Algorithmic Problem Solving by Roland Backhouse PDF

Contents
1 Introduction

2 Invariants

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3 Crossing a River

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7 The Towers of Hanoi

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Torch Problem
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9 Knights Circuit
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Solutions to Exercises
149
Bibliography
170

Chapter 1
Introduction
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1.1
Algorithms

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1.2
Bibliographic Remarks
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Chapter 2
Invariants
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2.1.1
The Solution
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The Mathematical Solution
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(m+n+p)[m , n , p := 3n , m+3 , n1] = (3n) + (m+3) + (n1)
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Exercise 2.1

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2.3
The Tumbler Problem
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2.5
Additional Exercises
Exercise 2.2 , . . D "

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Chapter 3
Crossing a River
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3.1
Problems
Goat, Cabbage and Wolf

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The Jealous Couples
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Adults and Children
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3.2
3.2.1
Brute Force
Goat, Cabbage and Wolf
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State-Space Explosion
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Whats The Problem?
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Problem Structure
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Denoting States and Transitions
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" 4 P & A + '/

1C,1W || 1C,1H G 4. 4
.

4 . H
3H |3W| & &
4
8

5
4 3C || 4 || 3C 4

. G8
& . / /

F 4 H '
. 8. p q S 5 .
{
p }
S
{
& . 5 . S .

p
4 q . '

{
2C,1H || 1W
3H |2W| 1W
{
3H || 3W
& 4 4
. 4 4 4 4
. 4 4
>. 4 4& & . 8 &

.4

$
3.3.4

Problem Decomposition
; 4 ' & .

"
5 . S0 .&
{ 3C || }
S0 { || 3C } .
> &
' 4 .

" ./ &
&
" . & 4 .
4

" & &

S0 5 S1 S2 S3

{ 3C || } S1 { 3H || 3W } ,
{ 3H || 3W } S2 { 3W || 3H } ,
{ 3W || 3H } S3 { || 3C } .
" 5 S1 .

4 4
. " 5 S2
. S1 4 . 4
+& 5 S3 . S2 4 &
S1 .4 & S2 .4 & S3 4 4 &
S1 ; S2 ; S3 4 D . .
G&
. H A G& H
"

4 4 ' &
&
&
. 4 & &
& &
. . S3 & &
. . S1 8. 4

. S3 . 4 .
.
. 4 S1
S3 & .

- 4
. S1 S2

4
. & G8
& . . &H
= 4

{
3C ||
1C,2H |2W|
;
1C,2H || 2W
1C,2H |1W| 1W
;
2C,1H || 1W
3H |2W| 1W
{
3H || 3W
} .
"
{ 3C || } 1C,2H |2W| ; 1C,2H |1W| 1W ; 3H |2W| 1W
{ 3H || 3W } .
5 S3 . S1 J

{
3W || 3H
1W |2W| 3H
;
1W || 2C,1H }
1W |1W| 1C,2H
;
2W || 1C,2H }
|2W| 1C,2H
{
|| 3C
- 4 . 4 . S2 -

&

? . S2 . A
. " 5
. S2 .4 S1 .4 &
S3 " . S2

4 .
5 8.

&

& .4 .
J
{
3H || 3W
T1
;
1C |1C| 1C
T2
{
3W || 3H
} .

$

? &

C 1C |1C| 1C C "
& .//
//. I 4
& " 4

&
5 . T1 T2

8.
.
.
&
1C || 2C 2C || 1C @/ .
.
.

& 2C || 1C
1C || 2C " /. &

4
+& T1 8 . D 4 J
{
3H || 3W
3H |1W| 2W
;
1C,2H || 2W
1C |2H| 2W
{
1C || 2C }
&
& . T2 4 J

{
2C || 1C }
2W |2H| 1C
;
2W || 1C,2H }
2W |1W| 3H
{
3W || 3H
} .
+& & 4

D/

J
{
3C ||
1C,2H |2W| ; 1C,2H |1W| 1W ; 3H |2W| 1W

;
3H || 3W
3H |1W| 2W ; 1C |2H| 2W
;
1C || 2C }
1C |1C| 1C
;
2C || 1C }
2W |2H| 1C ; 2W |1W| 3H

(

;
3W || 3H
1W |2W| 3H ; 1W |1W| 1C,2H ; |2W| 1C,2H

{
|| 3C
G8

4 "

&
& "

H
3.3.5
A Review
4 4

D/

& .& 4

F /.
" ' &
& 4 .

. 4 &
/
5 4 A K

L

?
4 5 .
& .& .
{ p } S { q } .& 4
" A " 1
& . &

& 4 &

. &

#

'

+ .
. .4
J
Exercise 3.1 (Five-couple Problem) " A D
&
'

. 3
4

2
Exercise 3.2 (Four-couple Problem) ;.& &
& 4 .

& /
&

" . D &
'/

. &
3

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& . + A & 4 & 4

. A G' H &
.& . A . . B
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.

. &
. .

.H
2
Exercise 3.3 4 .
'

. 4

.

4 .
'

.

'

=J
" J

. .
" &
2
3.4
Rule of Sequential Composition
" { p } S { q } 4 . D/

. .&

8 !
G "& =
4 5 .
.
& .& .

I 4 . A
H

A & 4
" 4 A & /
p
A &
q
.

8. S
p q .

pSq
.

.& & p . ' .

S ' . S
.4
4
.& & q + '

r
d .
M &
N 4
N = 0 ,

*

G & 0 4H

M = Nd + r 0 r < N .
8.
S A .

{ N = 0 } S { M = Nd + r 0 r < N } .

.
& 5I
'
.
& 5 " . S1 S2
S3
S1 ; S2 ; S3
' & A ' S1
' S2 ' S3 " "

. S1 S2 S3
5

4

8 .
4

p q
r &
"
.
S .& A
pSq
& S S1 ; S2 S1 S2 .&
A
pS r
1

rS q
2
"
r . S1 . S2
8.

4

" 4 4 D/
"

3C || || 3C "

3H || 3W 3W || 3H 4
A

" F 4& . . 5
" .

&
&

&
S1 I .&

A
S2 &

&
A
S2 I
. .&

r
S1

J

% &'

+ 4 8 &

4 & & 4

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"
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.
I 4 4
&
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1
2
5
.
10
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4& 4
4 . 4 17

8 & A .
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4 4 4 4
4 4 & 4
. 4
&

4 4
D& " 5
4 & &
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4 4 4 G8 1 4& &
4 4 ' (H ;
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4 . .
p q .
.
p |5,10| q
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&
.
5
. S1 S2 p q
{ 1,2,5,10 || } S1 { p,5,10 || q }
{ p,5,10 || q } p |5,10| q { p || q,5,10 }

{ p || q,5,10 } S2 { || 1,2,5,10 } .
- &

Exercise 3.4 (The Torch Problem)

. . .

A
t1
t2
t3
.
t4

t1 t2 t3 t4 +
. .

B
&

&
.4 4 &
& & .4 4 J

!

(a) "
1
1
3
3

(b) "
1
4
4
5

=J 8 A G4 t1 t2 t3 t4 1 2 5
10 &H
& 4 4
=4 1 4& & & .

& . B 4

. 4
.
8

& 4 .4 G? GH
G H 4 & H
(a) =4
&

.
2 G8 H =4
& .
2
(b)

.
D&

4
.
4 & &
. 4

2 - . . 4 &
2 G,

& H
(c) ?4 . 4 4

- F 2 %
. =
.
.

.

(d) ,
;
4
&
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A "
D

& &

4 & "
4 .&
4 4 5
2
Exercise 3.5 /.
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( H " 4

F 4& . .
=4
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2

& (
3.5
$
Summary
8 4 /. 4

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4
4.

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.
I
4

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4 < .
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&

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&
&
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G 4
H

/ A

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C .

& .
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4 .4
& A

1

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Chapter 4
Games
" 4 4

4/
,
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4/
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LH . 4

4
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8
.

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4

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4 +4 4
. &/

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G

.

.& .
H 4 4
K
L K# L
5

= 4
4&
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4
4.1
Matchstick Games

& 4
.
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4

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4

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8

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4 . & 4& . 4
.
4 & 4 4 & .
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4
4
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4

1 2
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.

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.
0 3 6 9 H "

4 8. m
.

G m
. 3 H &
m mod 3
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1 2
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.

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0

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&
4

.

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8

4 &

G & .
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4 " .4 '
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% & 4
1
-
4 2
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0
-
4 2

& 4

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G 4 & 4
1 2
H2 8 4 &
4 4
4 4

N
4 N

A' 2
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1 3 4

- 4 4 4 &2
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1 3 4

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1
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H
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*

m mod 3

3

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.

1 2 3
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4 &2
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2 3

&
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1 7

&

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3 4

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1 2

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4.2
Winning Strategies
8 4 .
4 5 . 4 & - 4

4

4
.

.
I 4 4 4 &
& .

4 /.
.

. 4 .

4.2.1
Assumptions
-

.

4 4
-

. A
-

4 &

" A

& / &/ .

.
. A "

&

4I 4 ' &

.
4 &
A&
4
+ $%

,
$ 1

1 2 3
4
- $ 1
4%
4%

((
)
4.2.2
Labelling Positions
" A 4

+ ( .

.
(
+ (J # ,

&
& 4

. . %
- 4 &
& 4 .

" A ( &

.

+
0 8

.
4

+
1 '&
0 +
4

&

&

+

4 +
n 4 n 2
n1 n2 " .
4
.

2 4

4

= 4 4
4 & 4 A
. 4 &
. & . & 4 A
. 4
4 .

" 4 . . 4
J
. .

4
. .

A
&

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A A
. 4 4
8
9 =4 4 &
4 " .
.

K& .
4 L
8 . G/'H 4

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()
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K& x
& p L 4 " #
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4 . K x L
5A 8
KL G
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A ( 0 KL
.
8 .
.& &
4

?' 1 2 K4L .

0 4 4 4 ? 4 A

.
.
4
?4 3 KL .
3 G 1
2 H 4 & K4L +
4 3

&
.
4 4
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. 4 &
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4 5 K4L 6 KL 7 8
K4L
+ ( 4 . 7
8 " 4 4
I 4 .
4
4 4 " 4
.

+ ( J 6 - &
&
.
"
4
.

. 3 " 4

I 4 &
4
4

.

. 3
4.2.3
Formulating Requirements
"
& 4 4 & K
L
&
.

. 3 8

(*
)
4 ' & = 6 n

.

" . 4 & ' & .4

J
{
n
. 3 n = 0
if 1 n n := n1
;
2 n n := n2 fi
n
. 3 }
n := n (n mod 3)
{
n
. 3 }
" A

.

" A
" '
4 .

4
.

. 3 /<
" /

& K if / fi L - /
C
& K 2 L &
C

. /

.
b S 4 b / '
S

' &
4 true

' & 8. true & .

8. . true '
8 4& if / fi

&

/

& 4 . 1 n I
n := n1 KL
&
&
4
C
&

n := n2 C KL & 2 n .
& .
n = 0
" .
K n

. 3 L "
A .
.

. 3

.

& 4
.

.
4
. 3
" . . 5

. 4 &I ./
&
n mod 3
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.
4
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((
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(

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(
8
& .

4 n
. 3

&
4 n
. 3. 5&

n mod 3
4 n
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8 4 & & &

& losing & " G 4
H
.& & losing " 4

.& losing + 4 .& 4& .
4
I

# .
& 4 4 &
.&
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{ }
& GH

;
{ 4 }
& 4 &

{ }
8
& 4 & 4& .

4 & 4 4&
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%

+
&
4

+
4 4& & 4 & /

8. & . 4 & 8.

& 4 @/
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.
& 1 .
4

+
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5&
G
.

.
H 5 G
H
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4

.

< 4
5& 4 4&

& & . &

(!
)
-
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/

4
&
.
.
1 M
&
"

M
A' -
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& A M 0 " & &
& . ?' M
1 " & &

?4

4 4 M 2 4 4 D
3 & 2 8. & 1
& &
& 4 M 3 G31 4

H "
M 0 1 2 G '
0 1 H
& A +& .
. &
& 5 .
4 . M 2
Exercise 4.1 (31st December Game)
"4 & &
"
4 & 4
3
0&
% . ' F . & 4

+ 4 & 4 & 4
. 4 & &
=J &
. . *) & G ** .
&H 4
& . & 8

&

4 & & .& & 3

H G%&H &
. '
& .

& &
G+ '
A & &
+ &
0& H
H G=H & & &

. '

2
4.3
Subtraction-Set Games
.

.
GAH .

I

m
4 m
.

.

&

+& )
($
"
4 D '
.

I .
1 M
&
{1..M} #
'
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+ & 4 4&
/
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.& & 4
4 4
J

.

8 4 {1 , 3 , 4}

&
.
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K 0 L
4

K 1 L
4 D

4 0 4 / &/ 4 .&
4 4
. &

.
4
4 .
.

" " ( 4 4 < .

6 " 4
4 4 4
4 G-H G6H 8 4

4 4
.

.
+ '
2
&
.
2 1 I 3 4 4 .

0 ?
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+ '

.
3 4 4
C
3

0
1

2 8 D

4 .
0
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6
#
1
1
2
6
3
3
4
4
5
3
6
4
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)
)
7
"&
6
#
8
1
9
6
10
3
11
4
12
3
13
4
" ( J - G-H 6 G6H . {1 , 3 , 4}
4 ' J (

( ( 4 . 4
. > 4& 4
. -
& . . {1 , 3 , 4} 4
4
&

r & .
.
& 7 8. r 0 2
> 4 4 " 4 &
1

. r 1
3
. r 3 5
4
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4 5 .
4&
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4 G . 4 4
H "
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4 &

A

6 M " .

M
+ k W.k true . k 4 false
4 - k M W.k
&
& 5
W.(k1) W.(k2) . . . W.(kM) 5 s.k ?4 & 2M
F 5 . . M 5 5 s.(M+1)
s.(M+2) s.(M+3) . . .
&
4
2M
" .
j k 4 M j < k < M+2M 4
s.j = s.k 8
.4 W.j = W.k 5 W .
k 4
+ '
& -/6 4 .
20 4 8 .

,& 4
& . 4/ 4 2M+M
"
4 & 4

. k . . k
s.k 8. R . &
k W.k 5 W.(k mod R)
Exercise 4.2 .
8
2 5 6

&
G" {2 , 5 , 6} H

&

+& )
)
(a) + n 0 n < 22

4 . n
4

(b) 8.& 4 .& &
. . . n
4 . n
4
@.& & 4 4 .1
4

2
+ ( 4 . 8

Exercise 4.3
D " 4 &

.
.4 " 5 1 A 5 25 I 4 A
A
. .
. . 4 . I . .
.
.
21
22
23
24
25
20
19
18
17
16
11
12
13
14
15
10
+ (J 6 &

. .4

)
(a) 6

G"
5 "
.& 5 & H
(b) 8.& 4 ;
.
4 &
4 4 .
4

(c)
. A 4 4& %'
4 &
2
4.4
Sums of Games
8 4 4 ' .

4 &
F&
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.

(
.
-

.
A I

&
.

4
& F
.
"

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I 4& .

8 4
4 4 .

.

.4 + & 4 4

.
.

.

+ (( '
.
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%

4 &
&
8

. " .

&
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8 K
L .
4
. 4
.
" K
L .
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. K'L
I

F . '& . K:L K'L
.
A (( I 5& /
. ( 4

4 =4 .
A (( 15 F

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)
+ ((J
,
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:' 4 K:L
. . K'L

.
'& . : '

11 I
. 4
1511 F
+
.
.
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8 4 & 4
4 & .
. 4
-
A
F
G . .
H
. F 5
4 .

- A 4 4 D
4 & .
3 .

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4.4.1
Symmetry
A Simple Sum Game
- 4 &

'
.
. 4
4
.
4
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)

.
> 4
.

&
4&
4 &

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K
L . 4 .
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J
GH .

.
8

4 & 4

4 &

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4

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4
.
8. &

.
C 4 & .

C
4 &

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4 m n
.
4 8
5
.

& 0 "
m = n = 0 " & m = n
" +
4 m = n
G
1 m 1 n H &
4 4 m = n 5&
4
.

'

.
4 & m = n
+
& . 4 & ' & .4 /
5 .

{
if
m = n (m = 0 n = 0)
1 m m
2 1 n n
fi
;
{
if
m = n
m < n n := n (nm)
2 n < m m := m (mn)
fi
{
m=n
" /
4 m 1 m
n 1 n
& .

"
. m n
m = n .
.

& % )
))
" & m = n . 4 &

%5& m < n n < m 8 m < n 4 . 1 nm n
nm

.
4 n
n(nm)

A m .
n := n(nm) &
m = n 4 " n < m &

" .4 5 .

/
D . & . 4 & ? 4 4

4 " '/

& .
I losing &
& 5
{
m = n
m<n n<m
if
}
}
m < n { 1 nm n } n := n (nm) { m = n }
2 n < m { 1 mn m } m := m (mn) { m = n }
fi
{
4.4.2
m=n
Keep It Symmetrical!
"
(( '
.
. &
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& 4& . . &
& 4
4
.
/
- & 4 4

/

4

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.
4 &
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The Daisy Problem & 16 &
&

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4 D
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4 &2 , & & n

.
4 1 M D G4 M
A' .
H
The Coin Problem "4 & 4 &
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+ ()J 16 / &

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- 4 4 4 &2 G! H - . & &

D.& & 42
4.4.3
More Simple Sums
6

((

.

K

.
G4 K A' H
" F . 4
4
8. . m
n
.
4 4
mn
4 K < mn 5& & m = n

+ '
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4

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4

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4

A F .
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M

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M

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& M+1 0 " . .
m

m mod (M+1)
4 4
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K&
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&
m mod (M+1) = n mod (N+1) .
G M
'

.

.
. N

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H
" 8 4 0
& A & 4&

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&
& & .4

{
if
m mod (M+1) = n mod (N+1) (m = 0 n = 0) }

1 m m &
M
2 1 n n &
N
fi
;
m mod (M+1) = n mod (N+1) }
if m mod (M+1) < n mod (N+1) n := n (n mod (N+1) m mod (M+1))

2 n mod (N+1) < m mod (M+1) m := m (m mod (M+1) n mod (N+1))
fi
{
m mod (M+1) = n mod (N+1) }
G?J 4 . . 4

H
4.4.4
The MEX Function
" . A K&
L K

5L
&

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G l,r H 4 l .
r

F D

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)
l := l G.
l H .
GH
r := r G.

r H

" A 4 . L R & . /
& 4& G l,r H '& 4 L.l = R.r
" 5 J 4 . .&2 8 4 4
4 .& . L R 2
" & . 4 & 4 A
+ G l,r H .

'& 4 l
. .
r .

L
R 5
& 4
.
C G l,r H .&
L.l = R.r C 4 C /
G l,r H .& L.l = R.r C "
{
if
L.l = R.r (l r ) }

l l
2 r r

fi
{
L.l = R.r }
" & 4 & .

4 C G l,r H .&/
L.l = R.r C C G l,r H .& L.l = R.r C
"
{
L.l = R.r }
& 4 &

{
L.l = R.r }
- .& A 5

. 4 A L R .
4 .
5 J
+ l r .

L.l = 0 = R.r
+ & l
.
l l .
L.l = L.l

& . & r
.
r r

R.r = R.r
? .
. .
. 0 .1 5 & " .
.
5
8. L.l R.r F

& % )
)$
L.l < R.r R.r < L.l " 4 A . & 4
& &

4 L.l < R.r

.
4 R.r < L.l G 4H
{
L.l = R.r }
if
L.l < R.r r
2 R.r < L.l l

fi
{
L.l = R.r }
+ 4 4 5 J
+ &
m R.r
.
r r
R.r = m
& . &
n L.l

.
l l L.l = n
" 5

A . 4 A . L R
/ K
'L . " A . . .4
6 p
G " mex . p mexG.p
A

n
"

G .
p q .&
mexG.q = n
+ &

m n

G .
p q .& mexG.q = m
K#'L . K

'L . .
.
'

. p

' .

'

. q 4

.
p
4.4.5
Using the MEX Function
-
A (( .
'
+
(* 4
'
. .

" & &
I 5& & 4&

'
& /. . " &
& "
'
0 5&
'

4 &
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G . p q .
p q H "

*
)
+ (*J #' ?

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.

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.

& A

'

. + ( 4 & " . A

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4
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8
4
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4
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0 1
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6 K>L "
4
'
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'

. KL " G 3 2 H 4 &

KL 4

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K>L "

. 4
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F .
2 " A & & .
'

5 &
.
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4
15 . .
11 .

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+ (J

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2
26 F D

G . 4H
. 15 11
165 "

F # 4 < .

Exercise 4.4 H /
4 .

.
4
2 5 6

&

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.
&
H
4
. 4
8 .
1 2

&
8
2 5 6

&

8

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J
.
.
.

6. ,
,
KL 4

2

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)
)
2
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2

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2
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K2L
+ 4 4 + 4/
4
.
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K.
LH KL G.
H m
.
/

2

4.5
)
Summary
"

4
4/

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.

#
- 4
4 A .
A
.
/.
4 4
/. & .

" &
. K
L . 4
'
A 4& '

. 4
A & .
. K&
&L
4 .
4 4
A . K
'L
.
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4 K
L . 4

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,
& 4/' . #
4 4 &
8 &
&

/
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.

4 . .4
&
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/

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4 & 4
#'
4 & ,& K?
L

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K/,&L
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4/4

.
-
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.

4

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4

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H
4.6
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K- -&L M ,! N &
4& ,&
.
&
" 3

G' (H .
M3-N

Chapter 5
Knights and Knaves
" . A . 1
& & " 4 & . K L 4 4&
KL 4 4& 6 << .
.

& 4 4 4

&
"

& & C
n
2n F &

C &
& 4& .
8

<< & ' .

4 4
5.1
Logic Puzzles
= & . // <<

8
B .
4 " J K"

8
L "

(a)

4 2
(b)

4 2
&
4 . B .
4
- &
4 2
" & K
- .
. 2

*

&L

*(
, ,

( C & K 4 L - 5
&
4 2
) 3 5 4 &
4
* - 5 &
4 2
- 5 &
4
&
G H2
! B 4
4
.
B
& &P 5 & .
- 5 &
2
$
. 4
1 . . +

&P 5 4 4 & . .
. 4 4 4
5.2
5.2.1
Calculational Logic
Propositions
" 4 4 ' 4

- . '
4
' m2n2
4
. (m+n)(mn) & .
. m n - & m2n2 (m+n)(mn) " 4
m2n2 = (m+n)(mn) .
" . . 64 &&

5 4 ' " & K
L &
4
4 & KL &
& . . & ' -
"4 '

. '
< J
n+0 = n ,

nn = 0 ,

-
*)
. 4 4 . n - & & K.
n L " 4 .
4

& +
'
K& . L
5&J
(m+n)+p = m+(n+p) ,
4 . m n p

G H 4 ' 4 /
K L C true false %'
. ' K
&L G4 true false 4 4 KL .H
n = 0 G4 true false . n H n < n+1 G4
true .
n H / ' $
4

"
'

/
4 . '

m < n < p 4 4 /
%
. m < n
n<p
6 4 4 .
I
.

6 .

C KL KL K.L

" .
'
. 4

G. . . . . . . H %5&

. C . A & ,. -
6 <
4 .
*(* * 4 4 A & .
C
5& . ' - & 5& .
& . 4 & & 4
. 4
5.2.2
Knights and Knaves
%5& . <<
4& 4& 8. .

K L true false

&
K
.L . A K L

S. "
. 4
"
A=S .

**
, ,
+ '
. & K .L
A=L ,
4 L .

K .L 8
4 .
.
; . & K8
L 4
A=A .
" 1 & 9

1 A
4 4
' 4
&
8. &P 5 Q 5
. A = Q " 4 K&L . 4
& & 4 & > 4 4
KL + '
5 K & L 4 4 K&L
A = A 5 K 2L 4 K&L . &

& G A = B H 4 KL " 1 K&L KL
.& . A = B
5 . 5& &
. << .

A '

. 4 4
1 A = B . 1 B = A
5& &
I . 4 4 4&

?

& & . F . A
B
" . 5& . '
. 4
5.2.3
Boolean Equality
%5& C &

. C
. +
& " x = x 4 G &H . x

" x = y
y = x " " . x = y y = z
x = z +& . x = y f & . f.x = f.y G4 A'
. H " " "
'
%5& & - & E'& &
&
& 4 . %5& . 8
. 4 true false - 4 & .

-
*
. 4 . & &
& + '

J . x y z
x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z

x (y z) = (x y) z .
" & &
J . x y

x+y = y+x

xy = yx .
&
& . 5& 4 . D

&
& . 5&
4 4 & . 5&2 8 5&
2
" 4 5 1
&
. & . &
.
. 4

.
" ' (p = q) = r D 1
4
p q r
5 " ' 5&
. - p q r

p = q 4 r . 5& " (p = q) = r
.

& p = (q = r) 8

4 .
5& 8 4
4 5& .
C & " . p q r
G)H
[Associativity]
((p = q) = r) = (p = (q = r)) .
B & & . (p = q) = r .
p = (q = r)
B . 4
(p = q) = r true . 4
. p q r true 8. 4 .
false (p = q) = r false
" & . 5& & 4. & .

& . ' - 4 '
I
& '

.4
" E'& . 5& ' &
(p = p) = true .

*!
, ,
" . p 4 & G

H .
p 4 & & . 5& J
p = (p = true) .
"

&
.& ' &
K true L .

' . .
p = true -
4
5.2.4
Hidden Treasures
- 4 .
6 A
) - 4 .
& K8
5 L2 6 A . K
L G . K L " 1

A = G 4
A = (A = G)

true
=
1

A = (A = G)
=
5& .
(A = A) = G
=
(A = A) = true
. 5 . 5
true = G
=
5& &

G = true
=
G = (G = true)
G .
-

4

4 . & 4

4 . & .4 . . B 4 .

-
*$
5 & 4 K&L . . . .4 KL
. . .4
4 4
6 Q 5 "
4 4 5 4 A = Q 6 L K
. & .4 . .L " 5
L

5 " 4 5 L = (A = Q)
L = (A = Q)
=
5&
(L = A) = Q .
5 Q L = A " 5 K8
. Q . & .4 . .1 5 . Q&
1 L
? & & . 4 L 8

& 4
4 4
& 4 8 . 5
4

P . 5 P = A 8 .

' P 5
&
A
5.2.5
Equals for Equals
%5& .

& 6 <1 J . 4 '/
5 ' . = 4

'
. . 6 <1
. & K

&L +
5 4

4
"
4 A B C G&
H - Q 4 5
" 4 4 C & & ) ( Q = (A = C)
1
A = B 4 4 C = (A = B) 5 . 5
Q = (A = (A = B)) A = (A = B)
A B 5
K 2L =
. Q 4
4
Q
=
. .

5

, ,

A=C
=
.
1
C = (A = B)
. 5 . 5
A = (A = B)
=
& . 5&
(A = A) = B
=
(A = A) = true
(true = B) = B
true = B
=
{
B .
5.3
Equivalence and Continued Equalities
. & & A' " A

8. & G (xy)z = x(yz) .

x y z H 4 4 xyz 4 . .
& " '

.
. #
&
' I 4
&
.& xy yz 4

8. &
G xy = yx . x

y H .

' 4
.& uw . & . ' u
w
8A' . . & - 4 . '
0 m n
=
%
J
0 m m n
8 4& .

G m 4 4H #
/
& 4 . 0 n " &
& . /
8. 4 m n
m < n m n 4 4 0 m < n 4
& . 0 < n =
.

' 4 .
.
.
8 . 5& . 4
3 4
/

$ + %
$ %
)

!'

!'

5& ' . .
x=y=z
5& . . x y z 2 > 4 K&L

(x = y) = z ,
5&
x = (y = z) ,
D
4& 4 4 x+y+z 2 " 4 .&

G. '
true = false = false false A
true H "

D 4 . .
8 4 & . x = y = z & 4&
x = y y = z I 4
. 5 . ' &
5& &
4 & . ' D
G. &H & C. C 4
5 &
F
"
4 F &

5& .
C &
K = L 4 & . 5&

&
K L 4 & ' &
4 4 p = q p q - p q '

'
pqr ,

4 ' & K L &

C (p q) r p (q r) 4

C 4 '
p=q=r

%
C p = q q = r C # &
" . .
p1 = p2 = . . . = pn
. p1 p2 . . . pn 5 4 "

.
.
p1 p2 . . . pn

, ,

& .& ' G & 4& 4

FH ' &

# 4
K L &
K5LI
.
4 4

& 4
. 4 5& " & &
5 A '
E'&
G) H
[Reflexivity]
5.3.1
true p p .
Examples of the Associativity of Equivalence
" . . '

F .
& . 5
Even and Odd Numbers " A '
.4 & .
even
G
'& 4
. 4H
m+n m n .
8 4 . 4 . 4

.

" . 4

m+n (m n ) ,

m+n '& 4 . m n

(m+n m ) n ,
.

n
m
& . m '& 4 n
4& .
. 5/
p q r '& 4
. p q r
& . F J

GG m+n
GG m+n
GG m+n
GG m+n

H
H
H
H

Gm
Gm
Gm
Gm

H
H
H
H

Gn
Gn
Gn
Gn

HH
HH
HH
HH

!'

!'

" & . '

. & " .

. 4 K m L K n L ;
& . 5 . K m+n L '

.
4 & .
' .
F . & F
Sign of Non-Zero Numbers " .
& 4

+ /<
x y xy . .
x y 5 8. . x y F xy

x y /< '
xy x y .
0 .

&
. F
& 8 DA .

xy (x y ) .
" C4 . x 4
& y '& 4 y C K. .L .

&
. 5&
5.3.2
On Natural Language
#&

4 5& . I
. 4
. 4 F

. . .

5& # 5& K. & .L 8
5& .
& A /
G H /
G H A K/
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. .
KL KL KL &

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GK8. 8 4

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4 A

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5 I 4
5& KL 4
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5 K
4 & 5

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(
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4
4 . H E
4&

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&& 4 1 A & J9 B 4 4
& 4 4 4
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.

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.

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F

5.4
Negation
.4 //

" 4
? & K 5 8
L - &

2
"
/ J . KL ? &
G
. 4 '&
H

& &
K L 4 A'
8.
p ' K p L K p L
; .

S 4 4 A S 4
.
J
A B A .
G- 4 .

K = L K L ' &H "

.& '
8
& & .

. + & p 4 p J
G)H
[Negation]
p p false .

p = (p false) ,

.
)
. A . 4&J

(p p) = false
4& .
.& ' 8 &
&
. 5
4
5 &
4 4 &J
p = (p false) .
//

4 J
A B A .
"
A B .4J
A B A
=

A A B
=
4 G)H 4 p := A
false B
=
4 G)H 4 p := B
B .
? 4 G)H 4

F 4&
" 4 G)H D 4 &
& & . 5

4& .
.& 5 4

P . '
4 4
.&
p p q p r q .
- &

. K p L K q L
" 4
p p p q q r .
?4 4 G) H G)H

. . K p L K q L

G & H 8 '
4
true p false r .

*
, ,
+& 4 G) H G)H " .

A

p r .
0 .

4
A .

' 4 4

&
" '
p + (p) + q + (p) + r + q + (q) + r + p

A
q + 2r
& . p q r . p

. p F &
" 4 4 G) H G)H A 4&
4 5I 4 4 4 4

'
. 4 4 4
. false = true J
false
=
4 p p false 4 p := false
false false
=
4 true p p 4 p := false
true .
5.5
Contraposition
4 4 & . 4

G)(H
[Contraposition]
p q p q .
"
. . .
(p q) = (p q)
- .
& /
G
H
. .
.
8. 4 n
. l
0

$
%

(

K . . L .
&

J
n , l := n+1 , l .
8 4
. & "
.
even.n l

"
(even.n l)[n , l := n+1 , l]
=
.
even.(n+1) l
=
even.(n+1) (even.n)
(even.n) l
=

even.n l .
- & . <

4 even.n l & true 8 4 .
5
.
'
.4 5
5

4& & 5 4 4 G A )H =4
& &
& 90 . .
8
2 8. 42 8. 4 & 2
+ )J # &

" 4

&
/ ' E & 4
4 5 4 . 5
<

G + ) H
& 5 "
5

.
/ 5
/ 4 5

!
, ,
?4 col . 5

G&
true . false . 4 H dir

. G& true . / false . /4H "

& &
J
col , dir := col , dir
" . .

col dir .
. ' 4

5
4
&

4& 5
" . col dir

& &

8 4 .
90
5 . /
4 . 4 4 5 . /
90
+ ) J 8 4
&

Exercise 5.5 (Knights Move)

8
. 1
4
4 . 4 .
4 88 . 5

/ 0
$
4

.

/. . /
/ 4& & 5
'&
=J =4
&

2 #

. F

.
. 5 4 I .&
4 4

2
5.6
Handshake Problems
6 . .

/
"
'
.
J &

1
.

& 4 4

4 4
. "
I
& 8 K &
L
. & 4 C0 0 &C 0
4 0 . G8 & /
. &
. . 4
H 8 K&
L

. & 4 C0 0 &C 0 4
0 5 0 4 0 +& K/E'L

/ 4

- 5 4 G H 4

.
6 ' 5 . . /
4
.

n " & 4
n
=4 /E'& & 4
-
& 4 4 0 n1
" n
0 n1 " . K4

.
L K&
.
L
8
0

n1

" &
& . /

4 K L S 4 x y .
8 4& xSy K x 4 y L D
x 4 y " &
& . K L .

x y
xSy ySx .

!
, ,
" . . x y

(xSy) (ySx) .
8 4 x 1 4 y 5 y 1 4 x ?4
a 4 b 4 &
" a 4 b (aSb) b
4 a bSa 5 . 5 4 (aSb)
aSb 4 .
"
& 4
.
4 4

.

? .& 4 &
& /E'& . /

- 4

F

F + '
. 4 K L &

.
. K 4 L 4 &
&

G 4 4
H =4 . K L & K L &
6 K L K L &
/E'

Exercise 5.6 =
81

.

J K L &

K1 L

. G 4.H &

= 4. >
K L & 4
&
& ./
. 4 &
=4
&
1
2
2
5.7
Inequivalence
8 //

. )(

K F .

&.L "
.
B = A
(B = A) " .
& K 5 8
L
.4 4 ? 4 4 .
K = L K L
' &
/
1 2 "

2

1 '

!
(B A)
=
4 p p false 4 p := (B A)
B A false
=
4 p p false 4 p := A
B A .
- . p q

G)H
[Inequivalence]
(p q) p q .
? 4 & . 5 & ?

4 & . 5
& . 4

. . " A &J
(p q) = (p q) ,

. 4 &J
((p q) p) = q .
" (p q) & 4 p q " "

G
H 85 J
(p q) r
=
A . K L 4
((p q) r)
=
G)H 4 p,q := (p q) , r
(p q) r
=
G)(H 4 p,q := p q , r
p q r
=
G)(H 4 p,q := p , q r
p (q r)
=
G)H 4 p,q := p , q r
(p (q r))
=
A . K L 4
p (q r) .

, ,
4 4
"
p q r 4 . .
/
& ? & 4 4 p q r p q r
5
A 4 '
4 4 5 4 5J
(p q) r
=
' A . p q
(p q) r
=
(p q) p q
p q r
=
&
& . 5 4 G)H

.
(p q) q p
4 p,q := q,r
p (q r)
=
A . q r
p (q r) .
Exercise 5.8

.& .4 G?

4 & ' P
1
& FH
(a) false false false
(b) true true true true
(c) false true false true
(d) p p p p p
(e) p q q p
(f) p q r p
(g) p p p p p
(h) p p p p p p

p = q = r

!"

2 & (
!
2
Exercise 5.9
true = false
2
Exercise 5.10 (Double Negation)
.
p = p .
2
Exercise 5.11 (Encryption)
" . 5
(p (q r)) ((p q) r) ,
& " & b . & a
& .
. b
a b " &
c
"
& a

a c 4 . b & & 4& b
& . & a
2
> . & 4

Exercise 5.12
- 5 &
4 F
&2
2
5.8
Summary
8 4

<< 5 C
5& . C
.
%5

& .
. 5& %' . & . 5

F & . <<

$ (%

3

(
"

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"

1

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4

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' =4
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&
K 0 L

KL
.
D

F
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KL KL

4.
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& . " 3 4 &
0 64< G K>

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" .
H ? . 4
. & %- 3D 4

G M3$NH

" . << &

&1 K- 8 " ?
>.
" 2L M
!N " 4 .

<< . ' ,R1 &

&1 . & & " ' .
& . 5 . << , -
M-!N +
. 4 .
D GKLH D GKLH .4/.
GK.LH
GK& .LH
MN M,$N

Chapter 6
Induction
K8L

/ 5

.
.

" 4
4
K<L . .
+
'

.
4
.

I .
.

<
.
5
< /
4
C 0 1 2 3 -
. /
4
;& 4 < . .

5 .

= 4
< 4
4 + 4

. < 0 " .
&

& & G" & .
KLH
4 4 4 . &
n
. < n+1

. < n "

& 4
. < 0 - 4 4

. < 1 I 4 &
. < 1 .
4

. < 0 " 4 4 4
. <
2 I 4 &
. < 2 .
4

. < 1 - 4

. < 3
. < 4
6.1
Example Problems
.4

& 8 A <

. 8
'& &
n
Warning
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!)

!*
/

.
. 8 & B
-

Cutting the Plane

. 4 . '
4& .
.
A * 8 4&

. 4
4 4 D
G
4 . &
F H
+ *J -

Triominoes
5 . . < 2n2n 4 n

" 5 " > 5
.
6/
.
5 + * 4 . 88 4 5
>

4
5 4 G/H

G+ * 4 H
?J " n = 0 &
Trapeziums
5 4 . 2n .

n
.
5 "
5
/ <

.
5 A *(
*

0 1 2

/ !"
!
+ * J "

+ *J "

A *
4
4 G/H
<
A *) . n 2
? 8 n = 0 &
( Towers of Hanoi
" "4 . =

.
<<
!! & +
S

%
6 &
#
" << 4

4 A' > A .

. 41 , '& . .
F < . < G A **H "

4
.
& .

&
"
1 4

4 &
.
A .

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/

+ *(J &

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+ *)J A *(

& &
4 4

9

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G- &

=4 . /

H

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+ **J "4 . =
6.2
Cutting The Plane

.
J

. 4 .
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.
A * 8
4&
. 4
4 4 D

G 4 . &

F H
+

.
. K<L .

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K &
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"
4 4 4
4 <
C K L . C 4 4 4
4 n+1 4 n &

4

4 n C C
+ & 4 . 4 & 4 D

$
/

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4

. G . D H
+ 4

. 4
. F 4
4 D
"

- 4 4 " 4

. ' 4I . 4

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"
4 & A
4 5 4 . & "
F . . . 4

. & . > .

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.&

.&
+ *J
4
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G 4 /H .&
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4
&

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&

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F
+ *! 4 F '
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.

+ *!J " .
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4 & 4 & 4 .
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4 ' H A +& 4 K.L
4 K L A "
A
& . F 4& 1

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K.&L 5
A
Exercise 6.1
& &

- & 5 2 =4

'
4
"

4 . 8
. 4 . . . . 2
-

. /
=4
& F 2

2

6.3
/

Triominoes
'
.

*
.

5 . . < 2n2n 4 n

" 5 " >
5 .
6/
. 5 4

5 4 G/H

"
. K<L . .

n -
& n.
" 4 n 5 0 " < 2020 11 "
'& 5 " 5 &
5 8 0
59 "
4
?4 4 . < 2n+12n+1 -

& . < 2n2n 4
. A
& 5 - 4 4 ' &
. < 2n+12n+1 . 4 5
. < 2n+12n+1 4 . < 2n2n
&
& 4 <
. 6
. >
5 & " 5 4 . . / -
&

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H
"
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5
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4
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/
/. / 4

? . 5 & - &
&
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5 .
/
/. / 4
>
.
2n+12n+1 4

Exercise 6.2
<

*

/ - #
$
+ *$J "

8 " . /
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4
D . " &
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6.4
Looking For Patterns
8 * * 4 4
.
K<L " & 4 K

LI
KL
&

K8L . '
'
. .
4 & 4 . .
. .

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. 34 .
&
. & .
.

. 4 8

64 .
& . & 4 4 &
& 4 4 8 '

4 4 & I & & &

& . . 8

. . 4 .
' 4 4 &
4 4 &
8 4 .
' 4 . 4
&
& .
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(

. 81 /
. . . .

%

4 D
.
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,//.& . 4& .

G,
.
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$(
/

H
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.
4 4
4
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4 4 0 3 6

4 1 2 4 5 7 8
4 "

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.

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D
.
D =4
4 .& D &

4 &
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&

.
&
.
& 3 4

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0 K<L
. . 3 4 5
1 " &
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. 3n + 1 3n + 2
4

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& A
4
. 1 2
4 &

?4 . 4
. 3n

. 3n + 1 3n + 2
4 - 4
. 3(n+1)
. 3(n+1) + 1 3(n+1) + 2
4
3(n+1)
" & 4

1
2
3(n+1) 1 3(n+1) 2 "
. 4 3n + 2 3n + 1
& &
4 = 4 3(n+1)

?4 3(n+1) + 1 3(n+1) + 2
& 1

A 2
&
4 3(n+1)
" 4 4 4
= 4 3(n+1) + 1 3(n+1) + 2 4

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. 4
A
D '& 4
.

. 3

/ . # %
6.5
$)
The Need For Proof
- & D & A 8 &
' .
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#& D
.I & & D
. . 4 .
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. . D
n

. .
D
" 4&
. . " 5 4
&
2
+ * 4 4 n 1 2 3 4
+ *J

"
. & 1 2 4 8 "

. . & n 2n1 8 D &
n = 5 G- 4 AH 8

. 16 4 251 =4 . n = 6
. 31 9
G A *H ? n = 6 A 4 4
5

= 4 & n = 0 D
4 & C 1
& 201 /

9 " & 5
4&

5
n F .
0
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.
.

n 5 0 9
6.6
From Verification to Construction
8

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@A

D 4 C

. &

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/

+ *J
" n = 6 "

. 31 261

4 .
A . 1 D
4 A
.

8

A /
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.

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.

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4 4
.
.
.
k 4 . A n

4/4 .

.
.
1 n :
1+2+ ... +n =
1
n(n+1) .
2
"4 ' .

' .&
12 + 22 + . . . + n2 =
1
n(n+1)(2n + 1)
6
13 + 23 + . . . + n3 =
1 2
n (n+1)2 .
4

4 '

. . .

'
4 . AJ 5 4 . 4
4 4 . 4 & 49 . '

& 4
.
.
. 4 4 .
A n

14 + 24 + . . . + n4 = ? .

// # 34

$
=4 4 & 2 @A .

4 & 4 . 5
& 4 4 2 & 4
4

& k27 2

&
9
/
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4

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8 .
.
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.& " &
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6
4

.
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3
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&
n .
m+1 G"
. A n
5 . . n
.
A n 5 . . n
. A n 5
. . n H " A
G./.H m 0 J
10 + 20 + . . . + n0 = n .
& .

.
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A. &
n

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& 4 4 .
. 1 + 2 + . . . + n G
4
& 4
4& . .
8.
4 "

H
- D 5 .
&
n &
a + bn + cn2 a b c = 4

+ & S.n
1+2+ ... +n .
- P.n

S.n = a + bn + cn2 .
"
P.0
=
A . P

$!
/

S.0 = a + b0 + c02
=
S.0 = 0 G
.
& .

<H

0=a .
. 4 a . n0

0 ?4 4 b c " 4
& 0 n
P.n "
P.(n+1)
=
A . P a = 0
S.(n+1) = b(n+1) + c(n+1)2

=
. . &
S.(n+1) = S.n + n + 1
S.n + n + 1 = b(n+1) + c(n+1)2

=

J P.n a = 0
" S.n = bn + cn2
bn + cn2 + n + 1 = b(n+1) + c(n+1)2

=

cn2 + (b+1)n + 1 = cn2 + (b + 2c)n + b + c

. 4 . n
c = c b+1 = b + 2c 1 = b + c
=

{
1
2
=c
1
2
=b .
+
D
. A n
5 n 4

1+2+ ... +n =
1
1
n + n2 .
2
2
%' .

'
1m + 2m + . . . + nm &
. . &
m "

J
&
n 4
m+1 ; .

4 . S.0 0
S.(n+1) S.n + (n+1)m G4 S.n 1m + 2m + . . . + nm H

/1 #+ 5

$$
&
.
5 +& &
.
5
) J 8 .
1 + 2 + . . . + n 4&
.

& 4 4 5

n
n1 T

1

n+1

& 4
n
" 4 4 J

n+1 T
n+1 T
+
. n . n+1 4

1
n(n+1) =4
.
1m + 2m + . . . + nm
2
. m 1 *
Exercise 6.3
; 5 D

.
.
10 + 20 + . . . + n0 12 + 22 + . . . + n2 .
2
Exercise 6.4

4 .
.
4 m
n

& .4
'
G. '
m
1 n & m 2 n 3 H .
.

4 4 4 4 4
&

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4&
4 8
.
2
6.7
Fake-Coin Detection
"
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K31 9

L -

/

4

. .
< -

K.L KL
KL
4 4 K.L F 4
KL "
4 .
&
A . .
?
.

I 4 1 & 4 4

& K
&L " >.
.
& .&

. > .
.

. KL

K L
6.7.1
Problem Formulation
- 4 .

4 4 C 4
C 3

J
& . &
&
&
& "
4 n

3n F
" 4
.
?4 4 m . 4
.
" 1 + 2m F 4
. J K 1 L & I 4 K 2 L 4&
. K m L
& . G &
H "
4 n

.
4

.
m 4 1 + 2m = 3n # & .

m . (3n1)/2
.
. 4 n

-
4 4
& -
D (3n1)/2 . 4
.
.& . G 4
H
n

+ n 5 0 D & I .
4 + n 5 1 4 4
"

G (311)/2 = 1 H 4 4 4
. .
4 2 > D
4
-
.& D &
4
4 " 4 (3n1)/2
4 4 4 '
. 4
5

/1 #+ 5

4 "

4 .& . . '

n

6.7.2
Problem Solution
> .
.
.
.

n
The Basis - <
4
& /

. (301)/2 " n 5 0
Induction Step ?4 4 n < +
& c.n (3n1)/2 & 4
&
.
. ' .
c.n
n
-
4 4 A . . '
c.(n+1)
n+1

A
8

. .

" 4 &
.

. 4
5
> 5 .
.
4
. . . "
4
& A .
.

4 & c.n
.
" c.n
'

.
4 .
. 4 n

8 4
& C F
4 c.(n+1) c.n ?4
c.(n+1) = (3n+11)/2 = 3((3n1)/2) + 1 = 3 c.n + 1 .

c.(n+1) c.n = 2 c.n + 1 = 3n .
"
I
& . 4 4
G
4 4
c.(n+1) 4 4

H -
A
c.n + 1 . 4
" '
4 . A

"

. 4 4 & 8.

/

.

c.n . "

4 . .
4 & 1 8 49 8.
4 .

.
4 . 4 3n .
4 4 4 & 3n c.n -
& &
.
"

8.
4 4
&
K & L 4
. & K & L 4

. .
4

4&
The Marked Coin Problem 8 4&

4 4 F
" 4

. . 4
K &
L K & &L %'& . .

4
4
n
.

3n

& 8. n 5 0 4
.
" 0 G n H

.
+ 4 .
4
4 3n+1
8 A

.

. 8 &
&
5&J 3n

. 3n . 3n

"
4 F 4& 4
4

-
.4
l1 & . l2 &

& h1 & &
. h2 & &
" 4 & .

4 5
.
. 5
" l1+h1 l2+h2
5 +
&
& 5 3n
?4 .
. 4
. & & &

4
4 l1 &

/1 #+ 5

. h2 & & .
G & & & 5 HI h1+l2
. & . h1 & &
. l2 & &
l1+h2 .
& & 4 5
.

5 3n 4
.
"

5
h1+l2 = l1+h2 = 3n " 4 l1+h1 = l2+h2 4
. l1 = l2 h1 = h2 -

5
. .

" 5

& 4

. .

. 3n
4& 4 4

" 4&

4& .
4 I & &
4 .
4

The Complete Solution "

/

/
" . A .

. 3n+1
& 3n 4&
5
. & .
.

. .4 '
8. 4
.
8. .

& . & &
4 & & . &

8.

& & & .
4 & & &
.
"
/
4
. (3n+11)/2
.4
3 . < (3n1)/2 (3n1)/2 + 1 (3n1)/2
A . 4
3

.
.4J

(
/

8. &

/
G&H
8. . #
. 4 ' . K & &L
# K & L &
/

3n

8. #
. 4 ' . K & L
# K & &L &
/

3n

- 4

.
?

&

& U J & &
&

.
.
"
. . F
Exercise 6.5
&
. D D

4 4 ' . " D 4 F
4 8 D B 5

4 5 D + & 4 .
4 & m
2m
.&
5 D 4
. D 3m G=J .
3m+1 D 3 . 3m DH
& .& 4 5 D
D2
2
Exercise 6.6
, n D 4 1 n . F 4 .

. & 4 . D 4
4
H =4
&
A D2
H 4 & n
4
4 D 2n 3

2 n
H 4 D 4 4 A B C D A < B
C < D 4 4 A . . 4 4

; 4 4 A . 4 D
4
G 5 & G HH

/2 & (
)
H 2m D 4 1 m 4 & m

A D 3m 2
G=J
. GHH

2
6.8
Summary
8 .

/ " .

.
. & K<L
. K<L .
(a) . K<L 0
(b)
. . K<L n . & n

. K<L n+1
;

. "
&

4 4 D .

" &
4

& .
&

A

6.9
Bibliographic Notes
" ./

. 4 & % -
3D M3D$ 3D$N

*

/

Chapter 7
The Towers of Hanoi
" "4 . =
"

&

' .
A
. KL
/ &
" "4 . =
<< 5 4
&

/ & 8 &
4& .
A =4 &
. 8 4&

. 5 J &
. 5
+
4 4 .
> .

4 4 I "4 . =

I . .& .
4
. . .

7.1
7.1.1
Specification and Solution

The End of the World!
" "4 . =

.
<<
!! & +
S

%
6 &
#
" << 4

4 A' > A .

. 41 , '&/. . F <
. < G A H "

4 .
& .

&
"
1 4
4 &

!
1 6 % 0

.
A .
& &
4 4
9
+ J "4 . =
7.1.2
Iterative Solution
" & & "4 . =

&

& ' " .
4

. #
. &
4 4

-

.
' 4 -
&

.
0 4 > & 0

& 1 -

.4
> & & A &

"
.

"
.
. 8.
.

& 4 > 4
& 4

1
&
$
> & &

C D

&
8 &
. '&

"

4 .
/

& 4 // /

"& '
&. & 4 / << " &

/

&
.
. /

8. & & 4 A

4 3 4
& & '

C 5 / 6 /
7.1.3
WHY?

4 /
4 8. & &
C
4 8
9C 4& # 4
4
. 4 4 .

A . .

" 4 4 9 8 4 A
.
" &
. 4 4 4

.

7.2
Inductive Solution
&

. &
6 4

/

M .
A A 6
G6 4

H
. & -
. 0

+ 4
4
n
.

4 4
n+1 .

= 4 9 " & . 4& &
4 J
# n .
. 4 ' /
. & n 4
4 &
.

1 6 % 0

#
.
"

n .

> 4 ' . &
n 4 4 &

.

"
4
A & "
4& &

A .
4

G
&H 4
' &
& "

&
& 4 . 5

4 A G" &
& &

. H "
4 4
.
"
. &

& .

" .& 4

4 & & 4
4
4 .
. "4 . =

4
n .
' d
4 d 4 4 " .

. 4
A .
"

&
?4 4 - .
/
& 8
&
A
& "
A

'& M
- &

n . Mn 8.
. Mn

n
5

&
.

& - &
" & 4
n
.
d .
&
G 4 &
.
.H
8 n 0 5 .

& 5 8 .
n+1 4
4
.
n
.

. 4 -
4 4
n+1 .

d 4 d 4 4 +
4

.
1 4 4

1

1
&

, . ' & . 4

- &
n
d
d & .
4 . &

. G. & & &
.
H

n
d " n+1

d. G"
& n+1 .
=4
n
n+1
4 n+1
H +& 4 &

n
d "
n+1
n+1
4
.

d
" .4

"
A Hn.d 5 . k , d 4 n
. k

d d 3
.
1 4
1
3 true 4

false /4

" k , d

k .
d "

5 [ ]
& 5 [x] 5
4 '&
x " .
.

5 Hn.d 4
n
/ &/ .

d .4 .
.

H0.d = [ ]
Hn+1.d = Hn . d ; [n+1 , d] ; Hn . d
?

H . 5 . Hn+1.d
. 4 4

& 4.
/ 5 .
" .
.
I
KL

.
" 4& "4 .
=
. & . n C 4
& .//
4 . H
+ '
4
4
H2.cw G- cw aw
4 4
true false
&H
H2.cw
=
5 n,d := 1,cw

1 6 % 0

H1.aw ; [2,cw] ; H1.aw
=
5 n,d := 0,aw
H0.cw ; [1,aw] ; H0.cw ; [2,cw] ; H0.cw ; [1,aw] ; H0.cw

=
5
[ ] ; [1,aw] ; [ ] ; [2,cw] ; [ ] ; [1,aw] ; [ ]

=
. 5
[1,aw , 2,cw , 1,aw] .
' &

H3.aw
4& 8. & & 4
5&
. F
"
' . 5 . n = 3 16
. n = 4 32 " &

9 "

" & G &H '

& "

.

. 5 .
& ' "

& .

&
9
Exercise 7.1 "
. &

. 5 H64.cw 6 Tn.d . 5 Hn.d 3
A . T .
A . H GB A
Tn.d . d H ; A To T1 T2 =
4 .
D ' Tn
. . n
& D & n
2
; .

.
. F
Exercise 7.2
"4 . =

; 4 4 /
4
. n 4
4
; 4

.

2

1 &
7.3

The Iterative Solution

8 4

J A
& G
.

& 4 & 4H

4

8
4 4 4 .

Cyclic Movement of the Disks
8 4 4
4& & 8 . 4

- 4 & 4
.

.
" & . k , d 5 Hn+1.d
even.k d G 4& 4& .H "
/
5 . . )) - .
.
Hn+1.d
K n+1 L & K n L K d L &
K d L even.(n+1) (even.n) . even.(n+1) d

- even.k d . G. k , d 5 Hn+1.d H
4 . n d 6 N D "
.
k , d 4
even.k d even.N D .
" .
4
.

d . k A&
. 5

. 4 /

& 4 /

& 4 @/ . 5

.
4 /
& 4
/
& 4 8

G4 /
H & D .
N
D . N
Exercise 7.3 '

4 &

.

. &

4&
4
" 4 . 41
4 4 4 4 4 =4 & .
4

.

(
1 6 % 0

> ' & 4

.

.
3

2
2
Alternate Disks
- 4

D
.
&
4

& '
<< .

. 4
.
4. & 4&

4
.

F . << - 4 4 .
. 5
Hn.d A &
6 5 .
. 4 " A
&
4
I & . 5 /
&
4 - 4 alt.ks . 5 ks 4
" 5 .
& 4 4 & diskn.d
& A
. . Hn.d
6 5 4& & diskn.d "
.
A . H 4 J
disk0.d = [ ]
diskn+1.d = diskn . d ; [n+1] ; diskn . d .
> alt.(diskn.d) " . & n "
n = 0 &
& 5
+
& . 5 4 .
. 5 ks
k
alt.(ks ; [k] ; ks)
alt.ks ((ks = [ ]) (k = 1)) .
" . J

alt.(diskn+1.d)
=
A
alt . (diskn . d ; [n+1] ; diskn . d)
& . 5

1 & (
)
alt.(diskn . d) ((diskn . d = [ ]) (n+1 = 1))

=
& A D

.4 & . diskn .
true .
" ' . &
Exercise 7.4
>
. 8
.

& . '1 A

. &
" .
4
& 4

4 I & / 9
+& ' 4
4
// /
4 & 4
& . 41 " & 4 .
- 4
'
2 & 4 &
G=J "

4 4

B & 4

.
1
4 # .
. 4 n

even.n d even.k d
. d

& k 4
n d H
2
4

Exercise 7.5 (Coloured Disks)
" .
I F
& F&
3
4
4 B
&
&
2
7.4
Summary
8 4 4 "4 .

=
"

*
1 6 % 0
4 .

.
n /
" 4 D.&

. " 4 .

. . . 5 .

.
.
" 4
J
. 0 /
. G 1 /
H
. & &
.
.

. G4 4H
7.5
8.
& . "4 . =
.
M$N .
. . 4 M6!N " .

. M+N

Chapter 8
The Torch Problem
8 4
.

' ( " &
. I

A&
4 .4
N 4 8 &
4 & & 4

" 4
2 &

"
.
1 N. i
t.i
I 4 4 &
.
4

4 N

+
& 4
t.i < t.j 4 i < j G"
4

8.
t.i = t.j .
i j 4 i < j 4
4& (t.i , i) 4 i ' &

K
L 4
4
&H
8.1
Lower and Upper Bounds
" .4 5 & &
/
A
4 5
81
4
& " 4 F 4
K L K4 L

!
2

8
. 4

. 1
2
5
10
& 5
4 4 . 17
8 4
5 . /
8
& ' 5 . 5

4 17

4 4
4

-
.
. F
4 4 # . 4 . 4
4 A ' 4 .

. 2+1+5+1+10 19

& ' 5 4 19

I 4 4 G8
H
& & ' 5 .
17

3

D 5
8
. N
"
4 5
4 &

" F 4

& 4
"

. 5 4
I 4
&

8 !* 4 4
.
5 "

4 .

&

8.2
Outline Strategy
>
4
. &
"
. "
.

. .
4 8

& . '

& / &/

4 . ' 8.
5
4 4 '
& F "
.
F (N1)! 4 &
. 5

. N
" 4& & . 4 4 K.4 L

2 7 &(
$
4

4& "

4 K.4L KL 4

8.
& .4 4 4 .4
" . 4

. .4
5
& &
8 F 4
.
&
+ & KL . .4 4
K L . . "

. K L G K
L

H

4 A & & 4
.
A &
.
+ '

.
4 A & & 4
&

4
&
- 4 4 . '
{1a , 2b , 0c}
. a b c 4 a b 4 c

+ & 4 4 {1a , 2b}

8
F .
5 % 4
4 4 4 ' 4 .

G {1a , 2b , 0c} . '
H A
" ' {1a , 2b , 0c} {2b , 1a , 0c}

& . . '
{1,3}
4 1 3 8. 4 4 .4
4 A' 4 K + L G. .4H K L G. H
+{1,3} .4
& 1 3 {2}

& 2
4 . 4
. .4

5 . - &
. . 5
. 4
- 5 . & 4
"
- 4 & 5 5
.
& A

. ?

E' G& 5
.H G.
5 a
5 b 5 b

5 c 5 a
5 c H "
A
5
5
+
& "
.
4 .4 4 /
J
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5 G4
.
1 H

2

>/
5 .4 I /

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"
& 4 .4
4 .4 G T
& i .
iT H
5 . A 4 & A

5 J
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. .4

.
"
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&

.
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5 & . .4
" A G
!H 4 & 5

&
4 " A . .
"
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N1
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G N
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& 5 4 & 4 .4

I 4 &
4
G74 . .4 &
4
&

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.4
.4 8 4&
.
H
#
& 4 D . .4 5
5 5

4
. A
5 .
.4 &
. A
. .4
+
. .4 & . 4

- &

4 4 -

2 &'

8.3

Regular Sequences
KL 5 5 4 .4 4

- 4&
5 . .4

Lemma 8.1 %& 5
& &
. 5 4
Proof 5 - 4 J
A .4 A 4
8. A 4 & p &

8.& .4
& p 4
p
.
# .
& 5 .
u +{p,q} v {p,r} w
4 q r u v w 5 p 4 v
G? .4
& p 4

A 4H 5 &
u +{q} v {r} w
" 5

. 4
5 G" 5
4
& 4 .4 "
. p 4 &

. p
& p &
.
.4 "
. & x
y t.p x + t.p y x+y H "
.
4 .4
. /

?4 A .4 " 4 J
& A 5 & A
8. A 5

& G-

N 2 H " 4

&

. /
8. A .4 & A
p 4 q 4
& .

2

.4 G" & .

p 1
.4 A H " 5 .
u {q} +{p} v
q s p q. "
4 J .4
8. .4
q p 4 p 4 q

q 1 p 1 " .
u +{q,r} w {q} +{p} v
G4 w p q H

u +{p,r} w v .
" 5 #

G .
& x t.q x + t.q + t.p > t.p x H
. /
8.
& & G" 4

p s .4 A 5H "

p 4 p 4 q
q 1 p 1
" .
u {p} w {q} +{p} v
G4 w p q H

u {q} w v .
" 5 #

G
t.p + t.q + t.p > t.q H
. /
- 4 4 .
5 /
I .
F . &

4 .

4 5
5

/
2
8.4
Sequencing Forward Trips
6
! A +

. .4

5 N1
. N2 "
& 5
.4 .4 &

2 &'
#6

. &

& 4 " . A 2(N2) N2 2 I
. 2(N2) + 1 &

& 5
. & . .4 5 4I
4
" . .4

4
&

.4 =

.

.
4
.

+ '
.4 5 .4J
3{1,2} , 1{1,6} , 1{3,5} , 1{3,4} , 1{7,8}
G" &
I 3{1,2}

1 2
3 .4 1{1,6}

1 6
.4
? . 4 .4
5H "
. .
1
4 .4 3 I
&
2
3 .4 2 4 3
2 .4
1 "
G 4 5 6 7 8 H
1
.4 "
J
3 (t.1t.2) + 1 (t.1t.6) + 1 (t.3t.5) + 1 (t.3t.4) + 1 (t.7t.8)
+
3 t.1 + 2 t.2 + 1 t.3
G"

& .4

& H ?
. .4 7 G

. H
. 6
"
& .
! D . .4

5 5
& 4
. .4
" / & . .4
4

F . .4
5 "
F . 4 '& 4

& "

. F 4 4 .& 4

1 N

"

.

. .4
&
- 4 . &
& .4 I 4
. &

.4 3 . 4

(
2

& F &

.
8. 4 & I .
.
4 & # I A& .

4 &
?4 4 Vnomad Vhard Vfirm Vsoft

.

.
. A

. .
& F "
. F
Vhard + Vfirm + Vsoft .
"
. 5
. .4
&

.

.4
. 2
. .4
&

A
1
.
2 Vsoft + Vfirm Vnomad .

. .4

. "
Vhard + Vfirm + Vsoft = 2 Vsoft + Vfirm Vnomad + 1 .
%5&
Vhard + Vnomad = Vsoft + 1 .
-
.4 A

Definition 8.2 (Regular Bag)
N 2 . .
{i | 1 i N} N . .4 J
%
. F < 4 G8.
& F 4 H

i : 1 i N : T : T F : iT
G8.
& &
. F H
8. Vhard.F Vsoft.F Vnomad.F &

.
F 4
. F

.
F
G!H
Vhard.F + Vnomad.F = Vsoft.F + 1 .
+
& 4 4 .4

2 &'
#6
)
Lemma 8.4 , 5 . N 4 N
2 . .4 F .
5 & .

. N #
& 5
. .
F 6 VFT
& . T F. "

G!)H
T : T F : i : iT : t.i VFT + i :: t.i rF.i
4
G!*H
rF.i = T : T F iT : VFT 1 .
G rF.i
.
i H
2
5 . G!H J

G!H
Vnomad.F = 0 Vhard.F = 1 Vfirm.F = 0 = Vsoft.F .
8. Vnomad.F <

& A . A
& G!H Vhard.F 1

G!!H
Vnomad.F = 1 Vhard.F = 0 = Vsoft.F .
8. &

4
" Vsoft.F
< 8 .4 .
G!H Vhard.F 5 < "

.
G!H
G!$H
N > 2 Vhard.F 1 Vsoft.F 1 .
8. N G
. H 2
Vnomad.F 1 8 .4 .
G!H Vsoft.F 1
?4 4 4 4 5 .
F
Lemma 8.10 , N G 2 H N 5 .
.
F N "
& 5
& G!)H
Proof " . & < . F
- " 4 F . '&
G4
& H " 5 D
" & 8 Vnomad.F = 1 8 &
F A
" .
{n,s} 4 n
s
" 5
& &
. F &

*
2

&

n 4 . .4
. 4 A {n,s} .
s
" Vhard.F /< F
8
& G!$H Vsoft.F 1 8 .4 & A . soft Vnomad.F
2 & . F {n,m} 4 n m

5 4 4 {n,m} .4 &
. n & . m
& . . F & 1 G"

. .
F H - 4 F 4
.
& . n m & 1

.
& 2 & 5 F 4

2
Optimisation Problem 6
!( ! A

4
.
8 . 5 .
.
4 A A !

& G!)H 8
4 4
8
.

& 4

& G!)H " 4
.
" .
A
4 F 1 .

F 1 , F T F 4 i : iT : t.i VFT
T F G

K F L
. .

'H + i 4 . t.i rF.i i
G i 1
H
8.5
Choosing Settlers and Nomads
" 4

-
4
. # A& 4

2
1 4&
.
N 2 I & 2
&

Lemma 8.11
%&
& . 4
4

Proof N F . (p, q)
. 4 F p q
p . q

2 & .

& (p, q) q p &4
F - N #
& &
t.q t.p
" .4
. p q . "
.4
. & q G t.p < t.q H
" .4
. & p &

t.q t.p " A & 4 " A 4
p {p,q} 8 4 p q F

0 8 p {p,r} 4
r = q 8
t.p t.r + (t.q t.p)
=
& .

'

t.q (t.r + (t.q t.p))
t.p t.q
& .
'
t.q t.r .
+&
. .4
" F
" .

. &
" & . .&
F

2
Corollary 8.12
%& N
& N F 4
.4 J
8 & A
F
1
%& . F {1,2} G?J
& .
&
0 H
"
& . {1,2} F j .
j 4 1 j N2
{k: 0 k < j1: {N 2k , N 2k 1}} G?

&
4 j 5 1 H
Proof F N

+
!
4
&

4
A
F 4
i 4 i 1
i . & 1 " F .4

!
2

i 4 =4

G & t.i t.1 H -
N 4
F
G .
!( . 5 .

H
>. < . F "
.
&
i &
i
F "
.

&
. 1

& G!H 8. i
.

& G!H
& G A
.H .

=4 i
&
"

.

& &
8. i
. 4
F. " A
F

. F
A
8 & G!H

?4 . F F .
{1,2}

4 & {1,2} 4 &

F

-
& 4 .
G!H .
&
. {1,2} F j .
j 4 j 2 j1 -
. A
4 4 1
&
A

I .4
1 &
F .
G!H "
1 2
. GA
H F
8
4 4 j 2 .

{k: 0 k < j1: {N 2k , N 2k 1}} .
G"
& . 1 4 4
H

. . j 4 j 4 "
3 N 2(j1) .

.

N 2(j2)
. A
& &

&
. 4 4
A . 4

"
&
.
2

2/
8.6

$
The Algorithm
- 4

Lemma 8.13
F
.&
& ! " . j
& . {1,2} F
& F
G!(H HF.j + FF.j + j t.2 + (Nj1) t.1 + (j1) t.2 ,

4
HF.j = i : 0 i < j1 : t.(N2i)

FF.j = i : 3 i N 2(j1) : t.i .
G" A

.4
4

H
Proof " 4 8. . . j 1
8

i : 2 i N : t.i + (N2) t.1 .

HF.1 + FF.1 + 1 t.2 + (N11) t.1 + (11) t.2
=
A . HF FF

0 + i : 3 i N : t.i + t.2 + (N2) t.1

=

i : 2 i N : t.i + (N2) t.1 .
8. . . j 5

. .
2 8 HF.j .4
. F FF.j
.4
. A
F j t.2 .4
. j .
+& 1 1
(Nj1) t.1 2 1

(j1) t.2 G 2
. j .4 1
.
j + (N 2(j1) 3 + 1) .4 ?
. j1 Nj1 N2
4 4 4 '
. H
2
+ j 4 j 2 A OT .j

&
N 4
& . {1,2} j " OT .j & G!(H
?4 4

2

HF.(j+1) HF.j = t.(N2j+2) ,

FF.(j+1) FF.j = (t.(N2j+2) + t.(N2j+1)) .
5
OT .(j+1) OT .j = t.(N2j+1) + 2 t.2 t.1 .
?
OT .(j+1) OT .j OT .(k+1) OT .k
=

t.(N2j+1) + 2 t.2 t.1 t.(N2k+1) + 2 t.2 t.1

=

t.(N2k+1) t.(N2j+1)
=
t
j k .
" OT .(j+1) OT .j

j
5

. OT .j
& . 4 F .
.

"
4&
& 5
N 4 j 1.
2 t.2 t.1 + t.(N2j+1) .
8. true
. {1,2} I .4 & . 1
{N2j+2 , N2j+1} . 2 8. .

N2j+2 N2j+1 A
8

& 1 I 4 4 1

-
N
. & &

. j " .4
{
2N }
i,j := 1 , N2 ;
{ Invariant:
1 i j N2
k : 1 k < i : OT .(k+1) OT .k

21

k : j k < N2 : OT .(k+1) OT .k }
do i < j
m := (i+j)2 ;
if
2 t.2 t.1 + t.(N2m+1) i := m
2 t.2 t.1 + t.(N2m+1) j := m
fi
od
{
1 j N2
k : 1 k < j : OT .(k+1) OT .k
k : j k < N2 : OT .(k+1) OT .k }
>
j
& . {1,2}
OT .j
5

" j1
. & ! /
A
.
! A 4 &

"
N2j+2 N2j+1 A

8.7
Conclusion
8 4

. /
&
. &
"

. 4

D
4
"
. .
. .4 @
.
4

. .

. .4 4 5

#& . 4
5 KL
C .4
& 4
&
I KL G 4
H 4
K
L G 4
H . 6

4

. K L G
& 4 H

. 4 .
" .
. .
4

& & & .
. .4 I . 4 5 .
& &
%
&
A
G
H K L
. 5

2

C

K L G
.
& & H 4&
4& 4 .

K L
8.8
8
/%
KE
LI
/

K
L "
&/
/
4 & .

MN 8
.

& 2

I &
& M N

. K
L " F/
A % . K
L 4 D
. 4 "
F
!I &

5 . =

& .

/
.

1 & G& =
& K
. . .
& & 2t2 t1
. ti 1L . 2t2 t1
C
1 2 5 10

'
9H

& 4

- & .

#& K L .

. + '

. G8. N = 4 & . 3

1 1 4 4 4
8 4 5
"
3 9 H " . K&L .
4& 4 .
.4 K.L G
. & . H 1 .
.

. K
L .
4

Chapter 9
Knights Circuit
"
& B & & /

4 F

"
A 7 1

. " A 5 .
4 7 5 .
5 '& 5 4
"
.
I &
&
' '
. 7 .4 /
C /
=4 64 5 I

64
. 5 +
.
5 . D 2
.
. 16 5
. 8
G A $HI .

5 4 6

"

. .4 6
. &
4
4 & 5/
.

& 5 '&

" 7 1
.
.
4 .
" 5 &

7 1

& A &
G4 5
<& & 5 H "
. 4 4
'
9.1
Straight-Move Circuits
+ 7 1

' .

(
8 ,9

+ $J 7 1 #

61
& 4
. /
& 4 .
& 4
-
.
4 & 2
" A 4 4
.
& 5 & 5 8
1 4& . & 4 < C
.
& 5
5 &
5 ' I 5 D
& 61 .
.

"

5 <& & G"

7
'
H -

8
. D 4
2
" 4 & 1
& B

& A
/
& & A
&
&
.

I

88 &

& 5 & . 4

/
. 2 " &
5 '&
5
K L

2
8
.
& 4
.4 '
8 & .4
Exercise 9.1
(a) - 4
.

.

. 52 ; & 4 4

. . G=J

8 &+:

)

.
5 F 5 > 4
4 .
4H
(b) + 4 . m
/
.
. < 2m1 2 G 2m1
. 5I
. 5
2m H
(c) 4
/
. 2n .
GH . n G 2n 4 4 4 n 5H
2
" . ' $ /

& .
< 2mn .
m n " 2m
n G m n
/<

' . 5H /

4&
4 < 2n . n "
4 4 & /
. 2mn . m
n & m 2n .

"
4 . < 2m n
4 m 1 . 4 m
1 2m n 4 . < 2p n 2q n &
4 p q
m p+q 5 m -
&
& /
. -
D
4
" &
5 " 4
.
. 5 & /

8

<
?4
2m n
2p n 2q n 4 .
G"
4 A

. 4
.
. H "
/. . 2p n
&
/. . 2q n /
.
4 + $ 4
& " 4 <

/. .
<
4 4

.
. 4 " . G>.
. . .
H
?4
.
.
<
.

/. /. &
4
& A $ "

*
8 ,9

n
2p
2m
2q
+ $ J
/
+ 4

/
.
n
2p
2m
2q
+ $J

4 4
+ $( 4 4& . 6 8 %./
.& .
/
.
2 8 "

& <
&

4 A $(
Exercise 9.2

4
. 5

33 8 & /
. 5

5 G A $)H 8 /

. 5 . 5 =4 /

. . . 5 C 5 D 5 .
'

/. 5C
%' 4 4 /

. 5 . <

8 & '

+ $(J /

. 6 8
+ $)J /

G 4 H . 3 3
.
5
2
9.2
Supersquares
6 4 7 1/

" & '
4 4 4
" 4&
8 8
4 4 & 2 2 5 K/
5L 4 A $*
8. 7 1
A 4 &J +

K L 4 5I 7 1

. .
5 5 &
4 <& . ,

4 5I
.

!
8 ,9

+ $*J
4 4 . 5
7 .
5 .
5 8 A $ . 5 &
I . 7 4

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1010 1
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0
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1
+ $J GH 3 GH 7 1 # +

GH . 5 &
+
4 4
+ $! 4

.
5 C
/. 5C & /
4 <& 4 "

+ '
.

/. 5

/.
5
/ 5
> . @
E
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E
< ' G"

/ /&4 / /
I <

/'// 4 4 &4/'// 4H

8 & '
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$
+ $!J

.

/. 5
6 & v . E
. 2 2 5 G v
. KLH
& & h G . K <LH .
E 4 . 5 ?4 A'

. . '
v ; h . A E

E 4 . 5 +
E
4
E 4
"
v;h = h;v .
5 2 2 5 1800
c G . KLH
" & A . c
G$H
v;h = c = h;v .
- 4 A 2 2 5 " .
4 / %4 4 skip

= . & 4 n G . K LH + 4
& 4 <& 4 1800

" I
G$(H
v;v = h;h = c;c = n .
. . &

G$)H
n;x = x;n = x .
" 5 G$H G$(H G$)H 4 .
. G x .4 & 4
y z
A x .4 & y 4
z C &
x ; (y ; z) = (x ; y) ; z H 4
A . & 5 .
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Algorithmic Problem Solving by Roland Backhouse PDF

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Algorithmic Problem Solving by Roland Backhouse PDF

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

5 Knights and Knaves

7 The Towers of Hanoi

     

   & 4   

8 A .     

 C    . 

    &  

+ J #

+ (J >/ O/ 6/ "/  8/

"       /   

-                    

The Mathematical Solution

>     . .&   

 5& 4       

 "       A . 

/  .   G    p , c H ?  

/  . ' G   

  $    "

 4     . p  c  "      pc    .  

-     m + 3n   &    

(m + 3n)[m , n := m+3 , n1] = (m+3) + 3(n1)

(m+n+p)[m , n , p := 3n , m+3 , n1] = (3n) + (m+3) + (n1)

"    . 

Induction "  A      .      

    

?        &     

The Tumbler Problem

6  4   4     

+&  4 

"    . 4  .     

"   even.u    .   

"   even.u     .   

  

B   4          

8     4     .  

"  c mod 4   G c mod 4    

K L  

"    4/   "  A    /  K

  mn    4 

   =       

 . 2    /  K'  L 4

  

8.  mn    4 

+ )J 3    "/

     

?4     . b 3d l  <   4 4&  < 

Exercise 2.2 ,    .    .  D  "   

 Goat, Cabbage and Wolf

    4 

"  /  /  4./ 

    4   /.        . .

 K     L  . L

"       .

8. 4    

+ J ,/

   8   D  & 

         4      

  8. 4       

 .   

 $   

    K L         4. K L

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Exercise 2.2 , . . D "

Goat, Cabbage and Wolf

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