driven model airplane on a 5.00m string in a horizontal circle. The airplane, which has mass 0.500kg ies level and at constant speed and makes one revolution every 4.00 seconds. How hard must you pull on the string to keep the plane ying in a circle?
REMEMBER:
is not the force!
speed
radial accn
Example 6.4 Rounding a banked curve

An engineer wants to bank a curve so that, at a certain speed, v , no friction is needed for a car to take the curve. At what angle should it be banked if v = 25 m/s (56 mph)?
Example 6.5 Dynamics of a Ferris wheel ride

A passenger of mass m, riding on a Ferris wheel moves in a vertical circle of radius R with constant speed v. (a) assuming that the seat remains upright during the motion, derive expressions for the magnitude of the upward force the seat exerts on the passenger at the top and bottom of the circle (b) What are these forces if m = 60.0 kg, the radius of the circle is R = 8.00 m and the wheel makes on revolution in 10.0 s? How to they compare to the passengers actual weight? at the top:
smaller than your weight at the bottom: vertically - no acceleration were using the horizontal component of the normal force to cause the radial acceleration
larger than your weight
Example 6.5 Dynamics of a Ferris wheel ride

A passenger of mass m, riding on a Ferris wheel moves in a vertical circle of radius R with constant speed v. (a) assuming that the seat remains upright during the motion, derive expressions for the magnitude of the upward force the seat exerts on the passenger at the top and bottom of the circle (b) What are these forces if m = 60.0 kg, the radius of the circle is R = 8.00 m and the wheel makes on revolution in 10.0 s? How to they compare to the passengers actual weight? (b) a rad = v 2/R = 3.16 m/s2 nT = 60.0 * ( 9.80 - 3.16 ) N = 398 N nB = 60.0 * ( 9.80 + 3.16 ) N = 778 N
Conceptual Question
A box slides down a circular, frictionless ramp. The forces on the box at point A are: (a) the upward push of the ramp, which is greater than the inertial force ma of the box (b) the upward push of the ramp, which equals the downward pull of the earth (c) the upward push of the ramp, which is greater than the downward pull of the earth
Newtons Law of Gravitation

By considering in detail the motion of the planets around the sun, Newton (after much work by others) concluded the following: every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other particle with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them

This is OK for particles, what about objects with size? for spherically symmetric objects the law holds as if all the mass where at the center of the sphere Hence the gravitational force on you, due to the earth is
note the third law at work here

What about this constant G, that tells us how strong gravity is? We can do a high-precision experiment to try to measure it: say that we have two known masses, and we place them a known distance apart, then if we can measure the force between them, we can nd G.
Gravity is very weak, but adds up

So G is very small indeed and hence gravity is very weak. Two 1kg masses, 1m apart would exert a pull on each other of 7x10-11 N = 7 / 10,000,000,000 N ! But, gravity adds up - masses are always positive, there is, as far as we know, no anti-gravity So we can get big gravitational pulls when objects are very massive, like planets or stars, e.g. the earth has a mass 6x1024 kg, and I have a mass 80kg. I am standing RE=6x106 m from the center of the earth, so that force on me from the earth is about 7x10-11 x 6x1024 x 8x101 / (6x106)2 N = 9x102 N, easily enough to stop me jumping off into space - so gravity isnt always weak
Cavendish torsion balance:
Example 6.7 Acceleration of Cavendish spheres

Suppose one large (m = 0.500kg) and one small (m = 10.0g) sphere are placed 5cm apart (distance between their centers). There are no other objects within a very large distance. What is the instantaneous acceleration of each sphere as viewed by a stationary observer?
Weight
A while ago we suggested that weight was the force on you due to the gravitational attraction from the earth. Now we have Newtons law of gravitation we can see whats going on:
but we said before that w = m g , where g is the acceleration due to gravity
as Galileo found, the acceleration due to gravity is constant for all bodies, independent of their mass
Example 6.9 Gravity on Mars

Mars has a radius 3.38x106m and a mass 6.42x1023kg. Weve built a lander whose weight on earth is 39,200 N. Calculate the weight of the Mars lander and the acceleration due to Marss gravity (a) at the surface of Mars (b) 6.00x106m above the surface of Mars
mass of lander?
Satellite Motion
lets try out a thought experiment - imagine a motorcyclist drives off the edge of a cliff we studied his free-fall motion, the faster his initial horizontal speed, the further away he lands
(a)
weight of lander at Martial surface? = force on the lander due to Marss gravity
now imagine he lands far enough away that we have to consider the curvature of the earth
acceleration due to Marss gravity then follows from Newtons 2nd law (F = ma)
eventually he could go so fast that he never hit the earth he becomes a satellite
Satellite Motion
well just consider the case where satellite motion is circular - this is approximately true for most man-made satellites and for several of the planets in the solar system We have a force acting on a satellite due to the gravity of the planet it orbits. This is the only force and it is directed toward the planets center
Conceptual Problems
A satellite in circular orbit travels at constant speed because (a) the net force acting on it is zero (b) the pull of gravity is balanced by centrifugal force (c) there is no component of force along its direction of motion
by Newtons 2nd law
orbital time?
The moon is pulled directly toward the earth by the earths gravity, yet it does not fall into the earth because (a) the net force on it is zero (b) the pull of the earth is balanced by the centrifugal force (c) the moon pulls back on the earth with an equal and opposite force (d) but it is constantly falling!
Example 6.10 A weather satellite

Suppose we want to place a weather satellite into a circular orbit 300km above the earths surface. What speed, period, and radial acceleration must it have? mE = 5.98x1024 kg radius of orbit = 6380km + 300km = 6680km = 6.68x106m v = 7730 m/s T = 5430 s = 90.5 min
Determining the masses of planets

Not an easy thing to do. If we can see moons orbiting the planet we can use the law of gravitation to estimate the mass of the planet. We need only to measure the moons orbital period and radius of orbit.
arad = 8.95 m/s
(Apparent) Weightlessness
An astronaut in a spacecraft orbiting the earth appears to be weightless. How can this be, the earths gravity still acts upon them? Easier to understand this way. Imagine you are in an elevator without a safety break when the cable is cut. Both you and the elevator are in free-fall with acceleration g. Imagine you are standing on a bathroom scale in the elevator - it reads zero, you are weightless. It must since you are accelerating downwards at g and hence the net force must just be gravity, therefore no normal force, therefore no reading on the scale. Orbital motion is also, essentially, free-fall and hence we observe the same phenomenon.
Quizzes
If the Earth had twice its present mass, its orbital period around the sun (at the present radius) would be (a) years (b) 1 year (c) year (d) 2 years If the sun had twice its present mass, the Earths orbital period around the sun (at the present radius) would be (a) years (b) 1/2 year (c) year (d) 2 years In the 1960s, during the cold war, the USSR put a rocket into a circular orbit about the earth. A US senator expressed concern that a nuclear bomb could be dropped on the US as it passed over. What would happen if a bomb were released from the rocket (a) it would drop on the US, directly below (b) it would follow a curved path and land elsewhere (c) it would remain in the same orbit as the rocket (d) it would move in a straight line into space
making a start on Chpt 7 : Work & Energy
Chapter 7: Work & Energy

The law of conservation of energy is a very powerful one that can make solving complicated problems simple. We need to introduce the energy of a system and how one may introduce energy into a system by doing work
a very important and general law of physics is that the energy in a closed system is conserved. That is while it can be transformed into different forms, it cannot be created or destroyed. what types of energy do we need to know about kinetic energy - the energy a body has due to its motion
potential energy - energy stored in a system that has the potential to be released example would be gravitational potential energy being changed into kinetic energy
conservation of energy
vertical projectile motion can be analyzed in terms of the conserved energy of the particle
energy dissipation
kinetic and potential energies are mechanical there is also non-mechanical energy e.g. there is some air resistance on the rock, slightly slowing it down and hence reducing its energy this energy is not lost but is transferred when it slightly heats the air - becomes internal energy of the air
potential
As another example think of friction, where the friction force slows objects down, reducing their kinetic energy.
kinetic
kinetic
Work
theres a very specic denition of what physicists mean by work. the simplest case is when a constant force is used to move an object with this displacement parallel to the force
Work
SI units of work are clearly N m (Newton - meters). 1 N m is also known as 1 J, or one Joule (pron. jewel) Work is a scalar quantity - it does not possess a direction. Well see soon that work is the transfer of energy
then the work done by the force, W = F s more generally, if the force vector makes an angle vector, then the work done by the force is W = with the displacement
Example 7.2 - Sliding down a ramp

A package with mass, m, is unloaded from a truck with an inclined ramp, as shown. The ramp has rollers that eliminate friction, and the truck unloads from a height, h . The ramp is inclined at an angle . Find an algebraic expression in terms of these quantities for the work done on the package during its trip down the ramp. normal force perpendicular to displacement - does no work weight has a component parallel to the displacement - does some work
Example 7.3 - Work done by several forces

Tractor pulls a sled of wood a distance of 20.0 m along level frozen ground. The total weight of sled and load is 14700 N. The tractor exerts a constant force FT with magnitude 5000 N at an angle 36.9o above the horizontal. A constant 3500 N frictional force opposes the motion. Find the work done on the sled by each force individually and the total work done on the sled by all the forces.
look at the geometry of the slope so
normal force and weight force are perpendicular to the motion, so they do no work on the sled tractor does work WT = FT cos s = 80.0 x 103 J
friction forces is in the opposite direction to the motion, so = 180o, cos 180o = -1 Wf = - f s = -70.0 x 103 J negative? means the sled is doing work losing energy through friction (to the ground)
only the vertical distance matters
Example 7.3 - Work done by several forces
Work & Kinetic Energy

The work we do on an object is energy transferred to that object. This can take the form of kinetic energy. e.g. object moving along x under the action of a constant force F x. The particle will have constant acceleration, ax = Fx / m . We had formulae for motion with constant acceleration, e.g.
WT = 80.0 x 103 J Wf = -70.0 x 103 J Wtot = WT+W f = 10.0 x103 J
OR, net force in direction of motion, Fx,tot = FT cos - f = 4000 N - 3500 N = 500 N
Wtot = Fx,tot s = 10.0 x 103 J
so the work done increases the kinetic energy from to
Kinetic Energy
The energy possessed by a body due to its motion. Depends only on the mass of the body and its speed. Is a positive, scalar quantity. SI units are Joules (J) note that work done on the body can reduce the kinetic energy if W is negative then v f < vi - this is the case where the force opposes the motion (e.g. v in positive x-direction, F in negative x-direction)
Example 7.4 - Using work and energy to compute speed

We found the total work done on the sled by all the forces is 10,000 J, so the kinetic energy of the sled must increase by 10,000 J. The mass of the sled is 1500 kg. Suppose the sleds initial speed vi is 2.00 m/s, what is its nal speed?
we can rearrange so the nal speed is the subject:
vf = 4.16 m/s
Example 7.5 - Forces on a hammerhead

In a pile driver, a hammerhead of mass 200kg is lifted 3.00m above the top of a vertical I-beam being driven into the ground. The hammer is dropped, driving the I-beam 7.40cm into the ground. The vertical rails guiding the hammerhead exert a constant 60.0N frictional force on it. Use the work-energy relation to nd (a) (b) the speed of the hammerhead just as it hits the I-beam, and the average force the hammerhead exerts on the I-beam
Example 7.5 - Forces on a hammerhead

In a pile driver, a hammerhead of mass 200kg is lifted 3.00m above the top of a vertical I-beam being driven into the ground. The hammer is dropped, driving the Ibeam 7.40cm into the ground. The vertical rails guiding the hammerhead exert a constant 60.0N frictional force on it. Use the work-energy relation to nd (a) (b) the speed of the hammerhead just as it hits the Ibeam, and the average force the hammerhead exerts on the Ibeam
total work done by the hammerhead during the drop (with gravity and against friction) Wdrop = Ftotal s = (w - f) s = 1900 N * 3.00 m = 5700 J
the hammerhead starts from rest, vi = 0 so vf = 7.55 m/s
as the hammerhead pushes the I-beam 7.40cm into the ground it slows from 7.55 m/s down to 0 m/s . Hence it loses kinetic energy of 5700 J doing work on the I-beam (via the normal force), gravity and the guide-rail friction Ftotal = (w - f - n) = 1900 N - n W = 5700 J = Ftotal s = (1900 N - n) * 0.00740m n = 79,000 N this is the force the I-beam exerts on the hammerhead, so by Newtons third, this is the force the hammerhead exerts on the I-beam
Work done by a varying force

Weve dealt with the case of a constant force moving an object through a distance, what about the case where the force varies? e.g. remember that the force required to stretch a spring obeys Hookes law F = k x , so the more you stretch it, the more force is required to stretch it further. there is a graphical technique that allows us to compute the work done by a varying force
Work done by a varying force

consider an object moving along a straight line that has a force acting on it that varies as it travels along we can plot a graph of the force at each point along the path we could split this up into very small segments of path - during each segment the force is approximately constant, so the work done is which is the area of the rectangle hence the total work done is the sum of the rectangle areas, or better yet, the area under the curve
Applying this to the stretched spring

We apply a force equal to the Hookes law force at one end of a tethered spring to extend it
Potential Energy
We just did work on a spring by stretching it - that is we supplied energy to it. Where did this energy go? Not into kinetic energy since the spring isnt moving. We consider the spring to have potential energy. The stretched spring is storing the energy. We could release it by say, putting a block on the end of the spring and releasing the block. Then the potential energy of the spring would be transferred into kinetic energy of the block. An important form of potential energy is gravitational potential energy, which is energy associated with the height of an object.
the area under the curve is the area of a triangle of base X and height kX
makes sense, the average force is total displacement is X
and the
Gravitational Potential Energy

Consider moving an object of mass m , from a height yi to a height yf . We can compute the work done against gravity in increasing the height Wgrav = w (yf - yi ) = m g (yf - yi) if the object fell from yf to y i this would be the work done by gravity on the object Why not call m g y the gravitational potential energy as then the work done simply changes the amount of gravitational potential energy the object possesses. this is very useful
Conservation of energy
If the only force acting on an object is gravity, then the sum of the kinetic and potential energy is conserved:
N.B. it doesnt matter where we put the origin (y = 0) - only differences in position ever appear ( yf - yi & )
Example 7.7 - Height of a baseball from energy conservation

You throw a 0.150kg baseball straight up, giving it an initial upward velocity of magnitude 20.0 m/s . Use conservation of energy to nd how high it goes (ignoring air resistance).
Elastic potential energy

recall that to stretch a spring by an extension X , we had to do work which became the energy stored in the spring - this is elastic potential energy Example 7.8 - Potential energy on an air-track
A glider of mass 0.200kg sits on a frictionless, horizontal air-track, connected to a spring of negligible mass with force constant k = 5.00N/m. You pull on the glider, stretching the spring 0.100m, and then release it with no initial velocity. The glider begins to move back towards its equilibrium position (x=0). What is its speed when x=0.0800m?
initial total energy
at the highest point, v = 0, so total energy
initial kinetic energy = 0 initial potential energy = 1/2 k x2 = 0.0250 J at x=0.080 m,
would also follow from
kinetic energy = 1/2 m v2 = ? potential energy = 1/2 k x2 = 0.0160 J 0.0250 J = 0.0160 J + 1/2 m v2
Example 7.9 Maximum height of a home-run hit

A few weeks ago we derived the maximum height of a projectile launched with initial speed angle with the horizontal. Derive this using energy conservation. at an
Example 7.10 - Speed on a vertical circle

Skateboard down a quarter-pipe of radius R. Total mass of board and skater is m. Start from rest and moves with no friction. Derive an algebraic relation for the speed at the bottom of the ramp.
just kinetic and gravitational potential energy to deal with
pythagoras on the velocity vector
initially: kinetic energy = grav. potential energy = at the highest point, kinetic energy = grav. potential energy = conservation of total energy:
y-component of velocity is zero at the highest point, & there is no acceleration in x so v x = v0x
Non-conservative forces
Energy is conserved in a closed system. We also may have to deal with the case where work is being done on the system by an external force. In this case energy is still conserved provided we take account of the incoming or outgoing energy through work. An example of this is when we have non-conservative forces doing work, e.g. friction which transfers energy out of the system Example 7.12 - Work and energy on an air-track
Glider on an air-track with spring again. Suppose the glider is initially at rest at x=0, with the spring unstretched. Then you apply a constant force of magnitude 0.610 N to the glider. What is the gliders speed at x=0.100m your applied force is external to the glider-spring system
Example 7.13 - Skate with friction

Suppose the skate-ramp isnt frictionless so that the skaters speed at the bottom is 7.00m/s for a pipe radius 3.0m and a skater mass 25.0kg. What work was done by friction on the skater?
energy being lost from the skater system through friction
Collisions and Momentum
Chapter 8: Momentum
A simple way to understand what happens in a collision is to use a quantity called momentum. Well nd that the total momentum of a system is conserved if no external forces act on the system
an 18-wheeler moving at 30mph collides with a Honda Civic moving at 30mph who comes off worse? Why? We intuitively know the Civic is in trouble and the reason is that it has much less mass. Which is more dangerous - a bullet moving at 10mph or one moving at 50mph? It is clear that both mass and velocity are important in these circumstances, so we dene a quantity that includes both, momentum,
(18 wheeler has more momentum, faster bullet has more momentum)
Momentum and Newtons 2nd Law

recall the mathematical formulation of Newtons 2nd law and recall that the acceleration vector was dened as the instantaneous change in the velocity vector
Total momentum
if we have a system of particles, the total momentum of the system is simply the vector sum of the momenta of the particles
Example 8.1 - Preliminary analysis of a collision

A compact car with a mass of 1000kg is traveling north at speed 15m/s when it collides with a truck of mass 2000kg traveling east at 10m/s. Treating each vehicle as a particle, nd the total momentum just before the collision.
if the mass is constant with time then so forces actually cause changes in momentum and this even works when the mass changes with time
(an example would be rocket propulsion)
Conservation of momentum
Last time we learnt of an example of a conservation law. We found that provided no external forces acted on a system to do work, the total energy in the system was conserved. With momentum we have another conservation law: Provided no external forces act on a system, the total momentum of a system is conserved Internal forces cannot change the total momentum by Newtons 2nd and 3rd laws say particle A applies a force to particle B, changing Bs momentum (2nd law) then by the 3rd law, B applies an equal and opposite force to A changing As momentum by an equal and opposite amount. Then is unchanged and we say that the total momentum is conserved If an external force was applied to the AB system, then the total momentum would change according to
Example 8.2 - Astronaut Rescue

An astronaut nds herself oating in space 100m from her ship. She and the ship are motionless relatively. The astronauts mass is 100kg and she holds a 1kg wrench. She has 20mins of air remaining. She decides to use conservation of momentum to propel herself back to the ship by throwing the wrench. Where should she throw it? What will her magnitude of velocity be if she throws the wrench at 10m/s. Will she make it back to the ship before her air runs out? before throwing the wrench after
Example 8.4 - Head-on collision

Two gliders on an frictionless air-track. Glider A has mass 0.50kg and glider B a mass of 0.30kg. Both gliders move with an initial speed of 2.0m/s toward each other. After they collide, glider B moves away with a nal velocity in the x-direction of +2.0m/s. What is the nal velocity of A?
Example 8.5 - Collision in a horizontal plane

Chunks of ice sliding on a frozen pond. Chunk A, of mass 5.0kg moves with initial velocity 2.0m/s parallel to the x-axis. It collides with chunk B of mass 3.0kg that is initially at rest. After the collision, the velocity of A is found to be 1.0m/s at an angle 30o to the x-axis. What is the nal velocity of B? split the problem into components - momentum is conserved separately in x and y
after the collision
Inelastic collisions
The preceding examples have been elastic collisions, where the total kinetic energy before the collision is that same as after. We can also have collisions where the kinetic energy after the collision is less than it was initially - we call these inelastic
Inelastic collisions
momentum is conserved, no external forces: Pfx=Pix say, vBx=0
Example 8.6 - Inelastic collision on an air track

Velcro covered gliders on an air track. A has mass 0.50kg and B has mass 0.30kg, both move with initial speeds 2.0m/s. Find the nal velocity of the joined glider and compare the initial and nal kinetic energies.
Example 8.7 - The ballistic pendulum

A system for measuring the speed of a bullet. Bullet of mass mB is red into a block of wood of mass mW suspended like a pendulum. The bullet makes an inelastic collision with the block, becoming embedded in it. The block swings up to a maximum height h. Given measured values of h, mB, mW what is the speed of the bullet? conservation of momentum
equating the x-components of momentum immediately after the collision, the block has kinetic energy
when the block is at the highest point of its swing, it has zero velocity - all the K has been turned into gravitational potential energy
Elastic collisions
Have conservation of both kinetic energy and momentum. In the special case of a moving object (A) hitting a stationary object (B), we can derive the following
Example 8.10 - Moderator in a nuclear reactor

High-speed neutrons are produced in a nuclear reactor. Before it can trigger another ssion the neutron needs to be slowed down, this is done by collisions with nuclei of a moderator material. Suppose a neutron of mass 1u traveling at 2.6x107 m/s makes an elastic head-on collision with a carbon nucleus (mass 12u) at rest. What are the velocities after the collision?
conservation of x-component of momentum
consider special cases: (a) mA >> mB (b) mB >> m A (c) mB = m A
relative velocity relation
can generally derive

1u = 1.66 x 10-27 kg
for elastic collision - this is not an extra conservation law - it follows from conservation of both kinetic energy and momentum
Center of Mass
Suppose we have several particles at various positions, then the position of the center of mass is dened to be e.g.
CM 1kg 1kg 1kg CM 4kg 6kg CM 1kg 1kg
Center of Mass
the effect of an external force then is to accelerate the center of mass
solid objects also have a center of mass
velocity of center of mass
total mass
Rotation and angles
Chapter 9: Rotational Motion

Weve considered the physics of the motion of particles, and the motion of the center of mass of extended objects. But extended objects can also rotate about an axis.
Think about a rigid body that rotates about a xed axis. Firstly we need to sort out a better unit for angles Weve been using degrees [0:360], but there is a better unit we can use called radians 1 radian is dened as the angle subtended at the center of a circle by an arc with length equal to the radius of the circle
all round the circle,
1 rad = 57.3o
Angular velocity
Dene an angular velocity as the rate of change of an angle
Angular acceleration
Dene an angular acceleration as the rate of change of the angular velocity
units are radians/second

boy girl
units are radians/second2
who has the larger angular velocity, the boy or the girl?
Example 9.1 - Rotation of a compact disk

A CD rotates at high speed. The disk has radius 6.0cm and while data is being read by the laser it spins at 7200rev/min. What is the CDs angular velocity in radians per second. How much time is required for it to rotate through 90o? If it starts from rest and reaches full speed in 4.0s, what is its average angular acceleration?
Directions
Rotation can be clockwise or counterclockwise - our sign denition is
Constant angular acceleration

Equations describing this are analogous to those for constant linear acceleration
Example 9.2 - Rotation of a bicycle wheel

Angular velocity of the rear wheel of an exercise bike is 4.00rad/s at t =0 and it has constant angular acceleration of 2.00rad/s2. One of the spokes lies parallel with the x-axis at t=0, what angle does this spoke make with the x-axis at t =3.00s. What is the wheels angular velocity at this time?
one full rotation is
rad
applying these formulae to rotational problems is just the same as we did previously
Kinetic energy of rotation and moment of inertia

Consider a rigid body rotating to be made up of a large number of particles: A,B,C, then its kinetic energy is The linear velocity of a particle is related to the angular velocity of the rigid body and the distance to the xed axis
Example 9.6 - An abstract sculpture

Three massive disks are connected by light rods. Find the moment of inertia about an axis passing through disks B and C. Find the moment of inertia about an axis through disk A, perpendicular to disk As surface. If the object rotates about the axis through A with angular velocity 4.0rad/s, nd its kinetic energy.
axis BC
all the particles have the same perpendicular distance to A, r A = 0.40m perpendicular distance to B, rB = 0 perpendicular distance to C, r C = 0
we can dene a property of the rigid body (for a particular axis) called the moment of inertia so that
axis A
perpendicular distance to A, r A = 0 perpendicular distance to B, rB = 0.50m perpendicular distance to C, r C = 0.40m
Example 9.7 - Cable from a winch

A cable is wrapped around a winch drum - a solid cylinder of mass 50kg and diameter 0.12m that rotates about a horizontal axis. The free end of the cable is pulled with a constant force of magnitude 9.0N for a distance of 2.0m. If the cylinder is initially at rest, nd its nal angular velocity and the nal speed of the cable. need a fact: the moment of inertia of a solid cylinder about its central axis is
Rotation about a moving axis

Every possible motion of a rigid body can be expressed as a combination of the motion of the centre of mass and rotation about an axis passing through it. The kinetic energy can be split into a part for the motion of the center of mass and a part for the rotation
assuming no energy is lost as friction, all the work done in pulling the cable becomes kinetic energy of the winch work done kinetic energy of a rotating cylinder
=
cable moves transverse to the circle at the radius
a primitive yo-yo
a primitive yo-yo is made from a solid disk of radius R and mass M. It is released from rest by a stationary supporting hand and the string unwinds without slipping. (a) Find an expression for the speed of the center of mass of the disk after it has dropped a distance h. (b) What would the speed have been if the disk had been dropped without the string (c) Why are they different?
torque
Weve considered rigid bodies undergoing angular acceleration. What causes this? In the case of linear acceleration it was a force, as dictated by Newtons 2nd law. For angular acceleration we introduce the concept of torque
motion = rotation + center of mass
and
are related:
in one complete rotation, the amount of string unwound is , which must be the same distance traveled by the center of mass
torque
sign convention for torques: counterclockwise torques are positive clockwise torques are negative
torque
computing the torque: only the perpendicular piece of the force/moment arm contributes
a weekend plumber
the weight of a 900N man is applied to the end of an extended wrench 0.80m long which makes an angle 19o to the horizontal. Find the magnitude and direction of the torque exerted out the center of the pipe tting.
torque and angular acceleration

using only Newtons 2nd law we can derive a relationship between torque and angular acceleration
compute the component of force perpendicular to the lever the torque is the lever length times this torque is positive since it causes a counterclockwise rotation
torque and angular acceleration

using only Newtons 2nd law we can derive a relationship between torque and angular acceleration
unwinding a winch
cable is wrapped around a uniform solid cylinder of diameter 0.12m and mass 50kg that can rotate freely about its axis. The cable is pulled by a force of magnitude 9.0N. Assuming that the cable unwinds without stretching or slipping nd the acceleration of the cable.
rotational analogue of Newtons 2nd law
a primitive yo-yo
a primitive yo-yo is made from a solid disk of radius R and mass M. It is released from rest by a stationary supporting hand and the string unwinds without slipping. (a) Find an expression for the speed of the center of mass of the disk after it has dropped a distance h. (b) What would the speed have been if the disk had been dropped without the string (c) Why are they different?
forces on the primitive yo-yo

nd the acceleration of the yo-yo and the tension in the string
Newton II for the center of mass: torque/ ang. accl. eqn:
motion = rotation + center of mass
and
are related:
in one complete rotation, the amount of string unwound is , which must be the same distance traveled by the center of mass
work in rotational motion

angular acceleration causes a change in kinetic energy this energy comes from work done by the torque
work in rotational motion

the ywheel of a motor has a mass of 300.0kg and a moment of inertia of 580 kg m2 . The motor develops a constant torque of 2000.0 Nm and the ywheel starts from
rest. (a) what is the angular acceleration of the ywheel? (b) what is its angular velocity after it makes 4.00 revolutions (c) how much work is done by the motor during the rst 4.00 revolutions?
hence for a constant torque:
angular momentum
is there a quantity like momentum that is conserved in rotational motion? angular momentum is dened by
conservation of angular momentum

prof stands on a turntable holding his arms extended horizontally with a 5.0kg dumbbell in each hand. He is set rotating making one revolution in 2.0s. His moment of inertia without the dumbbells is 3.0 kg m2 with arms outstretched and 2.2 kg m2 with arms tucked in. The dumbbells start 1.0 m from the axis and are pulled in to 0.20m. Find the professors angular velocity with the dumbbells pulled in. Also compute the change in kinetic energy.
so if there is no net torque we have
so angular momentum is conserved
Periodic Motion
Chapters 11 & 12 Periodic motion & waves
e.g. a pendulum - keeps swinging from side to side with a xed period hence we can use it to keep time (pendulum clock) it has an equilibrium position, but if we give it an initial push away from there, conservation of energy prevents it from coming to rest even though there is a force pulling it back simplest example of periodic motion is called simple harmonic motion
this turns out to be one of the most important idealizations in physics, it just keeps coming up
e.g. quantum eld theories that describe the smallest known particles in the universe are really just fsncy coupled harmonic oscillators
Simple Harmonic Motion
a physical system that is described well by simple harmonic motion is a glider on an air-track tethered by a spring
free-body diagram of block when x<0 (spring is compressed)

acceleration is back toward equilibrium position (x=0)
free-body diagram of block when x=0 (spring is in equilibrium)

no acceleration
free-body diagram of block when x>0 (spring is extended)

acceleration is back toward equilibrium position (x=0)
but the block cant stop because it has velocity (Newtons 1st law)
Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion
no external or non-conservative forces here, so mechanical energy should be conserved
when the block is at the maximum displacement, x=A, v=0,
amplitude = max |x | = A period = T = time to travel one cycle and return to original position frequency = f = 1/ T = number of cycles in a given unit of time (units Hz = s-1)
Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion
Example 11.5 - Simple harmonic motion on an air track
energy sloshes between kinetic and potential
A spring is mounted horizontally on an air track, with the left end held stationary. We attach a spring balance to the free end of the spring, pull toward the right, and measure the elongation. A force of 6.0 N causes an elongation of 0.030 m. We remove the spring balance and attach a 0.50 kg object to the end, pulling it a distance 0.040 m. After releasing the object it oscillates in Simple Harmonic Motion. Find (a) the force constant of the spring (b) the maximum and minimum velocities of attained by the object (c) the maximum and minimum acceleration (d) the velocity and acceleration when the object has moved 0.020 m (e) the kinetic, potential and total energies at 0.020 m
Equations of simple harmonic motion

equations of motion
how does the position, velocity and acceleration of the block vary as a function of time? with calculus these equations are easy to nd, they are:
how do these look?
what is
check on energy conservation:
Equations of simple harmonic motion
The circle of reference projection of circular motion onto a at screen
notice that when
, all quantities return to the same value
- thus one cycle has been completed

looks a bit like circular motion - is there a connection? YES, and we can use it to derive the above equations
equations of motion
The simple pendulum
a point mass suspended by a weightless string.
check we can correctly use them: at t=0, x=A=20 cm & v=0 the period is found to be 10 s what is the position, velocity and acceleration at t = 2 s ? what is the position, velocity and acceleration at t = 8 s ? what is the position, velocity and acceleration at t = 102 s ? at what time(s) is the position x=10 cm ? what is the maximum velocity?
45o 90o
force proportional to displacement - suggests SHM
making a simple timepiece lets say we want to build a pendulum clock that will count seconds the bob should pass the equilibrium position once every second
Mechanical waves
a disturbance that propagates through a medium
what is the period of the motion? how long should our pendulum be?
if I make the pendulum length four times as long, how does the angular frequency change? what about the period?
transverse, longitudinal or a combination of both waves transport energy, but not matter
periodic mechanical waves
sinusoidal mechanical waves
a disturbance that propagates through a medium, repeating itself over time a special case is where the particles undergo SHM - then the wave is said to be sinusoidal
a special case is where the particles undergo SHM - then the wave is said to be sinusoidal
amplitude dened as before as the maximum deviation of any particle from its equilibrium position wavelength, = spatial distance over which the wave-pattern repeats wave propagates with a speed given by
longitudinal waves
e.g. a tube lled with air being compressed and expanded by a plunger get regions of increased pressure (compressions) and regions of decreased pressure (rarefactions)
transverse waves on a rope

how fast will these waves propagate? depends on the tension in the rope and the mass per unit length
example 12.2 - Mineral samples in a mine shaft

Nylon rope xed at the top end and held taut by a 20.0 kg box of rocks at the bottom. The rope has a mass of 2.00 kg. Guy shakes the bottom of the rope from side to side. What will the speed of the transverse waves be? If the shake is transverse simple harmonic of frequency 20 Hz, what wavelength waves will we get?
reections and superposition
principal of superposition

what happens if a wave reaches a boundary, e.g. the xed end of a rope?
consider a related process, where two waves traveling on the same rope meet each other superposition indicates that we add (vectorally) the displacements of each wave to make a total displacement
note - not a periodic wave here
standing waves
standing waves by superposition
if we x both ends of a string, what sort of waves do we get?
wave traveling to the left (red) combines with an identical wave traveling to the right (blue)
call these standing waves since they are not transferring energy along the string
standing waves
example 12.3 - a giant bass viol

string of length 5.00m between xed points, mass per unit length 40.0g/m and a fundamental frequency of 20.0 Hz. what is the tension in the string? what is the frequency and the wavelength of the second harmonic? what is the frequency and wavelength of the second overtone?

if we x both ends of a string, what sort of waves do we get?
clearly we have to have a node at each end, which limits the allowed wavelengths allowed set of frequencies (harmonic series) :
Interference
Example 12.6 - Interference from two speakers
standing waves are one example of an interference between two waves that overlap in a region of space
constructive interference
two speakers are driven by the same amp and emit sinusoidal waves in phase. If the speed of sound is 350 m/s for what frequencies does maximum constructive interference occur at point P? What frequencies give destructive interference?
destructive interference
Beats
Sound & Hearing

dene the intensity of a wave as the time-averaged rate that energy is transferred by a wave, per unit area. rate of energy ow called power and measured in Watts, W=J/s consider sound spreading out from a point, then at a distance r, the power is spread over a spherical shell of area

interference of waves with differing frequencies - tends to cause a pulsing effect called beats
beat frequency is the difference of the two wave frequencies:

peak intensity at some time - next peak intensity when wave 1 has gone through one more whole cycle than wave 2
human hearing is effective over a huge range of intensities, from faint whispers of intensity about 10-12 W/m2 to the pain threshold at 100 W/m2 - 14 orders of magnitude an appropriate scale is logarithmic - dene intensity level by
Sound & Hearing

human hearing is effective over a huge range of intensities, from faint whispers of intensity about 10-12 W/m2 to the pain threshold at 100 W/m2 - 14 orders of magnitude an appropriate scale is logarithmic - dene intensity level by
the Doppler effect

when a car passes at high speed you might notice that the pitch of the engine or the horn seems to drop as it passes this is caused by the relative velocity of the car and the observer(you) and is called the Doppler effect
noise rock gig pain threshold riveter busy street conversation quiet car whisper rustle of leaves hearing threshold
intensity level, dB 140 120 95 70 65 50 20 10 0
intensity, W/m2 100 1 3 x 10-3 10-5 3 x 10-6 10-7 10-10 10-11 10-12
listener receives waves at relative speed
stationary source
wavelength is a xed length in space, so is the same for the listener, hence
listener hears a higher frequency
the Doppler effect - with moving source
Examples 12.10-12 - Police car chasing a speeder
now suppose the source is moving
police car siren emits a sinusoidal wave with frequency fS = 300 Hz. The speed of sound is 340 m/s. (a) nd the wavelength of the waves if the siren is at rest in the air (b) if the siren is moving with a velocity v S = 30.0 m/s. Find the wavelength in front of and behind the siren
now the wavelength is changed by the source movement

during one period has moved a distance between wavecrests is , an entire wavelength is emitted, but the source , so to a stationary observer the distance
plus - left minus - right
(a) when the source is at rest (b) in front of the siren the wavelength is reduced
hence the moving listener hears a frequency
(c) behind the siren the wavelength is increased
Examples 12.10-12 - Police car chasing a speeder
a bystander (at rest) observes the chase - what frequency does he hear when the police car has passed him?
what if the bystander gets in his car and drives away at 30 m/s ?
temperature
Chapters 14 - Heat, Thermodynamics etc
temperature intuitively related to hotness or coldness quantitative denition comes via the thermometer
two examples of thermometers
thermal equilibrium

the zeroth law of thermodynamics
measure temperature by placing thermometer in contact with the object the two interact, the object cooling a little and the thermometer heating up - at some point they reach and stay at the same temperature
they are said to be in thermal equilibrium
two systems that are in thermal equilibrium with a third system are also in equilibrium with each other
veried experimentally their temperature is the quantity A, B & C have in common
a useful thermometer
the zero of temperature?

a thermometer becomes a quantitative device if we assign a numerical scale to the changes it undergoes common scale choice is Celsius
water freezes @ 0oC water boils @ 100oC
it looks like were free to choose the zero of our temperature scale is there a minimum temperature that we ought to use?
another common choice is Fahrenheit

water freezes @ 32oF water boils @ 212oF
scales are related

absolute zero = -273.15oC dene Kelvin scale - same interval as Celsius, but zerod at absolute zero
heat
so a bodys hotness is described by its temperature - but how did it get hot? consider putting a cold metal spoon into a hot cup of coffee - the spoon will heat up until it is in thermal equilibrium with the coffee (they both have the same temperature) heat transfer from the coffee to the spoon has taken place. James Joule showed experimentally that there is an equivalence between work and heat transfer
heat and temperature

heat ow to an object is likely to increase its temperature - how are they related? dene specic heat capacity, c
if Q is positive, heat is owing to the object and the temperature increases if Q is negative, heat is owing from the object and the temperature decreases specic heat capacity of water is c = 4.190 x 103 J kg -1 K-1 e.g. how much heat must be transferred to raise 0.25 L of water by 80oC?
heat is a form of energy
heat and temperature

if Q is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of an object from 10oC to 20o C, how much heat is required to raise the temperature from 20oC to 25o C ? A. Q/2 B. Q C. 2Q D. 25Q/20
phase changes
heat ow does not always cause a change in temperature - it can cause a change of phase, for example from solid to liquid or from liquid to gas
e.g. add heat to ice at 0o C and its temperature doesnt increase, instead in turns into water at 0oC
the amount of heat required to cause such a phase change is called a latent heat
e.g. the heat required to turn 1kg of ice at 0oC into 1kg of water at 0oC is called the latent heat of fusion and is for an arbitrary mass process is reversible so we get this heat energy out when the water freezes
also a latent heat (of vaporization) to turn water into water vapor (a gas)
phase changes
ice
add heat continuously to a sample of ice
Suppose over 30 seconds I add 10,000 J of heat to a 1 kg sample of ice, initially at a temperature of 0oC. Which of the following is true of the sample after Ive added the heat? (the system is in thermal equilibrium)
A. B. C. D. it is entirely ice at a temperature of 5o C it is a mixture of ice and water at a temperature of 0oC it is entirely water at a temperature of 0o C it is entirely water at a temperature of 5o C
example 14.2 - chilling soda
mechanisms of heat ow

how much ice (@ -20oC) should we add to 0.25 kg of cola (@ +20oC) to chill it to 0oC with all the ice melted? heat lost from the cola is gained by the ice heat gained by the ice does two things
raises the temperature from -20o C to 0oC melts the ice
how can heat move from one system to another? three basic mechanisms are conduction, convection and radiation
conduction occurs within objects that are in physical contact
total heat ow is zero
heat is really just the energy of motion of huge numbers of atomic particles, heat transfer by conduction is when neighbouring atomic particles transfer energy through collisions note that still air is actually not very good at conducting heat


how can heat move from one system to another? three basic mechanisms are conduction, convection and radiation
convection occurs when bulk amounts of a substance move, carrying heat with them
how can heat move from one system to another? three basic mechanisms are conduction, convection and radiation radiation is the transfer of heat in the form of electromagnetic waves radiation allows heat transfer even through a vacuum where there are no atoms and hence no concept of heat all hot objects emit electromagnetic radiation - some of it in the visible region (e.g. white light from a lament lightbulb), but also some in the frequency region not visible to our eyes this is how the Earth manages to be heated by the sun, despite the vacuum separating the Earth from the Sun
the Dewar (thermos) ask

the atomic level

all materials, solid, liquid or gas, are made up of atoms - the essential differences between materials being which atoms are present and how they are arranged. how many atoms are we talking about in a lump of stuff? take for example 12g of carbon - this would be the lead of a few pencils: this contains 6.022 x 1023 atoms of carbon i.e. roughly 600,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 atoms! This number is called Avogadros number and it has a more general meaning as the number of molecules in one mole of substance (one mole being the amount of substance that has as many molecules as 12g of carbon) this is the scale of macroscopic amounts of stuff and is clearly a very large number
designed to prevent heat transfer between the ask contents and the outside world what method of heat transfer does the screw top mostly prevent?
A. B. C. conduction convection radiation
if you hold the ask in your hand what method of heat transfer from the contents to your hand does the vacuum region mostly prevent?
what method of heat transfer does the silvering mostly prevent?

Avogadros number & homeopathy

A LESSON IN JUNK-SCIENCE
Homeopathy is a medical treatment that claims to work by taking an active compound and repeatedly diluting it (usually with water) - the claim is that this dilution makes the cure more potent. The originator of homeopathy recommended what he termed a 30C dilution (diluted to one part in 100, 30 times), this corresponds to a dilution by a factor of 1060 lets say were too lazy to do all that diluting and only did a 15C dilution roughly speaking wed have 1030 water molecules for every molecule of active compound 1030 water molecules is about 106 moles of water which would have a mass of about 104 kg and a volume of about 10 m3 to get a single molecule of active ingredient you would need to swallow 10,000 liters of water! a typical homeopathic dose is not of this scale and it is more than likely to you swallowing just water
for comparison the EPA allows 50 ppb (parts per billion) of Arsenic in drinking water so there is something like ten thousand billion billion times as much Arsenic in your remedy than there is active ingredient
heat at the atomic level

is the random motion of molecules, all carrying kinetic energy this random motion can be observed by adding some visible tracers into a liquid and is called Brownian motion
Joules experiment
demonstrates that the same temperature change can be caused by doing work on a system directly heating the system so there must be a connection between heat & work
the rst law of thermodynamics
combines the effects of heat transfer and work
thermodynamic system
uid-based thermodynamic system
heat transfer depends upon path
the working substance in a thermodynamic system is often a uid

hence work can be done via a volume change.
consider expanding 2.0L of uid to 5.0L keeping the temperature constant
very simple system

do work by pushing or pulling on the plunger supply heat by putting a hotplate under the cylinder
W>0 Q>0
W=0 Q=0
same nal state reached through two different processes (paths)
the rst law of thermodynamics

there is a property of the state of a thermodynamic system that doesnt care about the path used to get to that state the internal energy can be thought of as the sum of all the kinetic and potential energies of the constituent particles of a system

gas in an insulated rigid container
weights are added to the frictionless piston, compressing the gas, as this is done
A. B. the internal energy of the gas stays the same because the container is insulated the internal energy of the gas increases because heat is added to the system the internal energy of the gas increases because work is done on the gas the internal energy of the gas decreases because there is less gas
the rst law of thermodynamics relates the heat transfer to a system and the work done by it to the internal energy of the system in words - when heat Q is added to a system, some of this added energy remains within the system changing the internal energy by an amount .The remainder leaves the system as it does work W on its surroundings.
C. D.
example 15.8 - thermodynamics of boiling water

a heat engine
one gram of water becomes 1671cm3 of steam when boiled at a constant pressure of (1atm = 1.013x105 Pa). The latent heat of vaporization is Lv = 2.256x106 J/kg. Compute the work done by the water when it vaporizes and its increase in internal energy
a device which absorbs heat from a hot reservoir, does some work, and discards heat to a cold reservoir. assumed to be cyclic - the engine returns to its original state
at constant pressure W = p(V2-V1) = (1.013x105Pa)(1671x10-6m 3 - 1.0x10-6m 3)
W = 169 J heat added Q = m Lv = 2256 J
net heat absorbed per cycle
rst law then says we can get out useful work
a very familiar heat engine - the internal combustion engine
fuel consumption in a truck

engine takes in 2500J of heat by burning gasoline and delivers 500J of mechanical work per cycle. (a) what is the thermodynamic efciency? (b) how much heat is discarded per cycle?
the Otto cycle is an idealized model of the internal combustion engine
refrigerator as a reversed heat engine
practical refrigerator
use incoming work to remove heat
the second law of thermodynamics
the most efcient heat engine
it is impossible for any system to undergo a process in which it absorbs heat from a reservoir at a single temperature and converts the heat completely into mechanical work with the system ending in the state in which it began.
The Carnot cycle is the most efcient heat engine possible - i.e. obeying the second law of thermodynamics
it is impossible for any process to have as its sole result the transfer of heat from a cooler to a hotter object
the second law of thermodynamics

what is the origin of these impossibilities? they dont come from the rst law (conservation of energy) the issue is one of disorder at the microscopic level - in a hot body the molecules are ying around with a high degree of randomness, while in a colder body they are less random once a closed system is randomised it will not un-randomise itself

an alternative statement of the second law of thermodynamics is the entropy (degree of disorder) in a closed system either remains constant or increases.
Physics 112N
Physics 112N Spring Semester 2008

Prof. Jo Dudek jdudek@odu.edu OCNPS Rm 325
this semester well continue our tour through physics considering

electromagnetic phenomena optics aspects of modern physics
as before well need some math skills and well also make use of physics learnt last semester
Chapter 17 - Electric Charge and Electric Field
Reading Quiz
1. Which of the following is NOT TRUE? The electric force A. decreases with the inverse square of the distance between the two charged particles B. between two protons separated by a distance d is larger than between two electrons separated by d C. may be either attractive or repulsive 2. A material which permits electric charge to move through it is called A. an insulator B. a conductor C. a capacitor D. an inductor
youre likely to have experienced static electrical charges - they accumulate if you rub a balloon on your sweater, they also accumulate on clouds and are the origin of lightning discharges it turns out that charge is quantized, it comes in packets which cant be subdivided it is conserved - the total charge in a closed system will not change with time
simple experiments involving electric charge
origin of charges
the charges we encounter are properties of the particles that make up matter - namely electrons and protons
like charges repel, opposite charges attract
DEMO 56
conductors and insulators
induction and polarization
some materials permits electric charge to move from one region to another - we call these conductors materials that do not permit such movement are titled insulators
DEMO 58
conservation and quantisation of charge

A positively charged object is placed close to a conducting object attached to an insulating glass pedestal (a ). After the opposite side of the conductor is grounded for a short time interval (b ), the conductor becomes negatively charged (c ). Based on this information, we can conclude that within the conductor
the sum of charges in a closed system is constant the magnitude of the charge of a proton or an electron is the indivisible unit of charge* any charge seen in experiment will be an integer multiple of this basic charge unit
units of charge are Coulombs
A. both positive and negative charges move freely. B. only negative charges move freely. C. only positive charges move freely. D. We cant really conclude anything.
*the prevailing nuclear theory suggests quarks with fractional charges exist, but cannot be separated far enough to be seen
plastic spheres Three pithballs (insulators) are suspended from thin threads. Various objects are then rubbed against other objects (nylon against silk, glass against polyester, etc.) and each of the pithballs is charged by touching them with one of these objects. It is found that pithballs 1 and 2 repel each other and that pithballs 2 and 3 repel each other. From this we can conclude that
four lightweight plastic spheres are suspended from insulating threads the net charge on sphere d is +Q the other three spheres have net charges of either +Q, -Q or 0
A. 1 and 3 carry charges of opposite sign. B. 1 and 3 carry charges of equal sign. C. all three carry the charges of the same sign. D. one of the objects carries no charge.
A. a=0, b=+Q, c=-Q B. a=+Q, b=0, c=-Q C. a=-Q, b=+Q, c=0 D. a=-Q, b=0, c=+Q
Coulombs law
1/r2
Coulomb studied the interaction forces between charges in a torsion balance experiment
like gravity, Coulombs law gives a force that behaves as the inverse square of distance
example 17.2 - gravity in the hydrogen atom
a hydrogen atom contains one proton and one electron. The Bohr model pictures the electron as moving around the proton in a circular orbit of radius r = 5.29 x 10-11 m. What is the ratio of the electric force between the electron and the proton to the magnitude of the gravitational force between them?
A hydrogen atom is composed of a nucleus containing a single proton, about which a single electron orbits. The electric force between the two particles is 2.3 x 1039 greater than the gravitational force! If we can adjust the distance between the two particles, can we nd a separation at which the electric and gravitational forces are equal? A. Yes, we must move the particles farther apart. B. Yes, we must move the particles closer together. C. No, at any distance
vector addition of forces

Two uniformly charged spheres are rmly fastened to and electrically insulated from frictionless pucks on an air table. The charge on sphere 2 is three times the charge on sphere 1. Which force diagram correctly shows the magnitude and direction of the electrostatic forces:
two point charges lie on a line. q 1 = 2.0 C is located on the positive x-axis at x = 0.30 m, and an identical charge q2 is at x= - 0.15 m. Find the magnitude and direction of the total force that these two charges exert on a third charge q 3 = 4.0 C which lies at the origin.
example 17.4 - vector addition of forces
a point charge q1 = 2.0 C is located on the positive y-axis at y = 0.30 m, and an identical charge q2 is at the origin. Find the magnitude and direction of the total force that these two charges exert on a third charge q 3 = 4.0 C that is on the positive x-axis at x = 0.40 m
Reading Quiz
1. Which of the following is NOT TRUE? A. The electric eld obeys the principle of superposition B. The tangent to an electric eld line gives the direction of the eld at that point C. The density of electric eld lines is directly proportional to the strength of the eld D. Negative charges are sources of electric eld lines and positive charges are sinks 2. Which of the following is NOT TRUE? A. The electric eld from a point charge at a distance r is the electrostatic force on a test charge at r divided by the test charge B. The electric eld from a point charge falls as the inverse square of distance from the point charge C. The units of electric eld strength are Newtons D. The electric eld lines from a point charge point radially to or from the charge
Electric Field

electric forces act, like gravity, at a distance a powerful way to think of the cause of the force on a charge B due to a distant charge A is to use the concept of a force eld from charge A that is everywhere in space then the force on B arises because B feels the electric eld
electric eld is dened as the force on B, with the charge of B divided out (so the properties of B dont appear)
Electric Field
strictly speaking we call B a test charge and make its charge so small that it does not produce a signicant eld of its own
Two test charges are brought separately into the vicinity of a charge +Q. First, test charge +q is brought to a point a distance r from +Q. Then this charge is removed and test charge q is brought to the same point. The electrostatic eld at the position of the test charge is greater for:
if we have many sources of charge, each will produce a eld (having a vector value at each point in space) which can be added vectorally to produce a net electric eld
A. +q B. q C. It is the same for both.
a moving proton
Two test charges are brought separately into the vicinity of a charge +Q. First, test charge +q is brought to a point a distance r from +Q. Then this charge is removed and test charge 2q is brought to the same point. The magnitude of electric force felt by the test charge is largest for
a vacuum chamber contains a uniform electric eld directed downward. If a proton is shot horizontally into this region, it feels a force directed
A. downward ? B. upward ? C. to the right ? D. to the left ?
-2q
E
A. +q B. 2q C. It is the same for both.
p+
a moving electron
example 17.5 - accelerating an electron
a vacuum chamber contains a uniform electric eld directed downward. If an electron is shot horizontally into this region, its acceleration is
A. downward and constant ? B. upward and constant ? C. upward and changing ? D. downward and changing ?
E e
when the terminals of a 100V battery are connected to two large parallel horizontal plates 10cm apart, the resulting charges on the plates produce an electric eld in the region between the plates that is very nearly uniform and has magnitude E = 1.0 x 104 N/C. Suppose the lower plate has positive charge so that the electric eld points upward. if an electron is released from the upper plate, what is its speed just before it reaches the lower plate? how much time is required for this motion? explain why we can neglect acceleration due to gravity
electric eld from a point charge
electric eld lines
recall that Coulombs law gave for the force
hence the electric eld from particle 1 is obtained by dividing out the charge of particle 2, considered to be a test charge
an electric eld has a value at each point in space - this is not an easy thing to display - electric eld lines are a way to attempt this a eld line is drawn at a tangent to the eld vector if lines are drawn close together this indicates a large magnitude of electric eld we assign a direction to the lines which is the direction of the eld vectors (hence it runs from positive to negative charges)
electric eld lines
electric eld lines
some examples
some examples
eld lines only start and end on positive charges they are otherwise continuous
Consider the four eld patterns shown. Assuming there are no charges in the regions shown, which of the patterns represents a possible electrostatic eld:
magnitude and direction
a small object S with a charge of magnitude q creates an electric eld. At a point P located 1.0m west of S, the eld has a value of 9 N/C directed to the west. At a point 1.0m east of S, the eld is
A. 10 N/C, directed west ? B. 10 N/C, directed east ? C. 20 N/C, directed west ? D. 20 N/C, directed east ?
what is the value of q ?

A. 10 C B. 1x10-9 C = 1 nC C. 1 C D. 1.0x109 C
(k = 9.0x109 Nm2/C2)
Consider the eld patterns shown. Identify the unknown charge
Consider the eld patterns shown. Identify the unknown charges
+q
Q?
Q1 A. Q = -2q B. Q = -q C. Q = +q D. Q = +2q
Q2
A. Q1 = -q , Q2 = -q B. Q1 = -q , Q2 = +q C. Q1 = +q , Q2 = +q D. Q1 = +q , Q2 = -q
Consider the eld patterns shown. Identify the unknown charges
electric eld and electric force

a charge of 1.0 nC is placed in an electric eld at position X and feels an electric force of magnitude 2.0 N a charge of 2.0 nC is placed in the same electric eld at position Y and feels an electric force of magnitude 3.0 N is the magnitude of the electric eld
A. larger at X than Y B. larger at Y than X C. the same at X and Y
A. Q1 = -q , Q2 = +q Q1 Q2 B. Q1 = -q , Q2 = +2q C. Q1 = -2q , Q2 = +q D. Q1 = +q , Q2 = -q
electric eld superposition
two charges
the electric eld distribution from a point charge looks like
two identical electric charges are arranged as shown:
Y
+
we place a second point charge at position Y and nd that the magnitude of the electric eld at X increases. What sign charge did we place at Y ? A. positive B. negative
X is equidistant from each charge - in which direction does the electric eld at X point?
A. B. C. D. up down left right
10
two charges
electric eld of an electric dipole
two equal and opposite electric charges are arranged as shown:
point charges q1 and q2 of +12 nC and -12 nC respectively are placed 10.0cm apart. we call this an electric dipole. Compute the resultant electric eld at (a) a point midway between the charges (b) a point 4.0cm to the left of q1 (c) what is the direction of the electric eld at points along the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the charges?
X is equidistant from each charge - an electron placed at X feels a force directed

A. B. C. D. up down left right
Electrons are placed at positions X and Y, which of the following is true

A. electron at X feels the largest force, directed upwards electron at X feels the largest force, directed downwards electron at Y feels the largest force, directed to the right electron at Y feels the largest force, directed to the left
an important fact about conductors
within a conductor, in a static situation, there can be no electric eld

why? within a conductor, charges are free to move, an electric eld would cause them to feel a force and hence accelerate. we are interested in electrostatic situations, i.e. those that dont change with time, so there cannot be an electric eld.
B.
C.
a more accurate statement is that in a static situation, charges in a conductor rearrange themselves so that there is no E -eld inside the conductor also works if theres a cavity in the conductor
Y
? ?
D.
Faraday cage
11
potential energy
Physics 112N Chapter 18
recall that the work done by a constant force F moving an object through a distance s at an angle is recall we considered gravity as a conservative force, meaning that if we traveled in a closed path, we did no work we were able to dene a potential energy
electric potential and capacitance
electric potential energy
electric potential energy
now consider a uniform electric eld (we discussed last time how to set one up with parallel charged plates) the electric force is conservative so we can again dene a potential energy
since we can have positive and negative charges, you need to be careful with signs
electric potential energy of a point charge
electric potential energy of a point charge

potential energy in a uniform eld was easy - we actually computed the area under the force-displacement curve how about a single point charge where Coulombs law holds?
for a test charge on the x-axis but any point the same distance away would have the same potential so that
true for all possible signs of we are free to choose the zero of potential energy, since measurable work is a difference between two potential energies. Here we choose the zero to be at a very large separation of charges
electric potential energy of a system of point charges
electrostatic potential
potential energy of a test charge in the eld of several other point charges is the sum of the potential energies of each test charge - point charge pair
we can dene something called potential that removes the properties of the test charge
this quantity bears the same relation to the potential energy that the electric eld does to the force units are J/C or Volts, V

the potential from a point charge will be

so the potential is a scalar quantity that has a value at each point in space
the potential from a system of point charges will be
Two test charges are brought separately into the vicinity of a charge +Q. First, test charge +q is brought to point A a distance r from +Q . Next, +q is removed and a test charge +2q is brought to point B a distance 2r from +Q . Compared with the electrostatic potential of the charge at A, that of the charge at B is
Two test charges are brought separately into the vicinity of a charge +Q. First, test charge +q is brought to point A a distance r from +Q . Next, +q is removed and a test charge +2q is brought to point B a distance 2r from +Q . In which case is the electrostatic potential energy of the test charge greatest?
A. greater. B. smaller. C. the same.
A. A B. B C. the same.
example 18.2 - parallel plates and conservation of energy

a 9.0V battery is connected across two large parallel plates that are separated by 4.5mm of air, creating a potential difference of 9.0V between the plates An electron is released at rest from the negative plate. If the only force on the electron is the electric force, what is the speed of the electron as it reaches the positive plate? Use conservation of energy.
quiz
point P is equidistant from both point charges. At that point

A. B. C. the electric eld points directly to the right the electric eld is zero the electric eld points directly upwards
point P is equidistant from both point charges. At that point

A. B. C. D. the potential is zero the potential is positive the potential points to the right the potential is negative
(potential is relative to innity)
example 18.3 - potential of two point charges

two electrons are held in place 10.0cm apart. point a is midway between the two electrons, and point b is 12.0cm directly above point a. (a) calculate the electric potential at point a and point b (b) a third electron is released from rest at point b, what is the speed of this electron when it is far from the other two electrons?
equipotential surfaces
these are a graphical technique to display potential they are dened as the surfaces on which the potential takes a constant value - hence different equipotentials never intersect usually draw them with equal potential separations

we can use some logical deduction to see that electric elds must be perpendicular to equipotentials we can move a test charge along an equipotential without changing potential, hence the potential energy does not change thus no work is done if the E-eld had a component parallel to the equipotential we would do work hence there can be no component of parallel to an equipotential
equipotential surfaces
equipotential surfaces - questions

shown are the equipotentials for a system of three charges at locations qa: x= -2 cm, y= 0 qb: x= +2 cm, y= 0 qc: x= 0, y= +2 cm What are the correct signs of these charges? A. qa is +ve, qb is +ve, qc is +ve
0V -20V +20V -40V +20V
qc qa
+100V +80V +60V +40V
+40V
qb
+100V +80V +60V
B. qa is -ve, qb is -ve, qc is -ve C. qa is +ve, qb is +ve, qc is -ve D. qa is -ve, qb is -ve, qc is +ve
equipotential surfaces - questions

shown are the equipotentials for a system of three charges at locations qa: x= -2 cm, y= 0 qb: x= +2 cm, y= 0 qc: x= 0, y= +2 cm I move a charge of 1.0 C from point X to the point Y - how much work is done by the electric eld? A. 40 J B. -40 J C. it depends upon the path taken D. 0 J
0V -20V +20V -40V +20V
E-eld at the surface of a conductor
qc qa
+100V +80V +60V +40V
+40V
qb
+100V +80V +60V
Y
electric eld lines always meet with conductors at right angles
E-eld as potential gradient
E-eld as potential gradient
two adjacent equipotential surfaces separated by a small distance potential difference between the surfaces is
V1 + V V1
consider the following equipotentials
A X
for a small distance, the E-eld is approximately constant, so the work done per unit charge in moving from one surface to the other is this equals the change in potential,
+10V +8V
+6V
+10V
+8V
+6V
C X
E V1 + V V1
+14V +12V +10V
hence we can express the E-eld as a potential gradient
+16V +10V
+4V
where we recall that the vector will point perpendicular to equipotentials
in which case is the electric eld strength at X largest?
electric elds point downhill
example 18.5 - equipotentials within a capacitor
equipotentials & electric elds

B
-40V -40V
+100V
+100V
shown are equipotentials (equally spaced) the arrows are electric eld vectors which of the diagrams could be correct?
C
-40V
D
-40V
+100V
+100V
what do the equipotentials for +24V, +18V, +12V, +6V, 0V, look like? how about the eld lines?
capacitors
device designed to store charge and electric potential energy useful in devices like camera ashes to allow a large discharge of power

capacitance
capacitance is dened in terms of the charge on the conductors and the potential difference set up units are C/V or Farads, F
any system of two separated conductors can act as a capacitor when charges of equal magnitude and opposite sign are placed on the conductors, an electric eld is established between the conductors and an associated potential difference set up
parallel plate capacitor
example 18.7 - properties of a parallel plate capacitor

the plates of a parallel plate capacitor are 5.0mm apart and 2.00m2 in area. a potential difference of 10.0 kV is applied across the capacitor. (a) compute the capacitance (b) compute the charge on each plate (c) the magnitude of the electric eld between the plates
the most common capacitor consists of two parallel conducting plates of area A, separated by a distance d.
the electric eld magnitude between the plates is proportional to the surface charge density on the plates
this eld is uniform so the potential difference between the plates is hence the capacitance takes a simple form
quiz
circuit rules
24V
A parallel-plate capacitor having circular plates of radius R separated by a distance d is held at a xed potential difference. If the plates are moved closer together A. the charge on each of the plates increases B. the charge on each of the plates decreases C. the charge on each of the plates stays the same A parallel-plate capacitor having circular plates of radius R separated by a distance d is charged to a potential difference V, then is removed from the battery. If the plates are moved closer together A. the charge on each of the plates increases B. the charge on each of the plates decreases C. the charge on each of the plates stays the same
a resistance-less wire acts like an equipotential - all points on it are at equal potential
24V 0V
0V
to get a potential change, we need to introduce a component, e.g. a capacitor a battery can be used to keep wires at a xed potential
24V 0V
24V
0V
24V
0V
circuit rules
capacitors in series
net charge doesnt accumulate - total system charge is zero +Q -Q V all the positive charge pushed off this plate +Q -Q 0 ends up on this plate
magnitude of charge on each plate equal by charge conservation
capacitors in parallel
example 18.8
two capacitors, one with C 1 = 6.0 F and the other with C 2 = 3.0 F are connected to a potential difference of 18 V. nd the equivalence capacitance and nd the charge and potential differences for each capacitor when the two capacitors are connected in (a) series (b) parallel
potential difference across each capacitor is the same
total charge on the upper plates is
quiz
problem 47
for the system of capacitors shown nd the equivalent capacitance (a) between b and c (b) between a and c
a potential difference is applied between a and b. Which of the following statements is NOT TRUE
A. B. C. the 10 F and 20 F capacitors have equal charges the potential difference across the 30 F is the same as the total potential difference across the 10 F and 20 F capacitors the equivalent capacitance of the circuit is 60 F
a potential difference is applied between a and b. Which of the following statements is TRUE
A. B. C. the potential difference is the same across each capacitor the charge is the same on each capacitor the equivalent capacitance is 30 F
electric eld energy

electric eld energy

capacitors store energy - this can be thought of as residing in the eld between the plates dene energy density as the energy per unit volume
capacitors store energy consider charging up a capacitor from zero charge, the potential difference between the plates at any time is
if this is the potential difference, the extra work that must be done to add an extra of charge is extra work is area under the v,q graph area under the triangle is
this turns out to be true for all electric eld congurations and indicates that elds have energy associated with them
clearly this energy is related to the work that had to be done to assemble the charges to set up the elds
quiz
A parallel-plate capacitor having circular plates of radius R separated by a distance d is charged to a potential difference V, with charge Q, then is removed from the battery.
Suppose the plates are pulled apart until they are separated by a distance D>d. The electrostatic energy stored in the capacitor is
A. B. C. greater than less than the same as
before the plates were pulled apart.
10

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Chapter 2 Motion along a Straight Line

y The arrow indicates the positive direction. (4,2) (0,0) x

Distance and displacement

The position of an object is its location in a coordinate system.

Today well deal only with one-dimension, and usually call it x

Average Speed and Velocity

Graph of the Position of the Dragster as a Function of Time

Position vs. Time Plots

in the limit this gives the tangent to the curve

Velocity as a Slope of Tangent Line on a Graph of x vs. t

Graph of Velocity vs. Time for Accelerating Object

Velocity vs. Time Plots

Example: Velocity vs. Time Plot

Example be careful with signs

Motion with Constant Acceleration

Understanding the equations

Understanding the equations

always check what is being plotted !

Whats the use of these equations?

Whats the use of these equations?

Freely Falling Objects

Example 2.10 - Falling Euro in Pisa

t (s) 1.0 2.0 3.0

y (m) -4.9 -19.6 -44.1

v (m/s) -9.8 -19.6 -29.4

throwing a ball in the air

throwing a ball in the air

at the highest point

v=0 a=0 v=0

throwing a ball in the air

throwing a ball in the air

constant a = -g = -9.80 m/s2

throwing a ball in the air

throwing a ball in the air

Example 2.11 - A ball on the roof

Example 2.11 - A ball on the roof

Example 2.11 - A ball on the roof

Problem Solving Strategy

Reviewing what weve learnt

Reviewing what weve learnt

slope of tangent of x vs. t graph adding vectors, by components A+B=C

slope of tangent of v vs. t graph

Chapter 3 Motion in Plane

Velocity in two-dimensions - components

recall the trig. properties of vectors:

this is new to twodimensional motion

Acceleration Vector Components

The Model Car Again

Components of Projectile Motion

Components of Projectile Motion

Equations for Projectile Motion

Shape of Projectile Motion

demo - cup catch

Getting angry at the physics book

person jumping off a cliff

Uniform Circular Motion

Uniform Circular Motion

Uniform Circular Motion

Fast car, at curve

= 12 m/s2 about 1.2g !

Chapter 6: Circular Motion and Gravitation

Uniform Circular Motion - a reminder