16.

512, Rocket Propulsion

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez
Lecture 4-5: Nozzle Design: Method of Characteristics

The Method of Characteristics (Ideal Gas)

(Ref. Phillip Thompson Compressive Fluid Dynamics, McGraw Hill, 1972, Ch. 9)

2-D or axisymmetric
ur
Homentropic as well as isentropic → ∇×u = o
ur
plus ∇ (ρ u ) = 0
0
ur ur 1 ⎛ u2 ⎞ ur ur 1
and u ∇u + ∇p = o ⇒ ∇ ⎜ ⎟ + ω × u + ∇p = 0
ρ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ρ

Use intrinsic co-ordinates

r ∂u 1 ∂p
Eq. of motion along s : u + =o (1)
∂s ρ ∂s

r u2 1 ∂p ∂u2 2
Eq. of motion along n : = =−
R ρ ∂n ∂n

1 ∂ϑ ∂ϑ ∂u ∂u ∂ϑ
Now ≡ u2 = −u +u =o (2)
R ∂s ∂s ∂n ∂n ∂s
(good no p in it)
ur
(can also get this from ∇ × u = o )

∂
Continuity: ( ρ u 2πr δn ) = o
∂s

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 8

Prof. M. Martinez-Sanchez Page 1 of 20
 1 ∂ρ 1 ∂u 1 ∂r 1 ∂δn
+ + + =o
ρ ∂s u ∂s r ∂s ∂n ∂s

∂r 1 ∂ϑ
( δs ) sin ϑ = ( ∂s ) sin ϑ
∂s r ∂n

∂δn ⎛ ∂ϑ ⎞
ds = ⎜ − δn ⎟ δs
∂s ⎝ ∂n ⎠

1 ∂ρ 1 ∂u ∂ϑ sin ϑ
+ − =−
ρ ∂s u ∂s ∂n r

⎛ 2 ⎛ ∂p ⎞ ⎞
Homentropic: dp = c 2 d ρ ⎜⎜ c = ⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎝ ∂ρ ⎠s ⎠

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 8

Prof. M. Martinez-Sanchez Page 2 of 20
 1 ∂p 1 ∂u ∂ϑ sin ϑ
so + − =−
ρ c ∂s u ∂s ∂n
2
r

1 ∂p ∂u ∂p
and, from s eq. of motion, = −u so you can eliminate :
ρ ∂s ∂s ∂s

u ∂u 1 ∂u ∂ϑ sin ϑ 1⎛ u2 ⎞ ∂u ∂ϑ sin ϑ
− + − =− ⎜ − 1 + ⎟ + =
c 2 ∂s u ∂s ∂n r u⎝ c 2 ⎠ ∂s ∂n r
2
M -1

M 2 − 1 ∂u ∂ϑ sin ϑ
+ = (4)
u ∂s ∂n r

1 1 1
Introduce the Mach angle μ = sin−1 = tan−1 tan μ =
M 2
M −1 M2 − 1

M 2 − 1 ∂u ∂ϑ
Then (2) tan μ + =o
u ∂n ∂s

M 2 − 1 ∂u ∂ϑ tan μ sin ϑ
And (4) + tan μ =
u ∂s ∂n r

Introduce the Prandtl-Meyer function ω (M) by

du
dω = M2 − 1 (to be integrated later)
u

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 8

Prof. M. Martinez-Sanchez Page 3 of 20
 ∂ω ∂ϑ
tan μ + =o
∂n ∂s
then
∂ω ∂ϑ tan μ sin ϑ
+ tan μ =
∂s ∂n r

add and subtract to obtain the “Characteristics form” (single differential operator per
equation)

⎛ ∂ ∂ ⎞ tan μ sin ϑ ⎛ ∂ ∂ ⎞ sin μ sin ϑ

⎜ ∂s + tan μ ∂n ⎟ ( ω + ϑ ) = r ⎜ cos μ ∂s + sin μ ∂n ⎟ ( ω + ϑ ) = r
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
⇒
⎛ ∂ ∂ ⎞ tan μ sin ϑ ⎛ ∂ ∂ ⎞ sin μ sin ϑ
⎜ ∂s − tan μ ∂n ⎟ ( ϑ − ω) r ⎜ cos μ ∂s − sin μ ∂n ⎟ ( ϑ − ω) = − r
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

r + ⎧cos μ ⎫ r − ⎧ cos μ ⎫
In (s, n) coordinates, 1 = ⎨ ⎬ 1 =⎨ ⎬
⎩ sin μ ⎭ ⎩− sin μ ⎭

∂ ∂ r+ ∂
cos μ + sin μ =1 ∇ =
∂s ∂n ∂m+
so
∂ ∂ r− ∂
cos μ − sin μ =1 ∇ =
∂s ∂n ∂m−

(m+, m- are lengths along characteristics)

⎧ ∂ sin μ sin ϑ ⎫
⎪ ∂m+ ( ϑ + ω) = + r ⎪
⎛ m− inclined ϑ + μ ⎞ ⎪⎪ ⎪⎪
⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟ ⎨ ⎬
⎝ m inclined ϑ − μ ⎠ ⎪ ∂ sin μ sin ϑ ⎪
− (
⎪ ϑ − ω) = − ⎪
⎩⎪ ∂m r ⎭⎪

For 2-D, r → ∞ ⇒ ϑ + ω =const. along m+ ≡ I+ (inclined ϑ − μ )

ϑ − ω =const. along m- ≡ I- (inclined ϑ + μ )

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 8

Prof. M. Martinez-Sanchez Page 4 of 20
2-D Simple Regions

Consider a uniform region; the flow from it enters

some disturbed region, like a wall turning. One of
the m families originate in the uniform region (m+
in example) and carries a constant invariant, e.g.
ϑ + ω = ϑo + ωo everywhere downstream. Along one
of the other characteristics (m- here), we carry a
constant (which varies from ch. To ch. of that
family); we can evaluate it at the wall, for instance

ϑ − ω = ϑw − ωw along each m- line and

ωw = ϑo + ωo − ϑw so ϑ − ω = 2ϑw − ( ϑo + ωo )

2ϑ = ϑo + ωo + ϑw − ωw = 2ϑw along each m− → ϑ = ϑw

then
2ω = ϑo + ωo − ( ϑw − ωw ) along each m −
→ ω = ϑo + ωo − ϑw = ωw

so ϑ and ω (and hence M, μ) are constant along each m-, and these m- lines are
straight (const. ϑ + μ ).

This is a Simple Region (one of the invariants is constant). The turning of the flow is
dictated by how ϑ changes on a m+ line, as different m- lines are crossed. Since on a
m+ we have ϑ + ω = ϑo + ωo , changes of ϑ are equal and opposite to those in ω (ω
increases as M does in the expansion, so ϑ decreases (increase negatively) at the
same rate.) So, we can interpret ω as the magnitude of the isentropic flow turning in
a simple region, i.e., when nothing varies along one characteristic family.

Calculation of ω (M)

du ⎛ dM 1 dT ⎞
dω = M2 − 1 = M2 − 1 ⎜ +
u ⎝ M 2 T ⎟⎠

but

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 8

Prof. M. Martinez-Sanchez Page 5 of 20
 ⎛ γ −1 2 ⎞
M
M2 − 1 ⎜ 2 ⎟ M2 − 1 dM
dω = ⎜1 − ⎟ dM =
M ⎜⎜ γ −1 2 ⎟⎟ M γ −1 2
1+ M 1+ M
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2

Integrates (with ω =0 at M=1) to

M2 − 1 ⎛ γ +1⎞
ω = K tan−1 − tan−1 M 2 − 1 ⎜⎜ K = ⎟
K ⎝ γ − 1 ⎟⎠

π π π π⎛ γ +1 ⎞
For M → ∞ ω→K − = ( K − 1) = ⎜ − 1⎟
2 2 2 ⎜
2 ⎝ γ −1 ⎟
⎠

γ 1.2 1.25 1.4 5/3

ω (M → ∞ ) 208o 180o 130.5o 90o
(Max. turning from M=1)

So rocket exhaust ( γ 1.2 − 1.3 ) can turn backwards at a sonic nozzle exit to
vacuum)

(but very long density, long mfp, so continuum

approach fails at some point in the expansion,
molecules then continue in straight line).

Actually, one starts from some high Me>1, so

the actual turning is through ω∞ − ω (Me ) , not
ω∞ , even in a vacuum:

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 8

Prof. M. Martinez-Sanchez Page 6 of 20
 Example of Application: Ideal 2-D plug Nozzle at Design Condition

Along m− , ϑ − ω = ϑa − ωa

Simple region (Prandtl-Meyer fan

centered at lip L)

In particular, at inlet M=1, so

ϑthroat = −ωa

r dϕ 1
tan μ = =
dr M2 − 1

π
From geometry, μ − ϑ + ϕ = ϑt
2

π
Sub. ϑ = ω − ωa μ − ω + ωa + ϕ = + ωa
2

π
ϑt = −ωa ϕ= +ω−μ
2

π M2 − 1 1 ⎛ γ +1⎞
ϕ= + K tan−1 − tan−1 M 2 − 1 − tan−1 ⎜⎜ K = ⎟
2 K 2
M −1 ⎝ γ − 1 ⎠⎟

π
−
2

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 8

Prof. M. Martinez-Sanchez Page 7 of 20
 M2 − 1
ϕ = K tan−1
K

ϕ M2 − 1 1
tan = =
K K K tan μ

ϕ ⎛ ϕ⎞
sin d ⎜ cos ⎟
r dϕ 1 dr K dϕ = −K 2 ⎝ K ⎠
⇒ =
ϕ
=K
ϕ ϕ
dr r
K tan cos cos
K K K

const.
r = K2
⎛ ϕ⎞
⎜ cos K ⎟
⎝ ⎠

ht
For ϕ = 0,r = ht (throat height) r = K2
⎛ ϕ⎞
⎜ cos K ⎟
⎝ ⎠

Ma2 − 1
In particular, at end of expansion M = Ma → ϕa = K tan−1 , then
K

ht ra
ra = and ha = ra sin μa =
⎛ ϕa ⎞
K2
Ma
⎜ cos K ⎟
⎝ ⎠
1
xa = ra cos μa = ra 1 −
Ma2

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 8

Prof. M. Martinez-Sanchez Page 8 of 20
Numerical Application

γ ⎡ γ −1
⎤
Po ⎛ γ − 1 2 ⎞ γ −1 2 ⎢⎛ Po ⎞ γ ⎥
= 100 = ⎜ 1 + Ma ⎟ ⇒ Ma = ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥
Pa ⎝ 2 ⎠ γ − 1 ⎢⎝ Pa ⎠
⎣⎢ ⎥⎦

2 ⎡ 0.3
⎤
Take γ = 1.3 , Ma = ⎢100 − 1⎥ = 3.554
1.3
0.3 ⎣ ⎦

⎛ M2 − 1 ⎞ γ +1 2.3
Then ωa = K tan−1 ⎜ ⎟ − tan
−1
M2 − 1 K= = = 2.769
⎝ K ⎠ γ −1 0.3

ωa = 67.35o ⇒ ϑt = −67.35o

⎛ M2 − 1 ⎞
Also ρa = K tan−1 ⎜ ⎟ = 141.01
o

⎝ K ⎠

ra 1 1 ra
and so = = = 34.41
ht ⎛ ρa ⎞
K2
⎛ 141.01 ⎞
2.7692
ht
⎜ cos K ⎟ ⎜ cos 2.769 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

ra
From the geometry, ha=ra sin μa =
Ma

ha 1 ha
= 34.41 =9.684
ht 3.554 ht

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 8

Prof. M. Martinez-Sanchez Page 9 of 20
 2
xa ⎛ 1 ⎞ xa
and = ra cos μa = 34.41 1 − ⎜ ⎟ =33.02
ht ⎝ 3.554 ⎠ ht

Very long and pointy, should be truncated.

Non-Simple Regions. When the characteristics of both families intersect some

upstream disturbance, they affect each other’s invariant, and characteristics are no
longer straight, and no longer carry constant flow properties (except for their own
invariant)

0-1-4 is a simple region

0-4-41 is uniform

1-4-10 is non-simple

4-41--11 is a simple region

Then we need to calculate in a step-by-step manner, carrying to each point the two
invariants I+, I- from neighboring upstream points, along the m+, m- lines from them
to us. After this is done, we know the new segments of m+, m- from our point (slopes
ϑ + μ , ϑ − μ ), so we can extend the grid as we go. Notice the flowfield properties can
be found first everywhere and only then we need to come back and place the points
geometrically.

Example: Design a 2-D ideal nozzle to expand from near sonic conditions (M0 = 1.1)
to Me = 3. Use only 4 characteristics. Use a corner expansion as a starter,
γ =1.25

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 8

Prof. M. Martinez-Sanchez Page 10 of 20
 2.25
K = =3
0.25

1.21 − 1
ωo = 3 tan−1 − tan−1 1.21 − 1 = 1.435o ; ϑo = 0
3

9 −1
ωe = 3 tan−1 − tan−1 9 − 1 = 59.413o ; ϑe = 0
3

At inlet: I − = ϑ − ω = ϑo − ωo = −1.435o (also at 4)

At exit: I + = ϑ + ω = ϑe + ωe = 59.413o (also at 4,

7, 9, 10)

2ϑ4 = −1.435 + 59.413 = 57.978 ϑ4 = 28.989o

At 4, then, 2ω4 = 59.413 + 1.435 = 60.848 ω4 = 30.424o

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 8

Prof. M. Martinez-Sanchez Page 11 of 20
Select: I1+ = 1.44o I2+ = 20.76o I3+ = 40.09o I4+ = 59.41o

Point M I+ = ϑ + ω ()
o
I- = ϑ − ω ()
o
ω ()
o
ϑ ()
o
μ ()
o
ϑ+μ ()
o
ϑ−μ ()
o

1 1.1 +1.44 -1.44 1.44 0 65.38 65.38 -65.38o

2 1.439 20.76 -1.44 11.10 9.66 44.02 53.68 -34.36
3 1.726 40.09 -1.44 20.77 19.33 35.41 54.74 -16.08
4 (and 4w) 2.013 59.41 -1.44 30.43 28.99 29.79 58.78 -0.80
5 1.726 20.76 -20.76 20.76 0 35.41 35.41 -35.41
6 2.013 40.09 -20.76 30.43 9.67 29.79 39.46 -20.12
7 (and 7w) 2.315 59.41 -20.76 40.09 19.33 25.59 44.92 6.26
8 2.315 40.09 -40.09 40.09 0 25.59 25.59 -25.59
9 (and 9w) 2.641 59.41 -40.09 49.75 9.66 22.25 31.91 -12.59
10 (and 11) .3 59.41 -59.41 59.41 0 19.47 19.47 -19.47

Notes
Points 1-4: same ϑ − ω
Point 5: Here ϑ = 0 (a boundary condition) and ϑ + ω = 20.76
Point 6-7: same ϑ − ω
Point 8: Here ϑ = 0 and ϑ + ω = 40.09
Point 9: same ϑ − ω
Point 10: Here ϑ = 0 and ϑ − ω = 59.41

Note the very shallow angles of the m+ lines (from 4, 7, 9, 10) which will put point
10 far to the right, and point 11 (at slope (m+) of 19.47o even farther.

Locating the points geometrically

(xc − x a ) tan α + ( x c − x b ) tan β = y a − y b

ya − yb + xa tan α + xb tan β
xc =
tan α + tan β

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 8

Prof. M. Martinez-Sanchez Page 12 of 20
yc − yb = ( xc − xb ) tan β = tan β
( ya − yb ) + ( xa − xb ) tan α
tan α + tan β

yb tan α + ya tan β + ( xa − xb ) tan α tan β

yc =
tan α + tan β

put xa, ya into 1, 2

tan α into 3 Run 2 → xc (st. in 7)

xb, yb into 4.5 Run 3 → yc (st. in 7)

tan β into 6

Finding the (x,y)’s is very laborious. Accuracy can be increased by averaging

together the angles at the ends of each segment, which can be done because those
α + αc β + βc
angles come from the first pass. For instance, α = a , β = b .
2 2

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Prof. M. Martinez-Sanchez Page 13 of 20
Boundary with Prescribed Pressure

Pc
P= r
,
⎛ r −1 2⎞ r −1
⎜1 + 2 M ⎟
⎝ ⎠

and M = M ( w ) ,

so P = P ( w ) (given Po )

or w = w (P )

So, if P is fixed on a boundary (contact surface), we can assign w there (just as we

assign θ on a solid boundary)

From known point a,

θ − w = θa − wa

So θ = w (P ) + θa − wa

and this determines the slope of the boundary, and that of the “reflected” m+

θ + w = 2w (P ) + θa − wa

More General Contact Surface Condition

If the outside fluid is also supersonic, we must solve on both sides of the contact
surface, making sure P and θ are common at each boundary point

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 4-5

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 14 of 20
P1 ( w1 ) = P2 ( w2 )

θ1 = θ2

From m1+ know I1+ = θ + w1+ (P )

From m2− know I2− = θ − w2− (P )

So, I1+ − I2− = w1+ (P ) + w2− (P )

⇒ Solve for P ⇒ w1 , w2
known now
I1+ + I2− w1+ (P ) + w2− (P )
and =θ+
2 2

Modifications for Axisymmetric Conditions

∂ sin μ sin θ ⎫
+
( θ + w) =r ⎪
∂m ⎪
⎬
∂ sin μ sin θ ⎪
( θ − w) = − ⎪⎭
∂m− r

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 4-5

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 15 of 20
(1) Calculate ( x, r )c from the angle ( μ − θ )a , ( μ + θ )b

x a tan α + xb tan β + ra − rb
( x − xa ) tan α + ( x − xb ) tan β = ra − rb ⇒x−
tan α + tan β

and r − rb = ( x − xb ) tan β

x − xa
(2) Δm+ =
cos α

x − xb
Δm− =
cos β

(3) Advance invariants θ + w , θ − w based on μ, θ at a, b:

sin μa sin θa ⎫
θ + w = ( θ + w )a + Δm+ ⎪
ra ⎪
⎬ (r at c, computed in (1))
sin μb sin θb
θ − w = ( θ − w )b − Δm− ⎪
rb ⎪
⎭

(4) M = M ( w ) , μ = μ (M)

(5) Iterate from (1) with α, β averaged between (a, b) and c:

( μ − θ )a + ( μ − θ )c
α→
2

( μ + θ )b + ( μ + θ )c
β→
2

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 4-5

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 16 of 20
 ra + rb⎫
r→ ⎪
2 ⎪
⎪
μa + μb ⎪⎪
μ→ ⎬ better
2 ⎪
⎪
⎪
θ + θb ⎪
θ→ a
2 ⎪⎭

(6) Continue to new point.

So, computation of ( θ,M) is now coupled to that of ( x, r ) , whereas in 2-D ( θ,M)

can be found first. But the actual amount of computation is not much more (only
the iteration stops).

On the axis, r → 0 , but θ = 0 , so

1. x = xa + ra tan α

ra
2. Δm+ =
sin α

sin μa sin θa
3. θc = 0; wc = ( θ + w )a +
ra
ra , θa ,
4. Mc = M ( wc ) , μc = μ (Mc )

( μ − θ )a + μ c
5. α → , go to (1) (once)
2

6. Continue

Extension to Cases with Weak Shocks

ΔPshock
Since the entropy jump in a shock increases only as the cube of , the
ρu20
isentropic assumption can be approximately extended when characteristics of our
family show some mild convergence (in principle, that is always indicative of shock
formation, because they carry conflicting information). When is the convergence too
strong? Since characteristics are discretized, for weak convergence the ones of our
family will converge, but not cross, and as long as they don’t, it should be OK. Of
course, with finer resolution they will cross, but the loss of accuracy in ignoring that
is of the same order as that increased by the coarse discretization in the first place.

This allows us to calculate off-design nozzle performance, like an overexpanded plug

nozzle.

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 4-5

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 17 of 20
2-D Spike Nozzle with Pa < Padesign

Pressure forces from hot-gas bathed surfaces are the same as at design. Net thrust
is increased because the Pa contribution PaA e is reduced:

( )
F = Fdes. + Pades. − Pa A e
(just as for a bell)
and so Fvac = Fdes. + Pades. A e

“Practical” Nozzle Designs

Ideal nozzle are too long, last portion has small wall angle, so small thrust
contribution. With small ?, maybe negative contribution. So, options:

(a) Constrain length, ask for contour that gives highest thrust/given L.
Methods of calculus of variations (Raw nozzle, Ref : “ Exhaust Nozzle
Contour from Optimum Thrust”, Jet Propulsion 28 (June 1958): 377-382.
Exit flow non-parallel, non-uniform, computationally high.

(b) Ad-hoc method (widely used) is to truncate contract an ideal nozzle.

(1) Design wall contour for desired Pe Pc

(2) If longer than desired L truncate it to some intermediate area ratio.
(3) Contract this truncated nozzle to desired length
x L
x'a = xb' c = xb' desired
xd L ideal
(4) Translate profile to right metal kink at P smoothes out.

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 4-5

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 18 of 20
 Gives “adequate” performance but less than ? nozzle. Not really
justified. (Hoffman, J. D. J. of Propulsion 3 (March-April 1987): 150-
156.

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 4-5

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 19 of 20
 XRS-2200 Engine Data

Thrust, lbf

At Sea Level 206,500

In Vacuum 268,000

Specific Impulse, sec.

At Sea Level 339

In Vacuum 439

Propellants O2, H2

Mixture Ratio (O/F) 5.5

Chamber Pressure, psia 857

Cycle Gas Generator

Area Ratio 58

Throttling, Percent Thrust 40-119

Differential Throttling +/- 15%

Dimensions, Inches

Forward End 133 high x

88 wide

Aft End 46 high x

88 wide

Forward to Aft 79

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 4-5

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 20 of 20