MUSLIM

CONTRIBUTIONS CIVILIZATION

TO WORLD

Muslim Contributions to World Civilization

Edited by
M. BA.SHEER A.HMED, MD AMBASSADOR SYED A. AHSANI DILNAWAZ A. SIDDIQUI, PHD

THE THE

INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF

INSTITUTE MUSLIM

OF SOCIAL

ISLAMIC

THOUGHT (USA)

SCIENTISTS

 The International Institute of Islamic Thought,

1426AH12005eE

THE

INTERNATIONAL
P.O. BOX 126,

INSTITUTE
RICHMOND,

OF

ISLAMIC

THOUGHT
UK

SURREY TW9 2UD,

HEAD
P.O. BOX 669,

OFFICE
VA 22070, USA

HERNDON,

This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of the publishers.
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Typeset by Sohail Nakhooda Cover design by Saddiq Ali Printed in the United Kingdom by BiddIes Limited, King's Lynn

CONTENTS
page
FOREWORD Vll

PREFACE

IX

PROLOGUE

XVll

What the West has Learned from Islamic Civilization

ABDULHAMID ABUSULAYMAN

Overcoming the Religious-Secular Contribution to Civilization

LOUAY M. SAFI

Divide: Islam's 5

Al-Mawardf's Political Paradigm: Principles of the Islamic Political System

SYED A. AHSANI

23

Intellectual History of Euro-American and the Islamic Alternative

PETER M. WRIGHT

Jurisprudence 38

5 Middle Eastern Origins of Modern Sciences

DILNAWAZ A. SIDDIQUI

53

Contributions
700-I600AC M. BASHEER

of Muslim Physicians and Other Scholars:

71 AHMED

The Feasibility of an Islamic Economic in a Modern Economy

MOHAMMED SHARIF

System
9I

VI

CONTENTS

8 Islamic Financial Institutions in the United States: Viability & Prospects

ABDEL-HAMEED

I09

M.

BASHIR

Where do We Go from Here? Muslim Contribution to Civilization: The Harbinger of the Third Renaissance
SYED A. AHSANI

lI8

EPILOGUE

NOTES

131

INDEX

143

LIST

OF CONTRIBUTORS

FOREWORD

---------~
The International the Association Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT) in cooperation with of Muslim Social Scientists (AMSS) has great pleasure in Islam's intellectual legacy to

presenting this small volume highlighting world civilization. Islam's brilliant contributions less and precious heritage, which should

to science, art, and culture, are a timebe historically preserved for

future generations. The great achievements of Muslim scholars are rarely if at all acknowledged in formal education, and today their identity, origins and impact remain largely obscure. This collection of papers aims to give readers a brief introduction and the contributions specific fields of knowledge to the intellectual history of Muslims physical and that eminent Muslim scholars have made in certain including basic and applied theories and practices, etc. It does not and

biological sciences, medicine, legal and political include Muslim contributions the subject. The preservation widespread Contributions of civilization necessitates

economic and financial concepts, models, and institutions, literature, fine arts, and architecture,

to several other fields like language

which call for a separate volume on a better understanding, Given today's misunderstand-

sharing, and recognition

of our common

human heritage.

negative stereotyping

and falsely generated

ing of Islam and Muslims, the publication to World Civilization" and restore is being perpetrated distorted.

of these papers on "Muslim truth, which is being

is vital to help repair the wrong that the historical

The IIIT, established in 198 I, has served as a major center to facilitate sincere and serious scholarly efforts based on Islamic vision, values and principles. Its programs of research, seminars and conferences during the

Vlll

FOREWORD

last twenty four years have resulted in the publication hundred translated into several other languages.

of more than two

and fifty titles in English and Arabic, many of which have been in 1972 to provide a forum through of

The AMSS (USA) was founded

which Islamic positions on various academic disciplines can be promoted. The AMSS has based its activities on the belief that the development Islamic thought is vital for the prosperity continuity of the Islamic intellectual heritage. Since its development have been established of the Muslim world and for the in the in the

USA a number of other similar associations UK, France, Germany, and India.

We would like to express our thanks to Dr. Dilnawaz A. Siddiqui who throughout the various stages of the book's production cooperated closely with us. We would also like to thank the editorial and production team at the London Office and those who were directly or indirectly involved in the completion Shiraz Khan, efforts. of this book: Hagga Abugideiri, Maryam Mahmood, Linda Barto, Sylvia Hunt, and, Riyad alSohail Nakhooda

Yemany. May God reward them, the authors, and the editors for all their

Rabie II 1426 June 2005

ANAS AL-SHAIKH-ALI

Academic Advisor lIlT London Office, UK

PREFACE

the nineteenth highlights

HE PRIMARY GOAL of this volume is to give readers a brief introduction to the intellectual history of Muslims and their contributions to civilization. Civilization itself developed long before many peoples have This book and century and, since time immemorial, that Muslim

woven the fabric, each making its own unique contribution. the contributions fields of human endeavor, including science, technology, the political and social sciences from
700

scholars made in the various philosophy,

AC.

to

I500

These break-

throughs went on to constitute

a firm foundation

for progress in the Near and beyond. The presharing, and

East, North Africa, and Spain, eventually leading to the European Renaissance during the middle of the second millennium servation of civilization necessitates Given today's widespread misunderstanding "Muslim Contributions Mainstream acknowledges
300 AC and

a better understanding,

recognition of our common human heritage. negative stereotyping and media-generated of the topic of Islam and Muslims, the publication

to World Civilization"

is vital to repair the wrong of knowledge

that is being done and restore the historical truth, which is being distorted. Western history concerning the advancement the work done by Greek and Roman scholars until around

then conveniently jumps to I 500 AC, the age of the European Renaissance, with very little mention of the stunning and far-reaching social, political, and scientific developments eighth to the sixteenth century phenomenon Renaissance as "History's arose phoenix-like
AC.

which took place from the a historian, describes this for a millen-

Morowitz,

Black Hole." "The impression given is that the from the ashes - smoldering
1

nium - of the classical age of Greece and Rome." tributions of Islam and Muslims to civilization

This is a myth that gives helps to counteract the

an extremely distorted view of history. An adequate knowledge of the con-

x widely propagated breathtakingly understand

PREFACE contemporary culture false image of Muslims in the West as To understand "Golden the high and Age" is to of the Muslim

being violent, barbaric and anti-civilizational. enlightened

the positive part that Muslims played, and indeed, continue to of advanced human society.
700

play in the development

During the height of the Islamic period, from witnessed a major development extent of the rapidly expanding ted the knowledge ancient Egyptian, important extinction. Babylonian,

to

1500 AC,the

world

in the arts and sciences. As a result of the Islamic empire, Muslim scholars inheriGreek, Persian, and Indian. Caliphs and treatises were thus preserved from scholars learn and preserve the

of nearly all of the other hitherto major civilizations:

scholars made massive efforts to translate these sources into Arabic. Many scientific and philosophical Not only did the Muslim

knowledge of antiquity,

but they also made their own critical observations astronomy, history, mathematics, che-

and original research, thus adding a vast treasure of new scientific knowledge in the fields of philosophy, As Muslim intellectuals, toricallegacy mistry, and the medical sciences, to name but a few. it is our responsibility to research and publish this original work and to disseminate them, but recognizes ledge, and civilization. on the subject and honors as widely as possible the great histo science, knowvarious to

of these giants of their time so that the world does not forget their contributions to this project Several nationally known scholars and authorities by analyzing to human civilization. The proMuslim contributions jurisprudence, medical

have contributed

aspects of Muslim scholars' contributions the political

ject covers a wide range of subjects, including system, social sciences, humanities, AbuSulayman eloquently

sciences, and especially the impact of Islam on the West. AbdulHamid stresses that Islam and Chrislegacy, have made At this juncture when our of the common origins method of hartianity, two of the greatest religions of the Abrahamic significant contributions of all faith communities, to human civilization. world is akin to a global village, an understanding necessary to restore humankind

especially of the two largest ones, is absolutely to its senses. One important

achieving this aim is to tackle and solve the problems created by a distorted and volatile history. A measure of desperately mony can be accomplished that numerous needed cross-cultural by a better understanding of the contributions

scholars and followers of these great religions have made

PREFACE throughout history. Recognition of their sincere dedication

Xl

to pristine

spiritual, moral, and ethical values and an emulation

of their legacy can

certainly help to achieve the worthy goal of global peace and justice. Syed Ahsani's article outlines the Islamic political system with a case study of al-MawardI's Muslim countries, Paradigm. Following Western domination of the Islamic thinkers have reacted on three different levels

to comparative political systems. First, the apologists have advocated the adoption of the Western model of democracy. Second, the Traditionalists, on the other hand, have argued that this policy would lead to secularization, thus compromising Islamic values. Lastly, the moderates have stressed the middle-of-the-road position benefiting from Western learning as the lost heritage of Islam, yet at the same time observing the fundamentals of Islamic Sharicah. These divisions are not new: they existed in the Abbasid period when the Mu'tazilites that Revelation rationalists gave primacy to reason. The rise of Philoinspired fear among religious scholars by Reason, which gave rise to two who totally rejeccriticized the estaof the sophy under Caliph al-Macmun

might be threatened

kinds of reaction: Ahl al-lfadtth or the Traditionalists, ted reason, and the Asha'rites, from being rejected. MawardI, blished practice a Muslim intellectual,

who put limits on it to save Revelation

that Sharicah (Islamic Law) by itself was a sufficient

yardstick for justice. His greatest contribution was the introduction concept of political justice into the Sharicah . Modern Sciences," traces the roots of an explosion of knowledge

Dilnawaz A. Siddiqui in his chapter titled, "Middle Eastern Origins of which took place in the entire Muslim world from the late Umayyad era through the Abbasid era and into the fifteenth century. He attributes this unprecedented phenomenon to the Divine injunctions contained in the Qur'an that Muslim men and Muslim women should study the books, that is, the Qur'an, and the universe, each in light of the other. In other words, that it was one's Islamic duty to enhance all of God's creation. principle of monogenesis characterized regardless continually one's understanding of The acute consciousness of their duty enabled The Islamic

Muslims to strike a balance between reason and Revelation.

inspired them not only to benefit from the collec-

tive wisdom of all times and climes but also to create a societal order by open access to all levels of knowledge for all of humanity, religion, or national origin. This of gender, race, ethnicity,

xu
sal brotherhood,

PREFACE and disseminated a spirit of univerways of learning,

climate of social equality engendered

leading to creative and innovative

including the scientific method of observation, various disciplines of knowledge. butions to the humanities, mathematics,

and thus to the evolution of and

His chapter deals with Muslim contribasic and applied natural

social sciences, and also gives in tabular form the names, dates, and significant works of the major Muslim scholars of the eight centuries covered. In Chapter 6, M. Basheer Ahmed's
700

"Contributions
r600 AC,"

of Muslim Physiduring

cians and Other Scholars from

to

highlights the fact that

Muslim scholars were at the cutting edge of scientific development that period. As leaders of this knowledge, influence over the history of humankind. were of the highest quality, demonstrating experiment, observation, rationality, superbly Their works demonstrated until secularization

they thus exercised a profound He points out that their works the hallmarks of good science: and professionalism. world for the

objectivity

the absence of a conflict between to dog the Christian of its scientists from Church

faith and science, a division that continued freed the thinking

dogma. The scientific legacy of the Muslims laid the foundations progress of science and technology Europe had hitherto encounter been languishing

in Europe in the second millennium. in what is now termed the "Dark to state that it was Europe's that became the engine until
r600 AC. The

Ages," and it is by no means an exaggeration of the European Renaissance.

with Muslims and Muslim civilization in many European

The works of Muslim scholars were widely universities into Latin and other European languages. Cairo, etc.

used as textbooks The universities

Arabic texts were translated

of Iraq, Syria, Egypt, Spain, Iran, Cordoba,

became the major teaching centers of the world, where students flocked from all over Europe to study. Famous physicians, and Ibn SIna (Avicenna) had their encyclopedic in European historian, of experiments, into Europe universities observation until the sixteenth and measurements Modern
2

like al-RazI (Rhazes) As Briffault, a

works on medicine taught century.

writes: "what we call science arose as a result of new methods which were introduced Ahmed briefly describes to expe2,

by Muslims.

science is based on the most monu-

mental contribution

of the Islamic civilization."

the work of several physicians in that era. Louay M. Safi, an intellectual who has had the opportunity cultures, rience both Muslim and non-Muslim points out in Chapter

PREFACE "Overcoming the Religious-Secular Divide: Islam's Contribution

Xlll

to Civi-

lization," that the future of human civilization is directly linked to our ability to learn from the historical experience of both Islamic and Western civilization. He writes,
Although Islamic and Western civilizations each other at the level of structure common common commitment to the universal appear to be far removed from both seem to share a religious freedom, has

and organization, participation,

values of social justice, equality,

good, social welfare, political

and a host of other common principles and values. Western civilization perfected the structural tion of the above universal values into social organization. by overcoming

elements of social life so as to allow a better integraWestern achieved two major historical religion. This

successes were, however, fact has contributed Renaissance

forces that are peculiar to the West: feudalism and organized is rooted - Enlightened

to the erosion of the very moral basis in which Western religiosity ... a political order rooted in Unlike the

Islamic norms shares with the modern secularist orders its desire to liberate the body politic from narrow religious and cultural interpretations. the secularist order, the Islamic political fostering of moral values in accordance autonomy. order, however, encourages

with the overall scheme of moral

In Chapter 4, "Intellectual and the Islamic Alternative," contemporary the former European

History of Euro-American

Jurisprudence: and in He

Peter M. Wright compares and contrasts the in Europe, the Americas,

legal systems prevailing

colonies with the principles of Islamic Shari'ah.

asserts that the Western legal systems have "evolved in specific historical contexts and cultural milieus. Nevertheless, they share certain common presumptions that are rarely articulated or exposed to critical scrutiny." Wright's chapter might be a beginning in the process of articulating in a cogent manner common presumptions behind current European legal structures. It is an "attempt to constructively engage them through a com-

parative study of a rival legal system such as may be found in accepted principles of Islamic Shari 'ah." In Chapter 7, Mohammed Sharif discusses "The Feasibility of an Islamic Economic System in a Modern Economy". to the extent that its problems are almost intractable. so only because it denies one very important He points out that the He states that this is

modern economic system has become complex and is becoming more so, aspect of human life, namely,

XIV

PREFACE

the soul (spirit) and that it seeks to direct the whole system toward a fierce competition possible. absolutely to gain as many material possessions modern society creates ill-equipped and as much power as many problems and is The secular

to deal with them. The only thing it does is to for violation, but to

enact more and more laws with stringent punishment

no avail; the allure of material possession and power is much too great to keep the aspirants to material success from violating the laws. In contrast, the Islamic system is simple and straightforward understand. Moreover, its spiritual guidance make humanity abide by its Divine injunctions, and spiritual enough for everyone to is persuasive enough to which are universally the environof of all members

beneficial. It gears society towards creating and maintaining ment for both the material upliftment

society. If the Islamic system is applied, it can successfully eliminate the problems of the complex modern economy in straightforward ways and can lead to economic development, Abdel-Hameed and Prospects." risk-sharing, in investing. M. Bashir continues and simple rather than growth. in the USA: Viability an interest-free and

the subject of an Islamic eco-

nomic system in his, "Islamic Financial Institutions

Islam is the first religion to introduce for the world

lending system. The Islamic financial system, based on participation offers a viable remedy Accordingly,

debt crisis. Under active partici-

Islamic modes of financing, the lender is expected to share part of the risk Islamic financing encourages pation and asserts that money borrowed crises and to be more fair and equitable. great torment imperative particular, interest-free progress Baghdad Crusaders, that awaits is not entitled to a reward. Thus Hence, Muslims are encouraged usury. Therefore, that provide it is

the system of shared risk is expected to reduce the possibility of financial to abide by the tenets of Islam and not to deal with interest because of the those who practice institutions for Muslims in the West in general, and the United States in to establish choices. for the eventual decline in scientific the foreign invasion of of Syria and Palestine by the world. They included financial them with

Multiple factors were responsible in the Muslim by the Mongols,

the invasion

and the loss of Muslim Spain, resulting in the demise of the two paral-

world's renowned teaching and research centers. Subsequently, of Islamic jurisprudence,

lel systems of education were developed, namely, the Sharicah, the science and al-cUlam al-CAqliyyah, natural science and

PREFACE

xv

technology.

The new schools which came into being as a result, madiiris

(sing. madrasah), discouraged the teaching of science and technology and focused only on theology, and the spiritual and ritual aspects of Islam. These were the major Muslim generation reasons for the disincentive new knowledge narrow-mindedness, amongst the new scientific to acquire and conduct

research. Religious fanaticism,

and a lack of toler-

ance finally resulted in the marked lack of progress in this area. Science does not belong to a particular an evolutionary butions process that will continue races and groups. stamp from different ethnic or religious group. It is to progress fuelled by contriWe hope that this book will and the development of

become a source of inspiration make their own scholarly human civilization.

for all Muslims, especially the young, to on history

M. BASHEER

AHMED

PROLOGUE

HE HISTORY

of the advancement

of knowledge

in Europe and

the United States acknowledges Roman scholars until around

1500 AC-

the work done by Greek and then picks up the trail There is very little during as "Hissince "the to
1500 AC,

300 AC and

again in

the beginning of the Renaissance.

AC. Morowitz

mention of the history of social, political or scientific development the period

300-1500

describes this phenomenon for a millennium

700

tory's Black Hole," that the Renaissance

somehow arose like a "phoenix"

from the" ashes," which had been smouldering classical age of Greece and Rome." I the world witnessed a major development saved them from extinction by translating facilitating

In reality, during the height of the Islamic period from

in the arts and sciences. Muslim them into Arabic. They also crithus Renaissance. Europe was in

scholars learned from the scholarly works of the Greeks and Romans, and tiqued and improved them, and finally passed them on to posterity, the ushering in of the European

a dire state, for scientific, medical, academic, and scholarly work had virtually stopped for one thousand stagnation years. One of the main reasons for this of Church dogma. Most of the was the anti-intellectualism

work done by Greek and some Roman scholars had remained dormant during this interregnum. The burning of the great library of Alexandria in 390
AC

by fundamentalist

Christians

resulted in the loss of a vast amount

of classical heritage. Muslim scholars not only gave new life to these works but also made their own observations my, history, mathematics, and original research, adding to this legacy a vast in the fields of philosophy, astronochemistry, and the medical sciences. The contriwork and brilliant could be treasure of new scientific knowledge

butions of Muslim scientists show the highest quality of scientific development in the Muslim world. Their original research contributions proved that philosophy, sciences, and theology

XVlll

PROLOGUE

harmonized tradiction

as a unified whole and that Islam did not subscribe to any conbetween true faith and tried and tested science. Arab Muslims transmitted the zero from by al-

To give a brief overview: and introduced Khawarizml

India to the world; Leonardo Da Vinci studied the Arabic numeral system it to Europe; algorithm developed (algorism) was invented in the ninth century, and Abu al-Wafa developed trigonovision,

metry. Ibn al-Haytham mirages, rainbows, and classified

optics, proving that rays pass from

objects into the eye, and wrote about optic illusions, binocular chemicals in the eighth century.

and halos. Jabbir ibn Hayyan prepared sulphuric acid Paper-manufacturing

technology was brought by Muslims in the ninth century and spread to the Middle East and Europe, leading to an expansion in the publication of books. The Muslim scholar Ibn Khaldun is credited with founding the discipline of sociology. AI-Idrlsl, who lived in Sicily, compiled of Europe, producing as pioneering a book on medieval history and the geography 70 maps of the contributions to

world. AI-Bayrunl and Ibn Batutah were famous travelers and historians, whose scholarly works are still regarded history and geography. The best Islamic hospitals were several centuries in advance of European hospitals. attached In teaching methods, of taking students they exerted a strong influence, and on ward rounds in the hospitals many times from the Arab practice

to the medical schools has been rediscovered

medical schools in Salerano to Sir William Osler at the end of the nineteenth century in Canadian, Western medical schools. In medicine, discovered al-Zahrawl silk thread. It was in pharmacology contribution. including that Muslim physicians made the most lasting many herbal drugs but also perthat we know today, In seventeenth cenof chemical extraction and crystallization. They not only discovered distillation, Ibn al-Nafls al-Qarshl of Damascus charted and explained the circulation pox; and al-Tabarl of blood, three centuries before William Harvey British, and US schools. The Arab teaching system of medical studies in methods have remained part of the standard

the same; al-Razl differentiated realized that tuberculosis invented surgical instruments,

between measles and smallwas an infection. In Spain, and perferemoved cataracts,

cted many surgical procedures.

Ibn Zuhr started suturing wounds with

fected many of the techniques filtration,

PROLOGUE

XIX

tury England, the great work of systematizing

drugs, The Pharmacopoeia Galen, Avicenna task were

of the London College of Physicians (1618), was illustrated with portraits of a few great scholars and these included Hypocrites, (Ibn SInal, and Mesue (Ibn Zakariyyah Muslim physicians undertook be recognizable bin Masawayh). the monumental in a format which would and accomplished

of producing the first classical medical textbooks to medical students

even today. These textbooks

based as much on original Greek works as on the new scientific data gathered by Muslim physicians. The most famous academicians who helped in producing ZahrawI (1013) and Ibn SIna (192). Muslim scientists and scholars introduced Europe at a time when Europe was enveloped and scholars 932), alto such works were al-RazI (Rhazes, scientific

knowledge

in what is known as the influence

"Dark Ages." Muslim scholars were the leading lights of scientific development between 700 and 1500 AC, and exercised a profound upon the history of humankind. millennium. tions for the progress of science and technology Their scientific legacy laid the foundain Europe in the second of of Europe's Renais-

Indeed, these scholars played a vital role in the evolution

human civilization and served as the true harbingers sance. Their works were used as textbooks into Latin and other European languages

in many European universities and students flocked from all Spain, Syria, Cairo, work

until 1600 AC. The works of Muslim scholars in Arabic were translated over Europe to study at the universities ings of famous physicians, of Baghdad,

and Iran, which became the major teaching centers of the world. The writlike al-RazI and Ibn SIna's encyclopedic on medicine, were taught in European universities until the sixteenth century. Morowitz further states that history as taught in the United States is presented as having a cultural black hole in the Middle Ages. This is a myth that gives a very distorted picture and a very historically inaccurate view. George Sarton (1947),2 dealing with Muslim scholars, wrote that during the period 750 to 1150 AC the contributions of Muslim scholars were unmatched in their brilliance and included such intellectual giants as alRazI, al-FarabI, Ibn al-Haytham, Ibn Khaldun. Briffault writes:
What we call science arose as a result of new methods of experiments, servation and measurement which were introduced contribution Modern science is the most momentous ob-

al-KhawarizmI,

Ibn SIna, al-BayrunI and

into Europe by Arabs. of the Islamic civiliza-

xx

PROLOGUE tion, which was made accessible to all regardless of gender, race, caste, creed, or national origin.3 The first regional conference of the Association
200 I,

of Muslim

Social

Scientists was held in Dallas, Texas in June Contributions contributions to Human Civilization." was to introduce

on the theme" Muslim audiences the great century or since time

The objective of the conference

to both Muslim and non-Muslim

that Muslim scientists and scholars have made to humanwas not developed in the nineteenth civilization group of people.

kind. Human civilization

in 400 Be, nor is it the exclusive preserve of a particular Many people have woven the fabric of human immemorial. particular of Muslims It is like constructing highlighted ethnic group have contributed conference

a building to which every nation and the scholarly and scientific knowledge

their share of materials and expertise. This

in the Middle Ages, which led to the eventual Renaissance sharing, and recognition of our common

of Europe and the rise of the West to its present heights. Its preservation lies in a better understanding, heritage. Several nationally known speakers and authorities on this subject participated in the conference. Presented in this book is a selection of papers

presented at the conference, covering a variety of subjects such as the Islamic contributions to political science, economics, physical and biological sciences, humanities, jurisprudence, medical science, and the impact of other subset of proceedings Islam on Western thought in general. During the conference,

jects were also covered. We hope to publish another covering these subjects at a later date.

What the West has Learned from Islamic Civilization

ABDULHAMID ABUSULAYMAN

to building bridges of appreciation and understanding among peoples of various cultures and ideologies. A computer search for the need for crosscultural understanding yields
306,000

IVEN

THE CONTEMPORARY it is more significant

social and political climate now than ever before to with a view

in the world,

discuss the contributions

of Muslims to civilization,

web pages.

Having spread all over the world as faith communities, of the Abrahamic tradition of monotheism

the inheritors

have had the greatest influence to work together toward mutual common goals, and common

on human history.2 At this juncture of history, when the whole world is like a village, it is of immense importance understanding dedication humankind of the common grounds,

to the spiritual as well as the moral aspects of life to restore to its senses. The aim is to bring about lasting peace with jusof history. If there is faith

tice, by resolving problems created by the distortion trio have a special role to play) While Christianity plishments, portions.

any way to make real peace in this world, people of the Abrahamic

and Islam have been behind most of human accomof these two faiths that we problems of global prowas disand its injusti-

it is also owing to the distortion Christianity

have faced and are still facing the stupendous torted so much so that it justified ruthless ces throughout was a distortion to nationalism,

with its message of peace and tolerance imperialism

its colonies in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Indeed, it of that great religion and its spirit. It also gave birth where human beings emphasized only differences that

ABDULHAMID

ABUSULAYMAN

conveniently propaganda heights,

served the opportunists also contributed

as a basis for hatred and wars. Its of Islam and Muslims. empirical and

to the distortion

Islam came to elevate the human civilization out of the Dark Ages to new and created a new civilization by advanced experimental sciences as well as by enhancing an awareness for human unity based on the concept of monogenesis. 4 The lasting spiritual customs light of Islam immensely impressed of the need people of

other faiths so as to change not only their religious beliefs but also their and even their languages. Arabia, North It was unprecedented in human history. Northern Africa, and East Africa were not Arabic of the new civilithe of history

speaking, which they later became. It was the imprint of these pioneers at a time of darkness, Renaissance, which built the strong foundations Protestant revolution Deliberate zation, leading to Europe's (the Reformation), distortions

and the Enlightenment.

have covered up contributions tion.5 Regrettably, own spiritual

of Islam and Muslims to human civilizathe

Muslims themselves have little or no idea about their to the field

light, which has now lost its luster. Consequently,

Muslim people are making little or no significant contribution of modern science today.

To bring genuine peace to this global village, we need to revive the pristine purity and spirit of monotheistic equality and justice for all. We have to ensure that these spiritual values are back in power to bring
1950

human beings to their senses. Although the United Nations declared that war was illegal, there were more wars in the world between
2000

and

than ever before. 50 it is not mere words but also the spirit that to appreciate one another. The whole idea of as is to bring human beings to this to serve the good cause in this Islam made it clear that and tribes should not be Humankind should

brings people together universal spiritual

Islam, and before that of Christianity, creations of the One and Only God

message, to make them identify with one another (5WT),6

world, and to achieve eternal happiness in the Hereafter.? In reviving the real values of Christianity, human among beings are created peoples and the creation of peoples from a single source (soul). The differences

allowed to lead to conflicts or to seek superiority. interact (the Qur'anic word yataCarraf)

because, if we are all the same or When we differ to social, eco-

identical, there is no meaning to or method of interaction. in a positive sense, however, we will interact to contribute

THE

WEST

AND

THE

ISLAMIC

CIVILIZATION

nomic, and political justice. It is a law of nature for the positive-negative and the male-female to interact to mutual benefit. colors or different or inferiority lanof superiority Islam does not deny that there are different guages, yet this is not a cause for determining creation. So it is a positive phenomenon. justice and personal individual and groups. It is to bring to humankind Christianity, responsibility

the wonders of God in to both Islam and We must are central.8

According

always do justice to everybody, even to our enemies. What Islam brought forth was religious freedom. Whenever shares the goal of peace. Whoever there was a war for the sake of Islam, it was only to bring people their freedom. Whoever agrees to that, denies human beings the freedom of of peace and freeReal freedom their own convictions and religion should not be allowed to do so. In this global village, we need to have the philosophy dom to identify and appreciate one another in practice.

means to be able to do the right thing, and not to do the wrong thing. Freedom without ethics, without values, without a worthy cause, is a curse upon humankind, it is the destruction of civilization. That is where the role of all genuine faith communities comes in: to serve the Divine cause to facilitate life and lend real meaning to it with love, conviction acceptance. The Association of Muslim Social Scientists (AMSS) represents of Muslim intellectuals resources, the cream of the Muslim communities free, influential, country, in the United States. It is the first time, I to this in this and mutual

believe, that there has been an immigration with their intellectual

and open society. It is the duty of the Muslims and financial

to reform their

culture by removing from it all the wrong things which have developed within the Muslim communities. ponsibility.9 To contribute They need to bring back the real values of Islam, and to bring back this kind of moral sense of justice and resto this country of theirs and to its people, they the spiritual and of ought to unite to serve the good cause of balancing material benefits to humankind. It is a mission for this Muslim community freedom and resourcefulness to seize this opportunity to cut the shackles of oppression by dictator-

ships, to rethink their religion and their culture, and to restore the true light and spirit of the common together cause of justice. They also need to work beings for the benefit of the United with their fellow human

States and the world. This country can serve as a vital force for the peace

4
and the prosperity

ABDULHAMID

ABUSULAYMAN

of the whole of humankind,

or, with the misuse of its The power is great, yet it that they can fulfill the which

resources, it can become a source of destruction. urgently needs strong self-control to these faith communities and their cooperation

and proper spiritual guidance. It is up

mission of peace with justice. It is their duty and an opportunity humankind,

they cannot afford to lose. They need to work together for the benefit of

insha'Allah.

Overcoming the Religious-Secular Divide: Islam's Contribution to Civilization

LOUAY M. SAFI

advancing both knowledge also a source of antagonism,

ANGUAGE

is a powerful dimension of social existence and interamong individuals, and helps It is, as such, an essential tool for

action. It facilitates communication create agreement and consensus.

and society. Nevertheless, language can be misunderstanding, and confusion, and theresocial harmony and to close the human is particularly becomes reland behavior

fore has the power to undermine noticeable when communication Under such circumstances, torical experiences that understanding

mind. The impact of language on thinking

and exchange take place across cultures.

the question of commensurability exchange

evant. The question can be posed as thus: Can peoples with different hishave a meaningful of ideas, given the fact an experience of a between and "liberthe meaning of a term presupposes

sort of the object to which the term refers? The relationship understanding the grand concepts of "religion," "secularism,"

knowledge and experience gives rise to a series of questions with regard to alism," and the way each relates to the others. Such terms are not easily and fully interchangeable standing results Thus, superimposing across cultures and civilizations, one's experience and misunderacross cultures. being on from extrapolating

the experience of a historically or a community

determined

another - be it an individual

- is bound to stifle or even

destroy the latter's chance to develop and mature. While realizing the above difficulty, I do believe that scholars in general

6
and Muslim

LOUAY

SAFI

scholars in particular

are duty-bound

to explore meaning

across cultures and civilizations, and experiences. to experience cultures

and to stimulate the exchange of ideas who has had the opportunity

As a Muslim intellectual

both Muslim and Western cultures, I do think that the two

stand to benefit greatly by learning from each other. I do also experiences of Islamic and Western civilizaof both. both seem to religious appear to be far removed values of social justice,

think that the future of human civilization is directly linked to our ability to learn from the historical Although tions, and our willingness to build on the accomplishments Islamic and Western civilizations commitment to the universal from each other at the level of structure share a common equality, common and organization,

good, social welfare, political participation,

freedom, and a host of other common principles and values. Western civilization has perfected the structural better integration torical elements of social life so as to allow a of the above universal values into social organization. to the West: feudalism and organized

Western successes were, however, achieved by overcoming two major hisforces that are peculiar religion. This fact has contributed which Western Renaissance modern forms. Historically, world civilization to the erosion of the very moral basis in religiosity. spiritual force in search of

is rooted - Enlightened

Islam, on the other hand, is a tremendous

Islam is credited with building an outstanding

in which science and religion, and the secular and reli-

gious, worked in harmony to advance human life. Can Islam playa similar role in restoring the moral core to modern life and arresting the increasingly immoral and irrational tendencies of the post-modern world? Many The Muslim intellectuals forms. However, fundamental particular, would answer this question in the affirmative.

challenge of course is to reinstitute

Islamic values and ethos into modern

for that to happen, Muslim scholars must reconceptual-

ize the various spheres of knowledge and society in relation to Islam and its principles and underlying ethos. The efforts advanced in this pointed out above, for I will focus, in on the notions of religion, secularism, and liberalism. is that a political order rooted in Islamic norms Unlike the seculchapter fall within the framework My basic argument

shares with the modern secularist orders its desire to liberate the body politics from narrow religious and cultural interpretations. of moral values in accordance arist order, the Islamic political order, however, encourages the fostering with the overall scheme of moral autonomy.

THE

RELIGIOUS-SECULAR

DIVIDE

7
of civil society

I conclude by emphasizing

the priority of the institutions

over those of the state, and the inevitability of invigorating inter-communal action to ensure the autonomy of both the individual and community, and to limit the power of the modern state.
RELIGION-POLITICS INTERPLAY

Although

a deep understanding

of the interaction

between the political examination of their boundaries

and religious spheres requires a systematic and elaborate their meaning, I will limit my statement to delineating and identifying a few areas of friction between the two.

Religion refers to those aspects of life which relate to the determination of the total meaning of existence. It is concerned, tiny. Although the philosophical only supported the above three questions in particular, with three grand questions about human existence: its origin, its purpose, and its descan be raised from a philosofrom that one enjoys over the attachment as phical point of view, the religious response to them is distinguished by the degree of conviction by rational arguments,

other. That is to say, a religious conclusion to these grand questions is not but by emotional well. This difference gives religion an advantage makes religiously based convictions over philosophy in that it

a better springboard

for action. It is a are willing to

fact of history that people with deep religious convictions religious ideals than those whose attachment purely rational demonstration. Paradoxically

endure greater difficulties and make greater sacrifices in pursuit of their to their ideals is based on

though, religion's source of strength is also its source of convicarguments rather than relican create more and intersocieties. but rather how and im-

weakness. It is always easier to dissuade people from erroneous tions when the latter are based on theoretical gious convictions. harmony in the public sphere, the possibility Although shared religious convictions

of interpersonal

communal conflicts are bound to increase in multi-religious politics stand in a conflictual and under what conditions prove the quality of social life. or harmonious relationship,

The question that we need to address here is not whether religion and religious commitment can strengthen

LOUAY DEGREES

SAFI

OF SECULARISM

Politics is about organizing the public sphere, that is, regulating action and deciding direction. As such, both the convictions influence public regulations. ality and creativity, religious reformation Catholic Church. Europe and interests of a people In its drive to develop a social order in which went through two interrelated processes: viz. the

religion and politics strengthen one another without suppressing individuand secularization. Reformation entailed a struggle of the state

to liberate the individual from control by particular However, although

from the control of religious authorities, consisted of the liberation

Secularization

religious groups, so as to ensure that public polrather than religious injunctions. force in shaping public polarguments about the understanding are the pheno-

icy was based on rational arguments, public sphere, it continued

religion ceased to have a visible influence in the to be an important

icy and public life. This is true because rational of the meaning of public life and social interaction. and wrong, good and evil, and the tolerable It is important to realize that secularization

nature of public order have to start from a transcendental

The notions of right

and the intolerable is a multi-faceted

result of both religious conviction and political compromise. menon. One facet of secularization, and the one that was initially intended

by its early advocates, is the separation of State and Church. However, because it was achieved by negating history and tradition, it gradually led to the "death of God," the erosion of religious values and convictions century, and to the "death of the and self-indulgence, century. The secularism in Western society by the turn of the twentieth of man" at the dawn of the twenty-first post-modern excess.
THE ORIGIN OF SECULARISM

age is ruled by the ideas of self-interest,

Secularism refers to complex and multifaceted cannot be easily captured definition. larist attitudes phenomenon ent societies. in a brief description

attitudes and practices that or rendered into a simple

While one may find certain similarities between modern secuand practices and those which existed in pre-modern

societies, it is fair to say that secularism as we know it today is a modern that grew in the modern West, and later took root in differ-

THE

RELIGIOUS-SECULAR

DIVIDE

9 and values specific to

In its essential sense, secularism

denotes a set of notions

whose aim is to ensure that the state neither engages in promoting

religious beliefs and values, nor uses its powers and offices to persecute religion. To prevent state officials from using their political authority impose a narrow set of religious attitudes and values on the larger society, and to prevent the use of religious symbols to provoke strife among religious communities, aimed at separating end, the Enlightenment sciousness. Western intellectuals embarked on a project that political authority from religious affiliation. modern To that con-

scholars embraced a set of concepts and principles, European ideology advanced by Enlightenment freedom of

and used them as the basis for reconstructing The new political activists and thinkers emphasized conscience and conviction, advocated regime of Europe. The underlying socio-political

concepts such as equality,

and the supremacy

of law, all of which were

by the Religious Reformation

that put an end to the ancient by the pioneers of

morality advocated

the secular state in Europe was derived from the religious tradition delineated by the religious reformists of fifteenth-century Europe, though argued in rational terms and common-good separation Rousseau, had no intention of undermining but rather predicated religion. Descartes, for instance, argued: logic. Early advocates Hobbes, of the of State and Church, such as Descartes, Locke, and

religion, or faith in the Divine, "the certainty and truth of all

their reformist ideas on the notion of God and civil

knowledge depends uniquely on my awareness of the true God, to such an extent that I was incapable of perfect knowledge about anything else until I became aware of him."
1

Similarly, Rousseau,

while critical of the way

religion was traditionally taught and practiced, recognized the need, even the necessity, of religious commitment and faith for the modern state to function properly. He therefore identified a number of "dogmas," and argued for their inclusion in the "civil religion" that he advocated:
The existence of an omnipotent, sees and provides; intelligent, benevolent divinity that fore-

the life to come; the happiness

of the just; the punishand the law - these are

ment of sinners; the sanctity of the social contract gle one: no intolerance.

the positive dogmas. As for the negative dogmas I would limit them to a sin2

Even Kant, who limited the notion of truth to empirical experience and

10

LOUAY

SAF!

labored to set morality on a rational foundation, God and without

insisted that "without

a world invisible to us now but hoped for, the glorious but not However, by denying the possibility of knowledge, secular-

ideals of morality are indeed objects of approval and admiration, springs of purpose and action."3 transcendental

truth, and as a result of the relentless attack on the authorreligion and underand

ity of revelation as a source of ethical and ontological ist scholars have been able to successfully marginalize mine morality. calculation,

The efforts to ground morality in utility and cost-benefit

rather than truth, have proved to be counter-intuitive who have less sympathy

futile, and have given rise to egoism and moral relativism. There were, of course, intellectuals for religion, particularly among the French. Nevertheless, they did not represent the general sentiments of the great majority in Europe. Although the French revolution as Nietzsche "Modern displayed a clear anti-religious sentiment, it was not, was to discover later, directed against religion per se, but primarily by the Catholic Church. skepticism, is," Nietzsche being an epistemological

against organized religion, represented philosophy,

argued, "covertly and overtly, anti -Christian - although, to say this for the benefit of more refined ears, by no means anti-religious."4 The original secularist sentiment was, therefore, rooted in the religious Reformation; more specifically, it was rooted in the Protestant revolt against religious hierarchy consciousness and centralized religion. Secularism was not

originally intended as a way to separate religion from society or religious from political action, but only to isolate the state from the Church structure and to separate religious and political authorities. The tone started to change, however, a century later among progressive European elimination, neutralized intellectuals, who saw in religion a negative force whose emancipation and they believed, was essential for further religion and banished

progress. Karl Marx, while agreeing that the secular state had successfully it from the public sphere, still saw a great danger in religious cerned. However, life. This was because, he argued, secularism of religion gave it in effect more into the greatest extent, it thereby

reduced religion to a private matter only in so far as the state was conthe privatization fluence in the organization continues of civil society. Even in the United States, where and individualized

religion has been domesticated allowing for the formation

to divide society into distinct religious communities,

of internal solidarity with a clear bearing on

THE

RELIGIOUS-SECULAR

DIVIDE

II

economic life. Religion, Marx further thought,

was an instrument

in the

hands of privileged classes to justify social misery and economic inequality. In The Jewish Question, Marx had the following to say about the need to emancipate humanity from religion:
The decomposition hood", of man into Jew and citizen, Protestant a deception directed of political emancipation; and citizen, reliagainst "citizenit is political

gious man and citizen, is neither nor is it a circumvention emancipation

itself, the political method of emancipating

oneself from reli-

gion. Of course, in periods when the political state as such is born violently out of civil society, when political liberation to achieve their liberation, of religion, the destruction to confiscation, is the form in which men strive the state can and must go as far as the abolition of religion. But, it can do so only in the same of private property, to the maximum, just as it goes as far as the abolition

way that it proceeds to the abolition oflife, the guillotine.5

to progressive taxation,

Nietzsche, responsible

like Marx, condemned

religion as a negative social force

for preserving the meek and the weak, and hence weakening to delaying the refineto the dependent,"

the human race. By praising poverty and glorifying the taming of the natural instinct, Nietzsche insisted, religion contributed the oppressed Christianity, ish."
6

ment of the human species. By giving "comfort to the sufferers, courage to and despairing, he contended, a staff and support "preserved too much of what ought to perChris-

Unlike Marx, who saw religion as an obstacle to achieving universal rejection of religion in general, and reformed was anti-democratic, and hence against its failure to promote directed against the egalitarian the order of

equality, Nietzsche's tianity in particular, spirit it promoted,

rank, a hierarchical social order which he believed to be both intrinsic to humanity and desirable for sociallifeJ
RELIGION AND THE STATE IN MUSLIM SOCIETY

Many Muslim intellectuals

insist today that Islam is an integral part of the to Islam, they stress, is by definition are bound to Islamic Law, which law. This has created confusion on Islam and the

state. The state in a society committed has a direct bearing on constitutional

an Islamic state since political authorities

about the nature of the Islamic state, and has given rise to apprehension the part of modernist scholars, who fear that remarrying state is bound to give birth to theocracy.

12

LOUAY

SAFI

The confusion mentators experience formation

is, of course, not limited to outside observers and comin their analysis from the historical the society, but also affects those who advocate of popular

who tend to extrapolate of Western

of a political state on the basis of Islamic values. The difficulty government

arises from the efforts to combine the principle my opinion, functions the result of equating

with that of a state bound by the rules of Islamic Law. This confusion is, in the political structure of the Ummah confusing the is not with the political structure of the state, and consequently,

of the Sharicah with those of the state. This confusion

restricted to obscure works. Rather it is found in the works of influential contemporary objectives Islamic thinkers. In his book, Nar,ariyat aI-Islam wa Hadyifor one, points out two kinds of "like

hi, Sayyid Abu ai-Ala al-Mawdudi,

to be assigned to the Islamic state: negative objectives and positive objectives such as "banning

deterring the aggression and preserving the freedom of people and defending the state,',8 all forbidden things which have been condemned by the Qur'an."9 Mawdudi concludes

by affirming the totality of the state's objectives on the basis of the comprehensiveness of the Sharicah objectives. He writes:
Obviously, it is impossible for such a state to limit its framework, state encompassing the whole human because it reformist

is a totalitarian programs.

life, and painting

every aspect of human life with its moral color and particular

So nobody has the right to stand up against the state and exempt the human life and

himself from the liability by saying that this is a personal matter, so that the state does not intrude. In brief, the state encompasses every area of civilization ticular reformist program. color that dominates according to its particular moral theory and par-

So, to some extent, it is similar to the communist and authoritarian states of our age. freedom nor has it

and fascist state. But despite this totality the Islamic state is free from the the totalitarian Thus the Islamic state does not curtail the individual much room for dictatorship or absolute authority.
TO

The above statement pointed state as totalitarian, intrusion

reflects the state of confusion the author

that we have just the Islamic

out. In a single paragraph

characterizes

likens it to the communist life. He then contradicts

and fascist states, and himself, two sentences

stresses that no one has the right to stand up against the state and resist its into personal later, denying that the Islamic state may curtail individual freedom.

THE

RELIGIOUS-SECULAR

DIVIDE

Certainly the assertion about the totalitarian character of the state is the result of mixing state functions relating to the Sharicah's legal dimension with the functions of the Ummah concerning dimensions. The distinction of vital importance lic a normative moral and educational between these two kinds of objectives is, thus, interpretation of the law. The devoted to peace, reli-

to prevent the state from imposing on the general pubis not an institution

order based on a narrow

Islamic state, it should be emphasized, based on universal principles,

advancing the interests of the Muslim community, and one committed security, and welfare for all citizens, irrespective gions, nationality, race, or gender.

but a political system to maintaining of their doctrines,

As will be shown below, the Islamic system in the past did not lead, nor should it lead in the future, to imposing a narrow and limited concept or a particular opinion on society. This is because the principle of religious and doctrinal plurality has been considered, since the very inception of the Ummah, a cardinal political principle. Here the Qur'anic Makkan and Madinan, gious freedom in the Islamic concept. Lately, there has been concern about the relationship commitments Mainstream Islamic groups have been gradually al-Banna and Taqiyuddin in Egypt, Jordan, between religious and the exercise of power among the ranks of Islamists. moving away from the Leaders of the verses, both the

clearly stress the centrality of the principle of reli-

concept of a centralized Islamic political order envisaged by early leaders, such as Hassan al-Nabhani. Pakistan, major Islamic movements Syria, Turkey, and is

Tunisia, to name a few, have come out openly in favor of a democratic, pluralistic political system, in which freedom of speech and association guaranteed affiliation. for citizens, regardless of their political orientation
I I

or religious

THE

FORMATIVE

PRINCIPLES STATE

OF THE

MADINAN

The notion of the Islamic state advanced today by populist writers is, as I have tried to show above, a mixture of the nationalist structure of the modern state with the communal structure of historical Sharicah. The concept of the state that emerges as a result is in complete contradiction to the nature and purpose of the polity founded by the Prophet, (SAAS)12 or developed historically by successive generations of Muslims. A quick

LOUAY

SAFI

review of the guiding principles of the first Islamic polity reveals the disparity between the two. The principles and structure polity are epitomized established in the Covenant
3

of the early Islamic

of Madinah

($ah"ifat al-Madinah),

which formed the constitutional by the Prophet.

I

foundation

of the political community political of the first

The Covenant of Madinah principles that, put together, the newly established important
1.

established a number of important formed the political constitution community, Muslims

Islamic state, and defined the political rights and duties of the members of political and non-Muslims alike, and drew up the political structure of the nascent society. The most principles included in this Covenant are as follows: declared that the Ummah is a political society, open to committed to its principles and values, and ready to to a select few. to It is not an exclusive society,

The Covenant all individuals

shoulder its burdens and responsibilities. whose membership principles The right to membership

rights and security are restricted

of the Ummah is specified in: (a) accepting the in the commitment

of the Islamic system, manifested

adhere to the moral and legal order; and (b) declaring allegiance to the system by practical contributions are the principles determining Muhammad and struggle to actualize the objecof the Ummah as defitives and goals of Islam. Thus, allegiance and concern for public good the membership ned by the first article of the document: and the Muslims of Quraysh "This is a Covenant offered by and those who

the Prophet, [governing the relations] among the believers and Yathrib [Madinah],
14

followed, joined, and labored with them."

2.

The Covenant

delineated a general framework

that defined individual prevalent then in tribal tribal structure, while

norms and the scope of political action within the new society, but preserved the basic social and political structures Arabia. The Covenant of Madinah preserved negating tribal spirit and subordinating based legal order. Since the Covenant cal community epitomized

tribal allegiance to a morally declared that the nascent politi-

is "an Ummah to the exclusion of all people," it approsubjecting it therefore

ved a tribal division that had already been purged of the tribal spirit by the slogan "my brethren right or wrong," to the higher principles of truth and justice. The Covenant

THE

RELIGIOUS-SECULAR

DIVIDE

declared that the emigrants

of the Quraysh,

BanO al-I:Iarith, BanO alaccording "to their present and that every can be

,Aws, and other tribes residing in Madinah,

customs, shall pay the blood wit they paid previously group shall redeem its prisoners." r 5 Islam's avoidance of the elimination of tribal explained by a number of factors that can be summarized ing three points: differentiation, thus providing

divisions

in the follow-

(a) The tribal division was not based merely on politics but also social its people with a symbiotic system. Therefore, the abolition of the political and social assistance provided by the tribe before developing an alternative loss to the people affected. (b) Apart from its being a social division, the tribe represented Arabian Peninsula an economic division in harmony with the pastoral economy prevalent in the before and after Islam. The tribal division is the production, for it provides freedom of moveideal basis of pastoral would have been a great

ment and migration in search of pasture. Any change in this pattern requires taking the initiative to change the means and methods of production. (c) Perhaps the most important within the framework ged the tribal character torship. factor that justified the tribal division is the mainteof the Ummah after the final Message had purof its aggression and arrogance, from the danger of central dictaof political power

nance of the society and its protection Such a situation social and political structure

might arise in the absence of a secondary and the concentration

in the hands of a central authority. Hence Islam adopted a political system, based on the concept of the one Ummah, as an alternative to the divisional tribal system, while upholding the tribal division now cleansed of its aggressive elements. of economic and production structures. Although Islamic Islam left the question of changing the political structure to the gradual development Revelation avoided any arbitrary directives aimed at immediate abolition of the tribal division, it criticized openly tribal and nomadic life. r6 3. The Islamic political system adopted the principle of religious tolerand

ance based on the freedom of belief for all the members of society. It conceded to the Jews the right to act according to the principles

r6

LOUAY

SAFI

rulings in which they believed: "The Jews of BanG 'Awf are one community with the believers. The Jews have their religion and the Muslims theirs." The Covenant emphasized the fundamentality of cooperation between Muslims and non-Muslims Madinah in establishing justice "The Jews must They and defending against foreign aggression.

bear their expenses and the Muslims their expenses. Each must help the other against anyone who attacks the people of this Covenant. must seek mutual advice and consultation." It prohibited the Muslims

from doing injustice to the Jews or seeking revenge for their Muslim brothers against the followers of the Jewish religion without adhering to the principles of truth and goodness. "To the Jew who follows us belong help and equality. He shall not be wronged nor shall his enemies be aided." 17 4. The Covenant stipulated that the social and political activities in the

new system must be subject to a set of universal values and standards that treat all people equally. Sovereignty in the society would not rest with the rulers or any particular basis of justice and goodness, Covenant emphasized justice, goodness, condemn group, but with the law founded on the maintaining the dignity of all. The of to

repeatedly and frequently the fundamentality and used various expressions

and righteousness,

injustice and tyranny.

"They would redeem their prisoners

with kindness and justice common among the believers," the Covenant stated. "The God-conscious believers shall be against the rebellious, and against those who seek to spread injustice, sin, enmity, or corruption among the believers; the hand of every person shall be against him, even ifhe be a son of one of them," it proclaimed. 5. The Covenant introduced such as (a) the obligation association, which
18

a number of political rights to be enjoyed by State, Muslims and non- Muslims alike, (b) outlawing guilt by by pre-Islamic Arab (c) freedom of leaves is practiced to help the oppressed,

the individuals of the Madinan

was commonly

tribes: "A person is not liable for his ally's misdeeds;" (d) freedom of movement safe, and whoever from and to Madinah: sin."
1

belief: "The Jews have their religion and the Muslims have theirs;" and "Whoever stays in Madinah is safe except those who have
9

wronged [others], or committed

THE

RELIGIOUS-SECULAR RELIGION AND THE

DIVIDE STATE SOCIETY

I7

IN HISTORICAL

MUSLIM

Adhering to the guidance of Revelation, ple of religious plurality and cultural history. The successive governments

the Ummah respected the princidiversity during most of its long minorities not only to pracadministrative system. with

since the Rashidun period preserved

the freedom of faith and allowed non-Muslim their religious laws according both its conceptual

tice their religious rituals and proclaim their beliefs, but also to implement to an autonomous Likewise, the Ummah as a whole respected and legal dimensions. the doctrinal plurality

It resisted every attempt to draw

the political power into taking sides with partisan groups, or into preferring one ideological group to another. It also insisted on reducing the role of the state and restricting its functions to a limited sphere. Anyone who undertakes to study the political history of Islam will soon realize that all the political practices which violated the principle of religious freedom and plurality were an exception to the rule. For instance, the efforts of the Caliph al-Ma'miin to impose doctrinal uniformity in accordance with the Mu'tazili interpretations, and to use his political His efforts to and authority to support one of the parties to the doctrinal disputes, were condemned by the 'alims and the majority achieve doctrinal homogeneity of the Ummah. and by suppression force eventually Billah, the

clashed with the will of the Ummah, which refused to solve doctrinal theoretical problems by the sword. This compelled al-Wathiq third Caliph after al-Ma'miin

to give up the role assumed by his predecesrecognized that the main objec-

sors and abandon their oppressive measures. Obviously, Muslims have historically tive of establishing a political system is to create the general conditions

that allow the people to realize their duties as moral agents of the Divine will (Khulafa'), not to impose the teachings ofIslam by force. We therefore ascribe the emergence of organizations to follow a narrow interpretation, which aim to compel the Ummah and which call for the use of the politi-

cal power to make people obedient to the Islamic norms, to the habit of confusing the role and objectives of the Ummah with the role and objectives of the state. The Ummah aims to build Islamic identity, to provide an atmosphere conducive to the spiritual and mental development vidual, and to grant him or her the opportunity of the indito fulfill his or her role in

18

LOUAY SAFI

life within the general framework

of the law. Meanwhile,

the state makes

the effort to coordinate the Ummah's activities so as to employ the natural and human potential and possibilities to overcome the political and economic problems and obstacles that hinder the Ummah's development. Differentiating between the general and particular of political in the Shari'ah and between the responsibilities advancing particular institutions spiritual, conceptual, of the Ummah and the state, is a necessity if we power into a device for

want to avoid the transformation do not arrest intellectual

interests. We must also ensure that state agencies and and social progress, nor obstruct the developments of society. and organizational

DIFFERENTIATING

CIVIL SOCIETY

AND THE STATE

Historically,

legislative functions in Muslim society were not restricted to Rather, there was a wide range of legislation related to and contractual relations among indivi-

state institutions.

juristic efforts at both the moral and legal levels. Since the major part of legislation relating to transactional connected maintained duals is attached to the juristic legislative bodies, the judicial tasks may be directly with the Ummah, not with the state. It must be emphabetween civil society and the state can be differentiation of the political society. only by dividing legislation into distinct areas that reflect both and normative of the differential structure of the law is not limited to the tendency to centralize power, which characterThe Islamic model should maintain the of the followers of different sized that the differentiation the geographical The importance

its ability to counteract extended

izes the Western model of the state. Rather, it is also related to guarantees to religious minorities. legislative and administrative independence

religions, for the sphere of communal legislation does not fall under the governmental authority of the state. On the other hand, the majoritarian model of the democratic independence, majority. The early Muslim community law to ensure moral autonomy, protection Muslims ognized that non-Muslims was cognizant of the need to differentiate while working diligently to ensure equal human rights. Thus early jurists recfreedom and equal protection by state deprives religious minorities and behavioral of their legal and insists on subjugating all citizens to a single legal sysvalues of the ruling

tem, which often reflects the doctrinal

by the law of fundamental are entitled to full religious

who have entered into a peace covenant with

THE

RELIGIOUS-SECULAR

DIVIDE

the law of their rights to personal safety and property. Hasan al-ShaybanI states in unequivocal enter into a peace covenant with Muslims,

Mu1J.ammad ibn al-

terms that when non-Muslims

Muslims should not appropriate any of their [the non-Muslims'] houses and land, nor should they intrude into any of their dwellings. [This is because they have become party to a covenant of peace, and because on the day of [the peace of] Khaybar, the Prophet's spokesman announced that none of the property of the covenanter is permitted to them [the Muslims]. [It is also because they [the non-Muslims] have accepted the peace covenant so as they may enjoy their properties and rights on a par with the Muslims.20 Similarly, early Muslim jurists recognized the right of non-Muslims self-determination, and awarded them full moral and legal autonomy Therefore, al-ShaybanI, work on non-Muslim the villages and towns under their control. author of the most authoritative to in the

rights, insisted that

the Christians who entered into a peace covenant (dhimma) - hence became dhimmis - had all the freedom to trade in wine and pork in their towns, even though this practice was considered immoral and illegal among Muslims. 2 T However, dhimmis were prohibited to do the same in towns and villages controlled by Muslims. However, because of the varlaw to enforce to be ruled Likewise, early Muslim jurists recognized the right of dhimmis to hold public office, including that of a judge or a minister. judges had to refer to laws sanctioned ious religious communities, in Muslim communities, non-Muslim by the religious traditions

judges could not administer

nor were Muslim judges permitted on the right of non-Muslims

Sharicah laws on the dhimmis. There was no disagreement ous schools of jurisprudence by non-Muslim therefore magistrates

among the vari-

according to their laws; they differed only over whether the positions held were judicial in nature, and hence the magisand were indeed political leaders.22 Al-MawardI plenipofrom trates could be called judges, or whether they were purely political, the magistrates hence distinguished The two positions between two types of ministerial positions:

tentiary minister (wazzr tafwzq) and executive minister the Caliph, while the latter had to act on the instructions and within the limitations set by him.23 Therefore,

(wazzr tanfzdh). of the Caliph,

differed in that the former acted independently

early jurists permitted

20

LOUAY

SAFI

dhimmis to hold the office of the executive, but not that of the plenipotentiary minister. 24 However, while early Sharicah Law recognized the civil and political dhimmis,
AH.

rights and liberties of non-Muslim tical turmoil throughout

its rules underwent

drastic

revision, beginning in the eighth century

This was a time of great polilosses

the Muslim world. It was during that time that and destroying the seat of the Calicontrol of Palestine

the Mongols invaded Central and West Asia, inflicting tremendous on various dynasties and kingdoms, phate in Baghdad. This coincided with the Crusaders' gradually eroded. It was under such conditions

and the coast of Syria. In the West, the Muslim power in Spain was being of mistrust and suspicion that a set of provisions attributed to an agreement between the Caliph (Umar and the Syrian Christians were publicized in a treatise written by Ibn al-Qayyim.25 Although the origin of these provisions is dubious, their intent is clear: to humiliate Christian dhimmis and to set them apart in dress code and appearance. Ottomans, who replaced Muslim world, continued trative autonomy Their impact, however, was limited, for the as the hegemonic power in the the Abbasids

the early practice of granting legal and adminissubjects.

AND THE STATE

to non-Muslim
CIVIL

ISLAM,

SOCIETY,

The modern

state emerged to foster individual

freedom from arbitrary

rule, and to ensure that the members of the political society assumed full control over public institutions. sary to free public institutions To do so, the modern state found it necesfrom the control of all exclusive groups,

including organized religions. However, despite the clear desire of the pioneers of the secular state to replace religious morality with civic virtue as the moral foundation The continual of the state, secularism gradually developed antiin modern religious tendencies, leading to the steady erosion of the moral consensus. erosion of morality and the rampant corruption to turn the state into an instrument politics threatens in the hands of cor-

rupt officials and their egoistic cronies. This has prompted calls for the return of religion and religiously organized groups into the political arena. Nowhere are these calls louder and the reunion clearer than in Muslim societies where Islamic values have historically exerted great influence on the body politic. Unfortunately, envisaged by the advocates of the Islamic state is often presented in crude

THE

RELIGIOUS-SECULAR

DIVIDE

21

and simplistic terms, for it fails to appreciate objectives and structure, religious divisions.

the great care that was taken both in its

by the early Muslims to ensure that the state incorporated,

the freedom and interest of all intra- and inter-

This calls upon Muslim scholars to engage in new thinking that aims at redefining political principles and authority. political organizations

In doing so, Muslim scholars

the historical models of and proce-

should be fully aware of the need to transcend

in Muslim society. Political structures developments,

dures adopted by early Muslim societies are directly linked to their social structures, economic and technological contemporary and political expefor of the modof modriences. While historical Islamic models provide a mine of knowledge Muslims to utilize, any workable formulation

ern Islamic model of the state that is true to Islamic values and ethos must emerge from fresh thinking that takes into account the structure ern society. Islamic political thought, I believe, can make a profound significant contribution toward reclaiming the moral core of social life and preserving religious traditions, without sacrificing the principle of freedom and equality promoted by the modern state. The hallmark of Islamic political experience is the limitations that historical Muslim society was able to place on the actions of rulers, and the presence of a vigorous and robust civil society. Many of the functions that the secular state assumes today were entrusted to civic institutions, including education, health, and legislation. of justice. This The state was mainly entrusted with questions of security and defense, and was the last resort in questions understanding relating to dispensation of state power would potentially free religious communities

from intervention by the state and state officials, who tend to enforce their religiously based values and notions on the members of society, including those who do not share with them some of those values and beliefs. The notions of individual freedom and equality are intrinsic to Islamic political thought, and those principles require that individuals have the individual of social of law basic civil liberties offered by the modern state. However, liberties to the community and recognizing by freeing civil

society from the heavy hand of the state, and by extending the moral autonomy

groups, social and religious groups under the Islamic conception affairs in their communities.

(Shari'ah) would have the capacity to legislate their internal morality and While the new sphere of freedom acquired

22

LOUAY

SAFI

under this arrangement

would allow for differentiation

among citizens,

equality would have to be maintained

as the criterion of justice in the new - that is, in matters relations.

area of public law, and in access to public institutions relating to shared interests and inter-communal

Al-Mawardt's Political Paradigm: Principles of the Islamic Political System

SYED A. AHSANI

adoption of the Western model of democracy. In reaction, the traditionalists argue that the wholesale adoption of the Western model will lead to secularization, the moderates, contradicting the Islamic value system. The third group, - benefiting from take the middle of the road position

OLLOWING

THE

WESTERN

domination

of Muslim

coun-

tries, Islamic thinkers have reacted to it on three levels in respect of its political system. First, the apologists have advocated the total

Western learning as the lost heritage of Islam, but also observing the fundamentals of Islamic Shari'ah. These divisions are not new; they existed in the Abbasid period when the Mu'tazilites to reason. The rise of philosophy fear that Revelation might be threatened (the rationalists) gave primacy inspired the two under Caliph al-Ma'mun

by Reason, which provoked

kinds of reaction: Ahl al-lfaduh or the traditionalists,

who totally rejected

reason; and the Ash 'arites, who put limits on it in order to save Revelation from being rejected. MawardI, who took up the debate in later times when the rationalists had been banned, was neither Ahl al-lfaduh nor AshCarite, thinker who held firmly to rationalist of the concept of "political theology, where justice" into the but an independent

Revelation was silent, and did not lay down the law. His greatestcontribution was the introduction Sharicah.

MawardI's al-Ahkam al-Sultaniyyah laid down the public law in such a manner that it deemed Shari'ah an insufficient yardstick for 'adl (justice).

SYED AHSANI

This points to the developed practice among Muslim rulers of defining the Shari'ah as the observance of religion in line with the recommendations to absthis led to the the commonly in Islam.
T

of the 'alims. This practice satisfied the 'alims, who then undertook tain from judging the politics of the Caliph. Interestingly, separation of religion from politics, indirectly defeating held view that the secular and the religious are inseparable root of this idea lay in the practice of Prophet Muhammad and Statesman Islam.2
THE CONSTITUTION OF MADINAH

The

- as Prophet

- and al-Khulafa' al-Rashidun, in the formative period of

The Madinah

state was the oldest known in history; it established the prin-

ciple of legality, that is, submission of the state to the rule of law.
THE SALIENT FEATURES CONSTITUTION OF THE

OF MADINAH

1. The territory

became the basis for granting

citizenship

instead of

tribal lineage. All residents became one community, theists and the Jews (Articles 2Gb and 25). 2. The Prophet Appeal.

including poly-

became the Head of State and the Final Court of

3. The practice of tyranny and injustice was rejected (Articles 13, 15, 16,36 and 47). Equality was established as the basic principle of an Islamic state (Articles 15, 17, 19 and 45). 4. The principle of pacta sunt servanda [treaties are binding], as laid down in modern international law, was adopted, allowing other tribes and minorities to accede to the Madinah 5. Specific provisions criminals, preclusion were made regarding Charter.

murder, the sheltering of crimes, and the

liability of only those who committed of individuals

from signing separate peace with enemies

of the state. The Jews were allowed a share in the booty and also a share in the expenses of war. In that case, they did not pay the jizyah (poll tax).

PRINCIPLES

OF

THE

ISLAMIC

POLITICAL

SYSTEM

25

6. Some traditions

like blood money were maintained

on the principle

of curf' (customary law), preserving what was sound and abolishing what was corrupt. 7. The Constitution was a comprehensive document, covering all the

exigencies: jurisprudence,

defense, plans for raids and battles if

attacked, financial resources, zakah, treaties, and delegations. 8. The political system established by the Constitution Judiciary of Madinah and Executive,

covered the functions of Legislature,3 anticipating the modern state system. 4 While studying the MawardI that we can learn and adopt paradigm

in the context

of MuCtazilite (Rightly

and Asha'rite debates, an attempt will be made to delineate the principles from al-Khulafa' al-Rashidan Guided Caliphs) model. Also, this cha pter will seek to underline the principIes of an Islamic state. After this analysis of past practices, especially in the light of the Qur'an and Sunnah, it can be determined present democratic evolved and adopted model is in consonance tem, based on the Qur'an as to how far the with the Islamic political sysin light of the evolution of

and Sunnah. If it is not, what model can be

on the basis of ijtihad5

modern political thought over the centuries, not only in the Muslim world but in the West as well?
DISTINCTIVE OF ISLAMIC FEATURES THEORY

POLITICAL

Upon the death of the Prophet, the An~ar gathered, and three Muhajiran Companions joined them (Abo. Bakr, (Umar, and (Ubaydah ibn al-Jarrab) at BanI SaqIfah where Abo. Bakr was elected Caliph of the Messenger Khal/fat al- Rasal. (handshake)
6

Later, this election was confirmed

by voting bay'ah Mosque. The fol-

in the General Assembly at the Madinah

lowing principles were established theory of Islam:

1.

at BanI SaqIfah, as part of the political

The election of the Caliph was to be by Shara (consultation),

in two

stages, indicating that it was for the Muslims to decide, since the Prophet did not take any decision on the matter, leaving it to the

26
community community

SYED AHSANI

to decide, given the time and the place. The will of the was, therefore, an essential principle for selecting the to the Prophet - Khallfat al-Rasal. wisdom, and discernover you without is not pres-

Head of State as successor

'Umar, who became the Second Caliph, later told the Council of Elders, meaning the elders with knowledge, must kill anyone consulting ment (ahl al-hal wa al-'aqd [those who loosen and bind]): "You of you who claims command the Muslims."? The method of consultation

cribed in the Qur'an and Traditions, time and circumstances, Rightly Guided Caliphs.
2.

and can vary depending on the

as is evident from the election of the four

8

The criterion for electing a Head of State is excellence in religion,

taqwa. However, a Caliph is also the temporal Head of State,9 as has been described in detail by MawardI in al-Ahkam al-Sultaniyyah.IO
3. The selection of a Caliph cannot brook any delay, even for the burial of the Prophet. I I The Companions jama'ah even for part of the day. 12 However, 'Umar was nominated quoted did not want to be without a

by Abu Bakr, with the consultation in justification MawardI

of

ahl al-hal wa al-'aqd. According to MawardI, this was election by a single

elector, a precedent nomination religious by later jurisconsults of the failed to health, of sons by Caliphs and sultans. However, knowledge, ijtihad, judgment, courage,

mention this practice as something

in violation of the essential criteria of and physical

apart from the Caliph being a member of the Quraysh. The selection of 'Umar, tantamount knowledge, the Prophet's Caliphate administrative judgment, to an election which he was bound and great services to Islam during the principle that the office of the on the grounds three, or of 'All, to win in general voting or bay'ah, was fully justified in the light of his vast time, and as a close Adviser to Abu Bakr, the first Caliph. for 'Umar, unable to make a choice while the precedent that six persons could

The election of 'Uthman established was not hereditary,

selecting the Electoral College omitted his son, 'Abdullah, of being his son. Also, it established constitute an Electoral

College, while other jurists considered

even one, sufficient, as was the case in 'Abbas's bay'ah [handshake]

PRINCIPLES

OF

THE

ISLAMIC

POLITICAL

SYSTEM

27

who was told that if he did not accept, the rebels against 'Uthman elect one of their own. Besides, 'AlI was one of the six candidates ered by 'Umar to fulfill the conditions third Caliph 'Uthman's The assassination assassination, for the office of Caliphate. he was the only choice.

could consid-

After the

of 'Uthman raised the issue of rebellion against the on the basis of a Tradition:

Caliph, whether it is justified in Islamic political theory. Most jurisconsults view it as unwarranted

After me governors will rule over you, and those who are upright will rule over you with their uprightness, and those who are corrupt will rule over you with their corruption; listen to them and obey them in everything which is compatible with truth - if they are correct in their dealings, then it will be to your benefit and theirs, and if they act incorrectly, then that will still be to your benefit [in the next world] but will be held against them. I 3 Rebellion Qur'an. practicing is justified in the case of "unbelief" as provided in the Compaand

AI-Hasan

al-Ba~rI, a leading tabi't (second generation and bickering,

nion), prohibited

fighting against the ruler in a civil war. Learning

Islam was better than arguing

so said some rule despite its who justify

scholars who refrained from rebellion against the ruler, for it would lead to chaos and anarchy, long duration. rebellion far more harmful than tyrannical fiqht doctrine A well-known says: "When you are faced
14 Those

with two damaging situations, choose the lesser evil."

against the ruler rely on Abu Bakr's sermon

on his election:

"Follow me if I am acting according to the Qur'an and Sunnah, but do not obey me if I do otherwise." I 5 Accordingly, demanding some who were influenced by the propaganda resignation despite his clarification of a converted Jew, 'Abdullah 'Uthman's ibn Saba', came from Iraq and Egypt to Madinah, in response to
16

their accusations of nepotism in appointing

his relatives as Governors.

According to Rashid Ri<,la,the Imamate of Necessity, imamat al-qarurah, must be obeyed while fulfilling its raison d'etre of justice, efficiency, and descent from Quraysh (though Kharijites, Ibn Khaldun and Ottomans disagreed) in order to avoid anarchy and chaos. However, rebellion is justified on grounds of the Caliph's loss of moral probity, physical disability, insanity, captivity, apostasy, disbelief, or injustice. Therefore, ahl aI-hal wa al- 'aqd, should resist oppression, but the urge to revolt must be weighed

against the fear that it might result in anarchy, which Islam seeks to avoid

SYED

AHSANI

as far as possible. AI-GhazaII, Ibn Taymiyyah considered

quietism or subto civil Sultans

mission to injustice preferable to anarchy incidental to rebellion. It is said: "The status quo, being the lesser of the two evils, is preferable strife." Nevertheless, the Turks conscious revolted against the Ottoman

in 1924. In opposing rebellion, Rashid Ri<;laagrees with Ibn Taymiyyah, who made Muslims injustice.17 Traditionally, the calims were defenders assuming responsibility and monitors of the status of quo. As ahl al-I;al wa al-Caqd, they were expected to oversee that the ruler enforced the Shari'ah, for proper management public affairs and restoring the pristine standards of simplicity, humility, of a forced choice between anarchy and

and frugality in lifestyle. Also, they were to ensure that those who wanted to occupy the office might be debarred in accordance with a tradition: "talib al-wilayah la yuwalla" a seeker of office should not be given it. 18 Some of these principles for the election of the Caliph are: shara, justice, freedom, equality, succession, and election. The Islamic political It is system does not lay down specific and detailed system of governance. leaving further details to specific circumstances

be more correct to say that the Shari'ah delineates general principles only, of time and place. The Caliph who is elected should enjoy sound health, possess knowledge of the Shari cah to exercise ijtihad, and be able to implement domestic and foreign policy with ability, courage, and wisdom. He should abide by the Shari'ah and promote principle adoption public good. So long as he does this, Muslims should obey by the four Rightly-Guided
19

him, offer him advice on what is right, and correct him if he is wrong. The of shara was followed Caliphs in four different ways, proving that changes in circumstances of a different methodology.
SH{JRA

can result in the

(CONSULTATION)

Shara is the most important

principle of Islamic political theory. Addres-

sing the Prophet, the Qur'an informed him:

It is by the mercy of Allah that you were lenient with them, for if you had been rough and harsh-hearted, you. So pardon on the matter. (3:159) they would have dispersed from around them and ask forgiveness for them and consult with them

In order to underline

the importance

of Shara, Allah is directing the

PRINCIPLES

OF

THE

ISLAMIC

POLITICAL

SYSTEM

29

Prophet to consult with them despite their view being contrary

to the

Prophet's, who was in favor of fighting the infidels within the confines of Madinah while the Companions advised going out. He was proved right, but since he accepted their advice, the Companions error of judgment. Also, it indicates were absolved of their that the leader should not bear a

grudge for giving the wrong advice, nor refrain from future consultation. Further, the Qur'an says:
And those who answer the call of their Lord and establish prayer and who conduct their affairs by counsel, and who spend of what We have bestowed upon them. (42:38)

According to Shaykh Muhammad sultation wrong." Abu Hurayrah

Abdu, shura is mandatory,

for con-

is an essential quality of those who "enjoin of his Companions

good and forbid How-

said, "I have never seen anyone else who seeks more than the Prophet himself." though the Prophet of

consultation

ever, Shura is not required where there is revelation, held Shura even though I:Iudaybiyyah.

WalJi had come as in the case of the Treaty of

However, Shura was also extended to the interpretation

the Divine Revelation and matters in which there was no WaIJi2021 When asking for Shura (Advice), the ruler should not dismiss or veto the advice, for the Prophet followed the advice of the Companions for going out in 'Ul:md. Bay'ah or the oath of fealty is conditional Caliph abiding by the Shura, otherwise This view is held by the majority of jurisconsults. upon the which

Baycah becomes null and void. Their minority

consider Shura not binding rely on the verse: "When you decide, put your trust in Allah" (FI59), apart from the Sunnah of the Prophet in I:Iudaybiyyah; Abu Bakr's stand in sending an army to Syria; his waging war against the apostates; above-mentioned lowed irrespective and 'Umar's decision not to distribute lands occupied in Iraq, but retain them for future generations. verse relevant to WalJi (Revelation), of the Shura, as happened TabarI considers the which must be folThen

in I:Iudaybiyyah.

'Umar's inquiry from the Prophet as to why Muslims should accept the peace was 'Na~fIJah' and not Shura, and before he was told by the Prophet about WalJi. Though not obligatory, ing the Prophet's of the imperative Abu Bakr's holding Shura in followthe army to Syria, was indicative for future generanot abiding by Shura action of dispatching

nature of Shura, laying a precedent

tions, proving at the same time that even though

3
'Umar, promptly soning. reconsidered

SYED AHSANI

advice, he had carried out Shara, in form and spirit, for they, including their opinion, agreeing to Abu Bakr's rea-

Likewise, 'Umar was able to win the Shara over his decision on land in Iraq. Indeed, Shara is mandatory on both the ruler and the ruled as a religious duty, 'ibadah: on the ruler to hold Shara, and on the ruled to give the right advice. If a ruler does not hold Shara and the ruled do not offer advice, they are guilty of dereliction of religious obligation, committing a sin. Where there is no Wal;i, Shara is to be held at three levels:
I.

Ahl al-I;al wa al- 'aqd as practiced by the Prophet and the Rightly Guided Caliphs.

2.

Specialists who have an advanced level of knowledge on the subject such as war, foreign policy, or domestic policy, etc.

3.

Referendum/Parliament/Popular

Vote.

It is exercised where Shara of ahl al-I;al wa al-'aqd has been held and the decision is put before the people for ratification. Cabinet, or Parliament. ity/minority, proceedings During the time of the Majlis, Prophet or the Rightly Guided Caliphs, there was no permanent or government were confidential in power and party in Opposition.

A vote was not held, nor was there a formal majorThe Shara and Shara members did not publicize their to the ruler, who had direct access to

opinions, leaving the announcement

the people without ahl al-I;al wa al- 'aqd acting as the spokespersons. Also, once Shara was given, the Wise Elders did not feel let down if their opinion was not accepted. The Shara was given with a good intention, regardless of personal ego or gaining benefit. In fact, Shara was an of the Shari'ah and exercise in ijtihad, which aimed at finding the truth with due concentration on an effort by people gifted with the knowledge right judgment.
SOME EXAMPLES OF SHfJRA BY THE PROPHET

Before Badr: On receiving the news that a trade caravan of Quraysh was proceeding to Syria, the Prophet held a Shara (consultation) Helpers), pledged full support, about pursuing it, not engaging in a fight. The Companions, were An$ars (Madinah the majority of whom unlike the Bani

PRINCIPLES

OF THE ISLAMIC

POLITICAL

SYSTEM

3I

Israel, who had asked Moses to go and fight. The Prophet went with the Companions in pursuit, making the departure public as a strategy, with the result that Abu Sufyan asked for reinforcements from Makkah and changed the route via the coast. A second Shilra was held to decide whether to return to Madinah or confront the reinforcements coming from Makkah. In Madinah, there was a distinct possibility of the hypocrites, the Bedouins, the non-Muslim Arabs, and the Jews taking advantage of the absence of Muslims. Also, they came hardly prepared for a regular battle, numbering only 313. Nonetheless, they again pledged full support to that conproceed to Badr. Meanwhile, the Prophet received the revelation

Muslims preferred to go after booty whereas Allah had destined victory for them. His action to seek advice was to reinforce the Companions' viction and enthusiasm. 22

The lesson is that the leader should not disclose his own personal judgment before allowing the free expression of other opinions. The Prophet decided to camp in a low area. Munzir, a Companion, not the result of revelation, given privately, indicating finding that it was advised occupying a spring on high ground to that one should not hesitate to express one's who should carefully consider it and accept the decision without any public that 'Abbas and another Comof 'Abbas's secret conver-

deprive the Quraysh any access to water; it was not a Shara, but 'Na~tl;ah', opinion to the Commander,

any sound and timely advice from anyone regardless of one's status. This was done by the Prophet, who announced Before the fight, the Prophet announced The Prophet I:Iudhayfah, I:Iudhayfah's disclosure as to who had made the suggestion influencing it. 23 panion should not be killed; Abu I:Iudhaifah disagreed, vowing to kill him. asked 'Umar, who had known but was restrained sion to Islam, whether hurting 'Abbas made sense. 'Umar offered to kill by the Prophet, who, realizing that Abu the and vow reflected ignorance, excused him, thus establishing should tolerate free expression

Sunnah principle that a commander

difference of opinion for which he should not punish the dissenter.

After Badr: The Prophet held Shara about the prisoners of war. Abu Bakr advised accepting fidyah, whereas 'Umar and four other Companions favored killing them. The Prophet 'Abbas's conversion went inside to reflect and on similitude to Abu Bake as coming out, he favored the suggestion of Abu Bakr, who also knew about to Islam. The Prophet's Jesus, saying "some are softer than milk," and 'Umar's similitude to Noah,

SYED AHSANI

"others are harder than stone," show that there is room for both traits of human nature.24 Here, the Prophet, knowing the supreme national interest and helped by Wal;i (Revelation), free expression not by self-interest, did not disclose it so as to allow the principle of Islamic political of opinions. He did not oppose any opinion outright withon both the ruler and the ruled. This private judg-

out full reflection on it. This establishes theory that Shiira is mandatory, Shiira on prisoners ment confidential it is Sunnah (the Prophetic

of war also lays down the principle for the ruler that example) to keep the counselor the consensus25 to oneself so as not to stifle free expression. That is why

"yadu Allah maCa al-jamaCah"; He asked the Prophet to forgive those in favor of fidyah. 26
Allah in His Infinite Mercy supported
JUSTICE

Justice is the cardinal principle ofIslam:

Allah enjoins justice and kindness, cency and abomination, and charity to kin, and forbids inde(16:90)

and wickedness.

Allah orders you that you return the trust to their rightful owners, and that if you judge between people, you judge justly. !4: 58) And do not let hatred of any people dissuade you from dealing justly. Deal justly, for that is closer to Godliness. (5:8)

o you

who believe! Be firm in justice as witness for Allah, even in such cases

as are against yourselves, your parents or your kin. (4: 13 5) And if you give your word, you must be just, even though it be against your kin, and fulfill the covenant of Allah. For that is what He has commanded (6:152) with clear Signs, and revealed with so that people may be firm in who will help Him and His you so that you may remember.

Verily, We have sent Our Messengers

them the Book and the Scale of [judgment] mankind, Messengers and that Allah shall know

Justice; and We provided iron, wherein is mighty power and many uses for in the unseen. (57:25)

PRINCIPLES

OF THE ISLAMIC

POLITICAL

SYSTEM

33

Ibn Taymiyyah said: The aim of commissioning the prophets and of revealing the Books, therefore, is to have people administer Justice in the cause of Allah and in the right of His creatures ... Thus he who deviates from the Book shall be corrected by iron [force of arms]. 2 7 Ibn Taymiyyah Government oppresses."
28

also stated:

"Allah gives victory

to a non-Muslim government which

which is just and defeats the Muslim

The indictment shall be upon those who oppress people, and those who commit injustice and wrongdoing on earth shall be severely punished.
(42:42)

Allah does not like that evil be spoken about openly except by one who has been wronged. (4:148) Those who are fighting have been granted permission to do so because they have been oppressed, and Allah is indeed able to grant them victory.
(22:39)

And those towns which We destroyed when they became oppressors, and We had set a fixed time for their destruction. (18: 59) And those who commit oppression shall know what kind of destiny they shall meet. (26:227) According to the hadiths (the Prophet's Traditions), "the just ruler will

be placed foremost among the seven whom Allah will cover with His Shade on the Day when there will be no shade but His." 29 The Prophet warned: "Stay clear of oppression, ofJudgment."3
0

for oppression

is darkness on the Day

FREEDOM

Freedom is another

principle of the Islamic political system. To protect Muslims should migrate to a coun-

their freedom of belief and expression,

try where they can worship Allah and carry out their religious obligations. The migration of the early Muslims to Abyssinia set a precedent.

34

SYED AHSANI

The Abyssinia migration proves that those people who consider migration to the United States or any other non-Muslim not understood the Qur'an will ask Muslims who were persecuted country to be a sin have Allah the whether and Sunnah. On the Day of Judgment, in their homeland

earth was not wide enough for migration. This concept is further supported by the Prophetic mission assigned to Muslims - al-carnr bi al-Macraf

wa al-naht Canal-Munkar

(to enjoin good and forbid evil,) which allows Muslims should have the freedom to

freedom of opinion and expression.

say whether they consider an act to be: permissible (Mubah) or obligatory

(Wajib). Under Mubah, a Muslim has the choice to do it or ignore it, as distinct from Wajib, "what is required to be done", to the extent that
neglecting it is a sin. The exercise of the right to "enjoin good and forbid evil" has broad applications, covering all aspects of public life, be they political, economic, or social.
EQUALITY

Long before the American Bill of Rights and Rousseau's established the principle of equality, the Qur'an said:

Social Contract

o people!

We have created you from a male and female, and have made you

nations and tribes so that you may know each other. Verily the most honored of you in the sight of Allah is [the one who is] the most righteous of you. And Allah is the Knower, Aware. (49: I 3)

The Prophet said: "Allah has relieved you of the fanaticism yyah and its pride in ancestors. miserable debauchee, from dust."31 Whether

of Jahili-

you are a pious Muslim or a

you are the son of Adam and Adam was [made]

Again, in his farewell message, he said:

Indeed, there is no superiority superiority sciousness of Allah]. However, of an Arab over a non-Arab, before the Law, everybody and indeed, no is equal, pious

of a red man over a black one except in Taqwa [fear or con-

or impious; the pious will receive the reward in the Hereafter.32

When a Companion

intervened

on behalf of a noblewoman

who had

committed robbery, the Prophet said: "By Allah, if Fatimah, the daughter of Muhammad had committed theft, I would have had her hands cut off." Caliph Abu Bakr said in his first address after assuming office: "And the

PRINCIPLES

OF THE ISLAMIC

POLITICAL

SYSTEM

35

weak among you shall be strong in my eyes until I secure his right, and the strong shall be weak in my eyes until I wrest the right from him." Once cAlI, the fourth Caliph, appeared before a judge as a defendant against a Jew who allegedly stole his armor. When the judge asked him to sit next to him, he reminded the judge that his preferential violation defendant. grounds whereupon of the principle of equality The judge refused to accept the evidence that he was CAlI's son, allowing the Jew, impressed by the impartial treatment of Hasan was a on the between the complainant and the

the Jew to retain the armor, justice of an independent

judiciary, became a Muslim.

ACCOUNTABILITY OF THE HEAD OF STATE

As the ruled are to obey the ruler who can use force to quell their rebellion, the ruled has the right to question the ruler when he abuses his authority. The Qur'an says: "And when he turns away, he will try to spread corruption on earth and to destroy the crops and mankind, corruption" (2:205). The Prophet said: "You are guardians, responsible and Allah dislikes for your wards")3

He also said: "A Muslim must hear and obey whether he likes it or dislikes it, except when ordered to commit a sin, in which case there shall be no hearing nor obedience," was stated by Abu Bakr. Accordingly, mandments a ruler can be removed if he acts in contravention of his official duties, or commits immoral, oppressive acts, or violates the comof the Qur' an and Sunnah.
CONCLUSION

adding "obedience

is only in righteousness,"

as

It is clear, therefore, tory. He summarized

that MawardI,

being part of the Abbasid Adminison the criteria for the

tration (qa4t) and envoy, analyzed in detail the late Abbasid political histhe opinion of all jurisconsults selection of the Caliph, the qualities of the Caliph and Wise Elders, selection of the wazirs and governors, imam, Hajj administration, jihad for public good, judiciary, ~alah, zakah, fay and ghanrmah, jizyah and kharaj, actions, and ombudsman or public

regional statutes, revival of dead lands, reserve and common lands, grants and concessions, drwan, criminal order (J;isbah).34

SYED AHSANI

While giving an interpretation,

such as the ruler may apply Shari'ah,

but may be unjust, he stopped short of passing judgment (ijtihad), being constrained by his office of judge. However, it was left to later scholars like Rashid Ric,la and Mawdudi, policy of 'Uthman who were courageous enough to criticize the
20

for retaining Mu'awiyah

for nearly

years as Goveragree that in prin-

nor, thus making him very popular. Islam there was no hereditary replaced

Also, most jurisconsults

transfer of power. Another important In the early Umayyad

ciple is Shara by the ruler, which became extinct when the monarchy the Guided Caliphate. period, a Caliph gave a long Friday Sermon till 'A~r (afternoon Companion therefore, refrained that many righteous jurisconsults
5

prayer); on objection by a

to fear Allah, his head was chopped off. It was no wonder, like Abu I:Ianlfah and Malik

from accepting posts such as that of Chief Judge, suffering torboth on the ruler and the ruled as 'ihadah, and as happened

ture in prison as a result.3 Shara is mandatory at Badr and'Ubud,

refraining from it is a sin for, "Allah's hand is on collectivity" when Allah gave the Muslims victory.

There is no veto in Islam. When given, the Shara is binding on the ruler. Even the dispatch of an army to Syria by the first Caliph, Abu Bah, following the Prophet's death, his fighting the apostates who refused to pay zakah, and the Ummah's denial of zakah money to early Muslims for ta'!if a!-qu!ah (winning over) on the grounds that Islam had gained strength, were the outcome of Shara (consultation). Further, it is very clear that early jurists exercised ijtihad in their time, although their decision was not binding on later generations. ijtihad is dependent Validation of on Ma~!al;ah (public good), 'Urf, Istil;san, Qiyas and

is therefore a continuing exercise in the light of changing circumstances, as has been mentioned by Imam Malik and the other three I:IanafI imams. Even Madinah scholars differed from the Iraqi school, yet they did not accuse each other of unbelief, as was done in later periods, a practice prevalent now. 36 On the basis of (Ur(', Islam retained such practices as Hajj, the removal of idols, and a ban on naked circumambulation On the same analogy, methodology they are compatible present and future in the Western political with the Shari'ah, or Tawaf of the Ka'bah. principles, concepts, and provided

system can be adopted, the Qur'an,

and the Sunnah. If

Islam is universal, and there is no doubt that it is, it has to allow room for

PRINCIPLES

OF

THE

ISLAMIC

POLITICAL

SYSTEM

37

the acceptance

of what is good in the light of research

and practices Institute of

evolved in the modern world. That is what the International ence from a Tawh"id"i (Islamic) perspective. While accepting the possibility lJukumah Ilahiyyah, theocracy

Islamic Thought (IIIT) is doing and its scope has also included political sciof errors, the writer could not cover and its compatibility of Muslims in has

such aspects of political theory as the sovereignty of Al1ah, the concept of versus democracy, with the Islamic political system. Likewise, the participation the polity of non-Muslim Hamidullah37 countries

(Dar al-lJarh or Dar al-Bay'ah)

been omitted, being outside the purview of this chapter, even though Dr. considers that in the Makkan period, the affairs of Muslims but by the Prophet, amountabove require were not decided under the law of polytheists,

ing to a state within a state. This and other topics mentioned further research. 38

Intellectual History ofEuroAmerican Jurisprudence and the Islamic Alternative

PETER M. WRIGHT

ABSTRACT

The legal systems that presently prevail in Europe, the Americas, and in polities colonized and formerly colonized by Europe evolved in specific historical contexts and cultural milieus. Nevertheless, they share certain common presumptions that are rarely articulated or exposed to critical scrutiny. It is the task of this chapter to begin to articulate these common presumptions and to attempt to engage them constructively by a comparative study of a rival legal system, such as may be found in accepted principles of Islamic Sharicah.
In the American familiar subject easily accessible. context, the notion is widespread that research on a

[by virtue of the subject's But much Continental

very familiarity]

ought to be of social which

work in social science challenges of far-off exotic peoples, but in has bred an ignorance but from its them, we sense of

this idea at a fundamental

level. It asserts that the mysteries

existence are densest, not in the behavior our own everyday usages. Here, familiarity arises not from the strangeness very transparency. sumptions Living within

of the object of investigation, it, so thoroughly

suffused with its as-

that it is even hard to recall just when we adopted already knows. The common

tend to lose the critical perspective which makes 'social science' more than simply a recital of what everyone things, the knowledge everyone point for the investigations is sure to have, is precisely the starting
I

of such a social science.

EURO-AMERICAN

JURISPRUDENCE

39

easier to consider French thinker,

MOST

DIFFICULT

intellectual task that we routinely face is to

identify what is always before us; our familiarity with a thing is often precisely what conceals it from us. Sometimes it is even first what something Tzvetan Todorov, familiar is not, before we can taken by the "essay in general just what it is. This is the approach in a remarkable

begin to say adequately

anthropology," Life In Common, originally published in 1995 and then translated into English in 2001. I prefer to open these "preliminary remarks" attempt with reference an explication to Todorov's essay because I am about to of the familiar. I do not trust myself to give an
0 bvious

adequate account of the obvious - or what seems to me should be - without assistance. Todorov's essay begins with a chapter

entitled "A Brief Look at the offers an object lesson in inclusive title, the "history This assertion is

History of Thought." turned to Todorov of thought," European

Now this characterization

the very problem that I have just identified and on account of which I have for aid. Despite Todorov's thought he does not mean the history of all thought, but the history of and Euro-American exclusively. opening sentence thought heading.
2

obvious from Todorov's currents of European such qualification

("As one studies the broad ... "), although he omits any A most difficult intellectual

philosophical

in his chapter

task that we routinely face is to identify what is always before us. Even the best among us fail to meet the challenge. I am willing to forgive Todorov this initial blind spot because he manages to move beyond it and expose to view what I find to be a fascinating, if "invisible," familiar. He states that "As one studies the broad currents of European philosophical thought ... " one discovers (although few seem to have noticed) that a "definition of man" - of the human being - begins to emerge. It is a definition essentially "solitary" to characterize thought" as "antisocial and "nonsocial" traditions." all of the "broad that presents creatures. human beings as Todorov goes so far as philosophical

currents

of European

He then proceeds by way of example sweeping assertion.3 Even if we grant philois one thing, law

to offer evidence in support of this astonishingly rov's argument, Todorov we must make a threshold as essentially antisocial,

Before we allow ourselves to be carried away with the tide of Todoobservation. philosophy his characterization of "the broad currents of European

sophical thought"

4
another. Todorov,

PETER WRIGHT

a literary critic by training,

develops his thesis from

readings of the relevant philosophical literature. However, what place does a book such as Todorov's rightfully occupy in a discussion of European and/or Euro-American tellectual traditions legal systems? between the inidentifies and the social institutions None, I would suggest, unless a link can be established that Todorov

that we wish to consider. To find such a link, it may prove helpful to move beyond Todorov's book - or perhaps behind it - and review the work of Pierre Bourdieu. sentences com- though clauses separated by commas. He has also - his own conceptual apparatus on this side of the Atlantic. not do so if I knew a better and Euro-American legal is never easy. He favors complex yet another French intellectual, Reading Bourdieu posed of strings of subordinate developed a unique vocabulary one that has not gained Consequently, alternative. Bourdieu turned his attention to European systems in an article which he published in volume 38 of The Hastings Law Journal. In this article, Bourdieu outlined what he called a "rigorous as a social called in the scientist, and distinguished this science from "what is normally I introduce of trying the reader's

wide currency Bourdieu's I would

work into this discussion at the risk

patience.

science of law," which he identified with his own enterprise jurisprudence

in that the former takes the latter as its object of study."4

From this vantage point, Bourdieu hopes to avoid entanglement

debate about law that preoccupies European legal scholars: whether the law develops in "absolute autonomy ... to the social world" (a position Bourdieu "reflection, identifies as "Formalist") or whether law is merely a or a tool in the service of dominant social groups" (a school of Bourdieu charts a third

thought Bourdieu identifies as "Instrumentalist"). way that contains elements reminiscent

of the other two, but which is not

identical with either and which possesses unique properties of its own.5

In charting this third way, Bourdieu makes use of his own conceptual apparatus - most importantly, for our purposes, the notion of habitus. As summarized by the translator of this article, Richard Terdiman, habitus
indicates "habitual, patterned ways of understanding, position" judging, and acting" which arise from one's "particular social structure. Terdiman as a member of a given social statuses,

writes: "The notion asserts that different conbackgrounds,

ditions of existence - different educational

EURO-AMERICAN

JURISPRUDENCE

41

professions, and regions - all give rise to forms of habitus characterized by internal resemblance within the group ... ,,6 This concept seems to me to owe much to the sociology of knowledge: world is preconditioned Bourdieu himself puts it: Shaped through legal studies and the practice of the legal profession on the basis of a kind of common familial experience, the prevalent dispositions of the legal habitus operate like categories of perception and judgment that structure the perception and judgment [of legal practitioners.] There is no doubt that the practice of those responsible for "producing" or applying the law owes a great deal to the similarities which link the holders of this quintessential form of symbolic power to the holders of worldly power in general, whether political or economic. This is so despite the jurisdictional conflicts which may set such holders of power in opposition to each other. The closeness of interests, and, above all, the parallelism of habitus, arising from similar family and educational backgrounds, fosters kindred world-views. Consequently, the choices which those in the legal realm must constantly make between differing or antagonistic interests, values, and world-views are unlikely to disadvantage the dominant forces. For the ethos of legal practitioners, which is at the origin of these choices, and the immanent logic of the legal texts, which are called upon to justify as well as to determine them, are strongly in harmony with the interests, values, and world-views of these dominant forces.? Bourdieu places the "interests, values, and world-views" hold and wield what he characterizes symbolic power," of those who form of one's understanding of the and mediated by one's membership in society. As

as "this quintessential

the power to make and apply law, in an institutional share not only their memword that occupies by "similar an imbut also a common family and a philosophical "field" (another

context. Those who populate legal institutions bership in their common portant habitus, place in Bourdieu's backgrounds." Todorov's conceptual

apparatus), fostered

a way of being-in-the-world "broad

educational link between thought"

It is here, I suggest, that one may entertain currents of European traditions

and the law. These intellectual the processes

are not so much consthat precede their

ciously appropriated by them throughout

by lawyers and judges as they are simply imbibed of socialization

formal legal training. They do not typically take the form of well-wrought

PETER WRIGHT

ideological

posltlons

but as inchoate

assumptions,

presumptions,

and

prejudices. They are the spectacles through which any decently educated and socialized individual in the West will view the world. One need not be a French intellectual to appreciate the significance of the social phenomena Bourdieu describes. John Simmons's 1992 study of Locke's theory of rights opens with a series of observations consonant social scientific jargon:
Most people in the English-speaking practical, political provides American the content nonacademic practices prominent acquaintance commitment commonsense world [and many outside it] have a with the Lockean theory of rights. A many of their social and just and unjust. It and, as a result, guides many of their right and wrong, landmarks in their moral world.

that are

with the notion of habitus - without recourse to Bourdieu's

to [parts of] that theory grounds and institutions, about and comforting theory: judgments

school children learn by rote [or, at least, used to learn] some of of the Lockean "that all men are created equal, that with certain inalienable
8

they are endowed

by their Creator

rights, that

among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness."

I would hasten to add that they learn as well what Locke conceived to be the seat or location of the Divine endowment - the individual self or soulwith the concomitant prerogative belief that every individual self or soul has the to assert his or her rights as against every other individual intellectual traditions in two distinct ways.

and/or against society itself. Todorov argues his thesis that the predominant of the West are, at bottom, anti-social traditions,

The first way consists of a review of the major proponents of these traditions. Here we find a roll call of the usual suspects: Hobbes, Kant, the French materialists-encyclopedists - in short, the names which we often associate with that period of history known to Europeans as their "Enlightenment" and the thoughts which we associate with those names. The second way in which Todorov identified as predominant chooses to argue this thesis is in contrast: he juxtaposes those currents of European thought which he has with an exception to those very currents taken, in the eighteenth century (as Europeans traditionally reckon time), by the Swiss philosopher, Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Todorov suggests that Rousseau's understanding of the human being is not only an exception to the

EURO-AMERICAN

JURISPRUDENCE

43
to Todorov, Rous-

rule of European represents

and Euro-American

thinking

on the subject, but also of man as a being

"a real revolution"

in thought.

According

seau "became the first to formulate expose the Eurocentrism

a new conception statement

who needs others."9 Without belaboring in Todorov's may well be the first European a being who needs others, exception which Todorov

the point, I feel obliged again to of his case: Rousseau of man as European a new conception

to formulate

yet, as we shall see, Rousseau's as latent in European

is an Islamic commonplace. characterized

In any event, the "assumptions" philosophical in human beings as

thought are "antisocial" creatures Rousseau's to Todorov

in the sense that they portray

who are so constituted

that they do not need one another

sense of human necessity. And what sense is that? According (and I concur with his reading), Rousseau insisted that "man and that, therefore, each of

brings to existence an innate insufficiency

us has a real need of others, a need to be considered, a 'need to attach his heart.''' 10 Todorov asserts that the broad currents of European human beings this "insufficiency." European moral reflection In European has therefore women are innately self-sufficient - particularly concerned. thought deny to men and tradition,

where the moral sense is focused upon the "The different Beginning with "the one would do

individual in isolation from others. According to Todorov, versions of this asocial vision are easy to identify." great moralists of the classical period", with others is a burden to be discharged

that is, the Stoics, " ... [d]ealing ... " - something

best to avoid, where possible. This tradition translated neatly into its successor, the Christianity of St. Augustine, whose Confessions exemplifies the intensely personal nature of the Augustinian encounter with God. In the waning days of the Medieval period, thinkers emerged who understood .. .impos[ingj "[s]ociety and morality rules of communal [to] conflict with human nature [by] solitary being. It It that "the concept (is) found theories of today." presumption
I I

life on an essentially

is this conception

of man," writes Todorov,

in the most influential political and psychological is also, I would add, the unspoken vades the European anthropological and Euro-American

that per-

legal habitus.

In the (North)

American version, self-sufficiency is not merely a fact of being human; it is seen as a desideratum, a goal one should strive to realize in one's daily life. The implication is that, in order to be fully human, we must each learn to

44
make upon us. Rousseau's position, ing Todorov appreciation

PETER WRIGHT

make our own way independent

of the claims that others, our society, for Todorov the

on the other hand, represents

Great Road Not Taken: Western civilization's and Bourdieu together, proach to the study of Euro-American for the following paradox:

missed opportunity.

Readan ap-

we may begin to formulate legal institutions

that reflects an uncritically share

that the actors who populate and

determine the tone and policy of these social institutions certain anti-social presumptions. This is Todorov's institutions interpretation

and it is one that I find compelling and examine, in its light, those legal intellectual task; it is not a monumental

enough to take as a point of departure history. Such an undertaking "preliminary institutions remarks."

that have evolved under the aegis of European is, admittedly,

one that I can hope to encompass avoid Malinowski's admonition

in an essay which I have styled as study separately the

Be that as it may, I believe, as a scholar, I dare not that one "cannot them side by I turn to yet study of

and mentality of a people. Only by investigating

12

side, by seeing how certain ideas correspond ments, can both aspects become intelligible." another French intellectual, Michel Foucault, Western penal institutions, punishment. Reading Foucault's European Foucault is no less challenging and nuanced.

to certain social arrangeAccordingly, whose landmark

Discipline & Punish, offers an original read-

ing of the history of Western theory and practice of judicially authorized than reading Bourdieu. His

analyses are sophisticated

I do not pretend here to treat of Todorov's thesis concerning (for example,

book with any critical depth. I wish only to suggest that Fousupports intellectual history in telling respects. Foucault situates Westalongside other social institutions

cault's study of social institutions ern penal institutions individually

schools, hospitals etc.) as foci of social control. Each of these institutions and, increasingly, in concert with others, exercises subtle of reform that often is forms and not so subtle - degrees of coercive influence over the individuals subject to its jurisdiction. invoked to characterize Beneath the rhetoric the evolution of the Western penal institution, toward more sophisticated For Foucault, the

Foucault finds a progressive movement of bureaucratic predominance dominance

over the human personality.

of the prison over other forms of discipline and punish-

EURO-AMERICAN

JURISPRUDENCE

45

ment in Western society must not be understood barism to humanism;

as a movement from bar-

rather, it is a change - or, possibly, a refinement-

of focus: from the exercise of coercion over human bodies to the exercise of coercion over the human soul. [3 What Foucault intends by the word "soul" is not what that word has signified to Western ears over the course of Christendom's is Foucault's tandings. word "soul" intention completely incompatible For our purposes, as a marker sway; neither undersuse of the that with traditional

it will suffice to take Foucault's for those aspects of human interference:

personality

have, heretofore,

escaped bureaucratic

that small space left has yet to express an for

open to each one of us concerning which government interest - or found a means to subject to surveillance. The prison's rise to predominance

in Western societies represents

Foucault the latest effort on the part of the powerful in those societies to perfect the techniques of coercion and control that such groups have been honing since the advent of the Modern state:
In several apparatus: attitude, workshop respects, the prison must be an exhaustive disciplinary

it must assume responsibility his state of mind; the prison,

for all aspects of the individual, much more than the school, the is ... it must him, within

his physical training, his aptitude to work, his everyday conduct, his moral or the army, which always involved a certain specialization, ... Not only must the penalty be individual

'omni-disciplinary'

also be individualizing

... 'Alone in his cell, the convict is handed over to

himself; in the silence of his passions and of the world that surrounds he descends into his conscience, he questions it and feels awakening [T]his [is the] primary objective of carceral

him the moral feeling that never entirely perishes in the heart of man' ... action: coercive individualiby authorzation, by the termination of any relation that is not supervised

ity or arranged according to hierarchy. 14

Foucault's prisons are "reformatories" to impress permanently reformatory, are expected of members of Western one is expected cultivated social attributes

in the sense that they are designed which antithat societies. When one leaves such a the socially acceptable

upon their inmates those asocial attributes to exemplify

therein. The process of individualization prisons is one that attempts

takes place in Foucault's

to reconcile indivi-

duals to a life of isolation from other individuals - for the sake, ostensibly, of their moral (and, therefore, civic) improvement. This process, by which

PETER WRIGHT

individuals

learn to accept their essential alienation as factories

from their neighbors, is demonsfailures as facFoucault argues, former inmates reading of

is one by which they are rendered sufficiently docile to be socially useful. I 5 The success of prisons trated for Foucault of individualization "Detention," by the fact that they are documented

tories of moral and/or civic improvement.

"causes recidivism; those leaving prison have more chance than before of going back to it; convicts are, in a very high proportion,
... "I6

The conclusions appears intellectual

drawn by Foucault regarding Western penal insticompatible with Todorov's history, vis., that Rousseau was right about human And if Rousseau was right, Western social

tutions European

to be guite

beings needing one another.

institutions have congealed around an anthropology that is, at best, selfdefeating. Or at least Western penal institutions have done so. Although I would gladly linger with this tantalizing it may be more productive "philosophical institutions. currents" possibility, I think to move on to a discussion of a different set of that flow through a different model for juridical Europe and the West and at the heart of Islamic Shari'ah.

Let us put aside, for the moment,

consider the anthropology

Before doing so, it is necessary to be clear from the outset what meaning Muslim scholars of Sharicah intend by that Arabic term. Perhaps it may be useful to begin with what they generally do not intend. As I read the literature, Sharicah does not have the meaning that most treatments the Sunnah (g.v.) and the al;adtth (g.v.)."I7 of figh, or Islamic jurisprudence. in English assign to it, for example, "the body of Islamic sacred laws derived from the Qur'an, themselves The laws Shari'ah is are the product

something else - something more primitive, in away, something that must be in place before the field of jurisprudence may be entered. Here, again, I find recourse to Bourdieu's conceptual apparatus most helpful. Because if Shari'ah is ever to be distinguished from the legacy of misunderstanding apparatus that has accumulated that is capable appropriate around it in the West, we, in the West, will need to we will need to develop a conceptual freight that native speakers

learn a new vocabulary;

of bearing the polysemous

of Arabic take for granted of habitus - those "habitual, a given social structure.

when they use their words. To develop an patterned ways of understanding, position" judging,

sense of the meaning of Shari'ah, it is useful to think in terms as a member of

and acting" which arise from one's "particular

EURO-AMERICAN

JURISPRUDENCE

47
by no

With this meaning - or approximation hand, it is arguable means forgotten

of the meaning - of Sharicah in

that Sharicah belongs to a distant - though

- past. Because Sharicah does not reside in the body of

laws developed over the centuries by Muslim jurists, one cannot simply return to those laws, or attempt to implement them, in the hope that, in the process, Sharicah will be revived. The role of Sharicah is to animate fiqh - not vice versa; it must therefore first reside in the Muslim jurists themselves - in their "habitual, patterned ways of understanding, judging, and acting" as these are determined by a given jurist's "particular position" as a member of an Islamic social structure. The most interesting questions one can ask today about Islamic sacred law are these: what is the prevailing social structure in those places where Muslim jurists presently practice and how does it compare with the social structure that prevailed question when the body of fiqh that those jurists have import: in what sense may one inherited was developed? These questions open the door to an even more momentous of philosophical speak of Shari' ah as a present reality? These are not questions to which I intend to essay an answer - at least not within the confines of the present chapter. Fortunately, I have smaller fish to fry. There is no question that Muslim jurists developed a body of sacred law over a period of several centuries, and that they did so within a particular

habitus. A description

of this habitus

may afford

us some

insight into what Sharicah once was - and we shall leave aside for the present those questions which would lead us to speculate what, if anything, Shari'ah now is or may some day prove to be. Few scholars writing in English have offered any satisfactory of the habitus from which emerged ponsible for the past production however, is a recent exception account resthe great schools of thought

of Islamic sacred law. Karen Armstrong, that proves the rule. In the Preface to her offers a succinct space and time: description of a

Islam: A Short History, Armstrong

distinctively Islamic way of inhabiting

In Islam, Muslims have looked for God in history. Their sacred scripture, the Qur' an, gave them a historical mission. Their chief duty was to create a just community were treated in which all members, even the most weak and vulnerable, with absolute respect. The experience of building such a of the divine, because

society and living in it would give them intimations they would be living in accordance

with God's will. A Muslim had to re-

PETER WRIGHT deem history, and that meant that state affairs were not a distraction spirituality but the stuff of religion itself. The political well-being was a matter of supreme importance. difficult to implement Muslim community and tragic conditions up and begin again.
J

from of the

Like any reliin the flawed

gious ideal, it was almost impossibly

8

of history, but after each failure Muslims had to get

One cannot help but recognize in this passage a counter-tradition which Todorov discovered in the "broad currents of European phical thought on the definition of what is human."

to that philoso-

Dealing with others is

not a burden best avoided; in fact, the notion that it is even possible to engage in such avoidance is not within the purview of Islamic thought. One's duty to God demands that one consider the Other - and not merely as a given part of the landscape, as so much furniture - but also as an essential aspect of one's own moral, spiritual, civic, well-being. Isolation is not an option. Armstrong bases her interpretation of the mission of Islam upon her contained in the Qur'an-indeed, in study of the history of Islam and Muslims; however, the impetus of this mission originates in an anthropology its very language. throughout Although the Qur'an the Arabic root Hamzah-Nun-S"in appears of

as a general term for humankind, (which, traditionally,

it is also used to an honored

signify persons who seek after familiarity, this etymological place in Qur'anic Todorov attributes entailments: exercise

intimacy. The implication occupies

exegesis) is that Islamic tradition to Rousseau. individualism,

includes the belief that not unlike that which presents juridical

human beings need one another - an anthropology As with Western

Islamic sociality

"The central notion

of Justice in the Shari'ah

is based on

mutual respect of one human being by another,"

writes A. R. Doi:

The just Society in Islam means the society that secures and maintains respect for persons common interests through various social arrangements that are in the (viceregent of all members. A man as Khaltfat-Allah

[sic] of Allah) on earth must be treated theme of the Qur'an.

as an end in himself and never and hence the central which in turn will

merely as a means since he is the cream of Creation

What is required is the equal integrity of each person

in the society and his loyalty to the country concerned of happiness.

9

make it the duty of the society to provide equally for each person's pursuit
I

EURO-AMERICAN

JURISPRUDENCE

49

General statements

of principle such as the foregoing abound in treatises are likely to be dismissed as vague, platitu-

written by Muslim scholars on the meaning of Sharicah. To the Western ear, such pronouncements dinous, or utopian fluff; yet Sharicah, as habitus, is not reducible to a set of rules - much less to what common our own legal tradition, "social arrangements," institutions." institutions, sacred law is predicated Such a community, ment accorded law lawyers like myself refer to, in as "black letter law." Notice Doi's reference to as opposed to, say, the "legal system" or "penal word choice. Islamic of certain juridical "The treatrace, not upon the establishment

This is not a question of idiosyncratic

but rather, upon the creation of a certain kind of community. according to Doi, is socially egalitarian: by the Sharicah made the aristocracies of persons." Such a community of birth,

wealth, language, the features which vary from person to person, all suspect as disrespectful equitable: The Shari'ah, it should be noted, gives priority to human welfare over human liberty. Muslims as well as non-Muslims living in a Muslim state are duty bound not to exploit common resources to their own advantage, destroy good producing land, and ruin the potential harvest or encroach upon a neighbor's land. Since a man in Islam is not merely an economic animal, each person's equal right to life, to a decent level of living, has priority over the so called economic liberty. 20 It bears remarking tion and litigation that such issues are the subject of continuing in modern Western societies; Doi's point legislais that is also economically

Shari'ah assumes the resolution

of such issues - or, at the very least, that swings of He asserts:

the resolution of such issues should not be left to the pendulum party politics or judicial gerrymandering.

Behind every legal, social or political institution of Islam, there is a divine sanction which every believer is expected to reverence no matter where he lives. He cannot change his own whims into laws. There are the limits of Allah IHudud-Allah] which are imposed in order to curtail man's ambitions and devices. The limits of Allah, Doi continues, missible) and "!?aram" (prohibited) Revelation and are elaborated are the two poles of "!?a[a[" (perthat are contained in the Qur'anic and example

by Prophetic pronouncement

5
in the hadith literature.

PETER WRIGHT

These poles set the boundaries

within which the

Islamic community is free to define itself as a polity with distinctive faith and moral commitments.21 To this point, I have made no mention of specific juridical institutions contemplated by Shari'ah institutions, or instantiated in the history of Islamic societies. This is because, in the former case, it is difficult to say what specific juridical if any, are contemplated by Sharicah; and the latter case is itself rendered problematic ShariCah), its elaboration who are particularly by the difficulties raised in the

former. I do not wish to deny the rich history of fiqh (attempts to apply by the 'alims (the learned) and Fuqaha' (those of fiqh), or even the reality of regarding the Muslim commitin the broad of history ... " decision in cases by, say, a village qaq./ (judge). I wish (as expressed learned in matters observation

decisions rendered in particular only to affirm Armstrong's ment to the creation outlines of Shari'ah): difficult to implement Consequently, conforms

of a just community

"Like any religious ideal, it was almost impossibly in the flawed and tragic conditions to which any particular juridical

the extent

to the requirements

of Sharicah is always a matter of debate expression

among Muslims - because the ideal rarely finds adequate the messy circumstances have failed, throughout institutions. non-Muslim However, of daily life.

This is not to suggest that societies with majority Muslim populations the world and history, to create viable juridical majority Muslim societies function with a set of from those that prevail in the

juridical instincts that are distinguishable the types of sanctions traditionally

West. One evidence of this difference may be inferred from made available to the Muslim comfinds juridical

munity under Sharicah, compared with those utilized in Western societies. If we accept the verdict of Foucault, Western individualism expression necessary tarianism, known majority in the prison system. Individualism of the community whether is privileged at the expense

- as expressed by the familiar adage that it is sometimes in its ideal (ShariCah) or applied (fiqh) expression, systems - has never been regarded is by

"to destroy the village in order to save it." Muslim communi- though not unadvance what I

unwilling to take such a risk. As a result, incarceration under Sharicah-based Muslim

societies as a great civilizing or humanizing

over other forms of sanction. Be that as it may, I would be remiss if I failed to acknowledge

EURO-AMERICAN

JURISPRUDENCE

take to be a corollary anthropological intuition that the form of understanding is embodied, corporations. indispensable if at all, in individuals

intuition

common to Muslims: an

which Bourdieu termed habitus

and not - for lack of a better term -

Islamic emphasis upon the collective never rules out the role of the individual in creating the just community. 22 suggest a paradox that appears to me to afflict - a paradox and Western individualism

Such considerations recently articulated

both Muslim communitarianism insightful study of Wittgenstein's be changed first, human character in human character one another

by the American philosopher or sociopolitical

Richard Eldridge in an institutions? institutions Change

later work. Eldridge asks: Which is to presuppose

and change in sociopolitical

with no evident way to break into this circle of presupinstitutions, and one will fail that express of a

positions. One will fail in trying directly to educate and elevate the human beings who are formed under sociopolitical human character. "All improvement in trying directly to change the sociopolitical institutions

in the political sphere is to proceed

from the ennobling of character - but how under the influence barbarous constitution is character ever to become ennobled?"23 As a general proposition, and non-Muslims conundrum. I would suggest that thoughtful part company institutions could be expected

Muslims is in the

to agree as to the validity of this his/her role in conformity

Where the two would potentially sociopolitical

response to the problem. In so far as the Muslim understands in history as one of refashioning presuppositions" of non-Muslims with Shari'ah - as the Divinely ordained

"way to break into this circle of activism. The response more varied, more in-

- one could expect sociopolitical in the West would be, predictably,

dividualized. It could be anticipated to run the gamut from sociopolitical activism (such as we find today with the so-called "Christian right") to resigned quietism. This is not to suggest, however, that the latter course is not open to Muslims. L. C. Brown has recently argued that political quietism has a long and distinguished career among Muslims living in majority Muslim polities.24 Sharicah may be argued to authorize the same varied and individualized circumstances. responses among Muslims that one would anticipate finding among non-Muslims The essentializing - or of an historian in the West, given the appropriate or our French intellectuals investigation -

tendencies of a legal scholar such as Doi and greater

such as Armstrong,

should spur the reader on to more thorough

PETER WRIGHT

efforts to articulate the sociopolitical and historical contexts, inculcating the habitus, by and through which laws are promulgated, applied, and enforced. interpreted,

Middle Eastern Origins of Modern Sciences

DILNAWAZ A. SIDDIQUI

adapting

THE

SAYING

GOES,

there is nothing new under the sun. human beings have inherited improved existing it by also generations, upon

Since time immemorial, knowledge

from previous

it to their present needs, and transmitted the transfer from one place or culture

it to future generaof knowledge by the con-

tions. Besides this vertical transmission, occurs horizontally

to another

tinual exchange of ideas. Human civilization has been built over a period of about seven millennia with its beginnings along the banks of Shatt ai-Arab, through patient the Nile, and the Indus. Knowledge observation, experience, civilization, has been gathered Prior Babylon, Phoeto human underBC.

as well as serendipity.

to the Greco-Roman standing progressed scientific

scholars of Khalidiah,

nicia, Egypt, India, and China had greatly contributed of the universe up to the seventh century up to the second century investigation. by Muslims. of coordinating During
BC,

Greek learning to the iron and lapsed innovation

when it succumbed creativity,

fist of Rome. The latter failed to encourage into oblivion until they were discovered transmission The responsibility

this time, Greek contributions and improved

upon for onward

such exchanges falls, by default or power(s). Since the sixteenth by coordinating, to modern Its contribution its inheritance

by design, upon the contemporary improving, and disseminating

dominant

century, the West has greatly expanded

its knowledge.

science and technology has remained unmatched has been the digitization

and is likely to remain so and mind-boggling

for quite some time to come. Especially revolutionary

of data, images, and sound, as well as the minia-

54
turization

DILNAWAZ

SIDDIQUI

of tools such as wireless computer

technology

supported

by

space-based global positioning systems. Unlike in other cultures, the social science tradition Europe has played down the similarities and exaggerated of the colonized among civilizations contributions tendency the dissimilarities nations to human

as developed in cultures and

various

for its own politicocivilization. Such a and

economic reasons. One major reason for this practice was to conceal the helped perpetuate resources.
THE RATIONALE

the notion

of "the white man's burden to with impunity their natural

civilize the world" technological

and thus exploit

One might ask why we should discuss the heyday of a nation left so far behind others in the march of scientific and technological good is it to keep harping on about progress. What our past laurels in the spirit of

Pidaram sultan bood [My father was king]! without going into the causes for our miserable plight today? The answer is that there is more than one single reason for invoking our past. The modern world is now experiencing tion in the area of information privatization. three major trends: (r) revolu(2) globalization;

technologies;

and (3) that

It is the first, especially the digitization

of information,

has brought various peoples closer together to interact with one another in the global trade arena, and has allowed individuals mation and knowledge (if not wisdom) access to informanner. The increaand in turn conflicts, we as a by it is in an unprecedented

Thus, these trends have made nations more interdependent. sed interdependence a scramble for limited global resources and commodities generate conflicts never faced earlier. To counter potential need to remove the cultural policy to "divide, conquer, a dialog of civilizations also incumbent stereotypes promoted

is both enriching and troubling in that it can provoke

by colonialists

and rule." Realistic mutual understanding

rather than a clash of civilizations

is a must for

global peace with justice to prevail. Besides this moral imperative,

on the part of the academe to amend the historical records in For

about the origins of Western higher education and scientific development. For us in the West, it is also vital to cope with increased competition global trade. The neo-colonialist to be civilized through desire of Darwinian and healthy domination cooperation. fair competition needs

ORIGINS

OF MODERN

SCIENCES

55
jour-

sustained development

our media also needs to cultivate in the audience based on of our own them-

a taste for truth and wisdom, for objective rational and responsible nalism instead of resorting to sex, violence, and sensationalism the "If it bleeds, it leads" type of programming. strengths and weaknesses. A valid assessment properly, placency need to be replaced with an accurate understanding ments and present predicament selves and their future generations Moreover, arrogance, can enable Muslims

Pompous pride and comof their past accomplishto educate

and, in turn, enable them to for their own failure to by ignorance, forces of material ought to fill this

plan realistically their further progress with great confidence. Muslims should also compensate tell the world their own story, which has been distorted and often by malfeasance of anti-Islamic Muslims greed and bigotry. Without being defensive, understanding.
TO SCIENCE IN GENERAL

knowledge gap in cross-cultural

CONTRIBUTIONS

One of the attributes

of science is that it is incremental and technologically developed coordination,

and cumulative nations and contribution.

in

nature. All scientifically They correspond

have to
I

pass through three phases: translation, vement by innovation and creation,

to the three terms mentioned

earlier: inheritance,

improThe to

and transmission

of knowledge.

intervals between these stages of development the size of the existing knowledge cation technology

have varied according Thus, comparatively

base as well as the level of communi-

and speed of life as a whole.

speaking, the narrower the inheritable knowledge base available to a generation, the more significant its contribution. The real value of the Muslim contribution to science ought to be assessed in view of the attitudinal change humanity experienced as a result of the advent of the Qur'an in the early sixth century
AC.

James Burke, III, in his book The Day the Universe Changed,2 asserts that prior to the advent of the Qur'an, either that of fear or adoration were worshipped human attitude toward nature was animals, and devotion. Created things that genera-

ted in humans a feeling of fear, like snakes and other dangerous

to avert potential harm from them. Also venerated were stemmed from humankind's gratitude for

beneficial elements of nature like water and fire, as well as animals, such as the cow etc. This veneration and admiration of their benefits.

DILNAWAZ

SIDDIQUI

The Qur'an, their Creator,

on the other hand, commanded God. It invited human

human

beings not to

worship nature or any other part of Divine creation, creation and to draw lessons for their own evaluation

but to bow down to and development. It

reason to search for His signs in

is this pioneering role of Muslims on the basis of which their contribution ought to be compared with others. It was this revolutionary change in human attitude toward nature and the emphasis on reason that empofrom a scientific perspective, and to wered Muslims to study nature

change the Universe forever, as it were. Again, it was the need of Muslims to fulfill their Islamic obligations that soon led them to develop mathemacommandments conof tical formulae to calculate the passages and phases of the moon, and the location of the sun and various stars. The Qur'anic cerning Zakah bequeathed by parents and other relatives (welfare tax) and the shares of inheritors in the property

led to the development attributed

calculus, trigonometry, Ibn al-Haytham's

and other devices for meticulous calculations. scientific method, erroneously breakthroughs to Francis of nain different descriptions

Bacon, led to phenomenal and subsequently

tural sciences, which eventually led Europe toward its scholastic tradition to the Renaissance. By dint of the Qur'anic emphasis on the use of reason in all deliberations, Muslim scientists utilized a logico-empirical methodology of research and showed that there was no incompatibility Revelation. perspective velopment So unlike the Western tradition, between reason and from the Muslim scientists'

there has not been any conflict between science and religion. have identified five major reasons for the seminal de(2) the generous

Alvi & Douglass3 to scholarship; exchange

of Islamic science: (I) the immense esteem that Islam accords support by rulers and other affluent of Muslims to soon becoming a to scholars; (3) the willingness

people that is available

ideas with others);

(4) the Arabic language

means of exchange of ideas throughout the Muslim world; and (5) the requirements of precision and punctuality in fulfilling Islamic duties. These notions are also affirmed by Colish.4 Historically, Phoenician astronomy the knowledge originally of logic and geometry traveled from their from Iraq, to Egypt, and from Egypt to origins and advanced roots,

Greece. Muslim scholars then inherited them from the Greeks. They took and arithmetic from their Indo-Iranian them further to unprecedented levels.5 Thus the entry of Muslims into

ORIGINS

OF MODERN

SCIENCES

57
Owen Gin-

the domain of organized knowledge pience" to "science".

6

helped humans to journey from "sawithered in medieval Europe, it flourilearned from the texts of Islamic the science of the ancient logico-empirical advances in

On the subject of Islamic astronomy, astronomers

gerich? says that while astronomy shed in Islam. Renaissance Greeks. As has been pointed

scholars who had preserved and transformed

out earlier, Ibn al-Haytham's

method enabled subsequent

scientists to make phenomenal

numerous scientific disciplines, both basic and applied. Muslim scientists realized that the proper place for empiricism physical phenomena, analysis of historical not in the metaphysical events. They, therefore, was only in the domain of ones. However, once the by into sense evidenced

latter were revealed, they made logical and rational two broad categories: revealed and acquired.
DEMOCRATIZATION

classified knowledge

OF KNOWLEDGE

The true significance light of the Qur'anic apparent everything diversity

of Islamic sciences can be understood and interdependence. indicates The

only in the all of

concept of TawlJrd (Unity), which encompasses interconnectedness the unity of cosmos. of this supra-system

in the universe

It logically must be One,

follows that the creator or programmer

otherwise there would be chaos instead of cosmos. The third unity is that of all forms of life. God clearly stated in the Qur'an: "We have created every living thing from water" (21:30,24:45,25:54). This revelation was made at a time when this "unity of life" was not part of human knowledge, indicating the divine origin of the Holy Qur'an. From the point of view of human relations, it is vital to appreciate a pair, and from them the whole of humanity This concept of "monogenesis" advisor to UNESCO, showed the value of the

fourth unity, namely, that of the human race, created from one single soul (2: 213, 4:r, 39:6, 31:28). all knoan the that enabled Muslims to democratize with documentary evidence

wledge. A Sudanese scholar, Dr. A. Waheed Yousif,8 who is currently twentieth-century United Nations, 20-point lifelong education mission attributed

to the Abbasid

existed in practice

during the early Muslim

period of the ninth century. There, for the first time in human history, access to all knowledge was made available to all, regardless of gender, race, ethnic origin, caste, class, nationality, or any other factor on which

DILNAWAZ

SIDDIQUI

human beings have no control.

Contrast

this Islamic democratization

of

science and other forms of knowledge with the strict restrictions imposed by the privileged upon the downtrodden communities of all other cultures, including Greek, Roman, Persian, as well as Indian until recently. During technology the seven hundred years of their leadership institutions, in science and (from the eighth to the fifteenth century), Muslims introduced which they establishin the Near model for the the regions ruled by them. Their universities Africa, and Spain provided an open-access at Toledo, Cordoba,

these disciplines into higher education ed throughout East, North students

Spanish Muslim universities democratization in the Muslim demand

and Seville attracting (" Shara") to the

also from other parts of Europe. They saw for themselves this of learning and participative world. decision-making Once back in their own lands, they started against the authorities,

similar human rights from their Church and state. When they

were denied these rights, they "protested"

Church and their feudal lords. This was precisely the origin of the Protestant movement in Europe. The fifth unity in Islam is the unity of knowledge the Qur'anic origin of this concept, the Harvard Edward Wilson,9 presented the notion of "consilience" pursuit of knowledge (truth). Unaware of University Biologist, in his book of the studies to overcalled "reductionand truth is documen-

same name, and stressed the need for interdisciplinary come the myopic and disjointed nothing new. The Muslim introduction tation, chapter plications and navigation of higher education, to agriculture, ism." From an Islamic perspective,

this unity of knowledge meticulous

making, Arabic numerals

as well as other advanced apmedicine, architecture, of Europe, eventually culof the Ameri-

of scientific knowledge

led to the gradual advancement

minating into the Renaissance

and Reform movements of the fifteenth and European colonization

sixteenth centuries. The subsequent

cas resulted in the transfer of gold and other forms of wealth to Europe. During Muslim rule itself, centers of higher learning, research, and development, institutes, libraries, teaching hospitals, science laboratories and observatories became common in Muslim cities like Madinah, Damascus, Baghdad, Neshapore, Cairo, Qairawan, Cordoba, Toledo, and Seville. 10 This spree of institution building and development was emulated in Italy, France, Germany, England, and other parts of Europe.

ORIGINS

OF MODERN

SCIENCES

59
calculations could One can get a pro-

Without Arabic numerals,

advanced mathematical

not be imagined given the limitation N adlm' s a/- Fehrist (tenth century),

of Roman numerals.

general idea of the scholarly activities of the Muslim world from Ibn alI I

which lists about four thousand biographical

minent scientists and other scholars. Ibn Khallikan's documents similar protagonists and their contributions

dictio-

nary titled Wafiyat a/-'A Cyan wa Anba' Abna' a/-Zaman

in seven volumes in various fields of the

higher learning.12 Many other reference resources have documented disciplines. Although numerous works of the Muslim scholars

Islamic cultural milieus and their history of various disciplines and subof that lanperiod have been translated guages, it is estimated untranslated.
CONTRIBUTIONS TO MATHEMATICS

from Arabic into modern

European

that about seventy thousand

of them still remain

As has been pointed out the Qur'anic

commandments

concerning

the five

daily prayers, the beginning and end of the fasting month of Ramadan, the distribution of inheritance, and the calculations of Zakah (welfare tax) called upon Muslims to be proficient sciences, mathematics is considered in mathematics. Since an advanced and social language can be a means of communication in the humanities

to be the language of the natural and

physical sciences. From the eighth century AC, Arabic became a language of higher learning, and mathematics written in Arabic numerals and symbols was the language of science for about seven centuries. The Muslims introduced the Arabic numerals (originally borrowed from India), the concept of the zero, the decimal base of ten, and advanced mathematics into Europe. Prior to the eighth century, one had to times to indicate one million. Imagine the given the world advanced algorithms or write the letter" M" a thousand al-KhawarizmI had already

ease of writing the same thing in only seven digits. By the ninth century, formulae. Notice that the English word algorithm is simply the Europeanized form of this Muslim name, al-KhawarizmI, first mathematical co-tangent). of pi, hyperbole, formula and trigonometry and geometrical series, and progressions, The arithmetical who gave the world the (sine, cosine, tangent, and concepts and calculations into Europe. who invented

are also Muslim contributions al-FarghanI,

to advanced mathematics

that were later introduced

It was the Muslim scholar, al-Mutawakkil

60
Nilometer

DILNAWAZ

SIDDIQUI

devices. More sophisticated in Makkah, states:

devices like compasses

were ori-

ginally designed for determining Mosque of Prophet Abraham while praying. Speaking

the direction of the Kacbah, the cube-like toward which all Muslims face relationships between Islamic

of the inherent

beliefs and values, Jane Norman

Appreciation

for a basic relationship

between art and the religion of Islam motifs were popular with Islamic

increases with familiarity

... Geometric

artists and designers in all parts of the world, at all times, and for decorating every surface ... As Islam spread from nation to nation and region to region, Islamic artists combined ditions, creating their penchant for geometry with pre-existing Islamic art. This art expressed trathe a new and distinctive

logic and order inherent in the Islamic vision of the universe.I3

CONTRIBUTIONS

TO CHEMISTRY

Their victory in Western China in the eighth century enabled the Muslims to benefit making, from contemporary Chinese technologies, such as paperworld of which they in turn introduced discovery leading into the entire Muslim

including Spain. From there it was taken to the rest of Europe. This indeed was a revolutionary knowledge exchange to the wider dissemination transportable and democratization of learning. With the expansion of the equality of humankind, the world. in the the

of ideas in the form of conveniently concept

books, and

owing to the monogenetic

earliest explosion of knowledge Muslims made tremendous fundamental sublimation, gamation,

became possible throughout

progress in the field of chemistry, of which origin. They invented all the

the Arabic al-kfmiyah is the etymological

processes of chemical research and development, including crystallization, evaporation, distillation, purification, amaland acidation (sulphuric, nitric, hydrochloric, and acetic). of sugar, various

They then applied these processes to the manufacture

AC,

types of dyes, alcohol, and arsenic for mostly medicinal purposes. By 950 they had discovered how to heat mercury (Hg) to form mercuric oxide alteration does not cause any loss of owing to the Islamic emby the chemical food, as itself. Muslims, (HgO), noting that this chemical weight of the basic substance phasis on cleanliness purification well as in architectural

and aesthetics, decorations.

were fascinated

of gold to be used in making jewelry and preparing

ORIGINS CONTRIBUTIONS

OF

MODERN

SCIENCES AND ASTRONOMY

61

TO PHYSICS

By the ninth century,

Muslim scientists had discovered

the laws of the of reflection and

strength of materials, mechanics, and stability. In his study of the laws of physics, ai-KindT scientifically described the phenomena centuries saw the Muslim scientific principles refraction of light, theories of sound and vacuum. The tenth and eleventh related to the pendulum long before Galileo (1564-1642). In the loth century, Ibn al-Haytham method. It is worth Not until 1992 did the Pope forgive described and utilized his scientific was never used in

Galileo for the heresy of teaching that the Earth revolved around the Sun. noting that the term "science"

Europe until 1340 AC, and it was only in 1840 ACthat the word "scientist" was used in the English language for the first time. Ibn al-Haytham's findings on geometrical inventions attributed optics in 965 AC, which like cameras to Snell (eighteenth were later utilized eyeglasses, centuries) are as and of lenses in European erroneously Snell's laws. Muslim scientists also discovered heterogeneity aberrations compared in the context the principles of homogeneity and kinds of rarefied air. Concepts and sophisticated and nineteenth

of images were explored and utilized in manufacturing

and mirrors. Not only did they know that light has velocity but they also velocities of light and sound and found that the former was laws of mechanics tensions of various which they used in determining greater than the latter. They studied and formulated and hydrostatics,

types of surfaces, specific gravity and density of different forms of matter. The concept of earth's gravity was known to Abu ai-Fad) cAbd alRahman al-KhazinT in the twelfth century, that is, several centuries before Isaac Newton, who only further refined it. It was al-KhazinT himself who also explained the natural phenomenon his Mizan al- EJikmah. 'Umar al-Khayyam remarkable calculations, of Samarqand,
4

of the rainbow

in optical terms. described in

He is credited with designing many astronomical

I

instruments

of the twelfth century, who is known to the West-

ern world only as a poet of the Persian contributions to mathematics

ruba'iyyat (quatrains),

made

as well. He refined calendar

by pointing to the existence of a one-day error in 5,000 years further refined his calculations. AI-KhawarizmT, who has

instead of the 3,330 years presumed earlier. Another Muslim, Ulugh Beg

DILNAWAZ

SIDDIQUI

been mentioned

above for his contributions

to mathematics,

was also the

founding father of Islamic astronomy. Several centuries before Galileo, he and his followers had known the earth to be spherical, and he himself had calculated distances between various cosmic bodies. The ninth-century scientist and astronomer, Abu Macashar, had accurately drawn latitudes and longitudes, discovered the relationship between the phases of the Moon and the ocean tides, scientifically explained lunar and solar eclipses, and refined calculations earth's circumference accurately measured and explained of the differential in the degree to at different points of the globe. It was he who very the length of the terrestrial

be 56.67 Arabic miles. AI-Sa Cati KhurasanI,

who is named after his invention

of the clock

(siicah: also time), of the twelfth century built a clock tower in Damascus, Syria. It was the Muslim geographer, about a thousand al-IdrIsI, who presented King Roger and named II with the gift of his silver globe. Abdur Rahim identified

stars, and explained the elliptical paths of cosmic bodies architecture, literature, and linguistics. century pro-

in the known solar system. He is also credited with his significant researches in other fields like agriculture, ved his prominence Najm al-Rammah, techniques In 845 voluminous
AC,

In the field of applied physics, al-JazzarI in the thirteenth pliances, Kitiib al-Macrifah wa al-Hiyal al-Handasah. gained fame in his exhaustive

in his book dealing with the subject of hydraulic apHis contemporary, volume on pyrotechnic

and devices, for both defense and ceremonial uses. that is hundreds of years before Darwin, al-Na?:?:am presentWithin the same time frame, al-Ja1)i?: wrote a

ed the theory of evolution.

treatise on animals, their struggle for survival and adaptation

to physical environments. As early as the ninth century, al-I:Iasib wrote a volume on the benefits of precious stones. Later, in the thirteenth century, his co-professional, al-TifashI, improved his work and added his studies on 24 precious stones and their affective and medicinal properties. Many others like al-JawaliqI, cAbd al-Mumin, and al-DhamirI, made immense contributions to knowledge with their treatises on zoology and anatomy, especially on horses and their breeding. AI-DimashqI made his mark in botanical studies on plant pathologies, categorizing plants as living beings with a distinctive gender. AI-BayrunI, as a historian, discovered the origin or source of the that the number of He also observed generally renowned

Indus Valley and its civilization.

ORIGINS

OF MODERN

SCIENCES

petals in flowers vary between 3 and 6, or they are 8. They never number 7 or 9. These and many other Muslim scientists left a rich scholarly legacy in Africa, Asia, and Europe.
DECLINE OF MUSLIM SCIENCES

The question

is often raised of why Muslims

at some point in history There were and arrogance, and topsyweaknesses. to different is

stopped developing decline. Historically, ignorance turvy priorities

in the fields of science and technology. in the case of most dominant causes powers,

many factors, both internal and external,

affecting their stagnation

of other societies and their state of development, have been the major of internal approach call for a balanced

Successes and their sustenance disturbed anomie sets in.

demands of human life, of body, mind, and soul. When this moderation

In its heyday, Islam was practiced as a comprehensive

way of life. An

overemphasis on its spiritual aspect continued to reduce its original scope. Consequently, many crucial concepts associated with it also diminished. The concept clbadah (worship), which originally meant any practical pleasing to God, became mere ritualistic of seeking knowledge act prayers. The nawafil any extra learning. The

deeds of charity, turned into only excessive ritual prayers; and the concept became confined to mere theological such as in the economic, ignored the illustrative roles of reason and creativity were played down even in areas where they were originally permissible, domains. The Muslims dispatched perhaps political, and social dialog between the

Prophet and his Companion, response to the Prophet's Sunnah (Prophet's

Macadh ibn Jabal, when the latter was being of Yemen. On this occasion, Macadh, in and the pers-

to the governorship

question of how he would rule there, had said

that in cases where there was no clear-cut answer in the Qur'an his own rational judgment from a pragmatist and problem-solving

Sayings), he would do ijtihad. That is, he would form

pective. The answer had obviously satisfied and pleased the Prophet. Moreover, there had been an internal debate and later a showdown between the MuCtazilites, who were influenced by the Hellenistic starkly rationalistic analysis, and the Ashacarites, who had the theological approach to even new issues facing the the Ummah (the global Muslim

DILNAWAZ

SIDDIQUI

community).

The latter were traditionalists

who relied on the analogical

interpretations to the extent that they assumed that early scholars of Islam had finally interpreted the Qur'an and Sunnah for all times and climes. This myopic mindset of the traditionalists was not without reason. They had seen the excesses of Hellenistic hypocrisy in ignoring the limits of human reason in the form of fallacious acceptance of over-relativism, which is bedeviling contemporary thinking in almost all walks of life. in supWhile some rulers took advantage of the misuse of creativity and innova-

tion in the name of ijtihad, others sided with the traditionalists pressing even the genuine use of all rational tools of development. The sad result of this conflict between riwayah (tradition) (rationalism) was the stagnancy

and dirayah

and closure of the doors of rational and of quotations and copying of old Ibn Wahhab, Shah

analytical genius of Muslim scholars and scientists. The religious scholarship became restricted to memorization manuscripts enth century Waliullah, from past scholars. The lone major voices since the eighteurging the revival of ijtihad included Iqbal and Mawdudi. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Jamaluddin Afghani, and Mohammed All of them stressed to traditions on the of the same

Abdu, as well as Mohammed

the need for a balance between the blind adherence traditions within the framework

one hand and, on the other, bold yet cautious interpretation

of the seminal sources of Islam, and in (absolute exertion) (relative exertion) by

light of the context and demands of specific times and places. They urged the Ummah to distinguish through scholarly between ijtihad-e-mut/aq and ijtihad-e-idhaft consensus

renewing the old principles of Sharicah to handle new situations facing the community. With regard to external challenges, the Muslim community historical events such as the eleventh-century has faced Crusades, the siege of Bagh-

dad by the Mongols in I2S8, expulsion from Spain in I492, the end of the Caliphate in I922, communism and colonialism, and more recently neocolonialism onslaught, pendix
I

resulting from oil politics accompanied stereotyping victims as oppressors

by a powerful media as victims. below in Ap-

and oppressors are summarized

Other significant Muslim contributions on Muslim contributions

to this chapter. In view of Basheer Ahmed's chapter, in this book, to medicine as well as the chapters by other parI have limited myself to works
15

ticipants on social sciences and humanities, on the modern natural sciences only.

ORIGINS

OF

MODERN ONE

SCIENCES

APPENDIX

Contributors to the Origins of World Science

PERIOD SCIENTIST REMARKS

Jabbir ibn Hayyan

(Geber?)

3000

treatises on (Walid ib

Founder of modern chemistry Logician Philosopher

Malik)

Scientific method concept and measurement balances Physics: mechanics of chemical

Medicine:

clinical pathology

Contributed

to the establish-

ment of the first medical college at Damascus

Abbasid

Bayt al-ffikmah Iraq

at Baghdad,

80r-873

Abu Yusuf al-KindI (AI-Kindus) The Philosopher-Scientist of the Arabs

Precursor

to al-FarabI

Description

of the inhabited

parts of the Earth

AI-Shammasiyyah Baghdad

Observatory,

Global postal service Book of Countries

Contemporary

of Hisham al-

KaibI and al-Ya'qubI

8 IO-877

Hunayn

ibn Is\:1aq (Juannitius)

Physician-Philosopher

Commentator

on Galen

66
PERIOD

DILNAWAZ SCIENTIST

SIDDIQUI REMARKS

Thabit ibn Qurrah

3000

Volume of paraboloid

3rd degree figures in Geometry

Mathematics Physics, Medicine, Astronomy

Theory of Repidation

Naval developments

(Indian

Ocean; Volga & Caspian Sea) Early maps

Contemporaries: MaqdisI

BalakhI,

?-863
(period of alMa'mun)

M. al-Khawarizmi (algorith)

AI-Jabr wa al-Muqabalah (advanced algebra)

Introduction into Europe

of Arabic numerals

Trinomial

equations

Astronomical

tables

Innovative

computations

Geography:

shape of the Earth

Observatory Shammasiyyah

at al(with Naubakht)

Muhammad (184 workers)

al-RazI (Rhazes)

Smallpox/measles

Observatory Clinical Physician Continens speculations (AI-HawI):

at Raqqa (Shiraz)

anti -Aristotelian

Contemporaries:

Abu al-Wafa

al-BuzjanI (4th degree equations), al-KarakhI

ORIGINS PERIOD SCIENTIST

OF

MODERN

SCIENCES REMARKS

Emphasis on time, space & causality in physics: direct observation of hard data

Music to alchemy Student of al-TabarI Abu Na~r al-FarabI (Alpharabius) Commentaries Aristotle on works of

Philosopher

First classification

of sciences

Social Scientist

I khwan al-Safa Risalat al-Jamia

Abul Hasan al-Mas'udI

Travelogues Meadows of Gold & Mines of

Scientist Historian Anthropologist Geographer Geologist

Gems

Abu'AII ibn SIna (Avicenna)

Shaykh al-Rais

Medical scientist Physician

Cannon

(al-Qanun)

Kitab al-Shifa'

Daral-'Um Observatory

(Cairo) at Hamadan &

Scholarly conferences proceedings

Abu 'All al-Haytham

(Alhazen)

Kitab al-Makir

(Optics) first

eyeglasses (lathe) Ma them a tician Physicist (astro) Medical scientist Ophthalmologist Measurement of the Nile floods Scientific method

68
PERIOD

DILNAWAZ SCIENTIST

SIDDIQUI
REMARKS

Observatory

at Seville (Falah)

Spherical and parabolic refraction

mirrors;

angles and velocity

Principle of least time

Contemporaries:

Nusairj

Khusro (Diary); al-Bakrj (Dictionary of Geography)

Abo RaYQan al-BayrOnj

Commentaries

on Aristotle

Contributions Mathematics;

to Astrophysics;

Chronology

of ancient nations

Geography/Geodesy History and anthropology

Canon of ai-Mas' odj

Astrola bes (used in na vigation)

Motions

of the earth

Levity and gra vity of planets

Elliptical orbits

Contemporaries:

al-Khazinj impetus,

(Physics): inclination momentum

? -1007

Abo al-Qasim (Madrid,

al-Majritl

Epistles of al-Ikhwan

Cordoba) Observatory at Toledo (Zarqali)

Mathematics, Astronomy

Chemistry,

and

1058-1111

Abo Hamid M. al-Ghazalj (Algazel)

The revival of religious sciences Contemporaries: Man~urjlNurj

Philosopher

(Hospitals) AI-Idrjsj (Geography: the globe,

Religious scientist

and botany)

ORIGINS PERIOD SCIENTIST

OF

MODERN

SCIENCES REMARKS

12th c.

Rabman

al-KhazinI

Sci entia vs. sapientia

(The Greek)

Mechanics

and hydrostatics

Centers of gravity & balance of matter & balance of wisdom

Standards:

weights

1040-1130

Abual-Fatb

'UmarKhayyamI

Algebra

(Omar Khayyam) Quatrains Mathematician Scientist Poet (translated into

English by Fitzgerald)

1126-1198

Abu al-Wabid

M. ibn Rushd

Pure Aristotelian taries)

(38 commen-

(Averroes of C01doba)

Medicine Religious Law Comparative Studies

1201-1274

Nasir aI-DIn al-Tusl Mathematics Astronomy Philosophy

Universal Scientific genius

The TusI Couple Saved libraries from Halagu (Observatory at Maragha)

New planetary

models

1236--1311

Qurb aI-DIn aI-ShIrazI

Commentaries SIna

on Canon of Ibn

Medicine (optics) Mathematics (Geometry) Encyclopedic Astrophysics works on

Astronomy/Geography Philosophy

7
PERIOD

DILNAWAZ SCIENTIST

SIDDIQUI REMARKS

1332--1406

Abd al- Rabman

ibn Khaldl1n

Kitiib al-Ibar
History of North Africa

Philosophy

and science of

history (Historiography) Psychology Father of social sciences

Al-Muqaddimah
Rise and fall of cultures Contemporaries KashanI

Qazizadah (trigonometry:
value of pi) Observatory at Samarqand

Busti, Maridini Baha'uddIn al-cAmilI Shaykh aI-Islam Applications Mathematics, Architecture Religious Sciences Decimal fractions YazdI & Chemistry Geometry of Mathematics &

to architecture

Contemporaries: IsfahanI

Contributions of Muslim Physicians and Other Scholars: 700- I 600 AC

M. BASHEER AHMED

INTRODUCTION

during the years 612-632 as a book of guidance, and this had a profound effect on Arab society. The first revelation learning in human life. The Qur'an of the Qur'an inspired the of to Prophet of Islam to acquire knowledge and emphasized repeatedly understand the importance

RIOR matters.

TO THE ADVENT barbarous, The Qur'an

ofIslam,

Arabic society was uncivilito the Prophet Muhammad

zed, ignorant,

and showed little interest in intellectual

was revealed

urges humankind

the forces of nature for the benefit of human beings and their an interest in scien-

intellectual growth, and it has brought to humanity tific thinking.

Proclaim! And your Lord is Most Bountiful.

He Who taught

[the use of]

the pen. Taught man that which he knew not. (96:3-5)

The Qur'an

makes it clear that all that is in the heavens and in the earth to human beings, the vicegerents of Allah.

has been made subservient

Allah has endowed human beings with the capacity to use their intellect to reflect upon things, and to express (5 5:r-4).
I

their ideas in speech and writing by the commandments of the Qur'an growth. This and study nature to see the to scientific dev-

Muslims are encouraged

and the Prophetic Sayings to seek knowledge,

signs of the Creator, which thus inspires human intellectual was the main reason why Muslims made contributions elopment. In another verse the Qur'an gate, and find out the mysteries of the world.

urges the reader to think, investi-

M.

BASHEER

AHMED

Do they not look at the camels, how they were created? The heaven, how it was raised high? The mountains, how they were firmly set? And the earth, how it was spread out? So keep on giving admonition, for you are an admonisher ... (88:17-21) Qur'anic verses encourage man to reflect (think) and understand the

nature God created. In the earth there are tracks side by side, gardens of grapes, corn fields, and palm trees; growing out of single roots or otherwise. They are all watered with the same water, yet we make some of them excel others in taste. Surely in this there are signs for people who use their common sense.
(13:4)

There are hundreds mysteries standing and exploring

of similar verses in the Qur'an which describe the human thinking toward underthe the laws of nature. The Qur'an emphasizes

of the universe and stimulate

need for the observation

of natural processes and the reflection upon on scientific data. by Islam's and science are finally harmonized

what has been observed. No verse in the Qur'an contradicts Thus, theology, philosophy, ability to reconcile Prophet Muhammad, religion and science.2. According

to the Sayings of

"there is no illness without a cure" and since Allah

has created a cure for all diseases except old age, it is necessary for scientists to search for the cure of diseases by advances in medical treatment. The following knowledge: The search for knowledge is obligatory on every Muslim or Muslimah. The ink of Scholars is worth more than the blood of martyrs. He who adores knowledge, adores God. Wisdom is the goal of all believers, acquire it from anyone. Whoever wishes to have the benefit of this world, let him acquire knowledge. Whoever wishes to have the benefit of the world hereafter, let him acquire knowledge.3 Prophet Muhammad to have encouraged knowledge. ged or forbidden. further pointed out that only the learned would Prophetic traditions highlight the importance of seeking

inherit his legacy, and would be the trustees of Allah on earth. He is said Muslims to travel to China if necessary in search of The Prophet says: "Whoever goes in search of knowMuslims should not regard the worldly sciences as discoura-

CONTRIBUTIONS

OF MUSLIM

PHYSICIANS

73
Ob-

ledge is in the path of Allah till he returns," viously, when the Prophet emphasized which was readily available in Makkah

and "Allah makes easy the

path of Paradise to him who journeys for the sake of knowledge."4 he was not referring only to the knowledge of the Qur'an

traveling in search of knowledge, and Sharicah, during and Madinah. Therefore,

the early period of Islam, Muslims had a better and deeper understanding of the Qur'an and Prophetic guidance and took it upon themselves to go all over the world to seek knowledge learning throughout tation, observation, are all contributions The pre-Islamic perimental territories and measurement and to establish fine institutions of the Muslim world. The new methods of experimenon which modern science is based of the physical and exof Egypt and some There The as the the and of those who followed the true teachings of Islam.5 Arabs had little knowledge

sciences. It was only after the conquest in jundaishapura, Harran,

of the Byzantine Empire that the Muslims came across some and Alexandria. works the scientific and philosophical of the Greeks,

scientific institutions they discovered

which aroused their curiosity and the desire to acquire knowledge.6 period between the eighth and fourteenth most powerful empire and produced centuries is regarded Golden Age in Muslim history, during which the Muslims established the most brilliant scientists

scholars of that time. Muslim scholars such as Ibn SIna, al-KhawarizmI, al-RazI, al-ZahrawI, al-BayiinI, Ibn al-Haytham, al-IdrIsI, al-KindI, Ibn Khaldiin and hundreds ledge to mathematics, mics, and philosophy. of other Muslim scientists made their observamedical sciences, astronomy, The contributions geography, econo-

tions and original research and added a vast treasure of scientific knowof Muslim scientists and scholduring that period. (Iran) and universities the Muslim empire from (Iraq), Isfahan

ars show the highest quality of scientific development Muslim scientists were distributed Bukhara (Uzbekistan) Cordoba Cordoba (Andalusia and learning throughout in the east to Baghdad students

- Spain) in the West. They established 17 universities,

centers that attracted

from all over the world.

alone contained

70 public libraries and hund-

reds of thousands encouraged a profound

of books for students.? of the world as a form of worship, prohad This and Western civilization.

Muslim scholars, under the guidance of the Qur'an and Sunnah, which scientific exploration duced excellent scientific and other scholarly works that eventually influence on Western thought,

74
alism of Church punished

M. BASHEER

AHMED

was during the time of the West's Dark Ages, in which the entire intellectudogma suppressed scientific progress. The Church oparound the sun, which posed freedom of thought, clashed with the Church's and even a great scientist such as Galileo was dogma. For a thousand years, scientific, medThe burnChris-

for his theory that the earth rotates

ical, and scholarly work virtually stopped in Europe. Most of the work done by Greeks and some Roman scholars remained dormant. ing of the great library of Alexandria Unfortunately, the contributions in 390
AC

by fundamentalist
8

tians had already resulted in the loss of valuable works. the West has continually of Muslim scientists. suppressed

and downplayed

Most books and articles on the

history of medicine and the sciences outline the contribution of Greek scientists, which is usually followed by the scientific progress since the Renaissance. scholarly historian, Hole." Students are taught that Christian European scientists made advances of Muslim after the original scientists Greek contributions. The a is rarely acknowledged of concealment in major Black all the scientific work publications

of medical and scientific works in the West. Morowitz, as "History's

described this phenomenon

"This is [a] myth that gives a distorted arose Pheonix-like

view by giving the imfrom ashes, smolderand scientific Philip K.

pression that [the] Renaissance ing for a millennium Nevertheless, investigators a number

of classical age of Greece and Rome."9 of distinguished historians

(like John Williams, E.A. Myers, Max Meyerhof, the part played by medieval the knowledge original contributions was not

Hitti, George Sarton, M. Ullman, E.G. Brown and Savage Smith) have fully acknowledged only in preserving but also adding scientific knowledge:
[TJhe achievement of medieval Islamic science is not limited to the preserin the corpus of elements

Muslim scientists not of knowledge.10 on ancient Greek

of Ancient Greece, Persia, and India, to the wealth

Bernard Lewis further clarifies in his book on the Middle East that Islamic development solely dependent

vation of Greek learning, nor to the incorporation

from the more ancient and more distant East. This heritage which medieval Islamic scientists handed on to the modern world was immensely enriched by their own efforts and contributions. tended to be speculative and theoretical. Greek science on the whole rather Medieval Middle Eastern science

was much more practical and in such fields as medicine, chemistry, astron-

CONTRIBUTIONS

OF

MUSLIM

PHYSICIANS

75

omy, and agronomy, by the experiments

the classical heritage was clarified and supplemented and observations of the medieval Middle East.
II

The output, originality, and creativity in science and technology Muslim world continued ope.
12

in the

until about the sixteenth

century. During this spread to Eur-

period, Muslim scientific and scholarly works gradually From Spain the knowledge and south-western instrumental throughout in spreading penetrated Muslim

Sicily and Spain were the principal centers of such dissemination. beyond the Pyrenees into western ruler, Roger II, was and culture cities, which of France and Sicily. The Christian

scientific contributions

Italy and across the Alps to various European to a more accurate

themselves became centers of Arab learning. This chapter aims to contribute understanding the history of medicine and the sciences by focusing on the contributions that Muslim scientists made during the Muslim "Golden Age." Within two centuries of the death of Prophet Arabia, Muhammad, the Muslims had conquered new lands, and their empire extended from India Syria, Egypt, Iraq, to different

in the East to Spain in the West, including

North Africa, Iran, and Turkey. These isolated nations now became part of the Muslim empire. As a result, Muslims were introduced languages and scientific technological of the world. Muslim scholars and businessmen addition to a geographical advances from various civilizations traveled to other distant with them. In councommunica-

places, like India and China, and brought back knowledge tries, Arabic became an international language facilitating

unity of Asian, African, and European

tions across different cultures and regions, and it also became a language of science and technology. Islam's tolerance and encouragement of both secular and religious learning, created the necessary climate for the free exchange and propagation of ideas and knowledge. philosophy, Baghdad and Cordoba became the world's greatest learning and teaching centers. All the available scientific works on mathematics, medicine, and astronomy were transof lated from the languages of Greece, Rome, India, Persia, and Syria into Arabic. The Abbasid Caliphs, who were recognized knowledge and support of academics, established (House of Wisdom) and sent emissaries for their pursuit the Bayt al-Ifikmah Caliph

to various parts of the world, and appointed Munayn ibn

including the Byzantine Empire, to collect scientific manuscripts. al-Macmun established a school of translation

M. BASHEER

AHMED

Ishaq, a Christian, scientist. Bunayn long-lasting thinkers translated Aristotle, Hypocrites, sophy, chemistry, such century) patronized

as the Director,

who was a gifted translator

and had a

ibn Ishaq did major translations economics,

of the entire works of astronomy and philo(ninth

and Galen into Arabic. The Bayt al-Ifikmah

influence on mathematics, as ai-KindY and

and the medical sciences. It produced al-Farabr. Caliph another scholar, Thabit ibn Qurrah commentaries and published

famous Muslim (a Sabian), who

al-Muhtadi

and published

on the works of famous Greek some original work on mathe-

scientists and philosophers

matics, astronomy, and philosophy. Sinan, son of Thabit ibn Qurrah became the Director of several hospitals (bimaristans) in Baghdad. The Spanish Umayyad Caliphs' liberal support for academic work also played an important role in producing original scientific works. "The world is held up by four pillars: the wisdom of the learned, the justice of the great, the prayers of the righteous, inscription scientific and the valor of the brave" was the of non-Muslim quality scholars in the of interfaith often found at the entrance of universities in Spain during the enterprises also shows the admirable

Muslim era.13 In Spain, the participation tolerance and cooperation Commenting

adopted by the Umayyad Caliphs. and its policy of tole-

on the rise of Islamic civilization

rance towards people of all faiths, John Esposito points out:

The genesis of Islamic civilization porating government participated administration, was indeed a collaborative effort, incorAs in

the learning and wisdom of many cultures and languages. Christians backbone

and Jews who had been the inteleffort was translation

lectual and bureaucratic

of the Persian and Byzantine empires

in the process as well as Muslims. This ecumenical reign. The House of Wisdom's scholar, Hunayn was followed by the renowned

evident in Caliph al-Ma'mun's center was headed torian Christian. contributions

ibn Isbaq, a Nesby the original

This period of translation

of Muslim intellectuals dominated

and their artistic activity. Muslims in the process of producing and Islam's view

ceased to be disciples and became masters, Islamic civilization oflife.'4

by the Arabic language

Unfortunately,

this aspect of Islamic tolerance is not recognized in the of important treatises from Greek, civilizations preserved precious works for

West today. The Arabic translations Indian, and other pre-Islamic

CONTRIBUTIONS

OF

MUSLIM

PHYSICIANS

77

thousands introduced

of years and prevented

their extinction.

Many translations,

along with Arabic commentaries

were translated

again into Latin and reof modern medimedical schools East and

into Europe. These translations Muslim physicians where students

and the original contributions established

of Muslim scientists and scholars became the foundation cal and other sciences.I5 in Baghdad and Cordoba

from the Middle

Europe came to study. The European in Cordoba. The medical encyclopedic Canon of Avicenna), ZahrawI remained the textbooks

medical schools of Montpellier, work, 'al-Qanun' of Ibn SIna (The by Abu al-Qasim alEurope

Padua, and Pisa were founded on the pattern of Muslim medical schools and the books on surgery

of medical sciences through-out

until the sixteenth century, when European texts. I 6

works came to replace these and formulating hypo-

Greek scientists were excellent at theorizing ture did not show any documentation for the first time in history, introduced data based on both observation was no possibility of mistakes

theses. They were great observers, but not experimentalists. of experiments.

Greek literaof

Muslim scientists, The Greeks had a they were only to the best of the

the concept of the recording

and experimentation.

strong belief that Aristotle and Plato's opinions were final and that there in their views, although
17

theorizing and attempting

to explain various phenomena

capabilities of their speculative knowledge.

As Briffault wrote,

Science owes a great deal more to the Arab culture, it owes its existence to Arab scientists, who made startling discoveries and revolutionary The Greeks systematized, of investigation, methods generalized, and theorized, of positive observation, the accumulation knowledge, theories. the minute
8

but the patient ways and experimental

I

of science, detailed,

prolonged

inquiry were introduced

to the European

world by Arabs only.

I turn now to elaborate cine, chemistry,

on some more specific contributions mathematics, astronomy, and technology.

to medigeography,

pharmacology,

political science, sociology, philosophy,

MEDICAL

SCIENCES

The major between

well-researched

scientific

progress

III

medicine

was made and

the eighth and eleventh

centuries,

during

the Umayyad

M. BASHEER

AHMED

Abbasid criptions,

eras. Muslims

became acquainted

with Greek anatomical found many errors

des-

and from their own research,

in their

work. For instance, in opposition skull consisted Mul)ammad hearing.

19

to Galen, who thought that the human scholars held that it had

of seven bones, the Muslim ibn Massawaih the human

found that there were ossicles in the ear, which facilitate Yuhanna about dissected a monkey to acquire more emphasized that the body. AI-ZahrawI

information knowledge

of anatomy

was necessary to become a surgeon.

From the ninth to the twelfth century, many great hospitals were built. These hospitals were called bimaristan (bimar - sick, stan - a place to institutions based on the principles of by comstay). They were well-organized petent physicians, titutions.

human dignity, honor, and hygiene. They were well administered Many famous Muslim physicians MuqtadI, of a famous surgeons). were attached

and also served as teaching hospitals and research insto these hoswas founded in Baghdad in al-RazI. This hospital of these hosThe hos-

pitals. One of the early hospitals, 916 under the direction and bone-setters

physician,

retained several physicians on the staff, including specialists like surgeons (orthopedic The development pitals was an outstanding contribution by Muslim physicians.

pitals served all citizens free of charge and irrespective of race or religion. There were separate units for male and female patients, and special wards for medical diseases, contagious physicians and nursing diseases, and psychiatric patients. The staff were licensed to assure quality of care.

Libraries were also affiliated to the hospitals, which were frequently used by students and teachers. It is recorded that these hospitals were furnished like palaces. Ibn Jubayr, the renowned Arab traveler described the care for the patients in MuqtadI Hospital as follows:
In this hospital, the best arrangements patients are dealt with very courteously exist for providing medical aid. The and sympathetically. All patients the

are given food and care freely. For meeting the sanitary requirements, eminent medical consultants in diagnosing treatment. complicated In addition, visit this hospital and chronic

water of the Tigris is supplied through pipes. Every Monday and Thursday and assist the regular staff and suggesting their diseases,

medical attendants

prepare food and medicine for

20

every patient under the guidance of the medical men treating him.

In major cities like Baghdad, the mentally ill were treated in separate

CONTRIBUTIONS

OF MUSLIM

PHYSICIANS

79

hospitals.

The first known hospital

for the mentally

ill was built in the

tenth century in Baghdad, and later in Damascus. The mentally ill patients were treated with kindness and dignity, and their suffering was recogin Europe, and some of them were nized as part of the illness. This was the period when the mentally ill were regarded as "witches and "possessed" burned alive. In contrast, the mentally ill patients in hospitals of Baghdad

received medication and support services. It was not until 1793 that Philippe Pinel introduced humane treatment for the mentally ill in France, which was adopted elsewhere in Europe at a later date. Muslim physicians initiated the regulation of medical practice the licensing of physicians and pharmacologists. Similar rules were later established in Sicily, when Roger II, King of Sicily (195-1154), the requirement of passing an examination practicing medicine. Thus the requirement Italy, followed by Spain and France. From the European vast medical Pharmacopoeia physicians medical schools at Montpellier was disseminated College of Physicians of the portraits and Salerno, this Europe. The (1618), a classic (and Greek) of a few of these knowledge throughout established before a physician could start of licensing began in Europe in

of the London

work systematizing

drugs, recognized illustrations

this debt to Muslim

and contains

great scholars: Hypocrites; Galen; Avicenna (Ibn SInal; and Mesue (Ibn Zakariyyah bin Masawayh).21 Muslim surgeons developed a number of surgical techniques extremely advanced, that were especially in eye surgery. They used cauterization

extensively in surgery, and described a variety of illnesses that were treated by cauterization. form a tracheotomy, surgical instruments,

Ibn Zuhr (twelfth century) described how to perand al-ZahrawI (tenth century) invented many of the illussuch as those for the internal examination

inner ear, the inspection of urethra, and an instrument foreign bodies from the throat. trations of all the surgical instruments Muslim physicians

for the removal of

His books on surgery contained

that he was using. Muslim physioperations. in a textbooks

cians also made use of anesthetic substances while performing were the first to write medical

format that medical students could use in their studies. These textbooks were based on original scientific data gathered Greek and other existing works and also new by the Muslim physicians themselves. The most by al- RazI (Rhazes, 932),

famous medical scholarly works were produced

80
al-ZahrawI (Albucasis,

M. BASHEER

AHMED

1013) and Ibn SIna (Avicenna, the treatment

192). AI-RazI between measles by we are once part of treatand

was the first physician to describe how to differentiate and smallpox. again including He also discussed and regulation. dietary regulation dietary restriction ment for a number European available

of various ailments

After several centuries, as the most important were translated

of severe illnesses like diabetes, century.

hypertension,

heart disease. AI-RazI's textbooks

into Latin and used in Ibn SIna's encyhis

medical schools until the sixteenth from ancient and Muslim sources.

clopedic work, Qanun Pi al- Tib, surveyed the entire medical knowledge He also documented of the contagious original contributions such as the recognition an authentic nature of water and for medicine

pthisis and tuberculosis, soil. His books contained

and the spread of diseases through and used as textbooks

record of 760 drugs that were in

use, and his writings were translated for several centuries in Europe.

AI-RazI along with Ibn SIna described the different parts of the eye and noted that the movement muscles, expansions tribution and pupilary of the eyeball was caused by contractions movements were caused by contractions operations of eye and for the con-

of the iris. Muslim surgeons also performed Ibn al-Haytham's was a correct explanation of visual perception.

removal of cataracts.

(9 S6-I03 8) most important

He was the first

to prove that rays passed from objects toward which was the prevalent belief postulated described how the impressions images.22

the eyes, not vice versa,

by Euclid and Ptolemy. He also in the formation of visual

of objects made upon the eye are conveyed

along the optic nerve to the brain, culminating

Abo. al-Qasim al-ZahrawI was born in Cordoba in 936 and he is considered the greatest surgeon, whose comprehensive medical text combining Eastern and classical teachings dures until the Renaissance. own surgical procedures. dent work surgery for on surgery.
500

shaped European

surgical proce-

He wrote famous books including: al- Tasrtf the work of previous surgeons and his drawings indepenon constituted
23

in 30 volumes, which contained of more than 200 instruments, years in Europe.

The last part of the book, containing the first illustrated His books remained

the leading authority

Muslim physicians described the anatomy of the lung and bronchi and the interactions between the human body's bloodvessels and air in the

82

M. BASHEER

AHMED

AI-RazI, one of the greatest Muslim physicians was also a brilliant chemist who continued practicing sublimation. as a physician. He also introduced He refined the processes

of the ninth century, of distillation and

his work on chemistry while for the treatment

mercurial compounds

of various ailments. Ibn SIna, another brilliant scientist, also adopted Ibn Jabir's methods for chemical experimentation, for determining Gustave Le Bon, the French Orientalist, chemistry to Muslim scientists:
It must be remembered science, was discovered experiments that no sign, either of chemistry, in which or any other
1,000

and used them as the basis attributes modern European

the efficacy of new pharmaceuticals.

all of a sudden. The Arabs had established they used to conduct

years ago their laboratories the father of chemistry] researches

scientific

and publish their discoveries without which Lavoisier [called would not have been able to produce anything in the fear of contradiction, that owing to by Muslim Scientists, modern chemistry came great results in the form of great scientific

this field. It can be said without and experiments into being, and that it produced inventions.27

PHARMACOLOGY

Muslim physicians

also made the most significant contributions of chemical coagulation, extraction, including

in phar-

macology. They not only discovered many herbal drugs but also perfected many of the techniques sublimation, filtration, distillation, surgeon who and crystallization owing to their

expertise in chemistry. AI-ZahawI as a pharmacist

(936-r03 5), a prominent

was very skilled in the use of simple and compound surgeon. The thirteenth-century

remedies, was known Muslim Spanish scien-

tist, ai-Bay tar, visited Africa, India, and Europe and collected samples of plants through extensive field studies. He classified plants in alphabetical order according to their characteristics information discovered previously. about the preparation and documented
200

and therapeutic

qualities. He also He

recorded the Arabic, Latin, and Berber names of the plants and included of drugs and their administration. new plants that had not been known al-Mufradah, into Latin Pharmacopoeia

His famous book, Kitab al-Jamic PI al-Adwiyah of the first London

(A Compendium

of Simple Drugs and Foods) was translated

and was used in the formulation issued by the College of Physicians

during the reign of King James I. 28

82

M. BASHEER

AHMED

AI-RazI, one of the greatest Muslim physicians was also a brilliant chemist who continued practicing sublimation. as a physician. He also introduced He refined the processes

of the ninth century, of distillation and

his work on chemistry while for the treatment

mercurial compounds

of various ailments. Ibn SIna, another brilliant scientist, also adopted Ibn Jabir's methods for chemical experimentation, for determining Gustave Le Bon, the French Orientalist, chemistry to Muslim scientists:
It must be remembered science, was discovered experiments that no sign, either of chemistry, in which or any other
1,000

and used them as the basis attributes modern European

the efficacy of new pharmaceuticals.

all of a sudden. The Arabs had established they used to conduct

years ago their laboratories the father of chemistry] researches

scientific

and publish their discoveries without which Lavoisier [called would not have been able to produce anything in the fear of contradiction, that owing to by Muslim Scientists, modern chemistry came great results in the form of great scientific

this field. It can be said without and experiments into being, and that it produced inventions.27

PHARMACOLOGY

Muslim physicians

also made the most significant contributions of chemical coagulation, extraction, including

in phar-

macology. They not only discovered many herbal drugs but also perfected many of the techniques sublimation, filtration, distillation, surgeon who and crystallization owing to their

expertise in chemistry. AI-ZahawI as a pharmacist

(936-r03 5), a prominent

was very skilled in the use of simple and compound surgeon. The thirteenth-century

remedies, was known Muslim Spanish scien-

tist, ai-Bay tar, visited Africa, India, and Europe and collected samples of plants through extensive field studies. He classified plants in alphabetical order according to their characteristics information discovered previously. about the preparation and documented
200

and therapeutic

qualities. He also He

recorded the Arabic, Latin, and Berber names of the plants and included of drugs and their administration. new plants that had not been known al-Mufradah, into Latin Pharmacopoeia

His famous book, Kitab al-Jamic PI al-Adwiyah of the first London

(A Compendium

of Simple Drugs and Foods) was translated

and was used in the formulation issued by the College of Physicians

during the reign of King James I. 28

CONTRIBUTIONS

OF MUSLIM

PHYSICIANS

83

According to Levey, the Muslims were expert organizers and their pharmacological was useful to the apothecary texts were carefully organized and medical practitioner.
MATHEMATICS
29

of knowledge, in a way that

Muslims made numerous revolution innovations Ifikmah

discoveries in the field of mathematics, Europe. One of the most notable

which of these

have been passed on to modern science, contributing of early modern was the concept of zero. Al-KhawarizmI, by the Caliph.

to the technological a Persian scholar the concept of

living in the ninth century, was appointed of Baghdad algorithms - a method of calculation of its inventor's

as a scientist in the Bayt al-

He developed

- which bears the anglicized version for he gave equations, which established is derived from his of Calculathe first the the most imporalso learned

name. His work in algebra was outstanding,

analytical solutions to linear and quadratic famous book, al-Jabr wa al-Muqabalah tion by Completion tant aspects of al-KhawarizmI's to have been written

him as the Father of Algebra. The word "algebra"

(The Compendium

and Balancing). The book contained on the subject. Al-KhawarizmI

work. and is generally considered

concept of zero from India, and it was transmitted

in his works to Europe. addition was the

The Indians had left a blank for a zero, and al-KhawarizmI's the Arabic name for this symbol ~ifr. Leonardo Arabic numeral system and introduced

to give it a symbol, the "0." Even the English word "zero" is derived from Da Vinci studied it to Europe.3

Abu al-Wafa al-BuzjanI (940-997) developed trigonometry. He was the first person to show the generality of the sine theorem relative to spherical triangles.3I Al-TusI, another Muslim scientist of the thirteenth century, developed spherical trigonometry, including 6 fundamental formulas for the solution of spherical, right-angled
ASTRONOMY

triangles.

A Muslim astronomer nal contributions

of the tenth century, al-Battani made several origiHe determined He proposed the solar year a new and

to the study of astronomy.

as being of 365 days, 4 hrs, and 46 minutes. ingenious theory to determine astronomers the acceleration used his observations

the visibility of the new moon. European of solar eclipses in 1749 to determine

of the motion of the moon.

M.

BASHEER

AHMED

Muslims invented the compass and al-FarganI (860) estimated the circumference of the earth to be
24,000

miles. Muslims were the first to use catalog the maps of the visible stars, between astronThe

the pendulum,

build observatories,

and correct the sun and moon tables. They also wrote about sunspots, eclipses, and comets. Muslim scientists made a distinction omy and astrology, thirteenth-century ducing astronomical comings in Ptolemy's and regarded astrology Muslim astronomer, as a pseudoscience.

al-TusI, earned his fame by pro-

tables called al-Zij Ilkhanz, which became the most He pointed out several serious shortand foreshadowed the later dissatisreforms. In the in the Copernican astronomy,

popular tables among astronomers.

faction with the system that culminated Samarqand worked Damascus European observatory (fourteenth astronomer,

tenth century, Muslims built an observatory on the measurements of planetary

in Baghdad and the famous century when al-TusI Ibn Shaitar of moveThe famous of movements.

was built in the thirteenth century) continued Copernicus,

the work on planetary motions.

ments, using a combination

of perfect circulatory

was familiar with Ibn Shaitar's work system of movements

and used his theories to suggest a hectocenteric

planets, as opposed to Ptolemy's geocenteric system)3

GEOGRAPHY

AI-MascudI, a tenth-century to Baghdad, described his experiences

Muslim geographer

and historian,

traveled

India, China, and several other countries

of the world. He and the geoa

as well as the people, climates, and wrote was famous He translated

graphy and history of the various countries that he visited. He documented historical eleventh events chronologically from Uzbekistan, 34 books covering variety of these subjects. AI-BayrunI, another great Muslim scholar of the century for his world travels, many books from the the work of Muslim which he also recorded in a graphic account of the history and societies of the people that he encountered. Indian language, Sanskrit, into Arabic, thus introducing

Indian scholars to Muslim scholars. AI-IdrIsI, a twelfth-century geographer in Spain, North Africa, Anatolia, and Europe.

from Southern Spain, studied in Cordoba and traveled widely He settled in Sicily and

Kitab Nuzuhat al-Mushtaq Fl Ikhtraq al-Afaq (The Pleasures of Travel by One who is
wrote one of the greatest books of descriptive geography: Eager to Traverse the Regions of the World). AI-IdrIsI described the

CONTRIBUTIONS

OF MUSLIM

PHYSICIANS

85

people and the customs, as well as the distance between the major cities, and the products and climates of the entire known world. He prepared on which a map of the world was depicted. wrote extensively on medicinal plants.34
POLITICAL SCIENCE

silver plainsphere

He also

Although less is known about this aspect in the West, Muslim scholars have contributed to the development of political science and defined the of State and Church. role of politics in Islam, where there is no separation

Al-MawardI was a political scientist of the eleventh century and was a great jurist, sociologist, and expert on the subject. He discussed the principles of political science with special references to the functions of Caliphs, the Chief Minister, other ministers, and the relationship various elements of the public and a government. asserting that Shari'ah ciples for the election of Caliphs and criticized the established stick for justice. His greatest contribution cal justice into Shari'ah.35
SOCIOLOGY

between

He laid down clear prinpractice by yardof politi-

(Islamic Law) by itself was an insufficient was the introduction

Ibn Khaldiln,

a fourteenth-century

Muslim sociologists,

sociologist

wrote

MuqadHe do-

dimah [Introduction],

the first volume of world history, which gave him a and philosophers. economic, environmental, and social factors He postulated

special place among historians, cumented the psychological, that contributed

to the advancement

of human civilization.

the theory of cyclical change in human civilization caused by dynamically changing social, economic, ings on the development political, and geographical factors. His writof of history in its totality gave rise to a new disand a philosopher

cipline, that of social science. As a historiographer,

the science of history, he has had no equal so far in any age or country.36
PHILOSOPHY

The Muslim philosophers and Aristotle, contributions. philosophers He explained

admired the work of Greek philosophers, on their works,

Plato

wrote commentaries who was distinguished that philosophy

and made original of the Arabs." and could

AI-KindI, (ninth century)

was one of the early Muslim

as the "Philosopher

did not conflict with religion,

86

M. BASHEER

AHMED

give one a deeper understanding

of the religion (Islam). AI-FarabI,

an

Andalusian Muslim philosopher of the tenth century, built his arguments on abstract knowledge and founded a Neoplatonic school in Islamic philosophy. He wrote a book on a model city similar to that of Plato's He also made Takhayyul and in Republic though conceived within the Islamic framework. (idea) and ThubiU (proof). The eleventh-century theologian, Baghdad; infinite al-GhazaII, he portrayed

the study of logic easier by dividing it into two categories: was the dean of the Nizamiyyah

Muslim philosopher University

the inability of reason to comprehend between

the Abso-

lute, the Infinite and further elaborated reason, identifying finite respectively. exponent

that an infinite time is related to religion and Ibn

space. He was able to create a balance The twelfth-century

their respective spheres as being the infinite, and the Spanish Muslim philosopher, and religion, stating: of his age. He was a great "Man is for him."

Rushd, was regarded as the greatest rationalist of the harmony of philosophy

neither in full control of his destiny, nor is it fully predetermined He also promoted and supported philosophy system the idea that philosophy the thirteenth-century rationalism influenced that by quoting verses of the Qur'an. Christian

did not conflict with Islam, Ibn Rushd's philosopher, the

St. Thomas Aquinas. He was credited with building the greatest Catholic of thought has ever been offered. the theory of St. Augustine, 'Il;yii' cUlum a/-DIn' an understanding He synthesized philosophy followed Religion) philosophy and natural Ibn Rushd's of Aristotle, al-GhazaII's and the philosophy

of al-GhazalI and Ibn Rushd. In his famous work, Summa Theologica, he (Revival of the Sciences of of the relationship between between religion Spanish and and developed

and faith. His understanding philosophical writings.

of the harmony

sciences derived from the high culture of Islamic Spain and Another thirteenth-century Ibn al-cArabI, incorporated many fragmented

Muslim philosopher,

mono-systematic mystic doctrines into a system, and gave an explicit theoretical formulation. His work, FU$u$ al-ljikam, was regarded as a masterpiece philosopher His famous problems various life.37 of mystic thought of the thirteenth book, MathnawI, in metaphysics, hidden in Sufism. Another offers solutions renowned Muslim century, RumI, is well known to the West. to many complicated He explains with worldly ethics, and mysticism.

religion,

aspects of Sufism and their relationship

CONTRIBUTIONS

OF

MUSLIM

PHYSICIANS

87

TECHNOLOGY

Muslim contributions contribution

to technology

were equally superb. The landmark of paper, the knowledge of which had paper factories in Samar-

was the introduction

been acquired from China. Muslims established

qand and later in Baghdad and Syria.38 During the eighth and ninth centuries, these mills were built all over the Muslim world from Spain to Iran. In contrast, the first paper factory in Europe was established late thirteenth century. The replacement of parchment paper had a profound as late as the of eduand papyrus with

effect on the spread and democratization

cation, for it became possible to write books and to preserve and distribute knowledge more easily. In some Middle Eastern schools in the ninth century, it was available free of charge. Syria also established glass-making factories, producing glassware and pottery of high quality. This technique of glass manufacturing was transferred to Venice in the twelfth century. Venice still produces the finest glasswork in the world. Muslims made advances in the fabric, silk, cotton, and leather industries. During the ninth and tenth centuries, hundreds of ships from Muslim countries established docked at the port of Canton in China. Muslim traders a system of letters of credit similar to checks. They worked farming in the scientific way and knew the value of Muslim agriculture, irrigation, and were far more advanced than those of

with all kinds of metal, for example, gold, silver, bronze, iron, and steel. Muslims practiced fertilizers.39 manufacture In the twelfth century, of farm equipment

non-Muslim Europe. This advanced technology was later transferred from Spain to Italy and Northern Europe.40 Philip Hitti writes,
During all the first part of the Middle important contributions Ages, no other people made as medical, historical, astrono-

to human progress, as did the Arabs. From 9th to works written in Arabic than in any other language

12th century, there were more philosophical, mical, and geographic of the world.41
CONCLUSION

This chapter has highlighted tion. Unfortunately, inspiration

Muslim scientists' contributions gradually power,

to civilizalack of

these contributions

declined, and came to and a marked

a halt owing to a rapid loss of political for education and technological

achievement.

88

M.

BASHEER

AHMED

When southern Spain was conquered

by Ferdinand

in 1490, hundreds

of thousands of Arabic volumes of scientific discourses were burned. The Spanish government went to extraordinary lengths to prohibit the possession of any book written in Arabic by Muslim scholars except those which had been translated armies burned valuable into Latin. In the thirteenth century, Mongol books written by Muslim scholars in Baghdad,

and in the twelfth and thirteenth Muslim scientific works in Syria. Many non-Muslims translated

centuries, the Crusaders destroyed many the original works of Muslim scholars years, Europeans prejudice failed has

and Latinized the Muslim names. In subsequent current scientific progress

to recognize that Muslim scholars had done the original work on which had been made. Anti-Muslim role in the loss of recognition also played an important of Muslim scien-

tists and their scholarly work. Although the production scientific progress of scientific work and knowledge by Muslim above, the continued. Major scientific and philosostuTolscholars was brought to a halt owing to the factors mentioned that they had generated works of Muslims were translated phy from the books written dents graduated edo, Baghdad, and Damascus,

from Arabic to Latin, and Christians in physics, mathematics, Many European of Cordoba,

Europe learned medicine, chemistry,

by Muslim scholars. and returned

from the famous Muslim universities

to Europe to establish and New medical as that

teach in the newer universities. schools were established

In many European schools, the Arabic lan-

guage as well as Latin became the medium of instruction. of Muslim Spain and Baghdad. The textbooks ars were translated into Latin, and remained until the sixteenth century. The major reason Muslim world was the Muslims'

in Europe, teaching the same curriculum

written by Muslim schola major source of learning achievement in the

for the decline in scientific

gradual loss of interest in scientific sub-

jects. Two parallel systems of education were developed, namely Shari'ah - the science of Islamic jurisprudence, and al- c Ulam al- CAq liyyah - the natural sciences and technology. evolution apathy were recognized scientific Most scientific theories such as the theory of as anti-religious discoveries. and many Muslims turned owing to refrained

away from modern sciences. The decline in progress continued toward The schools

(Madaris)

from teaching

the more advanced

courses of mathematics,

science, and

CONTRIBUTIONS

OF

MUSLIM

PHYSICIANS

89
and ritualistic

philosophy,

focusing instead on the theological,

spiritual,

aspects of Islam and Islamic Law (Shari(ah). There was an overall demoralization in the new Muslim generation do scientific research. Commenting edness and a lack of tolerance, Manzoor
The transfer of science and technology

to acquire new knowledge and to Alam states:

from the Islamic realm to Europe of science. It Observatory in 1545. The Empire in in the

on religious fanaticism, narrow-mind-

was followed by a sharp decline of the political power of Islam, and the rise of fanaticism in Islam dealt a mortal blow to the development is symbolized by the destruction rise of the clerics and fanaticism India, Ottoman 16th century technology of the Istanbul Astronomical by Taqiyuddln in 1580 by the fanatics which was established

stifled the growth of science in the coun[Moghul)

tries ruled by Muslim rulers such as the Mooghul

Empire in Turkey and Arabia and smaller kingdoms scientific researches were conducted in Spanish,

Maghrib. The language barrier re-emerged forcefully since most of the post German, Italian, French, and English languages. and consequently Hence the language of science and to Muslims all over the world

once again became inaccessible

the Muslim countries rapidly lapsed into decay.42

One wonders about the possible shape of the world today if Muslim scientists had been able to continue their research and scholarly work. Today, Muslims are seriously under-represented world's population in science. Less than a false percepMuslims NeverMany conserone percent of the world's scientists are Muslim, whereas 25 percent of the are Muslim. Muslims have developed is in the Qur'an. rational tion that all knowledge vative imams discourage Most conservative and innovation.

discourage the study of science, regarding it as "Western." questioning

theless, to become a scientist, it is essential to have the ability to think critically and to have an inquisitive on thinking, observations. transferred continue After awakening developing mind. A scientist's experimenting, work is dependent and recording the have been that will a hypothesis,

Thus, science and technology group.

(CIlm al-lfikmah)
evolution

from the East to the West. Science does not belong to a particuIt is a never-ending from different the Muslim to occur with contributions
400

1ar ethnic or religious at different times.

races and groups is now reand learning

years of stagnation,

community

and seeking its lost identity. We are reviewing

about the contributions

of Muslim scholars to science and civilization.

M. BASHEER

AHMED

We are taking a pride in the scientific work of Muslim scientists. We are now recognizing our responsibilities to correct the erroneous notion that modern civilization and scientific advancement are a creation exclusive to a particular culture or civilization. The new generation of Muslim youth will hopefully enhance its selfperception of belonging to a Muslim community that has made a significant impact on world civilization. non-Muslim, The progress in science that we are It is the result of cooperato succesthis brief to

seeing today is like a building to which all nations - both Muslim and have made their contributions. tion, communication, sive generations and passing on the wealth of information from East and West. Although

from the Greeks to the Muslims to the West, and finally of Muslim scientists may not fully reflect the serve as an introduction However, encourage merely glorifyMuslim

back to the new generation article on the contributions their scholarly pursuits youth to become

work that they have done, it will, nevertheless, and accomplishments. researchers

ing the past is not enough, for we must continually dynamic

and follow the path of great

Muslim scholars to benefit their fellow human beings everywhere.

The Feasibility of an Islamic Economic System in a Modern Economy

MOHAMMED SHARIF

ABSTRACT

This paper examines the feasibility of an Islamic economic system in a modern economy. The contemporary economic system is sophisticated and very complex. Islam established the foundations of its economic system in the seventh century AC and its principles are deemed straightforward and simple. So the question arises: How can such a straight-forward and simple system handle the complicated problems of a modern economy? This is exactly what I intend to answer here using the problems of poverty and inequity as an illustration. Instead of talking about the problems in the world, however, I will discuss them in the context of the US, simply because this country is the most affluent, technologically the most advanced, and it has all the means at its disposal to eliminate at least the blight of poverty from its economy, although it chronically suffers from it. I will first show the nature of the problems in terms of poverty, hunger, homelessness, lack of medical care, and inequity in the distribution of income and wealth, in stark contradiction to the affluence of the country. Then I will demonstrate how the application of the Islamic principles could, within a very short time, solve these problems without at all stifling the prosperity of the society. This conclusion, however, should not be misconstrued that Islam cannot deal with the problems of developing countries. During the early days of Islam, Islamic principles worked miraculously to solve these and other problems with the least amount of resources.

MOHAMMED

SHARIF

INTRODUCTION

discussion

HE THEME

OF THIS

BOOK

is the Muslim contributions logical candidate

to for for -

civilization.

The contribution

to economic progress made by the is one of the prerequisites aspect of these contributions I hope that this restricted

Islamic economic

system is an important prosperity

here, for economic

achieving scientific development. economic presentation justice and human

Given the constraint development.

on space, however,

I will limit myself to one important

hopefully will help to clarify the content of my message to of the Islamic economic system I need to describe the fun-

readers and so will offer an appreciation in general. damental principle

Before delving into the subject, however,

of the overall Islamic system, for Islam is not just a

religion but a complete way of life and its economic system is only an integral part of the whole. Therefore, this discussion is divided into three stages. First, I will describe the basic Islamic principle of establishing and administering a system - social, economic, or politicaland compare it with the basic tenets of contemporary systems. Next, I will deal with the concept of economic progress, distinguishing between growth and development and showing their implications The fundamental for justice and human development. of an Islamic economic examined. system will Next, I will talk about the characteristics

then be listed and their implications I will show how easily the application

problems of poverty and inequity in the United States of America. Finally, of Islamic principles can solve these problems without having any adverse effects on economic progress.
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF THE ISLAMIC SYSTEM

The preconditions

for the functioning to civilization, participation of an elaborate

of any system and, more so, for it to are social and political stability and ways to achieve these preor inducing voluntary by coercion

make any contribution economic prosperity. conditions: participation imposing

There are two alternative

by winning the hearts and minds of the people. and complex legal system and the coupled with a harsh (socialism) are the tactics for its implementation, capitalism

The establishment use of strong-arm punishment pation.

for non-compliance,

is the systematic way of forcing particiand communism

In this category,

THE

ISLAMIC

ECONOMIC

SYSTEM

93
and prospers

two systems dominant

in the contemporary

world of ideas and practices. that functions of the members of society.

The Islamic system provides an alternative with the dedicated voluntary participation The fundamental capitalism

difference between these two systems is their philo- consider human life to consist only of a

sophy of how human life should be viewed and treated. The former - both and communism body and a mind. The soul is completely removed from the system, leaving, supposedly, the economy, selves toward enjoyment, possessions competitive just the individual lives of the people, or its existence and Since the soul is of no value in society, and politics, people generally find very little use for it in achieving only material possessions and power and their for role go completely unrecognized.

their individual lives either. The members of this society thus gear themhaving little or no moral guidance and power, the Darwinian and no consideration

the needs of the soul. In the absence of any ideal higher than material principle of the survival of the for individuals in their frictions fittest then becomes the sole guiding principle

pursuit for material success in life. Under these circumstanThus, these materialistic societies find

ces, the trampling of the weak by the strong and the concomitant and tensions are logical outcomes. punishment no other option but to institute an elaborate maintain stability and insure prosperity.

legal system with stringent

for its violation and they depend solely on this legal system to In the absence of any moral code

of behavior required for the elevation of the soul (spiritual development), however, individuals generally abide by the law only when there is fear of getting caught. Otherwise, It is no wonder This contention breaking the law for gaining material possesunder these systems. social problems. these societies achieve extraordinary sions and power is a common occurrence that although

material progress, yet they face similarly extraordinary is illustrated ved by state ownership and control in a communist

by the high rate of economic growth achiesystem or by the alloenormous

cation of most of the resources to a small group of people in a capitalist system to generate the engine of growth with simultaneously costs to society. individual freedom in a communist system, the creation Society is forced to pay in the form of the loss of of extreme ineof chronic poverty in a capitalistic for insatiable material progress leads

quity in both systems, and generation system. While the harsh competition

to intense conflicts of interests, the inequity and poverty generated create

94
the dissatisfaction

MOHAMMED

SHARIF

resulting from the awareness

of relative and absolute

deprivation. The logical outcome again is a variety of difficult problems for the society to tackle. Society thus responds by enacting more laws, thus complicating compliance harsher. system in such a situation can be in the United States. In the early 3 percent of the total it keeps the system the system further and making punishments for non-

How harsh and stringent the legal system has become to maintain the stability of the social-political-economic illustrated twenty-first probation, population. reduced functioning. by the extent of incarceration

century about seven million people are currently in prison, on and on parole; that is approximately This method of punishment, extent, Nevertheless, however, cannot be said to have although

crime to any significant

it costs $70 billion a year to keep about two

million individuals system.

behind bars at the rate of $35,000 per inmate. Note

that this is only a fraction of the total cost of running the criminal justice

In contrast,
dedicated achieved, character.

Islam maintains participation

social and political stability and attains an equitable and just system by the of society. This is of the members

economic prosperity voluntary however,

by establishing

not by the threat of law, but by training individual

members of society and helping them to develop the best possible human

In this respect, Islam treats human life, unlike contemporary

as consisting of three components - body, mind, and in Islamic philowith the

Western thinking,

soul. All these three aspects are given equal importance sophy and practice for successful development best of human qualities, and therefore, ultimately,

of a personality

for the efficient func-

tioning of the system. The importance of this balanced development of human life may be understood better by the fact that without the soul (spirit), the body is a piece of dead meat and the mind (represented functioning of the brain) is similarly decomposed by the and non-functioning.

The soul, however, does not die: when an individual dies, the soul simply leaves the body and exists as a spirit somewhere in God's universe. While the body and the mind relate to the material aspects of human living, the soul provides the human spirit and thus relates to the spiritual side of human life. Both material and spiritual components comprise the full and complete human life, and therefore, the balanced development of both aspects of life is essential for successful human living.

THE ISLAMIC

ECONOMIC

SYSTEM

95
social and to the

This balanced development

of human personality prosperity,

plays a very imporin essence, laying its followers

tant role in the Islamic system in establishing political stability and achieving economic the foundation of Islamic civilization. believe that life on this earth is temporary, and is infinite, that the individual's

and maintaining

Islam requires

that real life starts after death

deeds in this life will determine

quality of his/her life in the Hereafter, that there is a Day of Judgment after death when the rewards for good deeds and punishment for evil deeds will be handed accountable produced completely monitored. troduces out by God. More importantly, individuals are to God for their own deeds, God is keeping a complete and (think of it as a surveillance for the members of

perfect record of everything we think, say, and do, and this record will be before us at the time of judgment camera, though far better than ours). This aspect of Islamic faith almost removes the need for legal monitoring voluntary participants, society are not only dedicated self-monitoring they are also selffollowing the facili-

Thus, while the spiritual elevation of individual human life inof individuals' own behavior

universal moral code of conduct, physical and mental development There are two important First, self-monitoring tuting an elaborate sive monitoring participate

tates unimpeded material progress leading to the growth of civilization. benefits that are derived from this process. or at least, reduces the need for instievery member of society to development. While and The - both human eliminates,

and complex legal system along with its very expenin personal and community resources

system; second, it motivates of society's

voluntarily

the first frees huge amounts material - for utilization economic development latter aspect eliminates dissatisfaction contemporary

in developmental the social conflicts

activities, the second leads to human development. and tensions the amount caused by the of resources

or more appropriately,

stemming from extreme inequity and poverty endemic in systems. This again minimizes and the administration of justice in the

needed for conflict resolution

systems devoid of any role for the spiritual aspect of human living. The resources saved can be used for human development.
RELEVANCE OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Economists have for a long time used the concepts of "economic and "economic development" interchangeably.

growth"

It was only in the late

MOHAMMED

SHARIF

1960s that they began to distinguish to return in the 19 80S to emphasizing for prosperity remnant of the recognition index constructed elopment Program.2 nomic development

between them, the importance

unfortunately

only

of economic growth

and applying the policy of growth the world over. The only remains in the form of the human development annually by the United Nations the importance
AC.

and published

Devof eco-

Islam, however,

recognized

for human development of growth

and applied the policy and and development need to be

achieved extraordinary explained. accompanied Economic

results in the seventh century

At this point, the meanings by improvements In contrast,

growth refers to the increase in per capita income in technology and changes in the strucand technologymeans creating an to its maximum development to realize their from primary to manufacturing personality

ture of the economy based production. environment potential human

economic development of human

for the realization

for every individual development

in society. Thus, economic

implies affording

the members of society the opportunity to their fullest potential.

In essence, development

includes growth and adds a human content to it. Growth measures economic progress as the increase in societal income (wealth) without considering who is enjoying this wealth. On the other hand, development into account the implications concerning education, Achieving food security, etc. economic prosperity by the state mandate under comof most of the resources to a small business and technological progress. However, it nutritional standards, healthcare, takes of rising wealth for the general population longevity,

munism and by the allocation class under capitalism attaining economic prosperity

is a policy of economic growth. It is a fast way to in the form of poverty, hunger, lack of medical care, lack of and of a large

takes place at a huge cost to humanity malnutrition, education, number homelessness,

unemployment,

etc. The extreme inequity generated causes dissatisfaction in the incarceration

a lack of respect for the law, resulting of people. Furthermore, owing to workers' productivity

it is not only costly to society in lost dissatisfaction and increased expenditure

in the administration constant

of the law, but also makes the system inherently by the system to civilization therefore face the of the erstwhile USSR of this instability.

unstable. The contributions illustrates the consequences

threat of being lost. The disintegration

THE

ISLAMIC

ECONOMIC

SYSTEM

97
the policy of to parti-

The Islamic policy of economic development human development along with increasing

internalizes

societal wealth. This simply

means that every member of society is afforded the opportunity cipate in the generation gained. Thus, economic development establishes

of wealth and to share equitably in the prosperity a just and equitable and technological to civilization are prosperity

system. Under this system, the economic

progress achieved are steady and their contributions This type of economic and human development policy of ensuring the dedicated voluntary ces steady and stable contributions permanent, their hearts and minds. The just and equitable

stable and less likely to be lost as a result of inherent forces of destruction. is based on the Islamic of all by winning produparticipation

basis of prosperity

to civilization,

which are more or less

unless external forces threaten to destroy them.

ISLAMIC ECONOMIC SYSTEM

An economic system is distinguished property, tion of resources and distribution

by the type of ownership the method

and use of of alloca-

the nature of the exchange mechanism,

of income and wealth, and the role of

society in modifying the outcomes. The contrast between the capitalist and the communist systems is clear and well known. The features of the Islamic system, however, need a detailed description, modern world and it overlaps both capitalism The ownership of property of a system and needs to be addressed everything in the universe and therefore, for the system is new to the and communism. the nature including

is a critical factor determining God owns everything,

first. In Islam, God has created

humans. The humans, as vicegerents of God on earth, are given the trusteeship of everything else - the right to use and preserve everything else for their welfare. This right to use, however, comes with duties and responsibilities. Unlike both capitalism and communism, Islam grants humans difference being that defined by the on the use of the right to use, not the right to own. The substantive whereas the right to use puts restrictions resources and attached introduces moderation important

the right to own grants the right to use in any way that the owner wishes, and obligations restrictions owner. God, in Islam, has imposed elaborate obligations into this important

to that right. Islam, thus, of private property of

institution

and frees the society and its members from the tyranny of ownership resources by either private individuals

or the state. This right to use in

MOHAMMED

SHARIF

Islam, however,

is granted to private individuals of insuring that

as in capitalism, the individual

not to

the collective authority

of the society as in communism.

Society, however, members

is given the responsibility Therefore, although

discharge their duties and fulfill their obligations Islam grants individuals utilization also insures their appropriate them. Islam is thus a moderate and the social authority's and socialism. Given the private right to use resources,

in using the resources.

the right to use resources, it to enforce

by imposing duties and responright to freedom,

sibilities on this right, and entrusts society with the authority blend of an individual's

duty to regulate it, that is, a blend of capitalism the Islamic system functions

by the operation of the market. Free private enterprise is at the heart of an Islamic economy, for it encourages initiative and drive, facilitates innovations, and rewards "When bounty" the prayer productivity. is ended, God declares in the Qur'an, (2:29). The Qur'an disperse "He it is enjoins, Who created for you all that is in the earth" (62:10). These verses categorically to you whatever

in the land and seek of God's suggest that the earth is for further says, "God has made (3 1:20). These

humans to explore and utilize. The Qur'an subservient

is in the heavens and whatever is in the earth well-being in Muslim life. In fact,

and granted you His bounties both manifest and hidden" verses ascertain the place of material

Islam sets no limit on how much an individual can earn and spend; rather, it sets firm restrictions income. The permissible trade and forbidden on loans, irrespective This statement circulation accumulation forbidden of income on how an individual and forbidden earns and spends his/her methods and activities of earning declares, "Allah has glorified fixed return makes a profit or a loss. the productive the unproductive of these

and spending are clearly stated. The Qur'an of whether

Riba." (2:275). Riba is a predetermined

the borrower Islam encourages

implies that although and wealth,

it clearly forbids

of wealth and exploitative

earning of incomes. Hoarding are examples

for the purpose

of raising prices and gambling

activities. on the part of every member of the society on others. Two stories from the life of the point. One day a man instead of giving him a illustrate dependence

Islam requires self-reliance and discourages Prophet handout, Muhammad

convincingly

came to the Prophet

for help. The Prophet,

asked him if he had anything at home that he could spare. When

THE ISLAMIC

ECONOMIC

SYSTEM

99
the pots,

the man told him that he had a few kitchen pots that could be spared, he asked him to bring them to him. After the man brought the Prophet auctioned the remaining forest. On another occasion, the Prophet noticed that a man was staying in the mosque, praying for days and going out only for the calls of nature. He also noticed that another man had been bringing him food everyday. So the Prophet called on the man and asked him why he was staying in the mosque all the time, the name of the man who was bringing him food, if he had a family and children, and who was taking care of them. The man replied that he wanted to worship God all the time, the man was his said, "Your brother is a better brother, he had a family and children, and his brother was taking care of them. After hearing all this, the Prophet worshipper acceptable admirable than you are." on others is not an is said, "Noway of living in Islam for people of ability. Self-reliance and therefore encouraged. Prophet Muhammad amount them to his Companions, gave some of the money

from the sale to the man to buy food for himself and his family, and gave to him to buy an axe for cutting wood from the

These two stories clearly suggest that dependence

body has ever eaten a better meal than that which he has earned by working with his own hand."3 The Prophet is also reported until it is exhausted to have said, "If God provides anyone of you with an opportunity let him not leave it unexploited prosperity for earning a livelihood, or becomes disagreof economic in this

eable to him."4 These sayings clearly indicate the importance in Muslim life. More importantly, God in Islam is broad and far-reaching respect: living life on earth by following a better way of worshiping in income generation

the concept of worshiping of God is by everyone their

guiding human behavior the commandments

Him. This insures participation

and offers them the opportunity

to explore

potential, and to make the best possible contribution In requiring self-reliance and participation tunity in acquiring that is, knowledge, complementary resources

to society. activities by

in productive

every member of society, Islam insures that they enjoy an equal opporwith which to work. The resource is human capital, of this resource obliof learning by God to Prophet The importance revealed first and the most important complementary

and Islam makes the acquisition

gatory for every Muslim man and woman.5 is also evident from the first injunction

roo
Muhammad: humans is also talking understanding knowledge Prophet's "Read about

MOHAMMED

SHARIF

in the name of your Lord Who created. to enjoining knowledge the science of creation

Created God

from a clot" (96:r-2). In addition

learning,

in this very first revelarequires a proper world. That this

tion. This strongly indicates that spiritual of the functioning relates to material instruction,

of the material

aspects of living is also evident from the in China.,,6 Islamic elsewhere in this to proof

"If necessary, seek knowledge to civilization important

civilization is based on this role of learning in Muslim life, as is testified by the Muslim contributions book. In addition, as described

Islam establishes

economic institutions

vide everyone in society with material resources so that nobody is deprived of the opportunity inheritance mogeniture, to participate productively. The institution is one such institution. Unlike the Western institution of pri-

which grants sole ownership

of the parent's estate to the first

child only, Islam grants inheritance

rights to a large number of the memby Islam

bers of the family. The members who are entitled to a share in the estate and their respective shares are clearly defined and predetermined and nobody has any authority to change them. Even the holder of the or

estate, unlike the Western system of granting rights to the owner to give his/her estate to whoever a will before death. These injunctions ticipation, eliminate and institutions, the potential in addition to providing compleparmentary resources to almost every member of society for productive for the concentration he/she desires, does not have the authority even the right to deprive any member of his/her share by way of writing

of income and

wealth, on the one hand, and creation of poverty, on the other. The distribution of the estate among a large number of inheritors after the death of a relative attacks these problems for the creation ficient utilization on unearned innovative innovations inventions of poverty. at the root and reduces the potential it reduces the chances of inefwho might simply rely efficiency of assets by of inventions and efficiency, induces prosperity. Most In addition,

of assets by large asset-holders,

income, and it increases the productive inheritors.

Note that the larger the number of people receiving

complementary

resources, the greater is the probability and thereby encourages and facilitates economic

in the system. Islam, thus, engages the largest possible numand innovations,

ber of people in production

THE

ISLAMIC

ECONOMIC

SYSTEM

IOI

of all, this prosperity increased circulation Islam, however, disabilities,

is achieved in a just and equitable of productive recognizes resources in the system.

process by the

that there will always be some less forthe socially displaced, such and the

tunate people in society, such as those suffering from physical and mental victims of natural calamities, and economically demographically handicapped, as orphans, to the

widows, the elderly, the unemployed, blem at both individual

etc. Here Islam deals with the pro-

and social levels to insure that, according

Qur'an, "wealth does not circulate only among your rich" (59:7). At the individual level, Islam requires the more fortunate of the less fortunate in society. Prophet Muhammad true Muslim who takes his fill and his neighbor to take care said, "He is not a but

goes to bed hungry."7

This, however, is not prescribed as showing pity for the less fortunate, As vicegerents of God on earth, every individual, tunate, has been granted a minimum

as a way of expressing gratitude to God for making them more fortunate. including the less forof human dignity by Him. There-

fore, this means of giving charity must also be dignified. In essence, God has granted the needy a legitimate share in the wealth of the rich. In this sense, the rich simply perform their obligation is one such obligation percent of accumulated the year. Although seems insignificant, trument to (worship) God by giving 2.5 a share of their wealth to the needy. Zakah, one of the five pillars of Islam, required of a Muslim. After some deductions, of the total accumulated wealth is to be paid as a welfare tax at the end of wealth this ins-

as a proportion

I will show that this is a very potent economic poverty completely

in eradicating

from society with the least for the community to

impact on the holder of wealth. Islam actually makes it a social responsibility an abominable Islam is kufr, Muhammad sin for the community which means denying eradicate poverty. The existence of poverty in society is considered the Authority to be

as a whole. The most serious sin in of God. Prophet This implies that a

said, "Poverty is a sin worse than kufr."s

poverty is not tolerated is not an Islamic system. In conclusion

in an Islamic system, or more categorically, of God, and therefore,

system that tolerates poverty denies the Authority this section can be summarized

by saying that the of both features. The

Islamic economic system combines the beneficial characteristics capitalism and communism, yet is free of their undesirable

102

MOHAMMED

SHARIF

application

of free enterprise

and market mechanisms

along with the use

of egalitarian principles ensures the system is both efficient and equitable. The absence of ownership rights over resources and of unrestricted authority a balanced humanity.
POVERTY AND DISTRIBUTION INEQUITY IN THE USA

for their use by both the individual middle path - a moderate

and the state frees society

from the tyranny of ownership

and use. In this sense, the Islamic system is system devised for the benefit of

To illustrate

the effectiveness

of these simple and straightforward

prin-

ciples of Islam in dealing with the problems

of a complex modern ecoof income and

nomy, the absolute poverty and inequity in the distribution

wealth in the United States of America are a useful example. The United States is the most affluent country in the world today and has the most technologically advanced economy. However, the country suffers from a and serious problem of chronic absolute poverty - hunger, homelessness,

lack of medical care, in spite of the fact that it has all the means at its disposal to eliminate this blight from its society. At the same time, it has a very high level of inequity in the distribution is becoming worse with time. Absolute standard constructed poverty is defined as the inability of a family to afford the In the United States, an official poverty line is and all those falling below this line as the cost of diet providing the minimum numinimum basic needs of life and therefore, a condition of living below the of subsistence. based on this definition of income and wealth, which

are defined as absolute poor. This poverty line is calculated the least expensive bundle of vegetarian

tritional needs, multiplied by a factor of three to include the cost of the other basic needs of life - shelter, clothing, medical care, etc. The poverty line income used by the US government individual, in 1999 was $8,501 for a single the estimate $10,869 for a family of two, $13,290 for a family of three, and

$17,029 for a family of four.9 Based on these thresholds, were in absolute poverty in 1999.10

shows that 32.4 million people or II.8 percent of the total US population The 1999 census figures also show that 42.6 million people, that is, over 15.5 percent of the total population do not have any form of medical coverage. I I The Urban Institute (2000) I 2 reported over two million homeless people in 1996. This figure continued to rise, and increased by 15 percent

THE ISLAMIC

ECONOMIC

SYSTEM

13
13

in 2000 over that of 1999, according to the Conference mates that

12

of Mayors.

The

Tufts University Center on Hunger, Poverty, and Nutrition million people are chronically

PolicyI4 esti-

hungry, while more than 35

million suffer food insecurity (I997 figures). Note that families which are marginally above the poverty line can fall below the line at any time - hence they are also food insecure along with the poor. A US Department Agriculture ReporrI5 shows that one in every ten US households of poverty has serious adverse food insecurity. This condition of suffers

effects on human

development. Lack of proper nutrition and medical care causes physical and mental debilitya, stunted growth in children, susceptibility to diseases, and ultimately, human development ment Program. mortality premature death. These effects are apparent by the United Nations in the index constructed Develop-

The United States has the highest infant and maternal it has the highest per capita GDP adjusted for
16

rate and lowest longevity for both males and females in the

industrial world, although purchasing power parity.

Why does the United States have such high levels of poverty and hunger problem? A look at the minimum wage figures can provide an insight into this situation. Assume that the minimum wage is $5.65 per hour and that an individual works full time, that is, 40 hours per week and 50 disability, etc. the weekly takeweeks per year. The weekly earning will be $226, assuming that $26 will be deducted for social security, temporary home pay is $200. This gives an annual income of $10,000, which is less than the poverty level income for a family of two. Assume again that a one-bedroom apartment costs $ 500 a month that will take away $6,000 else. If food electrifrom the yearly income, leaving only $4,000 for everything whole year for transportation, city, gas, phone, outcome. How the low wage perpetuates the trend in minimum the condition of poverty is clear from of Labor
17 This

costs $300 a month, a total of $3,600 per year, only $400 is left for the clothing, medical care, education, task. Poverty etc. - an impossible is the inevitable

wage over time. The US Department

compiled a list of minimum wage figures for a long period of time.

list shows that the real minimum wage in 1998 dollars, instead of going up, has actually gone down over the years. In 1968, the minimum wage was $7.49 (in 1998 $). It fell to $6.19 in 1977, $4.40 in 1989, and rose

14

MOHAMMED

SHARIF

slightly to $5.23 in 1997, but is still far below the 1968 figure. This is exactly the reason why hunger has been continually Policy, shows that there were 20 million hungry increasing over time. Americans in 1985, Research by Tufts University Center for Hunger, Poverty, and Nutrition which increased to 30 million in 1992, and 35 million in 1997. One important aspect of the US economy's health needs to be highlighted here. The problem of poverty and hunger just described prevailed during a period of unprecedented economic prosperity - during the 1990S. The economy was growing steadily at about 4 percent annually zero inflation, and very low interest rates.

with almost no unemployment,

Table 7.r: Households' Top 20% Income Wealth Financial Wealth 939 48.r 72.2 Top r% r64 49

Share of Income and Wealth in the USA (r989) (percent) Top 5% 297 62.8% Bottom 20% 3.1 -1.4 -23 Bottom 80% Bottom 95% 73 37.2 27.8

555 84.6

445 r 5.4 6.1

Source: Wolff, Economics of Poverty.

Who, then, is enjoying this economic prosperity? 7.1 give a clear answer to this question. latest analysis done by Wolff.IS bottom 80 percent of households, The top
20

The figures in Table of US households

These figures relate to 1989, the percent

enjoy 55.5 percent of the national income, a share greater than that of the whereas the bottom 20 percent enjoy a of net wealth (assets minus debts) is whereas the bottom 95
I

meager 3.1 percent. The distribution

even worse, the richest 20 percent receiving 84.6 percent (leaving 15-4 percent for the bottom 80 percent of households), percent receive only 37.2 percent. The shares of the top and 5 percent of finan-

are 40.9 and 62.8 percent, respectively. Worst is the distribution

cial wealth (financial assets minus financial liabilities), with 93.9 percent going to the richest 20 percent and 27.8 percent to the bottom 95 percent. Here the shares of the top I and 5 percent of the households are respectively, 48.1 and 72.2 percent. Studies also show that this inequity in the distribution of income and

THE ISLAMIC

ECONOMIC

SYSTEM

I05

wealth increased further during the 1990S.19 While the real wage has been decreasing, CEO pay has been skyrocketing from 44:
I

- the average yearly CEO pay

reached $ 5.6 million in 1996, raising the CEO workers pay ratio to 209:1 in the 1960s. In addition, the tax burden has shifted continually from the rich to the middle class during the 1980s and 1990S.20
ISLAMIC SOLUTION TO POVERTY AND INEQUALITY

IN THE UNITED

STATES

The most important human personality.

thrust of the Islamic system is the development

of the are

Once that has been achieved and put in place, the rest of the permissible and the forbidden of a policy thus becomes a matter of infor-

becomes easy, for the injunctions obeyed. The implementation ming the community and self-monitored

about the policy and it is carried out by dedicated members of society. the implementation material well-being of an is the

In the absence of such a system, however, system of external monitoring. only consideration Since personal

Islamic policy in the United States would have to depend on the existing in this materialistic secular society, the policy has a sacrifice than of the

greater chance of success if it entails a smaller personal that already in existence. Therefore, Islamic instruments

I will give a brief description

for reducing poverty and inequity, though they might of the system of Zakah to solve the

not be easy to use outside a fully-fledged Islamic system. I will then make a strong case for the introduction problems, for it requires a much smaller personal sacrifice and is easy to implement. The introduction reducing governing mulation generation inequity of the Islamic law of inheritance and poverty. Similarly, and forbidden activities can go a long way in of the laws of and the methods the application

permissible

earning and spending of poverty.

wealth can eliminate Gambling,

many sources of the accutrade, and consumpof the market are for these of the behavior

and concentration

of income and wealth and the concomitant the production, manipulation provides Correcting

tion of drugs, hoarding, what the market an individual

and speculative

examples of such activities. It is the consumers' supplies and thereby entity. activities. Islam places great emphasis as an economic

behavior that determines the incentive individual behavior

on the consumption

with respect to the demand for drugs, for example,

could eliminate

Io6
problem

MOHAMMED

SHARIF

of drug production

and drug dealing. The United States might

never have to fight drug wars in other countries and spend huge amounts of resources that could be easily used for fighting poverty at home. More importantly, institutions the United States will not have to spend huge amount of resources in fighting the drug war at home and in filling its adult correctional youth markedly, with inmates. This will turn millions of American resources, which, by itself will reduce poverty individuals are of into productive

for the families and children of the incarcerated

sentenced to poverty by their incarceration. All these, however, require Islamic education Islamic personalities. both voluntary poverty completely and obligatory and the development of charity-

In their absence, the Islamic institution

and thereby diminishing

- can play an effective role in eliminating inequity to a certain extent. the poor with the The prothe donations. of supporting

The United States already has a tradition

welfare system and people make generous voluntary out of poverty, thereby having the undesirable problem. The introduction payment but also convert the poor into productive the required accumulations that it is not expected

blem is that the system is designed to support the poor, not to bring them effect of perpetuating of Zakah could not only eliminate poverty, members of society. Moreover, of the asset-holders' of assets. This

is so small a percentage accumulation

to have any adverse effect on the and utilization participation redistribution of the erstwhile poor, policies. wealth tax and to convert at the

incentive to the productive

measure, coupled with the productive could lead to equitable prosperity, The zakah, translated asserted, can happen with conventional

rather than stifling growth, which, it is

as a welfare tax, is an obligatory

imposed and collected by society to help the less fortunate

those among them who are physically and mentally able into productive members of society. It is only 2.5 percent of the assets accumulated end of the year after some deductions, The early Islamic society established this instrument institution, such as the value of owner-occuby Prophet Muhammad within practiced

pied homes and of a small amount of jewelry regularly worn by women. with great success. Indeed, It is worth mentioning a few years of its

it was so successful that the system could not find anybody that the early Islamic ecoof Zakah were institutiowith the US economy today.

deserving of support.

nomy was not at all affluent compared

To see what could happen if the instrument

THE

ISLAMIC

ECONOMIC

SYSTEM

17
and used by
2

nalized, I will quote the figures estimated Ackerman and Alstott22 in their proposal income tax. Using a household percent Adjusting wealth exemption

by Wilhelm21

for a wealth tax to replace the of $80,000, they show that a zakah rate, total of $378 billion per year. yearly zakah

tax could yield the revenue

this figure for 2.5 percent

collection could be $472.5 billion. Now, by dividing this amount among the }2.4 million poor, American society could pay $14,583 per year to every individual, which is $43,750 for a family of three. This calculation shows that society can eliminate poverty completely in just one year. This measure would give the families not just the support, invest in educa-tion, attain occupational a few years of its implementation, To compare country, but also enough to In skills, and become productive.

this social help might fully eliminate the expenditure in the the

need for any external support for these families. this zakah figure with the welfare programs take the two important mainly geared towards

poor: Aid to Families with Children and Food Stamps. Both federal and state governments fare reform. can play. This zakah program, ignored, in addition to eliminating poverty, would reduce up, rather is the problem of inequity also. The importance because it would reduce inequity than the conventional of this measure cannot be from the bottom spent in 1996 a little over $40 billion on these prois only a small fraction the important of grams, which is expected to be even smaller now as a result of the workIn any case, this expenditure underlining the total zakah money collection, role zakah

method of top down. It is the top down method to up method spends

which the wealthy in society object and resist; the bottom welcomed and facilitated by everybody in society. One more point needs mentioning elimination of poverty by the institution here. The country

$70 will utili-

billion a year to keep about two million incarcerated reduce the level of incarceration

behind bars. The

of zakah most probably

and save resources for productive

zation. This suggests that the zakah program could go a long way not only in solving poverty, but also other problems from which society suffers.
CONCLUSIONS

I would like to conclude

this chapter

by emphasizing

that the Islamic

economic system is not only feasible in a modern economy, but indeed is

108

MOHAMMED

SHARIF

also the answer to its problems. and is growing more complex (spirit). It directs the whole

The modern system has become complex so as to make the issues intractable aspect of human system toward a fierce competition only for the life - the soul

because it denies one very important gaining as many material possessions the Darwinian

and as much power as possible. In

battle for survival of the fittest, more appropriately,

battle for accession to position of wealth and power for the fittest, in the absence of any kind of moral code of behavior, creates many problems punishment for violation, secular modern society ill-equipped to deal. with which it is absolutely

The only thing it does is to enact more and more laws with stringent but to no avail, for the allure of material possto material essions and power is much too great to keep the aspirants success from violating the law. The Islamic system is simple and straightforward body to understand, make humanity for humanity. and its spiritual guidance abide by divine injunctions In addition, is persuasive

enough for everyenough to

that are universally beneficial creating and mainand spiritual elevation of

society is geared towards for both the material

taining the environment

everyone in society. If applied, this system could successfully eliminate the problems of the complex modern economy in simple and straightforward ways and could lead to economic development, institution rather than growth. The of zakah illustrates this possibility clearly and well.

Islamic Financial Institutions in the United States: Viability and Prospects

ABDEL-HAMEED M. BASHIR

ABSTRACT

Since the prescriptions of Islam prohibit charging or receiving interest, Muslims in the West, particularly those in the United States, find themselves effectively unable to deal with the interest-based financial institutions. Hence, a genuine need arises for establishing financial institutions that serve a growing Muslim population while at the same time adhering to the rules and regulations of the US financial system. The question now is: How can the Islamic financial institutions bridge the gap between religious constraints and financial regulations?
INTRODUCTION

and Sunnah, it is sometimes helpful to understand prohibitions. It has been argued by many prominent
I990S

HERE IS CONSENSUS

among Muslim jurists and scholars that

the inter~st rate ~harged by conventional b.ank~ is the prohibi~ed rtbii. While Muslims adhere closely to the directives of the Qur an the rationale for these Western economists and subject to

that the system based on interest financial crises. The most common traders

and debt is unstable

witnessed many debt crises in different parts

of the world, including Latin America, East Asia and Russia. The single factor of all these crises was bank loans made at excesand currency The Islamic the whole financial systems tumbled. sively high rates of interest. When the indebted companies defaulted,

110

ABDEL-HAMEED

M. BASHIR

financial system, based on participation the lender Accordingly, is expected Islamic to share financing part

and risk-sharing

offers a viable

remedy for the world debt crisis. Under the Islamic modes of financing, of the risk of the investment. active participation and encourages

asserts that money borrowed

is not entitled to a reward. Thus the system of financial crises and to abide by it is

of shared risk is expected to reduce the possibility

to be more fair and equitable. Hence, Muslims are encouraged that awaits particular, those who ignore this Islamic injunction. establish financial institutions a survey by the Council

the tenets of Islam and not deal with interest because of the great torment Therefore, imperative that Muslims in the West in general, and in the United States in that provide them with intereston American estimated Islamic Relations free choices. Recently,

(CAIR) and other Muslim organizations, lims in the United States and Canada are middle class professionals lesson to be learned munities

the number of Mus-

to be over 10 million. The survey major com-

went further to conclude that sizeable portions of the Muslim community with a major savings pool. lOne and changing from this recent study is that the Muslim

in the West are dynamic

over time. During the

I960s and I970s, the pioneering Muslim were occupied with organizing themselves

emigrants (mainly students) on college campuses to pre-

serve their Islamic identity. During the I980s and 1990S, the process had changed to building local institutions like mosques, schools, and Islamic centers, as well as social, cultural, and professional organizations. Certainly, the urgent challenge facing the Muslims in the twenty-first is building economic and political bases for empowerment ticipation. In particular, cial institutions Islamically-oriented interest-based secular constraints that conform institutions conventional century

and active par-

Muslims are faced with urgent needs for finanto the tenets of Islam. The absence of has forced Muslims to deal with the the religious and institutions, were resweak and marginalifor their religious

system. Notwithstanding financially

arising when dealing found themselves

with ribii-based

Muslim communities uninterested trictions.

zed. Being relatively small communities, Consequently,

large financial institutions

in serving their needs or catering

the two groups mostly affected by this situation and small businesses for, historically, these two

were Muslim consumers

groups relied heavily on local banks for their credit and payments needs.

ISLAMIC

FINANCIAL

INSTITUTIONS

IN THE US

III

It is imperative that small businesses are supported, essential role in the economic prosperity for all practical of the Muslim purposes, clientele. there exists financial institutions

because they play an Hence, for of demand

of smaller communities. an indisputable

providing services and products The question

to satisfy the needs

is: Why is the development

Islamic financial institutions

in the United States so slow or limited? The

purpose of this chapter is to shed some light on the factors limiting the growth of Islamic financial institutions within the US financial system. The second section of the chapter focuses on the constraints institutions current state of the existing institutions, section their challenges facing these and potential and and how to overcome them. The third section discusses the highlights new opportunities

successes, while the fourth

unsatisfied needs. Some concluding remarks are given in the last section.
OBSTACLES AND CHALLENGES

Theoretically,

Islamic financial institutions

have to overcome many obsto have become less restrictive

tacles before they can operate in the US financial system. It is important keep in mind that some of these obstacles recently. Islamic institutions profound

have a better chance to succeed, given the information technology, Meanwhile, and finanthe impli-

changes just taking place in the US banking industry; the most The implications of these changes for the profitability are yet to be exa-

obvious being mergers, deregulation, cial integration.

and safety of banks have been widely discussed. mined. One may legitimately If Islamic community regulations banks

cations of these changes for Islamic financial institutions Islamic finance by relaxing the entry restrictions are allowed to operate

argue that the current changes will benefit to the financial markets. States, (as will have in the United

banks or national banks), the Muslim communities such as the Community Reinvestment

access to financial services that are compatible

with the Sharicah. Surely, Act (CRA), which On the contrary,

requires banks to lend in all areas in which they take deposits, would certainly benefit Islamic consumers financial institutions to regulations. and small businesses.2 one might argue that the new changes would not be helpful to Islamic for two reasons. First, Islamic financial institutions because they have to adhere will not created by mergers. None the cannot succeed in a riba-based environment be able to compete with large organizations

Second, because of their size, Islamic institutions

112

ABDEL-HAMEED

M. BASHIR

less, for Islamic financial institutions to be able to succeed in the United States, they have to overcome certain impediments. These include regulation, innovation, competition, lack of accounting standards, and the perception of the Muslim communities.
FINANCIAL REGULATIONS

Until recently, the primary constraint hindering the growth and development of Islamic banks in the US financial markets is financial regulation. If Islamic banks, for example, were chartered to operate in the United States, they would be required to adhere to the same set of rules and regulations applied to their counterparts, regardless of the nature and scope of their operations) The Banking Act of 1933, which requires the separation of the banking and securities industries, was a major obstacle to operating a bank on an Islamic basis.4 However, until now, Islamic banks were not able to apply for a charter in the United States, because the Islamic modes of contract (Muq,arabah) put the depositors' funds at risk, contrary to the safety measures demanded by regulators. Accordingly, the rapid growth (15 percent annually) and the global success of Islamic banks worldwide have led many traditional banks to open windows for Islamic deposits (Citibank). Another major obstacle to the operation of Islamic banks in the US financial system is the reserves requirement. The equity-like nature of Islamic profit-loss sharing (PLS) deposits makes them different than ordinary deposits in a conventional bank. Many jurists and Islamic economists argue against subjecting PLS deposits to reserve requirements. They argue that since PLS deposits are neither guaranteed nor entitled to fixed returns, subjecting them to reserve requirements will be an extra burden on both the depositor and the institution, since reserve requirements provide no returns.5 Furthermore, deposit insurance (and insurance in general) could also be considered a barrier, given the controversy over the conventional insurance contract. However, the passage of Grann-Leach-Bliley Financial Services Modernization Act of 1999 (GLBA) has made establishing of an Islamic bank in the United States possible and imminent.6 In particular, Islamic banks would have to pay more attention to their Camel rating (acronym based on five areas: capital adequacy, assets quality, management, earnings, and liquidity) in order to adhere to the US financial regulations.

ISLAMIC

FINANCIAL FINANCIAL

INSTITUTIONS PRODUCTIONS

IN THE US

113

Another tutions

obstacle

hampering

the expansion

of Islamic financial instruments and mark-up practitioners available

instifor can in

in the United States is the financial

mobilizing and utilizing Muslims' instruments.

savings. The current instruments (contracts)

be classified under two headings: equity-like each category, whereby jurists

and debt-like have esta-

In fact, there are many types of instruments and financial

blished their validity and conformity existing instruments contemporary clear understanding financial environment.

with the Shari'ah. None the less, the and non-Muslims lack a

are limited in scope and can hardly cope with the of their applicability to this continually short-term innovative

financial needs. Many Muslims

Hence, Islamic financial institutions requirement

have to devel-

op and innovate (financial engineering) that satisfy the Shari'ah

financial instruments

while at the same time allowing

banks to diversify their portfolios and secure short-term funds if needed. Islamic financial institutions also have to invest heavily in familiarizing their potential customers and clients with these instruments before they can expect to attract new customers or survive the competition.
ACCOUNTING STANDARDS

Another constraint standard accounting

that could be detrimental institutions

for the growth and developis the lack of

ment of Islamic financial of bank performance.

in the US markets of accounting

principles that facilitate disclosure and surveillance Standardization policies is just as

important for Islamic financial institutions as it is for conventional ones, and for the same reason: to facilitate meaningful comparisons and analyses of results. In most cases, it is not possible to use the conventional accounting Accounting principles and apply them to the Islamic financial of the two systems are different. twelve (12) accounting standards, concepts the because the frameworks (AAOIFI) has introduced sely cover disclosures financial statements. more transparent. Recently,

and Auditing Organization

for Islamic Financial Institutions which precisheets and becomes of the balance business activities

and the transparency institutions

It is hoped that, by adopting the AAOIFI standards,

the nature of Islamic financial

ABDEL-HAMEED

M. BASHIR

COMPETITION

For Islamic financial

institutions

to survive in the US financial system, to exist in a well-developed they can compete In an environment companies and highly with wellof financial have recently service

they should be innovative innovative established, integration,

and have sufficient capital. More importantly, on whether institutions.

the ability of Islamic institutions system depends well-capitalized

where the securities and insurance competition

been allowed to enter the banking business, Islamic financial institutions will face tough markets. in both the deposit institutions and financial Therefore, Islamic financial should be innovative in order to attract

and aggressive in designing new modes of financing On the other hand, financial integration cial institutions do not guarantee more profits and provide competitive

deposits and provide financial services for their customers. would enable Islamic finanto generate to reduce costs and diversify their portfolios

returns. The fact that Islamic banks

the nominal values of their deposits and do not provide hazards. In par-

fixed returns creates a strong incentive for risk taking. Hence, it would be necessary to raise the capital ratio to reduce additional ratio more than 8 percent). In a well-regulated is required before these institutions ticular, enough capital is needed to reduce the risk of insolvency (capital financial system, competiof a growing tion is necessary for efficiency and quality. A certain level of competition can meet the demands Muslim population.
COMMITMENT

For Islamic financial institutions tic presence and commitment. the Shari'ah willingness

to flourish and expand, we need authento and their clientele. More imporof these institutions and its for success. An Islamic to the notion of customers cannot

Authentic presence requires commitment awareness

from both the institutions to patronize

tantly, the Muslim community's

them are key ingredients

bank cannot succeed without clients who are committed Islamic financing. patronize Equally, the Islamically committed a financial institution unless the institution

satisfies their reliprovides services being socially resas community

gious and financial needs, that is, unless the institution similar to the un-Islamic alternatives ponsible, Islamic financial ing the tenets of the Sharicah. On the other hand, institutions should

available in the market while satisfyoperate

ISLAMIC

FINANCIAL

INSTITUTIONS

IN THE US

115

banks, mobilizing the savings of the community same community. ciently playa redistributing Shari'ah, An Islamic financial institution However,

and reinvesting

it in the

can effectively and effithese institutions cannot Indeed,

social and religious role by pooling the zakah money and it in the community. to their mission, abide by the

succeed unless they become committed

and provide for the financial needs of their customers.

the mosque, and other social and educational institutions can playa pivotal role in educating the community about the importance of patronizing the Islamic financial institutions.
THE STATE OF THE EXISTING FINANCIAL ISLAMIC

INSTITUTIONS

Certainly, the enormous overlooked

bloc of Muslims in the United States cannot be of the US economy. The phenoby various indices like

in the growth and prosperity

menal surge or fall in the US market (as indicated

DJIA, NASDAQ, S&P500) in the I990S has inspired many people, Muslims included, to invest in stocks and other financial assets. Consequently, few institutions have emerged to mobilize Muslim resources and provide and financial security. The bulk of the activities. Apparlike to operating in the US financial markets today focus on has inspired companies them with a bridge to economic Islamic institutions assets management,

consumer financing, and non-bank Investor,

ently, the success of some of these institutions the Dow Jones, International FTSE International) institutions

and the FTSE International of investing

launch global Islamic Index series (DJIl, TIl Global Islamic Index, and to track the performance in Islamic equity funds. Despite being small and fragmented, some of the existing both large

have made major successes in the areas on which they con-

centrate. In many cases the annual returns have outperformed

and small capitalizing stocks in the last few years. For example for Amana Income Fund, the average annual return for the last 10 years was 11.69 percent compared Growth with S&P500'S return of 17.43 percent, while Amana 17.81 percent compared with Russell 2000'S Fund averaged

10.53 percent for the same period. Between 1996 and 1999, the Dow Jones Islamic Index Fund averaged 27.25 percent, outperforming S&P 500 (24.37 percent) and Russell 2000 (12.86 percent). Furthermore, NAIT annual returns have averaged 6 percent compared deposit rates. the with 5.6 percent

II6

ABDEL-HAMEED CHALLENGES

M. BASHIR AHEAD

The absence of interest-free attributed nomics. Whatever funds has attracted Islamic financing Comptroller

banks from the US financial landscape can be as stated earlier, or to simple ecosuccess of existing Islamic to consider providing of for the Office of the institutions the apparent

to the American regulations, the reason, (Citibank, many traditional

Fannie Mae). Realizing the importance

satisfying the religious needs of the Muslim community, a charter by Islamic financial institutions. Muslims consumers in the United States. Online Moreover, Islamic

of the Currency (OCC) is reviewing several applications

the wide use of the could benefit

Internet has made it possible for foreign banks to provide their services to banking by lowering fees or increasing returns on profit-loss above, the existing institutions CO-OP, funds INDEX and deposits.

As we mentioned MANZIL, (LARIBA), JONES (TAKAAFUL ISLAMIC mutual ISLAMIC

have concentrated

their businesses on mutual savings (NAIT), real estate financing (UBKJAIMSI), car leasing and horne financing assets management ISLAMIQ.COM), financial (AMANA, DOW and insurance needs are not One way and small busi-

FUND,

USA). Obviously,

the Muslim

limited to what is provided nesses. As consumers,

by the existing Islamic institutions.

to describe the problem is to think of Islamic consumers which are the focus of these institutions, ciated with them. There is, therefore, specializing in Islamically viable

people on fixed incomes cannot invest in stocks, because of the high risk assoan urgent need for institutions to attract the investments Institutions

low-risk

savings of these groups (an Islamic pension fund?). Muslim students are also not well served by the existing institutions. specialising in student loans are undoubtedly needed to cater for this group. Institutionalizing zakah and waqf could be a viable solution to this problem. Muslim communities professional importance establish also need small business for ~alal products (stores), services, schools, etc. Because of their vital these small businesses need specialized should that give grants for research and comand specialized

to the communities, national foundations

funding opportunities. munity development.

Lastly, but not least, Islamic institutions

ISLAMIC

FINANCIAL

INSTITUTIONS

IN THE US

117

CONCLUSION

The transformation information

of the banking system, the change in regulations, can all benefit the Muslim communities

and in the

technology

United States by allowing Islamic financial institutions both the American regulations new instruments, of the existing Islamic institutions

to operate under

and the tenets of the Sharicah. The success has paved the way for new services,

and new institutions.

Where do We Go from Here? Muslim Contribution to Civilization: The Harbinger of the Third Renaissance
SYED ALI AHSANI

War. Outside Spain, the first international ai-Hamra, 1991. Over 60 Muslim scholars, including tinent, presented civilization. From
II

HE

1992 QUINCENTENARY

celebrations

of Columbus's

discovery of America in 1492 was a turning point in the Muslim intellectual revival set in motion following the Second World conference on Islamic Spain in was held in Lahore in of Islamic Spain to 23 from outside the Subconof which I was the Chief Coordinator,

papers on the glorious contribution

50

AC to

the sixteenth century, Jewish, Christian, and Muslim books from Arabic centers in Europe, by Alfonso, Sabio the Wise. the revival of knowledge were not

scholars from Western Europe and Spain translated into Latin in the Toledo Academy established The translations in Europe. Unfortunately, published. Raisuddin manded the proceedings were then distributed to academic

where they became the basis of the Renaissance,

of the Lahore Conference

Included in the papers presented was a research article by Dr. Ahmed of Dacca University. He proved that Muslims first enthe third Caliph, 'Uqbah who comthat they proceed to Istanbul overland. ibn Nafi', the and further

tered Spain during the time of 'Uthman, ruler of Egypt, and his brother Berbers accompanying reinforcements

entered Spain but had to return, for the the expedition by Dr. Mohammad

him did not continue

were cut off. This was narrated

MUSLIM

CONTRIBUTION

TO

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119

Hamidullah

in his Wathlqah al-Siyasiyyah. MasumI

has also written

paper on the same subject. The Lahore Declaration illustrious adopted at the conference called for the estaband seminars, on Islamic exof lishment of chairs, courses on Islamic Spain, the naming of streets after scholars of the period, conferences and publication However, Spain, and the translation of pertinent manuscripts

tant in Spain and elsewhere.

it was left to the Association in organizing

Muslim Social Scientists (AMSS) to facilitate the accomplishment of these goals. They helped financially

of some

the first ever Re-

gional Conference in Dallas on June 22-23, 2001, on Islamic Contributions to Civilization. Fourteen scholars from all over the United States, including the President of the International (IIIT), presented attended success. In the Dallas Declaration, of AMSS in the South-West it was agreed to establish a regional chapter of the United States, to hold a regional conA copy of the Press Release on well-researched works Institute of Islamic Thought at the conference. Being well the event was a great

by scholars from all faiths communities,

ference at least every two years, and to carry out other scholarly activities pertinent to the mission of the Association. the event was also issued. The conference was publicized not only in the local media, but also in the regional, national, and international press. It was heartening Under the leadership to note of Imam that the message was echoed in California.

Hamza Yusuf, a task force was created under Mr. Youssef Ismail to carry the message of Islamic contributions to civilization to US academia; and to establish mobile museums, subsequently leading to a fully-fledged museum on this theme. The Council of Humanities may also consider providing appropriate funds for the purpose. Detailed information material was supplied to the Coordinator. chapters would also be established It was hoped that other AMSS possibly in the West and in the United States and where a museum on Muslim University, on on Muslim Spain was Spain was a museum Seminar was held elsewhere,

the Mid-West, where Br Abdullah is keenly interested in this project. Similar efforts are in the offing elsewhere abroad. For instance, in Jacksonville,
2001;

Mississippi, an exhibition

Muslim Spain has been established, held from October prepared there. At Georgetown

and a documentary

University, a Graduate

in 1997 on the same theme. At South Methodist

120

SYED AHSANI

on Spain has been established, With publicity, the al-Khawarizmi information

displaying artifacts on its Muslim period. and proposed activities may come to

similar on-going

light both in the United States and across the world. In Lahore, Pakistan, Science Society has shown great interest and published on the AMSS-SW regional conference. In on its website

Spain, an Islamic University has been founded, of which Dr. Ali Kettani is the Rector. In the United States, Salma Khadra Jayusi published two volumes in 1992 on the Muslim legacy in Spain. In Madrid were held during the 1992 month-long Columbus's Discovery of America.
THE MISSION

itself, seminars celebrations of

Quincentenary

In adopting

Islamic Contributions co-workers,

to Civilization true awareness

as an important

topic a

vital tool is utilized to generate among neighbors, doing so can be:

I.

of Islam and Muslims The benefits of

and fellow compatriots.

Following the event, an institutional to promote inter-faith cation, and methodology the United States.

framework

would be created

dialog, the exchange for establishing

of ideas, communi-

a genuine civil society in

2.

Given the common Judeo-Christian-Islamic tions," as envisaged by William Jefferson,

heritage, this endeaa moral superpower,

vor would aim at making the United States a "Light unto Nabased on the monotheistic concept of human rights, equality, jus-

tice, and mutual respect and peace both at home and in foreign relations. 3. On the model of the Toledo Academy, third king of the Jews, Christians, building would promote founded by Alfonso, the in the West, of common

and Muslims, this institution-

the Second Renaissance

especially in the United States, on the foundations spirituality, 4.

family values, and shared knowledge and learning.

The broader Muslim community in the area would become aware of the contribution that their forebears made to human civilization.

MUSLIM

CONTRIBUTION

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121

5.

The conference would project to teachers, corporations, knowledge sent heights.

and the

political and social elite, the historical period of the flowering of in the Middle East (the so-called Dark Ages), heraldin Europe and the rise of the West to its preing the Renaissance

6.

The publication non-academic

of the proceedings scholars.

would

serve as a valuable

source of research and instruction

for students, and academic and

7.

Following this event, the ground would be prepared for the establishment of a regional chapter of the Association of Muslim Social Scientists (AMSS) in the South and South Central Region, including substantial Louisiana, which has a professional as members. association of a number of academicians

8.

A proposed quarterly journal, the New Millennium Studies, would be published by the AMSS-SW, which would be its regional vehicle, promoting electronic newsletter. research on the theme, apart from an

9.

Following

the tenth anniversary

of the Conference

on Islamic conference

Spain, originally held in Lahore in 1991, this event would be repeated every two years, the first being an international
10 2003.

10.

Efforts would also be made to initiate courses on this topic in the universities of North Texas and elsewhere.

I I.

The event would also help in presenting removing the current unrealistic Islam and Muslims in the media. Knowledge is a continuum

a positive

image, by of

and negative

stereotyping

and the Muslim contribution continued

to civiliza-

tion is no exception.

This contribution

even after Islamic

civilization had reached its pinnacle. Even during the period of its decline, Muslim scholars were busy writing books on various aspects of learning, both secular and religious.

I22

SYED

AHSANI

How can another stood, the European the humanistic Renaissance teenth century,

Renaissance Renaissance

be created?

As is commonly

underto the

took place from the fourteenth

seventeenth century. Bearing in mind that it means the rebirth or revival of flowering of knowledge in the arts and sciences, such a mistakenly ushering faiths with first took place in the Middle Ages from the tenth to the fourthe era of glory for the Muslim civilization,

called the Dark Ages. As such, this will be the Third Renaissance, in a Utopia and an era of peace, plenty, and prosperity. will be achieved by the common endeavor of the Abrahamic

Let us hope that it

Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Conceptually, the ground for revival has already been prepared the principles laid down in the Qur'an senger. He is reported ship and authoritarian

and the Sunnah of the last Mes-

to have foretold that after the regime of dictatorrule, khilafah will follow. After thirty years of and authoritarian by the Qur'an scholars) rule were established in to this day. Whether that system of and the Sunnah is another hold differing views. AIbut the Shari'ah

khilafah rashidah, monarchy

government debate, MawardI total was sanctioned considers Ibn

Muslim lands, which have continued on which calims (religious that Muslim Taymiyyah

rulers may establish opines that

may be unjust. GhazalI favors tolerance anarchy. government regime." whether

of an oppressive a "kafir

ruler to avoid [unbelieving]

which establishes justice is better than an oppressive Muslim ruler. The essential point in this public discourse, or any other field, is the fundamental

Ibn I:Iazm and some other scholars allow rebellion against an relating to the political

unjust and oppressive

question: What is the guiding principle of the ShariCah? Since the passing away of the Messenger, there was agreement among scholars that the Qur'an and the Sunnah and ijtihad and Qiyas (analogical reasoning senger is reported dispatched his satisfaction or innovative thinking within the Islamic framework) formed the fundamental constitutive principles of the Shari'ah. The Mes-

to have asked Mucadh ibn Jabal, who was about to be

to govern Yemen, how he would decide matters. He expressed with Mucadh's response that he would rely on the Qur'an,

the Sunnah, and ijtihad. Later, Ijma' or the consensus of the early Companions was added as the fourth principle of the Sharicah. However, Ibn I:Iazm, a great Sharicah scholar of al-Andalus (d.lo64) thus firmly rejected Qiyas and Ijma' as bid'ah (prohibited innovation),

MUSLIM

CONTRIBUTION

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CIVILIZATION

123

confining the Shari'ah Sunnah, and ijtihad.

constitutive

principles

strictly to the Qur'an,

the

He was opposed

to 'Taqlrd'

(blind adherence). faith and reason

However, his advocacy of a 'Taqlrd', which harmonizes was an idea later pronounced

by Ibn Tufayl and Ibn Rushd (Averroes).

Both Ibn Rushd and Ibn l:Iazm disavowed 'Qiyas' (analogical reasoning), 'Tacwrl' (allegorical interpretation) for arriving at legal decisions. However, they all including GhazalI agreed on reaching the truth, and were committed to the Qur'an and the Sunnah, and they disapproved of any overemphasis on natural phenomena to the neglect of Divine Revelation. They equally ridiculed the religious scholars for frowning upon natural sciences, and used logic as a tool for establishing agreed on the concept of knowledge. Ibn l:Iazm's influence lasted for centuries. Despite adherence to the l:Ianbalite school, Ibn Taymiyyah (d.1}28) was opposed to Taqlrd (imitation), relying on the Qur'an and the Sunnah, and favoring ijtihad (individual inquiry). environmental Ibn Khaldun determinism, followed Ibn l:Iazm on historiography, of sciences in respect of and the conception proof. In addition, they

vision, dream, alchemy, astrology, and music. The ideas of Ibn l:Iazm influenced the intellect for establishing harmony tion and interdependence His works were translated contributing of faith and philosophy, Europe in regard to the validity of proofs, arriving at the truth, advocacy of the and advocacy of a liberal arts educaof religious and secular sciences. languages, thus and harmony

into Latin and other European

to the flowering of European Renaissance. to civilization herald a new in and century, by the translation languages

How will the topic of Muslim contribution Europe from the fourteenth of works from the Eastern wider dissemination, the Toledo Academy to the seventeenth languages

Renaissance? It can be achieved in the same way as was the Renaissance into the Western

utilizing modern means including the Internet. Like (1150-1550 AC), many such academies, could be persuaded manuscripts, universito allocate institutions publishing

ties, and other educational view to holding conferences,

special research grants to Islam and its contribution research into this topic.

to civilization with a and conducting

To this end, the message of AMSS in the next thirty years has to be broad-based in building a consensus on a new research paradigm for arriving at the truth. The goal is to bridge the philosophical hiatus that

124

SYED AHSANI

currently

divides the East and the West. This strategy of AMSS can and

ought to be pursued as a movement, not merely relying on academic research in an ivory tower. A program of expansion of the AMSS mission by establishing clash/dialog its chapters as well as various discipline fora in various a special panel on the contributions of parts of the United States and abroad. In view of the current debate on the of civilizations, various cultures to world civilization, to be allocated teractions. professional to all AMSS national Linkages including those of Muslims, ought conventions to explore cultural inbetween AMSS and other projects on the theme.

ought to be established for collaborative

organizations

EPILOGUE

theories and practices, economic and financial concepts, models, and institutions, etc. Here, we would like to shed some light on the general areas of emphasis in a societal order based on Islamic principles. The conceptual human foundations of such a superstructure relationships, principles governing environlife and its pertinent inherent with the Creator, that can tap, with for a sustained

HIS VOLUME

has largely concentrated sciences including

on Muslim contribulegal and political

tions to specific fields of knowledge:

basic and applied physical

and biological

medicine,

fellow humans, other living beings, as well as with its inanimate ment, lie in a set of such lasting universal basic freedoms, the optimal positive human potential

period. These principles, properly applied, can provide a new purpose in life and a sense of its right direction. They can also release in human and spiripractical Above the beings their personal and collective creative genius, intellectual tual vitality. T Islam provided the world with modes of institutionalization, implementation of the sterling principles of monogenetic individual dignity, justice and fairness, and disciplined all, it provided the integrity of character of accountability

equality, human freedom.

based on an acute spiritual sense These divine blessings are to without frivolous

for one's deeds, and how best to treat one another,

fauna and flora, and the natural resources. wastefulness. By implementing

be utilized for the benefit of the whole of humanity

these principles, Muslims rebuilt the spiritual, social, transforming for the better the human freed humans from biases origin, and Islam

economic, and political structures,

condition for all time to come. These structures recognized righteousness standards to determine and responsibility an individual's

based on differences in gender, race, caste, creed, or national superiority

for one's actions as the only or inferiority.

126

EPILOGUE

emphasized the role of the family in building individual character from infancy, even during the prenatal stage. Good and decent laws produce great societal structures, which in turn generate noble individuals, who in turn prefer and promote decency and righteousness as the hallmark of their collective culture. Rose W. Lane, discussing the impact of Muslim life on Europeans, writes:
But the returning gentleman derogative Crusaders brought back to Europe the first idea of a civilization,

that Europeans

had ever had. Until they invaded the Saracen [a Arab and Muslim)

for Syrian, and by extension

they had never known that a strong man need not be brutal. The Saracens were splendid fighters when they fought, but they were not cruel; they did not torture country, word.
2

their prisoners,

they did not kill the wounded.

In their own

they did not persecute the Christians.

They were brave men, but

they were gentle. They were honorable;

they told the truth, they kept their

These Islamic characteristic traits first impressed educated Italians, who were the earliest Europeans to come into contact with Near-Eastern Muslims. The British cherished these Muslim imprints on themselves. Lane adds:
It is still producing permeates perhaps the finest class of human beings on earth an American were dealing,

today, the men and women all of American

of the British ruling class. It is an ideal that the Italians

life ... From such dim indications Europe ... were constantly

can get some idea of the people with whom before and while they were "awakening" All Italians were prospering chants, dressed, traders, sea-captains, greater knowledge sailors,

from trade with the Saracens. Italian mermeeting men of and than theirs, richer men, better men who thought of naviga-

and wider experiences

better fed, cleaner and better groomed; ways of computing they dispatched

acted quickly, acted independently. ting ships, quicker credible tances. swiftness,

They had better methods their business

costs and adding bills. With inaffairs over great dis-

No activity of theirs, spiritual, social, economic, or political, was devoid of morality. They had a clear code of conduct in earning their livelihood and in spending it. Women were free and equipped with a high level of literacy to adopt

EPILOGUE

127

any decent occupation. In the case of economic need, they were able to move around the world while keeping their high moral character. Members of all non-Muslim minorities, who were often exempt from military service, were protected by the Muslim majority. It was incumbent upon the latter to defend their lives, lands, and liberties. Education at all levels was accessible to all regardless of gender, race, creed or socio-economic status. Slaves too had an ample opportunity to rise even to the level of kingship. The long reign of the Turkish slave dynasty of kings from the eighth to the fourteenth century in Muslim India, and those of the Mamliik, the Muslim slave kings of Egypt, from the thirteenth to the sixteenth century are a testimony to the pluralism of Islamic societies, which long pre-dated such freedoms anywhere in the West. The renowned historian of Princeton University, Philip Hitti,3 writes about the Mamliiks: "The bondsmen of yesterday became the army commanders of today and the sultans of tomorrow." Islam has a very broad concept of worship, which includes any worthy act in any domain of life so long as it is done in accordance with the Divine Guidance, bridging the gap between the moral and the merely legal. In an Islamic polity there is no separation between the moral and the mundane. It thus has brought humanity to its most moderate and balanced state. Islam highlights the role of one's conscience in all one's activities. By removing worship based on a fear of objects of nature such as snakes or monkeys, or indebtedness to creatures like other humans, cows, or other animals, Muslims, in Islam, were able to inculcate in their children a feeling of chivalry and freedom from fear.4 These values attracted people of diverse races, religions, and ethnic backgrounds into the fold of Islam to form a rare and real rainbow of peoples. All are equal in the sight of God, the only Islamic criterion to judge one's worth is one's righteous behavior in all human affairs. Thus, Muslims were able to establish a societal order completely free from class considerations and immune to any psychological complexes arising from power consciousness or alienation based on learnt helplessness. Without succumbing to their animal instincts, Muslims were able to internalize and implement their God-given human potential and mission. In their heyday, Muslims made continual progress and unprecedented accomplishments in almost all human activities. The Islamic culture effectively intervened between extreme forces

128

EPILOGUE

engaged in mutual destruction, and tribulations

and thus saved humanity from these trials about a prolonged which balanced period of prothe inner and It brought to possess of indivi-

for centuries. The global feeling of freedom and dignity development,

on the part of all and sundry brought gress and a comprehensive tween awareness personal property Divine

outer forces of life. Islam inspired humanity of its self-worth pleasures,

to evolve a middle path be-

and God-consciousness. and unprincipled passions extremes

about an order, which gave supremacy to principles of justice over merely preferences, at all costs. It created Revelation, between a balance atheistic between

dualism and total self-negation, dependence ponsibilities on only providential

between the value of human reason and stark self-reliance and diseased provision without working hard enough

within one's means. It also placed fulfillment of one's own duties and resbefore the claiming of one's rights from others. It sought to between means and ends, without justifying the use "good" ends. Islam refuses to accept remove the confusion freedom,

of unfair means to gain so-called

wealth, power, and control as ultimate ends in themselves but

rather views them merely as a means to some worthy end. By doing so, it raises the questions of what end and how these necessary means are to be utilized, bearing in mind that the worthiest and fair in all spiritual, economic, others, whether Muslim or non-Muslim. The Islamic values enabled preferred hostility, running channel direction. gender roles to protect but cooperated mental institution, believers to be absolutely clear about the family as an essential and fundaeach other with goal of a Muslim is to be just dealings with social, and political

in which spouses did not confront

with each other like the wheels of a smooth

vehicle. They enabled human intellect and sincere passion to them harmoniously in a constructive rather than destructive Modesty in appearance, eating, clothing, speaking, and walk-

ing is the responsibility of both sexes so as not to give rise to any laxity whilst in a pre-marital state or infidelity within marriage. It is unfortunate to world civilization that Muslims have not only failed to acquaint but are also by and large ignorant their fellow human beings of their universal faith and illustrious contributions of their own and golden history. They need to end their isolationism interact with people of other faith communities and ghettoization

to learn about their value

systems and share with them their own Islamic values in a collective

EPILOGUE

I29

attempt to address the problems facing humanity, preventing potential conflicts.

and to be proactive in of a much-needed diversity leading to contribute instead of beating

These occasions can serve as effective harbingers atmosphere, to democratic that of true interfaith discourses and cross-cultural

peace with justice across the globe. They can also significantly among various civilizations

the drums of conflict and clashes among them. As Louay Safi5 has rightly emphasized in his chapter in this volume, it was the inclusive nature of Islam which led to subsequent exchanges undersamong scholars of all faiths and their willingness tanding, tolerance, and mutual respect characteristic contemporary to learn from one anof Muslim commufrom China, criticontriof the

other in the selfless pursuit of truth.5 It was the historic interfaith nities that helped them coordinate qued, and further butions to human Elizabethan constitution the position becoming temptation dominating cooperation advanced civilization knowledge

India, the Middle East, North Africa, and Greece. They inherited, this ancient learning. The Muslim Renaissance led to the European

period, and ultimately

inspired the democratic

ideals of our

as well as the current cross-cultural of global leadership. Our nation

climate of America. the United States into has a choice or one yielding between to the for the

The sudden end of the Cold War has catapulted a force of freedom of the Darwinian and democracy "survival

of the fittest"

with a view to

the weaker world. It has a choice between working or brute competition, that everything Renaissance. and between

benefit of all or working

for the profit of a few, between genuine global peace with justice or

peace with force. The prevailing reading of human history leaves us with the impression Roman thought, sixteenth-century contributions worthwhile had its origins in Greek or occurred in the the in fails to acknowledge to world civilization and that the next phase of progress This assumption cultures non-Western

of other

general and to the reawakening certain communities: Jews,

of Europe in particular. African-Americans,

Such myopia has Japanese, the truth.

often given the religious and commercial Communists,

media a free hand to stereotype Catholics,

and now Muslims and Islam. to do better in promoting of any culture

One would expect academia the contributions of religious

However, secular academia itself has developed an aversion to discussing principles or community.

EPILOGUE

This attitude denies the latter a fair chance to clear the air of any negative stereotyping history September leadership generated
I I, 200 I

against them, let alone correct the distortions civilization as a whole. The tragic have made us realize the danger of terrorism

of and

and of human

events of

have engendered

a sense of vulnerability.

At the same time, the American itself from the rest of the military actions against to contribute to understand to peace the demo-

has acted wisely by not isolating

world, but has begun to engage its people in global affairs. One might disagree with its unilateral ism and pre-emptive weaker nations, yet it has tremendous for basic freedoms, potential with justice, which it can do only by attempting cratic aspirations for all. Working leadership of establishing with Muslim Americans a genuinely

human rights, fairness, and justice as well as other representative societal order across the clashes, we can engage contributions the

around the Muslim world, the United States can fulfill the goal just and judicious

globe. Instead of harping on about civilizational the unprecedented technological

ourselves in mutual learning from the rich legacy of Islamic culture and and administrative West has made to the modern world.
DILNAWAZ A. SIDDIQUI

NOTES

NOTES

TO THE

PREFACE

Friend of God (Beltsville, MD:

Black 3 Amana Publications, http://www.ummah.com!
forum! archive/index.

H.]. Morowitz,

"History's

2002), p.I. phplt-

Hole, Hospital Practice (May 1992), PP.25-3 I. 2 Robert Briffault, The Making of

Humanity (1938); reproduced in Islamic Science in the Medieval Muslim World (Pakistan:
Khawarizmi Science Society 2001). website, November
NOTES TO THE

4689html,2004 AI- Faro.qI, Isma'II R, al-Tawhid:

Its Implications for Thought and Life (Herndon, VA: The International Institute of Islamic 5 Thought, 1992), PP.78-79' Norman F. Cantor, The Encyclo-

PROLOGUE

pedia of the Middle Ages (New

Black 6 York: Viking, 1999), PP.349-350. SWT: SublJanahu wa Ta'ala: May He be praised and may His Transcendence be affirmed. Said on all occasions. 7 Ataullah Siddiqui (ed.), Ismail Raji

H.]. Morowitz,

"History's

Hole," Hospital Practice (May 2 1992), PP.25-3 I. George Sarton, Introduction to

the History of Science, vol. 2

(Baltimore, MD: Carnegie Institute of Washington, 3 William

al-Faruqi, Islam and Other Faiths

(Leicester, UK: Islamic Foundation, 1998),PP28, 146, 153. 8 Walter Benjamin Franklin Isaacson, An American Life (New Yark: Simon & Schuster, 203), p.84 9 Qur'an,4:58;7:29'
TO CHAPTER TWO

& Wilkins, 1947). Robert Briffault, The Making of Humanity (1938); reproduced in Islamic Science in the Medieval Muslim World (Pakistan:
Khawarizmi Science Society 2001). website, November

NOTES NOTES TO CHAPTER ONE

I

Rene Descartes, Cottingham Cambridge 1986), P49

Meditations on
UK:

http://www.kisarazu.ed.jp/ alt/handbook/cross_ (Google,2oo4) 2 Jerald F. Abraham Dirks, The cui ture .htm

First Philosophy, trans. John

(Cambridge, University Press,

132
2 Jean-Jacques Cranston 3 Immanuel Rousseau, The Social Contract, trans. Maurice (London: Penguin Kant, Critique of Pure Kemp Books, 1968), p.I86. Reason, trans. Norman 1929), p.64. Friedrich Nietzsche,

NOTES

S"irahal-Nabawiyyah

[The Bio-

graphy of the Prophet] (Damascus: Dar al-Kunuz al-Adabiyyah, n.d.), vol. I, PP.501-502. 14 Ibid., p. S0l. IS Ibid. 16 Qur'an: 18 Ibid. 19 Ibid. 20 Muhammad Bin Ahmed, alSarakhsi, Shar!? Kitab al-Siyar al-Kabir (Pakistan: Nusrullah Mansour, 21 Ibid. 22 Ali ibn Muhammad al-MawardI, (Cairo: P.59. al-A!?kam al-Sultaniyyah Dar al-Fikr, 1983/141), 1405 AH),4:I530. 9:97 & 49:14 17 Ibn Hisham, al-S"irah, p. 5 I .

Smith (New York: Macmillan, 4 Beyond

Good and Evil (New York: Vintage Books, 1966) p.66. 5 Karl Marx, The Marx-Engels Reader, ed. Robert C. Tucker (2nd edn., New York: W.W. Norton, 6 7 8 Nietzsche, 1978), p.28. Beyond Good and

Evil, PP.74-75. Ibid., p. 45 Abu ai-Ala al-Mawdudi, yat ai-Islam wa Hadyihi I985),P47 Ibid.,pp.22-23 al-IfuriyNazari(Jeddah,

23 Ibid. 24 Ibid. 25 See, Ibn al-Qayyim, Shurut al-'Umariyyah al-'Ilm Ii al-Malayin, Shar!? al(Beirut: Dar I9611r381).

Saudi Arabia: Dar al-Sa'udiah, 9

10 Ibid., P.24. I I Rashid al-Ghanoushi, yat al- 'Ammah al-Islamiyyah f"ial- Dawlah [General Liberties alNOTES TO CHAPTER THREE

The author has offered a perceptive analysis of MawardI's comprehensive explaining political treatise, dealt how different scholars, between and how and

in the Islamic State] (Beirut: Markaz Dirasat al-Wahdah Arabiyyah,I993),P258. 12 SAAS: Salla Allahu 'alayhi wa Sallam: May the peace and blessings of Allah be upon him. This prayer is said by Muslims whenever the name of the Prophet Muhammad whenever is mentioned or he is referred to as the of

before and after MawardI, with the relationship reason and Revelation; connected comparing thought. nineteenth centuries,

politics, including justice, is with revelation, Islamic and Western He concludes that in the and the twentieth Muslims, after the

Prophet of Allah. 13 For the full text of the Covenant Madinah, see Ibn Hisham, al-

impact of the Western political

NOTES thought, realized the need for a more intellectual

2

orientation

of the

1986). In this thought-provoking

book,

Islamic political system. Mikhael Hanna, Politics and

the author gives the genesis of an Islamic political system, its objectives and principles, modern times.
10

Revelation: Mawardi and After

(Edinburgh, 3 Scotland, UK: Edinburgh University Press, 1995). The Prophet sent 30 letters to the Heads of States and tribes, sent 80 delegations, organized 4 Muhammad signed 33 treaties, and 85 battles and expediS. Qureshi, Foreign
I I

suggesting

that ijtihad should continue in it in EI-Awa, On the Political System of

the Islamic State.

The Islamic political system greatly stresses systematic and organizational leadership soundness, hence the need for righteous and effective geared to maintaining peace with justice. Thus, the Ummah is not to be left leaderless under any circumstances.
12

tions in defense.

Policy of Hadrat Muhammad

(New Delhi: Kitab Bhavan, 1993).

5 MuhammadS.EI-Awa,Onthe Political System of the Islamic State, trans. Ahmed Naji aI-Imam
(Indianapolis, Publications, 6
7

Hamid Enayat, Modern Islamic

IN: American Trust 1980).

Political Thought (Austin, TX:

University of Texas Press, 1982). 13 Attermethe, # 1849, Muslim # 1854 http://www.dorar.

AI-BukharI, # 2462, http://www. dorar .net/mhadith.asp. In a brilliant introduction, taz Ahmad has underlined for enunciating theory. Several renowned Mumthe need scholars

net/mhadith.asp. 14 Strictly from the perspective Qur'an of the and Sunnah, the para-

an Islamic political

mount criteria of the head of an Islamic state are piety, an acute sense of accountability to Allah, and the practical implementation of the human rights (!?uqiiqal-

like Fathi Osman, Khalid Ishaq, Javed Iqbal, Fazlur Rahman, Abdulaziz Sachedina, Ahmad Moussavi, and Jamilah Jimmod have made notable contributions to aspects of Islamic political thought such as the Bay' ah of the Imam, the principle of Shiira,

'Ibad).
15 Majid Ali Khan, The Pious Caliphs (Safat, Kuwait: Islamic Book Publishers, 1995). 16 That "Scholars like Rashid Ric;la and Mawdudi, of 'Uthman who were courageous enough to criticize the policy for retaining Mu'awi20

Vilayat-i-Faqih, Marja'iyyat-itaqlid, the Islamic social order, and

jihad. 8 Mumtaz Ahmed (ed.), State

Politics and Islam (Indianapolis,

IN: American Trust Publications,

yah for nearly

years as GoverThose so-

nor" deserves comment.

NOTES called scholars are not courageous but rather ignorant to criticize 'Uthman for not dismissing Mu'awiyah was and Mu'awiyah. knowledgeable sed knowledge. (Leicester, UK: Islamic Foundation,I992). 21 AI-BukharI, # 4844; Muslim # 1783,1785,1807, mhadith.asp. Abu Dawud # 2349: http://www.dorar.net/ Although he has topics like dealt with important

described by the Prophet as a Companion the Prophet prayed for his increaSecond, he was a who was in it and be very skillful governor,

the concept of the Ummah, the rise of the Muslim nation states, the identity crisis of the Muslims, and the establishment of the Organizaas an in political, tion of Islamic Conference entity for cooperation economic,

given the post at the time of Abu Bakr, and then continued during 'Umar's Caliphate, yah. Why should 'Uthman nowadays

neither Caliph dismissed Mu'awicriticized for that? We believe a lot of rumors and you can see how the media fabricate the news and we have a difficult time in correcting it. So how can on any human pass judgment

and social fields, the

author has omitted to mention that according to the Madinan Constitution, minorities acceding to it became part of the Ummah and were allowed a share of the booty. 22 AI-BukharI # 4609, al-AlbanI # 3340 http://www.dorar.net/ mhadith.asp. 23 'Abdullah ibn Saba' was a Jew to be a Muslim to cause problems who pretended and attempted

what took place 1400 years ago? Anyone who does is, to say the least, irresponsible. 17 Important aspects covered include: divergence and convergence in Shi'ite and Sunni political concepts, democracy, Rashid Rida's view of and socialism, and the Islamic state, nationalism, concepts of taqiyyah, martyrdom, and modern constitutionalism 18 AI-BukharI, # 6722, http://www. the requests for dorar.netlmhadith.asp, Prophet discouraged nomination. 19 Muhsin Mahdi, Political 20 Abdullah

in the Muslim state. According to some he was not a Muslim. 24 Muslim # 1763 http://www.dorar. net/mhadith.asp. 25 This hadith is weak and not authentic al-l:Iabbab about the suggestion of ibn al-Munthir. The PhD

26 Yushau Sodiq, "Imam Malik's Concept of Maslahah: Consideration dissertation Philadelphia, Good," unpublished 1992). of the Common (Temple University,

Philosophy in Islam (1991). al-Ahsan, Ummah or Nation?: Identity Crisis in Contemporary Muslim Society

27 Ahmed, State Politics and Islam.

NOTES 28 Proctor

135
Iran's political history in which calims have a constitutional (The author can be contacted Syedahsani@sbcglobal.net.) role. at:

J. Harris

(ed.), Islam and 1968).

International

Relations (Durham,

NC: Duke University, dorar .net/mhadi th.asp.

29 Al-Biikhari, # 6806. http://www. 30 Muslim, # 2578. http://www. dorar .netlmhadith.asp. 3I Ibn Taymiyyah, 220/1. http:// asp. # www.dorar.net/mhadith. 2464 http://www.dorar.netl mhadith.asp. 33 Al-Biikhari# 2558 http://www. dorar .net/mhadi th.asp. 34 Hanna, 1995. 35 Mawardi's book or analysis implying that Sharicah as an insufficient yardstick for cadi (justice) is Kufr or disbelief. Clearly, Allah said in Sarat alMii'idah in the Qur'an: have completed "Today I your religion and

37 Muhammad Emergence Bahawalpur Trans.ed.

Hamidullah, University,

The 1963].

of Islam [Lectures at Ambassador Islamic

Research Institute in collaboration with the Dawah Academy, Islamabad, International Islamic of University, 1993. 38 Hamidullah, The Emergence Islam, pp.1 55-157. dullah is the first scholar to suggest the concept of a state within a state, namely, Muslim administration at Makkah, for no matters relating to Muslims were referred to pagans but to the Prophet. This is relevant to the position of Muslim minorities the West. Ghannouchi, Nahqah, scholar and founder of alnow residing in London, is opposed to Muslim minorities striving for a separate state as was done in Nigeria and Pakistan, limiting such minorities missionary to the role of al-camr hi alin a Tunisian

32 Ibn Majah, # 2494, Attermethe

Dr. Hami-

perfected my blessing upon you [ISLAM] and I am satisfied with Islam as your religion" (5:3). Anyone who thinks that Islam as a religion is lacking some concepts, clearly implies that he knows better than Allah or Allah forgot something which he has presumptuously found. This concept contradicts the message of Islam and the verse mentioned above. 36 The concept of Imam Malik's Ma~/a!?ah is a well-accepted doctrine, underlining the community the need of Accordijtihad for ijtihad to suit

Ma'raf wa al-nah"i Canal- Munkar - enjoining good and forbidding evil, converting people to Islam. as caring and in the They should project a good Muslim character neighbors, responsible honest workers, participants

changing circumstances. ing to Shi'ite tradition,

political system, making the West a moral and spiritual power in the world, heralding an era of peace,

never stopped, as is evident from

NOTES

freedom, equality, honor, dignity, and justice for all. The Companions example of democracy history of humankind never be repeated, USA. The Companions migrated from Makkah Madinah set an and and will who to 3 4 2

trans. Richard Terdiman, The Hastings Law Journal (July 1987), 38(5)mpp.805-853 Tzvetan Todorov, Life in

freedom never repeated in the even in the

Common: An Essay in General Anthropology, trans. Katherine Golson & Lucy Golson (Lincoln,
NB: University of Nebraska 2001). Ibid. Pierre Bourdieu, Law: Toward "The Force of a Sociology of the Press,

would have been consiof citizenship. for were to our with

dered foreigners according to our current definition They had lived in Madinah died. The people of Madinah Bakr (a foreigner according definitions Then 'Umar was nominated the agreement Madinah, humankind

Juridical Field," trans. Richard Terdiman, The Hastings Law Journal (July 1987), 38(5), 5 6 PP805-853 Ibid. Terdiman, "Translator's to Pierre Bourdieu, "The Force of Introduction" 7 8

only 10 years when the Prophet the majority yet they elected Abu today) to be their ruler. of all the people of

"The Force of Law". Pierre Bourdieu, Law". A. John Simmons, The Lockean

followed by 'Uthman has an immigrant,

and 'AlI. Where in the history of after only a few years, become the president of a country to which he has migrated? Only Muslims 9
I I

Theory of Rights (Princeton, NJ:

Princeton University Press, 1992),

p.I4.
Todorov, Ibid. F. Cantor, Imagining the Law: Common Law and the Foundations of the American Legal System (New York: HarperCollins,1997) "CREDO." 13 Michel Foucault,

achieved that because Islam teaches them to choose the best and righteous. and little-known Yet both Abu Bakr tribes. We (The author and 'Umar were from poor, weak, challenge the whole world to give us a similar example. can be contacted sbcglobal.net.).
NOTES
I

Life in Common.

10 Ibid. 12 Norman

at: Syedahsani@

TO CHAPTER

FOUR

Discipline & Punish: The Birth of the Prison,

trans. Alan Sheridan (New York:

Richard Terdiman, Introduction"

"Translator's a

to Pierre Bourdieu,

Vintage Books, 1995), p.22-24, 293-308. I4 Ibid.

"The Force of Law: Toward

Sociology of the Juridical Field,"

NOTES

137

15 Ibid. 16 Ibid. 17 Karen Armstrong, Islam: A Short History (New York: The Modern Library, 2000), p.202. 18 Ibid. 19 Abdur Rahman I. Doi, Shari'ah: The Islamic Law (London: Ta Ha Publishers, 1984). 20 Ibid. 21 Ibid. 22 Muhammad Asad, This Law of Ours and Other Essays (Gibraltar: Dar al-Andalus, 1987), PP34-37 23 Richard Eldridge, Leading a Human Life: Wittgenstein, Intentionality, and Romanticism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997),P.73 (quoting Schiller). 24 L. Carl Brown, Religion and State: The Muslim Approach to Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000).
NOTES TO CHAPTER FIVE

Inseparable Traditions" (Manuscript, 1995), P9 4 Marcia Colish, Medieval Foundations of the Western Intellectual Tradition 400- I400: The Yale Intellectual History of the West (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997), pp.129-159 5 Philip Hitti, History of the Arabs (London: Macmillan Education, 6 1970), PP363-428. Mehdi Nakhosteen, Near-Eastern Origins of Western Higher Education (Boulder, Co: University of Colorado Press, 1964). Owen Gingerish, "Islamic Astronomy," Scientific American 254(10) (April 1986), P.74. A. Waheed Yousif, "Lifelong Learning in the Early Abbasid Period" (unpublished PhD diss., Ontario Institute of Studies in Education, University of Toronto, Canada, 1978). Edward Wilson, Consilience: Unity of Knowledge (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998). M. AbdulAziz Salim & M. Salahuddin Hilmi, Islam ft alMaghrib wa al-Andalus [Islam in North-West Africa and Spain], ed. Levi Proven"al (trans. 1990). Ibn Nadlm, al-Fehrist, Arabic-Urdu trans. Ishaq Bhatti (Lahore, Pakistan: Midway Press, 1990). S. Moinul Haq (ed.), Ibn Khallikan's Wafiyat al-'A 'yiin wa

9 Ishratullah Khan, Ehd-e-Mamun Ki Tibbi wa Falsafiyana Kutub Kay Trajim: Ek Tehqiqi Mutalea [Translation of Medical and Philosophical Documents in the Abbasid Era: A Research Study] (1994), pp.2 & 251 2 James Burke, The Day the Universe Changed (London: BBC, 1985), a companion book serialized on PBSin the late 1980s. 3 Karima Alvi & Susan Douglass, "Science and Religion: The

10

I I

12

NOTES

Anba' Abna' aI-Zaman, trans. M. de Slane (New Delhi: Kitab Bhavan, 1996), vols.1-7 13 Jane Norman, Focus on Asian Studies: Asian Religion, New Series (New York: Asia Society, 2001), VOl.2,no. I. 14 N. Khanikoff (trans.), "alKhazini's Mizan al-Hikmah" [The Balance of Wisdom), The Journal of the American Oriental Society, 6 (New Haven, CT: 1859). Quoted in M. Raziuddin Siddiqi, Contribution of Muslims to Scientific Thought (http://www. centralmosque.com/biogra phies/s cience.htm) 15 Readers may also refer to the preconference document prepared for the regional conference of the Association of Muslim Social Scientists (AMSS) (Dallas, Texas, June 22-23, 2001), pp.61-86.

Middle Eastern Studies, 1983). M.A. Khan, Origin and Development of Experimental Science (Dhaka: BITT, 1997). 5 M.R. Mirza & M.1. Siddiqi (eds.), Muslim Contribution to Science (Lahore, Pakistan: Kazi Publications,1986). 6 M. Saud, Islam and Evolution of Science (Delhi: Adam Publishers, 7 1994) T.]. Abercrombie, "When the Moors Ruled Spain," National Geographic (July 1988), pp.86-II9 8 C.]'M. Whitty, The Impact of Islamic Medicine on PostMedieval England (Hyderabad, India: Islamic Culture, 1999). 9 H.]. Morowitz, "History's Black Hole," Hospital Practice (1992), PP25-3I. 10 E.G. Brown, Arabian Medicine (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1962); S.A.R. Hamdani, Notable Muslims (Karachi, Pakistan: Ferozsons Press, 1962); M. Ullman, Islamic Medicine (Karachi, Pakistan: Edinburgh Press, 1978). E. Savage-Smith, Islamic Culture and Medical Arts (Bethesda, MD: National Library of Medicine, 1994); G. Sarton, Introduction to History of Science, vol. 1, (Washington, DC: Carnegie Institute; Baltimore, MD: William & Wilkins, 1927; reprinted 1950); E.A. Myers, Arabic Thought and the Western World in the Golden Age of Islam (New

NOTES TO CHAPTER SIX

'Abdullah Yiisuf 'All, The Holy Qur' an - Translation and Commentary (Brentwood, MD: Amana Corp., 1989), P.1472,
55:1-4.

P. Lande, "Science in al-Andalus," in Science: The Islamic Legacy (Washington, DC: Aramco,
1988).

S. H. H. Nadvi, Medical Philosophy in Islam and the Contributions of Muslims in the Advancement of Medical Sciences (Durban, South Africa: Academia Centre for Islamic, Near and

NOTES

139
Medicine; A. Ali, The ArabMuslim Legacy to Ophthalmology (Hyderabad, India: Islamic Culture, 1999). Encyclopedia Britannica, VOl.I, Micropedia (1983), P.37. Muslim Contributions to Chemistry (FSTC, 2003). www.muslimheritage.com Khan, Experimental Science. David Tschnaz, "Jabir Ibn Hyyan and Arab AlChemists: Makers of Modern Chemistry", www.islamonline.net/English/Scie nee/200 I 8/article A. Zahur, Muslim History 57o-I950 (Gaithersburg, MD: ZMD Corp., 2000). Lande, "Science in al-Andalus;" A. Z.Ashoor, "Muslim Medieval Scholars and their Work," The Islamic World Medical Journal (1984). H.R. Khan, "Contribution of Muslims to Medicine and Science up to the Middle of 13th Century," Journal of Islamic Medical Association, 14 (1982), pp.III-I14 M. Levey, Early Arabic Pharmacology (Leiden, The Netherlands: E.]. Brill, 1973), pp.68-70' Saud, Islam and Evolution of Science. G. Sarton, G., Introduction to History of Science, vol. 2 (Washington, DC: Carnegie Institute; Baltimore, MD : William & Wilkins, 193I;reprinted 1950)' A.A. Salam, Islam and Science (Trieste, Italy: Institute of Theoretical Physics).

York: Funga Publications, 1964), PP.7-IO, 66-77; P. K. Hitti, History of the Arabs (London: Macmillan, 1964). I I Bernard Lewis, The Middle East (New York: Scribner Publications, 1998). I2 S.H. Nasr, Islamic Science: An Illustrated Study (London: World ofIslamic Festival Publishing, 1976). 13 Abercrombie, "When the Moors Ruled Spain." 14 ]. Esposito, Islam: The Straight Path (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1998). 15 Nadvi, Medical Philosophy in Islam. 16 Robert Briffault, The Making of Humanity (1938). See, Islamic Science in the Medieval Muslim World (Pakistan: Khawarizmi Science Society website, November 2001). 17 Whitty, The Impact of Islamic Medicine. 18 Briffault, The Making of Humanity. 19 H.N. Wasti, Muslim Contributions to Medicine (Lahore, Pakistan: 1962). 20 H.N. Wasti, "Hospitals are Owned by Arab Physicians in the Middle Ages," in Muslim Contributions to Science, ed. M.R. Mirza & M.1. Siddiqi (Pakistan: Kazi Publications, 1986). 21 Whitty, The Impact ofIslamic Medicine. 22 Wasti, Muslim Contributions to

23 24

25 26

27

28

29

30 3I

32

NOTES

33 H. Sayeed, Muslim Scholars (Pakistan: National Science Council, Internet Edition 2000).

Translation of the Meanings of Sahih al-Bukhari (Beirut: Darul

Arabia, 198 5), vol.3, Hadith Number 286, p.I62. 4 Ibn Majah, Sunan Ibn Majah (Riyadh: Sharikah al-Tiba'ah 'Arabiyyah 5 voI.2,P7 Ibn Majah and Bayhaqi, alalas-Sa 'udiah, 1984),

34 Encyclopedia Britannica, 198 3, II.

Macropedia, vol. 9 (I983), PPI98-199 35 S. A. Ahsani, "AI-Mawardi's Political Paradigm: Principles of Islamic Political System" (n.d.)

36 Encyclopedia Britannica, III.

Macropedia, vol.9 (I983), 6 PPI47-149 37 Sayeed, Muslim Scholars. 38 Salam, Islam and Science. 39 Herbert H. Rowen, A History of

Tirmidhr (Alim CD, Release 4,

1996), Hadith Number www.islsoftware.com. 'Ali, 'Abdullah Yusuf, The Meaning of the Glorious Qur'an (Cairo: Darul Kitab al-Ma~ri, 1934), VOI.I, 2:]6, fn.83. 7 Bukhari, p. 52:1 12; Cairo; Cited in Umar Chapra, Objectives of the islamic Economic Order, in Khurshid Ahmad (ed.), islam: Its Meaning and Message Muhammad (London: Islamic Foundation, 1980). 8 Muhammad (Gibralter: Asad, The Principles Dar al-Andalus, 1980). 218.

Early Modern Europe I50o-I8I5 (New York: Holt, Rinehart &

Winston, 40 AI-Hassan, 1960). Ahmady and Hill,

Donald, Islamic Technology - An

Illustrated History (Cambridge,

UK: Cambridge 1988). 4 I Hitti, History of the Arabs. 42 Manzoor S. Alam, "A Critical of Arab Human Report," work, 2002).
SEVEN

University Press,

of State and Government in islam 9 U.S. Census, Current Population Survey, March I999 and 2000

Appreciation Development (unpublished

NOTES

TO CHAPTER

(U.S. Bureau of Census, 2000). IO Ibid. II Ibid. 12 Urban Institute, Millions Still Face

Dudley Seers, "The Meaning of Development," International Development Review (I969),

PP3-4 UNDP (United Nations Development Program),

Homelessness in a Booming Economy; http://www.urban.org/

news/pressrellproo020I.html (2000). 13 Mayors' "Hunger America's I 6th Annual Survey on and Homelessness in Cities" Finds Increased

Human

Development Report I99I, (New

York: Oxford University Press, 199I). 3 Muhammad Muhsin Khan, The

Levels of Hunger, Increased

NOTES Capacity to Meet Demand (USCM, 2000); http://www. usma yors.org/uscm/news/press_re leases/ documents/hunger_release. htm 14 CHPNP, Hunger in the U.S. (Boston, MA: Tufts University Center on Hunger, Poverty, and Nutrition Policy, 2001); http://h unger. tufts.edu/us.html. 15 USDA, Prevalence of Food Insecurity and Hunger, by State, 1996-98 (USA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Development Development 2000). 17 BLS (Bureau of Labor Statistics), Value of the Federal Minimum Wage, 1938-1997 (USA: U.S. Department of La bor, 2000). of OH: 1997) 4 and 18 Edward N. Wolff, Economics Poverty, Inequity, Discrimination Southwestern (Cincinnati, Publishing, 1998). Program), Report Human (New 3 16 UNDP (United Nations
2000 2
22

141

Bruce Ackerman The Stakeholder 1999)

& Anne Alstott, Society (New

Haven, CT: Yale University Press,

NOTES
I

TO CHAPTER

EIGHT

Available statistics reveal that American Muslims have an average per capita income ranging between $35,000 and $45,000, well over the national $24,000 to $27,000. The CRA played an important role in the development community community community of banks, allowing the banks to mobilize the savings and reinvent average of

York: Oxford University Press,

these savings in the community. Islamic banks, for example, should abide by chartering rements, capital adequacy, insurance, regulations companies, and restrictions requideposit on

asset holdings. The same set of also applies to nonlike insurance pension funds, real banking institutions

estate agencies, and mutual funds. Because Islamic banks are more akin to finance companies, be useful to adopt the same regulations established by the Securities Exchange Commission it may

19 Chuck Collins, Betsy LeonardWright, & Holly Sklar, Shifting Fortunes: The Perils of the Growing American Wealth Gap (Boston, MA: United for a Fair
20

Economy, 1999). Donald Barlett & James Steele, America: Who Really Pays the Taxes? (New York: Simon & 5 Schuster, 1994). Mark Wilhelm, "Estimates Wealth Tax" (unpublished Pennsylvania University Park, 1998).

(these include type of securities, risk factors, internal control, and performance indicators).
100%

Since Islamic banks guarantee demand deposits only, a required reserve on demand deposit would help reduce the problems of asset-liability mismatch caused by unexpected

21

of paper,

State University,

NOTES demand deposit withdrawals. 6 The GLBA made two major changes. First, it allowed bank holding companies insurance to merge with 3 and securities compa(Bethesda, MD: The Minaret of Freedom Institute; Beltsville, MD: Amana Publications, 1997), PP47-48. Philip K. Hitti, History of the

nies and cross-sell their products. Second, it allowed bank holding companies underwrite underwriting firms.
NOTES
I

Arabs, loth edn. (New Yark:

Macmillan, 4 S. AbulHasan 1986), p.672. Nadvi, Insani Duniya par Musalmanon kay Urooj-o-Zawal ka Asar [The Impact of the Rise and Fall of Muslims on Human Civilization], 8th edn. (Karachi, Pakistan:

that did not merge to securities, selling or insurance, and make in business

equity investments

TO THE EPILOGUE

Ma j lis-e- N ash aria at -e-Islam, 5 1974) Louay Safi, "Overcoming Religious-Secular Contribution the

Ibrahim Madkour, and Future,"

"Past, Present,

The Genius of Arab Civilization: Source of Renaissance, 2nd edn.

in j.R.Hayes, (Cambridge, 2 MA: MIT Press, 1983), PP243-246. Rose W. Lane, Islam and the

Divide: Islam's

to Civilization." Dallas,

Presented at the 2001 AMSS Regional Conference, Texas, June 22-23. by

Discovery of Freedom (with an

introduction Imad-ad-Dean and commentary Ahmad).

INDEX

AAOIFI standards, 'Abbas, 31

113

Islamic finance al-'AmilI, anatomy, anesthetics, anti-social Aquinas, Baha'uddIn, 78, 80-81 79 traditions, St. Thomas, 39, 42-44 86 system, 81 xviii, 59. See also 70

Abbasids, xi, 23, 35-36,57,75 Abdu, Muhammad, 29 'Abdullah ibn Saba', 27 62 102 Abdur Rahman, absolute poverty, Abu al- W afa, xviii Abu Bakr defending nomination the weak, 34-35 of 'Vmar, 26 election of as Caliph, 25 use of Shiira, 29 Abu l:IanIfah, 36 Abu Hudhaifah, Abu Ma'ashar, Abyssinia, academia, accounting agriculture, 33-34 129-3 35 113 standards, 87 xi 118 89 31 62

aortic circulatory Arabic numerals, mathematics Arabic, 75, 88 Armstrong, Asha'arites, Association Scientists,

Karen, 47 81 116 121, 123-4 63 of Muslim Social II9,

Arnold of Villanova, assets management,

astronomy, 57, 61-63, 83-84 Avicenna. See Ibn SIna Bacon, Francis, Badr, 3-31 Baghdad, 75 BanI SaqIfah, 25 Banking Act, II 2 banks, 109 Hasan, 83 Abu Rayl).an, xviii, 62, 13 al-Banna, al-Battani, Bay'ah,29 al-BayrunI, 68, 84 aI-Bay tar, 82 Bayt al-ljikmah, 75-76 of the 56

accountability,

Bacon, Roger, 81

Ahl al-ljadtth, Alam, Manzoor, Alexandria, algebra, 83 algorithms,

Ahmed, Raisuddin, xvii xviii, 83

'All ibn Abi Talib, 35 'alims, political role of, 28 allegorical Qur'an, Alvi,56 Amana Income Fund, 115. See also interpretation 123

GENERAL INDEX bimaristan, 78

blindness, 80 blood, circulation of, xviii Bourdieu, Pierre, 40-42 Briffault, xii, xix-xx Brown, L. differentiating civilizations exploring meaning across various, 5-6 preservation
I I I

from state, 18-20

and Islam, 20-22

c., 5 I

of tribal divisions, of knowledge

Burke, James, 55 business, supporting, al-BuzjanI, Abu al-Wafa, 83 California, Caliphate election of Caliph, 25-26 hereditary transfer of power, 36 justice, 32-33 necessary qualities of, 28 rebellion against, 27 return of, 122 use of Shara, 29-30 Camel rating, capitalism, car leasing, cartography, cataracts, 80 79 of, 101
I I I I

14-15 transmission through, 53 coercion, 44-46

19

Cold War, 129 Columbus, communism, Community compasses, II 8 92, 96 Reinvestment 60, 84 Act,
I

communitarianism,48-5I II

consensus, scholarly, 122 consilience, 58 consultation. control, 44-46 Cordoba, 58, 75 Council on American Islamic relations, 110 Covenant of Madinah, crime, 94 Crusades, xiv, 20, 64, 88 customary law, 25 xviii, 83 I 19 95 14

See Shara

92, 96 16 85

Catholic Church, 10 cauterization, charity importance role in diminishing poverty, 106 chemistry, 60, 81- 82 China, 60 chivalry, 126-7 Christianity distortion suppression of,
I

Da Vinci, Leonardo, Dacca University, II8 Dallas Declaration, Day of Judgment, debt crises, 109 Descartes, 9

Reformation

(See Reformation)
of scientific

dhimma,I9
dietary regulation, discipline, 44 distribution inequity, 102-5 doctors. See physicians Doi, Abdur Rahman, 48-49 80

progress, 74 Church. See Christianity Citibank, II2 civil society

GENERAL INDEX
Douglass, 56 Dow Jones Index, I I 5 drug abuse, 105-6 economics distribution
102- 5

145

food insecurity, 103 Foucalt, Michel, 44-46 freedom, 3, 21, 33-34 French revolution, 10 FTSE International, inequity in the US, Galen, 78 principles of Galileo,6I gambling, 105 geography, Georgetown al-Ghazall, 122-3 Gingerich, Owen, 57 92-93 glass-making factories, 87 globalization, 54 Grann -Leach -Bliley Financial Services Modernization gravity, 61 Greeks, 73-74, 78 guilt by association, 16 habitus, 4-41 Hamidullah, Dr. Mohammad, 39 9 aI-Hamra, 118 outlawing of, Act, 112 84-85 University, 119 Abo Hamid, 28, 68, geometry, 56 II5

fundamental

Islamic, 92-95 growth and development compared, 96-97 Islamic system of, 97-102 justice, 92 method of establishing prosperity, 94-95 participation,

relevance of, 95-97 self-reliance, 98-99 education, egoism, 10 Eldridge, Richard, 5 I Electoral Colleges, 26 Enlightenment, equality, 34-35 Esposito, John, 76 Europe, influence of Muslim civilization on, 58-59 European philosophical evolution, 62, 88 executive ministers, 19 experience, 5 experimental exploitation, eye, 8o family, 126 al-Farabl, Abo Na~r, 67, 76, 86 al-Farghanl, Ferdinand, 59, 84 88 investigation, 98 8I thought, 2, 9-1 I 57-59

118-

Harvey, William, xviii, 81 aI-Hasan al- Ba~rl, 27 al-Hasib, 62 al-Hawl, 66 Hereafter, history distortion of, 2 'Black Hole' of, ix, xvii, 74 Hitti, Philip, 87, 127 Hobbes, 9 home financing, 116. See also 95 hereditary transfer of power, 36

feudalism, xiii, 6

146
Islamic finance hospitals, xviii, 78 Hudaybiyyah, treaty of, 29 human development human development, hydraulics, 62 86

GENERAL

INDEX
interest. See Riba inter-faith dialog, 120 International irrigation, Islam civil society and the state, 20-22 freedom, 33-34 in the modern world, 6 justice, 32-33 Madinan state, 13-16 87 Investor, I I 5

index, 96 92, 95-97

I:Iunayn ibn Isbaq, 65, 75-76

Ibn al-'ArabI,

Ibn Batutah, xviii Ibn al-Haytham, Ibn I:Iazm, 122 Ibn Jubayr, 78 Ibn KhaldOn, xviii, 70, 85, 123 Ibn Khallikan, Ibn al-NadIm, Ibn al-Qayyim, Mubammad, Ibn Shaitar, 84 Ibn SIna, Abo 'All, xii, 67, 80, 82 Ibn Taymiyyah, Ibn Tufayl, 123 Ibn Zuhr, xviii, 79 al-IdrIsI, xviii, 62, 84 Ijma" 122 ijtihad, 36, 122 Imamate of Necessity, 27. See also Caliphate incarceration, 45, 94 individualization and prison, 45-46 role of the individual in Muslim society, 51 inheritance, institutions educational, 58 social and penal, 44 100, 105 28, 33, 122-3 59 59 20 69, 86, 123 xviii, 56-57, 61, 67 Ibn I:Iayyan, Jabbir, xviii

method of establishing prosperitY,94-95 and political authority, 17-18 political theory, 25-28 private property in, 97 religious tolerance, 15- I 6 II-13,

Ibn al-NafIs, xviii, 81 Ibn Rushd, Abu al-Wabid

shara, 28-32
social principles of, 125 solution to poverty, 105-7 See also Muslim society Islamic civilization compared with Western, 6 Islam and the state, II - 13, 17-

18
good treatment of Jews, 15-16 See also Caliphate Islamic economics. See economics Islamic finance accounting commitment, competition, standards, II4-5 114 113 II2 I 13 challenges, I 16

current state of, I I 5 financial productions, financial regulations, obstacles to, II 1-2 profit-loss sharing deposits, II 2 as system of shared risk, IIO Islamic Spain, II 8-21

GENERAL
Ismail, Youssef, 119 Italians, 126 65, 81 120

INDEX
legal systems in capitalism munism,93 Levey, 83 Lewis, Bernard, libraries, 78 74

147
and com-

Jabbir ibn Hayyan, al-Ja1:li:?,62

Jayusi, Salma Khadra, al-JazzarI, Jefferson, 62 William, 120

licensing of medical practitioners,

79
Locke, 9, 42 logic, science of, 56, 86 London in Muslim sociCollege of Physicians, 79 of in Muslim

Jews, good treatment society, 15- I 6 juridical institutions ety, 50 justice, 32-33 Kant, 9-10 Kettani, Dr. Ali, 120 al-KhawarizmI, al-Khawarizmi al-KhazinI,

madaris, xv. See also education.

Madina, Madrid, Magnus, al-MajritI, Malik, Mamluk maps, market 36 44 127 xi, 17, 23, 75-76 105 67, 84 dynasty, Malinowski, al-Ma'mun,
XV1ll

13-16, 24-25 120 Albert, 81 Abu al-Qasim, 68

xviii, 59, 61, 66, 83 Science Society, 120

Abu al-Fat1:l 'Abd al-

Ra1:lman, 61, 69

khilafah. See Caliphate

al-KindI, Abu Yusuf, 61, 65, 76, 85 knowledge continuum of, 121 of, 57-59 resource, on, 72 Human 99-100 democratization as an economic relationship transmission civilizations, Prophet traditions

speculation,
I

Marx, Karl, 10-1 al-Mas'udI, MasumI, al-Maward!, 119 xi

Abul Hasan,

as a political

scientist,

85

with experience,s through 53 118-20

concept of political justice, 23-

24
on the Shari'ah tion,19 al-Mawdudi, Sayyid Abu ai-Ala, 12, 56, 59-60, 83 36 mathematics, media, 55 medicine, xviii anesthetics, eye treatment, hospitals 79 80 in Muslim lands, 78-79 and justice, 122 posion the types of ministerial

Lahore Declaration, Lane, Rose W., 126 language,s

latitudes and longitudes, law differential society, 50 Le Bon, Gustave, 82 structure

62 of, 18-20 in Muslim

juridical institutions

148
medical libraries, 78 pharmacology, regulation textbooks

GENERAL

INDEX
juridical institutions in, 50 of

xviii, 82-83

lack of acknowledgement scholarly work of, 74

of, 79 on, 79

method of establishing prosperity, 94-95 ministerial roles, 19 role of the individual, technology, treatment 79 54, 87 of the mentally ill, 785I

mental illness, 78-79 migration, 33-34 ministerial roles in Muslim society, 19 modern world, 54 Mongol invasion, xiv, 20, 64, 88 monogenesis, 57 10 Moon, phases of, 62, 83 moral relativism, Morowitz, Mu'adh ix, xvii, xix, 74

See also Muslims; Islam

Muslim Spain, II8-2I Muslims in United States, duty of, 3 under-representation in science,

ibn Jabal, 63, 122 76 al-FarghanI, 17, 63 II2. 59

Mu'awiyah,36 al-Muhtadi, Mu'tazilites, al-Mutawakkil

89
mutual funds, mysticism, 86
I

16

mutual savings, I I 6

Muqarabah,
finance

See also Islamic

al-Nabhani, 78 nationalism, 48- 5 I 59Taqiyuddin, 62
I

13

MuqtadI Hospital, Muslim society

Najm al-Rammah,

apathy towards science, 88 communitarianism, contribution contribution to chemistry, 60 to mathematics, to physics and 61-63 to science, 55-57 of knowledge, civil society and

nature, attitudes to, 55-56 al-Na:?:?am, 62 Newton, Nilometer Isaac, 61 devices, 60 right to self determiNietzsche, 10 non-Muslims, nation, 19 Norman, Jane, 60 online Islamic banking, 116 oppression, rehelling against, 122 optics, xviii, 6 I organised religion, 10 orthopedic ownership, surgeons, 78 97

60
contribution astronomy, contribution

decline of science, 63-64 democratization 57-59 differentiating state, 18-20 effect of Qur'an on, 71 good treatment isolationism, of Jews, 15-16 hospitals in, 78-79 128-9 paper factories, 87

GENERAL INDEX
paper, introduction
XVlll

of into Europe, systems,

Prophet,

the

participation

in economic 44 79

use of Shurii, 30-32 traditions on seeking knowledge, 72 traditions prosperity, pulmonary punishment, on self-reliance, 94-95 circulatory 44 98-99

92
penal institutions, pharmacology, Pharmacopedia, philosophy, physicians surgeons, physics,6T-63 Pinel, Phillipe, 79 plenipotentiary politics accountability of head of state, ministers, 19 xviii, 82-83

system, 8 I

39-46, 85-86

licensing of, 79 78

Qiyiis,

122-3

quadratic quietism, Qur'an

equations, 28, 51, 122

83

effect of on Arabian figurative

society, 71 of, 123

interpretation

35 freedom, 33-34 hereditary transfer of power, Islamic political theory, 25-28 justice, }2-33

al-RazI, xii, 66, 78-80, 82 real estate financing, 36 rebellion religion Marx's views on, 10-11 6 9-10 Reformation, 2, 9-10 II6 against a leader, 27, 122

in Muslim society, 11-13, 17-18 origins of secularism, quietism, 28, 51, 121 and religion, 7-8 science of, 85 8- TT

organized,

and politics, 7-8 and secularism, 13,17-18 tolerance and state in Muslim society, IIof in Muslim society, 3, 17

shurii, 28-32 See also Caliphate

poverty distribution 102-5 eliminating with zakah, 106-7 Islamic solution
106

inequity in the US,

15-16 religious freedom, Renaissance, Rhazes. See al-RazI

ix, 2, 122

to, TOT, T05-7

ribii, 98
Ri~a, Rashid, Roger 11,75,79 27-28, 36

role of charity in diminishing, prisoners of war, 3 T-32

pnsons, 44-45, 94 privatization, 54 profit-loss property, sharing deposits, ownership of, 97 II2

Rousseau, Jean-Jaques, 9, 42-43 RumI, Mawlana Jalal aI-Din, 86 al-Sa'ati KhurasanI, 62

Safi, Louay, 129

IS
Saracens, Sarton, 126 George, xix Mubammad 19

GENERAL

INDEX
Simmons, John, 42 sine theorem, 83 44

al-ShaybanI, Hasan,

ibn al-

Snell, 61 social institutions, sociology, speculation, spherical St. Augustine, state 63coercion 18-20 and Islam, 20-22 purpose stereotyping, Stoics, 43 Sufism, 86 sulfuric acid, xviii surgeons, 78 79
20

aI-ShIraZI, Qutb aI-Din, 69 slavery, 127 scholars. sCience astronomy, chemistry, 57, 61-63, 83-84 60, 81-82

xviii, 85
105

Spain, xiv, 58,75,88,118-21 trigonometry, 43 and control, 44-46 83

See 'alims

decline of in Muslim world,

64 down playing Muslim contribution to, 74 experimental geography, mathematics, investigation, 84-85 56, 59-60, 83 88 to, 55-57 61-63 8I

differentiating

from civil society,

of, 18 129

Muslim apathy towards, Muslim contribution pharmacology,

xviii, 82-83 71

physics and astronomy, role of the Qur'an, suppression Christianity, technology, in, 89 secularism compared with Islam, 6 degrees of, 8 origins of, 8-11 self-reliance, Seville, 58 Shari'ah, Sharii example 26 principles Sicily, 75, 79 of, 28-30 of the Prophet, defined, 46-47 98-99 74 54, 87 of under

surgical techniques, Syrian Christians, Taqlrd,I23 TawJ;rd,57

under-representation

of Muslims

Ta'wrl, 123 technology, al-TifashI, Terdiman, 54, 87 62 Richard, 40 66, 76 122 39,41-44 II8, 120

Thabit ibn Qurrah, Third Renaissance, Todorov, Toledo, Tzvetan, 58

Toledo Academy, totalitarianism, 30-32 25tracheotomy, Traditionalists, treaties, 24 tribal divisions, 79 xi

12- 13

as means of electing Caliph,

preservation

of, 14-

15

GENERAL INDEX
trigonometry, Tschnaz, xviii, 59, 83 103-4 127 Urban Institute, 102

David, 81

'Urf,36
usury. See Riba 'Uthman waqf, ibn 'Affan, 26, I I 8

Tufts University Center, Turkish slave dynasty,

al-TusI, Na~ir ai-DIn, 69, 83-84

116

'Uhud,29 Ulugh Beg, 61 Umayyads, 76 election of as 61, 69 'Umar ibn al-Khanab, Caliph, 26 'Umar al-Khayyam, Ummah and state, 17-18 as a political society, 14 preservation 14-15 United Nations Programme, United States as global leader, 129 distribution eliminating inequity, 102-5 duty of Muslims in, 3 poverty in with in, 103 94 institutions in, zakah, 106-7 food insecurity incarceration, III Islamic solution
105-7

al-Wathiq welfare, Western

Billah, 17 106-7 civilization with Islamic, 6 of philosophical

compared currents

thought, 39-46 down playing Muslim contribution to science, 74 Muslim influence in Europe, 59 origins of secularism, Wilson, Edward, Wittgenstein, Wolff, 104, women, Yuhanna 127-8 ibn Massawaih, 57 I 19 78-80, 78 5I 58 8-II 58-

of tribal divisions, Development 96

Yousif, A. Waheed, Yusuf, Hamza, al-ZahrawI, 82 Zakah,

Abu al-Qasim,

Islamic financial

101, 105-7, 115 mathematics

to poverty in,

zero, xviii, 83. See also Arabic numerals;

migrating to, 33-34 'Uqbah ibn Nafi', II8

LIST

OF CONTRIBUTORS

ABDULHAMID

ABUSULAYMAN,

PHD

President, International Institute of Islamic Thought Editor-in-Chief, American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences (AJISS)
M. BASHEER AHMED, MD

Former Professor of Psychiatry, South- Western Medical School, University of Texas, Dallas
SYED A. AHSANI

Former Ambassador of Pakistan

ABDEL-HAMEED M. BASHIR, PHD

Professor of Economics, University of Louisana, LA

LOUAY M. SAFI, PHD

Executive Director, Leadership Development Center, ISNA Former President, Association of Muslim Social Scientists (AMSS)
MOHAMMED SHARIF, PHD

Professor of Economics, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI

DILNAWAZ A. SIDDIQUI, PHD

Emeritus Professor of Communication, Clarion University of Pennsylvania

PETER WRIGHT, JD

Attorney at Law, Pittsburgh, PA