Vol 1 PDF

Vrnjaka Banja, Serbia
10th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT IN MECHANICAL INDUSTRY
RaDMI 2010 PROCEEDINGS Vol. 1

Editor: Predrag V. Dai Donji Milanovac, Serbia 16 - 19. September 2010.
Publisher:
SaTCIP (Scientific and Technical Center for Intellectual Property) Ltd., 36210 Vrnjaka Banja, Serbia
For publisher: Jovan Dai, Director of the firm SaTCIP Ltd. Reviewers: Prof. dr. Branislav Dragovi, vice-dean, Maritime Faculty, University of Montenegro, Kotor (Montenegro) Prof. dr Volodymir Fedorinov, rector, Donbass State Machinery Academy (DSMA), Kramatorsk (Ukraine) Prof. dr Raycho Ilarionov, vice-rector, Technical University of Gabrovo (Bulgaria)
Technical processing and design: Predrag Dai Jovan Dai
Approved by: Decision no. 004/2010 from 01-06-2010 from SaTCIP Ltd., Vrnjaka Banja (Serbia)
Disclaimer Note The content of this publication, data, discussions and conclusions presented by the authors are for information only and are not intended for use without independent substantiating investigations on the part of potential users. Opinions expressed by the Autors are not necessarily in accordance with SaTCIP Ltd. as the Publisher, and the organizer and editor are not responsible for any statement in this publication. Copyright SaTCIP Ltd. All rights are reserved for this publication, which is copyright according to the International Copyright Convention. Excepting only any fair dealing for the purpose of private study, research, review, comment and criticism, no part of this publication can be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, mechanical, electrical, electronic, optical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior expressly permission of the copyright owners. Unlicensed copying of the contents of this publication is illegal.
Circulation: 80 exemplars Printed by: SaTCIP (Scientific and Technical Center for Intellectual Property) Ltd. 36210 Vrnjaka Banja, Serbia
II
ORGANIZER
Vrnjaka Banja, Serbia http://www.satcip.com/
ORGANIZING COMMITTEE
1. Predrag Dai, SaTCIP Ltd., Vrnjaka Banja (Serbia), Chairman 2. Milan Marinkovi, INTERHEM Research Center, Belgrade (Serbia) 3. Dr Milutin Milosavljevi, University of Pritina Office Kosovska Mitrovica, Technical Faculty, Kosovska Mitrovica (Serbia) 4. Marina Stanojevi, University of Ni, Faculty of Economics, Ni (Serbia) 5. Dr Slobodan Radosavljevi, Mining Basin Kolubara, Lazarevac (Serbia) 6. Veis erifi, Technical Faculty, aak (Serbia) 7. Jovan Dai, SaTCIP Ltd., Vrnjaka Banja (Serbia) 8. Danka Milievi, SaTCIP Ltd., Vrnjaka Banja (Serbia) 9. Ana Kari, SaTCIP Ltd., Vrnjaka Banja (Serbia)
III
SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. Prof. dr Grigoryev Sergey Nikolaevich, rector, Moscow State Technological University STANKIN, Moskva (Russia), Chairman Prof. dr Valentin Nedeff, rector, University of Bacu, Faculty of Engineering, Bacu (Romania), Vicechairman Prof. dr Friedrich Franek, University of Vienna and president of Austrian Tribology Association, Vienna (Austria), Vice-chairman Prof. dr Raycho Ilarionov, vice-rector, Technical University of Gabrovo (Bulgaria), Vice-chairman Dr Syed Ahmed, CSEM S. A., Surface Engineering Division, Neuchtel (Switzerland) Prof. dr Emilia Assenova, Technical University of Sofia, Sofia (Bulgaria) Prof. dr Anatoly P. Avdeenko, Donbass State Machinery Academy, Kramatorsk (Ukraine) Prof. dr Milun Babi, University of Kragujevac, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Kragujevac (Serbia) Prof. dr Nada Barac, University of Ni, Faculty of Economics, Ni (Serbia) Prof. dr Rade Bioanin, University of Novi Pazar, Technical Faculty, Novi Pazar (Serbia) Prof. dr Leonid Borisenko, Belarusian-Russian University (BRU), Mogilev (Belarus) Prof. dr Konstantin D. Bouzakis, Aristoteles University of Thessaloniki, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Thessaloniki (Greece) Prof. dr Miodrag Bulatovi, University of Podgorica, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Podgorica (Montenegro) Traian Buido, University of Oradea, Faculty of Management and Technological Engineering, Oradea (Romania) Prof. dr Mikhail V. Burmistr, academician, rector, Ukrainian State University of Chemical Engineering, Dniepropetrovsk (Ukraine) Prof. dr Alexander I. Burya, academician, Dniepropetrovsk State Agrarian University, Dniepropetrovsk (Ukraine) Prof. dr Ilija osi, dean, University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Scientific, Novi Sad (Serbia) Prof. dr Predrag osi, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Naval Architecture, Zagreb (Croatia) Prof. dr George Dobre, University Politehnica, Bucharest (Romania) Prof. dr Alexandre Dolgui, Ecole Nationale Suprieure des Mines de Saint-Etienne, Saint-Etienne (France) Prof. dr emal Dolianin, rector, University of Novi Pazar, Technical Faculty, Novi Pazar (Serbia) Prof. dr. Branislav Dragovi, vice-dean, Maritime Faculty, University of Montenegro, Kotor (Montenegro) Prof. dr Ljuben Dudesku, vice-dean, University of Skopje, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Skopje (Macedonia) Prof. dr Petru Dusa, Technical University Gh. Asachi, Faculty of Mechanics, Iai (Romania) Prof. dr Ljubodrag orevi, University of Union, Faculty of Industrial Management, Kruevac (Serbia) Prof. dr Vladan orevi, academician, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade (Serbia) Prof. dr Sabahudin Ekinovi, rector, University of Zenica, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Zenica (Bosnia and Herzegovina) Prof. dr Volodymir Fedorinov, rector, Donbass State Machinery Academy, Kramatorsk (Ukraine) Prof. dr Milomir Gai, University of Kragujevac, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Kraljevo (Serbia) Prof. dr Manfred Geiger, University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen (Germany) Prof. dr Anatoly Ivanovich Grabchenko, National Technical University, Kharkov Polytechnical Institute, Kharkov (Ukraine) Prof. dr Nicolae Valentin Ivan, University Transilvania of Brasov, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Brasov (Romania) Prof. dr Ratomir Jemenica, University of Kragujevac, Technical Faculty, aak (Serbia) Prof. dr Milan Jurkovi, University of Biha, Technical Faculty, Biha (Bosnia and Herzegovina) Prof. dr Isak Karabegovi, dean, University of Biha, Technical Faculty, Biha (Bosnia and Herzegovina) Prof. dr Baki Karami, Erciyes University, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Kaysei (Turkey) Prof. dr Branko Katalini, University of Vienna, Vienna (Austria) IV
38. Prof. dr Veijo Kauppinen, Helsinki University of Technology, Espoo (Finland) 39. Prof. dr Marianna Kazimierska - Grebosz, Technical University of Lodz, Faculty of General Mechanics, Lodz (Poland) 40. Dr Sergei A. Klimenko, Director of Association of Mashine Bulding Technologists of the Ukraine ATMU, Kiev (Ukraine) 41. Prof. dr Karel Kocman, Technical University of Brno, Brno (Szech Republic) 42. Prof. dr Janez Kopac, University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Ljubljana (Slovenia) 43. Prof. dr Marian Kralik, vice-dean, Slovak University of Technology, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Bratislava (Slovakia) 44. Prof. dr Zdravko Krivokapi, vice-dean, University of Podgorica, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Podgorica (Montenegro) 45. Prof. dr Janos Kundrak, University of Miskolc, Faculty of Production Engineering, Miskolc, (Hungary) 46. Prof. dr Evgeniy A. Kundrashov, academician, State Technical University, Chita (Russia) 47. Prof. dr Cristian N. Madu, Pace University, Lubin School of Bussiness, New York (USA) 48. Prof. dr Velibor Marinkovi, University of Ni, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Ni (Serbia) 49. Prof. dr Vlatko Marui, University of Osijek, Mechanical Engineering Faculty, Slavonski Brod (Croatia) 50. Prof. dr Ostoja Mileti, vice-rector, University of Banja Luka, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Banja Luka (Bosnia and Herzegovina) 51. Prof. dr Onisifor Olaru, dean, University Constantin Brancusi of Tg-Jiu, Faculty of Engineering, Tg-Jiu (Romania) 52. Prof dr Constantin Oprean, rector, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu, Sibiu (Romania) 53. Prof. dr Liviu Palaghian, vice-dean, University of Galati, Galati (Romania) 54. Prof. dr. Nam Kyu Park, Tongmyong University, Busan (Korea) 55. Prof. dr Jozef Peterka, vice-dean, Slovak University of Technology, Faculty of Material Sciences and Technology of Trnava, Trnava (Slovakia) 56. Prof. dr Georgios Petropoulos, University of Thessaly, Faculty of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, Volos (Greece) 57. Prof. dr Narcisa Popescu, University Politehnica, Bucharest (Romania) 58. Prof. dr Stanislaw Pytko, Technical University of Krakow, Krakow (Poland) 59. Prof. dr. Zoran Radmilovi, Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering, University of Belgrade Belgrade (Serbia) 60. Prof. dr Sneana Radonji, vice-dean, University of Kragujevac, Technical Faculty, aak (Serbia) 61. Prof. dr Miroslav Radovanovi, University of Ni, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Ni (Serbia) 62. Prof. dr Georgi Rashev, dean, Technical University of Gabrovo, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Gabrovo (Bulgaria) 63. Prof. dr. Milorad Rakovi, dean, Maritime Faculty, University of Montenegro, Kotor (Montenegro) 64. Prof. dr. Dong-Keun Ryoo, College of International Studies, Korea Maritime University, Busan (Korea) 65. Prof. dr Igor Sergeevich Sazonov, rector, Belarusian-Russian University (BRU), Mogilev (Belarus) 66. Prof. dr Adolfo Senatore, University of Salermo, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Fisciano (Italy) 67. Prof. dr Ivana Simi, University of Ni, Faculty of Economics, Ni (Serbia) 68. Prof. dr Dimitri Yu. Skubov, State Technical University of Sankt Petersburg, Sankt Petersburg (Russia) 69. Prof. dr Georgy Slynko, academician, Zaporozhye National Engineering University, Zaporozhye (Ukraine) 70. Prof. dr Mirko Sokovi, vice-dean, University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Ljubljana (Slovenia) 71. Prof. dr Viktor Starkov, Moscow State Technological University, Moscow (Russia) 72. Prof. dr Ljubodrag Tanovi, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade (Serbia) 73. Prof. dr Oleg Vasilevich Taratynov, academician, Moscow State Industrial University, Moscow (Russia) 74. Prof. dr Mirela Toth-Tascau, Politehnica University of Timioara, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Timioara (Romania) 75. Prof. dr Nikolaos Vaxevanidis, Institute of Pedagogical & Technological Education, N. Heraklion Attikis (Greece) 76. Prof. dr Karol Velisek, Slovak University of Technology, Faculty of Material Sciences and Technology of Trnava, Trnava (Slovakia) 77. Prof. dr Edward Walicki, University of Zielona Gora, Faculty of Mechanics, Zielona Gora (Poland) 78. Prof. dr Ton vad der Wiele, Erasmus University, Rotterdam School of Management, Rotterdam (Netherlands) 79. Prof. dr Carol Zoller, University of Petrosani, Faculty for Mechanical and Electrical Engineers, Petrosani (Romania) 80. Prof.dr Jeroslav ivani, dean, University of Kragujevac, Technical Faculty, aak (Serbia) 81. Prof. dr Dragan ivkovi, High Technical School, Zrenjanin (Serbia) V
VI
PREFACE
The First Conference Research and Development in Chemical and Mechanical Industry - RaDMI 2001 was held upon the initiative of Predrag Dai and prof. dr Miroslav Radovanovi in Kruevac from October 22-24, 2001. Until now, 9 conferences were realized. The conference accepted and published over 1.500 papers, from which 1.100 were from abroad from 40 various countries of the world. Total number of authors and coauthors is over 2.000. Papers of the 8th conferences were published in 16 proceedings in hard copy and 8 proceedings in electronic form (CD-ROM). Amount of printed material was approximately 11.000 pages. Some papers from the 8th International conference RaDMI 2008 will be printed in special issue of international journal from SCI-E paper Strojniki Vestnik Journal of Mechanical Engineering Vol. 55, no. 2 (2009) (Web site: http://en.sv-jme.eu/). Tenth International Conference Research and Development in Mechanical Industry RaDMI 2010 will be held on 1619th September 2010 in Donji Milanovac, Serbia. Topics of the Conference RaDMI 2010 are: Plenary Session: Invitation papers, with 18 papers; Session A: Research and development of manufacturing systems, tools and technologies, new materials and production design, with 52 papers; Session B: Transport systems and logistics, with 9 papers; Session C: Application of information technologies in mechanical engineering, with 23 papers; Session D: Quality management, ISO 9000, ISO 14000, TQM and management in mechanical engineering, with 49 papers; Session E: Application of mechanical engineering in other industrial fields, with 50 papers. The aim of organizing the Conference is: animating scientists from the faculties and institutes and experts from the industry and their connecting and collaboration, and exchanging the experiences and knowledge of domestic and foreign scientists and experts. On behalf of the organizers, we would like to extend our thanks to all organizations and institutions that have supported the initiative to have this anniversary gathering organized. We would also like to extend our thanks to all authors and participants from abroad and from the country for contribution to this conference. This Tenth International Conference RaDMI is entirely dedicated to the late Prof. dr Georgios Petropoulos, our friend and active participant in all the previous conferences.
Donji Milanovac, September 2010.
CHAIRMAN OF ORGANIZING COMMITTEE Predrag Dai, prof.
VII
CONTENTS Volume 1
PLENARY SESSION (INVITATION PAPERS)
P-1.
P-2.
P-3.
P-4.
P-5.
P-6.
P-7.
P-8.
P-9.
P-10. P-11. P-12.
P-13. P-14.
Petropoulos G. (Volos Greece), Dai P. (Vrnjaka Banja Serbia), Vaxevanidis N. M. (Attikis Greece) RESEARCH OF PROCESSED SURFACE ROUGHNESS IN FIELD OF METALWORKING Vaxevanidis N. M., Galanis N. (Attikis Greece), Dai P. (Vrnjaka Banja Serbia), Fountas N. (Attikis Greece) PRODUCTION ROUTES TOWARDS CLEAN CUTTING: DRY, HARD AND HIGH SPEED MACHINING Fedorinov V., Kovalevskyy S. (Kramatorsk Ukraine) COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF MODERN SYSTEMS OF AUTOMATED DESIGNING OF MACHINES ON KOKHONENA'S CARDS Arora P.K. (Ghaziabad India), Haleem A. (New Delhi - India), Singh M. K. (Mathura India) OPTIMAL DESIGN OF CELLULAR MANYFSCTURING SYSTEMS: A REVIEW Toth-Tascau M., Rusu L. (Timisoara Romania) MODELING AND ANALYSIS OF A TESTING DEVICE OF A LUMBAR SPINE STABILIZATION SYSTEM Buido T., Ursu M.P. (Oradea Romania) THEORETICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH ABOUT THE WIRE ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING OF THE ACTIVE PARTS OF MOULDS Bonjak S., Zrni N., Gai V., Petkovi Z. (Belgrade Serbia) CHANGEABILITY AS A BASIC WORKING LOAD CHARACTERISTIC OF MACHINES FOR MECHANIZATION Dragovi B. (Kotor Montenegro), Park N.K. . (Busan Republic of Korea), Metrovi R. (Kotor Montenegro), Zrni N. (Belgrade Serbia) PORT SEASIDE LINK AS FINITE WAITING SPACE BULK QUEUEING SYSTEMS Marinkovi A. (Belgrade Serbia), Milosavljevi M. (Kosovska Mitrovica Serbia),Vukovi G., oli M., Uskokovi P.(Belgrade Serbia) AMINO-FUNCTIONALIZATION, CHARACTERIZATION AND BIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF MULTI-WALLED CARBON NANOTUBES Park N.K., Lim C. (Busan Republic of Korea), Dragovi B. (Kotor Montenegro) SYSTEM DYNAMIC MODEL OF TRANSSHIPMENT PORT CHOICE Yordanov S., Ilarionov R., Simeonov I., Kilifarev H., Ibrishimov H. (Gabrovo Bulgaria) NON-CONTACT ULTRASONIC INVESTIGATION OF THE STEEL HARDNESS Marui V. (Slavonski Brod Croatia), Rozing G. (Osijek Croatia), Novoselac V. (Slavonski Brod Croatia) ACTUALITY OF THE APPLICATION OF TRIBOLOGICAL REGULATORS AT REDUCING LOSSES IN OIL PRESSING FACTORY Pehan S., Kegl M., Kegl B. (Maribor Slovenia) ANALYSIS OF FRICTION IN SMALL ENGINES USING VARIOUS OILS Slavkovic R, Jugovic Z., Milicevic I., Popovic M. (aak Serbia) APPLICATION OF MODAL ANALYSIS IN THE IDENTIFICATION OF VIBRATION OF TECHNOLOGICAL EQUIPMENT
1 11
19 32 38 48 58 68 75
83 90 99
106 115
IX
P-15. Jevti D., Zaki D., Savi A. ( Belgrade Serbia)
128 140 150 157
STATE-OF-THE-ART IN THE FIELD OF TOUGHNESS EVALUATION OF FIBER REINFORCED CEMENT COMPOSITES P-16. Petkovi D., oki J., Mini D. (Kosovska Mitrovica Serbia) BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGIES AND PROCESSING DEVICES FOR ENVRONMENTAL IMPACT REDUCTION IN SECONDARY LEAD PRODUCTION P-17. Andjelkovi Pei M. (Ni Serbia) THE POSSIBLLE WAYS OF THE SIX SIGMA CONCEPT IMPROVEMENT P-18. Radosavljevi S. (Lazarevac Serbia), Dai P. (Vrnjaka Banja Serbia), epanovi S. (Belgrade Serbia) RISK MANAGAMENT FROM MINING - APPLICATION FMECA METHODS
SESSION A RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT OF MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS, TOOLS AND TECHNOLOGIES, NEW MATERIALS AND PRODUCTION DESIGN
A-1. A-2.
A-3. A-4. A-5. A-6.
A-7. A-8.
A-9.
A-10. A-11.
A-12.
A-13. A-14. A-15.
Bagnaru D.G., Cataneanu A., Cataneanu M. (Craiova Romania) CONSIDERATIONS ABOUT THE VIBRATIONS OF GEAR WHEELS Bagnaru D.G., Cataneanu A., Cataneanu M. (Craiova Romania) THE COMPATATIVE ANALYSIS BETWEEN THE CROSS DISPLACEMENTS FIELD OF A REPOSE LINEAR-VISCOELASTIC BAR AND THE SAME BAR, BEING THE CONNECTING ROD OF A CRANK GEAR Balashev I. (Gabrovo Bulgaria) PROFILE ELASTIC COUPLINGS Boji N. (Arilje Srbija), Jugovi Z. (aak Serbia) ANALYSIS OF STRESS IN PLATES WITH HOLES Bolundu I.L. (Petrosani Romania) CONSTRUCTION OF DRILLING EQUIPMENTS Bran I, Rou R., Popescu M., Opri C., Li M. (Timisoara Romania) EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES TO OBTAIN HYDROXYAPATITE BIOCOMPATIBLE MICROLAYERS BY HVOF THERMAL SPRAYING METHOD Chiculita S., Spanu C., Ciortan S. (Galati Romania) SURFACE QUALITY MODIFICATIONS UNDER SLIDING INDENTATION TEST Copaci I. (Arad Romania), Tnsoiu B. (Napoca Romania), Tnsoiu A. (Arad Romania) ON THE EFFECTS CAUSED BY THE SHOCK DUEING RAILWAY VEHICLE BUFFING amagi I. (Kosovska Mitrovica Serbia), Burzi Z. (Belgrade Serbia), Cvetkovi S. (Kosovska Mitrovica Serbia) THE ANALYSIS OF THE FRACTURE RESISTANCE FROM THE ASPECT OF THE APPLICATION OF THE PARAMETRES OF THE FRACTURE MECHANICS FOR A WELDED JOINT OF LOW-ALLOY STEEL WITH HIGHER SOLIDITY IN THE PRESENCE OF CRACKS Dai P. (Vrnjaka Banja Serbia), Barac N., Andjelkovi A. (Ni Serbia) STRUCTURE AND CONCEPT OF E-MANUFACTURING urii Lj., Petrovi R., Zdravkovi N., Bokovi G. (Kraljevo Serbia) SELECTION OF OPERATING PARAMETERS AND SYNCHRONIZATION OF HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS Fleser T. (Timisoara Romania) EVALUATION OF LOAD BEHAVIOR IN CORROSIVE ENVIRONMENT, NON-ALLOYD STEEL WELDED JOINTS Fleser T., Szuhanek C. (Timisoara Romania) CHARACTERIZATION OF WELDED JOINTS OF THIN NiTi WIRES AND STRIPS Gavrish P.A., Tulupov V.I. (Kramatorsk Ukraine) PRELIMINARY HEATING AT WELDING OF COPPER WITH STEEL Ghiba M.O., Dreucean M., Prejbeanu R., Vermesan D. (Timisoara Romania) RAPID PROTOTYPING IN THE CREATION OF HIP IMPLANTS WITH 3D LATTICE STRUCTURES X
169 175
181 189 199 205 210 214 225
234 238 244 250 256 259
A-16. Golubovi D. (aak Serbia), Mijatovi M. (Trstenik Serbia) A-17. A-18.
263 267 274 278 283 287 294 300 304 311 319 324 331 337 346 354 360 366 372 378 384 391 397 404
A-19. A-20.
A-21.
A-22. A-23. A-24.
A-25. A-26.
A-27. A-28. A-29.
A-30. A-31.
A-32. A-33.
A-34.
A-35.
A-36. A-37. A-38.
A-39.
STATIC TESTING NPU3 MEHATRNICKOG AID EQUIPMENT Janjuevi Lj., Kutin M., Radojkovi B. (Belgrade Serbia) FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING AND THE USE OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS WITHIN Korchak E.S. (Kramatorsk Ukraine) CREATING RELIABLE CONTROL SYSTEMS OF HYDRAULIC PRESSES RETURN CYLINDERS Kovalevskyy S., Tulupov V. (Kramatorsk Ukraine) ALGORITHM OF CALCULATION OF CONDITIONS EILWH Kovalevskyy S., Tulupov V.(Kramatorsk Ukraine) DETERMINATION OF TECHNOLOGICAL CONDITIONS BY ELECTRO-IMPULSE LATHE WORK HARDENING Kovalov V.D., Klymenko G.P., Tkachenko M. A., Vasylchenko Y.V. (Kramatorsk Ukraine) CUTTING TOOL WEAR OPERATING ON HEAVY LATHE Kudina E.F., Pechersky G.G. (Gomel Belarus) DEVELOPMENT OF SELF-RESTORING GEL-LIKE POLYFUNCTIONAL MATERIALS Kumar H. (New Delhi India), Sharma C. (Delhi India), Gupta S. (Chandigarh India) DEFLECTION STUDIES OF A FORCE TRANSDUCER Lazarevi A. (Belgrade Serbia), Marinkovi V., Lazarevi D. (Ni Serbia) EXPANDED NON-LINEAR MATHEMATICAL MODELS IN THE THEORY OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: A CASE STUDY Lorena G.D., Alina M.C., Ciortan N.S. (Galati Romania) SURFACE QUALITY EVALUATED BY 3D FUNCTIONAL PARAMETERS Marii I., Golubovi D. (aak Serbia) COMPARISON BETWEEN ANALYTICAL, EXPERIMENTAL AND FINITE ELEMENT ANALISYS DATA FOR RUPTURED FORCE OF WELDED CONSTRUCTION Mari A. (Kruevac Serbia), Risti O. (aak Serbia), orevi Lj. (Trstenik Serbia) THE FAULT TREE AND RELIABILITY ANALYSIS IN PROCESS INDUSTRY Mijajlovi M., Mili D., uranovi M. (Ni Serbia) HEAT GENERATION TEMPERATURE PHASES OF THE FSW PROCESS Mijatovi M. (Trstenik Serbia), Golubovi D. (aak Serbia) PROGRAMMABLE DYNAMIC TESTS OF ELEMENTS AND COMPLEX STRUCTURES BY MECHATRONIC SYSTEMS Mili D., Mijajlovi M. (Ni Serbia), Radojevi M. (Rataje Serbia) WOOD FURNITURE PARAMETRIC MODELING AS AN INTERIOR DESIGN STRATEGY Miti S. (Ni Serbia) INFLUENCE OF THE PLATE GEOMETRY ON THE STABILITY OF A PLATE WITH TWO FIELDS Miti S. (Ni Serbia) STABILITY OF STEPPED PLATES WITH A CLAMPED EDGE Nedeff V., Panainte M., Macarescu B.C., Mosnegutu E., Ristea M. (Bacau Romania) REDUCING POLLUTION FROM ELECTRICITY -DUSTING FACILITY MODERNIZATION FROM ENDOWMENT A LARGE COMBUSTION PLANTS Nenchev P., Anchev A. (Gabrovo Bulgaria) RESEARCH OF THE RELAXATION PROCESSES OBSERVED DURING THE WORK OF HYPER ELASTIC MATERIAL IN CLOSED CELL Nikoli R. (Kraljevo Serbia), orevi Lj., Trifunovi D. (Trstenik Serbia) MODEL OF TEMPERATURE FIELD IN THE CUTTING TOOL DURING DRY MACHINING AS A BASIS FOR RESEARCHING THE NEW COOLING SYSTEMS Oleshchuk O., Popel O., Kopytchuk M. (Odessa Ukraine) MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF DYNAMIC IMAGES Petkov T., Andreev H. (Gabrovo Bulgaria) MICROCONTROLER MEASURING SYSTEM FOR ELECTRO-MECHANICAL DEVICES Petrovi R., urii Lj., Zdravkovi N., Bokovi G. (Kraljevo Serbia) IDENTIFICATION AND OPTIMIZATION OF HYDRAULIC PNEUMATIC CILINDAR PARAMETERS Podaru G., Ciortan S., Birsan I. G. (Galati Romania) THERMAL ASPECTS OF RUBBER LIP SEAL - POLYMER ROD COUPLE BEHAVIOR IN DRY SLIDING CONDITIONS XI
A-40. Roganov M., Roganov L., Korotenko Y. (Kramatorsk Ukraine)
408 411 416 421 431 438 442
A-41.
A-42.
A-43.
A-44.
A-45.
A-46.
A-47.
A-48.
A-49.
A-50.
A-51.
A-52.
CONSTRUCTIVE TECHNIQUES OF IMPROVING THE ACCURACY OF MACHINE TOOLS Rudnev A.V. (Kharkov Ukraine) RESEARCH OF DIAMOND WHEEL PRODUCTIVITY WHILE MACHINING FINE-GRAINED DIAMOND HARD PLATES Simeonov S., Tsvetanov G., Nencheva D. (Gabrovo Bulgaria) LOST MOTION OF TOOTH GEARINGS OF ASYMMETRIC TOOTH PROFILE Slavkovi R., Dui N. (aak Serbia), Zdravkovi N. (Kraljevo Serbia), Bokovi N. (aak Serbia) THE METHODOLOGY OF VIBRATION ISOLATION OF TECHNOLOGICAL SYSTEMS Spanu C., Ciortan S., Birsan I., Mereuta V. (Galati Romania) METHOD FOR OPTIMIZING MACHINE PARTS DESIGN BASED ON ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWOKS Stanca I., Popa T., Bungu C. . (Oradea Romania) A MICROSCOPIC MODEL FOR THE ORIGIN OF PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT IN HTSC YBCO THIN FILMS Todorovi M. (Trstenik Serbia), Dedi M. (Kraljevo Serbia), ajetinac S., Jevremovi V. (Trstenik Serbia) DETERMINATION OF DEFLECTION AND SLOPE OF SPATIAL TRUSS BEAMS BY CONTINUUM MODELLING Velji M. (Beograd Serbia), Pozhidaeva V. (Sofia Bulgaria), ivkovi D., Medenica M. (Beograd Serbia) OPERATING READINESS OF DISC PLOUGHS AS A CRITERION FOR SUCCESFULNESS OF ITS MAINTENANCE Vigaru C., Rusu L. (Timisoara Romania) EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF VIBRATIONS AT WEAVING MACHINE IN ORDER TO IDENTIFY SOURCES OF VIBRATION Vreki S. (Kragujevac Serbia) EFFECTS FROM DEVELOPMENT OF EURO STANDARDS AND PROMOTION USE OF ALTERNATIVE FUELS Vodolazskaya N. (Donetsk Ukraine), Iskritzskiy V. (Kramatorsk Ukraine), Vodolazskaya E. (Donetsk Ukraine) CALCULATION METHODS OF WORKING PARAMETERS OF THE MESHING MECHANISM OF RARELY IMPACT WRENCH WITH INERTIAL MESHING Zdravkovi N., Gai M., Savkovi M., Markovi G. (Kraljevo Serbia) LOAD ANALYSIS OF THE ARTICULATING BOOM SECTIONS OF THE MOBILE ELEVATING WORK PLATFORM IN RELATION TO THE OPERATOR BASKET POSITION Zhelezarova D., Angelov I. (Gabrovo Bulgaria) ALGORITHM FOR ASSESSING THE QUALITY OF METAL ACCORDING TO THE CRITERION OF DEFECT GROWTH AT SYMMETRICAL CYCLIC LOADING
448
454 460 466
474 483
SESSION B TRANSPORT SYSTEMS AND LOGISTICS

B-1.
B-2. B-3.
B-4.
Dragovi B. (Kotor Montenegro), Ryoo D-K. (Busan Korea), Kova N., kuri M. (Kotor Montenegro) LITERATURE REVIEW OF ADVANCED MODELING TECHNIQUES FOR CONTAINER TERMINAL PLANNING Dragovi B., Zrni N. (Kotor Montenegro) CONTAINER SHIPS EVOLUTION: IMPLICATION FOR QUAY CRANES DEVELOPMENT Gurning S., Cahoon S. (Tasmania Australia) THE CYCLES OF MARITIME DISRUPTIONS IN THE AUSTRALIAN INDONESIAN WHEAT SUPPLY CHAIN Park N.K., Heo S.K., Dragovi B. (Busan Republic of Korea) MOBILE HARBOR CONCEPT FOR SHORT SEA SHIPING
489
498 505 513
XII
B-5. B-6. B-7. B-8. B-9.
Park N.K., Lu Bo. (Busan Republic of Korea) PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF THE CONTAINER PORTS WITH DEA Radmilovi Z. (Belgrade Serbia), Markolovi T. (Kotor Montenegro) QUEUE LENGTH OF INDIVIDUAL SHIPS AT INDEPENDENT WATERWAY LOCKS kuri M., Dragovi B., Markolovi T., Jovovi D. (Kotor Montenegro) CONTAINER YARD MODELING AND HANDLING EQUIPMENT Urdea G.B., Itu V., Dumitrescu I., Cozma B.Z. (Petroani Romania) SYSTEMIC ANALYSIS OF TRANSPORT AT LIVEZENI MINE Zrni N., orevi M., Bonjak S. (Belgrade Serbia), Dragovi B. (Kotor Montenegro) DEVELOPMENTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL FRIENDLY TECHNOLOGIES FOR RTG CONTAINER CRANES
519 526 530 537 543
SESSION C APPLICATION OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

C-1.
C-2.
C-3. C-4.
C-5. C-6. C-7.
C-8.
C-9.
C-10.
C-11.
C-12. C-13.
C-14.
Aleksandrov S., ajetinac S., elija D. (Trstenik Serbia) DIDACTIC SYSTEM FESTO MPS - SORTING STATION AND ITS APPLICATION IN EDUCATION IN THE FIELD OF MECHATRONICS Bili S. (Slavonski Brod Croatia), Misiraa D. (Gradika Bosnia and Herzegovina), Bili H. (Mostar Bosnia and Herzegovina), Rajili S. (Novi Grad Bosnia and Herzegovina) COMPUTER USAGE IN CALCULATEING THE EXPENDITURE OF REINFORCEMENT Cveji R. (Belgrade Serbia) COMMERCIAL MANAGEMENT INFORMATICS AND NEW TECHNOLOGIES Cveji R. (Belgrade Serbia), Pavlovi V. (Novi Sad Serbia), oki G. (Novi Sad Serbia) PROVIDING INFORMATION SECURITY IN BUSINESS SYSTEMS AND ELECTRONIC BUSINESS ajetinac S., elija D., Aleksandrov S., Todorovi M. (Trstenik Serbia) PWM CONTROL OF THE PNEUMATIC ACTUATOR BY PLC CONTROLLER Damnjanovi Z., Petrovi D., Mili V., Pantovi R. (Bor Serbia) ICT AND THERMOGRAPHY IN MINING INDUSTRY Debelac C, Nstac S, MCUT S. (Galati Romania) ADVANCES ON COMPUTATIONAL DYNAMICS OF WHEEL LOADER BUCKET CHARGING Eri D. (aak Serbia) METHOD FINITE ELEMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND SIMULATION TECHNOLOGY PROCESS IN THE CONTEXT CONCURRENT ENGINEERING Ilarionov R., Kartunov S. (Gabrovo Bulgaria) WORKING OUT A SYSTEM FOR ECOLOGICAL MONITORING AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRIAL ZONES AND OUT- OF -TOWN TERRITORIES IN BULGARIA, BASED IN INFORMATIONAL INTERNET ENVIRONMENT Jovani P. (Belgrade Serbia), Damnjanovi Z., Petrovi D. (Bor Serbia) THERMAL ANALISIS OF SCHRS 800 CONTINUOUS EXCAVATOR CONSTRUCTION FRAME ON OPEN PIT DRMNO Kartunov S., Rachev P. (Gabrovo Bulgaria) CLASSIFICATION OF TECHNOLOGICAL ERRORS ON BASIS OF MANUFACTURING PROCESS INFORMATION MODEL Marjanovi Z., Brzakovi R. (Kragujevac Serbia) INFORMATION SYSTEM FOR INNOVATION MANAGEMENT Maovi S. (Belgrade Serbia), Saraevi M. (Ni Serbia), Milovi B. (Subotica Serbia), Kamberovi H. (Novi Pazar Serbia) INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY AS A TOOL FOR ESTABLISHING E-HEALTH Mihalcea S., Stnescu N.D. (Piteti Romania) CAM SYNTHESIS FOR A TIMING MECHANISM WITH MECHANICAL VARIABLE VALVE LIFT XIII
549 554 560 565
572 578 584 590 595
600 610 614 624
632
C-15. Mikhov M.R., Mitrinski G.D. (Sofia Bulgaria)
638 644 651 656 664
C-16. C-17. C-18.
C-19.
C-20. C-21.
C-22.
C-23.
ANALYSIS OF SOME ALGORITHMS FOR POSITION CONTROL OF TWO-COORDINATE DRIVING SYSTEMS Miki D. (Gornji Milanovac Serbia), Aonja A. (Novi Sad Serbia) SOLVING INVERSE KINEMATICS WITHOUT APPLYING THE MATRIX ROTATION Robertov P., Pulov D., Deneva D. (Gabrovo Bulgaria) ELECTRONIC OPTIMETER Saraevi M. (Ni Serbia), Maovi S. (Belgrade Serbia) , Meedovi E. (Ni Serbia) APPLICATION OF OBJECT-ORIENTED ANALYSIS AND DESIGN IN NAVIGATION SYSTEMS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS Shopov N. (Plovdiv Bulgaria), Ilarionov R. Simeonov I., Kilifarev H., Ibrishimov H. (Gabrovo Bulgaria) COMPUTER SYSTEM FOR IDENTIFICATION OF WATER-ETHANOL BINARY MIXTURES erifi V. (aak Serbia), Cveji R. (Belgrade Serbia) MANAGEMENT AND MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMS Yordanov S., Ivanov S., Nenov T. (Gabrovo Bulgaria) AUTOMATED SYSTEM FOR CONTROL OF PROCESSES OF EXPERIMENTAL ANAEROBIC BIOREACTOR Yordanov S., Simeonov I., Ilarionov R., Kilifarev H., Ibrishimov H., Madjarov N. (Gabrovo Bulgaria) INTELLIGENT ULTRASONIC SENSOR Zaharia S.M., Martinescu I. (Brasov Romania) ACCELERATED LIFE TEST MODEL FOR LIFE PREDICTION OF A INDUSTRIAL PRODUSCT USING MONTE CARLO SIMULATION
671 680 686 691
Volume 2
SESSION D QUALITY MANAGEMENT, ISO 9000, ISO 14000, TQM AND MANAGEMENT IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
D-1.
D-2. D-3.
D-4.
D-5.
D-6.
D-7. D-8.
Avdagi M. (Sarajevo Bosna i Hercegovina) TECHNICAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT THE FOUNDATION OF SOCIAL CHANGES Avramovi M. (Leskovac Serbia) QUALITY MANAGEMENT SERVICES Azemovi N., Haderi E. (Novi Pazar Serbia) TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT IN FUNCTION OF INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL USERS Badi M. (Novi Pazar Serbia) SECURITY INTELLIGENCE ACTIVITIES IN THE TRANSPORTATION MANAGEMENT DANGEROUS Bataveljic D. (Kragujevac Serbia) AIR CARE IN SERBIA AND ITS CONTRIBUTION TO MAINTENANCE OF ECOLOGICAL BALANCE Bioanin R. (Novi Pazar Serbia), Lojanii R. (Berane Montenegro), Martinovi B. (Prijepolje Serbia) BIO-EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION AND PROTECTION Boji B., Peuli V., Djodji T. (Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina) KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN CREATING COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE Bojovi P., Kari D., Ivanovi A. (Beograd Serbia) FINANCIAL ANALYSIS OF STOCK MANAGEMENT IN PRODUCTION, INDUSTRIAL AND OTHER COMPANIES XIV
697 702 708 712 720 726 734 741
D-9.
D-10.
D-11. D-12.
D-13.
D-14.
D-15.
D-16.
D-17.
D-18.
D-19.
D-20.
D-21. D-22.
D-23. D-24.
D-25.
D-26.
D-27.
D-28. D-29.
Bugariu D., Toth-Tascu M., Bereteu L. (Timisoara Romania) MODELING AND FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF TWO TYPES OF TOTAL KNEE PROSTHESES api M., Luki Lj. (Kraljevo Serbia) INTEGRATED MODEL OF BUSINESS PROCESS AS A KEY TO THE INTEGRATION OF MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS orevi V., Lepojevi V., Jankovi-Mili V. (Ni Serbia) SAMPLING PROCEDURE FACTORS IN STATISTICAL INFERENCE Gerasymchuk V.H. (Kiev Ukraine) CHNOLOGICAL MODERNIZATION OF INDUSTRY AS A BASIS FOR IMPROVING THE ECONOMIC POTENTIAL OF STATES Gherghel S., Indrie L., Prichici M. (Oradea Romania) TECHNO-ECONOMICAL ASPECTS OF APPLYING QUALITY OF MAINTENANCE TO INDUSTRIAL MANAGEMENT Huduti E. (Novi Pazar Serbia), Muratovi . (Belgrade Serbia), Milisavljevi J. (Novi Pazar Serbia) INTEREST RISK MANAGEMENT IN BANKS Ivovi J. (Pe Serbia) STANDARDIZATION AND LABELING AS THE ASPECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT OF THE PRODUCT Krivun V.S., Korchak E.S. (Kramatorsk Ukraine) CREATING OBJECTS OF INDUSTRIAL PROPERTY IS THE PLEDGE OF EFFECTIVE TECHNICAL EDUCATION Knivald M. (Belgrade Serbia) IMPACT OF WORLD ECONOMIC CRISIS ON INDUSTRY AND APPLYING OF ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES Kranovi D., iki M., Rajkovi R. (Bor Serbia) DETERMINING THE REAL MINIMUM WIDTH OF WORKING SPACE FOR TRUCKS ON THE OPEN PITS Labovi D. (Belgrade Serbia), Dimitrijevi M. (Ni Serbia) CREDIT SPECIFIC FINANCIAL PRODUCTS WITH SPECIAL ATTENTION TO RISK AND NETTING Mijailovi J. (Novi Sad Serbia), Rajakovi J. (abac Serbia), Doljanica S. (Kragujevac Serbia) MOTIVATION AS A FACTOR IN THE SUCCESS OF THE MODERN COMMERCIAL SOCIETY IN SERBIA Mkva M., Paulov I. (Trnava Slovak Republic) MEET CUSTOMER REQUIREMENTS = CUSTOMER SATISFACTION Momcilovic O. (Belgrade Serbia), Rajakovic V. (Novi Sad Serbia) , Doljanica D. (Belgrade Serbia) SATISFACTION IN HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS Niin N., Niin S. (Belgrade Serbia), Milenkovi . (Kruevac Serbia) FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT - MEASURING THE SUCCESS OF THE COMPANY Nikezi S., Badic M., Biocanin R., Matic M. (Novi Pazar Serbia) DEVELOPMENT OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP MODEL AND ITS INFLUENCE ON QUALITY IMPROVEMENT Nikoli S. (Kruevac Serbia), Cvetkovi Z., Radomirovi J. (Ni Serbia) REENGINEERING AS AN EFFICIENT SOLUTION TO REDESIGN ACTIVITIES AND PROCESSES OF AN ENTERPRISE Nikolic S. (Kruevac Serbia), Tesanovic B., Arsic S. (Belgrade Serbia) REENGINEERING AS AN EFFECTIVE SOLUTION TO REDESIGN THE ACTIVITIES AND PROCESSES OF AN ENTERPRISE Ostafiychuk A.V. (Kramatorsk Ukraine) FORMATION OF COLLECTIVE REPRESENTATION OF EMPLOYEES ON THE MISSION AND STRATEGY OF ENTERPRISE Peci Lj. (Trstenik Serbia) CONTROLING PERFORMACES OF THE COMPANY Peci Lj. (Trstenik Serbia) MANAGING AND CORPORATION MANAGEMENT
747 753 759 765 774 780 784 791 794 801 805 812
821 826 833 839 846 850 857 862 867
XV
D-30. Radovi D. (Kruevac Serbia) , Anii J. (Belgrade Serbia) , Sajfert Z. (Zrenjanin
D-31. D-32.
D-33. D-34. D-35.
D-36. D-37.
D-38.
D-39.
D-40. D-41. D-42. D-43.
D-44.
D-45. D-46. D-47.
D-48.
D-49.
Serbia), Radovi B. (Belgrade Serbia) REAL SECTOR IN SERBIA BETWEEN TRANSITION AND CRISIS Skorobogatova N., Andros S. (Kiev Ukraine) ANALYSIS OF DYNAMICS OF FOREIGN INVESTMENTS TO UKRAINE Stankovic B. (Novi Pazar Serbia) LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR REFORM ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE AND MARKETS RAILWAY LIBERALIZATION Stankovi J., Jankovi-Mili V., Pei M. (Ni Serbia) MODELS OF LIFE INSURANCE Stankovi J., Todorovi O., Pei M. (Ni Serbia) QUANTITATIVE METHODS FOR MEASURING OPERATIONAL RISK Stankovi S., Todorovi O., Stankovi J. (Ni Serbia) THE SIGNIFICANCE OF DETERMINATION OF ECONOMIC CAPITAL FOR RISK MANAGEMANT IN BANKS AND OTHER FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS Stefanov S., Vojinovi-Miloradov M., Sokolovi S., Bancov . (Novi Sad Serbia) MONITORING OF INDUSTRIAL POLLUTANTS IN COMPLEX PROCESS SYSTEM Stefanov S., Vojinovi Miloradov M., Sokolovi S., Bancov . (Novi Sad Serbia) THE BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGIES FOR THE CONTROL AND REDUCTION OF POLLUTION IN POLYOLEPHINIC COMPLEXES erifi V., uri S. (aak Serbia), Dai P. (Vrnjaka Banja Serbia) ONE ALGORITHM OF IMPLEMENTATION PROCESS OF THE INVESTMENT BUILDING PROJECT erifi V. (aak Serbia), Dai P. (Vrnjaka Banja Serbia), uri S. (aak Serbia) ALGORITHM OF THE PROCESS OF DECISION-MAKING, DEVELOPMENT AND CONTROL OF TECHNICAL DOCUMENTATION IN INVESTMENT BUILDING evi D., Beker I. (Novi Sad Serbia), Mari A. (Kruevac Serbia) DESIGN BASED ON THE PROBABILISTIC APPROACH Tahirbegovi S., Terhani E. (Novi Pazar Serbia) ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION Topliceanu L. (Bacau Romania) SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND LIFE CYCLE ASSESMENT Toovi-Spahali S., Mrgud V., Kovaevi S. (Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina) MODELING THE PROCEDURE FOR THE CONTROL OF MONITORING AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS (ISO 9001:2000) Toth-Tascau M., Menyhardt K. (Timisoara Romania) INFLUENCE OF THE DENAVIT-HARTENBERG PARAMETERS ON ROBOT POSITIONING ACCURACY Trnavac D. (Kruevac Serbia) FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT INVESTMENT-A CLIMATE IN SERBIA Vaov J., Kuerov M. (Trnava Slovak Republic) CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT IN QUALITY MANAGEMENT Varagi R. (Belgrade Serbia), Badi M., Bioanin R. (Novi Pazar Serbia), Varagi M. (Belgrade Serbia) ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT IN THE FUNCTION OF IMPROVING THE ENVIRONMENT Vidovi A. (Banja Luka Bosnia and Herzegovina) QUALITY MANAGEMENT WITH SPECIAL ATTENTION TO STANDARDS-ISO 9001 AND ISO 14000 Zhelezarov I. (Gabrovo Bulgaria) IMPROVEMENT OF INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
871 880 887 893 898 903 908 917 927 933 940 945 953 959 965 971 975 979
990
994
XVI
SESSION E APPLICATION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING IN OTHER INDUSTRIAL FIELDS

E-1.
E-2. E-3.
E-4.
E-5. E-6.
E-7.
E-8. E-9.
E-10.
E-11.
E-12.
E-13.
E-14. E-15.
E-16. E-17. E-18.
E-19.
E-20.
Aonja A. (Novi Sad - Serbia), Miki D. (Gornji Milanovac - Serbia) THE ECONOMIC JUSTIFICATION OF SUBSTITUTION OF CONVENTIONAL METHOD OF LUBRICATION WITH SYSTEMS FOR AUTOMATIC LUBRICATION Arabadzhieva N., Petrishki N., Shopov N. (Plovdiv Bulgaria) DETERMINING THE STRENGTH OF OPENING OF CARDBOARD BOXES Avdeenko A.P., Konovalova S.A., Avdeenko E.A. (Kramatorsk Ukraine) ANTIBACTERIAL RESISTANCE INVESTIGATION OF EMULSIONS USED FOR FORGING PRESS Avdeenko A.P., Konovalova S.A., Avdeenko E.A. (Kramatorsk Ukraine) PROCESSABILITY INVESTIGATION OF SALTS OF ACID ALKYLPHOSPHATES ON BASIS OF FATTY ALCOHOLS Bajmak . (Pritina Serbia) ANALYSIS AND ASSESSMENT OPTIMAL PARAMETERS OF LEPOSAVIC PIPELINE Bajmak . (Pritina Serbia) ANALYSIS DISTRICT COOLING . DEFINING THE TERM COEFFICIENT REMOTE REFRIGERATION (COEFFICIENT DISTRICT COOLING) Bajmak . (Pritina Serbia) DETERMINING THE OPTIMAL TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE OF CENTRALIZED HOT WATER HEAT SUPPLY OF LEPOSAVIC Bajmak . (Pritina Serbia) ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS DISTRICT HEATING SYSTEM IN LEPOSAVIC Brkovi D., Milosavljevi M., Marinkovi A. (Beograd Serbia) A COMPARATIVE SYNTHESIS OF N-(SUBSTITUTED PHENYL)-O-ISOBUTYL THIOCARBAMATES Burya A.I. (Dnepetrovsk Ukraine), Tkachenko E.V. (Sevastopol Ukraine), Kolesnikov V.I. (Rostov Russia), Sychev A.P. (Dnepetrovsk Ukraine) ORGANOPLASTICS BASED ON POLYAMIDES. PROPERTIES AND APPLICATION IN INDUSTRY Craciun M., Dreucean F., Ioanovici G. (Timisoara Romania) QUALITY ASSURANCE FOR THE MEDICAL ACT BY MODULAR REMOTE INTENSIVE CARE TELEMEDICINE SYSTEM Dimova B. D. (Sofia Bulgaria) VERIFICATION OF THE APPROACH TO PREDICTING FATIGUE LIFE OF NOTCHED SPECIMENS OF MAGNESIUM ALLOYS BASED ON TYPES AM50 AND AE42 eki P., Temeljkovski D. (Ni Serbia), Nusev S. (Bitola Macedonia), Stefanovi V., Stoiljkovi M. (Ni Serbia) APPLICATION OF RECYCLED RUBBER IN PRODUCTION OF INSULATION PANELS Eri Obuina J. (Trstenik Serbia), Obuina V. (Kraljevo Serbia) MODELING OF HYDRAULIC CONTROL SYSTEM TRUCK Galin R., Atanasova Y., Hristov H., Petkov G. (Gabrovo Bulgaria), Fiskuchev S. (Rousse Bulgaria) SOLID-PHASE ZINC PLATING Galin R., Atanasova Y., Savekov R. (Gabrovo Bulgaria), Fiskuchev S. (Rousse Bulgaria) EQUIPMENT FOR THERMODIFFUSION ZINC COATING. CAPACITIES AND PROSPECS Guts V., Gubenia O. (Kyiv Ukraine), Stefanov S., Hadjiiski W. (Plovdiv Bulgaria) MODELLING OF FOOD PRODUCT CUTTING Hristov H.G. (Gabrovo Bulgaria) MORPHOLOGY OF WIDMANSTTTEN STRUCTURES OBTAINED IN HYPOEUTECTOID STEELS Itu V., Dumitrescu I., Ridzi M.C., Cozma B. Z. (Petroani Romania) STRAINS AND DISPLACEMENTS FROM THE STRUCTURE OF THE TOWER OF THE HOISTING INSTALLATION NEW SKIP OF PETRILA MINING PLANT Koeva D. (Sliven Bulgaria), Rachev S. (Gabrovo Bulgaria) AN ALTERNAIVE APPROACH OF BRUSHLESS MOTORS DESIGN XVII
999 1005 1011 1013 1017 1025 1035 1043 1051 1055
1063 1070 1076 1082 1089 1095 1100 1105 1108 1114
E-21. Lekic M., Cvejic S. (Kosovska Mitrovica Serbia)
1120 1126 1132 1138 1142 1148
E-22. E-23.
E-24.
E-25.
E-26.
E-27.
E-28.
E-29.
E-30.
E-31.
E-32. E-33.
E-34.
E-35.
E-36. E-37.
E-38.
E-39. E-40.
OSCILLATING SOLUTIONS OF LEGENDRES EQUATION AND LOCATION OF ZERO OSCILLATIONS Lekic M., Cvejic S. (Kosovska Mitrovica Serbia) STATIONARY POINTS OF ANALYTIC PERIODIC FUNCTIONS Litovchenko I. (Kyiv Ukraine), Mihaylov I., Stefanov S. (Plovdiv Bulgaria) MODELING OF SOME PROCESSES OF FILLING OF MINCE WITH ONE TYPE OF SPIRAL FEEDING MECHANISM Macuta S., Gheorghies C., Debeleac C. (Galai Romania) EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES OF THE INNER MICRODEFORMATIONS IN THE ROLLING TRIBOSYSTEMS Mijailovi S. (Gornji Milanovac Serbia), Golubovi D. (aak Serbia) PROGRAMMABLE TEACHING TOOL LEGO MINDSTORMS NXT IN TEACHING COMPUTER SCIENCE IN HIGH SCHOOL Milenkovi J., Levi S., Manojlovi V., Raji N., Bugarski B. (Belgrade Serbia), Suliman M. (Haifa Israel), Jemenica M., Nedovi V. (Belgrade Serbia) PRODUCTION OF ALGINATE/ZEOLITE ADSORBENT BY DIRECT EXTRUSION METHOD Milenkovi J., Levi S., ManojloviV., Raji N., Jovanovi M., Bugarski B., Nedovi V. (Belgrade Serbia) COPPER ADSORPTION BY ALGINAT AND ALGINAT/ZEOLITE BEADS Milisavljevi S. (Kosovska Motrovica Serbia), Milosavljevi M., Marinkovi A., Brkovi D. (Belgrade Serbia) DETERMINATION OF THE WATER QUALITY IN ACCORD WITH REGULATION OF WATER CLASSIFICATION Milojevi S., Radosavljevi D. (Kosovska Mitrovica Serbia), Pavievi V. (Belgrade Serbia), Markovi M. (Kosovska Mitrovica Serbia) SUBSTITUTION OF CONVENTIONAL FUELS FOR HEATING WITH GEOTHERMAL ENERGY CONTRIBUTION TO CLEANER PRODUCTION Mitev R. (Sofia Bulgaria), Hadjiiski W., Stefanov S., Sazdov C. (Plovdiv Bulgaria) MODELLING AND TESTING OF RESISTANCE PETALOID BOTTOM OF PET BOTTLES FOR CARBONATED DRINKS Nenov N., Tomchev P., Ivanova R. (Gabrovo Bulgaria) HIGH-FREQUENCY TRANSISTOR INVERTER FOR SOLDERING OF HARD-ALLOY PLATES Nenov N., Tomchev P., Ivanova R. (Gabrovo Bulgaria) INDUCTION HEATING IN COOPERAGE Pantovi R., Damnjanovi Z., Stojadinovi S. (Bor Serbia), Ignjatovi S. (Belgrade Serbia), Ignjatovic M. (Bor Serbia) EMPIRICAL PROCEEDURE FOR TYPE OF TRICONE BIT SELECTION ON OPEN PIT MINES Popescu M, Duma S.T., Locovei C. (Timioara Romania) EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH CONCERNING STRUCTURAL AND HARDNESS STABYLITY OF 100Cr6 STEEL MACHINE PARTS Rachev S., Koeva D.(Gabrovo Bulgaria) DYNAMIC STUDY OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMP DRIVEN BY ELECTRIC INDUCTION MOTOR Radosavljevi S., epanovi S., Radosavljevi M. (Lazarevac Serbia) DIAGNOSTIC EXPERTS SYSTEMS BASED ON RISK IN MINING AND ENERGY Radovanovic D., Bukvic N., Todorovic B. (Sarajevo Bosna i Hercegovina) SOCIALLY RESPONSIBLE COMPANY IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA - COCA - COLA HBC BH DOO SARAJEVO Sftescu-Jescu C., Stoia D.I., Bereteu L. (Timisoara Romania) CAD MODELING AND NUMERICAL ANALYSIS OF TWO IMPLANTED LUMBAR SPINE UNITS Slavov Z.D. (Varna Bulgaria) FIXED POINT PROPERTIES IN CONTINUOUS ENGINEERING MAXIMIZATION Slavov Z. (Varna Bulgaria), Evans C. (Washington USA), Slavova D. (Virginia USA) BASIC OPTIMAL CONCEPTS AND METHODS IN ENGINEERING OPTIMIZATION PROBLEMS XVIII
1153 1158
1163
1168 1174 1177 1181
1189 1195 1203 1212 1218 1224 1229
E-41. Stnescu N.D., Mihalcea S. (Piteti Romania) E-42. E-43.
1235 1241 1247 1251 1256 1262 1268 1274 1281
E-44.
E-45. E-46.
E-47. E-48. E-49.
E-50.
NORMAL FORMS FOR THE NON-LINEAR VIBRATIONS Stoia D.I., Toth-Tascau M. (Timisoara Romania) SOME BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS OF RAPID PROTOTYPING Stojanovi M., Kuli Z. (Lazarevac Serbia), Ristovi I. (Belgrade Serbia) IMPLEMENTATION OF STANDARDS ISO 14001 AND OHSAS 18001 IN LARGE MINING COMPANIES Sukachev V.V., Burya A. I. (Dniepropetrovsk Ukraine) ELASTOMERS MODIFICATION WITH SILICON-ORGANIC OLIGOURETHANISOCYANATES Tanasoiu A., Tanasoiu B., Copaci I. (Arad Romania) ON THE TRAVEL SAFETY OF TANK RAILWAY WAGONS Temeljkovski D. (Ni Serbia), Nusev S. (Bitola Macedonia), Rani B., eki P. (Ni Serbia) BALING MACHINES AS A CONSTITUENT PART OF THE WASTE RECYCLING SYSTEM Toth-Tascau M., VigaruC., Pasca O. (Timisoara Romania) METHODS FOR FOOTPRINTS AND PLANTAR ARCH INDEX DETERMINATION Ursu M., Buido T. (Oradea Romania) PUTTING INTO OPERATION AND TESTING OF THE 800W MAGNETRON Zoller C. (Petrosani Romania), Dai P. (Vrnjaka Banja Serbia), Dobra R. (Petrosani Romania) SEQUENTIAL ALGORITHM AND FUZZY LOGIC TO OPTIMUM CONTROL THE ORE GRIDDING AGGREGATES Zoller I., Stark A. (Petrosani Romania) APPLYING MULTIDIMENSIONAL SPACE DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY METHODS IN THE GRAPHICAL EXPRESSION OF THE TRIPLE INTEGRAL
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XIX
10th International Conference Research and Development in Mechanical Industry
RaDMI 2010
16 - 19. September 2010, Donji Milanovac, Serbia
Plenary and Invitation Paper
RESEARCH OF PROCESSED SURFACE ROUGHNESS IN FIELD OF METALWORKING

Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, University of Thessaly, Volos 38334, GREECE 2 SaTCIP Ltd, Vrnjaka Banja, SERBIA, e-mail: dasicp@yahoo.com 3 School of Pedagogical & Technological Education (ASPETE), Department of Mechanical Engineering Technology Educators, 14121 N. Heraklion, Attikis, GREECE, e-mail: vaxev@aspete.gr
Summary: Roughness of processed surface during the cutting process results as a processed consequence of various factors that are in correlation with type of process, material of processed object, cutting tools and other conditions that follow their processing. This paper deals with processed surface roughness in field of metalworking in the field of metal processing for various types of processing, various working parts and cutting tools. Keywords: metalworking, dry machining; hard machining; high speed machining; cutting tool.
1
Georgios Petropoulos 1, Predrag Dai2, Nikolaos Vaxevanidis3
1. INTRODUCTION
In the theory of metalworking by cutting, there are two ways for determining theoretical laws of change in processed surface roughness [1, 6-7, 9, 17-18, 29, 31, 34]: geometrical consideration of processed surface quality at processing by sharp cutting tools where cutting tools describe curved line on the material as a result of turning movement of material and straight movement of tools and geometrical consideration of processed surface quality at concentrated tools wearing where the process is done in the period of time in which the shape of cutting tools is changed through concentrated tools wearing which is reflected on the processed surface. Dealing with the problem of final processing on the lathe, many researchers in their testing have determined that the parameters of processed surface roughness change in the pass of the time (the other way), which depends on many factors among which the most influential are tools wearing and elements of cutting regime. International standards for surface roughness, i.e. geometrical product specifications (GPS) are given in references [11-15].
2. DEPENDENCE OF PROCESSED SURFACE ROUGHNESS PARAMETERS AND CONCENTRATED TOOLS WEARING

Many researchers developed several mathematical models of dependence of tools wearing and processed surface roughness. In all developed models as an important parameter appeared the values of concentrated tools wearing [8, 27-28, 34]. Using as a starting point developed models so far in the dissertation [27] is given one theoretical model for calculation of mean arithmetical deviations of profile Ra in the function of concentrated tools wearing in the form of (figure 1.):
(x + x ) b Ra = 1 2 1 s
(1)
Figure 1: Theoretical model of worn cutter projection with elements for determination of Ra [27] Dependence of surface roughness parameters and concentrated tool wearing could be mathematical represent by equation: Ra = f(VB) (2) or equation: Ra = f(t) (3) in which the concentrated tool wearing VB is replaced with cutting time t. 2.1. Dependence of processed surface roughness parameters and concentrated tools wearing for turning hardened steel by means of ceramic cutting tool In this experimental reseach, there were measured the values of mean arithmetic deviation of the profile Ra in [m] depended to cutting time t in [min], for finished turning of steel C60 with cutting tool from mixed ceramic SH20F for elements of cutting regime a=0,25 [mm], s=0,08 [mm/rev] and v=600 [m/min]. The cutting process in this case had the following characteristics: operation: external finished turning, material: steel C.1730 (according to JUS standard) or C60 (according to DIN standard) or En9 (according to BS standard), which characteristics are: Rm=800-950 [N/mm2] and 230-270 HB, machine for turning: CNC lathe MD10S from the firm Max Muller, cutting tools: tool holder CCLNL2525M16 and the indexable inserts CNGN160808(and 12)T02020 made of mixed ceramic SH20F from the firm SPK-Feldmuhle, nose radius: r=0,8 and 1,2 [mm], elements of the cutting regime: a=0,25-0,4 [mm], s=0,08-0,15 [mm/rev] and v=450-600 [m/min] and processing without cooling or lubrication means. On the basis of comparative analysis [4] of the regression models: the chosen one is third power polynomial as the polynomial which can adequately describe function Ra=f(t) and it is given in the equation form (figure 2) [1, 2, 5-7]:
Ra = 0,36735 + 0,12081 t - 0,0109 t 2 + 0,00035 t 3 its index of nonlinear correlation is R=0,97325.
(4)
2.2. Dependence of processed surface roughness parameters and concentrated tools wearing for turning steel by means of hard metal cutting tools On the base of theoretical and regression models comparative analysis at final processing of steel on the lathe (a=0,2 [mm], s=0,107 [mm/rev] and v=165 [m/min]), it can be chosen cubic regression i.e. the third power polynomial in the equation form (figure 3) [8, 28]:
Ra = 0,9566 + 8,3961 L - 10,9469 L2 + 4,5976 L3 (5) its indexes of nonlinear correlation is R=0,87187 and mean relative errors of the experiments is MRE=10,18 %.
Figure 2: Graphic review of experimental data and calculated values of dependence Ra=f(t)
Figure 3: Graphic scheme of experimental and calculated values of dependence Ra=f(L) for analyzed theoretical model and the third power polynomial
3. INTERACTIVE DEPENDENCE OF PROCESSED SURFACE ROUGHNESS PARAMETERS

Numerical links between mean bumps height of the profile Rz and mean arithmetic deviation of the profile Ra are given by standard JUS M.A1.020 [16-17],, and those ones between maximum bumps height of the profile Rmax and mean arithmetic deviation of the profile Ra are given by standard DIN 4667-70, mentioning that there are approximate. More correct link between maximum bumps height of the profile Rmax and mean arithmetic deviation of the profile Ra is given by exponential dependence, and it is not depended to the conditions and the kind of the processing. Using the experimental methods it could be possible to establish regression dependence between the processed surface roughness parameters and influential factors for certain kind of material and cutting tools, too. The relations between particular roughness parameters are usually given in simplified form, regardless of the type of processing, processing part material, cutting tools and other conditions that follow the process. For example, the relationship between average height of unevenness of Rz profile and mean arithmetic deviation of
profile Ra is given by the standard JUS M.A1.020:1981 [19-17] (table 1), and between the biggest height of unevenness of the profile Rt and mean arithmetic deviation of the profile Ra are given by the German standard DIN 4767:1970 (figure 4). Table 1: The relationship between the average height of unevenness of RZ profile and mean arithmetic deviation of Ra profile by the standard JUS M.A1.020:1981 [19-17] Average heights of Roughness Mean arithmetic deviation of unevenness of Rz profile class Ra profile [m] [m] N1 0,025 0,10 0,20 N2 0,050 0,40 N3 0,100 0,80 N4 0,200 1,60 N5 0,400 3,20 N6 0,800 6,30 N7 1,600 3,200 12,50 N8 6,300 25,00 N9 12,500 50,00 N10 25,000 100,00 N11 50,000 200,00 N12
Figure 4: The relationship between the biggest height of unevenness of Rt profile and mean arithmetic deviation of Ra profile according to German standard DIN 4767:1970 Slightly more accurate relationship between the biggest height of unevenness of Rmax and mean arithmetic deviation of Ra profile is given, regardless of the type and conditions of processing, by the following degree of dependence [10]:
0,98 Rmax = 6,1595 Ra (6) Since the exponent in equation (1) is close to 1, it can be concluded that between the biggest height of Rmax profile and mean arithmetic deviation of Ra profile, there is a direct proportionality, i.e.: Rmax = 6,16 Ra (7)
Some authors state that the mentioned dependency can also be exponential, logarithmic or in the form of degree polynomial [1-2, 5-9, 20-26, 30]. More accurate relationships between maximum height of Rmax profile and mean arithmetic deviation of Ra profile and the percentage of carrying the Ra profile and mean arithmetic deviation of Ra profile during the processing by cutting are established experimentally. 3.1. Interactive dependence of processed surface roughness parameters for turning hardened steel by means of ceramic cutting tool In this experimental research, there were measured the values of the interactive dependence of processed surface roughness parameters Rmax=f(Ra) for different values of the elements of cutting regime. The cutting process in this case had the following characteristics: operation: external finished turning, material: steel C.1730 (according to JUS standard) or C60 (according to DIN standard) or En9 (according to BS standard), which characteristics are: Rm=800-950 [N/mm2] and 230-270 HB, machine for turning: CNC lathe MD10S from the firm Max Muller, cutting tools: tool holder CCLNL2525M16 and the indexable inserts CNGN160808(and 12)T02020 made of mixed ceramic SH20F from the firm SPK-Feldmuhle, nose radius: r=0,8 and 1,2 [mm], elements of the cutting regime: a=0,25-0,4 [mm], s=0,08-0,15 [mm/rev] and v=450-600 [m/min] and processing without cooling or lubrication means. Analyzing the dependence of the mean arithmetic deviation of the profile Ra and maximum bumps height of the profile Rmax for different values of the elements of cutting regime it was chosen complex power-exponential regression equation (figure 2) [1-2]:
0,9341 -0,2263 Ra Rmax = 7,8192 Ra e its correlation coefficient is R=0,99578 and mean relative error of the experiments is MRE=2,5017 %.
(10)
Figure 2: Graphic review of experimental data and calculated values of dependence Rmax=f(Ra)
4. DEPENDENCE OF PROCESSED SURFACE ROUGHNESS PARAMETERS AND ELEMENTS OF CUTTING REGIME

Mathematical equation which shows function of maximum bumps height of profile Rmax is based on the well known equation in literature for a long time, and it considers the sharp tool process. It gives link between Rmax and the shape of the tool top and its step is [2, 17, 19, 29, 31-32]:
Rmax = 125 s2 r
(4)
In many testing the processed surface roughness through cutting on the lathe with sharp tools, it is noticed that, because of the influence of the many factors, results calculated according to the equation (3) do not match the measured values for processed surface roughness parameters. The value of maximum bumps height of profile Rmax for different conditions can be shown in equation:
s2 (5) Rmax = k r Researching the process of turning by sharp tools and with concentrated tools wearing, many researchers introduced, in the equation, several influential factors which characterize the cutting process on the lathe so the maximum bumps height of profile Rmax has the form [2, 20, 35]: Rmax = f(C, a, s, v, r,VB, , , , CAL, ...) (6) or mean arithmetic deviation of the profile Ra [2, 20, 35]: Ra = f(C, a, s, v, r,VB, , , , CAL, ...) (7) It is certain that the regression equation of processed surface roughness parameters Ra and Rmax can be described as a degree function with or without interaction factors.
n
4.1. Dependence of processed surface roughness parameters and elements of cutting regime for turning hardened steel by means of ceramic cutting tool In this experimental research , there were measured the values of Ra and Rmax in [m] depended to elements of cutting regime a, s and v and nose radius r, for finished turning of steel C60 with cutting tool from mixed ceramic SH20F for elements of cutting regime a=0,25 [mm], s=0,08 [mm/rev] and v=600 [m/min]. The cutting process in this case had the following characteristics: operation: external finished turning, material: steel C.1730 (according to JUS standard) or C60 (according to DIN standard) or En9 (according to BS standard), which characteristics are: Rm=800-950 [N/mm2] and 230-270 HB, machine for turning: CNC lathe MD10S from the firm Max Muller, cutting tools: tool holder CCLNL2525M16 and the indexable inserts CNGN160808(and 12)T02020 made of mixed ceramic SH20F from the firm SPK-Feldmuhle, nose radius: r=0,8 and 1,2 [mm], elements of the cutting regime: a=0,25-0,4 [mm], s=0,08-0,15 [mm/rev] and v=450-600 [m/min] and processing without cooling or lubrication means. According to the previous methodology [3] for mean arithmetic deviation of the profile Ra depended to a, s, v and r it was chosen regression equation as follows (figure 2) [2]: (8) v0,3017 r 0,7525 its correlation coefficient is R=0,99835 and mean relative error of the experiments is MRE=2,1757 %. And for maximum bumps height of the profile Rmax depended to a, s, v and r it was chosen regression equation as follows (figure 3) [1, 3]:
v0,2827 r 0,6674 its correlation coefficient is R=0,99756 and mean relative error of the experiments is MRE=1,8613 %. Rmax = 220,1837 a0,1476 s0,9279 Ra = 62,1369 a0,1136 s1,2005
(9)
4.2 Effect of the cutting conditions on Ra surface roughness parameter for dry drilling In the experimental research in which the effect of the cutting conditions on Ra surface roughness parameter (figure 4) was examined, it is observed that the variation of Ra with cutting time is anomalous [20]. Besides some exceptions surface roughness Ra increases when feed increases. The significant fluctuations observed are related to random phenomena like chip generation and removal under non repetitive conditions. It is true that drilling is a rough or semi-rough cutting operation and the rendered surface finish is poor. The conditions of drill performance are not favorable to impart low roughness on the processed hole. The chips are removed through the grooves of the drill and abrasive action is performed on the surface. Also chip particles are stuck on the twists wounding the surface. Another negative influence is exerted by built-up edges formed on the cutting edges owing to the low cutting speed used in drilling [20].
Figure 2: Graphic review of experimental data and calculated values for the chosen regression equation of dependence Ra=f(a,s,v,r)
Figure 3: Graphic review of experimental data and calculated values for the chosen regression equation of dependence Rmax=f(a,s,v,r)
The drilling process in this case had the following characteristics: operation: dry drilling, material: high speed steel with 5% in cobalt according to DIN 338 HSS-Co (high speed steel cobalt alloyed), machine for drilling: twist drills of cylindrical shank.
Figure 4: Variation of the Ra roughness parameter with respect to cutting time; parametric influence of cutting speed and feed [20]
5. CONCLUSIONS
Roughness of processed surface during the cutting process results as a processed consequence of various factors that are in correlation with type of process, material of processed object, cutting tools and other conditions that follow their processing. It is possible, by using the experimental methods to establish regression dependence between the processed surface roughness parameters and influential factors for certain kind of material and cutting tools, too. The relations between particular roughness parameters are usually given in simplified form, regardless of the type of processing, processing part material, cutting tools and other conditions that follow the process.
REFERENCES
[1] Dai, P.: Interactive dependence of processed surface roughness parameters for turning of the steel C60 by mixed ceramic cutting tools, Journal of Optimum Technologies, Technologic Systems and Materials in the Machines Building Field MSTM, MSTM-11, No. 1 (2005), pp. 206-212. ISSN 1224-7499. [2] Dai, P.: Research of processed surface roughness for turning hardened steel by means of ceramic cutting tools. In: Proceedings of papers from 2nd World Tribology Congress, Vienna, Austria, 3 - 7. september 2001. Edited by Friedrich Franek, Wilfried J. Bartz and Andreas Pauschitz. Vienna: sterreichische Tribologische Gesellschaft - TG (The Austrian Tribology Society), 2001, pp. 522. ISBN 3-901657-08-8 (for Abstracts Proceedings in hard copy) and pp. 1-6. ISBN 3-901657-09-6 (Proceedings in electronic form on CD-ROM). [3] Dai, P.: Software package CoREMED: Choice of Regression Equation of Multifactor Experiment Design with and without Repeating. ver. 3.0. Vrnjaka Banja, 2009. [4] Dai, P.: Software package CoRETV: Choice of Regression Equation Between Two Variables, ver. 2.0, Vrnjaka Banja, 2009. [5] Dai, P.: The analysis of possibilities of the approximation of machining process characteristics by power polynomial. In: Summaries of 16th International Conference on Production Research - ICPR-16, Vol. 5, Prague, Czech Republic, 29. July - 03. August 2001. Edited by D. Hanus, J. Talcko. Prague (Czech Republic): Czech Association of Scientific and Technical Societies, 2001, pp. 43. ISBN 80-02-01438-3.
[6] Dai, P.; Petropoulos, G.: Dependence regression of the processed surface roughness parameters for turning of cutting tools made of coated carbides (in Serbian language). Journal of IMK-14 Research and Development, Kruevac: Institute IMK 14. October, Vol. VIII (2002.), No. (14-15) 1-2/2002, pp. 93-98. ISSN 0354-6829. [7] Dai, P.; Petropoulos, G.: Research of interdependence of the 2D parameters of processed surface roughness for turning (in Serbian language). Keynote and invitted paper. In: Scientific Book of 5th International Scientific Conference on Production Engineering Development and Modernization of Production Razvoj i modernizacija proizvodnje - RIM 2005, Biha, Bosnia and Herzegovina, 14-17. September 2005. Edited by Isak Karbegovi, Milan Jurkovi and Vlatko Doleek. Biha (Bosnia and Herzegovina): Society for Robotics of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2005, pp. 53-70. ISBN 99-589262-0-2. [8] Dai, P.; Radonji, S.; Jemenica, R.; Nedi, B.: Research of the regression functionl of processed surface roughness at the turning by means modern cutting tools. In: Proceedings of Xth International Conference on Tools ITC2000, Miskolc, Hungary, 06 - 08. September 2000. Miskolc (Hungary): Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, 2000, pp. 155-158. [9] Dai, P.; Radovanovi, M. & orevi, LJ.: Dependence of processed surface roughness parameters and concentrated tools wearing for turning of the steel C60 by mixed ceramic cutting tools. Oradea (Romania): University of Oradea, Faculty of Management and Technological Engineering, Annals of the Oradea University - Fascicle of Management and Technological Engineering, CD-ROM edition, Vol. V (XV), 2006, pp. 230 for (hard copy) and 1305-1311 (for electronic form). ISSN 15830691. [10] Djachenko P. E. and al.: O razrobotke proekta medzunarodnogo standarda na sherohovatost poverhnosti, Kachestvo poverhnosti detelej mashin. Trudi seminara po kachestvu poverhnosti, Sbornik 4, Izdatelstvo AN SSSR, Moskva, 1959. [11] ISO 1302:2002 Geometrical Product Specifications (GPS) -- Indication of surface texture in technical product documentation. Geneva (Switzerland): International Organization for Standardizations (ISO), 2002. 46 pp. [12] ISO 4287:1997 Geometrical Product Specifications (GPS) -- Surface texture: Profile method -- Terms, definitions and surface texture parameters. Geneva (Switzerland): International Organization for Standardizations (ISO), 1997. 25 pp. [13] ISO 13565-1:1996 Geometrical Product Specifications (GPS) -- Surface texture: Profile method; Surfaces having stratified functional properties -- Part 1: Filtering and general measurement conditions. Geneva (Switzerland): International Organization for Standardizations (ISO), 1996. 5 pp. [14] ISO 13565-2:1996 Geometrical Product Specifications (GPS) -- Surface texture: Profile method; Surfaces having stratified functional properties -- Part 2: Height characterization using the linear material ratio curve. Geneva (Switzerland): International Organization for Standardizations (ISO), 1998. 6 pp. [15] ISO 13565-3:1998 Geometrical Product Specifications (GPS) -- Surface texture: Profile method; Surfaces having stratified functional properties -- Part 3: Height characterization using the material probability curve. Geneva (Switzerland): International Organization for Standardizations (ISO), 1998. 20 pp. [16] JUS M.A1.020: 1981 Hrapavost povrina industrijskih proizvoda od metala, Osnovni pojmovi i definicije, Beograd (Jugoslavia): Savezni zavod za standardizaciju, 1981. [17] Kalajdi, M.: Tehnology of metalworking I (in Serbian language). 9th Edition. Belgrade: Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, 2004. 407 pp. ISBN 86-7083-487-1. [18] Kalpakjian, S.: Manufacturing processes for engineering materials. 3rd Edition. Menlo Park (CaliforniaUSA): Addison Wesley Longman Inc., 1997. 950 pp. ISBN 0-2018-2370-5. [19] Kuzinovski M., ebrovski H., Cichosz P.: Istraivanje visinskih parametara profila hrapavosti obraene povrine pri struganju sa keramikim reznim ploicama. asopis Tribologija u industriji, God. XIV, br. 2 (1992), str. 37-45. [20] Ntziantzias, I.; Petropoulos, G.; Vaxevanidis, N. & Dai, P.: Statistical modeling of basic machinability parameters in drilling of metals. Plenary and Invitation paper. In: Proceedings on CD-ROM of 7th International Conference Research and Development in Mechanical Industy - RaDMI 2007, Belgrade, Serbia, 16-20. September 2007. Edited by Predrag Dai. Kruevac: Institute IMK 14. October and Trstenik: High Technical Mechanical School, 2007, pp. 36-47. ISBN-10 86-83803-22-8 or ISBN-13 97886-83803-22-4. [21] Petropoulos, G.; Pandazaras, C. & Dai P.: Characterization of profile shapes of machined surfaces. Plenary and Invitation paper, In: Proceedings of 3rd International Conference Research and Development in Mechanical Industy - RaDMI 2003, Volume 1, Herceg Novi, Serbia and Montenegro, 19 - 23. September 2003. Edited by Predrag Dai. Trstenik: High Technical Mechanical School, Kruevac: Institute IMK 14. October and Podgorica: Institute of Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, 2003, pp. 1321. ISBN 86-83803-06-6. [22] Petropoulos, G.; Pandazaras, C. & Dai, P.: Fractal laws of metal surfaces produced by turning. Plenary and Invitation paper. In: Proceedings of 4th International Conference Research and Development in
[23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28]
[29] [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] [35]
Mechanical Industy - RaDMI 2004, Volume 1, Zlatibor, Serbia and Montenegro, 31. August to 04. September 2004. Edited by Predrag Dai. Kraljevo: Faculty of Mechanical Engineering of and Trstenik: High Technical Mechanical School, 2004, pp. 9-20. ISBN-10 86-83803-16-3 or ISBN-13 978-86-8380316-3. Petropoulos, G.P., Pandazaras C.N. and Stamos, I., Studying main variability aspects of surface texture of steel in face milling, Proc. IMechE Journal of Enginnering Tribology, Vol. 217 (2003), pp. 175-179. Petropoulos, G.P., Torrance, A.A. and Pandazaras, C.N., Abbot curves characteristics of turned surfaces. International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, Vol. 43 (2003), pp. 237-243. Petropoulos, G.P., Vaxevanidis, N.M., Iakovou, A. and David, K., Multi-Parameter Modeling of Surface Texture in EDMachining using the Design of Experiments Methodology, Materials Science Forum, Vol. 526 (2006), pp. 157-162. Petropoulos, G.P., Vaxevanidis, N.M. and Pantazaras, C.N.: Modeling of surface finish in electro-discharge machining based upon statistical multi-parameter analysis, Journal of Materials Processing Technology,, Vol. 155-156 (2004), pp. 1247-1251. Radonjic S.: Further supplements to investigating finish processing on lathe (in Serbian language). Dissertation Ph, Belgrade: Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, 1986. 136 pp. COBISS.SR-ID 27894031. Radonji, S.; Dai, P.; Jemenica, R.; Stoi, M.: Comparison analysis of theoretical and regression models of roughness processed surface in function of wear tool. In: Proceedings of 7th International Conference on Flexible Technologies mma2000, Novi Sad, 8. June 2000. Editor by Ilija osi. Novi Sad: Faculty of Technical Sciences, Institute for Production Engineering, 2000, pp. 27-28. COBIS.SR-ID 157097735. Radovanovi, M: Metalworking technology, Cutting work (in Serbian language). Ni: Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, 2002. 328 s. ISBN 86-80587-39-7. Sekulic S.: Correlation between the largest height of roughness and the mean arithmetic deviation of the profile from the middle line of the machined surface. Journal of Tribology in industry, Vol. XIII, No. 2 (1991), p. 46-50. Spur, G.; Stoferle, T.: Hanbuch der Fertigungstechnik, Band 3/1 Spanen. Munchen, Wien: Carl Hanser Verlag, 1980. Stani, J.: Theory of metalworking I (in Serbian language). 2nd Edition. Belgrade: Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, 1989. 268 pp. ISBN 86-7083-108-2. Stout J. K., Blunt L. (edited): Three-Dimensional Surface Topography, Measurement, Interpretation and Applications, Penton press, London, 2000. Solaja V.: On some correlations of the cutting process and the quality of generated surface, XIV Yugoslav Council of Production Engineering (Proceedings p. 279-294), 1980, Cacak, Yugoslavia. Vaxevanidis, N. M.; Petropoulos, G.; Dai, P. & Mourlas, A.: Multi-parameter analysis of surface finish in electro-discharge machining of tool steels. Plenary and Invitation paper. In: Proceedings on CD-ROM of 6th International Conference Research and Development in Mechanical Industy - RaDMI 2006, Budva, Montenegro, 13-17. September 2006. Edited by Predrag Dai. Kraljevo: Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Trstenik: High Technical Mechanical School, 2006, pp. 9-16. ISBN-10 86-83803-21-X or ISBN-13 978-86-83803-21-7.
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RaDMI 2010

In Memoriam Prof. Dr G. P. Petropoulos (1959-2010)
PRODUCTION ROUTES TOWARDS CLEAN CUTTING: DRY, HARD AND HIGH SPEED MACHINING
1
N. M. Vaxevanidis1, N. Galanis1, P. Dai2, N. Fountas1

School of Pedagogical & Technological Education (ASPETE), Department of Mechanical Engineering Technology Educators, 14121 N. Heraklion, Attikis, GREECE, e-mail: vaxev@aspete.gr 2 SaTCIP Ltd, Vrnjaka Banja, SERBIA, e-mail: dasicp@yahoo.com
Summary: Cutting fluids (CFs) besides their considerable impact on machining cost result in problems in the working environment and in the waste disposal. The recent imposition of stringent pollution control regulations has forced the metal working industry to search for reliable processes to solve these problems. By replacing conventional cooling lubricants with the technological routes of dry machining or minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) related problems can be reduced significantly. The present paper addresses the issues concerning the machining routes applied for the reduction of CFs usage and especially the cutting technologies without the use of CFs (dry machining, hard machining, high speed machining), towards environmental-friendly or clean machining. The advantages and the disadvantages of dry machining and the solutions proposed (new tools materials, cryogenic cooling systems) for its successful implementation are also presented. Keywords: dry machining; hard machining; high speed machining; cutting fluids.
1. INTRODUCTION
In the manufacturing industry, cutting fluids (CFs) help to remove the heat generated during cutting; to achieve better tool life, surface finish and dimensional tolerances and to facilitate the flushing of chips. The coolants and lubricants used for machining represents 16 - 20% of the manufacturing costs; see Fig.1, hence the extravagant use of these fluids should be restricted. At the same time, besides their considerable impact on machining cost CFs produce problems in the working environment and in the waste disposal. Also the recent imposition of stringent pollution control regulations has forced the metal working industry to search for reliable processes to solve these problems [1, 2]. By replacing conventional cooling lubricants with the technological routes of dry machining or minimum quantity lubrication (MQL), this cost component can be reduced significantly [3]. The present paper addresses the issues concerning the machining routes applied for the reduction of CFs usage and especially the cutting technologies without the use of CFs (dry machining), towards environmental-friendly or clean machining. The advantages and the disadvantages of dry machining and the solutions proposed (new tools materials, cryogenic cooling systems) for its successful implementation are also presented.
2. MANAGEMENT AND MINIMIZATION OF CUTTING FLUIDS

Cutting fluids are represent a very important part of the manufacturing system (machine tool cutting tool manufactured part). Their action has to do mainly with the lubrication and cooling and secondary with the cleaning (facilitate the flushing of chips) of cutting zone [4]. CFs considered being necessary for having the desirable result (better tool life, surface finish and dimensional tolerances etc.). The classification of CFs, their lubricant role from tribological aspect and the cooling and lubricant ways during the manufacturing are subjects, which have discussed widely from technological aspect and will not be mentioned in this paper, for details see Ref. [5].
11
Owing to the widely established use of CFs, the environmental issues concerned with the use, recovery, recycling and cleaning of CFs cannot be ignored. Moreover, the advantages caused by CFs can be questioned or even counterbalanced by serious drawbacks exhibited in use. CFs can damage the environment (soil and water) due to wrong handling, rejection or disposal. Moreover, they have negative physiological effects on the personnel in industrial environments. A novel approach of ''3R's'' (Reduce-Reuse-Recycle) for overall treatment and management of cutting fluids related to economic and environmental constraints and norms was addressed in a recent contribution; see Ref. [6]. This principle enables an environment friendly selection of the appropriate cutting fluid to achieve acceptable quality of the machined product combined with prolongation of cutting fluid useful life. However, the demand of clean manufacturing processes has been set as a strategic aim for decades; see for example [7], therefore, besides the minimization and the management of CFs, machining routes promising the elimination of CFs (i.e., MQL or dry cutting) is of utmost importance.
Figure 1: Typical end-user manufacturing costs
3. DRY MACHINING
Machining without the use of any cutting fluid (dry or green machining) is becoming increasingly popular due to concern regarding the safety of the environment. Dry machining is closer to the clean machining methods [7]. The advantages of dry machining include: non-pollution of the atmosphere (or water); no residue on the swarf which will be reflected in reduced disposal and cleaning costs; no danger to health; and it is non-injurious to skin and is allergy free. Moreover, it offers significant reduction in overall machining cost [3, 6]. Worth mentioning also, that the starting point for the application of dry technology in cutting was the automotive industry and their major suppliers. However, it should also be noted that some of the benefits of cutting fluids are not going to be available for dry machining and moreover, dry machining will be acceptable only whenever the part quality and machining times achieved in wet machining are equaled or surpassed. It has been indicated that dry turning cannot be used for high values of depth of cut, in order to obtain long tool lives. Moreover, when cutting fluid is used, a tough tool material is required and in dry cutting, the tool has to have high hot hardness (hard machining). The set of cutting conditions for which dry cutting tool life is very similar to that obtained when cutting with abundant fluid is low depth of cut and high cutting speed (high speed machining). The wear phenomena for both cooling/lubricant systems used were very similar. On the flank face the causes of wear was abrasion and adhesion, and on the rake face, the causes were diffusion, abrasion and attrition; see Ref. [8]. Note that in general, adhesive tool wear is of particular importance in dry cutting [9]. From the above it is suggested; see also [3], that dry machining can be divided in two directions: High speed machining and hard machining, which are being used depending on the material and the required attributes of the machined product. Table 1 summarizes the applications of dry and/or MQL cutting. The concept of MQL was suggested a decade ago as a mean for addressing the issues of environmental intrusiveness and occupational hazard associated with airborne cutting fluid particles. The minimization of cutting fluid leads to economical benefits by saving lubricant costs. Workpiece, tool, and machine-cleaning time are reduced. The MQL technique consists of misting or atomizing a very small quantity of lubricant, typically of a flow rate of 50 - 500 ml/h, in an air flow directed towards the cutting zone. The lubricant is sprayed by means of an external supply system consisting of one or more nozzles. The amount of coolant used in MQL is about 3-4 orders of magnitude lower than the amount commonly used in flood-cooling condition. MQL, also known as microlubrication and near-dry machining [1], is the latest technique of delivering metal cutting fluid to the
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tool/work interface. Using this technology, a little fluid, when properly selected and applied, can make a substantial difference in how effectively a tool performs [3, 10]. On the other hand, to pursue dry machining, one has to compensate for the beneficial effects of cutting fluids. One approach towards dry machining is to have an indirect contact of coolants and thereby take away the heat generated; see also [9, 11] for recent advances. Research in the area of dry machining without the direct contact of coolants has lead to the following advancements [12]: 1. An under-cooling system, where the coolant flows through channels located under the insert, then out to the environment, without any direct contact with the cutting zone. 2. Internal cooling by a vaporization system, in which a vaporizable liquid is introduced inside the shank of the tool and vaporized on the underside surface of the insert. 3. Cryogenic systems, where a stream of cryogenic coolant is routed internally through a conduit inside the tool. 4. Thermoelectric cooling systems, using a module of couples of thermoelectric material elements. When an electric current is passed through the thermoelectric elements, a cold junction and a hot junction is produced at the opposite ends of each of these elements. Table 1: Applications of dry machining and MQL [Modified from 3, 10] Materials Aluminum Steel Process Turning Milling Gear Milling Sawing Broaching Drilling Deep Hole drilling Reaming Tapping Thread forming 3.1 Hard Machining It is evident that hard cutting emerges as a new technology combining many important advantages. To start with, it is a clean manufacturing process because no cutting fluid or minimal, is used and furthermore because the byproducts of the process, which include chips and worn tools, can be easily recycled. The absence of cutting fluid reduces the thermal shock and so tool life is improved. From an economical point of view, hard cutting is also advantageous because costs connected to cutting fluids are eliminated. For achieving the desired results in machining, one has to be well informed regarding both the work material and the cutting tools. The tools used for dry machining have to fulfill some specific requirements. The options available, at present, include the following [1, 12]: 1. The use of very high positive rake angles (30) on submicron cemented carbide tools, which will reduce the overall cutting energy significantly. 2. The development of refractory-type tool materials that can withstand high temperatures. 3. The use of ultra-hard tool materials such as diamond and CBN. 4. The development of coatings on tools that can withstand high temperatures and simultaneously provides a lubricating effect to reduce friction. Coating tools usually have longer tool life than non coated tools if coating is done properly to be effective. Coating provides insulation and lubrication in cutting. Materials used for coating cutting tools include TiAlN Cast alloys MQL - dry MQL - dry MQL MQL MQL MQL MQL MQL Wrought alloys MQL - dry MQL MQL MQL MQL MQL MQL MQL High alloyed bearing steel dry dry dry MQL MQL MQL MQL MQL MQL Free cutting, quench and tempered steel dry dry dry MQL dry MQL - dry MQL MQL MQL MQL
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(Titanium Aluminum Nitride), TiN, and diamond. Diamond coated tools generally outperform other coated tools. Recently, multilayered coating tools have also been demonstrated to provide multiple functions. One layer is several nanometer thick. Each layer provides a specific function, e.g., heat insulation, anti-wear, or lubrication. These three functions are the major functions provided by coated materials [13]. Novel materials and mostly coatings are used in order to improve the anti-wear properties of the cutting tools. The thermal properties of tool material must be enhanced to be more heat refractory or generate less heat during cutting, particularly when machining at higher cutting speeds and difficult-to-machine materials. Nowadays, ceramics and continuously advancing surface coatings can correspond to demands for dry cutting. Especially, coatings in these applications act as ''solid lubricants'' via quite different mechanisms though than graphite etc; they can withstand high temperatures and increase effectively tool hardness, elastic modulus and toughness. Thin hard coatings adhered on tool tips change heat distribution during the process by reducing thermal degradation between substrate and coating and promoting heat abduction through the chip [6, 14]. The cost of the tools may increase but it has been proved that in the long-term, CBN tool wear is smaller in comparison to other tools. Note that CBN tools are brittle and so the stiffness of the machine tool and fixturing must be taken into account to avoid vibration and chatter. 3.2 High Speed Machining In recent years, high-speed machining (HSM) technology is becoming established owing to the advance of machine tool and control systems. In comparison with the conventional methods, HSM not only exhibits a higher metal removal rate but also results in lower cutting force, better surface finish, no critical heat of the workpiece, etc. HSM has long been applied in die and mold manufacturing and for light metals; see Refs [15] and [16], respectively. In cooperation with dry machining the results are extremely good and the efficient manufacturing process of difficult-to- machined materials is accomplished. Dry cutting has been achieved in the following occasions [1, 3, 12, 17]: Cast iron materials can mostly be cut dry in turning and milling operations. Cast iron materials are particularly favourable in this respect, because their cutting temperatures are significantly lower than those of steel. Dry machining of laminar grey cast iron at high cutting speeds using ceramic cutting materials and cubic boron nitride (CBN) has given the best results in terms of wear behaviour. Besides other widely differing properties of ceramics (AI2O3, Si, nitrides) and CBN, in terms of thermal characteristics, alumina has the highest expansion coefficient, followed by CBN; this can be a serious disadvantage for achieving the accurate part dimensions at high cutting speeds and, consequently high cutting temperatures. The dry machining of cast iron has been attempted at high surface speeds and feed rates. Note, however, that he dry machining of cast iron is not exactly new; see also [3, 12]. Drilling of steel takes a key position in the realisation of dry machining on machining centres. The main problem in dry drilling in steel is the reliable removal of the chips from the drilled hole. The risk of a chip jam in the flute becomes steadily greater as the drilling depth increases and the friction paths between the chip and the hole wall or the tool become longer. One very promising approach is to enlarge the flutes, giving the chips more space and helping them to escape, since there is less resistance to chip motion. Another problem is the tendency of the drill to jam in the hole if its diameter expands too much as a result of high tool temperatures. One way of correcting this is more drill taper towards the shank. A TiN-coated tool was used and the results shown that a dry cut can not only achieve high removal rates, but can also meet exacting part quality requirements. Furthermore dry cutting with high speeds and nose radius of the insert 0.8 mm has always presented roughness lower than wet cutting, with the exception of the experiment with vc=540 m/min; see [17] for details. At present the conventional cutting of superalloys and titanium alloys with carbide tools requires water based coolant. High speed cutting (HSC) may be the alternative to switch from wet to dry cutting. Milling of superalloys and alloys of titanium in high speed cutting using ceramic tool with multiple coating (TiAlN + SiC whiskers) is another promising machining route. Dry cutting is not efficient for conventional machining of superalloys and titanium alloys in most cases, but it may be efficient for HS-milling, especially when no cutting assistance is available; see for an overview concerning HSC of titanium alloys and nickel superalloys Ref. [18] and Ref. [19], respectively] Continuous dry machining (lathing, milling) of superalloys and alloys of titanium has not accomplished and the dry machining of aluminum alloys is in research. For such applications the method of minimal quantities of lubricant (MQL) is used alternatively The best setting of manufacturing parameters lead in spending of CF less than 50 ml per hour of clean cut [1]; a fact that makes this technique similar to dry cutting. Note also that recently MQL type of lubrication has been successfully applied for turning of brass [20].
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4. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
In the present section representative results concerning dry versus wet machining [21] as well HSM of steel specimens [22] are briefly discussed. All cutting experiments were performed on a CNC lathe of maximum spindle rotation speed 10000 rpm and axis accuracy of 0.1 m. The selection of cutting variables was based on the
design of experiments methodology.
In Ref. [21], dry and wet turning of AISI 422 stainless steel was studied. This work was focused on the comparison of these two material removals techniques and the effect of the main cutting parameters such as cutting speed, feed and depth of cut in the surface quality and tool temperature developed. The experimental conditions and the results obtained are summarized in Table 2. No of test 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Table 2: Experimental conditions and results for stainless steel [21] Speed Feed Depth of cut Ra (m) Ra (m) T (oC) T (oC) (m/min) (mm/rev) (mm) Wet Dry Wet Dry 252 0.2 0,5 1.6 1.6 25 73 252 0.2 1.0 1.6 2,8 25 74 252 0.5 0,5 8.6 9,6 25 68 252 0.5 1.0 9,2 10.6 30 90 306 0.2 0,5 1.2 1.6 30 80 306 0.2 1.0 2.5 2.4 28 101 306 0.5 0,5 7.7 9.7 26 75 306 0.5 1.0 8.8 10.2 30 120 273 0.5 0,5 2.8 9.2 29 74 273 0.5 1.0 9.2 11.6 30 93 273 0.2 0,5 2.2 2.6 25 70 273 0.2 1.0 2.2 2.4 25 68
It is evident that, in general, for wet machining both surface roughness and tool temperature, had smaller values than the dry one, as it is expected [5]. On the contrary there are four experimental conditions where surface roughness is almost the same for both cutting routes, and moreover, for one condition (test no 6 in Table2) dry machining results in better surface roughness than the wet one. This is very important, since it fulfills the first requirement for replacing wet by dry machining, i.e., similar or better surface finish should be obtained with dry than wet machining. In Figs 2 and 2 the above mentioned observations are presented graphically.
Figure 2: Graph of surface roughness at 252 m/min cutting speed
Figure 3: Graph of surface roughness at 306 m/min cutting speed
In Ref. [22] the high speed-dry turning of AISI O grade tool-steel (manganese-chromium-tungsten / W.-Nr. 1.2510) specimens is reported. The influence of the main machining parameters i.e., cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut on the resulted center-line average surface roughness (Ra) is examined. Types of wear phenomena occurred during the course of the present experimental study as well as tool wear patterns were also monitored. The experimental conditions and the results obtained are summarized in table 3. It can be concluded that, in general, as the cutting speed increases and the feed rate and cutting depth decreases the surface quality is improving. In a similar trend, the tool wear decreases and the tool life becomes bigger as the cutting conditions change, and more precisely the cutting depth and feed rate decrease. In order to apply stratification techniques for the study of surface finish, the results were separated into groups and transferred on graphs. Thus, taking into consideration the depth of cut and feed rate, three graphs were
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constructed representing the surface quality of the specimens for cutting speed of 251.3 m/min the first; for cutting speed 502.6 m/min the second and for cutting speed 753.6 m/min the last one; see fig. 4. Table 3: Experimental conditions and results for AISI O grade tool steel [22] No of Spindle speed Speed Feed rate Depth of Ra test (rpm) (m/min) (mm/rev) cut (mm) (m) 1 2000 251.3 0.15 0.5 2.264 2 2000 251.3 0.15 1 2.506 3 2000 251.3 0.15 1.5 2.482 4 2000 251.3 0.05 0.5 1.236 5 2000 251.3 0.05 1 1.22 6 2000 251.3 0.05 1.5 1.194 7 2000 251.3 0.1 1.5 2.24 8 2000 251.3 0.1 1 2.196 9 2000 251.3 0.1 0.5 2.148 10 4000 502.6 0.15 1.5 2.214 11 4000 502.6 0.15 1 2.126 12 4000 502.6 0.15 0.5 2.076 13 4000 502.6 0.1 0.5 1.11 14 4000 502.6 0.1 1 1.106 15 4000 502.6 0.1 1.5 1.152 16 4000 502.6 0.05 1 0.497 17 4000 502.6 0.05 1.5 0.611 18 4000 502.6 0.05 0.5 0.462 19 6000 753.6 0.05 1 1.186 20 6000 753.6 0.05 1.5 2.202 21 6000 753.6 0.05 0.5 0.865 22 6000 753.6 0.1 0.5 1.152 23 6000 753.6 0.1 1.5 1.234 24 6000 753.6 0.1 1 1.168 25 6000 753.6 0.15 1.5 2 26 6000 753.6 0.15 0.5 1.924 27 6000 753.6 0.15 1 1.998
2,5 Sourface roughness (m)
1,5
0,5
0 Depth (mm) Feed rate (mm/rev) 0,5 0,05 1 0,05 1,5 0,05 0,5 0,1 1 0,1 1,5 0,1 0,5 0,15 1 0,15 1,5 0,15
Cutting Parameters
Figure 4: Graph representing Ra for 753.6 m/min cutting speed during HS turning of AISI O1 grade tool steel [22] From a detailed analysis of the graphs it can be concluded that the surface roughness becomes better as the cutting speed increases for the same depth of cut and feed rate values. On the other hand, from the comparison of the surface quality, in the specimens that have been machined with the same cutting speed, it is evident that when the feed rate and the depth of cut decrease the roughness becomes better. From a close view, it can be also
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seen that the feed rate plays a significant role in the surface quality since the roughness changes more rapidly when the feed rate decreases.
5. CONCLUSIONS
1. The use of CFs is associated with the appearance of problems not only in the working environment but also with the management / disposal of cuttings wastes. The recent imposition of stringent pollution control and employees health regulations has forced the metal working industry to search for reliable processes to solve these problems. Dry machining is ecologically desirable; it is closer to the clean machining methods and it will become demanding in the future. In order to have dry machining, it is required to carefully choose of cutting conditions and to develop new materials and new (advanced) coatings for the cutting tools. Dry machining of hardened materials with super hard tools (coated cutting inserts or CBN tools) has lead not only in the manufacturing without CFs and the ability of the recycling of the by-products of the process, which include chips and worn tools, but also the results of the manufactured components are extremely good. Many materials, which are difficult to be machined with compatible methods like cast iron, hardened steel, superalloys and titanium alloys, are easily fabricated through high speed machining, moreover, these processes can be switched, easily, to dry machining. Comparison between wet and dry turning of stainless steel as well as high-speed dry turning of AISI O grade tool steel support the application of dry machining techniques as environmentally friendly ones towards clean cutting.
2. 3.
4. 5.
REFERENCES
[1] F. Klocke and G. Eisenblatter, Dry cutting, Annals of the CIRP, 46/2 (1997) 519-525. [2] M. Sokovi and K. Mijanovic, Ecological aspects of the cutting fluids and its influence on quantifiable parameters of the cutting process, Journal of Materials Processing. Technology, 109 (2001) 181-189. [3] K. Weinert, I. Inasaki, J. W. Sutherland and T. Wakabayashi, Dry Machining and Minimum Quantity Lubrication, Annals of the CIRP, 53/2 (2004) 511-537. [4] O. Cakir, A. Yardimeden, T. Ozben and E. Kilickap, Selection of cutting fluids in machining processes, Journal of Achievement in Materials and Manufacturing Engineering, 25/2 (2007) 99-102. [5] S. Kalpakijan and S.R.Schmid, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed., Prentice Hall, 2003. [6] I. Tsiafis, G. Petropoulos, N. Vaxevanidis and A. Korlos, Machining quality through ''3R's'' oriented management of cutting fluids, Proc. 4th Conf. Standardization, protypes and quality: A means of Balkan Countries collaboration, 17-18 May 2007, Thessaloniki, Greece, pp. 233-242. [7] G. Byrne and E. Scholta, Environmental clean machining processes a strategic approach, Annals of the CIRP, 42/1 (1993) 471-474. [8] A. E. Diniz and A.J. de Oliveira, Optimizing the use of dry cutting in rough turning steel operations, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 44 (2004) 1061-1067. [9] J. Rech, A multiview approach to the tribological characterisation of cutting tool coatings for steels in highspeed dry turning, International Journal of Machining and Machinability of Materials, 1 (2006) 27-44. [10] N. Boubekri, V. Shaikh and P.R. Foster, A technology enabler for green machining: Minimum quantity lubrication (MQL), Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management, 21(5) (2010) 556-566. [11] D. Jianxin, Y. Xuefeng and L. Jianhua, Self-lubricating behaviours of ceramic tools in dry cutting, International Journal of Machining and Machinability of Materials, 1 (2006) 213- 222. [12] P.S. Sreejith, and B.K.A. Ngoi, Dry machining: Machining of the future, Journal of Materials Processing. Technology, 101 (1996) 287-291. [13] S. Feng and M. Hattori, Cost and Process Information Modeling for Dry Machining, Proceedings of the International Workshop on Environment and Manufacturing, October, 2000. Available on Web site: http://www.mel.nist.gov/msidlibrary/doc/cost_process.pdf. [14] M. Sokovi, Quality management in development of hard coatings on cutting tools, Journal of Achievement in Materials and Manufacturing Engineering, 25/1 (2007) 421-429. [15] W. Zuntong, L. Zhanqiang and A Xing, Case representation and similarity in high-speed machining, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 43 (2006) 1347-1353. [16] F. Cus, U. Zuperl and V. Gecevska, High-speed milling of light metals, Journal of Achievement in Materials and Manufacturing Engineering, 25/1 (2007) 357-364.
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[17] A. E. Diniz and R. Micaroni, Cutting conditions for finish turning process aiming: the use of dry cutting, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 42 (2002) 899904. [18] M. Rahman, Zhi-Gang Wang and Yoke-San Wong, A Review on High-Speed Machining of Titanium Alloys, JSME International Journal Series C, 49(1) (2006) 11-20. [19] R.S. Pawade, Suhas S. Joshi and P.K. Brahmankar, Effect of machining parameters and cutting edge geometry on surface integrity of high speed turned Inconel 718, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 48(1) (2008) 15-28. [20] P. Davim; P.S. Sreejith and J. Silva, Turning of brasses using minimum quantity of lubricant (MQL) and flooded lubricant conditions, Materials and Manufacturing Processes, 22 (2007) 4550. [21] N.I. Galanis, D.E. Manolakos and N.M. Vaxevanidis, Comparison between dry and wet machining of stainless steel, Proc. 3rd Int. Conf. on Manufacturing Engineering ICMEN, 1-3 October 2008, KassandraChalkidiki, Greece, pp. 91-98. [22] N.M. Vaxevanidis, N. Galanis, G.P. Petropoulos, N. Karalis, P. Vasilakakos and J. Sideris, Surface Roughness Analysis in High Speed-Dry Turning of Tool Steel, Proceedings of ESDA2010: 8th Biennial ASME Conference on Engineering Systems Design and Analysis, July 12-14, 2010, Istanbul, Turkey (paper ESDA2010-24811). [Proceedings on CD]
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RaDMI 2010
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF MODERN SYSTEMS OF AUTOMATED DESIGNING OF MACHINES ON KOKHONENA'S CARDS

V. Fedorinov1, S. Kovalevskyy2
Donbass State Engineering Academy, Kramatorsk, UKRAINE 1 e-mail: rector@dgma.donetsk.ua 2 e-mail: prorector.uo@dgma.donetsk.ua
Summary: In article new approach and the technique of comparative analysis of the systems of automated designing used in machine-building production is stated. Kokhonena's cards use for clusters analysis of used systems is shown. Original approach for the evaluation of promising directions of perfecting of such systems is offered. Key words: engineering, analysis of the systems automated designing, the card of Kokhonea, clusters analysis
1. INTRODUCTION
The technology of engineering as science passed in its development a few phases. Distinctive line of present stage is use of achievements of computer technologies, fundamental and general engineering sciences for the decision of theoretical problems and practical tasks. Application of computer facilities extends while designing of process routes and mathematical simulation of machining processes. Automation of programming of processing and control on progressive modern equipment is implemented. At the same time peak efficiency can be reached at the expense of high concentration of technological operations on one working place for one installation of the detail. For it expensive multi-tasking machine tools having four and more controlling axes are acquired. Cost of one working b hour of such equipment exceeds thousands of hryvnas. This circumstance causes technological preparation for production in quality improvement. Reduction of machine tool idle time caused by organizationally-technical reasons can be achieved due to application of information systems. At present on industrial enterprises plenty of various automated information systems forming a one-unit virtual enterprise and covering all stages of life cycle of the article are introduced (CALS - Computer Aided Acquisition and Life-Cycle Support - Automation of continuous deliveries and life cycle of the article). Acceleration of rates of innovative processes is decisive condition of increase of efficiency of financialeconomic activity of the enterprise and quality of the products. High rates of development of innovative processes should be supplied by development, production and mass application of high-efficiency machines , equipment, devices and process routes. Sustainable growth of modern engineering and its investment attractiveness which take place in Ukraine in recent years, causes increase of requirements to quality and production competitiveness. The objective obstacle to quality improvement of prodused articles and the reductions of terms of their development is discrepancy between complexity of designing objects and obsolete methods and the means of their designing. Application of mathematical methods, programs and computer during designing promotes increase of technological level and quality of designing objects, the reduction of terms of their development and use in production. Automation of processes of designing is effective particularly, when from automation of performance of separate engineering calculations they go to complex automation, creating for this purpose Computer Aided Design Systems. Each introduced automated information system is capable to have influence on the results of financial-economic enterprise activity. However it is Computer Aided Design Systems that influence most. CAD systems are an information nucleus from the standpoint of virtual enterprise.
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Exactly from specifications of the systems of automated designing to a considerable extent efficiency of functioning of other automated information systems and enterprise efficiency as a whole depends. Urgency of a graduation paper (diploma) is connected directly with studying of technological opportunities of software package Delcam plc, research and development of new progressive methods of designing, researches and manufacture of machine parts , machines and mechanisms. The purpose of the work is quality improvement and capacity of designing the processing of technology, with use of technological opportunities of integrated Wednesday Delcam plc. Working tasks: 1.To study features of the technology of processing of the details on modern processing centres. 2.To analyse critical technological opportunities of designing of processing technology. 3.To schedule the ways of perfecting of process route, increase of accuracy, quality and industrial efficiency as a whole. 4.To analyse modern systems of automated designing of the processing of technology on domestic enterprises. To define their technological opportunities. The decision of specified tasks is supplied by improvement of quality of process of designing, perfecting of the technology of their manufacturing, application of progressive means and methods of production. Research object is modern systems of automated designing as tool for designing of the technology of processing on machine-building enterprises. Object of research is designing of the technology of processing of body detail using opportunities of software Delcam plc.
2. BASIC PART OF RESEARCH

Computer technologies in mechanical engineering are new intellectual tools for processing the information which is shaped at design and manufacture of products of mechanical engineering and instrument making. They not only change traditional forms of work of the engineer, but also make great demands more of its vocational training: the user should be able not work with the various problem oriented systems of the automated design, but also to understand methodology of solved problems. In the remote past there were engineering services of the enterprises in which tens and even hundreds underpaid experts worked: designers, technologists, planners and economists machine-building engineer today is a broad specialist with the highest professional standard, Knowing in perfection one or two foreign languages and constantly raising the qualification by development of new computer technologies practically not so long ago in the beginning of 80th years of the last century, personal computers have begun the victorious procession in the market of computers. But already today the workplace of the engineer cannot be presented without the personal computer equipped by software products, allowing to automate problems of operation of business, design of products, designs of the technological processes, operating programs for machine tools with CNC and industrial equipment. Their have been also developed control systems of discrete productions. The possibility of information transfer (three-dimensional parametrical models of products, drawings, the technological processes, operating programs, etc.) between the automated workplaces has allowed to create the integrated program complexes which have already come or in the near future will come to the majority of the machine-building enterprises. Comparing with highly-industrially-developed countries the level of the organization of machine-building manufacture at the majority of the enterprises of Ukraine does not meet modern requirements. The machine-building enterprises, as a rule, are characterized by manufacture of varied listed products on all technological repartitions, as well as a wide range of the equipment from universal and special-purpose machine tools up to machine tools with CNC. Consumption of material per unit of the majority of products exceeds the norms accepted in the West by 2.5 times, and efficiency of work decreases by 4.5 times . Because of it 70 % of the Ukrainian enterprises cannot let out the goods which would make a competition to products of the EU countries. On power expenses per unit of production Ukraine is the last in the world, and absence of cheap energy carriers aggravates this problem even more. At the present stage the some important tendencies were outlined in industrial and economic activities of the machine-building enterprises - optimization of business within the limits of corporate structures with wide cooperation and effective interoperability between the enterprises; - the organization of machine-building manufacture under the diagram suppliers of complete parts assembling of products.
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- development and output of competitive products in short time and with minimum expenses on the basis of computer technologies; - management of engineering data and formation of unified information space; The separated software products in a uniform program platform operation of business design - technological preparation of manufacture management of productions ; - the organization at the special-purpose enterprises of through preparation and manufacture of products on the basis of application integrated program Complexes of the equipment with numerical program management; - operative reception by proprietors and managers of a trustworthy information about parameters of economic activities of the enterprise, as well as their forecasting at various industrial situation. The constructive decisions accepted by development of a product as the future object of manufacture, are defined on the one hand by a content of the technical project on the other hand - technological possibilities of the enterprise. In conditions of multinomenclature manufacture economic efficiency of the enterprises is defined, basically, by quality of technological design. Program complexes for automation of design-technological preparation of manufacture should meet following requirements. Firstly, a possibility of design of technological processes of machining on the basis of the information formed during at automated design of a detail. Secondly, availability of feedback as at a stage of working out of a product design on adaptability to manufacture, and also at direct design of technological processes. The analysis of the program complexes applied at the modern enterprises, will allow to define neatly which of them meet above mentioned requirements.
3. MODERN SAD.
Systems of the automated design or CAD (Computer-Aided Design) are usually used together with systems of automation of engineering calculations and analysis CAE (Computer-aided engineering). Data from ADsystems are transferred to CAM (Computer-aided manufacturing) - system of the automated development of programs of processing of details for machine tools with CNC. 3.1 Russian systems of automated designing ADEM (Automated Design Engineering Manufacturing) - the Russian integrated CAD/CAM/CAPP-system intended for automation of design-technological preparation of manufacture [1]. System engineering has been began in the ninetieth years by two basic groups of developers of Moscow (the systems of automated designing "CherryCAD" - the laureate of the premium of Council of ministers of the USSR of 1990) and Izhevsk (technological SAD "Catran"). ADEM has been created as the uniform product including toolkit for designers (CAD), technologists (CAPP) and programmers CNC (CAM). Therefore it contains several various subjectoriented systems of automated designing under uniform logic of management and on uniform information base. ADEM allows to automate the following types of works: volumetric both flat modelling and design; registration of the design and technological documentation; design of technological processes; the analysis of adaptability to manufacture and normalization of the project; programming of the equipment with CNC (milling, turning, Electroerosive, laser, etc.); conducting archives of documents; renovation knowledge (work on the scanned drawings and old programs CNC). ADEM is applied in various branches: aviation, nuclear, space, machinebuilding, metallurgical, machine-tool constructing and others. bCAD - 2 and 3-dimensional system of the automated design developed by the Russian company " Pro Group ". bCAD represents the integrated package for bidimentional plotting, volumetric modelling and realistic visualization. The system has received a wide circulation in furniture manufacture and design of interiors. Despite of developed enough means of design, it is not practically applied in industry [2]. NanoCAD the universal bidimentional environment of the automated design [3]. NanoCAD Mechanics - the universal bidimentional graphic system intended for registration of drawings according to USDD, designs of systems hydrotire, gear gearings, shaft, the engineering analysis, calculation of dimensional circuits. NanoCAD the Lay-out - the decision intended for the various organizations and divisions, working with floor-by-floor plans and solving the questions managements of the property. By the development of the software the Russian standards and features of the account and inventory of the real estate are considered. NanoCAD SCS - the software product intended for automated design of structured cable systems (SCS) of buildings and constructions of various purpose, cable systems and telephony. NanoCAD Electro - the software product intended for automated performance of projects in parts of a power electric equipment and an internal electric lighting of industrial and civil objects of construction.
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NanoTDMS Corado - the automated means of information support of creation, collective development, storage and a reuse of documents. Corado is the first appendix realized on a platform NanoTDMS. NormaCS - the program intended for storage, search and display of texts and requisites of normative documents, as well as the standards applied on the territory of the Russian Federation and regulating activity of the enterprises of various industries. T-FLEX CAD - a system of automated design, developed by the company " p Systems " with possibilities of parametrical modelling and availability of means of registration of the design documentation according to standards of a set of USDD. [4] T-FLEX CAD is a kernel of complex T-FLEX CAD/CAM/CAE/CAPP/PDM - a set of means for the decision of problems of technical training of manufacture in various industries. The complex unites systems for design and technological design, modules of preparation of operating programs for machine tools with CNC and engineering calculations. All programs of a complex function on a uniform information platform of system of technical document circulation and conducting structure of products. [4] Structure of a complex " T-FLEX CAD/CAM/CAE/CAPP/PDM ": Programs for design preparation of manufacture: T-FLEX CAD 3D (three-dimensional parametrical solid-state modelling); T-FLEX CAD 2D (parametrical plotting and modelling); T-FLEX CAD LT (automation of plotting); T-FLEX CAD 3D SE (preparation of drawings on 3D-models). Libraries of parametrical elements: T-FLEX Printed-circuit-boards (the converter from electronic SAD). T-FLEX Technology (design of technological processes); T-FLEX Normalization (technical normalization); T-FLEX CNC (preparation of programs for machine tools with CNC); T-FLEX NC Tracer (imitation of process of processing of details). Systems: T - FLEX Analysis (finite - element analysis); T - FLEX Dynamics (the dynamic analysis of mechanical systems); T - FLEX Calculations (tooth gearings); T - FLEX Springs (design of elastic elements); Applied systems: T - FLEX IS (the engineering handbook); T - FLEX Cutting (optimization of sheet material cutting); T - FLEX Stamps (design of equipment of stamps); T - FLEX Press - forms (design of equipment press - forms). Document circulation: T-FLEX DOCs (management of projects and document circulation). COMPASS - the system of the automated design developed by Russian company " " with possibilities of registration of the design documentation according to standards of a set of USDD. There are two versions: the COMPASS-CHART and COMPASS -3D, accordingly intended for flat plotting and three-dimensional design [5]. COMPASS-CHART can be used as completely integrated in COMPASS -3D the module of work on drawings and sketches, and as the independent product completely closing the problems of 2D-design and release of the documentation. The system is focused on support of standards of USDD. The COMPASS-CHART automatically generates associative types of three-dimensional models (including cuts, sections, local cuts, local types, types on an arrow, types with break). All of them they are associated with model: variations in model lead to variation of the image on the drawing. Standard types automatically are under construction in projective communication. Data in the basic inscription of the drawing ( designation, name, weight) are synchronized with data from threedimensional model. There is a lot of additional libraries to system a COMPASS, automating various specialpurpose problems. Software products T-FLEX and COMPASS are focused on a specific character of the Russian manufacture standards, specifications, equipment, technological documentation. CadMECH is a complex system of 2-dimensional and 3-dimensional design of details and assembly units. System, significantly expanding possibilities of AutoCAD in the field of design of machine-building drawings. Cadmech accelerates design in comparison with "pure" AutoCAD in several times and reduces timeframes of development of AutoCAD to 2-3 days. CadMECH is created by joint efforts of designers and programmers, therefore a specific character of work of the designer-mechanic is mostly considered [6]. CadMECH includes: system CadMECH for generation two-and three-dimensional details and assembly units in MECHANICAL DESKTOP environment; system AVS for release of text design documents, etc. Mechanics - the appendix to
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AutoCAD or Autodesk Inventor, intended for registration of drawings according to USDD, designs of systems of hydropneumoelements, gearings, shafts, engineering analysis, calculation of dimensional circuits, creation of the user libraries [7]. Mechanics provides the expert with all necessary for design of machine-building objects: more than 1500 standards (including DIN and ISO) and the unified components, a possibility to create own intellectual objects, to carry out engineering calculations with display of results on models, to make out projections of drawings on USDD and many other things. Mechanics enables the designer to apply not only geometrical parameters of standard elements, but also their mechanical properties. Use of AutoCAD gives a possibility to impose geometrical and parametrical dependences on objects in assembly drawings, to use the preinstalled dependences at their location on the drawing. APM WinMachine - CAD/CAE system of the automated calculation and design of the mechanical equipment and designs in the field of the mechanical engineering, developed in view of recent advances in calculus mathematics, area of numerical methods and programming, as well as theoretical and experimental engineering decisions. This system in full-scale considers requirements of state standards and the rules concerning both registration of the design documentation, and rated algorithms. [8] APM WinMachine possesses wide functionalities for creation of models of designs, performance of necessary calculations and visualization of the received results. Use of these possibilities will allow to reduce timeframes of design and to lower consumption of material per unit , as well as to reduce cost of design works and manufacture as a whole. APM WinMachine has rated and graphic tools allowing to solve an extensive circle of applied problems: to compute the mechanical equipment and its elements with use of engineering procedures; to conduct state-stress conditions the analysis tensely - the deformed condition (by means of a method of final elements) of three-dimensional objects of any complexity at any fastening, static or dynamic load application; to create the design documentation according to ESKD; to use at design delivered databases of standard products and materials, as well as to create own bases under specific directions of activity of the enterprise; to use possibilities of integration with foreign graphic packages for work on earlier created drawings and spatial models. 3.2. SAD of world manufacturers AutoCAD - most known of products of company Autodesk, the universal system of the automated design combining functions of bidimentional plotting and three-dimensional modelling. It appeared in 1982 and was one of the first systems of automated designing, developed for PC. It quickly won popularity among designers, engineers and designers of various industries owing to the democratic prices. [9] AutoCAD Mechanical - a product on platform AutoCAD for the industrial production, forming a part technology of digital prototypes of Autodesk. It helps to accelerate process of design, allowing at the same time to use the experience and the projects which have been saved up at work in AutoCAD. Incorporating libraries of standard details and functions of automation of typical problems, it provides a significant prize in design productivity. AutoCAD Electrical is AutoCAD for design of the electric control systems, being an important part of technology of digital prototypes Autodesk and allowing to work quickly, qualitatively and with significantly smaller expenses in the familiar environment of design. Special-purpose functions and extensive libraries of symbols allow to raise productivity, to eliminate risk of occurrence of mistakes and to provide accuracy of the information transfered in manufacture. AutoCAD Inventor Suite represents the balanced set of decisions Autodesk for design and designs in industrial production. Decisions combine intuitive 3D environment of modelling of details and products with tools, allow designers to concentrate on functional requirements of the project. These tools include automatic creation of intellectual components, such as details from plastic, steel skeletons and rotating mechanisms. Special-purpose versions Autodesk Inventor are available in complete sets AutoCAD Inventor Suite, AutoCAD Inventor Routed Systems Suite, AutoCAD Inventor Simulation Suite and AutoCAD Inventor Professional Suite. Autodesk Inventor - the basis of technology of digital prototypes Autodesk - allows to go out of habitual frameworks 3D modelling and to develop digital prototypes of the future products. This technology helps to create precise 3D models of details and products and comprehensively to study their actual behaviour even before manufacturing pre-production models that allows to reduce expenses for design and manufacture. [10,11] Autodesk Showcase - the software product intended for visualization of projects at use of technology of digital prototypes Autodesk. It allows design and marketing stave to create quick and effectively precise and realistic images on the basis of data 3D the systems of automated designing with objective of transfer of the conceptual information and creation of an information context for a wide audience. Participants of stave can make decisions both on workplaces, and remotely. Autodesk SketchBook Pro - the appendix for drawing and the plotting, developed specially for the use with digital tablets and PCtablets. Intuitively clear user interface allows to receive good results for few minutes even for beginneners. Autodesk Alias Automotive - a product for automobile design. A lot of large design studios use it all over the world. The full tooling for visualization and calculations is presented in a product, covering all process of modelling of products of complex shape, from creation of sketches to finished surfaces of a class NX - flagman
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CAD/CAM/CAE PLM-system from company Siemens PLM Software (till October, 1-stst, 2007 UGS PLM Software, division Siemens Automation and Drives) [12]. Freeform Modeling provides surface design of a complex shape. User-Defined Features provides interactive means of creation of parametrical families of bodies for their subsequent use and editing, being based on concepts of a typical element defined by the user. Drafting this module provides the possibility to receive industrial drawings from any firm models for a designer orengineer. AssemblyModeling - the module of creation and editing assemblies. Advanced Assemblies is the appendix uniting possibilities of accelerated display on the screen of painted over images and the analysis of clearances, also provides the control of loading of the data, allowing to filter structure assemblies. Advanced Assemblies allows to operate, use and analyze digital models for carrying out all process of virtual prototyping at creation of especially complex products. Solid Edge 2D drafting, presented by company UGS, helps the companies to save their means. Whether you use widely widespread means 2D designs or specific 2D designs, you benefit from use Solid Edge 2D drafting. Solid Edge 2D drafting uses 10 year experiments applied for Solid Edge 3D, and offers excellent tools of plotting, the schematic image, the summary and the control of the sizes which are automatically carried out according to a wide range of drawing standards - including GOST, ISO, ANSI, BSI, DIN, JIS and UNI. Solid Edge 2D Drafting includes a wide choice of the instrumental means developed for simplification of transition of users AutoCAD 2D to Solid Edge 3D, including the master-process of import, a mode of precise display of the imported files (conformity of fonts AutoCAD and color diagrams) and many other possibilities which make Solid Edge 2D Drafting an atracteve appendix for users AutoCAD 2D, looking for more possibilities and productivity from their two-dimensional parts of the automated design. Solid Edge 3D a system of the automated design which is intended for development of assembly units and geometrical modelling of separate details. Solid Edge offers means for parametrical modelling with the use of basic operations in wider aspect, than the traditional systems CAD focused on development of separate details. This approach allows to increase productivity and to improve quality of design of assembly units. Usually designers develop the units consisting of a set of details which should work together in uniform assembly. Solid Edge offers effective means for the decision of problems, characteristic for design of assembly units. These special-purpose means allow to consider interrelations between details, to trace structure of assembly and to organize interoperability of developers of assembly unit. CATIA - system of the automated design of a French firm Dassault Systems. CATIA V1 was announced in 1981 [14] At the moment there are two versions in the world - V4 and V5 which significantly differ. CATIA V4 was announced in 1993 and it was created for Unix-like operational systems, CATIA V5 it was announced in 1998, and it is the first version which can work under Microsoft Windows control. On assurance of Dassault Systems, CATIA V5 was written " from zero " and has accumulated SAD high technologies of the end of XX century - the beginning of XXI century. At first CATIA V5 was not of much popularity in the market and, to stimulate transition with V4 on V5, Dassault Systems has put forward concept PLM (Product Lifecycle Management). Idea PLM has appeared successful, and it was picked up almost with all industry the systems of automatic designing In February, 2008 Dassault Systemes announced the new version of system - CATIA V6. V6 will support programs of modelling for all engineering disciplines and collective business-processes during life cycle of a product. The new concept of firm has received the name " PLM 2.0 on platform V6 ". Essence of the concept - three-dimensional modelling (3D) and collective work in actual time. For communication between people who are in different points of the world, means of simple connection to Web are stipulated. According to the president of concern Bernard Sharleca (Bernard Charles), PLM 2.0 it is a new approach opening a possibility to use intellectual fruits of on-line interoperability [11]. Each user can think out, develop products and communicate in universal 3D-language. Users can operate in the evident form at the same time with virtual and actual objects. PLM-decision V6 will include systems CATIA for automation of design, ENOVIA for management of engineering data and collective work, SIMULIA for engineering analysis and DELMIA for digital manufacture. Decisions PLM V6 (SMB) are developed for small and average business by Israeli branch of a company Dassault Systems Israel (SMARTEAM). The basic competitors are NX (Unigraphics) and Pro/ENGINEER. Pro/Engineer - CAD system of a high level. It includes all necessary modules for solid-state modelling details and assemblies and creations of the drawing documentation. It has built in possibilities for design of welded ctructures [15]. SolidWorks - the product of company SolidWorks Corporation, system of the automated design in three measurements, works under control of Microsoft Windows. It is developed as alternative to two-dimensional programs of SAD the automated design . It has got popularity owing to the simple interface. The program appeared in 1993 and made a competition to such products as AutoCAD and Autodesk Mechanical Desktop, SDRC I-DEAS and Pro/ENGINEER, Solid Edge. The Main task of the program - to provide to the user with the capacity of three-dimensional SAD at the price of system two-dimensional SAD.
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SolidWorks extends in three commercial and three educational versions. Commercial: SolidWorks Mechanical, SolidWorks Office Professional, SolidWorks Office Premium. Educational: SolidWorks Student Design Kit, SolidWorks Education Edition, SolidWorks Student Edition. Basic product SolidWorks includes tools for three-dimensional modelling, creation of assemblies, drawings, work on sheet metal, welded structures and surfaces of the free form. There is a possibility of import of wide range of files 2D and 3D CAD programs. There is API for programming in Visual Basic environment and C. Also the program for the finite element analyses at initial level CosmosXpress is included. SolidWorks Office Professional. The package includes the basic product and some expansions: Animator (creation AVI of animation of model in movement); Design Checker (check of drawing data on conformity to standards); eDrawings Professional (adds a possibility of reviewing to free eDrawings); FeatureWorks (adds a possibility of editing to imported elements); PDMWorks Workgroup (PDM system); PhotoWorks (creation of photorealistic images of the constructed objects); Task Scheduler (the scheduler for volumetric press, import/export of files, and creations eDrawings); Toolbox (a collection of fixture and connections); Utilities (elementwise comparison of details); 3D Instant Website ( Publication of files SolidWorks as HTML document, using eDrawings for viewing). SolidWorks Office Premium. The package represents SolidWorks Office Professional with additional tools: CosmosWorks Designer (method of finite-element analysis ); CosmosMotion (the analysis of movement); Routing (for creation of the pipeline route), Pipes or electric cables between components); ScanTo3D (the utility for converting the data received from the 3D-scanner, in model); TolAnalyst (the analysis of a condition of the tool); CircuitWorks (design of printedcircuit-boards). SolidWorks Student Design Kit is limited in time of use version SolidWorks Education Edition. IT does not include all functions. SolidWorks Education Edition - licensed version SolidWorks. It is developed for training in initial, secondary, higher schools, professional schools, colleges and universities. It includes CosmosXpress. Educational release is always by one version younger than professional, that makes quite good beginning for training solidworks. SolidWorks Student Edition - it is developed for individual use outside class rooms. It includes all functions of SolidWorks Education Edition. ArchiCAD - graphic software package for the architects, created by firm Graphisoft (Budapest, Hungary) [16]. It is intended for design of architecturally-building designs and decisions, as well as elements of a landscape, furniture and ect. At work on a package the concept of a virtual building is used. The project ArchiCAD represents the volumetric model of an actual building existing in memory of a computer executed full-scale. For its performance the designer at the initial stages of work on the project in fact "builds" a building, using thus the tools having the full analogues in reality: walls, overlappings, windows, stairs, varied objects, etc. After completion of work on " a virtual building ", the designer has an opportunity to take the varied information on the designed object: floor-by-floor plans, facades, cuts, explications, specifications, presentation materials and other. Delcam - the world leader in development CAD/CAM of products for modelling, manufacturing and the control of complex products and industrial equipment. The company was based in 1977 at the Cambridge university. Constant growth of company Delcam is caused by success of its software which offers a set of the best of decisions in their class. Today Delcam plc has users in over 30000 organizations in more than 90 countries of the world. The family of programs of company Delcam covers all stages of a production cycle [17,18]. It combines functionality with the advanced technologies in the field of the user interface. As a result sharp reduction of a design stage and preparation of manufacture each product Delcam is focused on specific aspect of design, manufacture and the control of complex products, and is the most optimum decision in the scope (fig. 1). Delcam PowerSHAPE - modern hybrid modeler with solid-state and superficial modelling. Solid-state modelling is easy and fast operations of association, subtraction and intersection. Superficial modelling is a unlimited complexity of spatial elements and unique possibilities of editing. Delcam PowerMILL - a package for preparation of highly effective operating programs for milling machine tools with CNC. It allows to raise productivity of machine tools and, at the same time , to reach the highest quality at manufacturing details and equipment. Delcam PowerINSPECT - the monitoring system of accuracy by means of 3-coordinate control and measuring cars and manipulators. Combining advantages of a wide range of possibilities and simplicity in use, it allows to supervise complex details by a method of their comparison with the initial computer models created in CAD-system. Delcam CopyCAD is a software product for " return design ". Delcam ArtCAM is a software package for spatial modeling, which allows to generate automatically spatial models from flat picture and to receive on them products on machine tools with CNC. ArtCAM offers a powerful, easy in use set of means of modelling which provides the designer with freedom at creation of complex spatial reliefs.
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Delcam Exchange - system which provides the interface of programs of company Delcam with other systems of modelling. Delcam PS-Team - system of interoperability between the enterprises, focused on maintenance of interoperability through the Internet between divisions of the enterprise. PS-Team allows to organize quickly a Study Group and to provide interoperability between divisions in spite of what distance they are from each other. Delcam FeatureCAM - system of preparation of the operating programs, based on automatic recognition of typical elements. The technology of automatic recognition of elements of processing became extremely popular among customers of small and average business, allowing to make development of programs for machine tools with CNC as fast and simple as possible. Delcam PartMaker - a program complex for the automated development of operating programs. Alongside with preparation of the staff for traditional group of metalcutting machine tools (turning, milling and electroerosive), PartMaker allows to develop programs for automatic machines longitudinal turning (SwissType) and the multipurpose milling centers. Delcam Crispin - the adequate decision for modelling and design of footwear (ShoeDesign), as well as the decision for introduction in manufacture (TechPac.) Delcam Crispin is CAD system consisting of several modules. A separate ruler of software products Crispin Systems Orthopaedic - CAD/CAM decisions in the field of orthopedy. Delcam DentCAD - special-purpose system of three-dimensional modelling of dental bridges and crowns. System DentCAD has been developed specially for stomatologists, appropriate terminology and convenient intuitive interface are used in it. Delcam DentMILL - special-purpose system of development of operating programs for milling dental crowns and bridges on machine tools with CNC. In DentMILL the user receives highly effective and reliable trajectories quickly and easily. This program, also as well as DentCAD, is focused on inexperienced CAsystem users. Despite of a wide range, both world, and domestic SAD the problem of their adequate application in the modern industry is constant. Today in the domestic industry there is no present uniform SAD which could provide all requirements of manufacture. For the decision of the same questions different software products such as AutoCad (Autodesk Inventor), the COMPASS, SolidWorks, ADEM, and as Delcam are acquired. Only the comparative analysis of software products will allow to define which of them meets the requirements of industries.
4. CHOICE AND BACKGROUND OF A DETAIL DESIGN SAD

In mechanical engineering any manufacture begins with the design and further start of the design and technological documentation in accordance to acting on territory of Ukraine standards of USDD. Efficiency of preparatory stage of manufacture is defined by a degree of automation of the enterprise. Experts, anyhow, connected with modelling and performance of drawing -graphic works, cannot do without modern system of the automated design [8,9].From correctness of choice of CAD/CAM-system depends not only accuracy of design, manufacturing and reliability of product operation , and also as a production efficiency, net cost of production, competitiveness of production and the enterprise as a whole. With objective of the background of choice of CAD/CAM-system for design of the set detail the experimental comparative analysis of the modern systems applied at the modern machine-building enterprises is executed. 4.1 Experimental comparative analysis of CAD/CAM-systems Given comparative analysis of CAD / CAM - systems has been executed for the machine-building enterprise with the objective of the decision of the following primary goals: rising of efficiency of the design office work of on release of the design and technological documentation;decrease in timeframes of preparation of metalcutting manufacture; The organization of new manufacture of stamps and press - forms. The CAD/CAM-systems widespread in Ukrainian market were considered. At preparation of the list the information of mass-media, printed materials of firms-developers and responses of users of the CIS were considered. The list of software products in alphabetic order is the following: ADEM v 8.2 Autocad v 2007 Compass v 9.0 SolidEdge v 9.0 SolidWorks v 07
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Delcam Some products were not included into the given list for the following reasons: absence of possibility to carry out pre-production operation; absence of possibility of independent work without joint application with other CAD/CAM-products. 4.1.1 Procedure of tests Three primary goals specified above have been spread out to 20 subtasks. For research of possibilities of products attempts of the decision of some examples, characteristic for the given subtasks were undertaken. For example, for sections "Plotting" and Support of domestic standards it was offered to execute drawings according to rules of USDD. For Volumetric modelling some characteristic models were offered. For "2,5xmilling" examples of pockets with vertical and curvilinear walls have been prepared. For Volumetric milling models of elements of compression moulds have been prepared. In section Adaptation to the machine tools park libraries of postprocessors first of all with reference to domestic control systems of machine tools were considered. Also attempts of writing of the postprocessors were made. For assessment of Editing of the scanned image it was offered to make variations to the text and to the chart of the scanned drawing of format A1 with the subsequent conclusion on plotter. "User support" was checked on quality of the Russian documentation and HELP. The important parameter was also availability of representation and availability telephone and e-mailcommunications. 4.1.2 Procedure of assessment Quality of systems was estimated on three-point system. The highest point was given in case all the tests were carried out. Partial performance was considered satisfactory. Default of all tests got the assessment "bad". At final formation of assessment personal impressions of the experts testing the system, and time for development and decision of problems were considered also. Results of the comparative analysis of systems on all to 20 parameters are presented in table 1. Table 1: Comparative analysis of CAD/CAM-systems Possibilities Flat modelling Plotting Volumetric modelling Creation of volumetric models Creation of the drawing on three-dimensional model Generation of the technological documentation Editing of the scanned image Means of creations applied Machining on 2D-model Machining on 3D-model Milling 2x; 2,5x Milling 3x Milling 5x Milling multiitem Electroerosive processing 2x, 4x Turning processing Drilling Adaptation of system to machine tools park Support of domestic standards Support of the user ADEM v 8.2 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + AutoAD v. 2007 + + + Compass v. 9.0 + + + SolidEdge v. 9.0 + * + + SolidWorks v. 07 + * + + + Delcam + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
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Now in Ukraine it is possible to get software products, such as AutoCad (Autodesk Inventor), the COMPASS, SolidWorks, ADEM, Delcam are widely enough applied in mechanical engineering. AutoCad is convenient to use for registration of the design documentation, construction of simple details. It is convenient to build assembly of sheet designs, however for construction of complex surfaces it is not suitable. The COMPASS possesses the same possibilities and also provides receiving of the documentation meeting the highest requirements of registration. SolidWorks in comparison with AutoCAD and the COMPASS has a number of advantages: provides a full cycle of modelling from design of three-dimensional details, assembly from separate details, assembly drawings and detailization, up to concept of models in realistic (visualization) and dynamical (animation) type.It has the convenient interface, possibilities 3D modelling, as well as a possibility of carrying out of tests of details in conditions most approached to the validity. However the given product has no possibility of solid-state modelling and requires greater resources. The common fault of considered above software products is absence of a possibility of operating programs creation. Integrated CAD/CAM system ADEM possesses such possibility. The organization and support of process of through design is the basic advantage of the program complex. Basic lack of ADEM is absence of possibility of work on solid-state models. In this case more intellectual system is the family of programs of company Delcam, having solid-state models. On their basis it is possible to obtain data about topology of a detail and automatically to define such technological parameters as depth of a processed element, angle of a slope of a wall, type of an aperture, etc. Delcam is intended for manufacture of complex products. Programs of company Delcam cover all stages of a production cycle. It combines functionality with the advanced technologies in the field of the user interface. As a result there is sharp reduction of a design stage and preparation of manufacture. Each product of Delcam is focused on specific aspect of design, manufacture and the control of complex products and is the most optimum decision in the scope. Results of the comparative analysis of software products can be widespread also to other machine-building enterprises. Such model can be received in several ways, the most evident, and less labour-consuming method of modelling is the one on the basis of neural networks . The further analysis of possibilities of modern CAD/CAM-systems is possible by means of Kohonen cards. 4.2 Application of Kohonen cards for the analysis of experimental data The networks named Kohonen cards is one of versions of neural networks which uses uncontrollable training. Such training consists only of values of entrance variables, during training there is no comparison of neurons outputs with reference values. One can say that such network learns to understand structure of data. The analogy to properties of a human brain lies in the basis of Kohonen network idea. The human cerebral cortex looks like a flat leaf and is curtailed by folds. Thus, it is possible to tell, that it possesses the certain topological properties (the sites responsible for close parts of a body, adjoin to each other and the image of a human body is displayed on this bidimentional surface). The problems solved by means of Kohonen cards. Self-organised cards can be used for the decision of such problems, as modelling, forecasting, search of laws in greater data files, revealing of sets of independent signs and compression of the information. The most widespread application of Kohonen networks is the solution of the problem of classification without the teacher , i.e. clusters. One should bear in mind when solving the problem we are given the set of objects, each of them having the proper line in the table ( vector of of signs values) . It is required to break initial set into classes, i.e. for each object to find a class to which it belongs. As a result of receiving new information about classes correction of existing rules of classification of objects is possible. Here are two of the widespread applications of Kohonen cards: prospecting analysis of data and finding new phenomena. The toolkit including realization of honen cards method covers SoMine, Statistica, NeuroShell, NeuroScalp, Deductor and many others. For the solution of the problem the analytical package Deductor is used. Deductor is an analytical platform - the basis for creation of the complete applied decisions in the field of the analysis of data. Technologies realized in Deductor allow to pass on the basis of uniform architecture all stages of construction of analytical system from creation of storehouse of data up to automatic selection of models and visualization of the received results [18].. There is a database of the analysis of possibilities of modern systems of the automated design (tab. 2). Data in the table are transformed from tab. 3.: values, - are replaced on 3, 2, 1 and 0 accordingly. It is necessary to carry out their representation as clusters, i.e. to allocate homogeneous groups of programs on the basis of parameters from a database, all parameters - 20. The initial table is the file sapr.xls. It contains the program products possibilities. First xls-file data are imported to analytical package medium.
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Table 2: Transformed Database Possibilities Flat modelling Plotting Volumetric modelling reation of volumetric models Creation of the drawing on three-dimensional model Generation of the technological documentation Editing of the scanned image Means of creations applied SAD Machining on 2D-model Machining on 3D-model Milling 2x; 2,5x Milling 3x Milling 5x Milling multiitem Electroerosive processing 2x, 4x Turning processing Drilling Adaptation of system to machine tools park Support of domestic standards Support of the user ADEM v 8.2 3 3 2 1 3 3 2 2 3 3 3 3 1 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 AutoAD v. 2007 3 2 2 2 2 0 3 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 Compass v. 9.0 2 3 0 0 0 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 3 SolidEdge v. 9.0 2 0 3 3 3 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 SolidWorks v. 07 2 0 3 3 3 2 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 Delcam 3 2 3 3 3 1 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3
On the first step of the master the master of processing is started and the method of processing " Kohonen card " is chosen .. Further it is necessary to adjust purposes of columns, i.e. for each column to choose one of purposes: input output, not used ,and information. Purpose "Input" is given to all columns, "Output" is not given. The following step suggests breaking initial set on training test. By default, the program suggests breaking the set on training - 95 % and test - 5 %. On the fifth step shown on drawing 10 it is offered to adjust parameters of the card: quantity of cells on X and on Y their form (hexagonal or quadrangular). On the sixth step " Adjustment of stop training parameters " shown on drawing 11 the stop training parameters are set and the epoch up to which the training will be stopped is set On the seventh step other parameters of training are adjusted: a way of initial initialization, type of function of the neighbourhood. On the eighth step the process of training of network is started - it is necessary to press the button " Start-up " and wait the termination of training process .. During training it is possible to observe variation of quantity of the distinguished examples and current values of mistakes. Upon termination of training in the list of visual analyzers Kohonen " card " and a visual analyzer "What-if".are chosen On the last step Kohonen card.display is adjusted . As a result of application self-organised cards the multivariate space of entrance factors is represented in a two-dimensional type in which it is convenient to analyze. Possibilities of software products have been classified on groups, for each of them definition of specific characteristics, on the basis of coloring appropriating parameters is possible. Application of such paradigm of neural networks as Kohonen cards, for the analysis of possibilities of systems of automated designing provides presentation and convenience of use. These networks allow to simplify multivariate structure, it is possible to consider them one of methods of displaying of multivariate space into space with lower dimensionality. Intensity of color in the certain point of a card is defined by the data which have been located there : cells with the minimal values are represented in dark blue color, cells with the maximal values - in red. The analysis of cards proves, that system Delcam possesses considerable opportunities in comparison with other systems of the automated design. In spite of prevailing possibilities of Delcam, the cluster area of ample opportunities (red area) on card clusters is small. As the possibilities of all considered software products in a complex are displayed on it , therefore the prevailing limited possibilities of other programs and advantages of Delcam give average indices in a whole (the yellow-green area prevails). Other basic difference and advantage of Kohonen cards from other models of neural networks is other approach to training, namely - uncontrollable
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training. This type of training allows data of training sample to contain input variables values Kohonen network learns to understand the structure of data itself and solves problems of dividing into clusters. In view of the received cards and data in tab. 5 it is possible to calculate rating of considered software products from the point of view of their possibilities and disadvantages. Rating of the program depends on the area which is covered on the card by the program possibilities and lacks: = max-Bmin, where rating of software product, max maximal possibilities (3,2 units); min minimal possibilities of software product (1, 0 unit). Results of calculation of ratings of compared programs are shown in tab.3. Table 3: Ratings of SAD The systems of automated designing Rating (SAD) Delcam 53 ADEM 45 AutoAD 19 Solid- Works 19 Compass 17 SolidEdge 16 Analyzing the received cards and ratings of programs it is possible to come to conclusion, that the only competitor to Delcam may be Adem, possibilities of other software products remain on an average level. In conditions of technological. novelty, the main obstacle is possibilities of modern systems of the automated design . Therefore the enterprises should pay a closer attention to modern software products. And for that it is not necessary to get software products of the leading companies. For example, to the enterprises on which SolidWorks is used, it is enough to get addition of Delcam for SolidWorks for design of technology of processing on machine tools with CNC, specially developed by company Delcam plc. Thus, possibilities of software product with expenses smaller in comparison with the ones connected with purchase of software package Delcam and training of personnel . At the same time company Delcam should pay attention to clearing of the drawbacks. It is a question of improvement of possibilities on one two units to three signs: plotting, generation of the technological documentation, editing of the scanned image. It will not demand great material expenses. As a result of variation of possibilities of software products the card of clasters will change the area of ample opportunities (area of red color), however the leading position of Delcam will become unstable, owing to reduction of number of surpassing signs (fig. 1).
Deficiencies of software The area of ample opportunities (advantages)
Figure 1: Possibilities of software Delcam
5. CONCLUSION
Thus, the received cards allow to define strategy of behaviour of campaign of Delcam plc in the market of software products. In particular there are two strategies in a complex: - strategy of improvement (clearing of the drawbacks or expansion of the possibilities), as consequence of leading position; - strategy of absorption (technological fixtures) creations of buffers (additions) for companies producing other software products.
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It is favourable to two sides: from Delcam receiving of profit on introduction and operation of buffers, from consumer company -conservation of "seat" on a commodity market and guarantee temporary nonreplacement of it by Delcam company.
REFERENCES
[1] Official site ADEM [Internet resource]. http: // www.adem.ru/ [2] Official site bCAD [Internet resource]. http: // www.bcad.ru/ [3] Official site NanoCAD [Internet resource]. http: // www.nanocad.ru/ [4] Official site T-FLEX [Internet resource]. http: // www.tflex.ru/ [5] Official site "" [Internet resource]. - http: // www.ascon.com/ [6] Official site INTERMECH [Internet resource]. http: // www.intermech.ru /cadmech.htm [7] Official site MechaniCS [Internet resource]. http: // www.mechanics.com.au/ [8] Official site APM [Internet esource]. http: // www.apm.ru/ [9] Official AutoCAD ADEM [Internet resource]. http: // www.autocad.ru/ [10] Official Autodesk ADEM [Internet resource]. http: // www.autodesk.ru [11] Official site Inventor [Internet resource]. http: // www.inventor.ru/ [12] Official site of company Siemens PLM Software [Internet resource]. http: // www.plm.automation.siemens.com/ru_ru/ [13] Official site SolidWorks Russia [Internet resource]. http: // www.solidworks.ru/ [14] Official site CATIA [Internet resource]. http: // www.catia.ru/ [15] Official site Pro/Engineer [Internet resource]. http: // www.pro-technologies.ru/product/Pro-ENGINEER [16] Official site ArchiCAD [Internet resource]. http: // www.archicad.ru/ [17] Official site Delcam [Internet resource]. http: // www.delcam.ru/ [18] Official site Delcam Urals Mountains [Internet resource]. http: // www.delcam-ural.ru/
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RaDMI 2010
OPTIMAL DESIGN OF CELLULAR MANYFSCTURING SYSTEMS: A REVIEW

Pawan Kumar Arora1, Abid Haleem2, M K Singh3
1
H R Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad, INDIA, e-mail: pawanar@rediffmail.com 2 Faculty of Engineering & Technology, Jamia Milia Islamia, New Delhi, INDIA 3 Nikhil Institute of Technology & Management, Mathura, INDIA
Summary: The cellular manufacturing system has got widely acceptance in past few decades because of its vital role in reduction of set up time, less work in process and reduced inventory due to similarity of the products based on similarity in manufacturing or design of the products for preferably batch size production. Hence, cellular manufacturing system has been an active area of research, but most have been restricted to clustering of parts / machines only despite of design of cellular manufacturing system. Hence, an effort is made in the present paper to review the various approaches used for design of cellular manufacturing systems. The paper presents the approaches used under a single platform with latest research in the cellular manufacturing systems. The paper also raises concern about the acute need for developing models for optimizing the cellular manufacturing system. Keywords: Cellular manufacturing system, part families, group technology.
1. INTRODUCTION Group Technology is a management philosophy that attempts to group products with similar design and / or manufacturing characteristics. Cellular Manufacturing can be defined as an application of group technology and involves grouping machines or processes on the basis of parts or part families. Companies that have applied the GT philosophy have reaped several benefits, including set-up time reduction, work-in-process inventory reduction, quality improvement, material flow improvement, improvement in employee morale, etc. In recent years, the process of cellular manufacturing has received much attention and popularity in many developed countries. It is therefore not surprising that a large number of manufacturing companies have implemented cellular manufacturing systems, especially in the past two decades. Cellular manufacturing system and group technology has been highly potential field for research for last two decades and hundreds of research publications exploring various aspects affirm the same. However, most of these focus on the design aspects of cellular manufacturing systems. Some have focused on operational aspects and very few have focused on integration of design and operational issues. Even among the papers on design of cellular manufacturing systems, a vast majority have focused primarily on the clustering aspect i.e. identification of machine cells and / or parts families. For the most part, practical constraints often imposed during the implementation phase have been ignored. Cellular manufacturing problems in the recent past have not been presented in a coherent manner. Furthermore, the impact of such research has been diluted due to the vast majority of work that has gone on the less important clustering problem. In the present work an attempt has been made to review various approaches to design cell.
2. DESIGN OF CELLULAR MANUFACTURING SYSTEM The problem of cell design is a very complex exercise with wide ranging implications for any organization (Demerol and Hyer, 1986). Normally, cell design is understood as the problem of identifying a set of part types that are suitable for manufacture on a group of machines. However, there are a number of other strategic level issues such as level of
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machine flexibility, cell layout, type of material handling equipment, types and number of tools and fixture etc that should be considered as a part of cell design problem. 2.1. MACHINE COMPONENT GROUP ANALYSIS Rasaratnam et al (2003) addressed the two-machine group-scheduling problem for minimizing the mean flow time with carryover sequence dependency. W.M. Chan et al (2002) proposed algorithm uses an adoptive approach to relate machines in a cell by examining the merged part flow weights of machine pairs. The establishment of the part flow weight includes practical constrains, such as the part-handling factor and the number of parts per transportation. It should be noted that (Felix T.S. Chana et al,2006) if the production volume of each part is very large, then the total number of intercellular movement will be further larger. Therefore, the sequence of machine cells is particularly important in this aspect. K. Das et al (2006) presented a multi-objective mixed integer programming model of cellular manufacturing system design which minimizes the total system costs and maximizes the machine reliabilities along the selected processing routes. A part may be processed under different process plans, each prescribing a sequence of operations to be performed at various machines in serial configuration. A multi-objective dynamic cell formation was presented by Bajestani et al (2009), where the total cell load variation and sum of the miscellaneous costs (machine cost, inter-cell material handling cost, and machine relocation cost) are to be minimized simultaneously. Since this type of problem is NP-hard, a new multi-objective scatter search (MOSS) is designed for finding locally Pareto-optimal frontier. Taboun et al (1998) implemented a two-stage procedure for cost effective part family and machine cell formation. First, the problem is formulated as a mixed integer mathematical model for simultaneous machine grouping and part family assignment. Sudhakara et al (2008) presented a model in which the machines are allocated into machine cells to produce the identified part families so that productivity and flexibility of the system can be improved. Zero-one part-machine incidence matrix (PMIM) generated from route sheet information is commonly presented as input for clustering of parts and machines. An entry of 1 in PMIM indicates that the part is visiting the machine and zero otherwise. 2.2.SIMILARITY COEFFICIENT BASED APPROACHES A number of researchers or investigators have used different types of similarity and dissimilarity coefficients for determining part families. In cellular manufacturing systems, most machines are capable of performing more than one operation, which makes parts rerouting feasible. When a part is rerouted, it affects the cell performance. Most of the suggested approaches in the literature develop a new similarity coefficient based on mathematical analysis; however, these methods tend to disregard alternative routes during machine failure. McAuley (1972) was the first to apply the Jaccard similarity coefficient to the cell formation problem. Kusiak (1987) considered alternate process plans and developed a p-median model to form cells. Choobineh (1984) proposed a new similarity measure which uses the manufacturing operations and their sequences. Gunasingh et.al (1989) suggested a new similarity index which expressed the capability between two machines in processing a set of parts that need both machines. Tam (1990) also proposed a new similarity coefficient based on the similarity of operation sequences. Seifoddini(1990) suggested a new similarity coefficient which was based on the idea that necessary production data should be incorporated in the early stages of the machine-component grouping process. They considered processing requirements of parts, pair wise average production volume, and unit operation time as new production parameters .Gupta (1993) suggested a new similarity coefficient which required that alternative routing of parts should be considered while calculating the pair wise similarity coefficient between machines. Kamrani et.al (1993) proposed a weighted dissimilarity coefficient based on e disagreement measure of both design and manufacturing attributes between two parts. Moussa and Kamel (1995) also proposed a new similarity coefficient which took into consideration the operation sequences and process times during the assignment process. Parsaei and Wong proposed new similarity coefficient which considers the number of alternative routes available during machine failure. Based on the new similarity coefficient, the part families were identified by using a p-median model. Two characteristics, discriminability and stability of the similarity coefficients are tested under different data conditions by Yong Yin (2006). From the results, three similarity coefficients are found to be more discriminable. Jaccard is found to be the most stable similarity coefficient. Yong Yin et al (2005) gave a comprehensive overview and discussion for similarity coefficients developed to date for use in solving the cell formation (CF) problem. Geonwook et al (2005) developed a methodology which can be used to form manufacturing cells using both a new similarity coefficient based on the number of alternative routes during machine failure and demand changes for multiple periods. 2.3.GENETIC ALGORITHM BASED APPROACHES Genetic Algorithm is a popular heuristic search technique and has proved superior performance on complex optimization problem. Mitsuru Kuroda et al (1999) formulated the designing and controlling problems of cellularline systems and solved them using a genetic algorithm. Liu (2007) developed a data mining algorithm for designing the conventional cellular manufacturing systems. Chen (1997) explained how a genetic algorithm can be applied to vision systems for shape analysis and quality assessment. A new algorithm which will consider both design and manufacturing attributes and operation sequences as factors, is proposed by Zulal et al (2000) to formulate the problem. Tariq et al (2008) developed an approach that combines a local search heuristic (LSH) with genetic
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algorithm (GA). In the general machine/part grouping problem, processing times, lot sizes and machine capacities are all explicitly considered by Zolfagharia et.al (2003). To evaluate the solution quality of this type of grouping problems, a generalized grouping efficacy index is used as the performance measure and fitness function of the genetic algorithm. The algorithm has been applied to solving several well-cited problems with randomly assigned processing times to all the operations. 2.4.NEURAL NETWORK BASED APPROACHES Lozano et al (2001) investigated two sequence-based neural network approaches for cell formation and the objective function considered is the minimization of transportation costs (including both intracellular and intercellular movements). Although Dagli (1998) adopted the ART1 network with an application in machine-part CF, there are still several drawbacks to this approach. To address these concerns Yang et al (2008) proposed a modified ART1 neural learning algorithm. In this modified ART1, the vigilance parameter can be simply estimated by the data so that it is more efficient and reliable than Dagli and Huggahallis method for selecting a vigilance value. Jerbic et al (1998) implemented a planning system which integrates the reinforcement learning method and a neural network approach with the aim to ensure autonomous robot behavior in unpredictable working conditions using nonpermutation schedules, three prominent types of met heuristicsa simulated annealing, a genetic algorithm and a tabu searchare proposed and empirically evaluated by Shih-Wei et al (2009). 2.5.MATHEMATICAL PROGRAMMING BASED APPROACHES Berardi et. al (1998) demonstrated that the mathematical programming model can provide useful information in making trade decisions when exceptional elements are present. Tavakkoli et al presented a new mathematical model to solve a facility layout problem in cellular manufacturing systems (CMS) with stochastic demands. Albadawia et al(2005) proposed a new mathematical approach for forming manufacturing cells. The proposed approach involves two phases. In the first phase, machine cells are identified by applying factor analysis to the matrix of similarity coefficients. In the second phase, an integer-programming model is used to assign parts to the identified machine cells. Das (2008) addressed machine reliability consideration by Weibull and exponential distribution approach in designing a cellular manufacturing system. A multi-objective mixed integer programming (MIP) model that considers machine system reliability and system cost simultaneously is presented to implement the approach. Fantahun et al (2008) developed, a mathematical programming model following an integrated approach for cell configuration and lot sizing in a dynamic manufacturing environment. The model development also considers the impact of lot sizes on product quality. Solution of the mathematical model is to minimize both production and quality related costs. Nallan (2008) proposed a goal-programming model for the design of hybrid cellular manufacturing (HCM) systems, in a dual resource constrained environment, considering many real-world application issues. Mahdavi et al proposed a new mathematical model for cell formation in cellular manufacturing system (CMS) based on cell utilization concept. kioon et al (2009) proposed a the most comprehensive model with a more integrated approach to CMS design, where production planning and system reconfiguration decisions are incorporated. Such a CMS model has not been proposed before and it features the presence of alternate process routings, operation sequence, duplicate machines, machine capacity and lot splitting. The developed model is a mixed integer non-linear program. Linearization procedures are proposed to convert it into a linearized mixed integer programming formulation. Computational results are presented by solving some numerical examples, extracted from the existing literature, with the liberalized formulation. The broad applications of cellular manufacturing make flow line manufacturing cell scheduling problems with sequence dependent family setup times a core topic in the field of scheduling. Due to computational complexity, almost all published studies focus on using permutation schedules to deal with this problem to explore the potential effectiveness of treating this argument. 2.6. HEURISTIC BASED APPROACHES The objective of many cell formation methods is to minimize overall material flows of parts. However, most methods do not incorporate several production factors that are extremely relevant to the material flows Yong Yin et al (2005) incorporated these factors into a nonlinear mathematical model and proposed a heuristic methodology. Chan and Chan (2002) presented a heuristic algorithm that addresses problems of machine should be minimal in CM. Mahdavi et al (2007) developed a heuristic algorithm based on flow matrix for cell formation and layout design in a simultaneous fashion using sequence data. The numerical results of the algorithm on the available problems in the literature indicate the usefulness of the algorithm regarding to performance indices. Vitanov et al (2007) presented a decision support tool that can be used by practitioners and industrialists to solve practical cell formation problems. The tool is based on a cell formation algorithm that employs a set of heuristic rules to obtain a quasi- optimal solution from both component routing information and other significant production data.
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2.7. FUZZY CLUSTERING Selim et al (1998) classified cell formation techniques into five groups: descriptive procedure, cluster analysis ,graph partitioning, artificial intelligence, and mathematical programming . Fuzzy set theory has been shown to be capable of addressing these deficiencies. For instance, Liao (2001) addressed issues involved in using classification and coding systems under a fuzzy environment. Chan and Wang (1989) utilized fuzzy clustering to form part families and applied fuzzy pattern recognition to assign parts to pre-formed part families based on similarity coefficients. Chu and Hayya [1991] used fuzzy c-means (FCM) to form a pre-determined number of part families and to determine a priority for reallocating parts to different families. Also using FCM, Wen et al. [1996] interpreted the degree of membership of a part in a cell as the ease with which the cell can process the part and defined the complementary measure.
3. GAP IN RESEARCH
There has been tremendous work done by various researchers on cell formation techniques. Majority of the published works on cellular manufacturing pay very little attention towards production planning and control activities of cellular manufacturing. Many current cellular manufacturing applications are running in a non optimal environment and their performance could be improved by optimizing the parameters. But from the available literature most of the cell formation techniques/algorithm does not discuss the optimal size of the cell and the optimal number of cells, should be formed for a given problem. The techniques discussed above also dont investigate the effect on different performance measures if the number of cell / cell size/composition of cells varied.
4. CONCLUSION
The present study illustrates and pays attention to the design and other aspects of cellular manufacturing system. Various techniques and methodology have been briefly studied with their salient features. The study brings the attention towards the need for designing the cellular manufacturing system for optimal performance as most of the past research work has been concentrated to the clustering of the machine and parts into cell and part families. So, acute need is to develop the models to specify the optimal number of groups and optimal production mix subject to technological and logistical constraints for optimal performance of cellular manufacturing system. There is need to develop more efficient solution tools enabling system designer to achieve good solution in reasonable processing time.
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RaDMI 2010
MODELING AND ANALYSIS OF A TESTING DEVICE OF A LUMBAR SPINE STABILIZATION SYSTEM

M. Toth-Tascau1, L. Rusu2
1
Politehnica University of Timisoara, Timisoara, ROMANIA, e-mail: mirela@cmpicsu.upt.ro, 2 e-mail: luck@cmpicsu.upt.ro
Summary: In vivo experimental analysis of the of human spine behavior, implanted or not, involves many issues, thus a virtual simulation of the mechanical behavior is more accessible. The paper presents a study of modeling and numerical analysis of a testing device for a lumbar stabilization system. The geometrical modeling covers two different aspects: anatomical elements modeling and mechanical elements modeling (device and stabilization system). The presented study is focused on the geometrical modeling of the testing device only. The objective of the numerical analysis was to determine areas of maximum stress occurring during the bending test of the implanted functional unit for different positions of the device rod. Experience and conclusions developed from the carried out research will be the basis for further studies. Keywords: modeling, numerical analysis, testing device, stabilization system.
1. INTRODUCTION
Generally, the experimental testing of a biomechanical structure, including the spinal column or some of its segments implies many issues, thus a computer simulation approach is far more reliable. In order to perform a computer simulation, a realistic 3D virtual model has to be developed. On whether the vertebral segment mobility is missing or restored, two categories of implants are known in literature: stabilization devices (placed either exteriorly or inter-body) and preserving motion devices (total disc replacements or interspinous spacers) [1]. Lumbar stabilization implants placed onto the spine are considered temporary devices because their function stops once fusion occurs, and thus the implants may be retracted (as explants) or not, depending on the case. The role of the stabilization implants is to help restore and maintain normal alignment of the lumbar spine and to keep the spine fixed (stable) during the fusion process [2]. Lumbar inter-body implants are devices used by surgeons to decompress and stabilize the spine. Decompression consists in surgically removing tissues pushing or pinching a nerve while spinal stabilization involves fusing two or more vertebrae together. Such devices, combined with bone graft, restrict all the movement between vertebral bodies [2]. Regarding the biomechanics of lumbar spine, during any type of movement, ligaments, groups of muscles, intraabdominal pressure and body weight determine forces and torques influencing the motion between vertebrae and discs. It is very difficult to determine the exact amount of load bearing the lumbar segment, neither the corresponding forces and torques [3], [4], [5], [6], [7]. Study of biomechanical behavior of the lumbar spine, implanted or not, can be theoretically or experimentally performed, or as a comparison of the results obtained by both methods. Experimental biomechanical studies of the spine can be divided into three different categories with increasing complexity and clinical utility: strength tests, resistance tests, and stability tests. In order to accomplish an experimental study, certain devices are necessary to mount the analyzed system on the testing machine. The evaluation of stresses and strains distribution occurring in a real solid object can prevent the unexpected mechanical behavior changes or failure. Because an in vivo experimental analysis of the behavior of human spine, implanted or not, involves many issues, a virtual simulation of the mechanical behavior is more accessible. In order to do this, the solid models of the anatomical spine segment and the mechanical stabilization system must be developed.
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To determine the stresses and strains acting on the bone plate and the testing device the Finite Element Method (FEM) was used. The Finite Element Analysis (FEA) of the anatomical systems, normal or implanted, is a current concern in medical engineering field. The most works are focused in a global evaluation of the anatomical systems under the loads [8], [9], [10]. The work presented in this paper is focused on evaluation of the local effect induced by the loads on the testing device. In order to study the biomechanical behavior of the implanted spine functional unit, the obtained 3D model can be used for performing a numerical analysis.
2. MODELING OF THE TESTING DEVICE

The geometrical modeling of the elements involved in this study covers two different aspects: anatomical elements modeling and mechanical elements modeling (device and stabilization system). The presented study is focused on the geometrical modeling of the testing device. To achieve this task Feature Based Design modules of the SolidEdge V19 CAD environment were used [11]. Some of the operations used during modeling process are: Protrusion, Cutout, Hole, Round, etc. Generally, the testing device consists in (figure 1): one superior (1) and one inferior module (2), each of them being composed of two plates, one having a T channel (figure 1.a and figure 1.d (1.a), (2.b)), which allows the load transmission trough a special rod (figure 1.c and figure 1.d (3)), and the second one (figure 1.c and figure 1.d (1.b), (2.a)), which allows the vertebra placement (figure 1.d (5.a), (5.b)). The two plates of the module are fixed together with four screws (figure 1.d (4)). The stabilization system consists in one implant plate (figure 1.d (6)) and four fixing screws (figure 1.d (7)). The exploded view of the testing device is presented in figure 1.e. The special rods fulfill two roles: fixing into the testing machine parts to apply tensile or compression loads and locking of the T-piece in a certain position. The modeling of the stabilization system (bone plate and bone screws) was realized in previous studies. In order to constrain the assembly, between each component were declared various types of mates: coincidence, parallelism, distance, tangency, concentricity, planar alignment, axial alignment, and perpendicularity. The result is a CAD file that can be exported as a .sat file, into the FEA software.
3. NUMERICAL ANALYSIS OF THE TESTING DEVICE

The objective of this numerical analysis was to determine areas of maximum stress occurring during the bending test of the implanted functional unit. The bending load results by applying tensile or compression forces on different positions of the rod. Depending on the results obtained by numerical analysis for different positions of the rod, a comparison is performed, resulting the most favorable one. In order to evaluate the mechanical behavior of the testing device, static structural module of the ANSYS Workbench 11.0 software was used. The studies were performed individual for each position of the special rod, by following the same steps and same loading and fixing conditions. The results of tensile and compression tests have been analyzed for three positions of the rods (figure 2) [12]. The performed analysis has been considered the vertebrae modeled as two rectangular components, having the material characteristics of the bone. The analysis starts by importing the CAD model and declaring the material properties for each element of the assembly. The chosen materials are: cortical bone for the vertebral bodies; titanium for the fixation screws and implant plate; steel for the rest of the components. The explicit properties of the materials used in the analysis are presented in table 1. All the material properties were chosen from Ansys module. The properties presented in table 1 are essential and sufficient for this type of evaluation. Having the first step of the analysis (allocation of the material properties) completed, the mechanical connections between the assemblys elements, were manually declared. There were considered a fixed support and tensile/compression load (figure 3). The contact establishment was followed by the mesh structure generation (figure 4). This was automatically generated using tetrahedron elements of different sizes: 23 active solids, 39355 nodes, 15810 elements, and rafinement factor 2.
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a) Plate with T channel 3 4 5.a
b) Plate for vertebra placement
c) Special rod for load transmission 1 1.a 1.b 2 2.a 2.b
5.b 6 7
d) General view of the testing device
e) Exploded view of the testing device Figure 1: Testing device. Components and general views.
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a) Position 1
b) Position 2 Figure 2: Positions of the rods Table 1: Material properties
c) Position 3
Properties Material Titanium Steel Cortical bone
Youngs modulus [MPa] 96000 193000 8000
Poisson Ratio [-] 0.36 0.31 0.34
Density [kg/mm3] 4.62x10-6 7.75x10-6 6 10-7
Tensile Yield Strength [MPa] 930 207 100
Compression Yield Strength [MPa] 930 207 40
a) Fixed support b) Tension 35N c) Compression 50N Figure 3: Fixed support and loads acting on the structure
Figure 4: Mesh of the assembly Based on numerical analysis, the stress and deformation distributions in testing device structure were determined [12]. As example, in the following figures are presented the FEA results for fixation in Position 1. Thus, the following figures illustrate: figure 5 - total deformation both for tensile and compression tests; figures 6, 7 and 8 - deformations on X, Y, and Z axis; figure 9 - equivalent stress; figure 10 - maximum principal stress;
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figure 11 - middle principal stress; figure 12 - minimum principal stress; figure 13 - normal stress; figure 14 - shear stress.
a) Compression Figure 5: Total deformation
b) Tensile
a) Compression
b) Tensile Figure 6: Deformation on X axis
a) Compression Figure 7: Deformation on Y axis
b) Tensile
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a) Compression
b) Tensile Figure 8: Deformation on Z axis
a) Compression Figure 9: Equivalent stress
b) Tensile
a) Compression
b) Tensile Figure 10: Maximum principal stress
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a) Compression
b) Tensile Figure 11: Middle principal stress
a) Compression Figure 12: Minimum principal stress
b) Tensile
a) Compression Figure 13: Normal stress
b) Tensile
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a) Compression Figure 14: Shear stress
b) Tensile
The main results of the FEA are presented in the following table (table 2), separately for the two tests and positions of the special rod. Table 2: Results of the bending test Deformation [m] Total deformation Type [m] X axis Y axis Z axis Results: maximum values compression test 1.1403e-004 7.4213e-006 5.0286e-005 1.0939e-004 Position 1 tensile test 7.9807e-005 9.5493e-008 3.5249e-005 1.999e-005 compression test 2.4955e-004 8.6418e-007 1.0692e-004 1.5049e-005 Position 2 tensile test 1.7468e-004 3.6808e-006 4.405e-005 1.6985e-004 compression test 3.2823e-005 3.6051e-008 1.8418e-005 1.5087e-005 Position 3 tensile test 2.2976e-005 8.4688e-007 7.8223e-006 2.1842e-005
Equivalent stress [Pa] 7.7332e+007 5.4121e+007 1.408e+008 9.8557e+007 2.7479e+007 1.9236e+007
4. CONCLUSIONS
The geometrical modeling of the testing device das not involves special issues. This first constructive solution of the testing device is a simple one, designed to validate the experiments. Further studies will develop a more realistic model of the functional unit of the lumbar vertebrae. A comparison of the FEA results is presented in tables 3 and 4. In table 3 is presented a comparison of the deformations and equivalent stress as function of positioning for the compression test. The total deformation diagram (table 3.a) shows that there is an increase of the compression into the farthest area of the implant plate. The deformation corresponding to Position 1 have mean value, the lowest value corresponds to Position 3, where the rod is in line with the implant plate. In case of deformations on X axis (table 3.b), the greatest value can be observed for Position 1. In this case, the plates tend to rotate and slide between them. The compression das not affect the plates in Position 2 and 3 (end positions). The results for the deformations on Y axis are similar to total deformation case (table 3.c). The maximum values of the equivalent stress are obtained in the case of Position 2, when the rod is situated at a farthest distance from the implant plate (table 3.d). The total deformation diagram (table 4.a) shows that there is an increase of deformation in the farthest area of the implant plate, corresponding to Position 2. The lowest values of total deformation correspond to Position 1. The deformations on X axis corresponding to Position 3 (table 4.b) have the lowest values, where the rod is close to the implant plate. Maximum values are obtained in Position 1, where the rod is almost in the device centre. Deformations on Y axis have greater values in Position 2 (table 4.c). The maximum values of the equivalent stress are obtained in the case of Position 2, when the rod is situated at a farthest distance from the implant plate (table 4.d).
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Table 3: Deformations and equivalent stress as function of positioning. Compression test
Total deformatio n max [m]
5,00E-04
0,00E+00 Position
1
a
3
b
Table 4: Deformations and equivalent stress as function of positioning. Tensile test
Deformation X axis max [m]
1,00E-05 5,00E-06 1 2 3
0,00E+00 Position
Experience and conclusions developed from the carried out research will be the basis for further studies that will follow: optimization of the testing device, both as constructive solution (e.g. the superior rod where the system is activated could allow rotation which will be composed with any other mentioned axial movement), and materials; design of other systems to stabilize the lumbar and cervical spine functional units; manufacturing of the testing device; other numerical analysis and experimental tests, taking into account all of the possibilities of motion in intervertebral joints.
REFERENCES
[1] Saftescu-Jescu, C., Toth-Tascau, M., Bereteu, L.: Doctoral studies in stabilization and arthroplasty of lumbar spine, 3rd International Conference Technics and Informatics in Education, TIO 2010, Cacak, 7-9 May, 2010, pp. 293-297. [2] spineuniverse Available on Web site: http://www.spineuniverse.com/, Accessed: 2010-07-26. [3] Panjabi, M., White, I.A.: Biomechanics in the Musculoskeletal System, Churchill Livingstone Inc, 2001. [4] Robertson, G., Robertson, D.D.E., Caldwell, G.: Research Methods in Biomechanics, Human Kinetics Publishers, 2004.
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[5] Brinckmann, P., Frobin, W., Leivseth, G.: Musculoskeletal Biomechanics, Georg Thieme Verlag, Stuttgart, 2002. [6] Kurtz, S.M., Edidin, A.: Spine Technology Handbook, Academic Press, First Edition, 2006. [7] Benzel, E.C.: Biomechanics of the Spine Stabilization, Thieme USA, 2001. [8] Ern, A., Guermond, J.L.: Theory and Practice of Finite Elements, Springer Publisher, 2004. [9] Thacker, B.H., Nicolella, D.P., Kumaresan, S., Yoganandan, N., Pintar, F.A.: Probabilistic Finite Element Analysis of the Cervical Spine, Math. Modeling and Science Computing, Vol. 13, No. 1-2, 2001, pp.12-21. [10] ANSYS Structural Analysis Guide, ANSYS Inc., SAS IP, 2004, pp.26-35, 185-194. [11] Benhabib, B.: Manufacturing-Design, Production, Automation and Integration, Marcel Dekker, Inc. 2003, pp.112-122. [12] Viiciuc, N.: Modeling and Analysis of a Device for Testing of Lumbar Spine Stabilization Systems, Diploma project, Politehnica University of Timisoara. 2010.
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RaDMI 2010
THEORETICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH ABOUT THE WIRE ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING OF THE ACTIVE PARTS OF MOULDS
Traian Buido1, Mircea-Petru Ursu2
University of Oradea, Managerial and Technological Engineering Faculty, Oradea, ROMANIA, 1 e-mail: tbuidos@yahoo.com, 2 e-mail: mpursu1965@yahoo.com
Summary: the paper presents theoretical and experimental research concerning the use of wire electrical discharge machining for making the mould active parts; also, a case study and the technological itinerary for the realization of a punching mould are presented; the paper is based on the authors experience in the field of design and making of plastic mass injection moulds and punching moulds. Keywords: mould, electrical discharge machining, wire electrode, active plate, die.
1. INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, the electrical discharge machining (EDM) is successfully used in almost all industrial branches for working of hard and extra-hard materials, as a result of the modern trends of using warm and cold pressing moulds, plastic mass moulds, wiredrawing dies, metal carbide chipping tools etc. By EDM, one can make simple and complex holes, straight, polygonal, curved, cone-shaped etc., with working accuracy better than 3 m, complex-shaped moulds, in an interval 4 6 times shorter than by means of classical procedures. Also, one can saw materials with fine and accurate cuts, and this is why EDM is used for working of precision slots. Lately, the wire EDM cutting is widely used for cutting of punch plates and dies, burr-removing moulds, profiled knives etc. The cutting can be achieved with very high accuracy, at least 2 m, for the most complex shapes, on programmable numerical command machines. The cut width depends on the wire diameter, which can be chosen in such manner that, after the cutting of the plate, the resulted part should be the die itself. This procedure is used mainly for small and complex-shaped parts. A special application of this technique consists of the realization of moulds and punches for electrical micro-motors cores. There are more possibilities for making the mould active parts, for which one can use the wire EDM or the massive electrode EDM as they are or combined with working on NC milling machines. Some common cases are shown next. Case 1: working of inner cylindrical through-holes (figure 1) The worked material quantity is: a maximal, equal to the volume of the worked bore; the entire volume of the bore turns into waste microparticles, which are removed by means of the dielectric fluid flux; b, c smaller, which depends on the wall thickness of the pipe that is used to perform the EDM; some of the bore volume is turned partially into waste micro-particles and partially into waste macro-particles, and the ratio depends on the wall thickness of the pipe of which the tool-electrode is made of; d very small, because the wire-electrode has diameters of 0.18 0.2 mm; as in the previous case, micro- and macro-particles are obtained, but their ratio is obviously different, due to the much smaller diameter of the wire.
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By comparing these four working possibilities, it results that the used energy is smaller when less material is removed. So the wire EDM is optimal.
a-with massive electrode; b, c-with tubular massive electrode; d-with wire electrode Figure1: Possibilities for EDM Case 2: working of complex through-hole surfaces (figure 2)
b c a-milling; b-massive electrode EDM; c-wire EDM Figure 2: Working of complex through-hole surfaces
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Figure 2.a shows the working by means of a cylindrical-frontal mill on a NC milling machine, which makes the coarse grinding. The finishing operation will be made by means of massive electrode EDM (figure 2.b). Figure 2.c shows the wire EDM. In this case also, the optimal working is achieved by wire EDM. Case 3: working of blind-end complex surfaces (figure 3)
b a-by milling; b-by EDM Figure 3: Working of blind-end complex surfaces No wire electrode can be used in this case. In order to increase productivity and because of the complex surface, only the coarse grinding may be achieved by milling, but the finishing is made by massive electrode EDM. This procedure is often used in the working of plastic mass injection moulds active parts.
2. PRINCIPLE OF WIRE EDM AND USAGE POSSIBILITIES

Because of the increase in the parts complexity, the programmable NC wire EDM installations are built and used. These can be classified as follows: programmable NC EDM installations for working of complex shapes (bores, profiled cavities etc); programmable NC EDM installations for cutting (punch plates, cams, gears etc).
Figure 4: Working principle of wire EDM installation First were made wire-cutting machines with templates, which had the shapes of the parts to be made, and the tracking was achieved by: direct tracking, when the wire-electrode follows the template contour;
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indirect tracking, when the template contour is followed by a sensing head, and the movement is transmitted to the part fixing device by means of a pantograph-type device. These methods yield low quality and working precision, which require further adjusting operations. Numerous wire EDM installations are made by renowned companies: Charmilles, Agie, Ona etc. These machines can perform movements on 5 axes: the inferior head on X and Y, and the superior head on U, V and Z (figure 4). The wire can be tilted by means of special devices, thus tilted cuts or different profiles from top to bottom become possible. The wire diameter is very important for the accuracy of working on programmable NC machines. The wire has 0.05 0.2 mm in diameter, and it is made of wolfram, copper or molybdenum. Figure 5 shows various possibilities for working complex parts, with straight or tilted wire.
Figure 5: Possibilities for wire EDM Lately, these devices were improved, in connection to the rapid development of NC machines, which led to increase of precision and efficiency. Nowadays, these machines are fitted with wire electrodes with calibrated small diameters (0.002 0.3 mm) and length as large as possible (7000 12000 m), made of copper, wolfram or molybdenum, which rolls continuously between two wire driving rollers. When the cutting wire has completely unrolled from the upper reel to the inferior reel, the two reels are switched and the cutting process continues. Distilled water is used as dielectric, which might decrease the machining efficiency because it tends to ionize in the working area, and this is why these machines are fitted with water de-ionization devices.
3. CASE STUDY CONCERNING THE TECHNOLOGY OF WIRE EDM REALIZATION FOR THE ACTIVE PART OF A MOULD
The given part is shown figure 6. First a technological bore is drilled, and then a thermal treatment is applied. This technological bore is drilled into an unused portion of the final part (on the cut part), and the cutting EDM wire is introduced through it. The machining parameters are set according to the ROBOFIL handbook and to the notions above mentioned. When working different parts by means of EDM, the setting of the parameters is achieved according to each particular case, taking into account the diameter of the wire-electrode and the dimensions of the part to be done (height, material). The tensile force P of the wire-electrode is set according to its diameter. After choosing the diameter of the wireelectrode diameter to be used, the other working parameters are set: capacity of the discharge circuit, wire winding speed, working voltage and current. Once the working parameters are set, according to the wireelectrode diameter and the part thickness, the characteristic elements of the cutting process result: the cutting capacity Vs [mm2/min], cut width S [mm], maximum roughness of the worked surface Rmax [m].
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Figure 6: Part made by wire EDM Working parameters The wire-electrode diameter is chosen according to the admissible rounding radius (table1) and then it is checked if it complies with the corresponding values for the part height (table 2). Table 1: Admissible rounding radius according to the wire diameter Admissible rounding radius Wire diameter ra [mm] d [mm] > 0.12 0.20 0.08 - 0.16 0.15 0.06 - 0.12 0.10 0.04 - 0.08 0.08 0.03 - 0.06 0.05 Table 2: Material thickness according to the wire diameter Material thickness Wire diameter H [mm] d [mm] <2 0.05 24 0.08 4 10 0.10 10 20 0.15 20 80 0.20 80 400 0.25 It is recommended to use the maximum possible wire diameter for each part to be made, because the cutting capacity depends on the wire diameter. In practice, in order to avoid frequent changes of the wire, it is recommended to use a single 0.2mm diameter wire-electrode. The tensile force is chosen according to the material of the wire-electrode (hard copper or soft copper) and to the chosen diameters (figure 7).
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1-hard copper; 2-soft copper Figure 7: Tensile force P versus wire-electrode diameter d In order to obtain a better dimensional precision, it is recommended that the wire tensile force should be as high as possible. However, this parameter is limited by the wire mechanical strength. The capacity of the discharge circuit is set according to diameter of the wire-electrode and to the material to be worked, and its rough guide values are shown in table 3. These combinations yield a large capacity of material removal, corresponding to a certain roughness of the resulted surface. The attainment of a better roughness implies the decrease of the capacity, but also of the working efficiency. Thus, the optimal value of the capacity is set always by means of test cuts. Table 3: Capacity of the discharge circuit according to the wire diameter Material to be worked Capacity of the discharge circuit C [nF] steel 2 - 6 6 - 10 10 - 25 25 - 50 75 - 100 100 - 120 metal carbides 30 - 40 45 - 60 70 - 90 Wire-electrode diameter d [mm] 0.05 0.08 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
120 - 130 0.30
The electrode rolling speed vr is proportional to the thickness of the worked part, up to 20mm (figure 8)
Figure 8: The electrode rolling speed vr versus the thickness of the worked part h For thickness greater than 20 mm, the rolling speed is determined experimentally, by means of test cuts: on a test part is performed a test cut, with maximum rolling speed, and the diameter of the worn-out wire is measured; then the rolling speed is reduced until the diameter of the worn-out wire is 10% smaller than the initial value. At lower rolling speed, the same wire portion is submitted to a larger number of discharges, so its wearing increases and its mechanical strength decreases considerably. Also, at very high rolling speed, the stability of the machining and the slot accuracy decrease. For different materials, the choice of the rolling speed is made according to a diagram similar to the one that is presented in figure 9. The working voltage is constant and automatically maintained around a medium value of U = 200 V at the ROBOFIL machines. The working current I is set according to the thickness and material of the part and to the diameter of the wireelectrode, so that a certain roughness of the worked surface is obtained. The current determines directly the frequency of the discharges, so it influences the working efficiency. The increase of the working current is limited by the wired diameter, and its optimal values are set also by test cuts. When the part has variable thickness, then the current value for the medium thickness must be determined. If at the minimum thickness of the part the wire breaks, then the current knob must be backed with at least one unit. The values of the working current for various materials are chosen from diagrams as the ones shown in figure 10.
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a b a-wire-electrode of copper; part-electrode of steel; b- wire-electrode of copper, part-electrode of metal carbides Figure 9: Choice of the rolling speed according to the material to be worked
a b a-wire-electrode of copper; part-electrode of steel; b-wire-electrode of copper, part-electrode of metal carbides Figure 10: Choice of working current according to the material to be worked The cutting capacity is the surface cut on the part contour in time unit, according to the material to be worked:
Vs =
S mm 2 /min tp
(1)
where Vs is the cutting capacity, S the cut surface on the part contour [mm2] and tp is the working time [min]. Some rough guide values are shown in figure 11.
a b a-wire-electrode of copper; part-electrode of steel; b-wire-electrode of copper, part-electrode of metal carbides Figure 11: Cutting capacity according to the material to be worked The cut width S is determined according to the wire-electrode diameter, and it is equal to this diameter plus twice the lateral interstice sl (figure 12) S = d + 2 sl mm .
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Figure 12: The cut width The working interstice is influenced directly by the electric conductibility of the dielectric (water), which is recommended to be of 12 25 S/cm in the case of steel and metal carbide working, and of 12 20 S/cm in the case of non-ferrous metals working (Cu, Al). The worked surface of the part contour, cut by means of wire EDM, is clean and does not feature the usual signs of the chipping. The unsatisfactory aspect of the surfaces is caused by faults during machining, such as insufficient dielectric washing of the work zone, wire breaking, great wear of wire guiding rollers, wrong setting of the wire versus the work table, as well as the wrong setting of the electro-technological parameters. The maximum roughness of the cut surface depends on: the capacity of the discharge circuit, the working current and the material of the part to be worked. Currently, roughness values of Ra = 1.6 - 3 m are obtained by wire EDM. As other working characteristics, the surface roughness is set according to experimental diagrams, to part thickness and to the diameter of the wire-electrode. Such diagrams are shown in figure13.
a b a-wire-electrode of copper; part-electrode of steel; b-wire-electrode of copper, part-electrode of metal carbides Figure 13: Roughness of worked surface The correlation betwen values Rmax i Ra (written on the execution drawing) is shown in table 4: Ra [m] Rmax [m] 0.2 1 - 1.6 0.315 1.6 - 2.5 Table 4: 0.5 0.8 2.5 - 4 4 - 6.3 1.25 6.3 - 10 2 10 - 16 3.15 16 - 25
After all previous mentioned conditions are met, the program is realized and the execution of the part is launched, which can be made automatically or semi-automatically. Next are shown some lines of the program used for the part shown in figure 6, made on ROBOFIL500 machine. % O1501 (pxy_1.0) N1 G77 P0 N2 G92 X0 Y0 N3 G90 N4 M15 P1 N5 G00 X0. Y-49.7 N6 M00 N7 Z64. N8 G11 W1 I25 K6 Z37 E2 P1 N9 G92 I-58. J58. N10 S1 N11 G01 G42 G52 T1. D0 X0. Y-52.7 N12 X-3.5 N13 G02 X-5.5 Y-50.7 I0. J2. .......................................... N258 G00 Z78. N259 S102 N260 G01 G42 D0 X-4. Y0. N261 G02 X-4. Y0. I4. J0. N262 G00 G40 X0. N263 G00 Z263. N264 M30 %
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Figure 14 shows the active plate, after wire EDM.
Figure 14: The realized active plate. If a 0.1mm wire is used, the detached part may be used as die. Figure 15 shows the die made by wire EDM.
Figure 15: Die made by wire EDM. These two parts can be used separately or together (figure 16), when the clearance between the plate and die allows.
4. CONCLUSION
The wire EDM of active plates of punches and moulds is more and more used, due to its advantages concerning the working precision and the quality of the worked surfaces. The use of brass or wolfram wire with diameter under 0.1mm allows the attainment of both the active part and the die from the same plate, when this is allowed by the clearance mentioned in the project. Another advantage of wire EDM consists of the possibility of cone-shaped cuts in order to obtain cutting surfaces slightly cone-shaped instead of a prismatic one, in order to ensure the back rake angle for moulds and for tools.
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Figure 16: Plate and die, made by wire EDM
REFERENCES
[1] Buido T.: Echipamente i tehnologii pentru prelucrri neconvenionale, Editura Universitii din Oradea 2006, ISBN (10) 973-759-096-1; [2] Buido T., Cercetri i contribuii privind optimizarea tehnologiei de prelucrare prin eroziune electric a matrielor de injectat materiale termioplastice, tez doctorat, Universitatea din Oradea 2004; [3] Buido T., Mihil t., Research regarding realization a complex profile die by electric erosion, International Conference Tools 2002 , 11.04.2002, Kocovce - Slovak Republic, ISBN 80-227-1683-9, pag.87 89; [4] Gavrila I., Marinescu N.I., Prelucrri neconvenionale n construcia de maini, vol.I, Ed. Tehnic Bucureti 1991; [5] Mihil I., Tehnologii neconvenionale, Ed. Imprimeriei de Vest Oradea 2003; [6] Nanu A., Tratat de tehnologii neconvenionale, vol.I, Editura Augusta 2003; [7] Obaciu Gh., Sisteme i tehnologii pentru prelucrarea prin eroziune electric, Universitatea din Braov 2000; [8] Sltineanu L., Tehnologii neconvenionale n construcia de maini, Editura Tehnic INFO, Chiinu 2000; [9] *** , Crile tehnice ale mainilor ROBOFIL500 i 510, AGIE.
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RaDMI 2010
CHANGEABILITY AS A BASIC WORKING LOAD CHARACTERISTIC OF MACHINES FOR MECHANIZATION

Sran M. Bonjak, Nenad . Zrni, Vlada M. Gai, Zoran D. Petkovi
University in Belgrade Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade, SERBIA, e-mail: sbosnjak@mas.bg.ac.rs, e-mail: nzrnic@mas.bg.ac.rs
Summary: This paper discusses the problems of identifying external loads of machines for mechanization. External load are dominantly dynamic with distinguished stochasticity in certain cases. The paper presents the procedures for determing external loads caused by resistance-to-excavation (for bucket wheel excavators) or grabbing soil (for bridge-type coal stacker-reclaimers), as well as moving load (for mega container cranes). In addition, it is given a short review of models based on which are defined the responses of considered class of machines to external changeable load. It is point to the significance of the problem of identifying external load, as well as to potentially very detrimental and dangerous consequences of eventual shorthomings during its solving. Keywords: bucket wheel excavator, bridge - type chain reclaimers, mega container cranes, mobile elevating work platforms, working load and response analysis.
1. INTRODUCTION
Machines for mechanization (in some countries this term is associated to transport material handling and conveying machines, as well as to construction and mining machines) have found extremely wide application in almost all areas of human activities, Figure 1. Very different technological requirements and working conditions caused the great variety of working devices and their kinematics. However, regardless of the differences, almost all considered machines from this class of equipment are exposed to the effects of working load whose basic characteristic is changeability of intensity and/or position relative to support structure of machine.
(a) bucket wheel excavator
(b) bridge - type chain stacker-reclaimer
(c) mega container crane (d) mobile elevating work platform Figure 1: Typical representatives of some classes of machines for mechanization
58
The expressed facts point to the exceptional importance of identifying external load itself, as well as the response of considered machines or its subsystems. This creates a basis for avoiding failure and serious accidents, Figure 2, which are unfortunately often and perhaps inevitable going together to the natural tendency for constant improvement of performances of machines and systems in general [1-10]. Losses caused by machine downtime i.e. the system as a whole, may exceed direct material damage several times [11,12]. Because of that, in the following sections are presented some examples of modeling external loads and identification of the response of some characteristic types of machines for mechanization, which is the basis for avoiding so-called designing-in defects [13].
(a) bucket wheel excavator SchRs 1760 [1]
(b) bucket wheel excavator KWK-1400 [2]
(c) bucketwheel stacker reclaimer [6] (d) stacker-cum-reclaimer [7] Figure 2: Some failures of machines for mechanization
2. CASE 1: BUCKET WHEEL EXCAVATORS (BWE)

Changeability of number of buckets to catch the soil, Figure 3, table 1, is the main cause of changeability of external load caused by resistance-to-excavtion. The in-house developed software RADBAG [14,15], was applied in order to analyze external load (f), figure 4, and determine its dynamic characteristic during redesign bucket wheel of the excavator SchRs 350/5x12 (which included the change in total number of buckets: instead nB = 8 for original , nB = 10 for the redesigned bucket wheel): Coefficient of nonuniformity f k N = max (1) f min Coefficient of dynamism f max . kD = 2 (2) f max + f min Three characteristic cases were analyzed: Redesigned excavating device, number of bucket discharges nD = 82 min-1, case 1; Existing excavating device, number of bucket discharges nD = 72 min-1, case 2, figure 4; Existing excavating device, number of bucket discharges nD = 48 min-1, case 3. Data of coordinates of the principal vector and principal moment, as well as data of the external load first mode frequency (f1=nD/60), for the listed cases, are given in table 2. Based on the presented data, it is conclusive: Coefficient of nonuniformity of the external load for the redesigned device is 20 % lower than for the existing excavation device; Coefficient of dynamism of the external load for the redesigned device is 18 % lower than for the existing excavation device; External load first mode frequency is higher for the redesigned excavating device (70 % in relation to existing device for nD = 48 min-1 and 13 % in relation to existing device for nD = 72 min-1). Therefore, applying the redesigned excavating device gives more favourable external loading.
59
(a) nBE = 6
(b) nBE = 5
(c) diagram of change Figure 3: Changeability of number of buckets to catch the soil when hE = 0.5xdBW Table 1: Defining the current number of buckets in catch with the soil Parameter Designation Formula * DBW Bucket wheel diamter Total number of buckets Angular speed of bucket wheel Pit face height Bucket pitch angle Pit face angle Average number of buckets in catch with the soil Minimum number of buckets in catch with the soil Maximum number of buckets in catch with the soil Angle of bucket wheel rotation for t Number of buckets that entered in catch for time t Current number of buckets in catch with the soil *Input parameter
nB BW hE B
E
* * *
2 nB
nBE , av nBE ,min nBE ,max

n B
2hE arccos 1 D BW E B
int( nBE ,av ) nBE ,min + 1 BW t

int B
nBE
nBE ,max za n B B < E + n B nBE ,min B
nBE ,min za E + n B nBE ,min B < n B + 1 B
60
(a) vertical force Figure 4: External load coordinates Table 2: Characteristics of external load kN Maximum Minimum 314.2 175.0 1.80 -61.6 -106.5 1.73 -61.6 -106.5 1.73 248.6 110.6 2.25 -41.0 -86.5 2.11 428.5 192.5 2.23
(b) torque
Case 1 2 3
Load T [kNm] V [kN] T [kNm] V [kN] T [kNm] V [kN]
kD
f1 [Hz]
1.29 1.27 1.27 1.38 1.36 1.38
1.36 1.20 0.80
In addition to the changeability of number of buckets in catch with the soil the stochasticity of soil features (specific resistance-to-excavation) also affects the changeability of external load due to resistance-to-excavation, Figure 5. It, by its nature, does not have periodic character, so it does not pose a threat in terms of appearance of resonant state of structure or mechanisms of BWE.
Figure 5: Some realization of torque as stochastic process [16]
3. CASE 2: BRIDGE - TYPE CHAIN RECLAIMERS

Four bridge-type chain relclaimers with elevators, Figure 6, are the backbone in the system of coal delivery in thermal power plant Kolubara Veliki Crljeni. In some positions of reclaiming chain boom (RCB) occurr its undesirable dynamic behaviour, which caused relatively frequent delays. After set up the model of RCB structure and defining the excitation caused by coal grabbing its response for different positions is identified, Figure 7. Based on the analysis of results of extensive research, it was found that the main cause of poor response of RCB is relative closeness between its natural frquency and frequency of excitation, wich is indicated by the appearance of beating phenomenon which is evident in Figure 7(c). The solution of presented problem is achieved by correcting the counterweight mass.
61
Figure 6: Bridge-type coal stacker-reclaimer [17]

M=6000 kg
14
Mk3 [kNm]
Mk3 det. Mk3 stoch.
Lin ea rL ink
12 10 8
z
6
x m2 m2 m3=300 kg m2 m2 m2 m2 m2 m2 m2 m2 m2 m2 m2=100 kg FH MR FV m1=700 kg
4 2
t [s]
0 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8
(b) torque [18]
(c) response generalized coordinate
(a) dynamic model (d) response generalized accelerations Figure 7: Model, excitation and response of reclaiming chain boom
62
4. CASE 3: MEGA CONTAINER CRANES

The moving load problem is a fundamental problem in structural dynamics. In contrast to other dynamic loads these loads vary not only in magnitude but also in position. Applications of moving load problem have been presented in mechanical engineering studies for the past 30 years. Its solution requires appropriate modeling of the structure and a trolley. The application of moving load problem in cranes dynamics has obtained special attention on the engineering researchers in the last years, concerning mega container cranes [19, 20, 21, 22]. The basic approaches in trolley modeling are: the moving force model; the moving mass model and the trolley suspension model moving oscillator model. However, the examination of a model that is not a prototype of some real system is of little interest unless it produces some general conclusions, which can be applied to other, related configurations [23]. Also, the choice of an adequate model of the e.g. mega container crane should be determined by the particular problem being considered and must take into account the dynamic behavior of the container crane structure as a whole in order to enable suitable dynamic analysis of the single structural subsystem, e.g. the container crane boom as the largest structural system giving a cantilever nature to the whole system, as explained in [23].The investigated models can be dimensional [19, 20] and nondimensional [21, 22]. The model for a real construction of mega container crane is shown in Figure 8 [22]. Figure 9 [20] show the change of the deflection dynamic amplification factor (DAF) at the free end of the boom due to the motion of the moving mass [20]. The maximum obtained value of the deflection DAF is 1.137, i.e. it yields the absolute increase of 13.7 % in relation to the static deflection. This value could be compared with the recommended one given in various design codes and standards defining maximum wheel loads for calculation of the crane runway. For instance, the code AC-318 proposes the value of 1.4 (trolley and spreader) and 1.7 (lifted load) for the DAF. It is conclusive that the mentioned values recommended in design codes are too high, and they should be revised in order to be minimized [20]. Also, the values of acceleration of moving mass in vertical direction are presented in Figure 10 [19]. Maximum value of acceleration is obtained to be equal 0,0165g. It is interesting to analyze the possibility of occurrence of unacceptable boom vibration affecting crane operators. Vibrations acceptability depends on the frequency, magnitude and duration of the vibration. The value obtained in the paper belongs to the class of clearly appreciable accelerations, but still not disturbing or unpleasant for the crane operator [19].
Figure 8: Model of the mega container crane boom acted upon by the concentrated moving mass M [22]
63
Figure 9: Deflection DAF for the boom free-end

0.02g
0.01g
d y(x,t)/dt [m/s ]
2 2 2
0.00g
-0.01g
-0.02g
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
L [m]
Figure 10: Acceleration of moving load in vertical direction
5. CASE 4: MOBILE ELEVATING WORK PLATFORMS

Changes in load of mobile elevating work platforms (MEWP) occur during change of its geometric configuration [24], or under the action of changeable working load. The paper [25] pointed out the possibility of aerodynamic instability of MEWP structure, Figure 11. At the resonant states appearing in the case of excitation by Karman vortices, Figure 12, there is a secondary effect increasing the effective diameter of the body [26],
ar W' = W 1 + 1.54 W ,
3
(3)
Which leads to the selfincrease of amplitude for the same factor,
ar a ru = a r 1 + 1.54 W
(4)
where are ar resonant amplitude calculated under assumption that there is no effect of increasing the effective diameter; W cage width, i.e., effective diameter of the body under the fluid flow, Figure 12. This effect has selfrestricted character, because for the amplitudes larger than 0.3W aerodynamic force gets damping character. Selfincreased amplitudes, Figure 13, are calculated based on the data given in [25], for cage width W = 1.2 m, which means that the appearance of selfincreased amplitudes over aru ,max = 0.4 is not possible. Based on the researches presented in [25], it is established the real MEWP performance diagram for characteristic dimensions of cage, Figure 14. The fields of decreased performances are provoked by the
64
influences of galloping and Karman vortices. The results of the influences of galloping (zone of decreased performance) have been presented for the jib inclination angles 450 and 750, full turn of the cage (from -900 up to 900), and for two dimensions of cage (1.5 m 1.5 m and 1.5 m 3 m). One can easily observe that exists appreciable influence of cage shape to the originating of self-excited vibrations and decreasing of performance. Merely by using active construction of MEWP is possible to achieve total performance of the service system in operating boundaries [27]. If MEWP is considered as an element of the complex service system (e.g. system for maintenance of energetic system of town), we should use Total Performance Design Procedure for optimization at different hierarchical levels. The basic idea of Total Performance Design (TPD) procedure is to coordinate methods of operation research, at the system level, and the methods of optimization at the component level. Specially, in the case when the standard components are capable to be modified (reengineering process) or where is reasonable to make a new design (construction) of the component. The TPD procedure has been developed by Zrni [27].
Figure 11: Karakteristini poloaji [25]
Figure 12: Dinamiki model [25]
(a) poloaj 1 (b) poloaj 2 Figure 13: Selfincreased resonant amplitudes: H cage height; K coefficient of structural damping
Figure 14: MEWP real performance diagram
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6. CONCLUSION
Machines for mechanization are exposed to external loads of various natures, dominantly having dynamic character. Identification of external load, as well as identification of response of considered machine presents an extremely important stage of design. Eventual shortcomings in this stage of design can lead, in extreme cases, to the complete collapse of machine. The collapse is always accompanied by very high financial losses and presents at the same time a potential serious risk to the workers safety and life [28]. In less drastic cases, such shortcomings result in: Failures of structural parts or mechanisms, i.e., direct as well as indirect costs due to the downtime that substantially diminishes the effects of machine exploitation, or Reducing the performances of machine in order to prevent the occurrence of unwanted effects of external load. Finally, one of the contemporary trends in the development of machines for mechanization is their automation or robotization. That is imposed by the necessity for a sophisticated analysis of their loads and dynamic behavior, in order to ensure their functionality and stability of motion in the circumstances of changeable features of the operating dynamic environment.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work is a contribution to the Ministry of Science and Technological Development of Serbia funded project TR 14052.
REFERENCES
[1] Bonjak, S.; Zrni, N.; Simonovi, A. & Momilovi, D.: Failure analysis of the end eye connection of the bucket wheel excavator portal tie-rod support, Engineering Failure Analysis, Vol. 16, No. 5 (2009), pp. 740750. ISSN 1350-6307. [2] Rusiski, E.; Czmochowski, J.; Iluk, A. & Kowalczyk, M.: An analysis of the causes of a BWE counterweight boom support fracture, Engineering Failure Analysis, Vol. 17, No. 1 (2010), pp. 179-191. ISSN 1350-6307. [3] Bonjak, S.; Petkovi, Z.; Zrni, N.; Simi, G. & Simonovi, A.: Cracks, repair and reconstruction of bucket wheel excavator slewing platform, Engineering Failure Analysis, Vol. 16, No. 5 (2009), pp. 1631-1642. ISSN 1350-6307. [4] Bonjak, S.; Petkovi, Z.; Zrni, N.; Panteli, M. & Obradovi, A.: Failure analysis and redesign of the bucket wheel excavator two-wheel bogie, Engineering Failure Analysis, Vol. 17, No. 2 (2010), pp. 473-485. ISSN 1350-6307. [5] Rusiski, E.; Harnatkiewicz, P.; Kowalczyk, M. & Moczko, P.: Examination of the causes of a bucket wheel fracture in a bucket wheel excavator, Engineering Failure Analysis, doi:10.1016/j.engfailanal.2010.03.004 . ISSN 1350-6307. [6] Araujo, L.S.; de Almeida, L.H. & Batista, E.M.: Analysis of a bucketwheel stacker reclaimer structural failure, In: Proceedings of the Conference Materials Science & Technology 2009, Charles R. Morin Memorial Symosium on Failure Analusis and Prevention, Pitsburgh, PA, USA, October 2529 2009. Organizing Societies: ACerS, AIST, ASM, TMS. Proceedings only on CD. http://matscitech.org [7] Ghosal, S.; Misra, D.; Saha, T.K.; Chakravorty, D. & Chaundhuri, B.: Failure analysis of stacker cum reclaimer in ore handling plant, J Fail Anal and Prev, Vol. 8, No. 2 (2008), pp. 564571. ISSN 1547-7029. [8] Hadianfard, M.J. & Hadianfard MA.: Structural failure of a telescopic shiploader during installation, J Fail Anal and Prev, Vol. 7, No. 1 (2007), pp. 282291. ISSN 1547-7029. [9] Bonjak, S.; Panteli, M.; Zrni, N.; Gnjatovi, N. & orevi, M.: In: Zbornik Abstrakata Fourth International Conference on Engineering Failure Analysis (ICEFA IV), Cambridge (Churchill College), UK, 4-7 July 2010. Edited by R. Clag. Elsevier, 2010. [10] Arsi, M.; Bonjak, S.; Zrni, N.; Sedmak, A. & Gnjatovi.: Bucket Wheel Failure Caused by Residual Stresses in Welded Joints, In: Proc. Of Abstracts Fourth International Conference on Engineering Failure Analysis (ICEFA IV), Cambridge (Churchill College), UK, 4-7 July 2010. Edited by R. Clag. Elsevier, 2010. [11] Dreyer, E.: Cost-effective prevention of equipment failure in the mining industry, Int J Press Vess Piping, Vol. 61, No 3 (1995), pp. 329-347. ISSN 0308-0161. [12] de Castro, P.M.S.T. & Fernandes AA.: Methodologies for failure analysis: a critical survey, Mater Design, Vol. 25, No 2 (2005), pp. 117123. ISSN 0261-3069.
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[13] Gagg CR.: Failure of components and products by engineered-in defects: Case studies, Engineering Failure Analysis, Vol. 12, No 8 (2005), pp. 10001026. ISSN 1350-6307. [14] Bonjak, S.; Zrni, N. & Petkovi, Z.: Numerical experimental analysis of structural strength of bucket wheel excavator revolving platform, In: Proceedings of Second International Conference on Material and Component Performance under Variable Amplitude Loading, Darmstadt, Germany, 23-26 March 2009. Edited by C. M. Sonsino and P. C. McKeighan. Berlin: German Association for Materials Research and Testing (DVM), 2009, pp. 1185-1193. ISBN 978-3-00-027049-9. [15] Bonjak, S.; Petkovi, Z.; Zrni, N.; Dragovi B. & Gnjatovi, N.: Comparative stress analysis The basis of efficient redesign of the bucket wheel excavators substructures, In: Proceedings of the 9th International Conference Research and Development in Mechanical Industry RaDMI 2009, Vrnjaka Banja, Serbia, 16-19 September 2009. Edited by P. Dai. Vrnjaka Banja: SaTCIP (Scientific and Technical Center for Intellectual Property) Ltd., 2009, pp. 15-25. ISBN 978-86-6075-007-7 [16] Bonjak, S.; Petkovi, Z.; Zrni, N. & Petri, S.: Mathematical modeling of dynamic processes of bucket wheel excavators, In: Proceedings of the 5th MATHMOD, Vienna, Austria, 7-10 February 2006. Edited by I. Troch and F. Breitenecker. Vienna: Institute for Analysis and Scientific Computation at Vienna University of Technology, 2006, pp. 4.1-4.10. ISBN 3-901608-30-3. [17] Bonjak, S.: Some of the problems on dynamics and strength of the high -performance machines (in Serbian), iipp, Vol. 8, No 1 (2010), pp. 1-12. ISSN 1451-4117. [18] Bonjak, S.; Gai, V. & Petkovi, Z.: Determination of resistances to coal reclaiming at bridge - type stacker reclaimer with bucket chain booms, FME Transactions, Vol. 33, No 2 (2005), pp. 79 88. ISSN 1451-2092. [19] Zrni, N., Oguamanam, D. & Bonjak, S.: Dynamics and Modelling of Mega Quayside Container Cranes, FME TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 34, No 4 (2006), pp. 193 198. ISSN 1451-2092. [20] Zrni, N., Hoffmann, K. & Bonjak, S.: Modelling Of Dynamic Interaction between Structure and Trolley for Mega Container Cranes, Mathematical and Computer Modelling of Dynamical Systems, Vol. 15, No 3, (2009), pp. 295-311. ISSN 1387-3954. [21] Zrni, N., Bonjak, S. & Hoffmann, K.: Application of non-dimensional models in dynamic structural analysis of cranes under moving concentrated load, In: Proceedings of the 6th MATHMOD, ARGESIM REPORT No. 35, edited by I. Troch and F. Breitenecker, ARGESIM Verlag/ASIM, Vienna, 2009, pp. 327336. ISBN 978-3-901608-35-3. [22] Zrni, N., Bonjak, S. & Hoffmann, K.: Parameter sensitivity analysis of non-dimensional models of quayside container cranes, Mathematical and Computer Modelling of Dynamical Systems, Vol. 16, No. 2, (2010), pp. 145-160, ISSN 1387-3954. [23] Zrni, N. & Bonjak, S.: Comments on Modeling of system dynamics of a slewing flexible beam with moving payload pendulum, Mechanics Research Communications, Vol. 35, No 8, (2008), pp. 622-624, ISSN 0093-6413. [24] Zrni, .; Bonjak, S. & Zrni, N.: On a kinematics, dynamics and strength of mobile elevating platform, M, Vol. XLVII, special issue (1998), pp. 64-69. ISSN 0025-455X [25] Bonjak, S.; Zrni, N. & Dragovi, B.: Dynamic Response of Mobile Elevating Work Platform under Wind Excitation, Strojniki vestnik - Journal of Mechanical Engineering, Vol. 55, No. 2 (2009), pp. 104-113. ISSN 00392480. [26] Sachs, P.: Wind forces in engineering, Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1978. [27] Zrni, .: Total performance design and active constructions, In: Proceedings of the XV ECPD International Conference on Material Handling and Warehousing, Belgrade, Serbia, 9-12 December 1998. Edited by Dj. Zrnic. Belgrade: University of Belgrade, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, 1998, pp. 1.31.6. ISBN 86-7083-334-4. [28] Wintle, J.B. & Pargeter, R.J.: Technical failure investigation of welded structures (or how to get the most out of failures), Engineering Failure Analysis, Vol. (12), No 8 (2005), pp. 10271037. ISSN 1350-6307.
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RaDMI 2010
PORT SEASIDE LINK AS FINITE WAITING SPACE BULK QUEUEING SYSTEMS

Maritime Faculty, Maritime Transport and Traffic Division, University of Montenegro, Kotor, MONTENEGRO, e-mail: branod@ac.me 2 School of Port and Logistics Management, Tongmyong University 535, Yongdang-dong, Nam-gu, Busan, REPUBLIC OF KOREA, e-mail: nkpark@tu.ac.kr 3 University in Belgrade Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade, SERBIA, e-mail: nzrnic@mas.bg.ac.rs
1
Branislav Dragovi1, Nam Kyu Park2, Romeo Metrovi1, Nenad Zrni3
Summary: This paper extends earlier work on the non-stationary queue length distribution of a batch arrival into the system with finite waiting area by considering multi channel queueing systems. This is Markovian type of finite, batch queue and whole batch acceptance. In this paper, analytical and computational methodologies, with the help of bulk queueing systems, to analyze and to plan berth requirements within sea and river ports, are developed and numerical results are presented. Keywords: batch arrival, multi channel bulk queueing systems, finite waiting space.
1. INTRODUCTION
The port system is considered as batch queuing system. In this case, customers are single vessels or barge tows, whereas the service channels are berths operating at the loading/unloading of cargo. The ports or, more precisely, the seaside links are considered as queueing models with batch arrivals, single service and limited queues at an anchorage. In the port the seaside link is assumed as follows: the applied queuing system is non-stationary and stationary, with finite waiting area at anchorage; the sources of arriving pattern are not integral parts of seaside link; the service channels are berths with similar or identical and independent cargo-handling capacities; the units arrivals can be single vessels and groups as barge tows (the arrival of service-seeking entities follows the Poisson distribution); all barge tows and single vessels at anchorage are waiting to be serviced; the service time (i.e., loading/unloading time) is a continuous random variable; the size of an arriving group is a random variable; the queue length or the number of waiting anchorage areas are finite and given; interarrival times, the batch sizes and service times are mutually independent. The following papers present only few examples which have been conducted to the determination of the system performances and optimal number and capacity of servers in different queueing systems within various points of view and in heterogeneous cases. A number of theoretical studies for infinite and finite, batch arrival queues have been performed ([3], [4], [7]-[9], [14], [15], [19]) with results of varying degrees of complexity. The analysis of the M / G / 1 /( N ) queue is given in Bagchi and Templeton [1]. They discussed bulk queueing system, incorporating the feature of batch arrivals with group service. Chaudhry and Gupta [5] presented the performance analysis of a discrete-time finite-buffer queue with batch input, general interarrival and geometric service times GI / Geom / 1 / N . The analysis M ( n) / G ( n) / 1 / K queue is given in Gupta and Srinivasa Rao [10]. In this model arrival rates are dependent on the number of customers already present in the system which are all distinct or all equal, and service times are conditioned on the system length at the moment of
X
(X ) (Y )
service initiation. Vijaya Laxmi and Gupta [20] proposed and analyzed GI / M / c / N queue through a combination of the supplementary variable and the embedded Markov chain techniques. They used the former technique to derive closed form relations between prearrival and arbitrary epoch probabilities and the latter one to obtain prearrival epoch probabilities. In this paper various performance measures are discussed and evaluated.
X
68
The analysis GI / MSP / 1 / N queue is given in [2]. They presented the analytic analysis of the model and obtain steady-state distribution at various epochs. This paper discussed and analysed a batch arrival finite buffer single server queue with inter-batch arrival times which are generally distributed and arrivals occur in batches of random size. The service process is correlated and its structure is presented through Markovian service process (MSP). The model is analyzed for two possible customer rejection strategies: partial batch rejection and total batch rejection policy. In [6] the blocking probability in a finitebuffer queue whose arrival process is given by the batch Markovian arrival process was investigated. The determination of system performances, operation parameters of system and optimum number and capacity of servers have been treated both theoretically and practically in many studies. All these studies refer to solve the problems, for example, in transportation ([11], [12], [17], [18], [21]-[24]) and communications [16]. This paper is organized as follows. Section 2 presents models formulation and analytical models applied to probabilities calculations with batch arrivals and finite waiting areas. Examples of numerical results are presented in Section 3. Also in this section, we report on different test results for analysis of the considered system. Section 4 concludes the paper.
X
2. MODELS
The port terminal has the n berths for the service. The mean cargo handling rate per berth is . Apart from the possible arrival of n vessels for service, there are m spaces in the waiting queue. Vessels arrive in batches according to a time-homogeneous Poisson process with mean arrival rate . The number of vessels X that arrive for service at the same time is a random variable with distribution given by ak = P( X = k ) , k 1 , (whereas k = number of vessels in group). The queue discipline is first come first served by tows batch and random within the tow batch. Apart from the possible arrival of n vessels for service, there are m spaces in the waiting queue. The number of vessels X that arrive for service at the same time is a random variable with distribution given by ak = P( X = k ) , k 1 , (whereas k = number of vessels in group) and mean E ( X ) = a . The interarrival times, the batch sizes and service times are mutually independent. The maximum number of vessels allowed in the system at any time is n + m . The service times of service batches (vessels) are If the group of vessels arriving in the system finds s vessels there, for the case where k (n + m ) s the independent of the arrival process and the number served. The traffic intensity of the system is
= a n .
whole group will be accepted and for the case where k > (n + m ) s the whole group would be rejected (This is called the whole batch acceptance model related to system (1)). In the case when group of k vessels arriving into the system, finds s vessels there, then if k (n + m ) s the whole group will be accepted. If
k > (n + m ) s , the system accepts any (n + m ) s vessels from the group, while the rest of k ((n + m ) s ) vessels will be rejected (This is the part batch acceptance model related to system (13)).
2.1. Whole batch acceptance model The state of the system for Model I should be determined by the number of vessels within the system and then the following equations are obtained for whole batch acceptance, system (1).
n+m p'0 (t ) = ai p0 (t ) + p1 (t ) i=1 M
r 1 n+mr p'r (t ) = ai + r pr (t ) + ark pk (t ) + (r + 1)pr+1 (t ), for all 1 r n 1 k =0 i=1 M n+r 1 mr p'n+r (t ) = ai + n pn+r (t ) + an+rk pk (t ) + npn+r+1 (t ), for all 0 r < m k =0 i=1 M
p'0 (t ) = (m + n)ap0 (t ) + p1(t ) M m+n p'r (t ) = ((n + m r)a + r) pr (t ) + a1 pk (t ) + (r +1)pr+1(t ), for all 1 r n 1 k=r M n+m p'n+r (t ) = ((m r)a + n) pn+r (t ) + a1 pk (t ) + npn+r+1(t ), for all 0 r < m; k=n+r M p'n+m (t ) = npn+m (t ) + a(1 pn+m (t ))
p'n+m (t ) = npn+m (t ) + an+mk pk (t )

k =0
n+m1
(1)
(2)
69
Suppose that X is an uniform random variable with a1 = a2 = ... = am + n = a . By using the normalized condition
n+m k =0
p (t ) = 1 and the previous assumptions, system (1) can be rewritten in the above form, system (2).
k
The above system (2) of n + m + 1 first-order linear differential equations can be solved recursively. Note that the last equation from (2) is p'n+m (t ) + pn+m (t )(n + a ) = a , (3) whose solution is
pn + m (t ) = Ce ( n + a ) t +
a n + a
(4)
with a real constant C. By substituting (4) into n + m' th equation of the system (2), we immediately obtain
Ci(n+m1) , i = 0, 1, 2, are real constants. It is easy by induction to prove that the last m equations of system (2) have the solutions in the form
where
( n+ ms ) ( n+ m s ) ( qa + n )t pn+ms (t ) = C0 + Cq e , for all s, 0 s m,
q =1 s +1
( n+m1) ( n+m1) ( 2 a + n )t pn+m1 (t ) = C0 + C1(n+m1)e (a+n )t + C2 e ,
(5)
(6)
where
( n + m 1) Ci(n + m 1) Cq , q = 1,..., s + 1 are real constants.
By replacing the expressions for
pk (t ) , k = n,..., n + m given by (6), in n' th equation of system (2), we get

m+1 k =1
( n1) ( n1) ( a ( m+ 2 )+( n1) )t pn1 (t ) = C0 + Cm + Ck(n1)e (ka+n )t . +2 e
(7)
In the same manner, we can prove by induction that

(n l ) ( n l ) (a ( m + j +1)+ ( n j ) )t pn l (t ) = C0 + Cm + Ck(n l )e (ak + n )t , for all l , 1 l n, +1+ j e
j =1 k =1 l m +1
(8)
for some real constants Ci
( nl )
, i = 0,1,..., m + l + 1 .
n m +1 k =1
Finally, for n = l , from (8), we have

(0 ) (0 ) ( a ( m+ j +1)+( n j ) )t p0 (t ) = C0 + Cm + Ck(0 )e (ak +n )t , +1+ j e
j =1
(9)
By replacing the initial values p0 (0 ) = 1 , pi (0 ) = 0 for i = 1,2,..., m + n , we can find all the constants
where Ck are real constants.
(l )
Ck( s ) and Ck(0 ) .
2.2. Solutions of systems (2) Using the above induction and normalized condition at zero, we can obtain the following recurrence relations between the coefficients Ci :
(m+n ) = C0
( j)
a a + n
. . .
(10)
( n s 1) ( n s 1) ( ns 1) Cm Cm +1+ s +1 = Ck +1+ k , for all s , 1 s n 2

k =0 k =1
m+1
(11)
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(0 ) (0 ) (0 ) Cm + n +1 = 1 Ck C m+1+ k
k =0 k =1
m +1
n 1
(12)
( j)
Using recurrence relations (10)(12), the MATLAB program is used to obtain the above coefficients Ci . 2.3. Part batch acceptance model Analogously, the state probabilities of the systems for Model II should be determined by the number of vessels within the system and hence the following system of differential equations for part batch acceptance model at t is as follows:
p '0 (t ) = p0 (t ) + p1 (t ) M p 'r (t ) = ( + r ) pr (t ) + ar k pk (t ) + (r + 1)pr +1 (t ), for 1 r n 1
k =0 r 1
Unfortunately, the system (13) related to the uniform random variable X (i.e. a1 = a2 = ... = am + n = a ) cannot be solved using recursive method. Hence, MATLAB program is used for solving the corresponding system (13).
M p 'n+ r (t ) = ( + n ) pn+ r (t ) + M p 'n+ m (t ) = npn+ m (t ) +

n + m 1 k =0 n + r 1 k =0
n+ r k
pk (t ) + npn+ r +1 (t ), for 0 r < m
1 a p (t )
i =1 i k
n + m k 1
(13)
2.4. Models analysis One of the complexities in the analysis of the model is nonstationary state of work of the systems. The analysis becomes further complicated in the case of multiserver queues as a port systems. Furthermore, there are two models in nonstationary state of work of the systems: the operation Model I and with whole batch acceptance the operation Model II with part batch acceptance. More details about these concepts may be found in ([11], [12]).
X X
These concepts are also known as M / M / n / ( ) and M / M / n / m models, respectively (see [11], [12], [17]). In this chapter, we consider the results of the stationary state of work of the system ( = const., = const., t
) in which vessels arrive according to Poisson process with rate , and service times of each of the n servers which are exponentially distributed with rate . Moreover, the number of ships which arrive for service at the same time is a random variable X with the distribution given by ak = P( X = k ) , k 1 . In the stationary state of work of the system (as t ), using the system of differential equations (1), the corresponding set of Chapman-Kolmogorov equations is obtained (14), while the system of differential equations (13) in the stationary state of work of the system (as t ) becomes (15):
n+m a i p 0 + p1 = 0 i =1 M r 1 n+ mr a i + r p r + a r k p k + (r + 1)p r +1 = 0, for 1 r n 1 k =0 i =1 M n + r 1 mr a i + n p n + r + a n + r k p k + np n + r +1 = 0, for 0 r < m k =0 i =1 M
p 0 + p1 = 0
M ( + r ) p r + a r k p k + (r + 1)p r +1 = 0, for 1 r n 1
k =0 r 1
M ( + n ) p n + r + M n p n + m +
n + m 1 k =0 n + r 1 k =0
n+r k
p k + np n + r +1 = 0, for 0 r < m
n p n + m +
n + m 1 k =0
a n+ mk p k = 0
(14)
1 a p
i =1 i
n + m 1
=0
(15)
3. COMPUTATIONAL RESULTS
In this section some performance measures are explained, such as the batch blocking probability for Models I n+ m n+m and II P = p a , the blocking probability of an arbitrary vessel for Model I PV(1) = 1 pk iai , B k i a k =0 i =n+mk +1 k =0 i =n + m k +1
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( 2) and the blocking probability of an arbitrary vessel for Model II P = V
1 n+m pk (i + k n m)ai . Recall a k =0 i =n+mk +1
that the all previous formulae except those on t w and
pk (t ) instead of pk ).
X
* are valid in the same forms for nonstationary state (with
In this section, some numerical examples are illustrated. The results of comparative analyses for Models I and II related to the M / M / 4 / 22 queue, are presented in graphical and numerical forms, respectively. All graphical and numerical results are obtained by using MATLAB program and C++.
Figs. 1 and 2 show the changes of the probabilities of the states of the described systems as a function of time (t = 050 h), and values = 0.2 and = 0.65 for the M X / M / 4 / 22 queue with a = 4 , and uniform distribution of X. In (1) the Figs. 3 and 4 the parameters on the seaside link of multiple server systems (PB, P and PV( 2 ) ) are presented, as a V function of time (t = 050 h), and values = 0.2 and = 0.65 for the M X / M / 2 / 12 queue with a = 4 , and uniform distribution of X . For the same input parameters Figs. 58 show performance curves for the M X / M / 4 / 22 queue as a function of traffic intensity. The probabilities of the states of the described systems depending on and values = 0.2 and = 0.65 for the M X / M / 4 / 22 queue with a = 4 , and uniform distribution of X are presented in (1) ( 2) Figs. 9 and 10, while Figs. 11 and 12 express PB , P and P as a function of [13]. V V
Fig. 1: pk as a function of t for Model I
Fig. 2: pk as a function of t for Model II
Fig. 3: PB as a function of t
Fig. 4:
PV(1) and PV( 2 ) as a function of t
Fig. 5: pk as a function of for Model I
Fig. 6: pk as a function of for Model II
Fig. 7: PB as a function of
(1) ( 2 ) as a function of Fig. 8: P and P V V
Fig. 9: pk as a function of for Model I
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Fig. 10: pk as a function of for Model II
Fig. 11: PB as a function of
(1) and Figure 12: P PV( 2 ) as a function of V
4. CONCLUSIONS
The analytical expressions obtained for the state probabilities of the system bring forth useful optimizations of the operating parameters of the anchorage-ship-berth link. Through these systems, i.e. multiple-server queueing models, the determination of the optimal working order is possible. In the same way, the optimum number of berths, berth efficiency and berth capacity are directly conditioned by the values of the basic operating parameters in the port. The decision about whether to apply Model I or Model II from the aspect of terminal operators ought to be made is accordance with economical analysis. The whole and part batch acceptance models provide performance indices for the given scenario, which are combined to form an evaluation measure. These models based on river port systems were presented and a significant improvement is demonstrated in the operational performance as a result of the M X / M / n / m queue. The M X / M / n / m queue with whole and part batch acceptance models as described has been shown to provide an effective means of evaluating performance parameters and operation of port system.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
A part of this work is a contribution to the Ministry of Science and Education of Montenegro funded project No. 05-1/3-3271.
REFERENCES
[1] Bagchi, T.P. and Templeton, J,G.C. (1973). Finite waiting space bulk queueing systems, Journal of Engineering Mathematics, 7(4), 313-317. [2] Banik, A.D., Gupta, U,C, (2007). Analyzing the finite buffer batch arrival queue under Markovian service process: GIX/MSP/1/N. TOP, 15(1), 146160. [3] Bharucha-Reid, A. T. (1960). Elements of the theory of Markov processes and their applications, MgGrawHill Book Company, New York. [4] Chaudhry, M. L., and Templeton, J. G. C. (1983). A First Course in Bulk Queues, John Wiley and Sons, New York. [5] Chaudhry, M.L., Gupta, U.C. (1998). Performance analysis of discrete-time finite-buffer batch-arrival GIX/Geom/1/N Queues. Discrete Event Dynamic Systems: Theory and Applications 8, 5570. [6] Chydzinski, A,, Winiarcz, R, (2008). On the blocking probability in batch Markovian arrival queues. Microprocessors and Microsystems 32, 4552. [7] Cohen, J.W., Boxma, J.O. (1983). Boundary value problems in queueing system analysis, North-Holland Mathematics Studies. [8] Cooper, B.R. (1981). Introduction to Queueing Theory, North - Holland, New York. [9] Gross, D. and Harris, C.M. (1974). Fundamentals of queueing theory. New York: Wiley. [10] Gupta UC, Srinivasa Rao TSS (1998) On the analysis of single server finite queue with state dependent arrival and service processes: M(n)/G(n)/1/K. OR Spectrum 20, 83-89. [11] Dragovi, B., Mara, V., Radmilovi, Z. (2004a). Some applications of the multiple server queuing models in ports, Proceedings of the 10th Conference on Transport Research, WCTR 2004, Istanbul, Turkey, Paper 1195, 1-13.
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[12] Dragovi, B., Mihaljevi, N., Mara, V. (2004b). Bulk queueing models in port: Operating performance measures, Proceedings of the 4th Inter. Congress on Maritime Technological Innovations and Research, Barcelona, Espana, 405-415. [13] Dragovi, B., Park, N-K, Zrni, N, Metrovi, R., Mihaljevi, N., (2010), Analysis of a finite waiting space with batch arrival planning of anchorage-ship-berth link in port, Proceedings of the XVI Inter. Conference PANAM, Lisbon, Portugal, 1-14. [14] Kleinrock, L. (1975). Queueing systems, Vol. 1 and 2, John Wiley and Sons, New York, N. Y. [15] Kleinrock, L., Gail, R. (1996). Queueing systems problems and solutions, John Wiley and Sons, New York. [16] Manfield, D., Tran-Gia, P. (1982). Analysis of a finite storage system with batch input arising out of message packetization. IEEE Transactions on COMMUNICATIONS 30 (3), 456 463. [17] Radmilovi, Z. (1992). Ship-berth link as bulk queueing system in ports, Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean Engineering, ASCE 118(5), 474-495. [18] Radmilovi, Z., Dragovi, B., Metrovi, R. (2005). Optimal Number and Capacity of Servers in
M X = a / M / c( ) Queueing System, International Journal of Information and Management Sciences,
16(3), 1-16. [19] Taha, H. A. (1997). Operations research an introduction, Sixth edition, Prentice-Hall, Inc. [20] Vijaya Laxmi, P. and Gupta, U.C. (2000). Analysis of finite-buffer multi-server queues with group arrivals: GIX/M/c/N. Queueing Systems 36, 25140. [21] Zrni, Dj., Bugari, U. (1994). The influence of the non-stationary state on the bulk-cargo terminal operation, Transactions, FME, Beograd, Yugoslavia, XXIII(2), 16-21. [22] Zrni, Dj., Dragovi, B. (1996). The queuing theory models applied in the analysis of the loadingunloading container process, Transactions, FME, XXV(2), 23-28. [23] Zrni, Dj., Dragovi, B. (1998). Queueing theory models applied in the analysis of the loading-unloading process in ports, Proceedings of Second Inter. Conference on Marine Industry, MARIND 1998, Varna, Bulgaria, Vol. I, 177-183. [24] Zrni, Dj., Dragovi, B., and Radmilovi, Z. (1999). Anchorage-ship-berth link as multiple server queueing system, Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean Engineering, ASCE 125(5), 232-240.
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RaDMI 2010
AMINO-FUNCTIONALIZATION, CHARACTERIZATION AND BIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF MULTI-WALLED CARBON NANOTUBES

Aleksandar D. Marinkovi,1 Milutin M. Milosavljevi,2 Goran D. Vukovi,1 Miodrag oli,3 Petar S. Uskokovi1
1
Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, SERBIA, e-mail: marinko@tmf.bg.ac.rs 2 Faculty of Technical Sciences, Kosovska Mitrovica, SERBIA 3 Institute for Medical Research, Military Medical Academy, Belgrade, SERBIA
Summary: Covalent functionalization of multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), with amino groups via chemical modification of carboxyl groups introduced on the nanotube surface, using O-(7-Azabenzotriazol-1-yl)-N,N,N,Ntetramethyluronium hexafluorophosphate (N-HATU) and N,N-diisopropylethylamine (DIEA) is reported. The amines ethylenediamine (EDA), 1,6-hexanediamine (HDA), diethylenetriamine (DETA), triethylenetetramine (TETA), 1,4phenylenediamine (PDA) - were used. The resulting materials were characterized with different techniques such as FTIR, XRD, elemental analysis, TGA, TEM and UV-vis spectroscopy. Functionalized MWCNTs, at the concentrations between 1 50 g ml-1, were not cytotoxic for the fibroblast L929 cell line. However, the concentrations of MWCNTs higher of 10 g ml-1 reduced cell growth and this effect correlated positively with the degree of their uptake by L929 cells. Keywords: carbon nanotubes, amino-functionalization, characterization, biological effect, nanocomposites, dapsone, macrophages.
1. INTRODUCTION
Since their discovery in 1991 by Iijima [1], carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have attracted great interest in most areas of science and engineering due to their unique physical and chemical properties, which enable them to be applied for a wide range of applications [2-6]. However, the application of CNTs has been largely hampered by their poor dispersion into solvents or polymers due to the strong intermolecular van der Waals interactions among the nanotubes, which can lead to the formation of aggregates [7]. A common technique to improve dispersion and realize such a great capability of CNTs is through chemical functionalization of nanotubes, which is well described in several review papers [7-9]. Amino-functionalized CNTs have been investigated because of their high reactivity with many chemicals, such as polymers [10-16], and biological systems [5, 6, 17-24]. Formation of amino-terminated nanotubes is a critical step in covalently linked nanotubes and biomolecules because amino groups act as chemical bridges between MWCNTs and materials of interest. These adducts may find a number of potential uses, such as building blocks for more complex supramolecular structures and in highly selective, reversible biosensors [14, 16, 17, 23, 25]. Also, a toxicological investigation and identification of compounds that can interact with biological materials is of utmost importance. Several CNT biocompatibility and cytotoxicity studies have been performed in recent years [26-32]. Apart from that, remains the very question if the cytotoxicity is due to CNT itself or due to its contaminants, as metallic particles or amorphous carbon structures. The issue of cell viability and cytotoxicity of CNTs is quite controversial and further studies are necessary to uncover the real reasons for the lack of correlation among most results shown in the literature [28]. Time effective preparation of amino-functionalized MWCNTs by two different protocols is described. The first protocol involves a direct coupling of liquid amines with the carboxylic groups to introduce amido groups using (N-HATU). The second protocol, related to the solid amines involves preactivation of the carboxyl group with N-HATU and N,N-diisopropylethylamine (DIEA).
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2. EXPERIMENTAL PART
2.1. Oxidation of MWCNTs An oxidative procedure of raw-MWCNTs with mixture of concentrated H2SO4 and HNO3 acid (V/V 3:1) was given in detail [33], and chemical functionalization procedure was given in Scheme 1.
Scheme 1: Schematic presentation of the MWCNTs functionalization 2.2. Functionalization of MWCNTs with amines Oxidized nanotubes was further functionalized with different amines (EDA: e-MWCNT, HDA: h-MWCNT, DETA: d-MWCNT, TETA: t-MWCNT, PDA: p-MWCNT), using N-HATU coupling agent and liquid amines or N-HATU and DIEA for solid amines as carboxylic group activator [33]. 2.3. Characterization Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectra were recorded in transmission mode using a BOMEM (Hartmann&Braun) spectrometer. Elemental analyses were performed using a VARIO EL III Elemental analyser. X-ray diffraction (XRD) data were obtained using a BRUKER D8 ADVANCE with Vario 1 focusing primary monochromator (Cuk1 radiation, =1.54059 ). Transmission electron microscope (TEM) was performed on a TECNAI-FEG F20 electron microscope at 200 kV. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) were carried out using a TA Instruments SDT Q600 at 20C to 800C with a heating rate of 20C min-1 and a nitrogen flow of 200 ml min-1. UV-vis spectra were recorded on a SHIMADZU UV1700 spectrometer. 2.4. Biocompatibility studies [33] The biocompatibility of MWCNTs was studied using a mouse fibroblast cell line, L929. The relative values of necrotic cells were determined by flow cytometry (EPICS XL/MCL, Coulter), and apoptosis was measured by flow cytometry after staining of the cells with hypotonic solution of PI as described [27]. The effect of MWCNTs on the proliferative activity of L929 cells was determined using a 3[H]-thymidine incorporation assay.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Sonication is a convenient method because the ultrasonic waves produce microscopic bubbles in the liquid, is highly effective in increasing the nanotube wetting and help carrying out the oxidation and aminofunctionalization reactions. The basic process of amidation reaction is activation of carboxylic group by DIEA and N-HATU in case of solid amine, or high molar excess of liquid amine and N-HATU for liquid mines [34-6]. FTIR spectra of MWCNTs (figure 1) clearly show chemical oxidation of raw-MWCNT by appearance of band at ~1726 cm-1 (curve (b)), which is due to the carbonyl stretch of the carboxylic acid group [16, 37]. A broad band at ~3438 cm-1 is attributed to the hydroxyl stretching vibration [10, 37]. Further confirmation of the oxidation process is appearance of asymmetric and symmetric stretching vibrations of methylene group, as(CH2) and s(CH2), placed at ~2924 and ~2856 cm-1, respectively. FTIR transmission spectra of amino-functionalized MWCNT (curves (c)-(g)) show disappearance of the band at ~1726 cm-1 and corresponding appearance of a
76
band with lower frequency (broad band at ~1650 cm-1) assigned to the amide carbonyl (C=O) stretch. The peaks at ~3300-3600 cm-1 are due to the NH2 stretch of the amine group overlapped with (O-H) stretch vibration. These results are similar to previous findings for amino-functionalized nanotubes [10,18].
a) raw-MWCNT, b) MWCNT-COOH, c) e-MWCNT, d) h-MWCNT, e) d-MWCNT, f) t-MWCNT and g) p-MWCNT
Figure 1: FTIR transmission spectra Elemental analyses of the amino-functionalized MWCNTs indicated introduced nitrogen atoms on the nanotube surface depending on amines structure. The atomic percentages of nitrogen were 4.08 wt%, 3.05 wt%, 4.82 wt%, 4.89 wt% and 3.10 wt% for e-MWCNT, h-MWCNT, d-MWCNT, t-MWCNT and p-MWCNT, respectively. Morphology of raw-MWCNT, MWCNT-COOH and e-MWCNT are observed by TEM images shown in figure 2. From figures 2(a),(b), sidewalls of raw-MWCNTs are integrated and smooth. After oxidation, MWCNTCOOH contains almost pure nanotubes with defects and amorphous layers presented on the surface and inside the nanotubes (figures 2(c),(d)) [16]. Thus, the treatment of CNTs with strong oxidizing agents causes severe etching of the graphitic surface of the material, leading to tubes of shorter length with a population of disordered sites. Compared with that of oxidized MWCNTs, sidewalls of e-MWCNTs are more corrugated and there are detectable amorphous prominences on outer graphite sheets and inside the nanotubes of e-MWCNTs as shown figure 2(f).
a), b) raw-MWCNT, c), d) MWCNT-COOH and e), f) e-MWCNT
Figure 2: TEM images
77
The XRD patterns are shown in figure 3. A peak can be seen at 2 = 26.2 (d-value of 0.34 nm), corresponding to the distance between walls in MWCNTs. Furthermore, diffraction maximum at 2 = 43.4 (d = 0.208 nm) is attributed to the MWCNT interwall spacing as well [13]. Modified MWCNTs still had the same cylinder wall structure as raw MWCNTs and interplanar spacing of all samples remained the same. It can be concluded that the modification process did not alter the structural sidewalls of CNTs.
Figure 3: XRD patterns of MWCNTs. TGA gives useful information about functionalized MWCNTs, because most organic functional moieties on MWCNTs are thermally unstable, i.e., most of the organic functional groups are decomposed before the onset of MWCNTs weight loss (figure 4). Pristine MWCNTs sample is stable and behaves hardly decomposition below 800C (curve (a)). The thermal degradation of modified MWCNTs (curves (b)-(g)) is a multistage process due to different functional groups introduced on nanotube surface. The first weight loss period of all the samples below 200C is mainly attributed to release of water molecules [14]. As it can be seen weight losses corresponding to about 7 wt%, 11.25 wt%, 10.77 wt%, 14.5 wt% and 10.5 wt% for e-MWCNT, h-MWCNT, d-MWCNT, tMWCNT and p-MWCNT, respectively are observed (curves (c)-(g)) in the interval from 200C to 800C. These weight losses occurred during fragmentation are due to pyrolysis of the residues of amines.
a) raw-MWCNT, b) MWCNT-COOH, c) e-MWCNT, d) h-MWCNT, e) d-MWCNT, f) t-MWCNT and g) p-MWCNT
Figure 4: TGA curves The dispersibility of MWCNTs was remarkably changed after the modification (figure 5). To obtain a quantitative result for the samples (table 1), the absorbance of unmodified and modified MWCNTs were measured by the UVvis spectrophotometer because these spectra are known to be sensitive to aggregation state [38]. Pristine MWCNTs have a strong tendency to agglomerate due to their nano size and their high surface energy and therefore poor dispersion in water was observed (figure 5). However, oxidation introduce new functionalities on the MWCNTs surface (figures 2(c),(d)), which impart negative charges and, therefore, create the electrostatic stability required for a long time stable dispersion in all solvent.
a) raw-MWCNT, b) MWCNT-COOH, c) e-MWCNT, d) h-MWCNT, e) d-MWCNT, f) t-MWCNT and g) p-MWCNT in water at a concentration of 100 mg l-1 taken 6 h after the solution had been sonicated for 1 h.
Figure 5: Dispersion
78
The absorbance of the amino-functionalized MWCNTs dispersions (table 1) are different depending on the structure and amounts of the amines presented onto the MWCNT surface. Aggregate formation of aminofunctionalized MWCNTs depends on possibility of hydrogen bond formation between amine functionalities and interconnections between nanotubes (figures 2(e)) [24]. Soft segments of long aliphatic radicals have a higher flexibility and thus could create stronger hydrogen bonds. Oppositely, steric hindrance and rigid segments of PDA creates weaker amine-amine and more intimate hydrogen bonds with solvent leading to better dispersion and higher absorbances. Amino-functionalization improve dispersibility of MWCNTs opening the path for their facile manipulations and processing in physiological environments [5]. Table 1: The absorbance at 600 nm of the samples with a concentration of 50 mg l-1, taken 6 h after the solution had been sonicated for 1 h.
Solvent Water Methanol Acetone DMF raw-MWCNT 0.013 0.028 0.716 0.999 MWCNT-COOH 1.089 1.022 0.936 1.068 e-MWCNT 0.567 0.178 0.268 0.613 h-MWCNT 0.350 0.101 0.442 0.676 d-MWCNT 0.290 0.194 0.338 0.811 t-MWCNT 0.279 0.435 0.381 0.710 p-MWCNT 0.752 0.638 0.539 0.900
The final aim of this work was to investigate the cytotoxicity and biological effect of amino-functionalized MWCNTs and control raw- and o-MWCNTs using L929 cells. The results [33] show that all samples of MWCNTs at the highest dose (100 g ml-1) decreased the number of L929 cells in cultures, time dependently. However, only raw MWCNTs but not chemically modified MWCNTs, at the dose of 10 g ml-1, impaired cell growth. The lowest dose (1 g ml-1) of all MWCNT samples did not significantly modify the number of L929 cells [33]. The reduction of cell number could be a consequence of cell death. To prove this, we examined the processes of cellular apoptosis and necrosis. Neither of examined functionalized MWCNTs, nor raw MWCNTs, were cytotoxic up to doses of 50 g ml-1. However, MWCNT-COOH, d-MWCNT and p-MWCNT, at the highest concentration (100 g ml-1) induced apoptosis. The effect was relatively weak, since the percentage of apoptotic cells did not exceed 10% figure 6.
(a), b), c)) and apoptosis (d), e), f)) of L929 cells cultivated a), d) without MWCNTs, b), e) raw-MWCNTs; 100 g ml-1 and c), f) d-MWCNTs; 100 g ml-1. The percentages of necrotic or apoptotic cells are indicated.
Figure 6: Necrosis Another reason for the reduction of cell number in culture could be the inhibition of cellular proliferation. This hypothesis was confirmed by using a 3[H]-thimidine uptake assay. The results are given in ref [33], and show that all samples of MWCNTs inhibited cellular proliferation, dose dependently. The highest inhibitory effect was observed with d-MWCNT. Lower doses (3 25 g ml-1) of functionalized MWCNTs were less inhibitory than the same doses of raw MWCNTs. Up to now, several studies showed that raw CNTs are cytotoxic and that the effect depends on the type of CNTs, mode of their preparation and cell types used for biocompatibility studies [28-30]. The cytotoxic effect is either due to the presence of contaminating metal catalysts, used for CNT preparation, predominantly Fe and Ni, or due to the phagocytosis of insoluble CNT aggregates [28-32]. In contrast, functionalization significantly improves the dispersibility of SWCNTs in water and reduces their cytotoxicity [31, 32]. We showed similar behaviour of functionalized MWCNTs. In addition, oxidation and amino functionalization reduced the content of metals in MWCNTs as shown in figure 2. This phenomenon might be an additional factor responsible for lower antiproliferative effect of functionalized MWCNTs compared to pristine MWCNTs. L929 cells posses low phagocytic capability. Therefore, we examined whether the degrees of MWCNT dispersibility, phagocytosis and cell growth inhibition are mutually related processes. As seen in figure 7, phagocytosis of raw MWCNTs was low and most large bundles and aggregates were localized outside the cells. The extracellular aggregates were also seen in cultures with functionalized MWCNTs but in such cultures most L929 cells contained ingested MWCNT particles of different sizes. The intracellular localization of MWCNT particles was additionally confirmed by confocal microscopy figure 8. The uptake degree of MWCNT-COOH
79
and p-MWCNT by L929 cells correlated with the degree of their dispersibility. However, the dispersibility is probably not the only factor responsible for the observed effects, because d-MWCNTs, which were more inhibitory compared to p-MWCNTs were less water dispersible and thus, it remains to be tested how different reactivity of amino-functionalized groups changes the biological activity of MWCNTs. Further electrochemical characterization and the possibility of introducing drugs with amino functionalized CNTs into cells are topics of our future work.
a) without MWCNTs, b) with raw-MWCNTs; 25 g ml-1 or c) d-MWCNTs; 25 g ml-1. Note abudantly phagocytozed dMWCNT particles and predominantly non-phagocytozed aggregates of raw MWCNTs.
Figure 7: Monolayers of L929 cells cultivated
a)-g) of L929 cells incubated with p-MWCNTs (25 g ml-1). Note dark phagocytozed particles localized intracellularly.
Figure 8: Confocal microscopy (sequential cellular scanning, figures
4. CONCLUSIONS
This paper reports two protocols for amino functionalization of MWCNTs using amines in liquid and solid state, where the reaction time is reduced comparing to already presented methods. FTIR, XRD, elemental analysis, TGA, TEM, UV-vis spectroscopy results on samples at different stages of the functionalization process confirm these reactions. In particular, method described here has emerged as a powerful methodology for the generation of amino-functionalized carbon nanotubes with a remarkable dispersibility and modified electronic properties. Functionalized MWCNTs are of acceptable biocompatibility in vitro since they are not cytotoxic even at high concentrations (50 g ml-1). These cytotoxic and electron transfer characteristics with the possibility of linking a wide range of molecules to the nanotube surface, may open the door to interesting future applications in various technologically relevant fields, such as (opto)electronics, electrochemical devices, chemical and biochemical sensors.
REFERENCES
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RaDMI 2010
SYSTEM DYNAMIC MODEL OF TRANSSHIPMENT PORT CHOICE

School of Port and Logistics Management, Tongmyong University 535, Yongdang-dong, Nam-gu, Busan, REPUBLIC OF KOREA, e-mail: nkpark@tu.ac.kr 2 Department of Distribution Management, Tongmyong University 535, Yongdang-dong, Nam-gu, Busan, REPUBLIC OF KOREA, e-mail: cklim@tu.ac.kr 3 Maritime Faculty, Maritime Transport and Traffic Division, University of Montenegro, Kotor, MONTENEGRO, e-mail: branod@ac.me
Summary: The main scope of this paper is to present the factors for the purpose of clarifying why the transshipment increase happened in Busan port. In order to gain the research objective, several steps are designed. First step is to select quantitative model for explaining real phenomena about transshipment cargo share. Second step is to define dependent and independent variables for multiple regressions after the test of variable significance. In addition, data collection and the accuracy validation have been done by direct interview with the experienced official in shipping company in domestic and foreign country. Based on regression analysis, sensitivity model for transhipment cargo is useful for dynamic forecasting in changing cost factor and Mohring factor with time series. Keywords: system dynamic model, port choice, model validation.
1
Nam Kyu Park1, Chaekwan Lim2, Branislav Dragovi3
1. INTRODUCTION
The main scope of this paper is to present the factors for the purpose of clarifying why the transshipment increase happened in Busan port. In order to gain the research objective, several steps are designed. First step is to select quantitative model for explaining real phenomena about transshipment cargo share. Second step is to define dependent and independent variables for multiple regressions after the test of variable significance. In addition, data collection and the accuracy validation have been done by direct interview with the experienced official in shipping company in domestic and foreign country. As Northeast cargo markets have separate structures, the transshipment cargo from China, Japan or Southeast countries, individual market is to be considered independently. Third step is to validate the model using collected data, in order to reveal which variables explain the model in a good fit. Recently, some models for port choice were been proposed. Chou [2] discussed comparison methodology and output results of three models for port choice. Cullinane and Toy [4] identified influential attributes in freight route/mode choice decisions in relation to a content analysis. Ohashi [14] studied the choice problem of air cargo transshipment airport in Northeast Asia. Park et al. [19] developed a game theoretic investment model for an oligopoly transhipment container market of competitive assets between two ports and apply it by benchmarking possible actions, game parameters and payoffs based on a competition between Busan and Shanghai. Veldman and Bckmann [23] analyzed earlier with respect to container port competition in Northwest Europe. Veldman and Vroomen ([24], [25]) studied to search significant factors for understanding the competitive position of transshipments ports and port choice elastics in the market of the Mediterranean. Yap et al. ([24], [25], [26]) focused to find, through evidences from container shipping services connecting the region to major markets and trade routes between 1995 and 2001, that Mainland Chinese ports are increasingly attractive as direct ports of call for mainline services. Giannopoulos et al. [7] presented the formulation of a disaggregate port choice model. Recently, some models for port chioce have been proposed ([1], [8], [9], [10], [11], [13], [17], [18], [20], [21]).
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The organization of this paper is as follows. A port choice model is proposed in Section 2. The results of model test for port choice are given in Section 3 with sensitive analysis based on system dynamic model. The final Section 4 provides concluding remarks.
2. PORT CHOICE MODEL

Prior to suggesting port choice model, the factors are to be selected from expert who is responsible to design the shipping liner route. The 15 items to be surveyed are collected from the published papers. The collected items are questioned for measuring importance degree with 5 score from senior managers of major container shipping liners. The way of collecting questionnaire has been performed by direct interview with a responsible person in a shipping company, or visiting or through explanation of the purpose in front of a group of responsible officers in shipping companies. The questionnaires are sent to 43 container shipping liners including both domestic and foreign companies. The response rate is 40% of planned responses. The result of the analysis of the answer of the questionnaire reveals that the most important factor is cargo handling capacity such as handling moves per ship per hour. Second important factor is terminal handling charge. The sequence of priority is listed in Table 1 and Figure 1. Among these factors, qualitative service factors such as container handling capability, berth facility capability, feeder frequency, feeder network, free time, overtime storage fee etc., can be represented as a proxy variable. The probability that a shipping company in region (r) select transshipment port (p) can be expressed as [25]:
P =
r p
Ur p Ur p
e
p =1
p=P
, ( p = 1,2,..., P )
(1)
U is the utility attached to transshipment port (p) by shipping liner in region (r) and p is the index of the transshipment port in a total of P ports. Considering this model [25] and the factors to be surveyed, the utility function is modified as:
r Up = 1CTpr + 2CI pr + 3CD pr + 4CL pr + 5CM pr
(2)
where: CTpr - sum of feedering cost CFpr and mother ship access cost CMpr; CF - feeder transport cost (incurred between transshipment port and feeder port (p,r) in r region); CM - mainline access cost to transshipment port; CI - incentive between transshipment port and competition port (p,pr); CDpr - deviation cost between transshipment hub port and feeder port; CLpr - attraction of a port given its volume of local cargoes; CMpr represents the total handling throughput of a port including local and transshipment cargo. Table 1: Score of port deciding factors
Item Handling Capability THC Berth Facility Feeder Frequency Main Route Location CY Facility Feeder Network Cargo Volume Free Time Port Dues Overtime Storage Fee Incentive CIQ Service
Providing Berthing Priority
Bunker Supply, Ship Repair Service
Response 17 17 17 16 16 17 17 15 17 17 17 17 17 16 17
Mean 4.294 4.176 4.059 4.000 4.000 3.941 3.941 3.933 3.706 3.471 3.412 3.294 3.294 2.938 2.824
SD 0.686 0.809 0.748 0.632 0.632 0.748 0.966 0.961 0.985 1.007 0.87 0.92 0.985 0.929 1.074
Figure 1: Transshipment deciding factors
This is a part of Mohring-effects ([12], [22]) and expressed as a function of the level of port throughput. As feeder calling frequencies increase, wait times of cargo decrease, demand increases, and transit frequencies can increase again. This effect can be used as substation variable of port service. The Greek symbols 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 are the coefficients of the utility function. By taking for each region (r) the ratio of the market share of transshipment port (p) and of an arbitrarily chosen basic port (p*), it follows from (1):
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Ppr P r* p
r eU rp Ur p U p* = = e r U * p e
(3)
Combination of equations (2) and (3) and taking of logarithms leads to:
Ppr ln r P8 p
= (CT CT ) + CI CI * + CD CD * + L L * + M M * pr pr p p p p 2 3 4 5 p p p p
) (
) (
) (
(4)
Variable Description Accordingly with previous notations we have: Dependent Variable
Pr ln P P r* P
is the share of transshipment in the port of Busan among total transshipment in the region;
Independent variables Selecting independent variables is dependent on research outputs on the topic. Researchers insist that deciding transshipment port is influenced by cost, location, service factors like productivity and incentive system etc. In view of this, (CTpr - CTpr) - total cost difference between the port of Busan and Shanghai port for moving containers from origin to destination in North east region. This cost is composed of operation cost, running cost and logistics cost. (CIpr - CIp) - incentive difference between the port of Busan and the port of Shanghai, where THC of deepsea volume is discounted with some percentage or where compensation for the growth of transshipment compared with a previous year throughput is paid to shipping company. (CDpr - CDp) - means the difference of deviation cost from main line route to the port of Busan or the port of Shanghai. In Northeast Asia, traditionally, main trunk route towards USA is established via Singapore, Hong Kong, Kaosiung, Busan and Yokohama to Los Angeles. (Lpr - Lp) can be obtained by the ratio of local cargo of Busan and the region. This is proxy variable representing Mohring effect. (Mpr - Mp) can be obtained by the ratio of total handling cargo of Busan and the region. The used variable for regression analysis is named as Y, X1, X2, X3 and X4 as follows in Table 2. Table 2: Variable definition of model
Variable Dependent Variable (Y) X1 X2 Independent X3 Variable X4 X5 Definition Ratio of Transshipment of Busan among Region Transshipment Ratio of Local Container of Busan among Region Local Container Difference of Mother Vessel Deviation Cost of Transshipment Difference of Incentive Payment of Transshipment Total Transshipment Cost of Mother and Feeder Total Transshipment Cost of Mother and Feeder including Incentive Unit Ratio Ratio US $ US $ US $ US $
3. THE RESULT OF MODEL TEST

A multiple regression model is tested with 10 years data. The authors selected one observation per year, therefore the number of data is 10 ([3], [4], [5], [6], [15], [16], [20], [21]). The reason why just 10 data is selected is caused by the attribute of dependent variable and independent variables. If we increase the number of observation by quarterly or monthly, the result of analysis shows the anomaly, i.e. the significant probability of most of independent variables is under 5 %. The regression model has been tested in 3 steps. The actual data used in the model are based on the 10-year data from 1998 to 2007. Some of these data have been posted by related organizations or the others have been collected during our field visit. The collected data have been used by the above-mentioned selection model in order to calculate the difference values between the two rival ports of Shanghai and Busan. In the first test, the two variables among the five - the transshipment cargo expenses difference between the port of Busan and the port of Shanghai in both a mother ship and a feeder and the rate of Busan Ports total cargo volume against the regional total cargo volume - are
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statistically significant at the significant level of 0.01. Therefore, the second test has been made for these two variables that are statistically significant, and as a result of the second test these two variables again are statistically significant at the level of 0,01. This means that cost reduction of a mother ship and a feeder ship and total cargo increase at the local port are significant factors for transshipment cargo volume. The third test has been conducted after the mother ships expenses and feeders expenses have been separated, and the results of this test have revealed that these two are statistically significant at the level of 0.01, and that the feeders expenses carry more significance than the mother ships expenses. This means that more incentives should be given to the feeders which are suffering financial difficulty. 3.1 Model Test - Step 1 In the beginning, 4 variables are selected as independent variables similar as [25]. The result shows that X1 (Mohring effect) and X4 (total cost) are accepted, and X2 (deviation cost) and X3 (incentive payment) is rejected under 5% significance level. As the adjusted R square is 0.986, this means the model shows high explanation of phenomena. The coefficient of regression model is as follows:
Variable Non Standard Coefficient B S.E 0.0190 0.0970 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.1180 t 8.9940 0.2020 -1.6820 0.7040 -11.4980 606440 Significance Probability 0.000 0.841 0.102 0.486 0.000*** 0.000*** Tolerance 0.0060 0.3590 0.0510 0.1970 0.0040 Muliticollinearity VIF Variance Inflation Factor 175.917 2.7830 19.6870 5.0730 247.471
A 0.1750000 X1 0.0200000 X2 -0.00000214 X3 0.00000412 X4 -0.0000043 X5 0.7830000 * p<.1, ** p<.05, *** p<.01
3.2 Model Test - Step 2 According to Step 1, the model to be tested is modified with deletion of 3 variables which show weak significant probability. The independent variables to be selected are X4 (Total Cost) and X5 (Mohring Effect). The result of test is that adjusted R square is 0.995. In relation to ANOVA, significance probability is 0 and this indicate effective model. Furthermore, the fact that correlation indicator, VIF (variance Inflation Factor), is less than 10 means any dependence does not exist in between independent variables. The coefficient of model is Y = 0.179291199 - 0.000004782589 X4 + 0.810489669 X5. This expression will be used for sensitivity analysis.
Variable B A 0.17000000 X4 -0.000004503 X5 0.82200000 * p<.1, ** p<.05, *** p<.01 Non Standard Coefficient S.E 0.0050 0.0000 0.0090 36.597 -21.695 87.179 t Significance Probability 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** Muliticollinearity Tolerance 0.629 0.629 VIF Variance Inflation Factor 1.590 1.590
3.3 Model Test - Step 3 According to step 2, the model is to be expanded to identify which one has stronger impact to attract TS cargo between mother ship cost and feeder ship cost. Keeping X5 in the same, X4 independent variable (Total Cost), is required to expand into X6 and X7. X6 means total cost difference due to mother ship operation from Hongkong to Busan, while X7 means total cost due to feeder ship operation from Dalian to Busan. The result of test is that adjusted R square is 0.999. In relation to ANOVA, significance probability is 0 and this indicate effective model. Furthermore, the fact that correlation indicator, VIF (Variance Inflation Factor), is less than 10 means any dependence does not exist in between independent variables. The coefficient of model is Y = 0.94 0.9 X5 0.00000231 X6 0.00001104. The implication from test is feeder ship impacts stronger power rather than mother ship to attract TS cargo.
Variable B A X5 X6 X7 0.0940000 0.9000000 -0.00000231 -0.00001104 Non Standard Coefficient S.E 0.0100 0.0110 0.0000 0.0000 9.7760 81.880 -7.9150 -13.8540 t Significance Probability 0.000 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** Muliticollinearity Tolerance 0.163 0.263 0.088 VIF Variance Inflation Factor 6.135 3.806 11.415
* p<.1, ** p<.05, *** p<.01
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3.4 Sensitive analysis by SD model The model which helps estimation of transshipment in Busan can be retransformed to system dynamics model (SD), Figure 2. The SD model is useful tool for presenting social phenomena. The model is composed of total cost and Mohring sub system. This system is working with time series and the cost trend, total handling container trend in region and Busan. In making port choice model using Powersim tool, main level is defined as transshipment ratio of port of Busan. The level variable is linked to inflow variable and outflow variable. In flow variable has sub modules of Morhring Effect and Difference of Total Cost, which are linked to TS inflow. In a result of SD model, demand curve is drawn like Figure 3. For example, if the THC is discounted 10%, transshipment will be increased to 71,364 TEU in Northeast Asia in the year of 2009.
Cons tant_9
15.00
Cons tant_M Data Coe_M Data T im e Period 4
Cons tant_10
222,724.57 12,948.40 TEU/TS
Bus an T otal Cos ts

230,925.05
Region T rans s hipm ent

2,646,265.25 TEU
M ohring Data
Cos t Data
Shanghai T otal Cos t
M ohring Effects (Level of Local Cargo)
Difference of T otal Cos t (Bus anShanghai) T S Inflow
Bus an_China T rans s hipm ent
Region T rans s hipm ent (N orthEas t As ia)
Level of T S Portion 4 Previous y ear
0.20 TS/yr
0.20 TS/yr
Cons tant_8
Cons tant_M oh 4
Coe Cost 4
Coe M oh 4
Figure 2: SD Model for Estimation Transshipment
Figure 3: Demand curve of Transshipment
4. CONCLUSION
Based on the quantitative analysis, port choice model to estimate the transshipment cargo is developed using PowerSim tool. The system is useful to anticipate the future volume in adjusting independent variables like the transshipment cargo expenses difference or the rate of Busan Ports total cargo volume against the regional total cargo volume. In this paper, we tried to evaluate trade-off relation between transshipment risk and sea transport cost by using the estimation result. This paper tries to find out the core factors attracting transshipment cargo under competitive position. Through 3 step model test, at end, we find significant explanation variables, Mohring Effect and total cost. For model test, 10 years data of both Busan and Shanghai are collected or estimated using
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time series forecasting technique. Initially, we assume 4 variables would be effective independence variables. However, initial assumption hit mark and 2 variables are left out of explanation variables. Hereafter the SD (System Dynamics) model using transshipment demand and factors relation will be developed for suggesting sensitivity analysis. The output from SD model is to make the policy controllable and visualized by adjusting input values. This paper primarily focused on historical trends of cargo movement, Fuel Cost for Navigation, Port Logistics Costs of Transshipment in Busan and Shanghai, Running Cost of Mother vessel and feeder of Busan and Shanghai, Deviation cost of Busan and Shanghai and resulting patterns of the feeder container network structure in the Busan - Shanghai region. There exists a certain volume of Korea-China container cargo transported through transshipment service linking Korea-China feeder routes.
ACLNOWLEDGEMENT
This research was supported by the MKE (The Ministry of Knowledge Economy), Republic of Korea, under the ITRC (Information Technology Research Center) support program supervised by the NIPA (National IT Industry Promotion Agency (N I PA-2009-C1090-0902-0004).
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[1] Bae, B.: The Devices to Increase Transshipment Cargoes of the Port of Pusan. Journal of Korea Port Economic Association, 15: 179-208, 1999. [2] Chou, C-C.: A comparative study of models for port choice, Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, Vol. 5, pp. 608 616, 2005. [3] Containerisation International, Year Book, 2007. [4] Cullinane, K., Toy, N.: Identifying influential attributes in freight route/mode choice decisions: a content analysis, Transportation Review, Vol.36, No. 1, pp. 41-53, 2000. [5] Drewry: Ship Operation Costs Annual Review and Forecast, June 2005. [6] Drewry: Annual Container Market Review and Forecast 2006/2007, 2006. [7] Giannopoulos, G., Aifadopoulou, G., Torok, A.: Port Choice Model for the Transshipment of Containers in Eastern Mediterranean, Transportation Research Board Annual Meeting 2008, Paper #08-1517, 2008. [8] Inhum, B.: Transshipment Port Selection ISM&AHP. The Journal of Shipping and Logistics, 54(June) : 4364, 2005. [9] Jung, T. and Kyusuk, K.: Strategies to Attract Transshipment Container Cargos from/to China by Korea Ports. Journal of Transportation Research Society of Korea, 20(2): 7-16, 2002. [10] Lirn, T. C., Thanopoulou H. A. and Beresford A. K. C.: Transshipment Port Selection and Decision-making Behavior: Analysing the Taiwanese Case. International Journal of Logistics: Research and Application, 6(4): 229-244, 2003. [11] Lirn, T. C., Thanopoulou H. A. and Beresford A. K. C.: An Application of AHP on Transshipment Port Selection: A Global Perspective. Maritime Economics & Logistics, 6(1): 70-91, 2004. [12] Mohring, H.: Optimization and Scale Economies in Urban Bus Transportation, American Economic Review, pp. 591-604, 1972. [13] Ng, K. Y. A.: Assessing the Attractiveness of Ports in the North European Container Transshipment Market: An Agenda for Future Research in Port Competition. Maritime Economics & Logistics, 8: 234250, 2006. [14] Ohashi, H., Kim, T-S., Oum, T.H., Yu, C.: Choice of air cargo transshipment airport: an application to air cargo traffic to/from Northeast Asia, Journal of Air Transport Management 11, 2005. [15] Ocean Shipping Consultants (2007), Container Port Strategy, Emerging issues, 2007. [16] Ocean Shipping Consultants: Marketing of Container Terminals, 2004. [17] Park, B. and Soukkyung, S.: The Decision Criteria on the Transshipment Container Ports. Journal of Korea Port Economic Association, 24(1): 41-60, 2008. [18] Park, Y. and Kim, Y.: A Study on the Strategies to attract Transshipment Container Cargoes in Korea. Journal of Logistics Association, 13(1): 95-121, 2003. [19] Park, Y-A., Anderson, C.M., Choi, Y-S.: A Strategic Model of Competition among Container Ports in Northeast Asia, Project Report, 2006. [20] Park, N.K., Dragovi, B.: Model of transshipment port choice: North-East Asia region, Plenary and Invitation Paper, The Proceedings of 1st International Conference Application of New Technologies in Management, ANTiM 2009, pp. 25-34, 2009. [21] Park, N.K., Dragovi, B.: A model of North-East Asia Port Choice, Proceedings of MHCL 2009, Belgrade, Serbia, 323-328.
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[22] van Reeven, P.: Subsidisation of Urban Public Transport and the Mohring Effect, Journal of Transport Economics and Policy, Volume 42, Number 2, 2008. [23] Veldman S. and Bckmann E.: A Model on Container Port Competition, An application for the West Europan Container Hub-ports, Maritime Economics & Logistics, Vol 5, No 2., 2003. [24] Veldman S., Bckmann E. and Saitua R: River Depth and Container Port Market Shares: The Impact of Deepening the Scheldt River on the West European Container Hub-Port. Market Shares, Maritime Economics & Logistics, 7(4), 2005. [25] Veldman, S., and Vroomen B.: A model of container port competition: an application for the transhipment market of the Mediterranean, IAME Conference Athens, 2007. [26] Yap, W.Y., Lam, J.S.L., Notteboom, T.: Developments in Container Port Competition in East Asia, Transport Reviews, Vol. 26, No. 2, pp.167-188, 2006.
89
RaDMI 2010
NON-CONTACT ULTRASONIC INVESTIGATION OF THE STEEL HARDNESS

Stanimir Y. Yordanov1, Raycho T. Ilarionov2, Ivan S. Simeonov3, Hristo S. Kilifarev4, Hristo I. Ibrishimov5
1
Technical University of Gabrovo, BULGARIA, e-mail: sjjordanov@mail.bg, 2 e-mail: ilar@tugab.bg, 3 e-mail: isim@tugab.bg, 4 e-mail: hri_100@abv.bg, 5 e-mail: hristo_ibrishimov@abv.bg
Summary: The main peculiarity of ultrasonic waves is their high frequency, which allows they to be emitted in the type of narrow beam of rays and their propagation to be considered according to the methods of geometrical optics. This one allows the ultrasound to be used for scientific and applied investigations. According to the character of its propagation and its absorption in gases, fluids and solid bodies, valuable information can be obtained about the properties and the structure of substances. The present paper deals with the utilization of apparatus-program system destined for non-contact ultrasonic recognition of the steel hardness. Keywords: Computer Systems and Technologies, Model, Microprogramming Unit for Operation Control.
1. INTRODUCTION
The ultrasound is widely used in the industry for registering and evaluating the different defects and nonuniformities in the articles. The method is basically applied at very responsible articles because of its comparatively high prime cost. It is one of the main methods applied in conventional non-destructive control together with the radioautography, the magnetopowdered methods, the methods with penetrating fluids and the methods with whirling currents. The frequencies of ultrasonic waves, which are used more often, are in order of 1-20 MHz. By its nature, the ultrasound represents a wave with high frequency and therefore with very small wavelength. For emitting of ultrasound, varied units are used which can be divided into two groups as follows: mechanical emitters whistles and sirens using air or fluid as well electromechanical ones piezoelectrical and magnetostrictial. For emitting and registering of ultrasound with middle and high frequencies, piezoelectrical transducers are basically used which are based on the opposite and the straight piezoelectric effect. During transit through a given medium, the ultrasound decreases its intensity which leads to its attenuation. This one is due to phenomena like scattering, absorption, reflection, refraction and ray divergence. The absorption of ultrasonic energy from the medium, where the ultrasound is propagated, depends on the characteristics of this medium (elasticity and density) as well on the frequency of used ultrasound. As a result of this, the characteristic parameters of reflected acoustic wave in the direction of its propagation are modified. In this way the ultrasonic signal carries information about the characteristics of medium between the emitter and the receiver [1]. The developed intelligent sensor system extracts this information and allows the controllable object to be investigated. The scientific-applied idea in this paper consists in the utilization of non-contact ultrasonic method for investigation of 40Cr steel with different hardness of hardening on purpose recognition and classification of specimens in real time.
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2. STATEMENT
Two basic functional schemes about building of ultrasonic sensor system for non-contact measurement exist (when the sensors for emitting and accepting acoustic waves are found on one and the same part towards the controllable medium and when they are mounted on a definite distance facing one another). In the present paper the sensors are located on one part of the investigated object. This type of the task formulation possesses the following advantages: 1. The ultrasound is in contact directly with the investigation object nevertheless whether it is in liquid or solid state of aggregation; 2. The influence of intermediate barriers is eliminated, for example the walls of vessel where the liquid substances are put; 3. For accomplishing of the measurement, the availability of special equipments and stands are not required; 4. The process for system calibration is sufficiently simple about realization, etc. 2.1. Structure of system For accomplishing of the investigations, an apparatus-program system shown in Figure 1 is used. The system is built by means of two functionally separated subsystems as follows: - Measuring subsystem; - Recognizing subsystem. Measuring subsystem The process for measurement and storage of information is realized on the basis f National Instrument modules.
Figure 1: Measuring subsystem The system is built on three levels. The first level (sensor module Figure 1) is destined to generate the ultrasonic signal, which is propagated in the medium as well as to accept the reflected wave, to transform in electrical signal and to amplify up to a level that is suitable for processing. The module consists of three blocks. The generator block is destined for generating an analogue signal hesitating the emitter. The sensor block is composed of two piezoelements, namely: emitter and receiver. The third block is precise high-frequency amplifier which is destined to amplify the signal obtained by the receiver. The second level is built on the basis of multifunctional module from NI USB-6251 M Series that is production of National instrument firm (Figure 5) and possesses the following specificity: Up to 16 differential BNC analog inputs at 16 bits, 1.25 MS/s (1 MS/s scanning); Up to 4 BNC analog outputs at 16 bits, 2.86 MS/s; Up to 48 TTL/CMOS digital I/O lines (8 BNC, up to 32 hardware-timed at up to 1 MHz); Two 32-bit, 80 MHz counter/timers; Analog and digital triggering supported; power supply included; NI-PGIA 2 and NI-MCal calibration technology for improved measurement accuracy; NI signal streaming for 4 high-speed data streams on USB;
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NI-DAQmx driver software and LabVIEW SignalExpress LE included. In the realized measuring system, three analogue channels and one digital channels are used. The sensor module is connected towards the first analogue channel. Along this channel, the measurement of signal received by the ultrasonic sensor is performed. The temperature sensor and the humidity sensor are connected towards the other two channels. These two signals are used for introducing of corrective coefficients. The third level represents a virtual instrument built in the medium of LabView. The realization is made in the medium of LabView 9 (Figure 2) and it functions in the following algorithm: 1. Measurement and storage of the environment temperature; 2. Measurement and storage of the environment humidity; 3. Generation of start impulse leaving the measuring head; 4. Measurement of the signal received by the ultrasonic sensor for a preliminarily set period of time; 5. Recording of data in a file; 6. Cutting of the negative half-wave; 7. Removal of the high-frequency oscillations; 8. From received signal by means of discrete wavelet transform (DWT) or by means of fast Fourier transform (FFT) the sign-determining elements, which carry information about the investigated object are extracted; 9. Comparison of the obtained data with an accumulated data base; 10. Making of decision about belonging towards a definite class; 11. Derivation of suitable information about the state of investigation object.
Figure 2: LabView virtual module
Figure 3: LabView program module
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Thus, the obtained data are processed, demodulated and evaluated by the corresponding specialized software. These measurements have meaning when the parameters of medium state, such as temperature, pressure, etc. are measured simultaneously with the ultrasonic parameters at that with high accuracy. At the next step algorithms for calculating of parameters are used, which are of interest. They are based on the laws of wave propagation and include the interaction of acoustic waves with the investigated (controllable) medium. The knowing of these interrelations is needed for the development of new applications concerning the ultrasonic sensors (such as elements of the control system), for example about the recognition of mediums and materials, about the control of processes, about the special measurements of distance, etc. 2.2. Application of system The developed apparatus program medium was used during investigation of 40Cr steel with different hardness. For this purpose over six specimens were produced (Figure.3) with 50 size, 10 mm thickness and hardnesses as follows: HRc =34, HRc =36, HRc =40, HRc =46 and HRc = 50.
Figure 4: Investigated specimens For confirming the representativeness of specimens, X-ray structural analysis of the diffraction pattern of the crystal lattice of the patterns surface layer investigation of trials in Czech Technical University in Prague, Faculty of Nuclear Sciences and Physical Engineering, Department of Solid State Engineering was performed. The results from the investigation are shown on Figure 5. The conclusion of specialists, who have performed the investigation, is that the made specimens possess exclusively high quality and they can be used as references in the investigations. This conclusion is also confirmed by the results obtained during investigation of specimens methodology shown on Figure 6.
34 HRc
36 HRc
40 HRc
Back Reflection Diffraction Patterns 46 50
Figure 5: X-ray structural analysis of the diffraction pattern of the crystal lattice of the patterns surface layer
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Figure 6: Dependence of the intensity of the measured signal on the reflection angle. By means of the apparatus-program system, a sequence from experimental measurements of over four specimens was made (Figure 7). The investigations are carried out at the following parameters of experimental set-up: The excitation frequency of ultrasonic sensor is 40 kHz. The measurements are made at 1.25Sample. The distance between the sensors and investigated specimen is 25 mm. The temperature in room during the experiment is 32C. Over fifty measurements about one specimen are made, total over two hundred measurements about specimens with the same hardness.
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Figure 7: Experimental data from measurement of specimens
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For recognizing and classifying of the samples, discrete wavelet transform (DWT) is used. The wavelet transformation is one of the most promising and emerging methods for analyzing of signals. It appears to be intermediate between the full spectral and temporal presentation. The wavelets [4] are functions with soliton like form located on the axis of the independent variable (t or n), with an option of moving along it and zooming (compression/expansion) and having a shape of short wave packets with zero mean of the wavelet function ( n) . At present are known great number of orthogonal basis wavelet functions - the Haar, Daubechies, Coiflet, Symlet, etc., which has the ability for fast transformation [4]. The transformation is realized on the base of an iterative algorithm. The initial signal passes through two filters - high frequency filter G and low frequency filter H. It is estimated that every second discrete value can be eliminated without loss of information. The operation is called reduction of discrete values (binary decimation). There are two discrete sequences obtained - the coefficients of approximation at m=1 a1,k from the filter G and detailzing coefficients d1,k from the filter H. With decomposition at a higher level the approximating coefficients at level m=1 (a1,k) are subjected to similar operations. The detailzing coefficients d1,k reflect mainly the high frequency noise, while the approximation coefficients a1,k reflect the characteristics of the original signal. The process of decomposition can be performed sequentially (pyramidal algorithm of Mallat [2, 5]), where the signal is decomposed of many low frequency and high frequency components. The obtained as a result wavelet coefficients are applied and researched as a symptoms for recognition. It is used one of the most frequently used parametric classifiers - kNN [3]. By applying of DWT for a synthesis of attribute space of the classifier, two basic effects are sought as follows: Elimination of the heuristical approaches by means of strictly mathematical grounding of the procedures about formation of the attribute spaces; Reduction of the attribute space. Training and control samples are formed by the output data. The training sample is formed according to the method of naturally-random samples with a repeated choice, through a random selection of the numbers of realizations. The sample has a size of N=150. The control sample, with a size N=50, is composed by means of a selection of realizations which are not included in the training sample without a repeated choice. By means of the training sample symptoms are formed with fast discrete wavelet transform (DWT) realized according to Mallat algorithm with wavelets of Haar, Dobeshi 2, 3, Simlet 1, 3 and Koiflet 1, 3. The obtained wavelet coefficients a[n] and d[n], after such realized transformation, are investigated in the quality of symptoms about classification together with a classifier operating by virtue of the method of k-nearest neighbours at =3 [3,4]. At the same time with the formation of attribute space, a reduction is accomplished which is determined by the character of performed wavelet transformation. The selection of informative symptoms about classification is fulfilled according to the method of sequential rejection. By means of such synthesized classifier, classification of independent control sample is performed. The best results are obtained during application of wavelets of Haar (Figure 10 and Figure 11) and Simlet 1 (Figure 8 and Figure 9) through utilization of the approximation a8[n] and detail d8[n] coefficients of decomposition level, respectively m=8 and 9 in the quality of symptoms about classification. The investigations are made on filtered (Figure 8 and Figure 10) and non-filtered data (Figure 9 and Figure 11). The filtration consists in removal of carrying component with high frequency. After analyzing the data, it is established that clearer distinction of the symptoms is obtained at filtered data, which is due to this that it is operated only with the signal shell as well as the influence of high frequency signal is eliminated because at the moment it does not carry useful information about the object. The analysis of received errors shows high accuracy of classification above 95% and proper classifying of specimens during utilization of filtered signal and application of Dobeshi 1 wavelets. During application of Haar wavelets, around 85% recognition is received.
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Detail Coefficients 25 20 15 d
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Figure 8: Experimental data from measurement of 40Cr steel during application of Dobeshi 1 wavelets and with filtration of carrier frequency
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Figure 9: Experimental data from measurement of 40Cr steel during application of Dobeshi 1 wavelets and without filtration of carrier frequency
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Figure 10: Experimental data from measurement of 40Cr steel during application of Haar wavelets and with filtration of carrier frequency
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Figure 11: Experimental data from measurement of 40Cr steel during application of Haar wavelets and without filtration of carrier frequency
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3. CONCLUSION
The good primary results show that the development of a portable ultrasonic analyzer of materials is possible as well as it is based on the methods for recognizing of patterns and is realized by a microcontroller. The investigations of authors are orientated to the following directions increase of the data base, investigation with ultrasonic sensors operating on higher frequencies, elimination of the influence of oxides and other impurities on the surface of investigated specimens. In these directions, attempts are made which show reliable results.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was carried out in the framework of the DRNF 02/9 project titled "Design and development of a device for non-contact ultrasonic investigation of materials aimed at embedding in automated manufacture systems ", financed by the National Science Fund of the Bulgarian Ministry of Education, Youth and Science.
REFERENCES
[1] Karpur: Split-spectrum technique as a preprocessor for enhanced reliability in ultrasonic signal analyses, Material Evaluation/June 1992 , p.793. [2] Mallat S., Multiresolution approximations and wavelet orthogonormal bases of L2(R), Trans. Amer, Math. Soc., 315:69--87, 1989 [3] Marques de Sa J.P. Pattern recognition. Concepts, methods, and applications., Springer, 2001 [4] Smolencev N. N., Base wavelet theory. Wavelets in MATLAB, DMK Press, Moscow, 2005 [5] Vetterli M., Wavelets, Approximation, and Compression, IEEE Signal Processing Magazine, September 2001, 59-73
98
RaDMI 2010
ACTUALITY OF THE APPLICATION OF TRIBOLOGICAL REGULATORS AT REDUCING LOSSES IN OIL PRESSING FACTORY
1
Vlatko Marui1, Goran Rozing2, Vedran Novoselac2

2
Mechanical Engineering Faculty, Trg I.B.M. 2, Slavonski Brod, CROATIA, e-mail: vmarusic@sfsb.hr Faculty of Electrical Engineering, K.Trpimira 2b, Osijek, CROATIA, e-mail; goran.rozing@etfos.hr 2 Mechanical Engineering Faculty , Trg I.B.M. 2, Slavonski Brod, CROATIA, e-mail: vedran.novoselac@sfsb.hr
Summary: Monitoring was done on 100t/day capacity worm press for oil squeezing. It is concluded that on efficiency of installed capacity affects wearing of working parts and supporting parts which are not in direct contact with oil seeds. Based on the cost of replacing worn parts is performed relative comparison of direct and indirect losses of wear. The dominant damage mechanisms are determined. On this basis, the possible approaches to testing and specimen production from parts exposed to specific cases of wear are defined. Key words: worm press, tribology pair, construction, reducing tribological losses.
1. INTRODUCTION
Worm presses for oil pressing are a typical example of a tribosystem in which wear can not be avoided, but losses can be reduced and efficiency increased by implementing proper tribological practices. Pressing of oil from oil-bearing seeds (sunflower and oil rape) is determined by a variety of parameters which change depending on the type of oil-bearing seeds and means of their preparing, but also depending on the type of the press [1]. The principle of oil pressing in worm presses has been adopted in the first few centuries of the past age, and has not been changed much since. After partial dehulling and steam conditioning, the prepared seed (i.e. grist) is mechanically pressed by the worm press. Grist enters the press and is transported towards the exit by the worm. The pressure rises due to the volume reduction in the pressing chamber, and the oil is pressed. During this process, parts of the worm and the pressing chamber knives surfaces experience wearing. The tribosystem consists of the working parts of the press and sunflower seeds. The wearing is caused by particles of the micro-abrasive SiO2 x nH2O contained in sunflower seeds, mostly in their hull [2]. It is manifested in the form of damage done to some parts of the worm and the pressing chamber knives, the result of which is the lowered oil pressing efficiency [3, 4]. Todays presses have a capacity of a few hundred tons of oil seed a day, which is a significant increase when compared to the capacity of just a few dozens of tons a day presses had in the past. This paper analyses presses used for the final pressing of oil from the oil cake, which have the capacity of about 100 tons a day. Only three years after being mounted, these presses have shown signs of some unexpected cases of wearing. The damage is evident on yokes (which carry the pressing chamber knives) and the shaft which carries worm segments. Also, it is obvious that a critical level of wear is reached on the reductor housing. All this indicates that a detailed analysis of the part replacement cost, as well as the relative comparison of direct and indirect tribological losses is necessary. Considering all of the tribological problems evident in this case of wear, an analysis on the press type EP16 tribosystem was performed, i.e. the damaged parts and tribological losses were analyzed in order to define the approach to be used in dealing with discovered problems.
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2. CONSTRUCTION, DESIGN AND WORKING STATE RECORDING OF TYPE EP 16 WORM PRESS

First cases of unusual wear were discovered on the press only three years after it was mounted, and the approach used in prolonging its duration was, firstly, by welding of the yoke surfaces [5], and then also by welding of the shaft [6]. After five years of working with the welded yokes, it was discovered that they were damaged again. Addition of the extra material of a typical hardness of 400 HB has been proven to have lengthened the duration of yokes for about 70%. However, it was also discovered that a critical level of the reductor housing damage has been reached. The main bearing parts of the worm press are the reductor, housing and the worm shaft, while the working parts are worm segments and pressing chamber knives, Figure 1. The worm consists of worm segments and cone rings which are arranged in a row on the shaft. The shaft is made from five levels, each of which has a different diameter. The diameter is widest on the reductor (160 mm), and narrowest near the press exit where it amounts 151.4 mm. The shaft itself (4355 mm long) has a bearing only on the reductor, and the result of that is that the worm is free and surrounded by grist inside the pressing chamber. The pressing chamber is assembled when knives are attached to yokes which, when their halves are put together, form the chamber around the worm. The construction of the knives is such that the gap between them is wide enough (0,75 mm on the press entrance, all the way to 0,17 mm on the exit) after the assembly of the chamber. These are the gaps that the oil is pressed trough. The size of said gaps is what defines the so called working spaces, the number of which is 7 in this type of worm press. The cone segments enable pressure to rise from the press entrance to its exit, and the way the worm is constructed is what allows the pressure to reach 450 to 500 bars on a local level. It has been determined that the press ceased to function properly due to: - damage on the reductor housing - damage on the certain parts of the chamber surface, and - damage on the yokes.
1-electromotor, 2-reductor, 3-thermometer, 4-dosage worm, 6,7-yokes, 10-oil cake breaker, 12-worm, 13-collector worm, 14- sealing ring, 15-shaft, 17- v-belts
Figure 1: EP 16 press parts overview 2.2. Reductor housing damage analysis Figure 2.a shows the reductor, and figure 2.b a detail of a damaged housing surface. Using the chemical spectrometric analyzer, it was determined that the housing is made of a steel Cr-Mo casting, and the hardness of the surface was determined by a hardness tester, and is between 210 and 235 HB. A detailed surface analysis proved that the damage was done by aggressive media (acidic vapor). It manifested itself in the form of tribocorrosion on sealing and seated parts of the reductor which are in contact with the seated parts of the strainer.
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a) overall view of the reductor; b) housing surfaces damaged by tribocorrosion
b) Figure 2: Reductor housing
Due to the damage done to the reductor housing, the strainer swings in a way that can not be allowed. 2.3. Strainer damage analysis A damaged strainer can also be the reason for a press to cease functioning properly. Marks pointing to damage acquired during relative motion and housing/strainer contact were found on the part of the strainer which is seated on the reductor housing. Marks which could be a result of tribocorrosion were also found, Figure 3.
a) Figure 3: Damaged seated strainer surfaces
b)
a) damage due to relative movement; b) seating surfaces damaged by tribocorrosion
Knife yokes are eroded by abrasive grist particles which, together with oil, flow through gaps between worn-out knives. After analyzing the yokes visually, it was determined that the damage done to them is uneven, not only on working spaces, but also on their volume, Figure 4. When yokes are damaged this way, it is impossible to geometrically arrange a new set of knives to replace the old ones [6]. The strainer is made out of Cr-Mo steel cast, and so are the reductor housings. Hardness of seated parts and the basic material the strainer is made of ranges from 170 to 225 HB. The surface layer of yokes (which is welded on) has a hardness which ranges from 380 to 430 HB.
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a) uneven yoke wear values; b) detailed view of damaged yoke surfaces
b) Figure 4: Typical signs of yoke surface wear
3. APPROACH USED TO DEAL WITH THE OBSERVED TRIBOLOGICAL PROBLEMS

Tribology is not a science for the sake of science [7]. It uses a scientific approach in order to deal with the possibilities of prolonging the duration of those parts which are most prone to wear, so that the cost of tribological losses could be reduced. That is why the approach is based on the reduction of indirect losses. The main reason for that is the fact that the production delay while replacing damaged parts lasts five to six weeks, while work done with partially worn equipment results in not using the press up to its full working capacity. This approach was chosen after performing a comparison between direct and indirect tribological losses, being that indirect losses include length of production delay, reduced press capacity usage and reduced oil-pressing efficiency. 3.1. Tribologically accurate construction The raising need for complex, high quality products has lengthened the list for demanding construction features (real tribosystems) as a parameter for product evaluation. Next to conventional properties (function, shape, dimensions, material, ergonomic and aesthetic properties, technology, cost-efficiency), the need for good tribological properties is in the rise, and construction which meets the legal ecological requirements is also needed [m]. The requirements set up by each of these measurements individually are complex and can be mutually incompatible, but their interaction results in a tribologically and ecologically accurate approach. Its main tasks are creating a shortened (new) product development time, improved product quality and price (cost) reduction. This interdependence can also be seen on the schematic presentation of the tribosystem structure, Figure 5. Tribologically accurate construction is a concept based on the usage of acquired tribological knowledge in the construction stage. Its meaning comes from the fact that a tribologically accurate construction, which also meets the (legal) ecological requirements and recommendations, is an important parameter for the (new) product quality. Tribologically accurate construction begins in the product construction design stage. It is necessary to consider the general construction function where the following reactions have to be the link between the tribological aspects (Figure 6.1): - system surroundings tribological processes - ingoing and outgoing quantities tribological processes A tribological approach to the construction design stage, with the use of available tribological possibilities, should, in the end, result in acceptable friction and wear values (in a real tribosystem - construction). That is accomplished with the implementation of so called tribological regulators which have a basic task of minimising negative effects that a large amount of factors can have on friction and wear. Tribological regulators can be anything from characteristics (shape, material,) to the procedures which help modify the contact surfaces (covering, topography,). Ecodesign (design for environment, green design) has lately been imposed and its main tasks are the improvement of life factors, environment protection and sustainable development. - Improvement of life factors, - Environment protection, and - Sustainable development [8].
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TRIBOSYSTEM STRUCTURES
TRIBOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF ELEMENT SYSTEM
INTERACTION
PROCESSES LUBRICANT TRIBOELEMENTS ENVIRONMENT
PROPERTIES OF TRIBOELEMENTS
PROPERTIES OF LUBRICANTS
PROPERTIES OF ENVIRONMENT
FRICTION
WEAR
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TECHNOLOGICAL REGULATORS CONSTRUCTION REGULATORS
EXPLOITATION REGULATORS
TRIBOLOGICAL REGULATORS
Figure 5: Schematics showing how tribological regulators affect tribosystem structure [8] 3.2. Choice of material and protection from seating reductor surfaces wear Being that tribocorrosion is the dominant mechanism in damaging of seated and sealing reductor surfaces, noncorrosive steel x10CrNiTi18-9 was chosen as a variant (experimental) material. After the difference between after-wear and nominal measurements has been determined, the technology which uses treatment of worn and construction of replacing housing surfaces was chosen. The variant material was used to construct semicircular parts. Pre-arranged seating reductor housing surfaces were replaced with the semicircular parts constructed according to the necessary dimensions. Being that there is a possibility of penetration of the aggressive medium (acid vapor), its corrosive effect, and corrosion formation within the shutter, slots were constructed on the outside of the semicircles. Silicon seals were set inside the slots, and semicircles were fixed into a prepared basic reductor housing material using a special fixing device, Figure 6.
a) b) Figure 6: Recovered and implemented reductor (a) and a fixing device (b)
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LUBRICATION
CONTACT
3.3. Choice of material and protection from seating strainer surfaces wear Identification of nominal damaged pressing chamber knife carrier measures and the technology used for treatment and construction of replacing worn-out positions were treated in the same way as damaged reductor housings. Pre-prepared seating surfaces in contact with the reductor housing were replaced with semicircles with necessary dimensions, which were then fixed onto the pre-prepared basic strainer material (Figure 7) using the said fixing device.
Figure 7: Semicircles mounted on seating strainer surfaces 3.4. Choice of material and protection from strainer yokes wear Being that erosion by abrasive particles is the dominant mechanism in damaging of the yoke surfaces, Cr-Mo refining steel was chosen as the basic material out of experimental materials used for replacement. It was used for construction of semi-links which were then tempered and loosened at about 400 HB. Semi-links were constructed so that they can easily be replaced. Before they are mounted, dimensional control is carried out so resistance to wear could be determined once they are used in the press. The semi-link image is shown in Figure 8.
Semi-links of smaller radius
Semi-links of larger radius
Figure 8: Semi-links made out of experimental material
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4. CONCLUSION
Being that the choice of material and protective layer of the working press parts can directly influence the working time of the press, the approach is based on a type of construction which is tribologically functional. In this case, the approach was chosen with which the suitable construction solution can enable more resistance to dominant wear mechanisms, and which also makes the replacement of the worn-out parts easier. This kind of tribological approach can be validated by comparing the results of previously acquired sample-part lab analysis results with the results of an analysis carried out while the press is working. Direct expenses in this observed case of a worm press wear include disassembling costs for the worn-out parts, worn-out parts transport and machine treatment and preparing, new semicircle and semi-link construction cost, and the construction cost of the afore mentioned fixing devices. Five to six weeks long production delay due to replacement and/or restoration of the damaged parts leads to a high amount of tribological losses. That is especially evident if other unplanned delays occur during a campaign. However, additional attention has to be paid to complete wearing out of some cone segments and shaft surface segments. Previous studies have shown that the duration of working press parts also depends on the share of abrasives in grist, i.e. that sunflower hybrids are different according to their dehulling characteristics [9]. Being that our sowing surfaces contain at least 20 hybrids, there is a possibility that a certain batch of hybrids which are hard to dehull is dominant during the processing. With those kinds of hybrids, the share of hull in grist is over 15%, even after dehulling. It is therefore possible that the protective layer of the worm gets extensively worn out which is impossible to determine while the pressing chamber is closed. All this shows that further caution is necessary in: - accepting (ordering) of working press parts considering their named duration expressed in working hours, - organising the maintenance service i.e. implementing occasional condition control on exposed press parts.
REFERECES
[1] Dimi, E.: HLADNO CEENA ULJA, Tehniloki fakultet, Novi Sad, 2005. [2] Schneider, F.H., Khoo, D.:TRENNPRESSEN-VERSUCH EINER BESTANDSAUFNAHME ESPERIMENTELLER ARBEITEN, Fette-Seifen-Anstrichmittel, br. 9, 1986. god., str. 329-340, [3] Ivui, V., i ostali: ABRASION RESISTANCE OF SURFACE LAYERS, VTT Symposium 180 & COST 516 Tribology Symposium: proceedings, Ronkainen, H., Holmberg, K., (ur.). VTT Technical Researche Centre of Finland, 1998. 201-210, [4] Marui, V., i ostali: POVEANJE UINKOVITOSTI PRERADE SJEMENA SUNCOKRETA PRIMJENOM NOVIH POSTUPAKA ZATITE ZA SMANJENJE INTENZITETA TROENJA DIJELOVA PUNIH PREA, 53, Kemija u industriji, 9(2004), 393-400, [5] Marui, V., i ostali: MOGUNOST SANACIJE JARMOVA CJEDILA PUNE PREE U CILJU POVEANJA EFIKASNOSTI RADA PREAONE, 37, Uljarstvo, 1-2 (2006), 29-36. [6] Marui V., i ostali: PROBLEM ODRAVANJA PUNIH PREA U UVJETIMA TROENJA UZROKOVANOG KONSTRUKCIJSKIM RJEENJEM, Zbornik 14. Meunarodnog savjetovanja Odravanje 2008, ibenik, 2008, 169-174, [7] Zgaga, R.: TRIBOLOGIJA U CEMENTNOJ I SRODNIM INDUSTRIJAMA, Zbornik savjetovanja o tribolokoj problematici u cementnoj i srodnim industrijama, Split, 1987, 1-5. [8] Marui, V.: TRIBOLOGIJA U TEORIJI I PRAKSI, Sveuilite u Osijeku, Strojarski fakultet, Slavonski Brod, 2008., ISBN 978-953-6048-44-1 [9] Marui, V., D. trucelj, TRIBOLOKI GUBICI U ULJARI U OVISNOSTI O ZATITI DIJELOVA PREA I VRSTOI SJEMENA NEKIH HIBRIDA SUNCOKRETA, Uljarstvo, 35, br. 1-2, 2004, str. 2530,
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RaDMI 2010
ANALYSIS OF FRICTION IN SMALL ENGINES USING VARIOUS OILS

Stanislav Pehan1, Marko Kegl2, Breda Kegl3
1
University of Maribor, Maribor, SLOVENIA, e-mail: stanislav.pehan@uni-mb.si 2 e-mail: marko.kegl@uni-mb.si, 3 e-mail: breda.kegl@uni-mb.si
Summary: Lubricants producers compete for the best appropriate IC-engine lubricant. So on the market there is a large number of various oils and for the customer it is very hard to decide for the best one. To clear the market situation, four different engine oils, made by two actual producers are chosen and all four oils are tested on the same small IC-engine that is run on the test rig. The sample testing engine is a four-stroke 75 mm3 IC-engine that is powered by outside power source and striped gradually. The working conditions are simulated by the two temperatures and a few speed regimes. The comparative criterion is the internal friction of the testing IC-engine. On the basis of the comparative friction diagrams the final discussion is made that can probably help the potential customer to understand better where the friction is mostly raised and how the lubricant can contribute to this. Keywords: IC engine, friction, experiment.
1. INTRODUCTION
In recent years, the regulation regarding emissions becomes stronger and stronger. The market demand for low fuel consumption and high power vehicles increases. For this reason many research efforts for gasoline engines are focused on the development of gasoline direct injection, variable valve timing, variable valve lift and other technologies. However, in all these investigations the efficient consumption of fuel is one of the most important factors for the automotive industry. In other words, the improvement of mechanical efficiency is an important goal to engine and lubricant manufacturer, because mechanical losses can be very high in dependence of engine operating conditions. The energy balance of an automotive engine at full load is presented in Figure 1. The large parts of the spent fuel energy are the effective power, the power losses with exhaust gasses and with cooling system as well as mechanical losses as auxiliaries [Perez-Blanco, 2004, Descombes, 2003]. Exhaust gas Effective power
Cooling sistem
Auxiliaries
Figure 1: Energy balance of internal combustion engine Mechanical losses increase markedly with engine speed, and at all speeds the mechanical losses become increasingly significant at part load operation. The mechanical losses may be represented by pressure
pm = pi pe
(1)
106
where pm represents mechanical losses, pi indicated mean effective pressure and pe brake mean effective pressure. The mechanical losses include power losses to drive additional engine components pd (fan, pump ), power losses to overcame the aerodynamic resistance of engine moving parts pa and friction p f
pm = p d + pa + p f
(2)
All engine friction losses p f are generated in the valve train, the piston-connection rod-crankshaft assembly and other moving parts. Among these, the friction loss in the piston assembly is up to two-thirds and two-thirds of this is friction at the piston rings, Figure 2. It is clear, that reducing friction loss would improve considerably mechanical efficiency [Cho, 2000]. Some investigations have shown, that a 10% reduction in engine friction would improve fuel economy at full load by 11.5% [Cho, 2003]. Camshaft and Valve mechanis Connection rod Oil pumping Crankshaft Pumps
Piston Piston rings Figure 2: Distribution of engine friction For this reason an accurate measure of mechanical losses is of prime importance [Durak, 2003, Hyakutake, 2001, Soejima, 1997]. If we have multi cylinder gasoline engine, it is possible to determine total mechanical losses (i) from indicator diagram and measured power output and by (ii) the Morse test [Plint, 1995]. In the Morse test the engine is run under steady conditions and ignition is cut off in each cylinder in turn. On cutting out a cylinder the dynamometer is rapidly adjusted to restore the engine speed and the reduction in power measured. This assumed to be equal to the indicated power contributed by the non-firing cylinder. The process is repeated for all cylinders and the sum of the reductions in power is taken to be a measure of the indicated power of the engine. Another method is the motoring test, which is suitable for single cylinder engine also and it is possible to estimate each frictional components. It has to be kept in mind that by motoring the engine (the engine is driven without firing) the results are not truly representative of a firing engine since the cylinder pressure and temperature are significantly reduced, but they indicate the trends [Stone, 1995]. In fact the precise measurement of these losses is a particularly difficult problem, to which no completely satisfactory solution exists. This problem is even bigger if the friction in small engine has to be determined. This paper focused on the friction of a small gasoline single cylinder engine Suzuki with displacement of 75ccm. At first, an inexpensive test bed for friction determination is built-up, which enables to determine the friction torque as a measure of friction in two ways. Then, using the motoring test, the friction of several engine components is determined. At the end the experimental results of some different engine oils are presented. On the basis of experimentally obtained results, the potentials for an improvement of the mechanical efficiency of the engine are given.
2. FRICTION TEST RIG

In order to build up a test stand for friction measurement of small engines, some specifications have to be taken into consideration: (i) suitability to the expected friction torque of the complete engine, (ii) covering maximum engine speed, (iii) conditioning unit oil temperature in the range from 40 to 120oC by accuracy 1oC, (iv) conditioning unit for coolant temperature in the range from 40 to 100oC by accuracy 1oC, (v) the ambient temperature as well as air temperature within 28oC 2oC and (vi) torque related pressure measurement accuracy has to be better than 0.01 bar .
107
Keeping this in mind the friction test rig is conceived, designed and manufactured at our Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Figure 3. Air input
fan Chamber to keep the constant temperature Opposite weight Throttle Air output Engine fixation Oil pan Oil input Oil conditioning Cooling spiral Heater Drive motor Basic platform Oil pump Clamp Oil output Torque transducer Spindle Coolant conditioning Engine cylinder Lever Inductive transducer to measure the movement
Figure 3: Friction test rig set-up On the basic platform two smaller frames are built. One frame is designed to fix the internal combustion engine as rigid as reasonable in order to avoid any resonances. The other one is used to fixi the drive electromotor Baumller, which provides power up to 17 kW and rotational speed of 6000 min-1, and spindle, which are connected by belt transmission with gear ratio 1.82 of gear multiplicator, to enable the engine speed over 10 000min-1. The friction torque is measured in two ways: (i) with inline torque transducer Dr. Stainer Mohilo, STAMOSENS 0160 DM L, in range from -10 to +10 Nm by accuracy 0,1%, placed between the engine crankshaft and spindle shaft, Figure 4, and (ii) with inductive transducer to measure the movement of the joint spindle electromotor, Figure 4.
Figure 4: Torque transducer and inductive transducer The measurement with the torque transducer is much more expensive than the one with the inductive transducer, which is very inexpensive but yields suitable results also. In this inexpensive way, the joint spindle-electromotor has one degree of freedom rotation only. The bearings axle is coincided with the spindle axle. The position of the spindle axle is not changed by inclination. The deviation is measured on the lever, which is fixed on the drive
108
joint and which point of rotation is coincident with the spindle axle. The deviation of the joint spindleelectromotor is measured by inductive transducer, which is fixed on the frame. Over the joint spindleelectromotor, the rod with an opposite weight is fixed. With the changing of the position of this opposite weight the centre of joint gravity also changes. In this way the sensitivity of the inclination system is determined. The conditioning unit for coolant temperature or cylinder temperature in range from 40 to 100oC by accuracy 1oC consists from conditioning chamber to keep a constant temperature. On the inside periphery of this chamber the heater spiral is build to heat the cylinder. To output the air, the pipe is integrated into the lower side of the chamber. In this pipe the regulating throttle can be adjusted manually. The conditioning unit for oil temperature in range from 40 to 120oC by accuracy 1oC consists from special external heat exchanger to heat and cool the engine oil. This exchanger is completed in the form of the cylindrical vessel, where two spiral pipes are placed. Through the thinner pipe the engine oil is flowed, through the wider pipe the cooling water from water refrigerator is flowed. The engine oil and cooling water are flowed in opposite direction. As transmissible medium the engine oil is used, which fulfils the remaining volume of the heat exchanger. To heat the engine oil, the heating spiral in lower part of heat exchanger is used. To pump oil from engine to heat exchanger, the oil pump, which enables the oil flow of 1500 1itres/min, 7000 min-1 is used. This oil pump is driven by frequently controlled electromotor. On this way the oil flow is arrangement. The oil pressure is controlled also. The oil temperature is measured with thermo-element in oil pan meanwhile the cylinder temperature is measured with thermo-element on the cylinder wall. The signals from these thermo-elements K TYP - NiCr - Ni are guided to National Instrument SCXI input/output device and to Lab View program on PC. By the comparison of actual and required temperatures, the PC controls the activity of conditioning units for air, oil and coolant temperatures over control unit.
3. FRICTION MEASUREMENT OF ENGINE COMPONENTS

The friction analysis is performed on single cylinder four stroke air cooled engine with displacement of 75 cm3 on our friction test rig. The ambient temperature was 28C 2C, the cylinder temperature was 120C 1C and the oil temperature was 90C 1C. All measurements are performed at rotational speeds of 1000 min-1, 2000 min-1, 3000 min-1, 4000 min-1 and 5000 min-1, using engine oil Castrol SAE 5W40. The measure the friction of individual components of the engine, the strip down analysis is used. By progressive removal of various components, the distribution of friction losses in the engine is determined. Before starting a measurement series, the engine has been motored at least for 30-60 minutes in order to stabilize the friction. During this stabilization, the engine speed has been rated speed while oil and coolant are conditioned to the specific temperatures of the particular test. Before each measurement, the engine has to be fully stabilized. During the analysis of the speed curve, therefore the duration of about 10 to 15 minutes has been necessary. Each measurement has been repeated three times in order to check for trends. The measurements were only valid if the results of all three measurements were within a tolerance of 0.3% of their mean value of friction torque. Immediately after every test series the inline torque transducer has been checked for a zero offset. Therefore the drive shaft was disconnected and the zero-torque output was repeated two times after having turned the torque transducer to different various angular positions. As long as the zero offset was stable and within equipment specific limits, the recent results were corrected by measured zero offset. If a zero-offset was found to differ significantly from the recent checks, the torque measurement equipment has been checked and the recent measurements repeated. 3.1 Reliability of measurements repetition of tests The first measurement of the friction torque was done at rotational speed 1000min-1and than at 2000min-1. This first set was repeated two times. The next set of measurements starts at 3000min-1, than at 4000min-1 and at 5000min-1. This set from three rotational speeds was also repeated twice. Because of reliability, every measurement has repeated three times and always all requirements have to be implemented. Regarding the requirements of measurement, some accuracy regarding measured values of ambient, oil and cooling temperatures as well as torque friction have been fulfilled at all regimes. For example, the measured temperatures during the measurement at one operating regime are given on figure 5.
109
Tam [oC]
30
Tcyl [oC]
121
Cylinder temperature Tcyl

120
Toil [oC]
91
28
90
Ambient temperature Tam

26 0 5 10 15
Oil temperature Toil

119 0 5 10 15
89
Time [min]
Time [min]
10
15
Time [min]
Figure 5: The temperatures variations during the time of measurement By three times repeating the measurements at one operating regime, the deviations of friction torque are within the acceptable limits, figure 6.
1,2 1,19 1,18 1,17 1,16 1,15 1,14 0 5
Friction Torque [Nm]
Time [min]
10
15
Figure 6: Deviations of friction torque in three times repeated measurements On the basis of measured values of friction torque, the mean values x =
1 n
x of each repeated measurement

i i =1
were determined. In this case these, the three mean values were 1.1706Nm, 1.1735Nm and 1.1641Nm and their mean value of engine friction torque at one operating regimes was 1.1694Nm. If the parameters x , xi and n represent the mean value, the measured value, the number of repeated measurements, respectively, the standard deviation =
1 (xi x )2 is about 0.0066. n 1 i =1
3.2 Strip down analysis To analyze the friction contributions of engine components, a very appropriate strip down analysis is used. By motoring engine and sequentially dismantling the components, the estimation of several frictional components was performed. At first, our measurement started with a complete engine, Figure 7. In this way, the total engine friction is measured. Standard deviations were 0.0242, 0.005, 0.0061, 0.0179 and 0.0084 at engine rotational speeds 1000 min-1, 2000 min-1, 3000 min-1, 4000 min-1 and 5000 min-1, respectively.
1,4 1,2
1 0,8 0,6 0,4 0,2 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Engine speed [min-1]
Figure 7: Friction torque of complete engine After the friction of the complete engine at several engine operating regimes was successfully determined, the intake and exhaust systems were dismounted, Figure 8. All measurement series was repeated with this engine configuration. Standard deviations were 0.0085, 0.0049, 0.0031, 0.0254 and 0.0247 at engine rotational speeds
110
1000 min-1, 2000 min-1, 3000 min-1, 4000 min-1 in 5000 min-1, respectively. In this engine configuration, the friction torque increased with rotational speed very considerable. Dismounted components:
1,4
1,2 1 0,8 0,6 0,4 0,2 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Figure 8: Friction torque of engine without intake and exhaust systems After this series of measurements, furthermore, the piston and connecting rod assembly were dismounted, Figure 9. All measured series were repeated with this engine configuration. Standard deviations were 0.0056, 0.0036, 0.002, 0.004 and 0.0335 at all mentioned engine rotational speeds, respectively. Dismounted components:
1,4 1,2 1 0,8 0,6 0,4 0,2 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Figure 9: Friction torque of engine without intake and exhaust systems, piston and connecting rod assembly In the next step the valves and tappets were dismounted also, Figure 10. All measurement series were repeated with this engine configuration. Standard deviations were 0.0012, 0.0064, 0.0021, 0.0182 and 0.0089 at all mentioned engine rotational speeds, respectively. Dismounted components:
1,4
1,2 1 0,8 0,6 0,4 0,2 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Figure 10: Friction torque of engine without intake and exhaust systems, piston and connecting rod assembly and valves and tappets
111
At the end, the camshaft was dismounted also, Figure 11. All measurement series were repeated with this engine configuration. Standard deviations were 0.0007, 0.0033, 0.001, 0.0202 and 0.0301 at all mentioned engine rotational speeds, respectively. Dismounted components:
1,4 1,2 1 0,8 0,6 0,4 0,2 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Figure 11: Friction torque of engine without intake and exhaust systems, piston and connecting rod assembly, valves and tappets and camshaft By the difference between the measured friction torque with and without one component, the friction in this component is determined, Figure 12. In this way, the friction in all dismounted engine components is determined.
1,4 1,2 Friction Torque [N m ] 1 0,8 0,6
valves and tappets piston and connecting rod assembly intake and exhaust systems
0,4
camshaft
0,2 0 1000
other 2000 3000 Engine speed [rpm] 4000 5000
Figure 12: Measured friction torque in components of small engine From Figure 12 it is evident that the largest part of friction is due to the piston and connecting rod assembly. The friction torque of this component has a trend to increase with engine rotational speed, as can be seen also from Figures 13-14. Other components have very uniform influence on the friction in dependence of engine speed. Only the intake and exhaust systems are the exception, because these components have the most influence at lower engine speed.
Other Intake and exhaust systems
Intake and exhaust systems

Camshaft
Other
Piston and connecting rod assembly 1000 min-1
Valves and tappets
Camshaft Piston and connecting rod assembly Valves and tappets
2000 min-1
Figure 13: Distribution of engine friction at 1000 min-1 and 2000min-1
112
Piston and connecting rod assembly
Other
Intake and exhaust systems
Intake and exhaust systems Other
Other
Camshaft Valves and tappets
3000 min-1
4000 min-1
5000 min-1
Figure 14: Distribution of engine friction at 3000 min-1, 4000min-1 and 5000 min-1 It should be noted that these friction torques do not represent the actual friction on a running engine. However, the measured friction torque of individual components gives the frictions trend and the friction distributions of the engine components very satisfactory. Such measurement offers a good opportunity to determine the components of critical friction in order to decrease it.
4. INFLUENCES OF OILS ON THE FRICTION

On our friction test rig the influence of various engine oils on the total engine friction was also investigated. The tested engine was the single cylinder four stroke air cooled engine with displacement of 75 cm3. The ambient temperature was 28C 2C, the cylinder and oil temperatures was 120C 1C and 90C 1C, respectively as well as 140C 1C and 105C 1C of cylinder and oil temperatures, respectively. All measurements were performed at two rotational speeds of 3000 min-1 and 5000 min-1. At the specified conditions, four various oils were tested: synthetic oil Mapetrol Sint Olimp SAE 5W/40, half-synthetic oil Mapetrol Sint Elite SAE 10W/40, mineral oil Mapetrol Mega Life 20W/50 and mineral oil Valvoline Max Life 15W/40. With each engine oil at each operating regime the measurement was repeated three times. The deviations of ambient, oil and engine cylinder temperatures through the whole measurement duration were within the prescribed limits. The deviation of friction torque is acceptable throughout one measurement as well as between three repeated measurements, Figure 16. Figure 16 presents friction torque of the engine at rotational speed of 5000min-1, at oil temperature of 105oC , cylinder temperature of 140oC, and at ambient temperature of 28oC. All three measurements were performed with synthetic oil Mapetrol Sint Olimp SAE 5W/40.
1,36 1,35 1,34 1,33 1,32 1,31 1,3 1,29 1,28 1,27 1,26 1,25 1,24 0
Tam = 28oC Toil = 105oC Tcyl = 140oC
Friction torque [Nm]
= 1.291 Nm = 0.004
5
Time [min]
10
15
Figure 15: Deviation of engine friction torque between three measurements at 5000 min-1 The friction torque of the engine by using various tested oils is presented in Figures 16 and 17. As can be seen from the obtained results, at various oil and cylinder temperatures, by using the oil Mapetrol Sint Elite SAE 10W/40 the lowest friction is obtained at almost all operating regimes.
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1,36 1,34 1,32 1,3 1,28 1,26 1,24 1,22 1,2 3000
Mapetrol Sint Olimp SAE 5W/40 Mapetrol Sint Elite SAE 10W/40 Mapetrol Mega Life 20W/50 Valvoline Max Life 15W/40
5000
Figure 16: Engine friction torque at Toil = 90oC, Tcyl = 120oC by different engine oil
1,34
1,32 1,3 1,28 1,26 1,24 1,22

Mapetrol Sint Olimp SAE 5W/40 Mapetrol Sint Elite SAE 10W/40 Mapetrol Mega Life 20W/50 Valvoline Max Life 15W/40
3000
5000
Figure 17: Engine friction torque at Toil = 105oC, Tcyl = 140oC by different engine oil
5. CONCLUSIONS
All the requested conditions on the test rig were fulfilled with success. The oil temperatures 90oC and 105oC were kept with the 1oC precision, for the example. When comparing the lubricants made by Mapetrol, one can conclude that the lowest friction is ensured by the semi synthetic oil Mapetrol Sint Elite SAE 10W-40, just slightly worse is the synthetic oil Mapetrol Sint Olimp SAE 5W-40, while the mineral oil Mapetrol Mega Life 20W-50 occupies the lat position. The Valvoline Max Life 15W-40 is slightly worse than the best competitor. Obviously, on the basis of this very limited test it is hard to determine the most appropriate lubricant, especially, because the measurement conditions were semi constant and surely did not captured all the decisional influences. To make a more qualitative estimation much more test would be necessary.
REFERENCES
[1] Cho, M.R., D.Y. Oh, T.S. Moon, D.C. Han, 2003, Theoretical evaluation of the effect of crank offset on the reduction of engine friction, Proc. Instn. Engrs, Part D: J. Automobile Engineering, 217, pp. 891-898. [2] Cho, S.-W., S.-M. Choi, C.S. Bae, 2000, Frictional modes of barrel shaped piston rings under flooded lubrication, Tribology International, 33, pp. 545551. [3] Descombes, G., F. Maroteaux, M. Feidt, 2003, Study of the interaction between mechanical energy and heat exchanges applied to IC engines, Applied Thermal Engineering, 23, pp. 20612078. [4] Durak, E., C. Kurbanoglu a, A. Bykloglu, H. Kaleli, 2003, Measurement of friction force and effects of oil fortifier in engine journal bearings under dynamic loading conditions, Tribology International 36, pp. 599 607. [5] Hyakutake, T., M. Inagaki, M. Matsuda, N. Hakamada, Y. Teramachi, 2001, Measurement of friction in timing chain, JSAE Review, 22, pp. 343347. [6] Plint, M., A. Martyr, 1995, Engine testing, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford. [7] Perez-Blanco, H., 2004, Experimental characterization of mass, work and heat flows in an air cooled, single cylinder engine, Energy Conversion and Management, 45, pp. 157169. [8] Soejima, M., Y. Wakuri, Y. Ejima, 1997, Experimental studies on improvement of lubrication for cam and follower, JSAE Review, 18, pp. 301 322. [9] Stone, R., 1995, Introduction to internal combustion engines, Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc. Warrendale, USA.
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RaDMI 2010
APPLICATION OF MODAL ANALYSIS IN THE IDENTIFICATION OF VIBRATION OF TECHNOLOGICAL EQUIPMENT

Radomir Slavkovic1, Zvonimir Jugovic2, Ivan Milicevic3, and Marko Popovic 4
2
Technical Faculty, Cacak, SERBIA, e-mail: slavkovic@tfc.kg.ac.rs e-mail: zvonko@tfc.kg.ac.rs, 3 e-mail: ivanmil@tfc.kg.ac.rs, 4 e-mail: marko@tfc.kg.ac.rs
Summary: Modal analysis can be applied to identify the vibration of the mining machine for surface mining, construction machinery, technical equipment and metal processing industry, etc. Specifically developed elements which provide machine support to the ground are used in modern mechanical engineering for machine tools founding. These elements ensure accurate leveling of the machine tool and vibroisolation of machines, in case of elastic support elements. Inappropriate selection of the support elements results in a series of undesired effects during processing. The paper presents the method of analysis of elastic-founded machine tools by the application of dynamics of rigid body system. The stated method enables testing of the modeled founding technology, particularly dynamic response of the elastic support, prior to the elaboration and implementation of the elastic founding elements. It is the frequency characteristics of the modeled structure processed by the developed software based on the presented analysis that enables testing of the structure. Keywords: modal analysis, mining equipment, construction machinery, machine tool, dynamics analysis, frequency characteristics.
1. INTRODUCTION
Technical and technological requirements of modern production as well as those referring to the protection of the environment from excessive vibration and noise have instigated new initiatives in the field of research and development of machine engineering technologies. The attention has been particularly focused on the study of the dynamic behavior of the processing systems defined by the intensity and nature of vibration during processing. As the dynamic behavior greatly influences quality of the processing systems and the method of machine tools founding has significant impact on characteristics of the founded systems, machine tools founding in modern mechanical engineering is considered a notable issue. The process of machine tools founding can be approached from two aspects, i.e. Machine tools founding which includes previously identified support joints or supporting structure joint to the ground, and The analysis of static and dynamics of machine tools supporting structures and the influence that vibrations have on both processing and the environment suggest that the support joints or joints to the ground should be defined prior to the modeling of the supporting structure.
2. DYNAMICS OF MACHINE TOOLS SUPPORTING STRUCTURES

The first step in the dynamics analysis of machine tools is the structural modal analysis based on the three modeling methods, i.e. structure modeling by the concentrated masses, structure modeling by finite elements, and structure modeling by continuous beam.
115
The analysis of the dynamics of machine tools founded on elastic support presented in this paper is primarily based on structure modeling by box-shaped continuous beam whereby substructures based on box-shaped beams are of different densities, which depends on the inner density rate (number and distribution of elements in the structure gears, spindles, wall thickness, etc.), [7], [8], [10]. 2.1 Differential oscillation equations The processing system resting upon the floor via elastic support produces damped oscillations described by the equation (1), [3], [5], [8]. && + [ B ] & + [ K ]{ } = {F } (1) [M ]
{}
{}
where: [M] mass matrix of the structure modeled by the rigid body system [B] damping matrix of elastic-viscous joints in the modeled structures, { } vector of generalized coordinates of inertia centers in the rigid systems, { & } vector of generalized velocities of inertia centers in rigid systems, && } vector of generalized acceleration of inertia centers in rigid systems, { [K] matrix of rigidity of elastic-viscous joints in the modeled structures, {F} load vector in the modeled structure. If vector {} is replaced with vector {} expressed by (2), the equation system (1) becomes the equation system (3): (2) { } = { 0 } e t
[ A]{& } + [ D ]{ } = {F } ,
(3)
i.e. reduced dynamics equation, [2], [3] in which : [ 0 ] [ M ] [ A] = M B [ ] [ ] [ M ] [ 0] [ D] = 0 [ ] [ K ] && & & = { } & , { } = { }
(4) (5)
{} {}
{}
(6)
{0 F } n 1 {F } = {F } n 1 {0F } = {0} (i = 1, 2,.....n) {F } = {Fi } (i = 1, 2,.......n)
(7) (8) (9)
where: n degrees of freedom of oscillations, [A] reduced mass matrix, [D] reduced rigidity matrix, and {F} load vector In the stated matrices, rigidity submatrix [K] is expressed by (10), i.e.: [ K ]ii [ K ]iN [K ] = [ K ]N 1 [ K ]NN Matrix blocks [K]j,k (j, k = 1, 2,,N) are obtained from the equation (11). Oj Oj T 0 0 s T K T s s s Os Os ( j = k ) sN j [ K ] j ,k = T Ok Oj 0 0 s Ts Os K s Ts Os ( j k ) s N , j k
(10)
(11)
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Submatrices [Kss] are obtained according to (12): 0 0 0 0 cxs 0 0 cy 0 0 0 0 s 0 0 cz s 0 0 0 s Ks = ; (s = 1, 2, ..., N0) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 where N number of rigid bodies in the modeled structure, N0 number of elastic joints in the modeled structure,
O
(12)
Ts0 j - transformation matrix from s-coordinate system from point s into the absolute coordinate system (null Os
system) into point j. Other transformation matrices are formed analogous to this matrix, i.e. cxs , cys , czs the elastic support rigidity in point s, orientated towards coordinate axes of the local coordinate system (scoordinate system). Mass matrix is formed according to (13): [ M ]1 0 . . 0 [ M ]2 . . 0 0 (13) [M ] = . . . . 0 . . . . . . . . [ M ]N . where: [M]i matrix block composed according to (14), (i = 1, 2, , N) 0 0 0 0 M i 0 0 M 0 0 0 0 i 0 0 Mi 0 0 0 (14) [ M ]i = 0 0 0 J J J ; (i = 1, 2, , N) 11i 12 i 13i 0 0 0 J 21i J 22i J 23i 0 0 J 31i J 32i J 33i 0 Matrix elements (14) are as follows: Mi mass of i-rigid body, J11i = Jxi ; J22i = Jyi ; J33i = Jzi axial moments of masses inertia for the axes parallel to the ones of the absolute coordinate system whereby the axes pass through the inertia center of the i-rigid body, orientated as absolute J12i = J 21i = J xyi = J yxi axes, J13i = J 31i = J xzi = J zxi centrifugal moments of inertia of the i-rigid body for the axes parallel to the J 23i = J 32i = J yzi = J zyi ones of the absolute coordinate system whereby the axes pass through the inertia center of the i-rigid body, orientated as absolute axes. When the axes passing through the inertia center of the rigid body are parallel to the axes of the absolute coordinate system and orientated likewise, being concurrently the major axes, mass matrix is presented by (15): 0 0 0 0 M i 0 0 M 0 0 0 0 i 0 0 Mi 0 0 0 (15) [ M ]i = 0 0 0 J 0 0 ; (i = 1, 2, , N) xi 0 0 0 0 J yi 0 0 0 0 0 J zi 0 Most commonly, central axes of the rigid body are not parallel to and identically orientated as those of the absolute coordinate system. In such cases, moments of inertia are calculated according to (16),
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j = cos( x j , x )
J jk
= j k J =1 =1
(16)
where: Jjk a moment of inertia for central axis of the rigid body parallel to and orientated as axes of absolute coordinate system, J moments of inertia for appropriate central axis of the rigid body. Damping matrix is obtained by (17) [ B ]ii [ B ]iN (17) [ B] = B B [ ]NN [ ]N 1 Blocks of damping matrix [B]jk are presented by (18), i.e. Oj Oj T 0 0 s T B T s s s Os Os ( j = k ) sN j (18) [ B ] j ,k = T Ok Oj 0 0 s Ts Os Bs Ts Os ( j k ) s N j ,k Damping submatrices [Bss] are obtained by (19) 0 0 0 0 0 bxs 0 by 0 0 0 0 s 0 0 bzs 0 0 0 s Bs = (19) ; (s = 1, 2, ..., N0) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 where: bxs , bys , bzs damping coefficients. Generally speaking, the overall transformation matrix from point P of the local k-coordinate system into point Q in absolute coordinate system (null coordinate system) is presented as: [ AT ] [ 0T ] Q 0 (20) Tk P = [ BT ] [ AT ]
0 Submatrices in the transformational matrix Tk P are as follows: cos( , xk ) cos( , yk ) cos( , zk ) = AT [ ] cos( , xk ) cos( , yk ) cos( , yk ) cos( , yk ) cos( , yk ) cos( , yk )
(21) (22)
[0T] null matrix of (33) order
Figure 1: Symbols used for defining differential equations
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Dyk cos( , zk ) Dzk cos( , yk ) Dyk cos( , zk ) [ BT ] = Dzk cos( , yk ) Dyk cos( , zk ) Dzk cos( , yk )
Dzk cos( , xk ) Dxk cos( , zk ) Dzk cos( , xk ) Dxk cos( , zk ) Dzk cos( , xk ) Dxk cos( , zk )
Dxk cos( , yk ) Dyk cos( , xk ) Dxk cos( , yk ) Dyk cos( , xk ) Dxk cos( , yk ) Dyk cos( , xk )
(23)
Q xkP = cos( xk , )(Q P ) + cos( xk , )(Q P ) + cos( xk , )( Q P ) Dxk = xk Q (24) Dyk = yk ykP = cos( yk , )(Q P ) + cos( yk , )(Q P ) + cos( yk , )( Q P ) Q P Dzk = zk zk = cos( zk , )(Q P ) + cos( zk , )(Q P ) + cos( zk , )( Q P ) Values of the previous matrices and transformation are related on figure 1. All the previous symbols as well as those given in Fig. 3 stand for the following: N0 number of the elastic joints of the modeled structure, Ns, j - number of elastic joints of the j-rigid body N number of the rigid bodies of the modeled structure, Nj,k (j, k =1, 2,, N) number of elastic interfaces between j-and k-rigid bodies, Nj number of the elastic joints of j-rigid body, Ni number of elastic joints of i-rigid body, presented as:
N j = U N j , k + N s , j ; N i = U N i , k + N s ,i
k =1 k =1
(25)
O, , , absolute coordinate system, Oi, xi, yi, zi local and i-coordinate system, Os, xs, ys, zs, (s = 1, 2, ..., N0) coordinate system with the origin at the elastic joint to the ground, Os origin of the s-coordinate system, Oi origin of i-coordinate system , P point of the elastic joint in question, Q point of the reduction of the characteristics of the elastic joint. 2.2 Modal analysis In the technology of machine tools founding, generally, by conventional modal transformation []T [B] [] ([] modal matrix), damping matrix [B] in equation (1) cannot be reduced to the diagonal matrix owing to the damping capacity of supports. In such cases, system of differential equations would be harnessed by velocities. In case of comparatively low damping, non-diagonal matrix elements [B] are relatively small, practically having no impact on damping velocity, being negligible accordingly. However, in machine tools, the machine area should be provided with / > 2 ( - force frequency, - eigenfrequency of the system) where nondiagonal elements have considerable impact on oscillation velocity and the force transferred to the ground. Hence, it is reasonable to replace matrices [M], [B], [K] in modal analysis with matrices [A] and [D] described by (4) and (5) respectively, and vector {} described by (6), which results in a relatively understandable analysis by which matrices [A] and [D] can be reduced to diagonal matrices. Thus, in a comparatively understandable manner, we can determine movements and oscilation velocities [3], [1] at elastic supports (movements and oscillation velocities are required for defining both the force transferred to the floor and frequency characteristics given in (40). Modal analysis presented in this paper is based on the reduced dynamic equation of free damped oscillations (26), [4], [5], [6], [9]. (26) [ A]{& } + [ D ]{ } = {0} Appropriate transformation of the dynamic equation (26) i.e. by multiplying by the inversion matrix ([A]-1) the following equation system is obtained on the left (27): 1 1 (27) [ A] [ A]{& } + [ A] [ D ]{ } = {0} If [E] stands for unit matrix and [C] = [A]-1 [D], the result is the equation (28): 1 E C { 0 } = {0} [ ] [ ] or (28)
([C ]
(
[ E ] { 0 } = {0}
(29)
or, if [] = [C]-1 the result is the equation (30) [ ] [ E ] { 0 } = {0}
(30)
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The equation system (30) has nontrivial solutions by {0} if det ([ ] [ E ]) = 0
(31)
By solving the system of equations (31) we obtain n-pairs of eigenvalues presented in (32) = i ( = 1, 2,.......n) (32) 1 (i = 1, 2........2n) i = i The system may be derived with high damping, low damping or without damping. Low damping in the system is practically important for the analysis of the machine tools dynamics whereby the solutions to the eigenvalue () are conjugatively complex with real and imaginary parts, and the system induces minor oscillations around the stable equilibrium point What should also be stressed is that when modeling, one should provide that the structure remains non-symmetrical as this may induce multiple roots. The fact that practical structures are not symmetrical should also be observed. Replacing eigenvalue (32) with the system of equations (28) results in n-pairs of eigenvectors given by (33), (33) { 0 } = { } i {} where {} and {}are real and imaginary parts of their own vectors. If the solutions to the frequent equation (31) are conjugatively complex and different, reduced mass matrix [A] and reduced rigidity matrix [D] may be transferred into a diagonal shape by suitable transformation, whereby the equation (3) turns into the major coordinate shape. This transformation is performed by using modal & } in the following manner: conjugatedly complex matrix [], eigenvectors {}, and eigenvelocities {
{ ( )} = { } ( z = 1, 2,.....2n), (r = 1, 2,....2n) { } = { } + i { }
0z
zr
(34)
zr
Rzr
I zr
The introduction of major coordinates vector {q} presented by (35) and (36): { } = {q}
(35) (36)
T
{{ } ,{ } ,.........{ }} ; z = 1, 2,.., 2n
z 1 z 2 z 2 n
Replacing of the values above into the equation (3) and its multiplying on the left by [] , results in the equation ( 37),
[ A]
i.e.,
&} + {q
T
[ D] {q} = {F }
T
(37) (38)
&} + [ D]{q} = [ A]{q {F }
Where: [A] reduced diagonal mass matrix, [D] reduced diagonal rigidity matrix, {q} major coordinates vector. In this case, eigenvalues are obtained by (39) [D]i ,i i = (i = 1, 2,.....2n) [ A]i ,i
2.3 Frequency characteristics
(39)
Frequency characteristic represents the relation between Laplaces z - coordinate z(i) and p - Laplaces transformation of the exciting force Fp(i). Frequency characteristic is presented by the equation (40) [7]. (i ) 2 n pr zr z (40) [W (i )] p = F z (i ) = A (i r ) r =1 p rr As eigenvalues and vectors are considered as conjugatedly complex values in this paper, the equation (40) transforms into the equation (41) (i ) 2 n R pr + i I pr ( Rzr + I zr ) z (41) [W (i )] p = F z (i ) = A r =1 p rr [ i ( r + i r ) ]
where
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Rpr , Ipr , Rzr , Izr real and imaginary parts of individual vectors, r , r real and imaginary parts of eigenvalues,
[ A]rr diagonal element of the reduced diagonal mass matrix
exciting force frequency . It should be stated that if n < p 2n it is shifts that are included, and if p n it is velocities that are involved. The stated frequency characteristics refer to the inertia centers of any rigid body of the modeled structure. A shift in any of the points of the modeled structure is given by the system of equations (42) ( e + 2) ( e + 4) ( e + 6) [ fk (i )]p = [W (i )]p [W (i )]p zkt + [W (i )]p xkt ( e +1) ( e + 5) ( e + 6) (42) [ fk (i )]p = [W (i )]p + [W (i )]p zkt [W (i )]p ykt ( e + 3) ( e + 4) ( e + 5) [ fk (i )]p = [W (i )]p + [W (i )]p ykt [W (i )]p xkt where
[ f k (i )] p , [ f k (i )] p , [ f k (i )] p is

the shift of the k-point towards coordinate axes at the occurrence of any
disorder towards the p-coordinate, xkt, ykt, zkt, coordinates of the k-point of the rigid body with (t) referring to central coordinate axes of the local coordinate system, t = 1, 2,........N (43) e = 6t Conditionalities (41) are for the cases when central axes of the local coordinate system of the rigid body Oi, xi, yi, zi are parallel to or orientated as coordinate axes of the absolute coordinate system O, , , . Frequency characteristics provide defining matrix output values of the [u] order (12 N0, N0 number of supports). Each point has six degrees free oscillation whereby any of the degree is governed by shift and velocity. Six values refer to shifts, the other six to velocities. Matrix elements [u] are shifts and velocities towards six coordinate axes. This matrix and support properties (rigidity, damping) provide output disorder matrix which further enables defining the matrix of coefficient of disorder transfer onto the floor. For machine tools anchoring vertical transfer of disorders is practically important as it determines vibrations of the ground. The coefficient of disorder transfer from the machine to the floor is presented by the (44). &i c yi yi + byi y Ryi K py = = ; (i = 1, 2,.....N s ) (44) Fj Fj where Ryi the force transferred vertically to the floor via the i- support, Fj j-coordinate orientated disorder Kpy coefficient of the vertical disorder transfer, cyi rigidity of the vertical i-support , byi damping of the vertical i-support, Ns number of the elastic machine tools support poles onto the floor. yi the shift of the point of support, and & i oscillation velocity of the point of anchorage y In the area where Kpy < 1 an increase in vibration has not been evidenced, therefore we can conclude that the anchoring has been successful.
3. THE APPLICATION OF THE MODAL ANALYSIS

3.1. Example of the application
By modeling structures via continuous support poles, a machine tool (lathe) shown in figure 2a is supported by four ES 350 poles (it was modeled as shown in figure 2b). The discretisized structure comprises five substructures linked into a single rigid body elastically tied to ground whereby 1- lathe stand, 2- main drive gearing, 3 - cross and longitudinal support, 4- tailstock and 5-drill chuck.
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Figure 2: a) Elastically supported machine tool; b) A machine tool modeled by the rigid body system
a) ES 350, b) elastic element ES 150, and c) elastic characteristic of element ES 150
Figure 3: Elastic support element:
The elastic support element ES 350 shown in figure 3a consists of three basal ES 150 elements (Figure 3b), the elastic characteristic being as shown in figure 3c. A rubber element (50 Sh hardness) served as an elasticviscous element. The data for processing of the dynamic characteristics of the discretized structure are presented in table 1.
Table 1: The data for processing of dynamic characteristics Discretized model with degrees of freedom DOF: Inner density rate: = 7800 kg/m3 1=0.5, 2=0.6, 3=0.5, 4=0.8, 5=0.5 Dimension of model elements: ai, bi, ci [m] a1 = 2, b1 = 0.5, c1 = 0.7 a2 = 0.7, b2 = 0.8, c2 = 0.7 a3 = 0.4, b3 = 0.2, c3 = 0.9 a4 = 0.3, b4 = 0.3, c4 = 0.3 a5 = 0.2, b5 = 0.1, c5 = 0.1 Support damping: b [Ns/m] bx1 = 1500, by1 = 4000, bz1 = 1500 bx2 = 1500, by2 = 4000, bz2 = 1500 bx3 = 1500, by3 = 4000, bz3 = 1500 bx4 = 1500, by4 = 4000, bz4 = 1500 Support rigidity: c [N/m] cx1 = 8105, cy1 = 1.5106, cz1 = 1106 cx2 = 8105, cy2 = 1.5106, cz2 = 1106 cx3 = 8105, cy3 = 1.5106, cz3 = 1106 cx4 = 8105, cy4 = 1.5106, cz4 = 1106
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Figure 4: Major oscillation modes of the modeled structure
The first three main oscillation modes of the modeled structure shown in figure 4 refer to the undamped oscillations whereby individual sequences of the stated oscillation modes f0i obtained in accordance with the dependence in (45). 1 f 0i = (45) (i = 1, 2,3) 2 Lai Depending on (45) Lai are eigenvalues of undamped oscillations (given in (46)) obtained by the developed software system. La1 = 877, 487 106 La 2 = 0, 027 106 (46) 6 La 3 = 0, 009 10
a, b) at the point of support 2 and c, d) at the point of support 3
Figure 5: Amplitude frequency and amplitude phase characteristics:
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Any shifts at the points of support 2 and 3 are given amplitude frequent and amplitude phase response given in figure 5. Amplitude frequency and phase frequency characteristics are identical for points of support 1 and 4 owing to simetrically modeled machine structure as related to OXY plane (figure 2b). The presented characteristics are derived by above described modal analysis by the application of specifically developed software system for the frequency analysis of damped oscillations. When processing frequency characteristics required for defining of disorder transferred to the floor some non-diagonal elements in the damping matrix were neglected since in rubber-based supports the damping obtained by the dependence (47) is low, damping coefficient being 0.065). In such cases, oscillation differential equations are not related by velocities. by = (47) 2 cy m
where by [Ns/m] support damping towards y-axis, m [kg] installed mass per support, cy [N/m] support rigidity towards y-axis The presented major oscillation modes and frequency response were processed by the SUPPORT software tool (developed jointly by Technical Faculty aak and Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Belgrade) based on basics of modal analysis with included IMSL routines intended for solving eigenvalues and eigenvectors problems written in Fortran. Identical dynamic responses were obtained at points 2 and 3 induced by the predominant effect of the first major oscillation mode (f01 = 5.37 Hz).
3.2 Experimental verification
Measuring instrumentation for the identification of the dynamics of the founded machine tool presented in figure 2a. The measuring instrumentation comprises the following elements: 2, 3 accelerometer BREL & KJAER Type 4382 (0.2Hz 20 KHz), C dynamic hammer PCB 086B20 (0-500 lb, 0-27 KHz), D amplifier BREL & KJAER Type 2635 (0.1 Hz 200 KHz), E frequency analyser HEWLETT PACKARD Type 3562A (0- 100 KHz), F disc driver HEWLETT PACKARD Type 9122C, Plotter HEWLETT PACKARD Type 7090A. Figure 6a, 6b, 6c, 6d presents experimentally recorded vertical shifts at points of support 1, 2, 3 and 4 via amplitude frequency response for Hz field (050). The captured shifts were recorded at the initial load Fp=100 N. At the measured amplitude frequency response (figure 6a, 6b, 6c, 6d) maximum vibration amplification ranges between 5 6 Hz, whereas the steady operation occurs at frequencies higher than 6 Hz, which shows an inclination towards the productive cutting regimes (exploitation area).
Figure 8a: Experimental amplitude frequency response at the point of support 2
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Figure 8b: Experimental amplitude frequency response of a shift at the point of support 3
Figure 8c: Experimental amplitude frequency response at the point of support 1
Figure 8d: Experimental amplitude frequency response at the point of support 4
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4. CONCLUSION
The comparative analysis of the results obtained by experimental measuring and the application of the above software are presented in table 2. Software obtained amplitude frequency characteristics for points of support 1 and 2 are identical as for 3 and 4, as in real working area of the machine on which the verification was performed (0 50 Hz) the influence of vertical eigenfrequency oscillation f0= 5.37 Hz is dominant (figure 4).
Table 2: A survey of the measured and processed results at 100 N excitation load Measuring Measured Processed Relative Value Designation point values values deviation [%] 1 y1max 0.179 2.1 Vertical 2 y2max 0.159 13.1 0.183 movement 3 y3max 0.178 2.7 [mm] 4 y4max 0.188 2.7 1 fO1 5.3 1.3 2 fO2 5.25 2.2 Eigenfrequency 5.37 [Hz] 3 fO3 6 11.7 5.6 4.3 4 fO1
The comparative analysis of the results given in table 2 one should observe that software-obtained results markedly depend on discretisized model presented in figure 2b as well as on dynamic characteristics of elastic supports (figure 2a). It is a known fact that dynamic load on natural rubber as viscoelastic material results in the increase in static elastic module (Es), i.e. dynamic module occurs (Ed=Es, where is the coefficient of the increase in the static elasticity module). Producers allow this increase which markedly influences dynamic characteristics of the support and hence software obtained results. The lathe (figure 2a) which served for the experiment is made up of the supporting structure, shaft, gears, links, brakes, movable mounting and other elements in the modeled structure (figure 2b) presented via inner density rate () of elements of the model. Precise modeling requires good knowledge of the machine as well as mass arrangement, which contributes to the accuracy of the obtained results. A series of peaks which can be observed on measured amplitude frequency characteristics (figures 6a and 6b) are due to the gaps in machine structures (the machine is relatively old) and considerable influence of the environment (measuring was performed in the surroundings of machines which were in function during the measuring. Similarly, in the vicinity was tramway rail). These factors influencing both the modeled structure and the very process of measuring of amplitude frequency characteristics explain the obtained differences given in table 2. Founding of technological equipment has induced the development of a series of specific methods of founding of technological equipment, as well as the development of specific support elements. Characteristics of technological processes in machine tools have brought into focus the development of technology of founding of machine tools and fine measuring devices, which further has lead to the emergence of a wide array of elements included in founding of machine tools, particularly those support elements in which rubber is used as an elastic-viscous material. In addition, literature provides various methods of identification of dynamic models which represent elastic-founded machine tools. The presented modal analysis of the dynamics of founded machine tools modeled by the rigid bodies system is very suitable for the development of software systems which provide fast analysis of different solutions to founding. Thus, within the frame of this paper the software titled SUPPORT has been developed, based on the presented modal analysis. The software can be appropriate for processing of the pattern of the dynamic behaviour of the machine under exploitation conditions
REFERENCES
[1] Bishop R.E.D., G. Gladwell, M.L., Michaelson, S.: The Matrix Analysis of Vibration, Cambridge University Press, 2008. [2] Krodkiewski, J.: Mechanical Vibration, The University of Melbourne, Dep. of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, 2008. [3] De Silva, C.W.: Vibration and shock handbook, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2005. [4] Hatch, M.R.: Vibration Simulation Using MATLAB and ANSYS, Chapman & Hall/CRC, 2001. [5] Graham, S.K.: Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibrations, McGraw-Hill Companies, 2000. [6] Gawronski, W.: Dynamics and Control of Structures: A Modal Approach, Springer-Verlag New York, Inc., 1998.
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[7] Kalajdzic, M.: The Finite Elements Method, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering University of Belgrade, 1984. [8] Weck, M.: Werkzeugmaschinen, Band 2, VDI-Verlag GmbH, Dsseldorf, 1981. [9] Xiaobo, L.: A state space method for modal identification of mechanical systems from time domain responses, Shock & Vibration, 2005, Vol. 12 Issue 4, p273-282. [10] Slavkovic, R., Jugovic, Z., Popovic, M.: The Method of Foundation of Press Eccentric in the Object Colony Place, 31th JUPITER Conference, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering University of Belgrade, Zlatibor, 2005.
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RaDMI 2010
STATE-OF-THE-ART IN THE FIELD OF TOUGHNESS EVALUATION OF FIBER REINFORCED CEMENT COMPOSITES

1
Dragica Lj. Jevti1, Dimitrije M. Zaki2, Aleksandar R. Savi3

Faculty of Civil Engineering, Belgrade, SERBIA, e-mail: dragica@imk.grf.bg.ac.rs 2 e-mail: dimmy@imk.grf.bg.ac.rs, 3 e-mail: sasha@imk.grf.bg.ac.rs
Summary: The paper deals with state-of-the-art methodology and relevant technical regulation in the field of toughness testing and evaluation of fiber-reinforced cement composites subjected to static loads (flexural and wedge-splitting tests). Fibers are usually added to concrete or mortar in order to improve some of the composites physical-mechanical properties, such as: tensile and flexural strength, impact resistance, shrinkage, durability, etc. To obtain this goal, it is essential to achieve the best possible interaction between the fibers and the cement-based matrix. The improved performance of fiber reinforced composites is most significant when the enhancement of fracture energy absorption capacity (i.e. improvement of toughness) is concerned. The results obtained during the testing of toughness (ductility) can be very important, especially in order to compare the properties of different types of composites, but also to solve specific practical engineering problems. Keywords: Fiber reinforced cement composites, toughness, ductility, fiber-matrix interaction, test methods.
1. INTRODUCTION
Contemporary development trends in the field of civil engineering require constant introduction of new technologies - in order to design and build high-quality, more durable and cost-effective structures. Today, growing worldwide attention is being paid to the aspects of durability, serviceability and ecological suitability of engineering materials, which is lately happening also in Serbia. Contemporary civil engineers are constantly facing new challenges and severe requirements concerning the selection of building materials, as well as up-todate design and construction techniques. Also, the issues of maintenance, revitalization, reconstruction and repair of structures are more frequently coming into focus. Consequently, this requires the application of new engineering materials with improved physical, mechanical, rheological, technological, ecological and other properties in comparison to existing and usually applied so called "traditional" building materials. One of the important products of such development trends in the field of civil engineering is fiber reinforced concrete (FRC) which represents a composite material made with addition of fibers in order to micro-reinforce the otherwise brittle cement-based matrix. Into this, relatively wide group of composites, we may also classify fiber reinforced mortars having in mind the fact that in many aspects (concerning composition, structure, production technology, etc.) concrete and mortar represent the same category of building materials. Generally speaking, fiber reinforced cement composites symbolize special engineering materials based on traditional cementitious matrix which is reinforced by means of evenly distributed dispersed fibers of various origin. Such a concept is not new in fact it is much older than the application of mortar or concrete. It is well known that, for thousands of years, people have been using straw or animal hair fibers in order to improve the brittle behavior of clay-based bricks or tiles. The same problem reappeared in the case of cement-based composite materials. From todays point of view, the solution to this problem seems simple and logical: by adding of certain, optimal amount of fibers (either of organic or inorganic origin) into the fresh mortar or concrete mixture, we can acquire a composite with enhanced durability and improved physical-mechanical properties, such as: strength (tensile, flexural or shear), crack control, resistance to different effects (shrinkage, creep, impact, abrasion, temperature changes, frost, fire, fatigue, etc). However, in order to obtain this goal, it is essential to achieve the best possible interaction between the fibers and the cement-based matrix.
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2. INTERACTION BETWEEN FIBERS AND MATRIX

Interaction between the fibers and the cement matrix represents a very important property of fiber reinforced composites and it has significant influence on their behavior and performance during the service life. A large number of scientists have been researching this topic, although fiber reinforced concrete (FRC) could be regarded as a relatively new engineering material. During these investigations, a whole set of different parameters were proposed and discussed, which are believed to have more or less influence on the fiber-matrix interaction. Today, there is a general consensus among the leading researchers that the most important of these parameters are following [19]: Condition of the matrix (before or after cracking); Matrix composition (types and amounts of component materials); Fiber type (steel, synthetic or mineral); Fiber geometry (first of all l/d ratio, but also the shape of fibers i.e. cross section); Surface properties of the fiber; Quantity (volume fraction) of fibers; Orientation and distribution of fibers (aligned versus random dispersion); Stiffness of the fiber in comparison with matrix stiffness (primarily, relations between their moduli of elasticity and Poissons coefficients); Durability of fibers in the composites alkaline environment; Type and intensity of loading. In order to better understand the structural mechanisms of FRC, one should pay special attention to the parameters regarding fiber properties, but nevertheless those regarding the characteristics of the cement matrix. Also, the fiber-matrix interaction should be analyzed in different loading conditions both in the situations before the appearance of the cracks and after the cracking of the matrix. Naturally, in the case of concrete the most interesting loading condition is tension especially when the cracking of the cross sections tension zone takes place. 2.1. Matrix properties As it was mentioned earlier, the composition and the properties of the portland cement based matrix (first of all, the achieved microstructure of concrete) are having fundamental influence on overall performance of the composite. However, if we are discussing the specifics of the cement matrix in fiber reinforced composite materials, it could be said that basically there are no major differences in comparison with normal (nonreinforced) concrete or mortar. Namely, this kind of matrix is usually based on the cement as a binder, different types of aggregates (fine and coarse), water and eventually certain mineral and/or chemical admixtures. 2.2. Fiber properties A good understanding of these properties is needed for estimating the fiber contribution to the fiber-matrix interaction, but also for predicting the composites behavior. Numerous parameters are of interest, such as: fiber type, physical properties, geometry, quantity, orientation, durability in alkaline environment, etc. As far as the geometrical characteristics are concerned, the dimensions and the shape of single fibers are essential (especially the relation between fibers length and diameter so called aspect ratio l/d), but also their alignment and orientation in the cement matrix. Furthermore, the achieved quality of bond between the micro-reinforcement and the matrix largely depends on the production technology, fiber type (monofilament, fibrillated, in the form of bundles, nets, etc.) or manufacturing technique (cross-section type, shape, surface preparation and so on). Naturally, the quantity (volume fraction) of the fibers has also great influence on this interaction. When synthetic fibers are concerned, the usual amounts range from 0.1% by volume (for most of the field applications) to 1% (mainly for research purposes). For some other fiber types (for instance, steel) the volume fraction may be significantly larger - even more than 15%. In principal, most of the commonly used terminology in the field of fiber reinforced composites originates from the textile industry. For example, a term "denier" which is usually used as a measure of fibers fineness [7], stands for a weight (in grams) of a 9000 meter long staple. Other significant fiber parameters are: equivalent diameter (if the fibers are not round), fiber count, surface area and fiber spacing. Mathematical relationship between the equivalent diameter (d) in mm and fiber denier (Den), if the fiber specific gravity (s, f) is known, can be expressed using the following equation [20]:
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D d = 0,0120 en s, f
(1)
The number of fibers per unit volume of FRC or so called fiber count (Nf) can be calculated using equation (2). Besides the earlier mentioned values, the new variables in this equation are: mass of fibers per unit volume (Mf) in kg and declared fiber length (l) in mm.
Nf = 4M f
s, f l d 2
(2)
By multiplying fiber count (Nf) with the surface area of a single fiber, we are getting the surface area of fibers per unit volume of FRC (Sf) in m2, as follows:
S f = N f d l
(3)
Another geometrical parameter having certain significance in performance control of FRC is called fiber spacing (Rf) and it is expressed in mm. Assuming uniform distribution of fibers with the round cross-section, the following equation for its calculation is proposed [7]:
Rf = K d Vf
(4)
In the equation (4), parameter K represents a non-dimensional constant depending on the space orientation and distribution of fibers and it varies between 0.80 and 1.12, while Vf stands for fiber volume fraction (in %). 2.3 Fiber-matrix interaction before the appearance of cracks This type of interaction occurs during the initial stages of loading, i.e. when applying relatively lower stresses, either in pressure or in tension. Elastic stress transfer exists as long as both the fibers and the matrix are within the elastic stress range. If the used type of loading causes tensile stresses in the composite, in time and/or with further load intensity increment, the matrix will start to crack. However, the discussion of problems related to the fiber-matrix interaction before composites cracking has limited practical importance. 2.4 Fiber-matrix interaction after the appearance of cracks When the tensile stresses in the composite material cross the elastic limit, the matrix starts to exhibit non-elastic behavior, which inevitably leads to cracking formation. First, at lower stages of loading the micro-cracks occur, which later get longer and wider finally forming macro-cracks. Assuming that the tensile stresses first induce cracking of the cement matrix, the so called bridging effect takes place which means that the fibers present in the exact cross-section start to transfer the load across the formed crack. With further propagation of the crack, one of the phases shown in the figure 1 may occur. Namely, there is a possibility of fiber rupture which is marked as number 1, its pullout from the matrix - number 2, fiber bridging the crack and transferring the tensile force number 3, or contact (interfacial) debonding between fiber and matrix number 4. The efficiency of fiber reinforcement and the degree of toughness (i.e. ductility) improvement of the composite will depend on the concrete situation and the dominant phase 1-4 (for certain combination of fiber, matrix and load types). Practically, only several fibers are sufficient to bridge the initial crack which usually has very small dimensions. If the load is transferred across this micro-crack the fibers will stop its further propagation, and more cracks of the same type will form along the length of the specimen. This stage of loading is called the multiple cracking stage and it is typical for most practical applications. In this way, when subjected to usual service conditions the fiber reinforced concrete will rather exhibit a large number of micro-cracks, instead of smaller number of large (macro) cracks, which finally results in more durable composite materials and structures. This mechanism functions in the described way until the certain loading stage is reached which could be titled as the composites maximum load capacity. When this limit load is achieved, the fibers will either break or detach (debond) from the cement matrix. Afterwards, the crack propagation process will continue without further interference.
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Figure 1: Phases (types) of interaction between fibers and matrix [14] There are many factors influencing the value of a composites maximum load capacity, but most significant among them are [5]: adhesion (bond) between fibers and matrix, fiber properties (first of all, type and geometry), volume fraction, spatial orientation and fiber-to-fiber interaction.
3. TOUGHNESS EVALUATION: METHODS AND TECHNIQUES

Toughness represents a measure of the energy absorption capacity of a material and is used to characterize the materials ability to resist fracture when subjected to static strains or to dynamic or impact loads [11]. Under static loads, we can include: pressure, flexure, direct (axial) tension, splitting, wedge splitting, shear, while dynamic loads usually include: impact load or long-term cyclic loads (fatigue testing). In the relevant literature dealing with FRC the term toughness basically applies to composites energy absorption capacity when subjected to static loads most often to flexure. Besides toughness, another frequently used term in the same context is ductility of the composite materials. The improved performance of fiber reinforced composites, in comparison with ordinary mortar or concrete, is most significant when the enhancement of energy absorption capacity during fracture (i.e. improvement of toughness) is concerned. This opinion is shared by most of the FRC investigators, as well as by field engineers (designers, contractors, consultants). However, the general consensus among the scientists and experts regarding the toughness testing and evaluation methods hasnt been reached yet. As it was already stressed out, one of the main reasons for fiber application in composite materials lays in the effort to improve the toughness of their brittle matrix. Usually, the amount of energy absorbed during the testing is quantified by the area under the stress-strain diagram (-), or the area under force-deflection diagram (P-l). The composites ability to resist certain loads and deformations without rupture is generally defined using different parameters, which are usually called the toughness indices. Once established, such parameters are used for design, as well as for scientific research (for instance, in order to compare properties of different types of FRC). The most important factors influencing stress-strain behavior of FRC are: type and geometry of fibers, volume fraction, matrix composition, specimen size, type of load, loading rate, accuracy of deformation measurement equipment, type of monitoring (for instance: servo controlled stress or strain rate) and relation between the stiffness of the machine (frame) and the stiffness of the specimen [5]. The importance of fiber-matrix properties was established and clearly emphasized even in the early investigations regarding steel FRC ductility parameters [4], [6]. However, as it was stressed in Reference [4], these pioneer investigations were conducted using flat, undeformed steel fibers, which were later only rarely applied. Also, the quantities of the fibers were often too large for practical application. On the other hand, as emphasized in Reference [6], the means of deformation measurement and control during testing were not adequate concerning FRC behavior. As far as the load type is concerned, even in the early stages of research it became clear that the difficulties of conducting direct tension or splitting tests are almost insurmountable when it comes to everyday application [11]. Hence, the simpler flexural test was recommended for determining the toughness of FRC (especially in the USA and in Japan, where first large-scale investigations took place). Lately, there are a growing number of methods and techniques using specimens with a notch as a pre-defined location of the first crack. To mention only the most applied, such methods are the Notched beam flexural test or Wedge splitting test. In these methods, - or P-l diagrams are supplemented by stress-local displacement (-w) diagrams. Namely, with the load increment the width of the notch (i.e. crack) will also rise, which is usually registered by special CMOD (Crack Mouth
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Opening Displacement) monitoring devices. This displacement is used during the test as a feedback in order to keep the deformation rate constant. According to the ACI Committee 544 Report [11], the ductility of FRC should be determined by using P-l diagrams acquired through static flexural tests on prismatic concrete specimens (Four-point loading test). As recommended, to determine the ideal toughness index (I), it should be defined as a ratio between areas under P-l diagrams for FRC and reference concrete (measured to the point when the applied force drops to zero):
I=
PFRC PR
(5)
Although theoretically such a concept had no visible flaws, in practice it had to face many problems. For instance, it is not always possible to make identical reference samples. In addition to that, in most cases the FRC testing force drops to zero only after such deformations are reached that are too large for reference concrete. Because of these problems, the final decision was made to redefine the flexural toughness evaluation concept, and finally the first American standard appeared: ASTM C1018:1985 [1]. For the next two decades this was the most widely used method in the world. Applying similar principles, roughly at the same time the Japanese made their own standard: JSCE-SF4:1984 [9]. After that, at the end of the nineties the second set of American standards was published: ASTM C1018:1997 and ASTM C1399:1998 [2]. Finally, in the last couple of years two more methods appeared: ASTM C1609/C 1609M:2007 [3] and European standard EN 14651:2005 [8]. 3.1 Flexural methods When a fiber reinforced composite is subjected to bending, the tension zone of the specimens cross section soon becomes subjected to inelastic deformations and it starts to crack. The size of this, usually called processing zone, depends on the specimen geometry and the loading conditions. After the first crack appears, the - (i.e. P-l) flexural diagram of FRC may have different shapes. As we can see in figure 2, depending on the type and volume fraction of the fibers, we can expect similar initial (linear) part of the diagram, but very different postcrack curves [5]. By analyzing these diagrams, the conclusion can be drawn that curve number 1 represents a case of FRC made with a small amount of fibers having relatively low stiffness. Namely, if the number of fibers bridging the crack is small and they can sustain only a small fraction of the load formerly sustained by the uncracked matrix, then the load capacity quickly drops. On the other hand, if there is a sufficient number of fibers to carry most of the applied force, then the curve might look like the diagram number 2.
Figure 2: Typical P-l flexural diagrams for different types of FRC [5] However, both of these cases (curves 1 and 2) represent similar behavior known as the "Load-softening behavior" and they are common in most of the practical applications (in composites with low to moderate fiber volume fractions). On the other hand, if the quantity and stiffness of fibers is sufficient to carry equal or greater
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load than the matrix in the precracked state (which is represented by curves 3 and 4), the composite exhibits "Load-toughening behavior". Nevertheless, case number 4 corresponds to composites with higher volume fractions (more than 10%) made with stiff fibers (steel, carbon or glass). In the following text, some of the widely used standardized, but also non-standard methods, will be analyzed and compared. 3.1.1 Toughness testing and evaluation according to ASTM C1018, JSCE-SF4 and ASTM C1399 These standards represent pioneer methods in the field of FRC toughness testing and evaluation. The first one, ASTM C1018 is based on determination of energy amount needed for first crack generation using four-point loading test on prismatic specimens. Then, this amount of energy is compared with the energy necessary to reach certain specified deflection of the tested sample. Each energy amount is calculated as the corresponding area under the load-deflection curve. As toughness parameters the so called Toughness indices: I5, I10 and I20 are defined. These indices are ratios between the area under the P-l diagram measured up to the certain deflection value (for I5 this value is 3, for I10 it is 5.5, and for I20 10.5) and the area measured up to deflection - as the point where the first crack occurred. Numerators 5, 10 and 20 are used because they correspond to the values of toughness indices I5 = 5.0, I10 = 10.0 and I20 = 20.0, if the idealized elastic-perfectly plastic behavior of the composite is assumed (see figure 3). Using the above defined indices In we can also calculate the Residual strength factors: R5,10 and R10,20 which are representing the residual strength of material in the certain deflection interval (R5,10 for interval 3 - 5.5; R10,20 for interval 5.5 - 10.5). These R-factors are expressed in % and they are calculated as follows:
R5,10 = 20 ( I10 I5 )
R10, 20 = 10 (I 20 I10 )
(6)
If we assume that the composite made without fibers (reference concrete) represents an ideal brittle material (i.e. that its rupture happens right after the first crack appearance), it is obvious that the toughness index equals 1, and that both of the R-factors are equal 0. Of course, this doesnt apply for real conditions where the registered values of these parameters for reference concrete always amount to In > 1.0 and Ri,j > 0. On the other hand, for ideal plastic materials, the R-factors are equal 100. So, real FRC composites should have Ri,j between 0-100 (higher value of Ri,j means better toughness). Standard presumes none of the parameters (I and R) depend on specimen dimensions, or any other variables (for instance, length of span between supports).
Figure 3:
Definition of toughness indices according to ASTM C1018 [1]
One of the important technical conditions of ASTM C1018 is related to the deflection rate which is measured at the middle of the specimens span, using LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer) deflectometers. The deflection rate must be constant during the whole experiment and it can be adopted in the range 0.05 - 0.10 mm/min, in the case of standard test specimen dimensions: 100x100x350 mm. Problems occurring in practical application of ASTM C1018 method, are mostly related to the accurate determination of the load-deflection point corresponding to the first crack, which is of critical importance because all the other parameters are depending on that first step. Also, it is equally important to provide accurate deflection measurement both before and after the first crack appearance [12]. Basic similarities between the American ASTM C1018 and Japanese JSCE-SF4 standards are in the specimen shape (prismatic) and the type of loading (four-point bending test). However, there are also significant differences. For instance, Japanese standard defines that LVDT devices should be put not in the middle of the specimens span, but at the points under the two forces (i.e. in the third-points of the span L).
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Another important difference is related to the technique of toughness measurement and the parameters used for its evaluation. Namely, JSCE-SF4 standard defines Flexural toughness (Tb) as the area under P-l diagram measured up to the point at which the deflection value amounts to tb=L/150. This limit is completely arbitrary and it doesnt take into account the serviceability criteria [12]. Although this is one of the frequently cited disadvantages of the method, it is nevertheless considered more accurate than ASTM C1018, because it doesnt depend on precise definition of the first crack point [13]. Based on the flexural toughness Tb, flexural toughness factor (FT) is calculated. This parameter has dimension of stress (MPa) and its value points to the residual strength rate of the composite material subjected to the limit deflection that equals L/150. Some of the authors also call this factor the equivalent flexural strength [16]. The value of the flexural toughness factor (FT) can be calculated by using the following equation:
FT = Tb
tb b h 2
(7)
Standard ASTM C1399 appeared as the last one in this group of FRC flexural toughness evaluation methods. The basic difference between this and the other two analyzed standards, lays in the testing technique. Namely, ASTM C1399 method also prescribes that prismatic concrete samples should be subjected to the four-point bending test, but only after it has been put on a 12mm-thick steel plate. This plate represents a special support which has a role to absorb the energy released during the initial load application (i.e. before the first crack appears). When, after the first cracking, the measured deflection of the concrete specimen reaches a value between 0.25 and 0.50 mm the specimen must be unloaded and the supporting steel plate removed. After that, the beam with the initial crack (similar to a notch) gets reloaded in order to acquire the residual P-l curve. During the whole test, forces (P) corresponding to the deflections of 0.50, 0.75, 1.00 and 1.25 mm are being registered. Using these values (P0.50 P1.25), the average residual strength of the composite (RS) can be calculated, as described in figure 4.
Figure 4:
Comparison between standard toughness evaluation methods for FRC [12]
3.1.2 Toughness testing and evaluation according to ASTM C1609/C 1609M - 07 The most up-to-date method for flexural toughness evaluation of FRC is defined by the ASTM C1609 standard. The similarities with previously described testing techniques are following: the main toughness parameters are
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based on the working P-l diagram, recorded during the static flexural testing of the simple beam subjected to the four-point bending; testing must be performed using servo-controlled closed-loop testing system (i.e. on the hydraulic machine with controlled rate of deformation). Prismatic concrete samples are put on the roller supports and the deflections are measured by means of two LVDTs connected to a computer server which is controlling the testing process. The data acquisition (change of force and average deflection through time) is digital and continuous during the whole test. On the registered diagram (see figure 5), it is essential to determine the following characteristic points: First peak (P1), after that other peaks (if they exist), as well as Residual loads (P600 and P150) corresponding to Specified deflections (L/600 and L/150). Using the final diagram, it is possible to determine the total toughness of the composite (Flexural toughness) calculated as the area under the P-l curve. The first peak force on the P-l diagram, i.e. the corresponding First-peak strength (fp), characterize the behavior of the fiber reinforced composite from the beginning of the test until the first crack appearance. The residual strength f600 or f150 (for deflections equal to L/600 or L/150 mm), characterizes the remaining (residual) load capacity of the material after cracking. In order to determine the composites toughness (i.e. ductility), the standard recommends to take into account the total area under the P-l curve (from the beginning of the diagram up to the specified deflection L/150). According to the ASTM C1609 provisions, this value of toughness (rounded and expressed in J) is usually labeled as T150 .
Figure 5:
Example of P-l diagram with characteristic points [3]
3.1.3 Toughness testing and evaluation according to EN 14651:2005 EN 14651 represents the first European standard dealing with FRC toughness testing and evaluation. It is a standardized method used for determination of flexural strength of concrete reinforced with steel fibers or with combination (cocktail) of fibers of metallic and non-metallic origin. As the basic toughness parameters, this standard defines Limit of proportionality (LOP) and a set of several values of Residual flexural strength (fR). EN 14651 could be classified into the group of methods earlier mentioned as the Notched beam flexural tests, in which the diagrams -w are used (stress-local displacement). These diagrams are acquired by measuring and registering the change in width of the Crack opening (CO) during the flexural testing of the notched concrete beam, using CMOD monitoring devices. As far as the required testing equipment is concerned, there is no substantial difference in comparison with formerly described American and Japanese standards. More important dissimilarities are present when the testing disposition and specimens are concerned. Namely, it is a three-point flexural test (one force acting in the middle of the beams span) and the required prismatic concrete specimens have somewhat larger dimensions (height and width: 150 mm each, length: between 550 and 700 mm). Also, the specimens must have a pre-cut notch in the middle of the span (see figure 6). The toughness parameters (limit of proportionality LOP and residual strengths fR) are calculated using the well known formula for flexural strength of a simple supported beam (with dimensions Lxbxh) subjected to the single force acting in the middle of the span (see equation 8). As a beams height, the distance between the top of the notch and the upper surface of the beam is used (hsp).
f R, j = 3 Fj L 2 b hsp
2
(8)
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If we analyze the complete EN 14651 method, it is obvious that it doesnt identify the toughness of the tested FRC as the area under the load-deflection curve, nor as the quantity of energy expended during the flexural test. This may be observed as a certain disadvantage of the method and it is to be expected that, in the next version of the standard, such a problem will be resolved.
Figure 6:
Testing disposition according to EN 14651 (in case of CMOD measuring) [8]
3.2 Toughness evaluation using Wedge splitting test Except the more or less standardized methods for flexural toughness testing of FRC, there are also several widely used non-standard techniques which are not based on bending. One of the most efficient and frequently applied methods from this category is the Wedge splitting test. The procedure was developed by Tschegg and Linsbauer [10], [17], [18], in order to characterize behavior of concrete from the point of fracture mechanics. The wedge splitting test (WST) was approved and recommended for practical application by the RILEMs Technical Committee 50-FMC. The disposition used in this test is presented in figure 7. The testing is conducted on cubical or cylindrical specimens, which have a previously sawed-in rectangular notch. The splitting force is transmitted from the hydraulic testing machine by means of special L-shaped steel elements which are inserted into the notch at the specimens upper side. At the same time, a linear steel support is put on the opposite (lower) side of the specimen. The total force (F) is transferred from the wedge to the specimen in such way that the horizontal force component (FH) is actually splitting the concrete specimen and the vertical component (FV) is additionally stabilizing the crack propagation process. If the wedge inclination angle is sufficiently small, than the vertical force component (FV) has insignificant influence on the test results which was confirmed by the authors experiments. For toughness evaluation, the WST method uses -w diagrams recorded during the servo-controlled closed-loop testing. Local displacement (w) is measured automatically as a width change of the crack-notch opening (CO) in the FH direction, by means of LVDT or CMOD devices. The fact that WST method approves application of cylindrical concrete specimens has significant practical value. Namely, this means that also cored samples (10-30 cm in diameter) - taken from the concrete structure may be used for toughness evaluation, which is not possible in any other static test. Figure 8 shows characteristic P-CO diagrams of two series of concrete with the same composition. The only difference was the fact that one was made with and the other without the addition of steel fibers [15]. As one can see, the total fracture energy (equal to the area under these curves) is many times higher in case of FRC than for the reference concrete. Also, the peak force registered during the testing of FRC was approximately double the force for reference concrete. If we analyze the total deformation capacity of the composites, it is obvious that for FRC the maximum crack opening (CO) exceeds 3 mm before fracture, whereas for the reference concrete this value amounts only to 1,7 mm. However, it should be underlined that the difference between these composites would be smaller if the volume fraction of fibers was lower or if the steel fibers were replaced with synthetic ones.
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Figure 7:
Testing disposition according to the WST method [16]
As the basic toughness parameter WST method defines composites equivalent strength for pre-specified value of displacement (CO). Increment in equivalent strength of a composite consequently implies its higher resistance to crack propagation i.e. enhancement of its toughness (ductility).
Force P (kN)
(2)
(1)
Displacement CO (mm) Figure 8: Characteristic P-CO diagrams for reference (1) and fiber reinforced concrete (2) [15]
In order to simplify the presentation and analysis of toughness parameters, it is common to perform linearization of the registered P-CO diagrams (as shown in figure 9). After that, the total amount of energy (W) is calculated as a sum of energy spent before the first crack appearance (WI) and energy absorbed in the fracture zone (WFZ). In definition of the absorbed energy the fact that in fiber reinforced composites the formation of this zone begins right after the limit of proportionality (LP) is reached (area II in figure 9) has to be taken into account. Once in the fracture zone, all other fracture related processes continue until the final rupture (splitting) of the tested specimen occurs. Hence, WFZ represents the absorbed energy needed for complete fracture of the specimen. According to this, the following relations can be applied:
W = WI + WFZ
WFZ = WII + WIII + WIV
(9)
As far as the toughness parameters are concerned, in order to analyze the influence of fiber reinforcement on concretes resistance to wedge splitting, first we can determine the characteristic width of crack opening in the fracture zone (CO):
CO = WFZ PLP
(10)
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Characteristic width of the crack opening is a property of FRC which allows us to evaluate materials ductility considering its deformation at the limit of proportionality (COLP). A composite material could be considered as ductile if the following relation is valid CO > COLP , or else the same material could be considered as brittle.
Figure 9:
Linearized P-CO diagram with characteristic points [16]
Ductility (i.e. toughness) of concrete can also be expressed by a non-dimensional ductility factor 1/B, defined as:
WFZ W 1 = CO = = FZ B COLP PLP COLP 2 WI
(11)
Considering the previous formula, it is obvious that the ductility factor (1/B) rises with increment of the characteristic width of crack opening (CO), i.e. with increased energy absorbed in the fracture zone (WFZ). According to the authors of the method (Tschegg and Linsbauer), the basic toughness parameter of any composite material is its equivalent strength (fE,j) determined for pre-specified value of displacement (COj). Usually, these pre-specified displacements are having the following values: COj = 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 and 0.4 mm. In that case, the equivalent strength can be calculated using equation:
f E, j = W j + WI CO j + COLP 2,034 G ( ) 2 ac
G( ) =
2 (2 + ) (1 ) 2
an ac
(12)
Where:
an = depth of the notch (mm), ac = cube length, or cylinder diameter (mm).
4. CONCLUSIONS
Regarding mechanical and deformation properties, mortar and concrete could be in general described as particularly brittle materials with exceptionally low tensile strength in comparison to their compressive strength. Hence, one of the main goals in production technology and in practical application of these composites remains the investigation of optimal solutions for strengthening and toughness enhancement of the cement matrix. This goal could be achieved either by modifying the matrix with different mineral and/or chemical admixtures (like, for instance in polymer-modified concrete), or by reinforcing the matrix with short, randomly distributed fibers. In fiber reinforced composites, the fiber-matrix interaction represents especially important material property, which has significant influence on their behavior during exploitation. Understanding the relation between the fibers and the matrix is essential if we wish to evaluate the fiber contribution in overall performance and especially in toughness (ductility) improvement of mortar and concrete. Today, there is a large number of standardized, but also non-standard methods and techniques in the field of toughness testing and evaluation of fiber reinforced composites. In this paper we tried to deal with only a few of
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them, analyzing just the most important and most frequently used static tests, but not dynamic ones. Each of these methods defines certain influential parameters to be applied for toughness evaluation of composite materials. A general conclusion can be derived, that there is no such thing as ideal testing procedure or ideal toughness evaluation parameter. However, we should try to deploy such parameters which are not depending on specimen shape or dimensions, nor on loading conditions. The choice of methods and relevant ductility parameters should be made with respect to existing distinctions between composites made with different fiber types and volume fractions. Also, it is important to mention the fact that some of the analyzed methods take into account the issues of serviceability, durability and preservation of integrity of concrete structures. Such methods do not evaluate the fiber contribution in ductility enhancement to the point of composites fracture, but only up to the certain limit deformation (or limit load).
REFERENCES
[1] ASTM C1018-89: Standard Method of Test for Flexural Toughness of Fiber Reinforced Concrete, ASTM Standards for Concrete and Mineral Aggregates, Vol. 04.02, 1989. [2] ASTM C1399-98: Test Method for Obtaining Average Residual-Strength of Fiber-Reinforced Concrete, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 04.02, ASTM Int., 2002. [3] ASTM C1609/C 1609M-07: Flexural Performance of Fiber-Reinforced Concrete (Using Beam With ThirdPoint Loading), Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 04.07, ASTM Int., 2007. [4] Balaguru P., Narahari R., Patel M.: Flexural Toughness of Steel FRC, ACI Materials Journal, No 89 (6), 1992, pp. 541-546. [5] Balaguru P.N., Shah S.P.: Fiber Reinforced Cement Composites, Mc Graw-Hill, New York, 1992. [6] Banthia N., P., Trottier J.F.: Test Methods for Flexural Toughness Characterization of FRC: Some Concerns and Propositions, ACI Materials Journal, No 92 (1), 1995, pp. 48-57. [7] Bentur A., Mindess S.: Fiber Reinforced Cementitious Composites, Elsevier Applied Science, London, UK, 1993. [8] European Standard EN 14651: Test Method for Metallic fibered concrete - Measuring the Flexural Tensile Strength (Limit of Proportionality, Residual Strength), Sept. 2005. [9] Japan Society of Civil Engineers: Method of Tests for Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete, Standard JSCE-SF4 for Flexural Strength and Flexural Toughness of SFRC, No. 3, 1984, pp. 58-66. [10] Linsbauer H., Tschegg, E.K.: Die Bestimmung der Bruchenergie an Wrfelproben, Zement und Beton, 31, 1986, pp. 38 40. [11] Measurement of Properties of Fiber Reinforced Concrete, ACI 544.2R-89 Report, American Concrete Institute, Committee 544, Detroit, MI, USA, 1989. [12] Mindess, S. Banthia, N.: Toughness Characterization of Fiber-Reinforced Concrete: Which Standards to Use?, Journal of Testing and Evaluation, Vol. 32, No. 2, Mar. 2004, pp. 1-5. [13] Nataraja M.C., Dhang N., Gupta A.P.: Toughness Characterization of Steel Fiber- Reinforced Concrete by JSCE Approach, Cement and Concrete Research, No 30, 2000, pp. 593-597. [14] Singh S., Shukla A., Brown R.: Pullout Behavior of Polypropylene Fibers from Cementitious Matrix, Cement and Concrete Research, No 34, 2004, pp. 1919-1925. [15] uteri J.: Doloanja odpornosti betona proti irjenju razpok, Proceedings of the 9th Slovenian colloquium on concrete "Cracks in concrete", Ljubljana, Slovenia, 2002, pp. 67-72. [16] uteri J.: Vlaknasti betoni visokih uporabnih svojstava, PhD Thesis, Faculty of Civil engineering in Zagreb, Croatia, 1998. [17] Tschegg, E.K.: Prfeinrichtung zur Ermittlung von bruchmechanischen Kenwerten sowie hierfr geeignete Prfkrper, Patent AT-390328, 1986. [18] Tschegg, E.K: New Equipment for Fracture Tests on Concrete, Materialprfung 33, No. 11 - 12, Mnchen, 1991, pp. 338 342. [19] Ukrainik V., uteri J.: Neka svojstva mikroarmiranih betona, Nae graevinarstvo No. 45, 7-8, 1991, pp. 461-468. [20] Zollo R.F.: Fiber-reinforced Concrete: an Overview after 30 Years of Development, Cement and concrete composites 19 (1997), pp. 107-122.
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RaDMI 2010
Plenary and Invitation Paper BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGIES AND PROCESSING EQUIPMENT FOR ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT REDUCTION IN SECONDARY LEAD PRODUCTION. Desimir Petkovi, Jelena oki, Duko Mini
Faculty of Technical Sciences, Kosovska Mitrovica, Knjaza Milosa 7, Kosovska Mitrovica, SERBIA, e-mail: jeladjokic7@gmail.com
Abstract: In this paper, the methods for improving of secondary lead production process were presented. In the observed facility Lead smelter Trepca, environmental requests, but also commercial needs were not met. Large amount of loss with fume gases and slag were identified as main reasons for determining the Best Available Techniques for fulfilling environmental and commercial standards. Also selection of the process equipment used in secondary lead production was made. Characterisation of the waste facilitated an overall process understanding and aided in identifying process deficiencies. Process improvement was aimed at reducing both the quantity of slag produced as well as the lead loss to the slag. And lead dust with furnace gases. Waste characterisation combined with local hazardous waste regulations enabled desirable waste modifications to be identified. These waste adaptations were implemented through process modification. Lastly, treatment methods for the slag were identified. Key words: BAT, environmental impact, lead acid batteries, filtering, slag.
1. INTRODUCTION
The concept of Best Available Techniques (BAT) was introduced as a key principle in the IPPC Directive 96/61/EC (Directive 2008/1/EC codified version). This Directive has been incorporated into Irish law by the Protection of the Environment Act 2003. To meet the requirements of this Directive, relevant sections of the Environmental Protection Agency Act 1992 and the Waste Management Act 1996 have been amended to replace BATNEEC (Best Available Technology not entailing Excessive Costs) with BAT. Thus, for activities falling within the scope of the Directive and regulated by these Acts, BAT must be applied. BAT is defined in Section 5 of Environmental Protection Agency Acts, 1992 and 2003, and Section 5(2) of the Waste Management Acts 1996 to 2005, as the most effective and advance stage in the development of an activity and its methods of operation, which indicate the practical suitability of particular techniques for providing, in principle, the basis for emission limit values designed to prevent or eliminate or, where that is not practicable, generally to reduce an emission and its impact on the environment as a whole, where: B best in relation to techniques, means the most effective in achieving a high general level of protection of the environment as a whole available techniques means those techniques developed on a scale which allows implementation in the relevant class of activity under economically the technically viable conditions, taking into consideration the costs and advantages, whether or not the techniques are used or produced within the State, as long as they are reasonably accessible to the person carrying out the activity techniques includes both the technology used and the way in which the installation is designed, built , managed, maintained, operated and decommissioned.
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A range of BAT associated emission level values (ELV) indicate levels achievable through the use of a combination of the process techniques and abatement technologies. The licensee must demonstrate to the satisfaction of the Agency, during the licensing process, that the installation/facility will be operated in such a way that all the appropriate preventative measures are taken against pollution through the application of BAT and justify the application of other than the most stringent ELV in the range. At the installation/facility level, the most appropriate techniques will depend on local factors. A local assessment of the costs and benefits of the available options may be needed to establish the best option. The choice may be justified on: the technical characteristics of the installation/facility its geographical location local environmental considerations the economic and technical viability of upgrading existing installations The overall objective of ensuring a high level of protection for the environment as a whole will often involve making a judgment between different types of environmental impact, and these judgments will often be influenced by local considerations. On the other hand, the obligation to ensure a high level of environmental protection including the minimisation of long-distance or transboundary pollution implies that the most appropriate techniques cannot be set on the basis of purely local considerations. The guidance issued in these Notes in respect of the use of any technology, technique or standard does not preclude the use of any other similar technology, technique or standard that may achieve the required emission standards and is demonstrated to the Agency to satisfy the requirement of BAT. In the identification of BAT, emphasis is placed on pollution prevention techniques rather than end-of-pipe treatment. The IPPC Directive 96/61/EC and the Environmental Protection Agency Acts 1992 and 2003 (Section 5(3)), require the determination of BAT to consider in particular the following, giving regard to the likely costs and advantages of measures and to the principles of precaution and prevention: 1. the use of low-waste technology 2. the use of less hazardous substances 3. the furthering of recovery and recycling of substances generated and used in the process and of waste, where appropriate 4. comparable processes, facilities or methods of operation, which have been tried with success on an industrial scale 5. technological advances and changes in scientific knowledge and understanding 6. the nature, effects and volume of the emissions concerned 7. the commissioning dates for new or existing activities 8. the length of time needed to introduce the best available techniques 9. the consumption and nature of raw materials (including water) used in the process and their energy efficiency 10. the need to prevent or reduce to a minimum the overall impact of the emissions on the environment and the risks to it 11. the need to prevent accidents and to minimize the consequences for the environment 12. the information published by the Commission of the European Communities pursuant to any exchange of information between Member States and the industries concerned on best available techniques, associated monitoring, and developments in them, or by international organizations, and such other matters as may be prescribed. The BAT guidelines on this web page are not the sole basis on which BAT associated licence emission level values are to be set, since information form other sources will also be considered. Such information includes site-specific environmental and technical data, plant financial data and other sources of relevant information. Due to the widely changing nature of the regulations, lead smelters brought additional pressure on the Environment Affairs Agencies EAA to use other technologies. These pressures, combined with the failure of the Agencies' technology efforts, led to the expanded use of stabilization technologies [1 and 2]. Moreover, poor experience in commercializing treatment technologies have spurred the search for simpler and cheaper facilities to deliver the planned economics. One direction is to find ways to recover lead in useful forms [3]. Schenker [4] reported that the starter battery scrap and subsets of plates were crushed, screened and sink-floatseparated. Lead oxides and metallics were then separately reduced and molten campaignwise in a rotary kiln to low-antimony (<1% Sb) or antimony-rich (2.53.5% Sb) lead bullion. Extensive, automatically operated effluent treatment with a capacity of 70 m3/h was connected to the battery treatment plant. Industrial waste water was also transported for sedimentation and pH adjustment before recycling. A dedusting system installed with 250 kWh electric power for a short rotary furnace (SRF) was used. Schenker showed that clean backwater was collected and partly re-used, while the remainder was fed into the river with constant pH and quantity. Reynolds et al. [5] showed that Engitec Impianti, SPA of Milan, Italy, had successfully designed and constructed battery breaker systems in two European locations and a third in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. The system crushes the
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whole batteries, separates and desulphurizes the battery paste. Plant data also indicates an increase in furnace productivity of about 2530% using feed from the CX system. Worcester and Moenster [6] showed that battery paste could be treated with sodium carbonate to produce lead carbonate paste for smelting in a reverberatory furnace. The slag from such a furnace would be campaigned through a traditional primary blast furnace to produce hard lead. Conversion of battery paste into lead carbonate was carried out in reaction vessels constructed of 316 stainless steel. Lead carbonate so formed was then transported without pelletization to a reverberatory furnace, together with coke, for smelting. The reverberatory furnace was designed for a 24,000 CFM at 150F process gas offtake. The gas was vented to the process trail from the furnace to the baghouse. No cost analysis for running this cleaning system was given. Moriya [7] in his paper showed that blast and reverberatory furnace types are disappearing in favor of direct smelting processes Newly developed lead smelting processes include QSL [8 and 9], KIVCET [10 and 11], ISASMELT [12 and 13], Outokumpo's flash smelting [14], and Boliden's Kaldo [15]. These authors reported that it was permitted to charge the recently implemented QSL or ISASMELT furnaces with moist green pellets, continuously and directly into the melt of the oxidation zone through ports in the top. Dried feed preparation required investment in an additional dryer and complex cooling system and as a result greater energy consumption. The ultimate pollution problem for lead extraction and recycling was both the emissions of toxic dust and fumes and sulphur dioxide gas to the environment and the workplace. The authors said the entrance of the 21st century will be a vary exciting period during which a revolution will be made in lead smelting. In line with that, Davey [16] showed that lead ore or concentrates and recycled material could be introduced into the process without preparation, briquetting or drying, so that sintering was unnecessary. Forrest and Wilson [17] reported the use of a short rotary furnace (SRF) for lead recycling.
Figure 1: representing short rotary furnace operating in Trepca lead smelter The feedstock included lead dross, battery plates and even whole batteries. Pickles et al. [18] reported a process for the recovery of metal lead from battery residue. The process involved pelletization of the residue with sodium carbonate and moisture. The process minimized the sulphur dioxide emission. Gaballah et al. [19] described a new approach for the characterization and extraction of strategic metals, such as (Nb and Ta)2O5 based on combined hydro- and pyrometallurgical processes. The planning of successive alkaline and acid leaching of semi-pilot slag based on the pseudo-structure of these amorphous materials permitted selective dissolution of the economic metals, lower consumption of chemical reagents, less toxic residues and a high recovery rate (85%). Habermann and Rao [20] showed how flue dust and sludge of an arc furnace could be mixed with a carbonaceous material. The mixture was then pelletized and heated at 6001150C to recover the lead, zinc and cadmium. Rabah [21] reported that abating 1 ton of TSP from iron foundries using a SRF furnace would cost US$10001500. Queneau et al. [22] and Kammer et al. [23] gave particular attention to optimizing matte and slag compositions. Because the input waste contained significant quantities of magnesium, aluminium and chromium, avoiding the formation of viscous, high melting-point slag was of particular concern. Soda ash slag was used in the SRFsmelting, similar to the rotary kiln-smelting at Oker. Faced with the problem of handling and dumping soda ash slag, other slag types based on CaOSiO2FeO were used. Fowes [24] showed that the free energy of adhesion was strongly related to the adhesion of an adsorbed water layer on metal oxides. Humphris et al. [25] showed that 60% reduction in SO2 emissions from the Copper Cliff smelter had been achieved through the use of high
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strength gas streams using innovative technology. The development of quench systems has been successful in overcoming spray system plugging problems and coarse solids separation. The Dynawave gas scrubbing and cooling systems have functioned well following some adjustments to the furnace froth column plate arrangement. In order to save energy in industrial facilities, primary and secondary resources such as solar, geothermal, waste process water and cooling systems have been reported [4, 26, 27 and 28]. Several techniques for saving energy have been designed and tested. These include heat exchangers, heat pumps, chemical redox reactions and, more recently, updating the process technology of the industry.
2. EXPERIMENTAL AND METHODOLOGY

The wastes generated by the lead smelting process are: Baghouse fumes: the furnace stack gases are routed through a baghouse, where particulates are collected in bag filters. These fumes are recycled to the furnaces. Stack gas emissions: stack gas emissions consist of the gaseous emissions from both the secondary lead refining and the bullion refining operations of the plant. Gypsum: 10% H2SO4 from the drained batteries is neutralised using lime. The resulting gypsum precipitate is mixed with the slag and both are disposed of to a hazardous waste site. The neutralised water is disposed of to a municipal sewage treatment facility. Slag: the largest contributor to waste material is the furnace slag, which has an average lead content of 9 mass%, but this varies from 0.2 mass% to 57 mass%. The slag is also rich in ferrous and sodium sulphides. 2.1. Description of the suggested method Battery paste was carbonated to convert the lead sulphate to hydrocerussite (carbonate) by leaching with sodium carbonate solution. The solid product was rinsed with water and left to dry naturally. It was then blended with carbon, iron chips, soda ash and lime in a kneading machine fitted with double Z arms. Pelletization was carried out using a lab pelletizer, 45 cm in diameter. 2.2. Leaching experiments of the smelting slag Slag so formed was skimmed and leached using a hot hydrochloric/nitric acid mixture. In some experiments, hydrogen peroxide was used to enhance metal dissolution. The metal content in the leachant was filtered and determined by an atomic absorption spectrophotometer. 2.3. Melting of the battery grids Melting of the isolated battery grids was performed in a muffle furnace, the top of which had an opening providing access for a mechanical stirrer. The grids were first pressed under 100 ton compression load in a hydraulic press to form solid blocks 10105 cm3 in dimension. A SiC crucible was inserted into the furnace hearth. When the furnace with the crucible was equilibrated to the required temperature, grid blocks were fed into the crucible. A smothering or fluxing agent was subsequently added. After melting of the lead grids, the mixture was stirred at 500 rpm for the programmed period. At the end of each experiment, the formed slag was skimmed and the molten lead was poured into a suitable receiver and weighed when cold. 2.4. Particle size measurement Particle size measurement was carried out using a SediGraph 5100 particle analyzer, Micromeritics, USA. Computerized Philips X-ray diffraction equipment, model PW/1710, with Ni-filter, Cu radiation (=1.542) at 40 kV, 30 mA, and scanning speed 0.02/s was used to identify the intermediate and end products of the leaching experiments. The diffraction charts and relative intensities obtained were compared with JCPDS files. The compositions of the metal products were analyzed by an emission spectrophotometer type 3460-880 ARL, Seuces. Lead, was determined as a chromate, while tin and antimony were determined titremetrically with 0.05 M iodinepotassium iodide solution.
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2.5. Determination of TSP level Quantification of the total concentration of solid particles of lead smelting dust TSP in mg/m3 was performed gravimetrically, applying the method given by Rabah [21]. External emissions that may contribute to the measurement of TSP (such as vehicles or other plants) were separately measured and considered. 2.6. Determination of recovery efficiency of the suggested method The weight percentage of the yield of metal lead from the battery paste (Ymr) and that recovered from leached slag (Wml) were determined gravimetrically. The extent of Wml was computed from (Wm-Wmu), where Wm and Wmu are the weights of lead metal in the slag, as analyzed, and the unleached part, respectively. Extent of TSP escape as a percentage, Wtsp, was computed from the relation: Wtsp=Wmp(1(Ymr+Wml)100 where Wmp is the total metal weight in the input battery paste.
3. RESULTS
The production capacity of soft (pure) lead, antimonial hard lead and other lead alloys amounts to 32,000 tons per year. Table 1` shows the composition of the spent acid lead batteries and the fugitive TSP emissions. Table 1: The composition of 100 kg of spent acid lead battery and the pollution level in the existing lead smelters
Figure 2 represents the suggested flow sheet of an updated clean technology process to recover antimonial hard lead alloys from spent acid lead batteries. The method includes 20 steps compared to only five steps in the existing dirty process. From an economic point of view and considering the skills of the man power of the existing plants, automatic, semi-automatic and manual processes are chosen for the industrial plants.
Figure 2: The suggested process flow sheet of the updated clean technology to recover hard antimonial lead bullion from spent batteries. Table 2 shows the energy consumption for 1 ton of spent acid batteries in a case study for an industrial plant in light of the suggested method compared to the existing technology. It is seen that the fuel used in the existing plants is switched to natural gas. Also, most of the steps are automatic in response to manual operations in the
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existing plants. The total energy needs for processing 1 ton of scrap batteries has been converted into kWh equivalent, whereby about 12.5% of the total energy requirement is saved. Table 2:
4. DISCUSSION
In technical communities like Europe and the United States, the existing technology of the secondary lead industry involves 23 successive steps, including separating battery paste by breaking up scrap batteries followed by wet screening [27]. The latter step produces wet cake having about 2228% moisture content. Partial drying is then manifested to decrease the moisture content down to about 8% prior to smelting in reverberatory or rotary furnaces. The traditional recycling technology of scrap battery paste involves the carbonation of lead sulphate to hydrocerussite, Pb3(CO3)2(OH)2 (desulphurized battery paste). Lead carbonate is then reduced by smelting at temperatures up to 1450C. The reducing agents are carbon and iron oxide. In this study, carbon is used to display the following reduction reaction: (1) Iron chips are also used to reduce unreacted lead sulphate as follows PbSO4+2FePb+2FeO+SO2 (2)
Most of these plants, apply smelting without paste pelletization. Problems encountered with pollution control of the industry are solved by installing powerful cleaning and ventilation systems. Although the running costs of these cleaning systems are relatively high, the running costs of the plant can sustain these overhead charges in the case of mass production. However, plants with small capacities and poor technologies cannot sustain the installation of expensive cleaning systems and so the applied technology is dirtier, poorer and the recovery efficiency is rather low (<86%). The existing lead smelters in Trepca use SRFs. Heating is carried out using one burner working with HFO (mazout) and atmospheric air as the oxidizer. Field measurements show that the average fuel consumption rate amounts to 100 kg of HFO and 3600 m3 air per 1 ton of lead. During the initial period of smelting, a higher rate is matched to promote rapid heating of the furnace charge. The available hearth volume of SRF is 2.75 m3 (0.65 m2 cross section4.25 m long). The projected flame moves at a velocity of 2.27 m/s and the tilting angle is about 10. The main disadvantage of such a furnace design is that heating takes place mainly by radiation and partly by conduction whereby combustion products (heat energy and gases) smash into the furnace charge [4]. Rotation of SRF and the projection flow of the hot flue gases would drive out some of the materials in the furnace hearth. The pulp density of the flue gas is proportional to the rotation speed of the furnace, the smelting temperature, pressure and velocity of the HFO combustion products and inversely proportional to the weight of the solid particles. Under these conditions, the flow of the flue gases is turbulent. Laden-flue gas dust is thus readily displaced and escapes as fugitive emissions in the environment. It becomes reasonable to suggest that the concentration level of fugitive dust in the air increases with a decrease in particle diameter. The capture of fugitive solids is conventionally carried out with the help of a wet scrubber. The function of this device is well reported in the literature [28]. The temperature of the flue gases at the furnace exit, under steady-
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state steady-flow smelting conditions, amounts to nearly 750C. The temperature of the flue gas coming out of the wet scrubber exit (Tg) can be computed from: Tg=[mHFOCvHFOTHFO((mwCpw+maCpa)Ta)] (3)
where m, Cv, Cp and T are the mass flow rate, calorific value, specific heat and temperature of heavy fuel oil (HFO), sprayed water (w) and air (a). In the scrubber, a water film coats the laden flue gas particles, whereby capture of the dust can be achieved successfully. The results obtained in this work show that updating the technology of secondary lead recovery has the following beneficial effects and advantages: (1) a high extent of lead recovery is achieved; a high extent of reduction reactions is manifested because reactants are more close to each other; (2) pellets are readily equilibrated in the furnace hearth in a short time and the smelting process takes place at a lower temperature, 1050C compared to 1450C in the existing technology; (3) savings of 12.5% of the total energy consumption per ton of lead; (4) a decrease in the volume flow rate of the flue gases and the laden flue gas dust by 65%; the concentration of the fugitive TSP emissions complies with the law; (5) a decrease in the running costs of the gas cleaning device. The addition of alkalies such as soda ash, lime and silica to the pellet composition is essential. Soda ash and lime provide a basicity index of 0.80.9 to decrease the melting point of the slag so formed. This effect helps the molten lead droplets to freely diffuse through the porous texture of the reacted pellets, coalesce and sink to the bottom of the SRF hearth. It follows that a small portion of molten lead or other heavy metals go into the slag. In this context, pellets of 10 mm diameter are acceptable as they allow paths for the free movement of molten lead. However, pellets of about 10 mm diameter were found unsuitable as they trap an excessive quantity of metal in their pore systems. It was found that small lead smelters who are heavily polluting would not implement any control options in response to a high charge per ton of TSP emitted. This cost may exceed estimates of these lead smelters to abate emissions. For plants with two or more SRFs using mazout, the target may be affected by installing and operating cleaning devices, comparatively low in price, such as a wet scrubber. Other cleaning systems such as bag filters are not acceptable on an economic basis. They would further increase the charge of abating emissions up to >8500 L.E. per ton of TSP. This type of cleaning system is only suitable for abating emissions in plants applying updated technology with high mass production.
5. SLAG TREATMENT METHODS

Once all of the above steps have been implemented, it is appropriate to select a slag treatment method. Aside from economic considerations, the following technological criteria were used to evaluate various secondary lead slag treatment options: Ability to produce a discard slag or benign waste stream that is non-hazardous, i.e. complies with heavy metal TCLP regulations or equivalent, thus requiring less expensive disposal. Recovery of lead component of slag for return to furnace. Applicability of method to local refinery slag 5.1. ENGITEX CX Process One of the most developed battery breaking and processing technologies is the ENGITEX CX Process (Lamm, 1988) which has been approved as Best Available Technology (BAT) by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). There are two aspects of the ENGITEC CX process that are pertinent in this case: The grids and poles, which have a high antimony and low sulphur content, are separated out at the front end of the process. These are then re-routed to the foundry. The paste, which has a low antimony but high sulphur content, is desulphurised before being passed on to the foundry. The desulphurisation process is coupled with a crystallisation operation, which produces Na2SO4 crystals. This technology avoids the major problems generated by secondary lead refinery as SO2 emissions are kept to a minimum; the sulphur emerges from the process as a saleable product in the form of Na2SO4 crystals and a benign silica slag is produced. The major disadvantage of this technology is its high capital investment. For this reason, the local refinery rejected this technology.
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5.2. Production of a glassy slag Shenkler et al. (1991) investigated the formulation of secondary lead smelter slags and mattes into a glassy silica matrix. This involves thermal processing of the slag in a pot furnace at 1200 OC together with silica and sodium carbonate (fritting). This method was not as effective for the matte fraction, which forms a significant proportion of the local refinery slag. Table 3 shows a comparison of TCLP results from untreated and fritted slags. Although a benign slag was produced with respect to the TCLP leaching test, the process has the disadvantage of not recovering the lead from the slag. In addition, the thermal processing required could lead to high operating costs. Table 3: Comparison of TCLP results from untreated and fritted slags
5.3. Volatilisation of heavy metals Fuming of a secondary lead slag has been demonstrated by Richards and Oberacker (1991) of the US EPA using a Flame Reactor, which requires oxygen enriched air and a hydrocarbon fuel to achieve the high (>2000 C) temperatures required. Removal and recovery of heavy metals is based on their lower boiling points. The treatment yields two main products: A heavy metal oxide product that can potentially be recycled (96.9% and 99.7% recovery of lead and zinc respectively to this product). A vitrified slag which is non-leachable (complies with EPA standards for TCLP test). This processing option can potentially result in lead recovery from the heavy metal oxide product and a benign waste solid. However, the high temperatures at which the reactor is operated imply high energy costs. Consequently, it is likely that it will only be feasible for central use at large waste management companies and organisations, as part of its advantage is that it can be used to render a number of different toxic metallurgical wastes benign. The secondary lead smelter may lose some advantage by this off-site recovery of the lead present in the slag. 5.4. Oxidation of a secondary lead matte Corrick and Sutton (1968) investigated the oxidation of sulphide components in a secondary lead blast furnace matte to sulphates via the following reaction: CuS+FeS+PbS+4O2+H2SO4CuSO4(aq)+ FeSO4+PbSO4(s)+H2S This is unlikely to be valid treatment option as the local refinery slag, which is actually a combination of slag and matte contains mostly elemental and alloyed lead rather than lead sulphide5.5. BROSS process The (Biotreatment of Alkaline SlagS) BROSS (Barnes, 1996) process is based on biotreatment of sulphidic, lead-bearing slag. The process operates at 45 C in a neutral, aerobic, aqueous environment in which the sulphide present in the slag is converted to soluble sulphate. A two-stage process, which allows ready separation of any metallic lead present in the slag, has a high sulphate production rate and low acid and nutrient consumption. The process has the potential for recovery of lead and other heavy metals from the slag and reduction of the mass of solids to be landfilled. The two major drawbacks of the process are the need for large quantities of water for the bio-oxidation process and the production of a sodium sulphate stream that might require further treatment, depending on local regulations. Of all the processes reviewed the BROSS process appeared to be the most promising for the local refinery. Further research into aspects of its applicability is ongoing. 5.6. Phosphorus sequestration Recent research (Lambert et al., 1997) supported by the US EPA has examined the use of phosphorus in sequestration of lead and cadmium in a lead smelter slag. Phosphate amendment of lead-contaminated soils is known to precipitate highly insoluble lead pyromorphite (Pb5(PO)4Cl), effectively reducing its bio-availability. Samples of slag from an abandoned lead smelter were treated with soluble phosphate. It was found to be effective in reducing soluble lead and cadmium. This work is not sufficiently advanced to be considered as a treatment option.
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One of the most developed battery breaking and processing technologies is the ENGITEX CX Process (Lamm, 1988) which has been approved as Best Available Technology (BAT) by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). There are two aspects of the ENGITEC CX process that are pertinent in this case: The grids and poles, which have a high antimony and low sulphur content, are separated out at the front end of the process. These are then re-routed to the foundry. The paste, which has a low antimony but high sulphur content, is desulphurised before being passed on to the foundry. The desulphurisation process is coupled with a crystallisation operation, which produces Na2SO4 crystals. This technology avoids the major problems generated by secondary lead refinery as SO2 emissions are kept to a minimum; the sulphur emerges from the process as a saleable product in the form of Na2SO4 crystals and a benign silica slag is produced. The major disadvantage of this technology is its high capital investment. For this reason, the local refinery rejected this technology.
6. CONCLUSIONS
Saving energy and pollution control in lead smelters are achieved by updating the technology of recycling the spent acid lead battery paste prior to smelting. The following challenges have been achieved. 1. High extent of lead recovery. 3. Saves 12.5% of fuel the total energy needs. 4. Decreases the volume flow rate of the flue gases and the laden-flue gas dust by 65%. The concentration of the fugitive TSP emissions thus complies with the law. 5. Decreases the running costs of the gas cleaning device(s). 6. Saves nearly 4% of the annual production cost of the plant. Waste modification strategies suggested include avoiding processing galena concentrate and lead drosses that are contaminated with zinc. Avoiding the mixing of process wastes and regular testing of the slag to take advantage of its variability were also recommended. The last aspect of the project was the identification of slag treatment methods, which were evaluated according to economic as well as technological criteria. The ENGITEX CX Process has been approved as Best Available Technology by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). The major disadvantage of this technology is its high capital investment. For this reason, the local refinery rejected this technology. Other options include the production of a glassy slag, volatilisation of heavy metals, oxidation of a secondary lead matte, the BROSS process and phosphorus sequestration.
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[1] Schreuder, D. Technologies for emissions reduction in the metallurgical and chemical process industries. International Platinum Conference Platinum Surges Ahead, The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 2006. [2] J. Schreifer, The challenge of electric furnace dust. In: New steel (1995), p. 28. [3] W.S. Moser, G.T. Mahler, T.R. Knepper, R.W. Kuba and J.F. Pusateri, Metals recycling from steelmaking and foundry wastes by Horesehead resource development. In: Electric Furnace Conference Proceedings, ISS (1992), p. 145. [4] G. Schenker, Lead recycling from battery scrap and other raw materials in MetalEurop's lead smelting plan in Oker. In: T.S. Mackey and R.D. Prengaman, Editors, LeadZinc'90, The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society (TMS), Pennsylvania, USA (1990), pp. 9791000. [5] R.M. Reynolds, E.K. Hudson and M. Olper, Advances in lead-acid battery recycling: Engitec's automated CX breaker system. In: T.S. Mackey and R.D. Prengaman, Editors, LeadZinc'90, The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society (TMS), Pennsylvania, USA (1990), pp. 975996. [6] A.W. Worcester and J.A. Moenster, The DOE run company's quick resource recovery facility. In: T.S. Mackey and R.D. Prengaman, Editors, LeadZinc'90, The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society (TMS), Pennsylvania, USA (1990), pp. 10231044. [7] K. Moriya, Lead smelting and refining, its current status and future. In: T.S. Mackey and R.D. Prengaman, Editors, LeadZinc'90, The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society (TMS), Pennsylvania, USA (1990), pp. 2338. [8] P. Fischer, The present status of development of the QSL lead process. J. Metals 6 (1982), pp. 6064. View Record in Scopus | Cited By in Scopus (2) [9] T.J. Pollaert. Lead production by the QSL process, Lurgi GmbH, Germany (1986).
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RaDMI 2010
THE POSSIBLLE WAYS OF THE SIX SIGMA CONCEPT IMPROVEMENT

Marija Andjelkovi Pei
Faculty of Economics, Ni, SERBIA, E-mail: marija.andjelkovic@eknfak.ni.ac.rs
Summary: The Six Sigma concept has provoked many positive and negative opinions. The enterprises that have successfully implemented Six Sigma emphasize its positive characteristics and declare it comparative advantages against other business improvement concepts. On the other side, the enterprises that are not satisfied with the results achieved under the Six Sigma concept emphasize its negative characteristics or its shortfalls. Though implementation of Six Sigma can significantly improve business results, this concept itself can be improved. With Six Sigma improvements, proposed in this paper, successful implementation of this concept could be a rule, and not an exception. Key words: Six Sigma, improvement, Lean management, Agile manufacturing, Balanced Scorecard.
1. INTRODUCTION
Six Sigma is the 21st century concept. It represents process-focused, resource-based and customer-driven concept. Enterprises implement Six Sigma business concept in order to provide perfect (or almost perfect) processes and activities. The essence of the Six Sigma concept is that customers satisfaction can be provided by increasing quality of products. Quality of products can be increased by increasing quality of processes. Finally, quality of processes depends on resources and capabilities and on their combination. Concerning previously, it can be said that customers dissatisfaction and undermine reputation could be prevented if an enterprise provides adequate resources and capabilities, combines them in a way needed for efficient processes realization, and detects and eliminates defects from processes [6]. The Six Sigma concept is based on two methodologies, DMAIC and DMADV. While, DMAIC methodology is used for existing business processes improvement, DMADV methodology is used for creation of a new product or process designs in such a way that the result is more predictable and performances are defect free [7]. Through DMAIC methodology Six Sigma explicitly points out the significance of process-based view of an enterprise for more efficient usage of resources and capabilities. DMAIC methodology can be implemented through five phases [4]: Define customers demands (voice of the customers) and therefore enterprises opportunities for fulfilling those demands, and benchmark demands and opportunities, in order to define core processes, Measure processes performances in terms of quality, time and costs in order to find out what has to be improved; established measures have to be valid and reliable; without measuring managers could not know what are their chances for customers demands fulfilment, Analyze processes in order to discover connection between their inputs and outputs of the process and to identify possibilities for the improvements through benchmarking of as-is state and should-be state, Improve processes by implementation of chosen solutions, but before that simulate effective solutions in order to be sure that they will be efficient, Control continually processes variation in order to ensure that number of defects is decreasing, but also in order to prevent new variations and defects appearance. Design for Six Sigma is the extension of the Six Sigma concept. It can help managers in process of new products or new processes introduction. Under the Design for Six Sigma there is a methodology, which includes tools, training and measurements to enable the design of products and processes that should meet customers expectations at Six Sigma quality level [2]. This methodology is known as DMADV methodology and is similar
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to DMAIC methodology. Precisely, the first three phases are identical and therefore the first three letters in these acronyms are the same. The forth phase in DMADV methodology refers to design in the sense of optimization of the relationship between costs, quality and time of process realization. The last phase, verification, assumes confirmation that the voice of the customers has been heard and their demands satisfied. Through DMADV methodology, Design for Six Sigma optimizes process design in order to achieve Six Sigma level of processs or products performances. Design for Six Sigma means building in quality from the start. While Six Sigma tackles products or processes that already are flawed, the aim of Design for Six Sigma is to create new products or processes that are nearly perfect, right from the start. The enterprises that correctly employ Design for Six Sigma will do less and less Six Sigma, because the products or processes are designed right the first time [9], and therefore there is no need to improve them further.
2. THE MOST COMMON PROBLEMS DURING THE SIX SIGMA CONCEPT IMPLEMENTATION
The most common problems and obstacles for successful implementation of Total Quality Management are: the lack of structured methodology, directing efforts towards improvement of processes or activities that are not critical from the customers point of view, the lack of employees involvement into implementation of the improvement projects, no explicit connection between the improvement projects and financial results or savings. The Six Sigma concept enables managers to overcome these problems, and therefore it can be said that mentioned problems of Total Quality Management represent the advantages of the Six Sigma concept (compared to Total Quality Management). Though Six Sigma provides significant results, there are many enterprises that have not implemented it yet. The most common reasons for avoiding this concept are shown in table 1. The specified reasons are the primary obstacles to the Six Sigma implementation. Table 1: Reasons for not adopting the Six Sigma concept Reasons % of responses Lack of management support 65% Unqualified employees 42% Insufficient monetary funds 39% Employees scepticism 31% Management support is one of the key characteristics of Six Sigma [1]. It means that managers are willing to empower employees, encourage creativity, innovation and training, stimulate self-control, provide information and give suggestions. If management support is missing, employees resistance may occur and ideas for introduction of the improvements may be absent. Significant obstacle to the Six Sigma concept implementation is separate ''education'' for managers and other employees. This ''education'' refers to the acquisition of required knowledge concerning project management, statistical measures and instruments, quality management, costs management, while the scope and content ''of the school classes'' depends on the role for which managers and other employees are ''educating''. The costs of training can represent a large problem, especially for small and medium sized enterprises. However, even though one of the basic characteristics of the Six Sigma concept is leaders infrastructure (Master Black belt, Black belt, Green belt), it is not necessary for the adoption of Six Sigma basic principles. The one thing that enterprise can get for free is transformation of business culture and access to quality. In addition, small enterprises are, by definition, more flexible than large ones, employees are more connected to each other, and they have greater level of mutual trust. In this way, what large enterprises should provide for successful implementation of the Six Sigma concept, small enterprises already have, which can partly compensate the lack of financial resources for training of managers and other employees. The problem of unqualified employees can be associated with the previous reason for not accepting the Six Sigma concept. However, very often this problem is the consequence of inadequate employment policy. In this regard, and in accordance with the need of continuous improvement that promotes the Six Sigma concept, continuous improvement of employees structure is necessary because it can provide the right people, at the right place, at the right time [3]. Even 31% of respondents pointed out the scepticism of employees as a reason for not accepting the Six Sigma concept. Among the respondents there were those who pointed out that Six Sigma is only a new caprice and it does not provide any positive effect for the enterprises. This obstacle to Six Sigma implementation can be avoided through business culture transformation, too.
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If the original purpose and ''source'' form of the Six Sigma concept is observed (as well as previously mentioned obstacles), it is possible to identify several problems that can be considered as the causes of poor results of its implementation. The most usual problems are: 1. Lack of explicit connection between measures used in the DMAIC methodology, 2. Insufficient commitment to the stock (although application of the Six Sigma methodology contributes to process acceleration, through defects elimination and avoidance of repetition of certain activities and operations, there is no explicit focus on the stock), 3. Inadequate response to customers demands related to uniqueness or diversity, 4. Exclusive applicability at the process (product) level.
3. THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE SIX SIGMA CONCEPT

Highlighted problems of the Six Sigma concept may be resolved by its linking with other operational and strategic management concepts and models. Structuring measures and instruments is important, but it is desirable to establish a cause and effect links between them. Balanced Scorecard approach can be possible solution for this problem (problem 1). For more efficient ''struggle'' with the stock, the Six Sigma concept should be completed with Lean management. Parallel implementation of Lean management and Six Sigma provide faster achievement of quantitatively greater results (problem 2). If flexibility is considered not only as fast reaction to changed customers requests, but also as capability for adjustment to various customers requirements, then it is desirable to ''enrich'' Six Sigma with Agile production. Agile production provides diversity, requested by customers, but slightly increases the process complexity (problem 3). Concerning previously mentioned, managers, whose enterprise has been implemented Six Sigma can introduce balanced Six Sigma approach to process improvement, but also ''update'' the principles and elements of Lean and Agile production. Although there is no one best way for the enterprise management, improved Six Sigma concept offers very rich ''menu'' of measures, instruments, techniques and principles that can significantly facilitate the managing in modern conditions (figure 1.).
Figure 1: The Six Sigma umbrella 3.1. Balanced Six Sigma approach to process improvement The idea that Balanced Scorecard is based on may be used for Six Sigma concept improvement. Considering Balanced Scorecard philosophy, processes should be observed from four perspectives. When the processes are observed in this way, goals and tasks of their improvement are more obvious and understandable. In fact, these goals and tasks can be displayed with strategic map, which shows causal relations between them. Measures for the goals should be based on the strategic map, also. This means that the measures that will be used during the process improvement must contain lagging indicators, as well as leading indicators. 3.2. Lean Six Sigma provide quality fast Concerning the mentioned problem of Six Sigma implementation, which refers to the stock management, an integrated application of Lean Six Sigma is proposed. When after the implementation of Lean production ''crowd'' in the process is eliminated, further performance improvement can be achieved with Six Sigma concept implementation. Some authors [10] emphasize that Lean production gives acceleration to Six Sigma concept,
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and that the essence of Lean Six Sigma concept is to exceed customers expectations, not only with low costs and high quality of products, but also with speed of production and delivery (service). In the focus of this concept are ''diluted'' processes, which include unnecessary activities or activities that do not add value, and therefore need to be identified and eliminated. The aim of Lean Six Sigma implementation is providing competitive advantage through high rates of improvement from the aspect of quality and speed of process realization, and consequently achieving effects in the financial perspective. The Six Sigma concept is primarily focused on variation reduction and defects elimination, relying on statistical tools, while the Lean management is primarily oriented to elimination of stocks and time losses, above all, in the production process. The combination of these two concepts gives the best results [6]. Table 2: Some process measures from the Balanced Scorecard perspectives
Figure 2: Lean Six Sigma concept influence on competitiveness dimensions 3.3. The improvement of the Six Sigma concept by agile manufacturing principles It seems that by linking Six Sigma concept with Lean management and Design for Six Sigma, as an integral part of Six Sigma concept, all customers' demands may be easily accomplished. However, variety in customers taste and, therefore, variety of products has not been specifically highlighted in the Six Sigma concept. This concept with Design for Six Sigma and Lean management can help managers to solve the problems that are related to quality, cost and time. In this sense, for the full accomplishment of customers' requests, especially ones related to the variety, Agile manufacturing can be of a great importance. Agile manufacturing focuses on the variety of products, the mass adjustment to the customers' needs, as well as on reduction of number of supplies, in order to quickly respond to dynamic changes in demand. Implementation of Agile manufacturing demands the agility of
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the entire value chain. If materials, components, and information flow freely through the process, the enterprise will succeed to respond to the changed requirements of customers or to competitors actions [5]. Some of Agile production features are: production dictated by the next user in the value chain, short production time, low production volume, a wide variety of products, fast delivery by suppliers, short time of new products and processes introduction, flexible processes, multi skilled employees, high degree of decision making decentralization. In fact, agile production represents production strategy that is completely opposite to mass production. Agile production differs from Lean production, too (table 3.). Lean production usually considerable little relatively stable stable efficiency cost leadership large Table 3: Lean and agile production characteristics elements production scope (series) product variety environment demand level focus strategy enterprise size Agile production little significant dynamic changeable effectiveness focused differentiation small and medium
When Lean manufacturing and agile production are applied at the same time, except the differences one can see certain similarity. Similarity is reflected in the fact that both approaches advocate high quality, but none of them suggests structured methodology for quality problems solution. Also, in both approaches production is controlled by the pull system, where demand starts production, and therefore all forms of stock are minimized. Although some authors emphasize that both approaches provide small productions series, small production series represent one of Agile production characteristics (in order to easily and quickly realize the changes), but not always the characteristic of Lean production. Lean production characterizes reduction of transfer series, but not necessarily production series. On the basis of the previous, one can say that agile production is upgraded Lean production. Agility is usually associated with complexity. However, agility, in terms of product variety, can be achieved without additional complexity, by providing the ''independence'' of the products characteristics. This means that certain components should be standard and correspondent only to the general customers requirements, while components that meet the specific customers requirements should be produced in several variations, regardless of the standard components. In this way, changes in specific customers requests related to certain components or features of products, will not cause restructuring of the entire product, but only specific components. The conclusion is that agile production and Design for Six Sigma, as an integral part of Six Sigma concept, should be implemented in parallel. 3.4. The improved Six Sigma concept The characteristics of previously mentioned concepts, some combination of those concepts, as well as improved the Six Sigma concept (improved with previously mentioned concepts) are presented in Table 4. The Six Sigma concept connections with Six Sigma Structure (or Design for Six Sigma) should not be a problem to the enterprises, as the other is only ''extended hand'' of the first one. Also, linkage of the Six Sigma and Lean production can help managers to accelerate process realization and to increase its efficiency. Although it is not an easy task for managers to combine the two approaches, such as Lean and Agile production, this can be achieved if in the initial stages of the process they implement Lean manufacturing, and in final Agile production. In this case it is necessary to determine the ''point of separation'' that will divide the process into two parts in which, mentioned approaches, will be implemented. Table 4: Check list of the business improvement concepts characteristics existing concepts combined concepts characteristics LP+ SS+ LP+A LP AP SS SSS SS SSS P high product quality short lead time product variety high efficiency high flexibility innovation new concept improved SS concept
Note: The acronims mean the following: LP Lean production, AP agile production SS Six Sigma concept, SSS Six Sigma structure (Design for Six Sigma - DfSS).
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By connecting it with Lean and Agile production and by expanding on the area of products and processes structuring, some problems of the Six Sigma concept have been eliminated. Such enhanced Six Sigma concept includes the following: structuring of the product should be done in the Six Sigma Way (Design for Six Sigma) in order to provide resistance to variations that would violate the quality consistence, and process should be realized according to the Six Sigma, Lean and Agile production principles, because in this way managers can ensure high quality, short lead time, low cost and wide variety, with continuous process review for improving quality, time and cost of its realization.
4. STRATEGIC SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SIX SIGMA CONCEPT

If one has in mind the essence of the Six Sigma concept and its focus on processes, the exclusive implementation at the process level is understandable, but it is not justified. For this reason, it is necessary to find a way to use Six Sigma tools for expressing the level of enterprise or business unit quality (problem 4). A significant problem of the most enterprises in modern conditions is the fact that profitability is more measured and analyzed, then resources, skills and processes whose results generate profit. On the other hand, Six Sigma measures are related to the process level, but there is no integration for expressing the quality at the enterprise level. Managers can use Six Sigma measures to express business or business unit quality level, but this implies formulation of Balanced Scorecard, which considers ideas and principles of Six Sigma or the Six Sigma Balanced Scorecard. The Six Sigma Balanced Scorecard proposes measurement system that supports strategic intentions and connects them with the processes [8]. It helps managers to combine the goals and measures through the perspectives of Balanced Scorecard in order to express quality of the enterprise (or quality of business units) with just one number sigma quality level. If managers want to determine the enterprise quality level (or business unit quality level) they can use Business Performance Index. This index calculation is based on ten key criteria, which correspond to Balanced Scorecard perspectives. For each measure, it is necessary to determine significance level and to assign a number of points, which shows its importance, where total number of points is 100. After that, it is necessary to compare the level of achieved performance with planned (desired) performance (the ratio achieved / planned), and then to multiply it with previously assigned number of points. The sum of multiplied points represents business indicator. This indicator is then used for determining number of defects per unit and the number of defects in million opportunities. This way of measuring and expressing the enterprises (and business units) quality level allows their comparison. This is one more reason why managers should implement the Six Sigma concept and lead the enterprise with the Six Sigma Balanced Scorecard. For enterprises that have already applied Balanced Scorecard, this will be significantly facilitated, since there is compatibility between Balanced Scorecard and Six Sigma.
5. CONCLUSION
Presented management model, based on the Six Sigma concept, provides multiple effects. First, there is correlation between Balanced Scorecards of the various levels, more precisely at the enterprise level, business unit level, as well as at the processes and projects level. Second, the improvement projects are focused on the improvement of the processes that are critical for the strategy implementation. Third, projects for process improvement are conducted by the employees who have knowledge and skills for project management, but for measurement and analysis of the results with statistical and other tools, too. Fourth, the methodology for improvement projects management is structured, thus facilitating the use of measures and instruments and providing the connection of information they produce. Fifth, the system of compensation is based on the achieved results (while the basis for determining the variable component of compensation is different for different levels of management), which contributes to the employees motivation and commitment. Application of this improved model is of a great importance for providing customer satisfaction concerning the price (cost), quality, delivery time and variety of products (table 5.).
REFERENCES
[1] Andjelkovi M., Six Sigma project implementation, YUPMA - VIII International Symposium in Project Management, Belgrade, 2004, pp. 191-197. [2] Andjelkovi Pei M., Design for Six Sigma as model for planning and introducing new products or processes, Scientific Conference: Is Planning in Crisis?, D. Tsenov Academy of Economics, Faculty of Management and Marketing, Department of Strategic Planning, Svishtov, Bulgaria, 2005, pp. 209 215.
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market demands high product quality, low cost (price), leading short time, variety of products
Table 5: The Six Sigma concept improvement map production tasks results characteristics identification of the connecting goals and measures improvement aims elimination of high process and variations and defects product quality prevention of defects high quality of new and variations process and product reduction of waste efficient and stock production insurance of flexible products variety production effectiveness, efficiency, flexibility, innovation
concepts and approaches Balanced Scorecard Six Sigma Six Sigma design Lean management Agile production
[3] Andjelkovi Pei M., Enterprises of New Economy High Performance Organizations, Business Politics, Belgrade, January, 2006, pp. 54-58. [4] Andjelkovi Pei M., Six Sigma as Business Model For the Future - from Balanced Scorecard model perspectives, Problems of Foreign Economic Relations Development Andattraction of Foreign Investments: Regional Aspect (International conference), Donetsk, Ukraine, 2006, pp. 933-939. [5] Andjelkovi Pei M., Process and Project Management: Two Sides of Six Sigma medal, Economic Themes, Faculty of Economics, Nis, 2006, pp. 111-120. [6] Andjelkovi Pei M., Six Sigma Philosophy and Resource-Based Theory of Competitiveness: An Integrative Approach, Facta Universitatis, Vol.4, No 2, 2007, pp. 199208. [7] Andjelkovi Pei M., Stanojevi M.: Theoretical and Practical Implications of Six Sigma Concept Implementation, 9th International Conference Research and Development in Mechanical Industry, RaDMI 2009, Vrnjaka Banja, 2009, September, pp. 109-120. [8] Gupta P., Six Sigma Business Scorecard: Creating a Comprehensive Corporate Performance Management System, Mc Graw-Hill, New York, 2004. [9] Justo J., Prevention is the Cure, www.industryweek.com, December, 2002. [10] Poppendieck M., ''Why the Lean in Lean Six Sigma?'', People on Projects The Project Management Best Practice Report, June, 2004, Vol. 2, Issue 6.
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RaDMI 2010
RISK MANAGAMENT FROM MINING - APPLICATION FMECA METHODS

1
Slobodan Radosavljevi1, Predrag Dai2, Spasoje epanovi3

RB "Kolubara"d.o.o., Svetog Save 1, 11550, Lazarevac, SERBIA, e-mail: slobodanr@hotmail.com 2 SaTCIP Ltd, Vrnjaka Banja, SERBIA, e-mail: dasicp@yahoo.com 3 High Technical School, Belgrade, SERBIA
Summary: Management of technical systems in mining, is an essential condition for their functioning and, if based on a riskgenerating potential of the overall efficiency and effectiveness. Special importance for the realization of the objectives positioned the company belongs to an organization, redesign, harmonization of system connection between the different technical structures, standardization, technical diagnostics, the analysis of different variants of the level of criticism with the selection and implementation of appropriate solutions. The issue of rational configuration of analytical and methodological approaches to risk management is becoming more current. Potential destruction of complex technical systems in the mining industry and the reality of their expression in different applications is common. Total products such conditions are high levels of destruction and scope, which cause great financial damage. Progress in the context of possible changes in the systematic approach to risk management using modern, standardized methods, models and developmental systems, their practical implementation, verification and validation. In practice, it is possible in the analysis encounters a combination thereof. For various aspects of the analysis it is possible to decrease risk index ranges from a high threshold to the threshold range of low and moderate and / or acceptable risk. This paper presents the system FMECA (Failure Modes, Effects and Criticality Analysis). methods for identification, analysis types, effects and critical failure.It is a method of assessing risk based on taking into account all the consequences for the work product. Application of FMECA method in the management of risks related to the initial phase of defining predictions of all possible risks, calculation of risk factors RPN priorities. Some risks can be grouped by type of errors that occur to their implementation. For effective risk analysis and implement measures to reduce them, need a competent team. No matter what the risks in question, FMECA method can reliably assess the possibility of their implementation with a satisfactory degree of flexibility and compatibility. Given is part of the experiential practicum for a concrete example of implementation in practice of mining production.The aim of this paper is to initiate the need for changes in the existing situation in the mining industry with the exposition of contemporary approaches to risk analysis as well as the potential benefits generated by improving the overall quantitative, qualitative characteristics and performance features of the system. Keywords: risk, FMECA (Failure Modes, Effects and Criticality Analysis), technical system, process, mining.
1. INTRODUCTION
The development of technology in mining led to the creation of complex technical systems that can hardly be seen without a systematic approach to analytical and methodological terms. Technical systems in mining represent a distinctive statement of specific technologies in the context of functional features, from the simple to the most complex work activities. Basic processes of mining during its operation, subject to the destructive impact of different activities that can significantly reduce their quality, [1]. This points to the likelihood of reducing the overall reliability and safety of technical systems, since the real generated a large number of critical points with high potential risk for the state of the cancellation and destruction phenomena that significantly influence the quality of overall performance. Different aspects of criticism and destruction, putting the scientific community and researchers a wide range of explicit problems in mining. As a solution to the dilemma is shaping commitment to the strategy of active participation in the theoretical and practical context, the delegation and implementation of quality solutions. Bearing in mind the global dynamics of technical, technological and other changes in various systems, generated a need for more responsible assessment, treatment and risk analysis in mining, [1], [2], and [3].
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Complex technical systems in the mining industry are the result of growing interest and need for the resource potential. The fact is that the technical systems in the mining run operationally responsible planning duties, which increase every year. Management company takes full responsibility for the safe, stable, safe, high quality and reliable operation thereof. In such a constellation interests include technical systems but also generate new risks in the context of a broad aspect.Analysis and risk management in the mining industry is a key factor for the quality of performance and reliability management based on risk may contribute to the overall exceptional effectiveness and efficiency. It is necessary to risk the possible destruction of critical and look at, analyze, minimize and provide for its risk through constant monitoring. One of the main problems present in the technical systems in mining is to analyze and effectively manage risk? So far, risk management is not attached adequate importance, however, there is a real need and an obligation to make an emergency change in the situation, [1], [4] and [5]. If the characteristics of quality in that context, we look at the level of satisfaction with the owners/users of technical systems, it is necessary to define the real limits, which are present in the creation of quality throughout the life cycle. The concept of quality in a broader sense, this includes other interested component system. So all that logistical support qualitative functional characteristics of specific activities under exploitation, (maintainers of technical systems, purchase spare parts and recycling teams). On the other hand the scope of conditions that need to ensure that directly or indirectly affect the level of quality levels generated in the internal and external environment often is difficult for the company solved the problem. One of many possible alternatives in the context of risk analysis and FMECA implementation of systematic methods to identify potential errors before their creation, which can be positioned benefit real potential in mining, [1] and [6].
2. SPECIFIC RISK TECHNICAL SYSTEMS IN MINING

During its life cycle in the mining technical systems are subject to a number of critical and destructive impact of which can significantly impair the quality of their functioning. The chances of side events are implemented real. Identification of critical points that are potential risks and risk events is a professional problem. Aspects of risk in mining may be different. Basically they are directly or indirectly related to all the identified impacts to the system so closer and further environment. Research conducted infundamental mining process, according to functionality, reliability and safety of technical systems can hardly be achieved without the identification of all aspects of risk, or at least more, the analysis of expert-level, professional processing and generation of appropriate solutions at the upper limits of qualitative relations professional acceptability, [7], [8] and [9]. The research was focused on the technical aspects of risk analysis. The risk can be managed. The chances of occurrence of hazardous events can be reduced to an acceptable level through the establishment of adequate controlling constant monitoring. The next step is to develop strategies reactions/responses to the destruction in the context of recovery from the consequences. The main reasons why research has been conducted subject of risk in mining has been documented in the figures (1-complexity of technical systems in the exploitation of mining resources to critical and high-risk situation in the notice), (2-destruction/damages more aspect damage and large technical systems in mining, resulting in real time and space)and (3-potential criticism of the technical parts of the system due to (crack,flaw, vibration, wear, hidden linkers in castings) in mining.
Figure 1: Display of complex technical systems in operation with mining potential critical and high risk of termination states
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Figure 2: Display destruction (fractures, damage, deterioration), and serious damage to mining technical systems in real time and space
Figure 3: Display potential criticism of the technical parts of the system due to (crack, flaw, vibration, wear, hidden linkers in castings) in mining Analysis of risk minimization and monitoring production practices in mining recognizes the need to: Development of methodology for systematic risk analysis of technical systems; Development of criteria and metrics for implementation of ISO 31000: 2009, [1] and [6]; Development of methodology for assessing the impact of all identified aspects of the destructive potential of technical systems in operation; Analysis system, assess the need for partial or complete redesign and modernization; definition of requirements and selection methods of risk management of technical systems; Configurations processes for risk management of technical systems in mining; Provide competent multi-disciplinary human resources for the management risks. We can conclude that the formulation of appropriate strategies for analysis, monitoring and risk management of technical systems in the mining complex issue. It is located at the very beginning of professional acceptance and interest. There are set requirements for the analysis of a large number of technological parameters and technical nature, the impact of external and internal environment to predicting the real outcome in the near and distant future, [1], [6] and [10].Documented research in international relations, indicate previous experience in the field of risk management and the need for new approaches in the context of the implementation of modern, standardized models and methods development and quality systems. ISO 31000: 2009 describes their definitions and define a process for managing risks. The same is focused on the immediate area in which the necessary knowledge and experience of new profiles of specialty/profession, (the area of risk management). Standard deals with the issues of how to recognize/detect, reduce and maintain an acceptable level of risk in the applied areas. He did not define the necessary methods, models and systems development for these activities. Thus users are left to make their own choice of appropriate methods and models to areas where they are applied process to manage risks. There are many reasons for this approach and the concept and some of them are a number of different methods and models of development, different areas of application (one of them, and mining) and others, [6], [11] and [12].
3. TECHNICAL DATA SYSTEMS IN MINING

For surface mining exploitation are mostswivelexcavators, as well as complexes of a technical system. Their configuration is a combination of technical, electrical and electronic units. The equipment is heterogeneous, diverse and jagged and is situated in realistic locations exploitation. Continuous development of technology and the possibility of constructing a broader application of the mining excavators very hard and heterogeneous materials under extreme operating and weather conditions.
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Rotary excavator consists of the following groups of buildings: Stick rotor; Current top construction; Lower construction with rotating stand for the rotation of the above construction; Transport device with caterpillars; Shelf strips. Decomposition of each group comes to the construction of components, subassemblies, and basic elements. All groups are specialized building construction/system rotary excavators. As this is a large group of elements that are really great potential to generate criticism of the destruction of the state canceled.ttable 1, are given technical data for a typicalexcavator system-Rotary excavator SRs 200032/5(2670 kW), [9], [14] and [15]. Table 1: Specifications for rotary excavator SRs in 200032/5(2670 kW), used on a surface mining coal mining, [9]
Name krakteristika excavators The theoretical capacity Rotor diameter Number of tablespoons Volume Bucket Volume of ring Number vibration tablespoons The power plant rotor Specific cutting force Diameter kuglibane excavators Speed excavator Large transport width shoes Unit of issue 6600 m3/h 12 m 20 pieces 1000 l 300 l 86 min-1 2670 kW 1000 N/cm 10000 mm 6 m/min 3300 mm Name krakteristika excavators The number of base runners/large transport Possible height difference Speed of load devices Small conveyor width shoes The number of base runners/small transport Width of conveyor belts Installed power There Force Mass Excavator Pressure on the ground Load capacity crane Unit of issue 14 pieces 10 m 6 m/min 3400 mm 12 pieces 2000 mm 4590 kW 3405 kW 2234 t 10,1 N/cm2 7,5 t
4. SOME ASPECTS OF RISK AND CRITICALITY TECHNICAL SYSTEM IN MINING

Critical research, their detection and to find rational answers in this context is a continuing task in all phases of the life cycle. When it comes to large scale and complex technical systems in mining, the focus in this paper the analysis of the exploitation, then one of the most complex phase in the life cycle of the excavators. Damage caused by such systems more aspect financial damages and order the size of the damage is (euro million). Since 2005, the year began with the specific research and monitoring of various aspects of critical delays and cancellations through the system individually and in groups, but no risk analysis. Systematization and processing of data might be related to the behavior of the system in dealing with the destruction that took place later and led to major breakdowns in real terms, [9], [16] and [17]. Recording the current state of delay and cancellation of this research was concluded in late 2009, when based on the results obtained and systematized the total delay and failure, classified as those who have pointed to the emergence of critical systems and that they represented the potential for eventual destruction. Table 2 Overview of the delay, which is the total number only in the year 2008 was the 1179 n. In table 3 data classification is a narrower distribution of total downtime by type or category. The same is represented by the Pareto distribution. Here we can see trends delays grouped according to a given classification group and their orientation towards the potential destruction. Along with other data collected related to the maintenance function in the context of replacement parts most often due to the influence of different factors or other interventions by the cancellation: (fracture, deflection, crack, hidden flaws, poor quality, late control), has created a platform for the construction of FMECA data list or the application of FMECA methods (analysis of types, effects and critical failure), [1]. In Table 4 there is a version recorded with the detection of failure causes and consequences, as well as cancellation of expenditures for each cost element and built-in time of the Preserver, [1], [9] and [18].
5. FMECA BASIS METHODTHE ADOPTED METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH

Analysis of the types, effects and critical failure(Failure Modes, Effects and Criticality Analysis-FMECA)is a method of assessing risk based on consideration of their consequences for the work product. It is a systematic process that allows the definition of activities aimed at minimizing risk. The basic approach is to identify and describe each type of potential failure, which may jeopardize the purpose of the product.The analysis consists in the tabulation or graphical presentation of certain types of dismissal, in accordance with their consequences and causes, control measures (control and diagnostics), corrective measures (measure of compensation), the degree of criticism and other data relating to the design, manufacturing process, maintenance et al.
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Table 2: Overview of delays at the level of 2008 Rotary excavator SRs 200032/5(2670 kW), the exploitation of surface coal mining [9]
S. n.
21 34 22 23 36 26 49 10 5 3 11 50 25 1 6 8 27 29 30 35 51 52 56 61 9 15 28 38 2 7 12 24 31 33 44 54 59 60 4 13 14 16 17
Name delay
Route Pause Cleaning Asphyxia Shift Independent work Stop close Cutting rope Weathering strip Swab Rolls Stop lock Control strips Vulcanization Overview bar Slippers - transport Transport Pro skating Clearance system Service No telephone lines Broken engaging Termination voltage 380 V Shift lock Set the toggle Curtain Relegated loading truck Wait Replacing the drive drum Replacement drum tension Propulsive drum Scroll bar HV winding cable Regulation of cable G-3 Late transport Stop the phone cable Blank Transmission line dropped Z4 Replace the return drum Replacement spin. Transport Steel wheel cleaner at work More Buckets Up to 1179 In total
min.
6935 2250 1725 1345 570 415 270 260 315 435 150 190 785 1990 185 250 370 80 110 750 145 140 55 40 250 90 95 110 960 255 130 960 40 55 35 105 40 35 300 120 70 50 20 24490
% time
28.32% 9.19% 7.04% 5.49% 2.33% 1.69% 1.10% 1.06% 1.29% 1.78% 0.61% 0.78% 3.21% 8.13% 0.76% 1.02% 1.51% 0.33% 0.45% 3.06% 0.59% 0.57% 0.22% 0.16% 1.02% 0.37% 0.39% 0.45% 3.92% 1.04% 0.53% 3.92% 0.16% 0.22% 0.14% 0.43% 0.16% 0.14% 1.22% 0.49% 0.29% 0.20% 0.08% 100.00%
number repetition
249 75 61 34 28 21 19 16 15 14 10 7 6 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 662
% n. r.
37.61% 11.33% 9.21% 5.14% 4.23% 3.17% 2.87% 2.42% 2.27% 2.11% 1.51% 1.06% 0.91% 0.76% 0.76% 0.76% 0.76% 0.76% 0.60% 0.60% 0.60% 0.60% 0.60% 0.60% 0.45% 0.45% 0.45% 0.45% 0.30% 0.30% 0.30% 0.30% 0.30% 0.30% 0.30% 0.30% 0.30% 0.30% 0.15% 0.15% 0.15% 0.15% 0.15% 100.00%
Table 3: Overview of delays at the level of 2008, Rotary excavator SRs 2000 32 / 5, the groups in%, with a Pareto distribution [9]
S. n.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11-65
Type of delay
Planum (alignment) Pause Vulcanization Cleaning Asphyxia Replacing the drive drum Scroll bar Control strips Service Shift Other In total
Group % T- technology, M-machine, Cumulative O-maintenance

T O M T T M T T O O 0 28.32% 37.51% 45.63% 52.68% 58.17% 62.09% 66.01% 69.21% 72.28% 74.60%
% Individuall y
28.32% 9.19% 8.13% 7.04% 5.49% 3.92% 3.92% 3.21% 3.06% 2.33% 25.40% 74.60%
% Time
% Type of delay
15.38%
74.60%
25.40%
84.62%
161
Table 4: Overview of system failure recorded for January 2008, Rotary excavator SRs 200032/5, with the stated costs of the intervention, (ticket dismissal)
Tim e in wor k Date min 1 0 1/1/2008 h 7 Occurrence status in cancellation of min 10 h 7 to min 20 Time in cancell ation min 10 Excessive wear of teeth on the money box TZ TZ DVB TZ Deformation and partly fallout from the page uleitenja steel belt conveyors 1 DVB DVB DVB TZ TZ DVB Dynamic rotor struck the dredger No election material advekatan teeth The failure of the projected geometry of teeth Error in installation of teeth on the money box The elements of the situation in the cancellation of The conseque nce of failure The time required for Type of failure Cause of failure Replac ement min Repair min The value of the replaced popravlje nog element [] The value of mainta iners []
10
1/1/2008
30
10
40
40
1000
30
3 4 5 6
5 25 15 10
1/1/2008 1/1/2008 1/1/2008 1/1/2008
8 8 9 9
15 50 20 40
8 9 9 10
25 5 30 0
10 15 10 20
1/1/2008
10
10
30
30
Stop the flow of material on belt conveyor s
No pages link advekatna carrier
30
100
40
8 9 10 11 12 13
20 0 15 5 5 5
1/1/2008 1/1/2008 1/1/2008 1/1/2008 1/1/2008 1/1/2008
10 11 12 13 13 13
50 50 55 15 35 50
11 12 13 13 13 14
50 40 10 30 45 0
60 50 15 15 10 10
14
15
1/1/2008
14
15
14
40
25
Excessive wear of teeth on the money box
Dynamic rotor struck the dredger
The failure of the projected geometry of teeth Error in installation of teeth on the money box No election material advekatan teeth
25
500
20
15 16
75 0
1/1/2008 1/1/2008
15 16
55 20
16 16
20 30
25 10
DVB DVB
Based on the results obtained using methods FMECA, corrective and preventive measures can be improved by designing determining ways of eliminating or lowering the probability of critical type of failure phenomena. However, the method of FMECA can be used as an effective tool not only in design but also for improving the production process and planning of preventive maintenance, [1], [6], [19] and [20]. The essence of methods of FMECA is to identify and prevent known and potential problems with the products before they reach the user. To do this you need to make some assumptions, such as the problems that have different priorities. So, setting priorities is important for the breakthrough in the application of FMECA methods.There are three components that help define priorities related to the dismissals of products:

Failure to appear; Weight and failure;
Detection of failures. The frequency of occurrence of a failure. Weight is the severity (seriousness of the consequences) of cancellation. Describing the ability of diagnostic failure before it reaches users.Based on the FMECA method it is possible to systematically identify and document the potential impact of individual failures on the successful functioning of the products, operator safety, results such as reliability, maintainability and performance products. Specificity FMECA method consists in the possibility grade products in various stages of its life cycle (design, manufacturing process, use-maintenance) in terms of ways in which problems (failures, errors, conflicts, concerns) can happen, [1], [6], [2] and [22]. At all stages of product life cycle is possible errors, failures or conflicts resulting in increased life cycle costs. If conflicts are not eliminated will cause a low quality and customer dissatisfaction. It is therefore for the analysis of species, effects and critical failure(Failure Modes, Effects and Criticality Analysis-FMECA)need to start with questions that may arise from failures, which are the consequences of failure and what is their cause? The answers to these questions, first can provide experience and specialist knowledge in terms of recurrence relations FMECA. Because of the multitude of data, their better visibility, ease of reasoning, providing assessments and corrective action is developed methods FMECA. It is a means to rationalize through the systematization of the principle "it is always better and more economical to determine causes and prevent cancellations, but they later discover and remove or cover the cost consequences of failure. FMECA method was developed for evaluation of occurrence and impact of failure of a product or process, and to determine the possibility of detecting and eliminating potential failures prior to shipping the product to the user. However, the FMECA method is
162
primarily developed for the assessment of project products and processes, in order to prevent or mitigate consequences of errors and failures of the product with the user,[1], [6], [23] and [24]. In addition, the method of FMECA can be applied in the following cases: Review of project products or processes; When changing the conditions of use of existing products in relation to the projected requirements; The analysis of problems with product or production process; The analysis of influence on the whole safety of users of the product or the protection of the environment. FMECA methods aim is to enable designers: Timely detect and prevent potential failure of product; Avoid or mitigate the risks in the project; Prevent the potential costs of premature retirement from service due to the appearance of product failure; Prevent loss of reputation in the market. As a basis for evaluating solutions in product design, process and maintenance of considering the following factors: Potential product failures and the probability (frequency) appearance of potential failure; Possible consequences of failure manifested by the user or the environment; The possibility of failure detection and prevention to quit out of the company and came to the user. The aim of the procedure FMECA is to enable: Early detection of potential failures; Avoid or mitigate the degree of criticism; Prevention of costs because of the withdrawal from use; Prevent loss of reputation; Prevent loss of interest in open markets. Application of FMECA methods essence lies in the realization of the following activities: Determination of all possible kinds of failure on the product that may arise as a result of errors in the design of products or processes; Determine all the possible consequences of each potential type of failure; Determine all possible causes of each potential type of failure; Definition of control and diagnostic measures; Determining, for each pair of "possible type of failure - possible cause of failure types, the following basis for assessing the degree of criticism: o Probability of occurrence of types of failures (Probability of Failure-PF); o Weight effects of types of failures (Failure DeMerit Value-FDV); o Probability of detecting types of failures (Probability of Failure Remedy-PFR); o With the evaluation of the base, usually done using the scoring scale of 1 to 10; o Assessment of the degree of criticism (Risk Priority Number - RPN) for each pair of "possible type of failure-possible cause of failure types, using the expression: RPN = PF FDV PFR ,(1), [6] Substrates PF, FDV and PFR is usually measured by grades 1 to 10 (can be used and other intervals).Thus estimated value of the degree of critical RPN is compared with previously determined values allowed RPN allowed. The solution is evaluated as satisfactory, if the RPN <RPN allowed, and if not, then the appropriate corrective measures provides the target. In the absence of pre-determined value allowed RPN can be used rough criteria for evaluating solutions in the function of the value of PF, FDV and PFR, as shown in table 5. FMECA method is documented methods. Documenting the process used to form the FMECA process. Write data into a form begins virtually from the definition analysis of cases and runs in parallel with other stages of the proceedings. Keyboarding includes proposed and implemented corrective measures, as well as the function of the company responsible for the effects.FMECA procedure is not considered concluded if the corrective measures have not achieved the effects in terms of lowering the value of base PF, FDV and PFR, and decrease the degree of critical RPN. In this case, must propose and implement new corrective measures, as long as it does not achieve this reduction. Implemented corrective measures without significantly slowing the effects of the planned implementation process FMECA and FMECA team commitment to the proposal of corrective measures meticulously study the effects of their highly complementary and timely corrective action plans, [1], [6], [29] and [30]
163
Determination of target function Determining the type of failure Determining consequences

Determining the severity of consequences
The application process for the potential consequences
Determine possible causes Determining the frequency Calculate the critica Defining the process control
Determination of diagnostic methods
Identifying the main causes
Establishing special karakteristiaka
Rating RPN and the final risk Measures to risk reduction
Figure 4: Methodological proceedings FMECA methods, [1], [6], [25] Table 5: Value orientation PF, FDV and PFR for decision-making, [6], [27], [28] and [29]
Base PF 1 1 1 1 10 10 10 10 FDV 1 1 10 10 1 1 10 10 PFR 1 10 1 10 1 10 1 10 The essence of error (failure) Ideal case (goal). The goal is fully achieved. Reliable functionality, control, as a rule, is not required (enough safe and reliable solution). Defect (error) will not get to the "user". Defect (error) would have a high probability could reach the "user". Defect (error) that is often repeated, surely it can be detected, but the associated costs. Defect (error) that is often repeated, the consequences of low weight, can reach the "user". Heavy defect (error), the great weight of the consequences, which are often repeated with the corresponding high costs of control. Here, in principle, something is wrong (totally unreliable solution). Cooling measures Improvements Not Not Not That That That That That
6. PRACTICAL IMPLEMENTATION IN MINING FMECA,EXPERIMENTAL PART

Practical implementation of the FMECA method assumes the formation of FMECA team. Total required knowledge for the application of methods FMECA does not have only one function in the company. This fact has created a need to evaluate the technical state of the system FMECA method performed by a small multidisciplinary team. FMECA team member, in addition to professional competence in the area covered by the team, had to have the following features: To have broad technical knowledge; To dispose of or has access to needed data; If only initiatory and analytical work; If adaptable to work in a team. FMECA mini team had: head, (engineer for testing, reliability and security as the main part), (engineer: quality, technical preparation, production, purchase and sale of software as a casual part of the team). During the implementation of analysis that has systematized the data collected in lists FMECA, guided by the concept in relation to the form of qualitative methods table view. FMECA team is still in the course of analyzing proposed corrective and preventive measures, analyzed the results in the context of the expected effects of corrective measures and their impact on the surface PF, FDV and PFR, and the degree of critical RPN. In this way,
164
FMECA team predicted the success of corrective measures, and in many cases require the additional, corrective measures. Table 6: Display the list of FMECA for a group of building materials to dig Mechanism (MKM), methodological and analytical flow in the risk analysis of technical mining systems, [9]
Table 6 provides a partial list view FMECA for a group of building materials to dig mechanism. Records on the list is displayed analytical and methodological analysis of the critical process that is an experiment conducted for all groups of construction technical system Rotary excavator SRs 1200x24/4x0 (400kW) + VR. The focus of the experiment was to delays and dismissals in the maintenance process for a particular technical system in mining. Positioned four groups of problems that are realistic in practice most often expressed, a variety of critical applications, downtime and destruction. Positioned problems in the organization of the maintenance process, to achieve the overall ability of the system, the maintenance management process and decision-making what, how and when taken for a particular problem.This is the operationalization of FMECA practicum, where observations are recorded all the technical possibilities of the method. Substrates to test the degree of criticism were adopted by three parameters: the probability of occurrence of failures (PF), difficulty consequences of failure (FDV) and probability of detection failure (PFR). All the parameters you are classified according to the scale of the index values of 1-10, where the index value for each defined initial state description of attributes passed. At grade level of criticism (RPM) data, four areas of classification threshold range index: small degree of criticism (RPM <50),
165
medium (RPM 50-100), high (100-200 RPM) and critical (RPM> 200). Here are defined all participants FMECA team to complete the necessary logistics in the analysis. So for each group of construction was carried out while the decomposition defined possible types of failure, the assessment of consequences and possible causes. In this context, is defined by the necessary preventive measures for each element as well as the overall RPM. If necessary, corrective measures are proposed to function which is delegated authority to implementoperational. At the end of the real image of improved state if there are positive results, or if necessary, propose new remedial measures. The entire process FMECA analysis method based on constant monitoring of the technical system, which is defined in the experiment with controlling the required metric fully established, [9], and [31].

Technical aspect of the problem analysis and critical failure FMECA method of confirming the real position of high risk thresholds on the technical system. Analysis of individual components identified various areas of risk threshold of small, medium, high and critical. The range of the threshold risk is real wide and all de composed by groups of building components are usually around 100th index The paper gives a partial view weather conditions added to the criticality of the identified groups of construction (for four) and index risk: 1. Group-building mechanism for digging material: Last output shaft gear rotor, with lomom and consequent interruption of a mechanism for digging material. Established RPM to start 80. Cause-error in the installation shaft and related elements. Suggested preventive measures is to provide the necessary and appropriate accessories and tools for assembly. Proposed corrective measure is quality control during assembly process and the introduction of predictive/pro-active maintenance. RPM index value decreased to 32 groups of small degree of criticism. 2. Mechanism for circular movement of excavators: The electric motor (EM) gear circular motion excavators, fired in the electric circuit EM, a consequence of the termination of the mechanism of the circular movement of the dredger, the cause of the slipping friction clutch and worn out brushes in friction. Preventive measures the possession of high quality spare parts, starting with the RPM index 84.Proposed corrective measures is a quality control service, and improved RPM is able to index 35. 3. The mechanism for the transport of material input shaft gear belts, bearings fired damage, a consequence of the interruption of flow of material on belt conveyors, the cause of the error in the installation of shafts and related components and low-grade embedded material. Initial RPM with the index 90 and 108. Preventive measures the possession of high quality spare parts, corrective measures is the reception quality of spare parts from suppliers. The improved condition index is 20 RPM and 25. 4. The supporting steel structure: steel structure supporting the operator on the tape, the damage is detected fired steel girders, a consequence of the increase in vibration and the cause of fatigue. Initial RPM is 250, degrees of extreme criticism. Preventive measures to control the service, and proposed corrective measures is a better process control during the service, specializing in testing services and the introduction of predictive/ pro-active maintenance. The improved state of RPM was 40 with an index. Analysis of technical systems points to a specific destructive effects, according to an analytical view of each selected circuit. These have been detected in a technical sense and based on the factors presented by the possible harmful potential. Problems are most likely to occur to those of standard features that are atypical for a particular set or group of selected components in the sequence of projected technical characteristics of the system, [6], [9], [32] and [33]. The results of applying the method of FMECA are shown only partially for some of the characteristic module. Analysis of the complete system indicates a large number of destructive potential expressed through great criticism. Suggested a number of preventive and corrective measures with specific debit for realizing them. In the improved situation confirmed the initial hypothesis is defined it is possible to reduce the distances RPM range of acceptable risk index below the 50th The general conclusion is that it is possible to implement FMECA method for monitoring the risk of criticism and analysis of technical systems in mining.
8. CONCLUSION
The need for quality monitoring of technical systems in mining is explicit. Reduction of the total potential criticism by minimizing the destruction, which is measured by multiple applications and very often large scale damage and loss, it becomes imperative for management of the company. Analytics and critical analysis of methodological procedures, causes and consequences, presented in this paper shows that it is possible and necessary practical implementation of the FMECA method of manufacturing practices mining. The presented results of the analysis indicate that the systemic approach can affect the overall reduction in critical and destruction and with the proper metrics and control as well as constant monitoring to ensure satisfactory quality
166
of the projected level of technical performance of the system for the exploitation phase of the life cycle of mining. It can be said to include: promotion, customer satisfaction and reduce the amount sufficient reason for dismissal as a confirmation of the work set forth definitions. FMECA is a method with all these elements (requirements) represented in the standards. Through the method of FMECA lives purpose and spirit of preventive approaches to problem analysis and display of technique. By definition, the very process FMECA is a method for optimizing design, process, maintenance, through changes (re-engineering) to improve or eliminate any known or potential problems. FMECA method always recognize the link: R (t) = 1 - F (t), which means that reliability can never be 100%, and is directed towards reduction of the intensity of failure to achieve as close to the projected value of reliability. It remains a great place for a broad implementation and application of FMECA methods in production practices mining.
9. REFERENCES
[1] Web page: http://www.fmea-fmeca.com/. [2] Dai, P.: 100.000 Technical and ICT Abbreviations and Acronyms. Vrnjaka Banja: SaTCIP Ltd., 2009. pp. 1200. ISBN 978-86-6075-001-5. [3] Dai, P.: Algorithm approach to determination of reliability of components technical systems, Plenary and invitation paper. Proceedings of 5th International Conference Research and Development in Mechanical Industy - RaDMI 2005, Vrnjaka Banja, 04-07. September 2005, p. 34-45. [4] Dai, P.; Natsis, A.; Petropoulos, G.: Models of reliability for cutting tools:Examples in manufacturing and agricultural engineering. Strojniki vestnik Journal of Mechanical Engineering, vol. 54 no. 2 (2008), p. 122-130. [5] ISO 31000: 2009, Risk management - principles and guidelines, (Pages: 3-22, of 24), (2009-11-13), ICS: 03.100.01, (International Organization for Standardization). [6] Radosavljevi, S.; Lili, N.; uri, S.;Radosavljevi, M.: Risk Assessment and Managing Technical Systems in case of Mining Industry, Strojniki vestnik - Journal of Mechanical Engineering, 55(2009)2, 119-130. [7] Radosavljevi, S.: Technical Diagnostics Systems and Risk Analysis in Mining, VIII International Symposium, Mechanization And Automation In Mining And Energy, MAREN 2010, Lazarevac (2010). p. 158-161. [8] Radosavljevi, S.: Risk evaluation model of work safety process in the sectiondry separation, Kolubara Prerada, Vreoci,Doctoral dissertation, Faculty of Mining andGeology, Belgrade, (2010), p 81-95. [9] Radosavljevi, S.; Radosavljevi, M.: Risk Assessment in Mining Inustry: Apply Management, Serbian Journal of Management, An international Journal for Theory and Practice Management Science, Techical Faculty Bor, Serbia, volume 14., Number (1), ISSN 1453-4864., (2009).pp. 91-104. [10] Radosavljevi, S.; Radosavljevi, M.:Contemporary models for risk analysis in mining Serbia, Tehnika dijagnostika, ISSN 1451-1975., Broj 1., Beograd, (2009), p. 17-24. [11] Radosavljevi, S.; Radosavljevi, M.: Risk technical systems: model and sotware Designsafe 5.0., International Journal of Software Systems and Tools, (IJSST), Volume 1., Number 1., (2009),pp. 45-53. [12] Radosavljevi, S.; Radosavljevi, M.:Hazop Analysis Of Mining-Management Application, Tehnika dijagnostika, ISSN 1451-1975., Years 7., number 2., Beograd, (2008), p. 25-32. [13] Radosavljevi, S.:Risk management in mining, Scientific And Technical Journal For Quality Improvement, ISSN 0354-2408, Quality, Poslovna politika, Beograd, number 7-8-2007., p. 68-72. [14] Dependability management - Part 3. Application guide-section 9: Risk analysis ogtechnological systems, 1995, 12, (3.5), p. 11. [15] Sultan, K.S.; Ismail, M.A.; Al-Moisheer, A.S: Mixture of two inverse Weibulldistributions: Properties and estimation,Computational Statistics & Data Analysis,vol. 51, (2007) p. 5377-5387. [16] Main, W.B: Risk Assessment: Basics and Benchmarks, Design safety engineering,inc, ann Arbor, Michigan, (2005),p. 21-23. [17] IS CEI 300-3-9. Part 3. Dependability management - Application guide-Section 9:Risk analysis of technological systems,1995-12,(1995), p. 36-38. [18] Michael, S.; Joane, D.; Joseph, F.; Joseph, M.; Jan, R.: Fault Tree Handbook withAerospace Applicationc, NASA Office ofSafety and Mission Assurance-NASAHeadquarters, Washington, DC 20546, (2002),p. 2-8, p. 12-20, p. 22-26. [19] Martin, S.: Safety Analyse of Steam Turbine with Accessories, Faculty ofMechanical Engineering-Institute ofAutomation and Computer Science, BRNO2008, (2008),p 17-25. [20] Michael, J.B.; Launa, G.M.: Focus on Prevention: Conducting a Hazard RiskAssessment, Centers for Disease Controland Prevention, National Institute forOccupational Safety and Health PittsburghResearc Laboratory, Pittsburgh, (2003),p. 3-5.
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[21] Biehl, M.; Prater, E.; Mcintyre, J.R.:Remote Repair, diagnostics, andMaintenance, Communications of the ACM,vol. 47, November 2004,(2004), p 101-106. [22] Jiang, R.; Murthy, P.:Models involving two inverse Weibulldistributions, Reliability Engineering &System Safety, vol. 73, (2001),p. 73-81. [23] Etherton, J.; Main, B.; Clouthier, D.;Christensen, W.: Reducing risk onmachinery: A field evaluation pilot study ofrisk assessment. Available from the author ofthe present article. Manuscript in reviewwith Risk Analysis editor.(2007), p. 197-211. [24] ISO/CD TR 14121-2:2007: Safety of Machinery-Risk, Assessment-Part 2:Practical Guidance and Examples ofMethods. Geneva,(2007), p. 17-19. [25] Main, W.B.; Cloutier, R.D.; Manuele, A.F;, Bloswick S.D.: Risk Assessment forMaintenance Work, Design safetyengineering, inc, ann Arbor, Michigan, (2005),p.59-61. [26] Afrazeh, A.; Bartsch, H.: Human Reliability and Flight Safety, International Journal of Reliability, Quality and Safety Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 5(2007), pp. 501-516. [27] Dhillon, B.S.: Reliability, Quality and Safety for Engineers, SRC Press, Boca Raton, (2005), P. 237. [28] Zio, E.: An Introduction to the Basis of Reliability and Risk Analysis, World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd., Singapore, (2007), 234 p. [29] Zio, E.: Computational Methods for Reliability and Risk Analysis, World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd., Singapore, (2007), 362 p. [30] Zio, E.: Computational Methods for Reliability and Risk Analysis, World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd., Singapore, (2007), 362 p. [31] Nachlas, J.A.: Reliability Engineering, Probabilistic Models and Maintenance Methods, Taylor and Francis Group, Boca Raton, (2005), 403 p. [32] Stamatis, D.H.: Failure Mode and Effects Analysis, FMEA from Theory to Execution, ASQ Quality Press, Milwaukee, (2003), 487 p.
168
RaDMI 2010
CONSIDERATIONS ABOUT THE VIBRATIONS OF GEAR WHEELS

1
Dan Gheorghe Bagnaru1, Adina Cataneanu2 , Mihnea Cataneanu3

Faculty of Mechanics, University of Craiova, ROMANIA, e-mail: bagnaru@yahoo.com 2 e-mail: a.cataneanu@rdslink.ro, 3 e-mail: cataneanu@yahoo.com
Summary: It is important that, as early as the conceptual phase, based on the relations theoretical grounded, the vibrations and the noises of working gear wheels could be calculated. For this reason, we intend to determine the relative displacement of the two gears, from a hypothetical mechanism, in direction of the line of contact, while the teeth are in contact on the working or on the inactive flank. Also, we intend to determine the relative displacement of the two gears while they are in recess (the discontinuities in gearing). Keywords: vibrating system, gear wheels, noises
1. INTRODUCTION
Figure 1: The mechanical model of the mechanism The aim of this paper is to determine the relative displacement of the two gear wheels of a hypothetical mechanism, displacement along the line of contact, while the teeth are in contact on the working or on the
169
inactive flank, as well as to determinate the relative displacement of the two gears while in recess. For this reason, it is considered the mechanical model from the figure 1. The mechanical model has one liberty degree. The vibrating system mass is considered to be concentrated in M, the system elasticity is described by k, constant elastic resort and the dumping is described by the dumper having a dumping constant c. The origin of the axis is considered to be the intersection of the contact line with the symmetry line of the tooth.
2. THE MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF THE MOTION

Using the Newton formalism or the Lagrange one, the mathematical models (1), (2) and (3) results in case of the vibrations of the gear wheels, while the teeth are in contact on the working or on the inactive flank, or in recess, as it follows:
2 && + 2nq & + n q q = a0 + a1 cos(0t ) + a2 sin (0t );
2 && + 2nq & + n q q = a0 a1 cos(0t ) a2 sin (0t );
(1) (2) (3)
&& + 2nq & = a0, q

where:
2n =
kE 0, f p kE0, f p c k F 2 ; n = ; a0 = n ; a1 = sin ; a2 = cos ; M M M M M
E0, f p -the E f p type error span for the tooth profile considered to have a sine type variation;
0
Fn
-the pulsation of the form error for the tooth profile; -the initial phase; -the normal static force on the tooth;
M 1M 2 -the reduced mass; M1 + M 2 4I M 1 = 21 -the pinion mass reduced on the base circle; Db1 M=
M2 = 4I 2 -the gear wheel mass reduced on the base circle; Db22
I1 -the inertia momentum of the pinion related to its own rotation axis; I 2 -the inertia momentum of the gear wheel related to its own rotation axis; Db1 -the base circle diameter for the pinion;
Db2 -the base circle diameter for the gear wheel.

3. THE DYNAMIC RESPONSE
By applying the Laplace transform to the equations (1), (2) and (3), in the initial conditions:
& (0) = v0 , q(0) = q0, q

it results the algebraically equations:
170
~ (s ) sq v + 2nsq ~ (s ) 2nsq ~ (s ) 2nq + 2 q ~ s 2q 0 0 0 n (s ) = s 1 = a0 + a1 2 + a2 2 0 2 ; 2 s s + 0 s + 0 ~ (s ) sq v + 2nsq ~(s ) 2nsq ~(s ) 2nq + 2 q ~ s 2q 0 0 0 n (s ) = s 1 = a0 a1 2 a2 2 0 2 ; 2 s s + 0 s + 0
(1)
(2)
~ (s ) sq v + 2nsq ~ (s ) 2nq = 1 a . s 2q 0 0 0 0 s
The solutions of these equations are:
2 2 a0 s 2 + 0 + a1s 2 + a20 s + s(sq0 + v0 + 2nq0 ) s 2 + 0 ~ ; q (s ) = 2 2 s s 2 + 0 s 2 + 2ns + n
(3)
)(
(1)
2 2 2 2 2 ~ (s ) = a0 (s + 0 ) a1s a20 s + s (sq0 + v0 + 2nq0 )(s + 0 ) ; q 2 )(s 2 + 2ns + n2 ) s(s 2 + 0 2 ~ (s ) = s q0 + (v0 + 2nq0 )s + a0 . q s 2 (s + 2 n )
(2)
(3)
Afterwards, by applying the inverse Laplace transform in relation with time to the equations (1), (2), respectively (3), it results the dynamic response of the vibrating system under the form of time related functions:
2 2 n a 2na20 + a1 0 q(t ) = q0 02 + 2 2 2 n + 4n 20 02 n
) ch(

n t +
2 2 n
1
2 n 2 n
(1)
2 2 2 2 na a 2n 2 + 0 n na1 0 + n nq0 + v0 20 + 2 0 2 2 2 n 02 n + 4n 20 a 1 e nt + 02 + 2 2 n 0 n 2 + 4n 202
) sh(

2 n 2 n t
)}
2 2 2 2na20 a1 n cos(0t ) + 2na10 a2 0 n sin (0t ) ; 2 0

2 2 n a0 2na20 + a1 0 1 2 2 q(t ) = q0 2 ch n n t + 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 n + n 4 n n 0 0 n
{[
)]
)]
(2)
2 2 2 2 2na20 + a1 0 n cos(0t ) 2na10 a2 0 n sin (0t ) ;
2 2 2 2 a20 2n 2 + 0 n + na1 0 + n na nq0 + v0 20 + 2 2 2 n + 4n 20 02 n a 1 e nt + 02 + 2 2 n 0 n 2 + 4n 202
) sh(

2 n 2 n t
)}
{[
)]
)]
171
q(t ) =
If:
2nv0 a0 4nq0 + 2nv0 a0 a0 + . t e 2 nt 2n 4n 2 4n 2
(3)
2 2 n 2 n = i n n2 ,
then, with the relations:

2 2 2 ch n 2 n t = ch i n n 2 t = cos n n2 t ;
( sh( n
) ( t ) = sh(i
2 n
2 n
) ( n t ) = sin (
2
2 n
) n t ),
2
the time functions (1) and (2) becomes:

2 2 n a 2na20 + a1 0 q(t ) = q0 02 + 2 n 02 n2 + 4n 202
) cos(

2 n2 t + n
(1IV)
n2 n 2
2 2 2 2 na a 2 n 2 + 0 n na1 0 + n nq0 + v0 20 + 2 0 2 n 02 n2 + 4n 202
) sin (

n2 n 2 t
)}
e nt +
2 2 2 2 2na20 a1 0 n cos(0t ) + 2na10 a2 0 n sin (0t ) ;
{[
a0
2 n
2 0
2 2 n
1
2 + 4n 20
)]
)]
2 2 a0 2na20 + a1 0 1 n 2 2 q(t ) = q0 2 cos n n t + 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 n + 4 n n 0 0 n n
(2IV)
2 2 2 2 na a20 2n 2 + 0 n + na1 0 + n 2 2 nq0 + v0 20 + sin n n t 2 2 2 2 2 n 0 n + 4 n 0 a 1 e nt + 02 + 2 2 2 2 n 0 n + 4n 20
)}
2 2 2 2 2na20 + a1 0 n cos(0t ) 2na10 a2 0 n sin (0t ) .
{[
)]
)]
4. GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATIONS OF THE RELATIVE DISPLACEMENTS

Lets consider the case of a hypothetic gear mechanism, for which the following are known: a0=40142,857, a1=40142,844, a2 =31,966, n=2007,142, n=28334,773, 0=10. The time related functions (1(4)), (2(4)), respectively (3(3)), in the case of homogeneous conditions, are represented in figures 2, 3 and 4.
172
0.00013 0.00012 0.00011 0.0001 0.00009 0.00008 0.0005 0.001 0.0015 0.002 0.0025 0.003
Figure 2: The relative displacement q=q(t) f the two gear wheels, along the contact line, while the teeth are in contact on the working flank
0.0001 0.00008 0.00006 0.00004 0.00002
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
Figure. 3: The relative displacement q=q(t) of the two gear wheels, along the contact line, while the teeth are in contact on the inactive flank
0.015
0.01
0.005
0.0005
0.001
0.0015
0.002
Figure. 4: The variation of the relative displacement of the two gear wheels while the recess (mesh discontinuities)
5.CONCLUSIONS
One can easily notice that, for the same amount of time, the relative displacements while the teeth are in contact on the inactive flank are smaller that those in case of the teeth in contact on the working flank. The maximum deformation of the tooth, in case of the contact on the working flank, it is, approximately, 0,1 [mm] (fig.2).
173
REFERENCES
[1] Bagnaru, D.Gh.: The Vibrations of Kinematical Elements. SITECH Publishers, 2005, Craiova 170 pp. ISBN 973-657-854-2. [2] Bagnaru, D.Gh.: Numerical Simulation in Mechanical Engineering. Theory. Laboratory Papers. SITECH Publishers, Craiova, 2005. ISBN 973-746-028-6 [3] Bagnaru, D.Gh.: Theory concerning the Linear Continuous Systems. Applications in the Vibrations Theory. SITECH Publishers, Craiova, 2000. ISBN 973-8025-67-2. [4] Bagnaru, D.Gh., Rizescu,S. & Bolcu, D.: The Vibrations of Elastic Systems. Didactic and Pedagogic Publishers, Bucuresti,1997. ISBN 973-30-5907-2. [5] Bagnaru, D. Gh, Rinderu, P.L.: The Vibrations of Mechanical Systems. LOTUS Publisher, Craiova, 1998. ISBN 973-98290-6-6. [6] Cataneanu, A., Bagnaru, D. Gh.: Mechanics of Continuous Spectrum. SITECH Publishers, Craiova, 2000. ISBN 973-80205-68-01. [7] Cataneanu, M., Bagnaru, D.Gh. & Cataneanu, A.: About the Vibrations of the Ambielage from a V-Type Engine. International Conference of Mechanical Engineering. ICOME 2010. Tome 2, 27th-30th of April 2010, Craiova, Romania. pp.555-560. ISBN 978-606-510-878-3, 978-606-510-880-6.
174
RaDMI 2010
THE COMPATATIVE ANALYSIS BETWEEN THE CROSS DISPLACEMENTS FIELD OF A REPOSE LINEAR-VISCOELASTIC BAR AND THE SAME BAR, BEING THE CONNECTING ROD OF A CRANK GEAR
1
Dan Gheorghe Bagnaru1, Adina Cataneanu2 , Mihnea Cataneanu3

Faculty of Mechanics, University of Craiova, ROMANIA, e-mail: bagnaru@yahoo.com 2 e-mail: a.cataneanu@rdslink.ro, 3 e-mail: cataneanu@yahoo.com
Summary: At the beginning of the paper, the cross displacements field, for the linear-viscoelastic connecting rod of a crank gear R(RRT) being in a vibratory movement, is determined. Afterwards, the same linear-viscoelastic bar but simply supported is considered. This one is at rest, abiding a slight interference under the form of a constant force. So, it is observed that the vibrational amplitudes of the cross displacement, in case of the repose linear-viscoelastic bar, are smaller than those of the linear-viscoelastic connecting rod. Finally, a comparative analysis between the theoretical and the experimental values is made. Keywords: vibrations, cross displacements field, viscoelastic.
1. THE MATHEMATICAL MODELS

In the figure 1 a crank and connecting rod assembly R(RRT) is presented.
Figure 1: The crank connecting rod assembly R(RRT) It is considered a fixed system of coordinates (O0X0Y0) and a mobile system of coordinates (Oxy) associated to the connecting rod OA. The connecting rod is member of kinematic chain of the crank gear O0OA. Besides, M is an arbitrary point and belongs to the connecting rod of the above mechanism. The connecting rod is a linearviscoelastic bar and has a vibratory movement. In a first approximation [1], the mathematical model of the cross vibrations, for the above connecting rod, can be written under the form:
175
~ (1)}+ A [L0 (s )]{u

where:
1 0 ~ ~ T ~ {a0 } + Ax{g (s ) (s )} = {0}, 0 1
(1)
[L0 (s )] is a differential operator, having the expression:
[L0 (s )] = E (s )I
~ } = {a ~ (s ) {a 0 01
1 1
~ 0 0 4 E (s )A 1 0 0 2 2 + 2 + s A ; 2 4 Is x 0 1 x 0 1 0
~ (s )}T ; a 02
2 (t ) = g (t );
~ ( ) }= { ~ ( ) (x , s ) {u u
1
~ (1) (x , s ) T ; u 2
~ E (s ) =
a0 s ; b0 s + b1
a0 = 9GK ;
K=
b0 = 3 K + G ;
b1 =
3GK
E 2 + G. (1 + ) (1 2 ) 3
In the above relations, the followings represent: r u - the linear elastic displacement; - the specific mass; A = b h - the plan area of the OA connecting rod; I - the geometrical moment of inertia of the plan area about the neutral axis of the connecting rod; r a0 - the acceleration of the extremity point O of the connecting rod OA; r - the angular velocity of the connecting rod; r - the angular acceleration of the connecting rod; G - the rigidity modulus; K - the compressibility modulus; - the contraction coefficient ( the Poissons ratio); - the afferent constant to the Newton type component of the Maxwells model. ~ Besides, it is necessary to mention that E (s ) has the expression proper to the mechanical Maxwells model for plastics. For the linear-viscoelastic bar, simply supported and being at rest, by the cancellation of the kinematical parameters, the mathematical model becomes:
~ (1) }+ { f } = {0}. [L0 (s )]{u
(2)
2. THE DISPLACEMENTS FIELD

By applying in (1), respectively, in (2) the finite Fourier transforms and restricting only to the cross vibrations,
(1) (n , s ) in polynomial equations result. These equations have as unknown quantities the displacements u2 ,s
Laplace and Fourier images in sine. Afterwards, by inverting the Laplace and the Fourier transforms, the solutions, in a first approximation, u (1) (x , t ) of the two equations result under the form:
(1) (x ,t ) = u2
2 n = (1) u (n ,t ) sin( n x ), L n = 1 2 ,s
(3)
176
(1) (n ,t ) are given in [1]. where u2 ,s

Lets consider the concrete case, the material being textile laminate with: - the length of the connecting rod L=1[m]; - the dimensions of the plan area b=0,04[m], h=0,005[m]; - the length of the crank r=0,07[m]; - the specific mass =1285,7[kg/m3]; - the angular velocity 0=157[s-1]; - the compressibility modulus K=8452,969[MPa],; - the rigidity modulus G= 5071,782[MPa]; - the afferent constant to the Newton type component of the Maxwells model =6,14107[MPa]. With the definition laws (3) and also with the above particular values, result the graphical plotting of the cross displacements. These are presented in the figures 2 and 3.
0.04 0.02 0 -0.02 -0.04 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0 4 0 2 4
10 8 6
Figure 2: The graphical representation of the cross displacement for the OA viscoelastic connecting rod of the slider crank mechanism.
0.02 0.01 0 -0.01 -0.02 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0 2 4
10 8 6
Figure 3: The graphical representation of the cross displacement for the viscoelastic repose simply supported bar. In order to do the proposed comparisons in similar conditions, because the initial states for the repose simply supported bar was considered the same like in case of the connecting rod of the slider crank mechanism, we suppose that the simply supported bar abiding a constant force f=0,125[N]. It is observed that the vibrational amplitudes of the cross displacement, in case of the linear viscoelastic bar at rest, are smaller than those of the linear viscoelastic connecting rod OA, member of kinematic chain for slider crank mechanism from figure 1.
3. EXPERIMENTAL TESTS
In order to compare the theoretical results with the experimental one, vibration tests are made. So, the figure 4 presents the data acquisition technique incorporating the Spider 8 and the notebook, as well as the signal conditioner Nexus 2692-A-014, the sampling frequency being 2400 samples/second/channel, on approximately 7..15[s] operating time.
177
Figure 4: The data acquisition technique It was used the next procedure: - a certain driving frequency adjustment on the 1..4[Hz] frequency band was made; - the data acquisition and, immediately, the driving motor were started; - after the acquisition, the data was collimated and, besides, holded in the data files type ASCII, with a suggestive notation, having on the first column the time T[s] and then the readed parameters: Crs[mm], Dpl1 [mm], Dpl2 [mm], Dpl3 [mm]. The data files notation is under the form: Type material &Direction of test & Command test, asc, where Type material=T (textile laminate), Direction of test=O/V (horizontal transversal/vertical), Command test=1, 2,..,12. To determine the vibratory response were used three accelerometers B&K 4391 installed at 50 [mm] from the driving extremity (point 1), at the middle of the connecting rod (point 2) and at 50 [mm] from the driving extremity of the link (point 3), consecutively, on the vertical and horizontal-transversal directions in relation to the driving plane of the connecting rod (figure 5). The crank and connecting rod assembly was droved by a three phase altermotor having 25 [kW] power, with 1500 [rot/min] constant rotative speed, through a speed variator. This way, at the connecting rod level, were obtained variable rotative speeds on the 60240 [rot/min] range of revolution.
Figure 5: The instrument layout Figure 6 represents the variation diagram of the cross displacement , in relation with time, in case of the OA linear viscoelastic connecting rod of the slider crank mechanism from the figure 1.
Figure 6: Cross displacement-time diagram for the linear viscoelastic connecting rod The error analysis is made with the relation:
178
t e u2 u2 max u2
100 ,
t e where u 2 and u2 are the theoretical, respectively, the experimental value of the cross displacement and max t e u2 = max u2 , u2 . In this manner, it results < 10% , allowable error in technique. These errors are induced by the clearance for insertion in kinematical couplings, by the vibrations being transmitted through the mechanism base and by the approximate methods used in the present study.
4. CONCLUSION
The above facts show that the kinematical parameters of the movement determine the increase of the vibration amplitudes. For this reason, in case of a mechanism projecting, it is necessary to take into consideration the influence of the kinematical parameters of the movement concerning the displacements induced by the occurrence of vibrations.
REFERENCES
[1] Bagnaru, D.Gh.: The Vibrations of Kinematical Elements. SITECH Publishers, Craiova , 2005. ISBN 973657-854-2. [2] Bagnaru, D.Gh., Rizescu,S. & Bolcu, D.: The Vibrations of Elastic Systems. Didactic and Pedagogic Publishers, Bucuresti,1997. ISBN 973-30-5907-2. [3] Bagnaru, D. Gh, Rinderu, P.L.: The Vibrations of Mechanical Systems. LOTUS Publisher, Craiova, 1998. ISBN 973-98290-6-6. [4] Bagnaru, D.Gh.: Theory concerning the Linear Continuous Systems. Applications on the Vibrations Theory. SITECH Publishers, Craiova, 2000. ISBN 973-8025-67-2. [5] Bagnaru, D.Gh.: The Influence of the Vibrations upon the Stress and Defformation States in Case of the Linear Elastic Connecting Rod of a Slider Crank Mechanism R (RRT). Annals of Oradea University. Fascicle of Management and Technological Engineering, Oradea, 2005, pp.97-104. ISSN 1583-0691. [6] Bagnaru, D. Gh., Cataneanu, A.: The Influence of the Kinematical Parameters concerning the Vibrations of the Connecting Rod for a Slider Crank Mechanism. Annals of Oradea University. Fascicle of Management and Technological Engineering, Oradea, 2005, pp.104-107. ISSN 1583-0691. [7] Bagnaru, D. Gh., Cataneanu, A. & Cataneanu M.: About an Approximately Method to determinate the displacements Field in Case of a Vibrating Kinematical Element. ADEKO-Machine Design. Novi-Sad 2008, pp. 177-180. ISBN 978-86-7892-105-6. [8] Bgnaru, D. Gh.: Applied Mechanics in Technology. Vol. 1 , Vol.2. SITECH Publishers, Craiova, 2010. ISBN 978-606-530-641-7. [9] Bgnaru, D. Gh.: Elements of Elasticity and Plates Calculus Theory. SITECH Publishers, Craiova, 2010, ISBN 978-606-530-949-4. [10] Bgnaru, D. Gh., Ctneanu, A. : Dynamics with Maps into Engineering. Universitaria Publishers, Craiova, 2009, ISBN 978-606-510-574-4. [11] Bgnaru, D.Gh., Vintil, D. D., Nanu, Gh., Ctneanu, A.& Grigorie, L.: Mechanics. Theory. Laboratory Papers. SITECH Publishers, Craiova, 2010, ISBN 978-606-11-0332-4. [12] Bgnaru, D. Gh., Cu P.: Accelerations Field in case of the linear Elastic Rod of a Crank and Connecting Rod Assembly. Annals of the Oradea University. Fascicle of Management and Tehnological Enginering. VOLUME VIII(XVIII) 2009. University of Oradea, pp. 97-100. ISSN 1583-0691. [13] Bgnaru, D. Gh., Hadr, A., Bolcu D., Stnescu, M. M. & Cu, P.: The Vibrations Influence on the accelerations Field for the Linear Elastic Connecting Rod of a Mechanism Connecting Rod Lug. Annals of DAAAM for 2009 & Proceedings, 2009, 20(1), ISI, Scientific, Proceedings, Thomson, Reuters. pp. 08330834. ISSN 1726-9679. [14] Bgnaru, D. Gh., Hadr, A., Nanu, Gh., Stnescu, M. M.& Cu, P.: The Influence of the kinematical Parameters concerning the Vibrations of the Linear Elastic Connecting Rod for a Slider-crank Mechanism. Annals of DAAAM for 2009 & Proceedings, 2009, 20(1), ISI, Scientific, Proceedings, Thomson, Reuters. pp. 0835-0836. ISSN 1726-9679. [15] Cataneanu, A., Bagnaru, D. Gh.: Mechanics of Continuous Spectrum. SITECH Publishers, Craiova, 2000. ISBN 973-80205-68-01.
179
[16] Ctneanu, A., Bgnaru, D. Gh. & Ctneanu, M.: Vibrations of the tool and tool holder unit for a shaper device. Monograph of the Faculty of Technical Sciences, University of Novi Sad, 2008,. pp. 367-370. ISBN 978-86-7892-105-6. [17] Cu P., Bgnaru, D.Gh.: Vibration influence on the accelerations Field in case of a Thin Plate with Linear Viscoelastic Behaviour. Annals of Oradea University. Fascicle of Management and Tehnological Enginering. VOLUME VIII(XVIII) 2009, Univesity of Oradea Publisher. pp. 180-183. ISSN 1583-0691. [18] Cu P., Bgnaru, D. Gh.: Vibration influence on the accelerations Field in case of a Thin Plate with Linear Elastic Behaviour. Annals of Oradea University. Fascicle of Management and Tehnological Enginering. VOLUME VIII(XVIII) 2009, Univesity of Oradea Publisher. pp. 184-189. ISSN 1583-0691. [19] Stnescu, M. M., Hadr, A., Nanu, Gh., Bgnaru, D. Gh. &, Cu, P.: The influence of the kinematical parameters concerning the vibrations of the linear viscoelastic connecting rod for a slider-crank mechanism. Annals of DAAAM for 2009 & Proceedings, 2009, 20(1), ISI, Scientific, Proceedings, Thomson, Reuters. pp. 0837-0838. ISSN 1726-9679.
180
RaDMI 2010
PROFILE ELASTIC COUPLINGS

Ivan Balashev
Technical University, Gabrovo, BULGARIA, e-mail: balashev@tugab.bg
Summary: A Range of elastic couplings are considered in this development with triangular, square, pentagonal and hexagonal profile. Geometrical dimensions and the maximum torques that can be transmitted by the couplings are determined. The static stiffness of the profile couplings is determined. Computer program MathCAD is used. The results of the study are shown in the tables. Keywords: elastic couplings, profile couplings.
1. INTRODUCTION
Profile couplings with elastic elements have the advantage of absorbing vibrations and softening impacts in motion systems. The present paper presents a range of flexible elastic clutches (couplings) with elastic (rubber) element having triangular, square, pentagonal and hexagonal profile. The purpose of the work is to define the limits of the geometric dimensions of the different profiles based on the torque transferred. The flexible couplings consist of several elastic rings two, three or four. A wide range of elastic profile couplings (clutches) has been developed.
2. PROFILE ELASTIC COUPLINGS

2.1. Triangular profile The design of a flexible coupling with an elastic element and triangular profile is shown in fig. 1 [1]. The coupling consists of an outer sleeve 2 and an inner sleeve 1 both with triangular profile which are linked by a triangular elastic ring 3 (or set of multiple rings). The main dimension of the coupling is the diameter D of the inner triangular sleeve. The remaining dimensions are interconnected:
D a = 2. m 2 ; 2
h=m+
D 2
(1)
The maximum torque that can be transmitted through the coupling is determined through the following formula [1]:
T
Where
[ ]rubber . 2 .b
4 = 2 MPa ;
(2)
[ ]rubber
b is the width of the elastic ring (set of multiple rings)
181
If the coupling is statically loaded with torque T in a fixed outer sleeve 2 (Fig.1), then inner sleeve 1 (Fig.1) turns at an angle [1]:
=
Where
2. D
(3)
8. . 3.. 2 .b
is maximum deformation of the elastic element [1];
E = 6,1 MPa
is the module of
flexibility of the elastic element.
b 1
3 D
D1
R
d
d
h m h1
m1
Figure 1: Constructive dimensions of a flexible coupling having an elastic element with triangular profile The static stiffness of the coupling is determined through following [1]:
C=
(4)
As a result of the above dependencies, a range of couplings is constructed with an elastic element and triangular profile. The dimensions and parameters are given in table 1
182
Tmax Nm 30 50 70 105 150 200 320 490 650 640 960 1200
D 75 115 160 200
Table 1: Range of flexible couplings with a triangular profile Parameters, mm h m b R D1 h1 m1 L 20 54 60 22,5 30 12,5 50 120 85 35 64 40 74 25 97 92 34,5 37,5 17 74,5 170 126 51,5 110 50 122 40 130 128 48 26 106 238 180 74 60 150 80 170 50 165 160 60 33 133 290 226 93 75 190 100 215
d 15 18 24 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
C, Nm/rad 610 900 1200 1800 2700 3600 5600 8400 11220 10900 16000 21900
2.2. Square profile The design of a flexible coupling with an elastic element and square profile is shown in fig. 2 [2]. The coupling consists of an outer sleeve 2 and an inner sleeve 1 both with square profile which are linked by a square elastic ring 3 (or set of multiple rings). The main dimension of the coupling is the diameter D of the internal square sleeve. The remaining dimensions are interconnected:
2 R D1 D
h h1
Figure 2: Constructive dimensions of a flexible coupling having an elastic element with square profile The main dimension of the coupling is the diameter D of the internal square sleeve which is constructively selected. All other dimensions are interconnected:
= 0,08.D ; b = a / 1,5
The maximum torque that can be transmitted through the coupling is determined with the following formula [2]:
a = 0,6.D ; h = 0,8.D ;
(5)
183
T
Where
[ ]rubber . 2 .b
3
(6)
[ ]rubber = 2 MPa ;
b is the width of the elastic ring (set of multiple rings) If the coupling is statically loaded with torque T in a fixed outer sleeve 2 (Fig.2), then inner sleeve 1 (Fig.2) turns at an angle [2]:
=
Where
2. D = 2. .T .E.a 2 .b
is the maximum deformation of the elastic bushing at the end of the profile [2];
(7)
The static stiffness of the coupling is determined [2]:
C=
As a result of the above dependencies, a wide range of couplings is constructed with an elastic element and square profile. The dimensions and parameters are given in table 2. Tmax Nm 27 40 50 80 120 150 240 360 500 480 720 960 Table 2: Range of flexible couplings with a square profile Parameters, mm h b R D1 h1 L d 20 54 15 60 6 43,5 107 72 30 64 18 40 74 24 25 90 30 92 9,5 67 160 111 37,5 110 35 50 122 40 40 130 45 128 13 93 212 154 60 150 50 80 170 55 50 160 60 160 16 116 260 192 75 185 65 100 210 70 C, Nm/rad 850 1200 1700 2500 3700 5000 7800 11000 15000 15250 22000 30000
D 75 115 160 200
2.3. Pentagonal profile The design of a flexible coupling with an elastic element and pentagonal profile is shown in fig. 3 [3]. The coupling consists of an outer sleeve 3 and an inner sleeve 1 both with pentagonal profile which are linked by a pentagonal elastic ring 2 (or set of multiple rings). The main dimension of the coupling is the diameter D of the inner pentagonal sleeve. The remaining dimensions are interconnected:
a = D. sin 36 o = 0,587.D ; m = D . cos 360 = 0,404.D ; h = 0,904.D 2
(9)
T
Where
[ ]rubber .D 2 .b
6,95
(10)
[ ]rubber = 2 MPa ;
184
b is the width of the elastic ring (set of multiple rings) If the coupling is statically loaded with torque T in a fixed outer sleeve 3 (Fig.3), then inner sleeve 1 (Fig.3) turns at an angle [3]:
=
Where
2. D
6,95. .T E.D 2 .b
is the maximum deformation of the elastic bushing at the end of the profile [3];
(11)
The static stiffness of the coupling is determined [3]:
C=
(12)
As a result of the above dependencies, a wide range of couplings is constructed with an elastic element and square profile. The dimensions and parameters are given in table 3.
2
3 1
b 1 3 2
m1 d D1 D L
m h1 h
Figure 3: Constructive dimensions of a flexible coupling having an elastic element with pentagonal profile. 2.4. Hexagonal profile The design of a flexible coupling with an elastic element and hexagonal profile [4] is shown in fig. 4. The coupling consists of an outer sleeve 3 and an inner sleeve 1 both with hexagonal profile, which are linked by a hexagonal elastic ring 2 (or set of multiple rings). The main dimension of the coupling is the diameter D of the inner hexagonal sleeve. The remaining dimensions are interconnected:
a=
= 0,06.D m + < D/ 2;
D 2
m=
3 .D 4
h=
3 .D 2
(13)
185
Tmax Nm 30 45 60 95 140 190 300 400 550 570 800 1100
D 75 115 160 200
h 68 104 144 180
Table 3: Range of flexible couplings with a pentagonal profile Parameters, mm m b R D1 h1 m1 L 20 70 30,3 30 5,5 44 95 79 35 80 40 90 25 110 46,4 37,5 8,5 66 143 120 55 120 50 135 40 150 64,6 60 12 92 196 170 76 170 80 190 50 180 80,8 75 15 225 242 210 96 205 100 230
d 15 18 24 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
C, Nm/rad 1100 1700 2200 3300 5000 6600 10000 15500 20000 20000 30000 40000
T
Where
[ ]rubber .D 2 .b
8
(14)
[ ]rubber = 2 MPa ;
b is the width of the elastic ring (set of multiple rings).
m1 d
h h1
m D1 L D
Figure 4: Constructive dimensions of a flexible coupling having an elastic element with hexagonal profile
186
Tmax Nm 30 40 50 80 120 160 250 380 500 500 750 1100
D 75 115 160 200
Table 3: Range of flexible couplings with a hexagonal profile Parameters, mm h m b D1 D2 h1 L 20 70 44 22 4,5 84 94 53 30 80 40 90 25 110 66 33 7 128,8 142 80 37,5 120 50 130 40 150 92 46 9,5 179 205 111 60 170 80 190 50 180 116 58 12 224 250 140 75 205 100 230
d 15 18 24 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
C, Nm/rad 1400 2100 2800 4200 6300 8400 13000 19000 26000 25000 38000 50000
If the coupling is statically loaded with torque T in a fixed outer sleeve 3 (Fig.4), then inner sleeve 1 (Fig.4) turns at an angle [4]:
2. D
8. .T is the maximum deformation of the elastic bushing at the end of the profile [4]; E.D 2 .b
(15)
Where =
The static stiffness of the coupling is determined from following [4]:
C=
(16)
As a result of the above dependencies, a wide range of couplings is constructed with an elastic element and hexagonal profile. The dimensions and parameters are given in table 4. With the help of MathCAD Computer software the stiffness of the elastic couplings is determined as displayed on Fig. 5
C, Nm/rad 4 6 .10 C3 4.8 .10

4 4 4 4
C4 3.6 .10 C5 C6 2.4 .10 1.2 .10
177.521
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 T, Nm
Figure 5: Stiffness of the elastic profile coupling
187
3. CONCLUSIONS
A wide range of flexible coupling with an elastic element with triangular, square, pentagonal and hexagonal profiles has been developed. The couplings are unified in groups and for each diameter there are three maximum torques available. This is possible by using two, three or four identical elastic bushings (rubber rings). The dimensions and parameters are given in tables.
REFERENCES
[1] Balashev I., Krastev K. Flexible couplings having triangular profile, Proceedings of 7 International Conference Research and Development in Mechanical Industy - RaDMI 2007, Serbia, 2007 [2] Balashev I., Krastev K. Flexible clutches with square profile, Proceedings of 5th International Conference Research and Development in Mechanical Industy - RaDMI 2008I, Serbia, 2008 [3] Balashev I., Krastev K. Pentagonal profile elastic couplings Proceedings of 5th International Conference Research and Development in Mechanical Industy - RaDMI 2009, Serbia, 2009 [4] Balashev I., Krastev K Hexagonal profile elastic couplings, International Conference, RU-Ruse,Bulgaria, 2009
188
RaDMI 2010
ANALYSIS OF STRESS IN PLATES WITH HOLES

2
Fabrika sita i leaja - FASIL A.D. Arilje, SERBIA, e-mail: nalemfkg@gmail.com University of Kragujevac, Technical Faculty, aak, SERBIA, e-mail: zvonko@tfc.kg.ac.rs
Nada Boji1, Zvonimir Jugovi2
Summary: The main problem of this study, refers to the analysis of the stress condition of mechanical parts or plates with holes of different shape, position and number. These holes represent the stress concentration sources, same as any other change in cross section. Studied plates are made of isotropy materials, which are exposed to static loads. Finite element method is applied for the analysis of stress deformability state on plates weakened by holes. Key words: condition stress, stress concentration, finite element metod.
1. INTRODUCTION
Plates are usually used in constructing ships, bridges, airplanes, mining and constructive mechanization, which exploitation conditions are extremely difficult. For objects with the form of plate is characteristic that one dimension is considerable smaller compared to other two dimensions, therefore the main subject of this paper work is referred to state of stress analysis which occurs on plates with some holes as the stress concentrators[1]. For that reason there is a need to research stress distribution and also to define (if its possible) factor of stress concentration. Stiffness of real objects mechanical elements, are not the same as the stiffness of raw material. These differences are caused due to the differences between the shapes of smooth test-tubes and the shapes and dimensions of real mechanical objects (elements). Scientific research has shown that for variable cross-section areas of machine parts stresses increases, if the variable cross-section variation is more intensive. The appearance of variation in a local stress increase in the points where cross sections of machine elements varies is called the stress concentration. Rating concentrations of the stress concentration factor is over-stress, which is the ratio between the maximum stress in the zone of concentration and the nominal stress.
max ks = max , n n where n and n are nominal stress. k =
(1)
Stress concentration degree depends on weakened of critical cross-section, and occurrence of stress concentration itself can be explained by the stress flow curves in the zone pad if planes contain the hole, as in the above examples, then the stress intensity increases in the area of the opening. This is because the stress lines for sailing around the opening deviates and intends and to go the shortest route so they focus themselves near the hole. Considerable research on this topic were carried out by [5,6,7,8]. Stress analysis was carried out in plates with ellipse, circular and the hole in the shape of a sqare in uniaxial stress[1,2]. Preparation of this work led to the definition of stress concentration factors for the shapes that are not sufficiently explored in the literature.
189
2. BASIC EQUATIONS OF THE PLANE PROBLEM OF LINEAR THEORIES OF ELASTICITY

In plane problems, at any point of elastic body, the state of stress is determined by the components of the stress
x , y , xy
that satisfy the equilibrium equations in the absence of volume forces.[3,4]. (2)
xy y x xy + = 0, + = 0, x y x y
and conditions for compatibility:
2 2 + x 2 y 2
( x + y ) = 0 .
The whole problem can be simplified if equations (2) and (3) are set under integral formula, if only certain boundary conditions are satisfied. Depending on what is given on the contours of the observed field, two main groups of tasks can be distinguished, as follows: When on contours of the observed area are given external forces
X n and Yn , boundary conditions can be written in the form:
x cos (n, x ) + xy cos (n, y ) = X n , xy cos (n, y ) + y cos (n, y ) = Yn .

where n - external normal to the contour L.
(4)
When on contour L given the observed area are given displacements then boundary conditions will have the following form:
u = g 1 (s ) ,
= g 2 (s ) ,
(5)
g1 (s ) and g 2 (s ) - are given displacements of the points on the outline L.

There is a third group of tasks, in which at one part of the contour L at observed area are given stress, while at the other part of the same contour are given displac
( ) = pR
0,25 + i 0,433 0,564 0,236 3 + 0,066 5 0,034 7 + 1 0,643 2 + 0,293 4 + 0,189 6 + 0,078 8
+i
0,280 + 0,567 3 + 0,102 5 + 0,032 7 1 0,643 2 + 0,293 4 + 0,189 6 + 0,078 8
(6)
2.1. Uniaxial straining When strainining the homogeneous plate surface forces, which attacked the line forms an angle with the positive direction of axis, primary stress balance sheets, such as known, given the stress components:
x = p cos 2 , y = p sin 2 , xy = p sin cos

function of stress:
(7)
p (8) (x sin y cos )2 2 In order to determine the function 0 (z ) and 0 ( z ) it is necessary to determine P( x, y ) and Q( x, y ) first, U 0 ( x, y ) =
which are:
P ( x, y ) =
1 p , Q(x, y ) = 0 , so it will be: 4 d 0 ( z ) 1 = p. dz 4
(9)
By integration of the equation (7), we get:
190
0 (z ) =
1 pz 4
0
(10)
while the function
(z ) is obtained from: R(x, y ) = U 0 (x, y ) 1 [z 0 (z ) + z 0 (z )]

2
z.
(11)
0 (z ) =
pe 2
2 i
2.2. lipse hole The function which perform the conform mirroring of unit circle internal , on elliptic hole exterior with its semi-axis a and b has the form:
1 z = ( ) = R + m
Where is:
(12)
R=
a+b a b 1 k b = , m= , k = . 2 a + b 1+ k a
Expressions for the stress function
( ) ( ) : pR 1 ( ) = + (2e 2i m ) , 4 3 2 i 2 i e + (me 2i m 2 1) pR e + ( ) = . 4 m 2 1
(13)
2e 2 i m 2 1 1 m 2 + 2m cos 2 2 cos 2( + ) . = p Re = p m 2 1 1 2m cos 2 + m 2 If the equation (14) replacement zameni m ,you get: (1 + k )2 sin 2 ( + ) sin 2 k 2 cos 2 . = p sin 2 + k 2 cos 2 When is = 0 expressions (14) have the next shape: 1 m 2 + 2m 2 cos 2 sin 2 + 2k sin 2 k 2 cos 2 p = p = . 1 2m cos 2 + m 2 sin 2 + k 2 cos 2
With arbitary m , a high value on arbitrary contours elliptical holes : Are for : = / 2 , .:
Expressions for the stress across the contours of elipse holes calculation:
(14)
(15)
(16)
b a And least for: = 0 ,respectively. = p ,
= p 1 + 2 ,
(17)
(18)
2.3. Circular hole Expressions for the stress function of the surface with a circular opening loaded along the radius in the direction of the axis powers in Ox :
( ) =
pR 1 + 2 , 4
191
( ) =
. pR 1 + 3 4
(19)
a) Lines of equal
max , min ,b) Lines of equal max , c) The trajectory of

Figure 1: Ellipse hole
the main stress
The expression for stress calculation is:
=
=
p 1 2 + 1 4 2 + 3 4 cos 2 , 2
p 1 + 2 1 + 3 4 cos 2 2
[(
) (
[(
) (
p ( 1 + 2 2 3 4 )sin 2 . 2 If = 1 , then it leads to expressions for the stress across the contours of circular holes calculation. = p(1 2 cos 2 ) .
(20)
(22)
Maximum stress
around the opening is suitable to use the line
obtained in cos 2 = 1, or when = / 2 In stress components calculation at points = const. obtained convenient mapping. Stress components
, and calculated for = 1,0; 0,9; 0,8; 0,7; 0,5; 0,3 and the variation of angle by 5 or 10 ,
and stress
max , min
+
2
and max shall be determined by the following formula and shown in Figure 1,[4].
2 +
2
max =
min =
+ 2
2
+
2
2 +
max
= 2
2 +
(23)
192
a) Lines of equal

Figure2: Circular hole
the main stress
2.4. Square hole
Function
( ) for curvilinear square hole on figure 3 given in next shape:

1 1 3 . 6
(24)
( ) = R
Separating real and imaginary parts are obtain by eqations outline hole from (24) when
= 1.
1 x = R cos cos 3 , 6 1 y = R sin + sin 3 . 6
(25)
Figure3: Curvilinear square hole Shall be denoted with R the length of the hole pages square hole it follows R =
3 a , where is: 5 a - The length of the hole pages square hole, measured in the direction of Ox ili Oy axe. 1 3 R= a Filet radius corners curvilinear square hole (25) is: r = 45 = 10 50
For this case, function of stress
( ) i ( )
3
have the shape:
( ) = pR + cos 2 + i sin 2 + 3 , 5 24 4 7
193
3 3 3 e 2i 13 26 7 cos 2 + i 5 sin 2 ( ) = pR + 4 12 2 + 2 ( ) ( ) ( ) When = 0 , x = p and y = xy = 0 , function of stress (22) have the shape:
(26)
( ) = pR + + 3 , 24 4 7
( ) = pR
1 91 78 3 + . 84 4 + 2 2
(27)
a) Lines of equal

Figure 4: Square hole
the main stress
3. FINITE ELEMENTS METHOD

It should be emphasized that analytic solutions of certain problems such are: state of stress, state of deformability of certain complex structures and complex contour conditions might be more difficult due to huge mathematical procedure and terms which are defined during solving of certain problems. In order to perform more detailed stress calculation and also in order to take all relevant factors inside the plates stress field within this calculation, which is weakened by stress concentration sources, in order to perform this research a numerical methods which are based on the finite element methods were used. These methods are very suitable for stress concentration sources analysis. Since numerical methods implies usage of computers and proper program packages, in this paper work for generation and calculation of finite elements net, a program package NASTRAN was used [2,3,5,6,8]. FME is based on a physical discretization discussed the continuum of finite dimension and areas of simple shapes called finite elements (FE).
194
Figure 5: Basic types of finite elements
All the finite element nodes are linked together, so they make the original construction. In this method studied domain is divided using fictitious line in a certain number of finite elements. A set of finite elements for the entire network domain make any final finite element elements. In each finite element area of movements, the state of stress and strain state, and they are described by interpolation function and the final number of parameters in the nodes. They are the basic unknown quantities in the finite element method [6,7,8]. After finite elements network is formed, the connections between moving and moving nodes in the elements, the connection between load nodes and the corresponding displacement, and form the basic equations of the final elements are placed. Grouping the basic equations of finite element equation construction in matrix form is obtained. So a system of linear equations is formed, by resolving of these equations, the basic unknown quantities will be obtained. If the main unknowns in the nodal points of the network of the finite element are kinematical values, using the principle of minimum of potential energy. So the method of finite elements method is actually a method about about moving. Movement is assumed to be a continuous functions of coordinates, so for twodimensional problem will be:
u = u ( x, y ) ,
u = v ( x, y ) .
(28)
Apropos, f1 ( x, y ) u s= = f 2 ( x, y ) v
(29)
Internal distribution displacement in the finite element is defined with the application of interpolation functions which is displayed on a rectangular plane element in Figure 6.
y, v
4 (0, b) 3 (a, b)
b x, u
1 (0, 0) 2 (a, 0)
Figure 6: Rectangular element
KE vector fields, can be written in the form of functions:: s= Ac, s- vector displacement in the elements, A- field finite element matrix, c- is a vector column whose elements are constants Using the expression will be: Knot 1:
(30)
x = 0 u = U1 y = 0 v = V1
195
Knot 2: Knot 3: Knot 4:
x = a u = U2 y = 0 v = V1 x = a u = U3 y = 0 v = V3 x = 0 u = U4 y = b v = V4
(31) (32)
Boundary conditions may generally write:
sk = S = sk ; Ak c = s k = S
where: Ak - matrix field thresholds The basic equations can be written in the form of: Fe = K e S + Ft Neglecting the influence of temperature stress, the basic equation, we obtain the form:
Fe = K e S
e
(33) where: K - finite element stiffness matrix. If the force is constant in size, movements of the nodes depends on the elements of the matrix stiffness. And design equation has the form: (34) F=K S
4. THE RESULTS OF NUMERICAL ANALYSIS

To obtain the results in this paper using the finite element method, as well as over extravagant suite. Dimensions, material and load are known values so it would be possible to compare the results. In the following example of panel dimensions are the same and they are: 4m x 6m x 0,1m . Uniaxial strained and weakened the (rectangular, circular aperture and aperture form a rhombus). Plate is made of steel with modulus of elasticity E = 2,1x105 MPa and Poisson's ratio = 0,33 , strained intensity of surface force is p = 1 Nm 2 . The highest values of stress are given in table overview, these values were obtained at the locations where the most disruptive element of of continuous regularity occurs. Based on the maximum stress values are calculated geometrical stress concentration factors. In the case of strained plate with a hole, as a source of stress concentration, geometric concentration factor stresses is calculated as the ratio between the maximum and nominal stress in a weakened cross-section. Example 1 A weakened uniaxial strained ellipse hole plate was considered - dimensions 1m x 0,2m where the ratio semi-axis a / b = 3 2 where a = 0,45 m in the directionu x-axis, a b = 0,3m in the direction y-axis, filet radius corners r = 0,04 m and the angle between the offensive line force and the x-axis . = 30 , 45 .
Figure 7a: Stresses at uniaxial strained at weakened plate with a hole in a form of ellipse =30o
196
Figure 7b: Stresses at uniaxial strained at weakened plate with a hole in a form of ellipse =45 o Table 1: Maximum stress values at plate with a elipse hole uniaxial strain max (N/m2)
30 45 3.699 3.281
Example 2. An uniaxial strained at weakened plate with circular hole r = 0,3 m was examined.
Figure8: Stresses at uniaxial strained at weakened plate with circular hole. Table 2: Maximum stress values at plate with a circular hole uniaxial strain max (N/m2)
3,08
Example 3 An uniaxial stretched weakened plate with the hole in a form of square a = 0,6 m filet radius corners r = 0,04 m and the angle between the offensive line and force the x-axis =30o, 45 o
Figure 9a: Stresses at uniaxial strained at weakened plate with a hole in a form of square =30o
197
Figure 9b: Stresses at uniaxial strained at weakened plate with a hole in a form of square =45o Table 3: The values of maximum stress for the plates with the square shaped holes uniaxial strain max (N/m2)
30 45 6.768 6.833
5. CONCLUSION
The main parameter in all these examples was the relation between plates wide and holes dimensions. Setting the correlation between this relation and the stress itself it might be concluded that if holes dimension is increased the section became weakened, while at the same time, the stress is increased and opposite. Based on obtained results for plates disposed to the extensile stress it might be seen that position and the shape of the hole are the parameters that the most impact to the stress concentration. And the concentration itself increases the real stress compared to nominal ones. The most suitable shape is the circle, than ellipse and the worst shape is square.
6. REFERENCES
[1] Nada Boji.: Magistarski rad, Naponsko deformaciono stanje u zonama izvora koncentracije napona kod elemenata mainskih konstrukcija, Kragujevac 2009 godine. [2] Nada Boji, Zvonimir Jugovi, Marko Popovi.:UTICAJ OBLIKA OTVORA NA PONSKO STANJE KOD DELOVA MAINSKIH KONSTRUKCIJA PRI JEDNOOSNOM ZATEZANJU PLOA , IMK 14 oktobar, br. 34-35, 2010 godine. [3] Rakovi D.: Teorija elastinosti, Nauna knjiga, Beograd, 1985 godine [4] ..: , , 1968 . [5] Milomir Gai1, Zvonimir Jugovi 2 ,Mile Savkovi 3 , Milomir upovi4 Analiza uticaja otpora kopanju na vezu rotora sa pogonskim vratilom, str.169..172, IMK 14 oktobar ,2008 godine. [6] Nikoli V. : Mehanika analiza elemenata zupastih prenosnika, monografija, Univerzitet u Kragujevcu, Mainski fakultet u Kragujevcu, 1999 god. [7] . Dolianin, V. Nikoli, M. Radojkovi, N.Boji Matematical models and application numerical methods in solving a phenomenon of the theory of thin plates, Kopaonik 2009 godine. [8] Emanuele Maiorana, Carlo Pellegrino , Claudio Modena.: Non-linear analysis of perforated steel plates subjected to localized symmetrical load, Journal of Constructional Steel Research 65 (2009) 959-964.
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RaDMI 2010
CONSTRUCTION OF DRILLING EQUIPMENTS

Ioan Lucian Bolundu
University of Petrosani, Petrosani, ROMANIA, e-mail: ibol@upet.ro
Summary: The most important subassembly of a drill carriage is the drilling equipment. The paper presents a classification of drilling equipment, according to various criteria, drilling equipment design, as well selection criteria depending on the intended use. Keywords: drill carriage, drilling equipment, endless chain.
1. INTRODUCTION
Drilling equipment is a subassembly of a drilling carriage (figure 1), supporting the drill and mechanical advance of the drill in the borehole. It is in the form of a rigid or telescopic transverse cross bar, which carries and sets the drill to the face, and an advance mechanism of the drill; which makes the borehole and makes it return at the end of the stroke, when the hole is drilled. The drilling equipment is required to develop a suitable advance force for its drill, a sufficiently large stroke, for a small cross bar length, and be ready to automation. The advance mechanism will use the same energy as the drill applied, to avoid two energy sources and to allow simple control systems. Control systems provide drilling parameter optimization for a drilling cycle.
Figure 1: Drill carriage Drilling equipment classification is done according to the criteria given in figure 2.
199
Actuation type
Electrical Hydraulic Pneumatic
Adjustment possibilities Drilling equipment Driving motor type
Fixed Telescopic Rotary motor Linear motor Endless chain driven by rotary motor Looped cable or chain driven by hydraulic cylinder Screw driven by rotary motor Endless cable driven by pneumatic cylinder Cable driven by two cylinders
Advance mechanism type
Figure 2: Classification of drilling equipment
2. DRILLING EQUIPMENT DESIGN

From the point of view of its design, the drilling equipment is fixed or telescopic. Its main element is the advance mechanism of the drill. 2.1. Fixed Drilling Equipment 2.1.1. Rotary Motor Driven Endless Chain Mechanism Drilling equipment (figure 3) is made up of a rigid cross bar 1 and a mechanism providing the drills mechanic advance 2 in the borehole. The mechanism is made up of a rotary hydraulic or pneumatic motor, which, by means of a reduction gear, actuates the chain rollers 3, which engages the endless chain 4, led by deviation 5 and return rollers 6. The link-plate chain 4 is stretched by mechanism 7. The drills advance in the borehole, or its return at the end of the stroke, is done by changing the driving motors rotation direction. To make the drilling equipment steady during its work, cross bar 1 is fixed in the face by means of pin 8.
2
8 7 6 1 4 5 3 5 6
Figure 3: Rotary motor driven endless chain mechanism Drilling equipments kinematics, in view of positioning the drills borer to the face, is done by means of hydraulic cylinders (seen in the figure).
200
2.1.2. Looped Cable or Chain Mechanism Driven by a Hydraulic Cylinder This type of drilling mechanism is applied in heavy drills, which need important advance forces. (figure 4). The advance of drill 1 is done by hydraulic cylinder 2, fixed inside metal cross bar 3, by means of guiding system 4, and driving chain 5, deviated in a loop by chain rollers 6. The chain is stretched by device 7, and the cross bar is fixed to the face by bolt 8. The benefit of this type of mechanism is that for a stroke c of the hydraulic cylinder, the drill effects a double stroke C.
6 1
C
2
c
Figure 4: Looped cable or chain mechanism driven by a hydraulic cylinder 2.1.3. Rotary Motor Screw Feed Mechanism Rotary motor screw feed mechanism (figure 5) is of a simple, slender, light de-sign, and it is applied in small length drilling equipment. Drill 1 advance and withdrawal, in and from the borehole, is provided by mobile nut 2, driven by screw 3, which is rotated in one direction or other by the pneumatic or hydraulic rotary motor 4, by means of reduction gear 5. The resistance structure of the equipment is provided by mobile transverse cross bar 6, and bolt 7 fixes the drilling equipment to the face.
5 1
7 5 6 4 3 8
6 2 3 7 Figure 5: Screw feed mechanism driven by a rotary motor
2.1.4. Pneumatic Cylinder Driven Endless Cable Mechanism The mechanism is of a simple design, and the drilling equipment is light and it is applied to drill small and medium length boreholes (figure 6). What makes it less advantageous is that it is difficult to make pneumatic cylinders airtight by use of glands. The drill is moved by endless cable 2, driven by a pneumatic cylinder piston 3, and the cable is deviated by rollers 4 and 5. Bolt 6 fixes the drilling equipment to the face.
1 2
Figure 6: Endless cable feed mechanism driven by a pneumatic cylinder
201
2.1.5. Two Pneumatic Cylinder Driven Endless Cable Mechanism This is derived from the previous and it is used in case of higher advance forces, which are generated by pneumatic cylinders 1 and 2. Pneumatic cylinder pistons drive cable 3, deviated by rollers 4, and the cable provides advance or withdrawal of piston 5.
5
Figure 7: Cable feed mechanism driven by two pneumatic cylinders 2.2. Telescopic Drilling Equipment Besides steady cross bar drilling equipment shown above, telescopic cross bar drilling equipment is also known, especially applied in universal drill carriages, which are used both in borehole and in anchorage hole drilling; drilling equipment will be maneuvered in tight spaces, across the gallerys cross section, therefore a small length is required. This is done by a telescopic design, driven by screws, endless chains or hydraulic cylinders. In all cases, upper cross bar moves over the lower one, and the length of the hole is given by the drills stroke and the telescopic course. 2.2.1. Telescopic And Screw Feed Cross Bar Mechanism This mechanism (figure 8) is made up of cross bars 1 and 2, inside of which screws 3 and 4 are fixed. Drill 5 is driven by screw 3, which, by means of a gear made up of toothed wheels 6 and 7, is turned by screw 4. Toothed wheel 7 is in fact a nut with teeth on its outside cylindrical surface. Screw 4 is actuated by reversible rotary motor 8. For a one direction turn of motor 8, bore 9 advances in the borehole, and for a reverse turn, the bore is withdrawn from the borehole. When the toothed nut 7 reaches one of the ends of screw 4, it is blocked and cannot move any longer, so that screw 4 will make a rectilinear move, with retraction or extension of the lower cross bar to the upper one.
5 9
Figure 8: Telescopic transverse cross bar with screws
2.2.2. Telescopic cross Bar and Endless Chain Mechanism The mechanism (figure 9) is made up of cross bars 1 and 2, endless chain 3, driving wheel 4, and several return and stretch wheels 5. The driving wheel motors clockwise rotation moves forward the drills 7 bore 6 in the borehole, and the trigonometric rotation of the motor withdraws the bore and extends the cross bars.
202
3 5 2 1 4 Figure 9: Telescopic transverse cross bar with endless chain
To drill anchorage holes in small cross section galleries, cross bars can be blocked in retracted position; this holds good for all telescopic cross bar mechanisms. 2.2.3. Telescopic Cross Bar and Hydraulic Cylinder Mechanism The hydraulic cylinder mechanism (figure 10) is made up of cross bars 1 and 2, endless chain 3, and hydraulic cylinder 4. The endless chain is fixed in cross bar 1, and the hydraulic cylinder in cross bar 2. The hydraulic cylinder is linked to the endless chain by joint 5, and the hydraulic cylinders rod is linked to cross bar 1.
8 2 3 4 1 Figure 10: Telescopic transverse cross bar with hydraulic cylinder

The design of the mechanism is very ingenious. Thus, for drill 6 moving forward in the borehole, with bore 7, the hydraulic cylinder 4 is fed on the large side of piston 8., the cross bars starting to retract, and for the bores withdrawal from the borehole, the hydraulic cylinder is fed on the small side of the piston. The design is simple, reliable, provides high advance forces, and it is used for great lengths of boreholes. 2.3. Drilling Equipment Fixing Devices To avoid oscillation during drilling, which might lead to important wear of joints and might endanger the bore and the drill, the slide is fitted with a fixing device to the face, which enhances its firmness. These devices can use fixed length fixing pins, telescopic fixing pins or rubber pads. With fixed length fixing pins (figure 11), the rock surrounding the fixing pin tends to crush; therefore the slide will be constantly forced during drilling at the face. Again, when the rock is hard and compact, and the slide is not perpendicular to the face, the slide might glide. This can be solved by a device with two fixing pins.
Figure 11: Fixed length fixing pin
Figure 12: Telescopic fixing pin
203
Telescopic pins (figure 12) will be pneumatically or hydraulically driven, which complicates the scheme, but removes the disadvantages mentioned above. The pneumatic or hydraulic cylinder is driven on the large face of the piston, and a compression spring is fitted to the small face of the piston, which is part of the fixing pin. The stroke of the piston will not be too great, since this might aggravate the fixing of the slide to the front.
Figure 13: Rubber pad Fixing the slide by rubber pads (figure 13) increases the contact section with the face, which decreases specific pressure, the rock being less prone to giving way in this area, meanwhile endangering the fixing of the slide to the face, in case there is a void against the pad. This disadvantage can be avoided by applying a device with two rubber pads.
3. CONCLUSIONS
In the design of drilling equipment, which is the most important subassembly of a drilling carriage, its intended use will be had in mind. If it is universal, that is, it is intended to drilling both boreholes and anchorage holes, it will be fitted with telescopic cross bar. If not, the length of the cross bar depends on the borehole length. Each advance mechanism presented has its specific advantages and disadvantages; the range and degree of applicability will be established by practical expertise. Thus, for long slides, the most recommended advance mechanism is the one with rotary motor driven endless chain (figure 3); for shorter slides the mechanism with screws (figure 5) is more recommended, and for heavy drills requiring high advance forces, the advance mechanism is driven by hydraulic linear or rotary motors (figure 4). Advance mechanism systems, particularly the parts transmitting movement to the drill, are fitted, whenever possible, inside the cross bar, making a slender and rigid subassembly. This is particularly possible with linear motors. Cross bars are welded rolled U or special profile steel structures, of Aluminum alloys lately, for light bars, slender shape and a mechanical resistance comparable to steel.
REFERENCES
[1] Bolundu, I.L. Contribuii asupra mbuntirii construciei instalaiilor mobile de perforat pentru sparea lucrrilor miniere subterane (Tez de doctorat), Petroani, 1982. [2] Bolundu, I.L. , Dumitrescu, I. Classification and Design of Drilling Equipment, Buletinul Institutului Politehnic din Iai, Tomul XLVIII (LII), Supliment I, Secia V (Construcii de maini), Pag. 21 24, Iai, 2002. [3] Bolundu I.L., Dumitrescu, I., Clasificarea i construcia echipamentului de perforare, Analele Universitii Aurel Vlaicu din Arad (Seria Mecanic), pag. 125 130, Arad, 2002. [4] Bolundu, I.L. Praporgescu, G., Jula, D. Feeding Hydraulic Mechanism for Weight Drill, Tehnologii moderne. Calitate. Restructurare (Culegere de lucrri tiinifice), vol. 2, pag. 42 45, Chiinu, 2005. [5] Codreanu, O. Contribuii asupra perforatoarelor rotative hidraulice i a sistemelor de avans ale acestora (Tez de doctorat), Petroani, 1998. [6] Dumitrescu, I., Bolundu, I. L., Cozma, B. Calculul echipamentului de perforare, Analele Universitii Aurel Vlaicu din Arad. Seria Mecanic, pag. 131 136, Arad, 2002. [7] Dumitrescu, I., Bolundu, I. L., Mihilescu, S., Cozma, B., Mecanism de avans cu urub acionat hidraulic, Lucrrile tiinifice ale Simpozionului Internaional Universitaria ROPET 2002 (vol. 2 Inginerie mecanic), pag. 51 54, Editura Focus, Petroani, 2002. [8] Mangu, S.K., Fisun, A. P., Spravonik po burovzryvnym rabotam na podzemnyh gornyh razrabotkah, ZAO Kniga, Moskva, 2003. [9] Marian, I., Ptracu, P., Tigae, I., Bolundu, I., Codreanu, O., Sistem de avans hidraulic pentru perforatoare grele, Lucrrile tiinifice ale Institutului de Mine din Petroani, vol XV, fascicula 1, pag. 15 18, Petroani, 1983. [10] Vasilev, V. M., Perforatory (Spravonik), Nedra, Moskva, 1989.
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RaDMI 2010
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES TO OBTAIN HYDROXYAPATITE BIOCOMPATIBLE MICROLAYERS BY HVOF THERMAL SPRAYING METHOD
Ibolyka Bran1, Radu Rou2, Mihaela Popescu3, Carmen Opri4, Marin Li5
1
Politehnica University of Timisoara, ROMANIA, e-mail: ibi.bran@yahoo.com 2 e-mail: rrosu@isim.ro, 3 e-mail: mihaela.popescu@mec.upt.ro, 4 , e-mail: c.opris@gmail.com, 5, e-mail: mlita@mec.upt.ro
Summary: The paper presents an obtaining method of biocompatible hydroxyapatite microlayers by HVOF thermal spraying method. Are presented the technologies for obtaining the microlayers by HVOF thermal spraying method, after the investigations of the microlayers by optical and electronic microscopy and X-ray diffraction were not observed defects. Keywords: titanium, thermal spraying, HVOF, biocompatible hydroxyapatite.
1. INTRODUCTION
Hydroxyapatite Ca10(Po4)6(OH)2 is widely used as bone replacement biomaterial in dental restorations and orthopedic implants due to its chemical structure which is similar to the human bone. Hydroxyapatite is considered one of the best bioactive materials used in medical applications, but the lower mechanical properties in comparison with the human bone limit its applications especially when the implant is subjected to heavy loads and therefore is used to cover the implants, ensuring a better osteointegration of the implant in the body [1]. Coating of titanium implants (Ti6Al4V) with hydroxyapatite provides a successful combination of mechanical properties of titanium with osteoconductive hydroxiapatite. Usually deposition of hydroxyapatite on metalic implants is made by plasma thermal spray, laser etc [2, 3]. Due the high temperatures during the deposition process (16000C in plasma spraying method) the deposited layer will contain amorphous phases (-TCP, TCP, TTCP, CaO) phases which lead to a lower stability of the deposited layer, which is resorbed by the body and leads to implant failure [4, 5]. Using the HVOF high-speed thermal spraying method this disadvantages are removed because during HVOF spraying method the temperature is maximum 3000C. Higher rates of the gas flow (up to 700 m/s) leads to homogeneous and superior adhesion of the microlayers to the substrate.
2. MATERIALS USED
For experiments hydroxyapatite powder were used with particles dimension between 5-15 m. In figure 1 the SEM analysis of the hydroxyapatite powder particles is presented. 30 x 5 mm discs of Ti6Al4V titanium alloy were used as substrate. The chemical composition of the titanium alloy is presented in table 1.
205
Figure 1: SEM analysis of the hydroxyapatite powder particles Chemical element Table 1: Chemical composition of the titanium alloy used as substrate Ti Al V Mn Fe 88.79 6.50 4.17 0.23 0.11 W 0.08
3. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
In the experimental program hydroxyapatite microlayers were realized using the HVOF equipment (High Velocity Oxy-Fuel) supplied by Termiko GmbH Germany. Before spraying, the samples were blasted with electrocorindon with the dimension of the particles between 0,8 to 2 mm at a pressure of 5 bar. Blasting distance was 50 5 mm. Because the powders presented a high tendency of agglomeration, it was necessary to apply a dehydration heat treatment (heating at 60C for 12 hours). After drying, the powders were deposited by HVOF thermal spraying method using the parameters presented in table 2. Table 2: HVOF spraying parameters Deposition Transport rate Kerosene gas g/min l/h l/min 2.8 15 15
Oxygen l/min 300
Hydrogen l/min 90
Spraying distance mm 70
Figure 2 presents an image during HVOF spraying deposition of the hydroxyapatite microlayers on titanium alloy[3,6].
Figure 2: Image during HVOF spraying deposition of the hydroxyapatite microlayers on titanium alloy
206
After the visual examination of the hidroxyapatite layers obtained by HVOF thermal spraying method (figure 3) one can observe that the deposited micro layer is homogenous, slightly rough, due to the tendency of agglomeration of the powder during spraying process. Also, there were not observed any cracks in the deposited layer. Substrate
Deposited layer
Figure 3: The hydroxyapatite layer deposited on titanium alloy by HVOF thermal spraying method The thickness of the obtained layers determined with Easy Check FN device, has values between 100-150 m, and the roughness of the microlayers is between 4,16 and 5,60 m. In figure 4 is presented the optical microscopy analysis of the hydroxyapatite microlayer deposited by HVOF thermal spraying method and in figure 5 is presented the surface of the microlayer obtained by electronic microscopy[2,4,5].
Hydroxyapatite layer
Ti6Al4V Substrate
Figure 4: Optical microscopy analysis of the hydroxyapatite microlayer deposited by HVOF thermal It is observed that the hydroxyapatite microlayer obtained by HVOF thermal spraying method is dense with low porosity.
207
Figure 5: SEM analysis of the hydroxyapatite microlayer deposited by HVOF thermal spraying method The analysis of these images shows that the microlayer consists of fine particles with typical morphology of deposited layers by thermal spraying (lamellar particles). In figure 6 is presented the X-Ray analysis of the samples using DRON 3 equipment, using the copper radiation with the wavelength = 1,54 . Analyzing the hydroxyapatite powder difraction, it can be observed the presence of a small quantity of the phase, Ca3(PO4)2. After de deposition process it is observed that the layer contains hydroxyapatite and phase, the phase is more accentuated in comparison with the initial state of the hydroxyapatite powder. The X-Ray diffraction analysis shows that the cristalinity of the hydroxyapatite microlayer is influenced by a small extent from the initial hydroxyapatite powder. This is due to relatively lower temperatures during HVOF thermal spraying process (up to 3000C) in comparison with others thermal spraying methods as plasma spraying (16000C), thus are obtaining microlayers with higher stability[2,4,5].
5. CONCLUSIONS
1. Due the high speeds developed during the HVOF thermal spraying method the hydroxyapatite biocompatible microlayers deposited on titanium alloy (Ti6Al4V) are dense, compact and without micro cracks[1-6]. 2. The roughness of the obtained microlayers varies between 4,16 and 5,60 m and will ensure an adequate osteointegration of the implant in the humane body 3. The X-Ray diffraction analysis shows that the cristalinity of the hydroxyapatite microlayer is influenced by a small extent from the initial hydroxyapatite powder. This is due to relatively lower temperatures during HVOF thermal spraying process (up to 3000 C) in comparison with others thermal spraying methods as plasma spraying (16000C), thus are obtaining microlayers with higher stability.
REFERENCES
[1] Gaona, M.; Lima, R.; Marple, B.: Nanostructured titania/hydroxyapatite composite coatings deposited by high velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF) spraying, Materials Science and Engineering A 458, 2007, pp. 141149, ISSN: 0921-5093 [2] Kamnis, S.; Gu, S.: 3-D modelling of kerosene-fuelled HVOF thermal spray gun, Chemical Engineering Science 61, 2006 , pp. 5427 5439, ISSN: 0009-2509 [3] Lima, R.S.; Khor, K.A.; Lib, H: HVOF spraying of nanostructured hydroxyapatite for biomedical applications, Materials Science and Engineering A 396, 2006, pp. 181187, ISSN: 0921-5093, 2005 [4] Mingheng, L.; Panagiotis, D.: Computational study of particle in-flight behavior in the HVOF thermal spray process, Chemical Engineering Science 61, 2006 , pp. 6540 6552, ISSN: 0009-2509 [5] Tabbara, H.; Gu, S: - Computational simulation of liquid-fuelled HVOF thermal spraying, Surface & Coatings Technology 204, 2009, pp. 676684, ISSN: 0257-8972 [6] Wielage, B.; Wank, A.: Development and trends in HVOF spraying technology, Surface & Coatings Technology 201, 2006,pp. 20322037, ISSN: 0257-8972
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a)
b)
a) hydroxyapatite powder, b) deposited layer; all the peaks except are hydroxyapatite peaks
Figure 6: The X-Ray analysis
209
RaDMI 2010
SURFACE QUALITY MODIFICATIONS UNDER SLIDING INDENTATION TEST

Simona Chiculita, Constantin Spanu, Sorin Ciortan
"Dunarea de Jos" University, Galati, ROMANIA, e-mail: simona.chiculita@ugal.ro
Summary: After sliding indentation test, the subjected surface presents channel shaped plastic deformations. The surface quality is affected, the roughness and heights distribution being modified along the indenter's tracks. Together with the track width, the way that the surface quality is changed leads to important conclusions about the sample's superficial layer mechanical properties. The paper presents an analysis of surface transformation after ball sliding test performing, on bulk metallic samples. Optical and contact profiling methods are used. Keywords: sliding ball indentation, surface quality.
1. INTRODUCTION
Sliding indentation is a contact interaction between two solid bodies where, beside a normal force that produces elasto-plastic or plastic deformations [1] a tangential one is superposes. That causes relative movement of the bodies within a tangential plane [2]. This kind of indentation may appear at the rolling bearing ball raceway or cam-cam-follower contacts and in any situation when two solid bodies interact and one of them, generally harder than the other, generates ditch like traces on the surface of the second body [3]
2. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
In our sliding ball indentation test, a bearing ball with a diameter D=12.675 mm and hardness 62 HRC is used as indenter, [4]. The ball is fixed into an indentation head which can perform both sliding and loading actions, figure 1. It has, as it can see in the figure, a flat surface that blocks the rolling motion and allows only a sliding one.
Figure 1: Indentation head The test parameters - sliding speed V and normal force N - can be settled, monitored and recorded by appropriate gauges. The sliding speed and normal force values were 0.15 m/s and, respectively, 1.5 kN. The tangential force T, result of friction and plastic deformation resistance of the sample material [5], is also recorded.
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As sample material, 4140 SAE steel grade was chosen, as this is generally used for machine parts building. The hardness of the sample was 302 HV. The indentation direction was chosen across the direction of finishing pattern of sample surface, in order to observe much easier the effect of ball indenter pass over on the surface roughness.

After sliding test performing on the sample, specific shaped tracks can be observed, figure 2a. Using the CETR PRO500 stylus profiler can be visualized the cross-section of the track, figure 2b.
a)
b)
a) optical image; b) cross-section profile
Figure 2: Sliding indentation track Figure 2 shows the surface geometry modifications at waviness level. Two areas of the track profile can be observed, in figure 2b: the channel area (B) and the border area (A). In both areas plastic deformations are present, in B area due to the direct pressure of the ball indenter but in A area, the material is "pushed up" over the zero line due to the plastic displacement, [6]. In order to study the surface modification at roughness level, several 3D profiles were acquired in significant areas like: original untouched surface, bottom of the channel and channel border. The obtained results are presented in figure 3.
a)
b)
a) original surface; b) bottom of the channel; c) channel border
c)
Figure 3: 3D profiles The first observation emerged from figure 3 is that the surface original finishing pattern, visible in figure 3a is, on the bottom of the channel, almost flatten out by the ball indenter, figure 3b. On the lateral side of the channel, near to the upper part, the original pattern is also flatten out, the surface being almost flat, meantime on the top the original surface is highly deformed, figure 3c. In order to compare the surface qualities before and after indentation in the significant areas above mentioned, the obtained profiles were analyzed with dedicated software. Both roughness and waviness of the sample surface were investigated, indentation process affecting both of them. As roughness parameters were chosen,[7,8]: root mean square roughness - Rq, average maximum height of the roughness - Rz, skewness - Rsk and kurtosis - Rku. As waviness parameters were chosen, [9]: root mean square waviness - Wq and waviness maximum height Wmax Taking into account that on the bottom of the indentation channel are present both original surface finishing pattern and that created by ball indenter displacement, the roughness was investigated both along and across the indentation direction.
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The channel border was investigated on the top horizontal side, where the material plastic deformation is highest, [10] and on the vertical area, on the top lateral channel side. The obtained numerical results are presented in table 1 and the corresponding graphical comparisons are shown in figure 4.
Table 1: Profiles characteristics Rq Rz Sample area [m] [m] Original surface 0.156 0.476 Channel bottom across indentation direction 0.017 0.056 Channel bottom along indentation direction 0.012 0.037 Channel border upper side 0.31 0.96 Channel border lateral side 0.05 0.18
Rsk -0.045 -0.121 -0.084 -0.332 0.277
Rku 3.012 3.159 3.943 3.761 4.463
Wq [m] 0.889 0.191 0.047 1.12 0.16
Wmax [m] 3.228 0.659 0.189 4.07 0.62
Rq
Rz
Rsk
Rku
Wq
Wmax
Figure 4: Surface quality parameters values comparison Looking into the figure 4 it can be observed that all parameters exhibit highly modified values after the indentation test. On the bottom of the indentation channel (area B in figure 2b), compared with the original surface, both along and across, Rq and Rz have lowest values. This is a result of high plastic deformation of the roughness pattern under ball indenter pressure. The skewness values are almost the same for both directions and have lower values than on the original surface, meaning that the material is displaced now near to the top of the profile. The Rku value across the channel is almost un-modified, mean time the value along is higher leading to the conclusion that the material displacement is higher in this direction. The waviness parameters Wq and Wmax are lower, with lowest values along the channel, the ball indenter affecting the surface at shape level too. The most affected is the channel border (area A in figure 2b). Both roughness and waviness parameters (Rq, Rz and Wq, Wmax, respectively) show highest values in this area. The roughness is two times higher here, because of the plastic deformation of the material displaced by the ball indenter. The lowest values of the Rsk and higher value of Rku, comparing to the original surface, are consequences of material squeezing. The over-all shape of the sample is modified having as result a surface with high waviness values.
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4. CONCLUSIONS
Taking into account the above presented, the following conclusions can be drawn: - The surface roughness and waviness modification can lead to higher or lower working performances of the machine parts. - The surface modifications occurred after sliding indentation can provide valuable information about the behavior of the tested material - In order to evaluate the surface modification both roughness and waviness parameters are required to be investigated, both of them being affected by the sliding indentation process.
REFERENCES
[1] Bucaille, J.L., Felder, E., Hochstetter, G.: Mechanical analysis of the scratch test on elastic and perfectly plastic materials with the three-dimensional finite element modeling, Wear 349, pp. 422-43, 2001. [2] Johnson, K.L.: Contact Mechanics, Cambridge, 1985. [3] Bull, S.J.: Can scratch testing be used as a model for the abrasive wear of hard coatings?, Wear 233-235, pp. 412423, 1999. [4] Spnu C, Bratcu O.: Experimental - analytical method for sliding indentation trace study, The Annals of Dunrea de Jos Univ.of Galai, Fascicle VIII, Tribology, Vol. I, ISSN 1221-4590, pp. 291-294, 2003. [5] Kato, K.: Wear mechanisms, The First World Tribology Congress New Directions in Tribology, London, 8-12 September, p. 39-56, 1997 [6] Liu Z., Sun J., Shen W. .: Study of plowing and friction at the surfaces of plastic deformed metals. Tribology International, Vol. 35, pp. 511522, 2002. [7] Tayebi N., Polycarpou A.A., Modeling the effect of skewness and kurtosis on the static friction coefficient of rough surfaces, Tribology International, Vol. 37, pp. 491-505, 2004. [8] Jardret V., Zahouani H., Loubert J.L., Mathia T.G.: Understanding and quantification of elastic and plastic deformation during a scratch test, Wear, Vol. 218, pp. 8-14, 1998. [9] Diaconu N., Deleanu L., Birsan I.G.: Influence of testing parameters on the surface quality of steel rollerroller system under grease lubrication. In: Proc. of ASME 2010 Conference on Engineering Systems Design and Analysis, ESDA2010, July 12-14, Istanbul Turkey. [10] Lafaye S., Gauthier C., Schirrer R.: A surface flow line model of a scratching tip: apparent and true local friction coefficients, Tribology International, Vol. 38, pp. 113127, 2005.
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RaDMI 2010
ON THE EFFECTS CAUSED BY THE SHOCK DUEING RAILWAY VEHICLE BUFFING

Departement of Engineering Aurel Vlaicu University Arad, ROMNIA, e-mail: ioncopaci@gmail.com 2 REMARUL 16 Februarie Cluj Napoca, ROMNIA, e-mail: bogdan.tanasoiu@gmail.com 3 Departement of Engineering Aurel Vlaicu University Arad, ROMNIA, e-mail:aurelia.tanasoiu@gmail.com
Summary: A theory of shock caused by the buffing of railway vehicles is presented. It considers kinematic parameters and forces as response of the mechanical system caused by the vehicles that are effectively taking part in the buffing. Keywords: shock due to buffing, shock absorbers, stored potential deformation energy, forces and accelerations transmitted during buffing.
1
Ion Copaci1, Bogdan Tnsoiu2, Aurelia Tnsoiu3
1. INTRODUCTION
The shock load in railway vehicles is due to the appearance of a relative velocity between neighbouring vehicles, both in travel as well as during the formation of freight trains. The effect of the shocks, as loads appearing in use, is the transmission of forces through the central coupling of the vehicles and implicitly of accelerations to the masses of the vehicles, particularly to the transported freight and passengers. In order to diminish the effects caused by the shock, railway vehicles are equipped with shock insulators (dampeners) that have the purpose of reducing the levels of the transmitted forces and accelerations. The storage capacity for potential deformation energy of the shock insulators is described by the factor 2
We (We potential energy due to deformation of the shock insulators; Ep potential energy due to Ep deformation of the vehicles) that determines the decrease of the level of forces and accelerations transmitted during the collision[1]. In the use of railway vehicles there is a tendency to increase travel speeds, reduce formation times for trains as well as increasing the axle load. Consequently, the forces and accelerations transmitted to the vehicles as a result of the collision, reach relatively high values that need to be considered during the conception design and execution of railway vehicles.
2. ON THE SHOCK CAUSED BY COLLISION

A number of authors (Iosef Friedrichs, Karl Leinz Buttler, B. Richter, Buschmann) have tried to theoretically establish mathematical expressions of the forces and accelerations transmitted to the vehicles during the collision process. The general case of the collision of two railway cars is considered. The colliding car, with mass m1 and velocity v1, impacts a collided car, of mass m2 and velocity v2, with v1>v2. The cars are equipped with shock insulators (buffers or central coupling dampeners). In the collision process a part of the kinetic energy of the vehicles is transformed into potential deformation energy which is maximum at time t12 when the vehicles travel at the same velocity v12. The expression of the potential deformation energy Ep is:
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m1 m 2 (v1 v 2 )2 = m 1 m 2 v 2 (1) 2 m1 + m 2 m1 + m 2 2 where m1 is the mass of the colliding car, m2 is the mass of the collided car and, v is the relative velocity between vehicles that corresponds to collision velocity. Figure 1 shows the time evolution of the kinematic parameters, acceleration a, velocity v and displacement x, of the colliding car 1and the collided car 2 during the shock caused by a collision at 12 km/h. The cars have masses of m1= m2= 80 tonne. On the figure it is noticed the sum of contractions of the bumpers of the colliding and collided cars D1+D2=196 mm. Another noticeable element is the moment t12 at which the cars have the same velocity and the process of transforming kinetic energy into potential deformation energy stored in the shock insulators (bumpers) ended. Ep =
Figure 1: Time evolution of acceleration a 2(t) and parameters v1(t), v2(t), x1(t) and x2(t), of collided car 2, determined experimentally for collision C C. The study of the time variation of the motion parameters of the vehicles, as response functions to the shock caused by collision, leads to the following observations: 1. At each moment "t" of the collision process which occurs during the time interval (0-t2), the contraction "D" of the shock insulators that equip the vehicles is:
D(t ) = x1 (t ) x 2 (t ) = v1 (t )dt v 2 (t )dt

0 0
(2)
2. At the time t12, when the vehicles have the common velocity v12 and the stored potential energy of the vehicles is maximum, the difference between the distances traveled by the vehicles represents the maximum contraction of the shock absorbers "Dmax" and, obviously the surface " S ", between the curves v1 and v2 [2]:
Dmax = x1 (t12 ) x2 (t12 ) = v1 (t)dt v2 (t)dt = S

0 0
t12
t12
(3)
3. Experimentally it is observed that, at time t = t*12 , the accelerations transmitted to the vehicles cancel out. Consequently, the vehicles move on the time interval (t*12- t2), with constant velocities "v*1" and "v*2" respectively, while remaining in contact on the whole interval, while the space between the vehicles increases " D(t) " = x1(t) - x2(t). This phenomenon occurs because at time t*12 the shock absorbers of the vehicles show another deformation, remanent contraction, that in the interval (t*12-t2) cancels out. Thus, the increase of the space between the vehicles at each moment of the time interval (t*12-t2) is compensated by the recovery of the contraction of the shock absorbers. At the moment t2, which marks the end of the collision process, the shock absorbers, either bumpers or central coupling dampeners, return to their initial position, corresponding to the time t=t1 =0 as the starting of the collision process. This phenomenon occurs due to the fact that at time t*12 the shock absorbers of the vehicles show another deformation (remanent contraction) which, on the interval (t*12 - t2) cancels out. Thus, the increase of the space
215
between the vehicles at each moment of the time interval (t*12 - t2) is compensated by the recovery of the contraction of the shock absorbers. At the moment t2, which marks the end of the collision process, the shock absorbers (bumpers, central coupling dampeners) return to the initial position, corresponding to the moment t = t1 = 0 (the start of the collision process). 4. The process of transforming stored potential energy into kinetic energy, triggered at t = t12, ends at t = t*12 , when the vehicles reach velocities v*1 and v*2 respectively. Consequently, the values of the maximum contraction "Dmax" and the surface "S" which represents the value of the maximum contraction are:
Dmax = v1 (t )dt v 2 (t )dt = S

t12 t12
* t12
* t12
(4)
The energy coefficient that characterizes the efficiency of shock insulators is 2, meaning the ratio between the potential deformation energy stored by the shock insulators, We and the total potential energy, which includes the potential energy stored by the elastic elements that represent the bearing structures, the elastic elements that form the suspension of the vehicle, equipment and existing load (freight, passengers): (5) 2 = We / Ep The theoretical expressions of the transmitted force established by various authors [2] and [3] can be used only under the condition that the vehicles are equipped with shock insulators that show a linear variation between force and contraction. Railway vehicles can be equipped with shock insulators whose elastic elements show a nonlinear variation between force and contraction [4]. For shock insulators of any type of variation of force as a function of contraction, the plenitude coefficient p is defined, which represents the ratio of the stored potential deformation energy and the product between the maximum transmitted force and the maximum contraction of the shock insulator. In the case of a collision between two vehicles equipped with different types of shock insulators, the plenitude coefficient is: - for the shock insulators of the colliding car: * We1 (6) p1 = Fmax f1 - for the shock absorbers of the collided car: * We2 (7) p2 = Fmax f 2 where: W*e1, W*e2 are respectively the potential deformation energy of the shock isolators of the colliding and collided cars; f1, f2 are respectively the maximum contraction of the shock absorbers of the colliding and collided cars. Further on, the conventional rigidity KT of the buffer and KC of the central coupling dampener, are defined as the ratio of the maximum transmitted force and the maximum contraction of the shock insulator for a collision velocity v: For the shock absorber of the colliding vehicle: Fmax F 2 (8) K T1 = K C1 = max f1 f1 For the shock isolators of the collided vehicle: Fmax F 2 (9) K C2 = max K T2 = f2 f2 Replacing f1 and f2 from (8) and (9), into equations (6) and (7) respectively, leads to the expressions for the potential deformation energies stored by the buffers: - of the colliding vehicle:
* We1 = 2 Fmax F2 p1 = max p1 2K T1 2K C1
(10)
- of the collided vehicle: F2 F2 * We2 = max p 2 = max p 2 2K C2 2K T2 The specific energy factors 1 and 2, of the colliding and collided cars respectively, are:
(11)
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1 =
* We1 Ep
2 Fmax 2
2 =
=
* We2 Ep
(12)
Using equations (9), (7) and (8), the following equation is obtained:
(1 + 2 )E p
p1 p2 K + K T2 T1
p2 2 p1 = Fmax K + K C2 C1
(13)
Replacing the expression of potential energy Ep (eq. 1) the expression of the maximum transmitted force during the collision process is obtained for the case of vehicles equipped with buffers: m1m 2 K T1 K T2 (14) Fmax = (v 1 v 2 ) ( 1 + 2 ) m1 + m 2 p 1 K T2 + p 2 K T1 In the case of the collision of two vehicles of the same type, with m1=m2=m, KT1=KT2=KT, p1=p2=p, and 1=2=, the expression of the transmitted force becomes:
Fmax = (v1 v 2 )
m KT 2 p 4
(15)
In the case of vehicles equipped with central couplings, the expression of the transmitted force results from equation (13) can be expressed as:
Fmax = (v 1 v 2 ) K C1 K C2 1 m1 m 2 ( 1 + 2 ) 2 m1 + m 2 p 1 K C2 + p 2 K C1
(16)
In the case of the collision of two vehicles of the same type, with m1=m2=m, KT1=KT2=KT, p1=p2=p, and 1=2=, the expression of the transmitted force becomes:
Fmax =
(v 1 v 2 )
2
K m 2 C 2 p
(17)
The established formulation can be used for determining the force transmitted during the collision of vehicles equipped with shock absorbers, either linear or non linear. In order to theoretically determine the force transmitted during the collision (with vehicles of masses m1=m2=80 tons) the variation of the energy factor, 2, and the ratio between conventional stiffness KT for the buffers and the plenitude coefficient were experimentally determined, taking five collision cases of two railway cars were considered: 1. Both cars equipped with 75mm buffers. 2. Both cars equipped with category A buffers, according to UIC526-1, with elastic elements composed of RINGFEDER rings. 3. Both cars equipped with category A buffers, according to UIC526-1 with rubber elastic elements (new buffers). 4. The colliding car was equipped with category A buffers, and C buffers (according to UIC526-1) in the collided car. 5. Both cars equipped with category C buffers. The results for each case are presented in figures 2 to 7. The variation of the energy factor, 2, and the ratio between conventional stiffness KT are presented separately for the first case in figure 2, while for the rest of the cases they are presented jointly in a single chart.
Figure 2: (case 1) The diagram of the variation of the "2" factor as a function of velocity, for the collision of two vehicles equipped with 75mm buffers
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Figure 3: (case 1) Diagram of the variation of the "KT/p" parameter as a function of velocity, for the collision of two vehicles equipped with 75 mm buffers
Figuure 4: (case 2) The diagram of the variation of the "2" factor and the parameter KT/p, for the collision of two railway cars equipped with category A buffers, according to UIC526-1, with elastic elements composed of RINGFEDER rings
Figure 5: (case 3) The diagram of the variation of the "2" factor and the parameter KT/p, for the collision of two railway cars equipped with category A buffers, according to UIC526-1 with rubber elastic elements (new buffers)
Figure 6: (case 4) The diagram of the variation of the "2" factor and the parameter KT/p, for the collision of two railway cars equipped with category A buffers on the colliding car and category C buffers (according to UIC 526-1) on the collided car
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Figure 7: (case 5) The diagram of the variation of the "2" factor and the parameter KT/p, for the collision of two railway cars equipped with category C buffers
3. DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
Initially, the characteristic dynamic diagrams were obtained for the action of a shock caused by the free fall of a weight (ram), with a well determined mass, from different launching heights, on the buffer or central coupling dampener, affixed to a rigid plate [5]. The system thus adopted for testing differs significantly from the mechanical system encountered in the use of railway vehicles, specifically that formed by the masses of the two vehicles separated by the shock insulators, system which has a longitudinal degree of motion. The excitation function (system input), meaning the momentum "mv" of the ram mass is applied, through the buffer or central coupling dampener, to a plate of theoretically infinite mass. Thus, time variations are obtained for the force and contraction of the buffer or central coupling dampener, as response functions to the applied excitation, particular to the mechanical system used and different from those of the real system [6]. Consequently, through this method, characteristic dynamic diagrams are obtained that cannot lead to a correct qualitative appreciation of the shock insulator, resulting in erroneous dynamic characteristics. Through the experimental process to find the characteristic dynamic diagrams with the method of the falling ram, we have established the diagram in figure 8 for a central coupling dampener type S-2V-90, used by the railway administrations of the former USSR countries. In figure 9 we have presented the characteristic dynamic diagram of the same type of dampener, determined through the method of collision of two railway cars, each with a mass of 92tonne, at a collision velocity of 6,0km/h. The following observations can be made: - The variation of force as a function of contraction differs significantly between the two. In the case of the diagram in figure 8, sudden increases of the force appear, followed by decreases. In the case of the diagram in figure9, the evolution of the force is approximately linear up to a contraction of 75mm; - The stored potential deformation energy and the dissipation coefficient for the same maximum contraction Dmax=85mm have higher values for the collision, We=30,4KJ, =0,88, than in the case of the falling ram, when We=21,8KJ, =0,63. Thus, large differences are observed in regards to the obtained dynamic characteristics, fact which categorically imposes the option of determining the characteristic dynamic diagram for shock insulators by the method of collision.
Figure 8: Tests conducted in a central coupling damper type S-2V-90 with the ram method shows sudden peak forces.
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Figure 9: Tests conducted in a central coupling damper type S-2V-90 with the collision method shows a linear increase of force before having a maximum.
4. EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF THE 2, KT, P PARAMETERS AND THE FORCE F TRANSMITTED DURING THE COLLISION PROCESS
In order to experimentally determine the parameters 2, KT, P and the force transmitted to the cars during the collision, over 2500 collisions were conducted, in a specialized stand for the shock testing of railway vehicles. The stand is equipped with mechanical installations, railway cars, transductors, experimental data acquisition, storage and analysis equipment that are all adequate to the purpose of the research [7]. During the testing, the colliding car, launched from the inclined plane of the testing stand, collided at various velocities the standing, unbraked, collided car sitting on the level part of the stand. The used cars, colliding and collided, were 4 axle freight cars, loaded with uniform materials (sand, gravel, broken rock, etc.) up to a total mass of 80tonne/car. For each shock caused by the collision of the cars, during the collision process the following parameters were experimentally determined: - collision velocity v; - forces transmitted through the bumpers F(t); - contractions of the buffers of the collided car D(t); - acceleration transmitted to the collided car a(t). The forces transmitted through the buffers were measured with force transducers affixed to the frontal beam of the car with specially designed devices. The time evolution of the force transmitted during the considered collision cases (F1 at V=9,15km/h; F2 at V=13,0km/h; F3 at V=13,2km/h; F4 at V=14,11km/h; F5 at V=13,80km/h), is shown in figure 10.
Figure 10: The diagram of the variation of the forces transmitted during the collision process through a buffer, as a function of time
In figure 11 we have presented the variation according to velocity of the transmitted force for all 5 collision cases. In the diagrams from figures 10 and 11 the meaning of the annotations is: F1 buffer with displacement of 75mm type RINGFEDER, 7575; F2 category A buffer type RINGFEDER, AA; F3 Category A buffer, rubber AA; F4 Category A buffer, rubber, AC, F5 Category C buffer, type RINGFEDER+hidraulic, CC and they represent the collision cases. The forces transmitted on a central coupling were determined using an original solution represented by the force transductor in figure 12 and the arrangement in figure 13.
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Figure 11: Diagram of the variation of the total force F=F1+F2 transmitted during the collision as a function of collision velocity V
Figure 12: Force transductor for 3 orthogonal directions (elastic element equipped with electric resistive transductors)
Collision testing in this case was conducted with two vehicles, the colliding vehicle with mass m1=92t and the collided vehicle with mass m2=94tonne. The cars were equipped with shock insulators with friction elastic elements, in two situations: - elastic element with maximum displacement 90mm (figure 14); - elastic element with maximum displacement 120mm (figure 15). Figures 16 and 17 show the variation of the transmitted forces and accelerations as a function of velocity, for the collisions at various speeds (F1, a1 dampener with displacement of 90 mm; F2, a2 dampener with displacement of 120 mm).
1-dynamometer, 2-affixing device, 3-coupling head, 4-coupling end
Figure 13: Own concept arrangement
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1 dampening apparatus housing; 2 pressure cone; 3 friction wedge; 4 exterior spring; 5 interior spring; 6 tightening screw; 7 fixing nut
Figure 14: Central coupling dampener type S-2V-90
1 body of the dampening apparatus; 2 cover; 3,4 tightening cone-2 variations; 5 friction wedge; 6 tightening washer; 7 exterior spring; 8 interior spring; 9 washer; 10 tightening screw; 11 affixer; 12 fixing nut
Figure 15: Central coupling dampener type S-6-TO-4
Figure 16: Diagram of the force F transmitted during the collision as a function of collision velocity
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Figure 17: Diagram of the accelerations transmitted during the collision process as a function of the collision velocity.
5. CONCLUSIONS
The paper aims to present a confirmation of a theoretical concept through the analysis of experimental results on the shock process caused by the buffing of railway vehicles. Benefiting from especially precise and correctly chosen experimental means of determining the kinematic parameters acceleration of the buffed car a2 and velocity of the buffing car, we have experimentally proven the validity of proposed theory of our own conception, on the kinematics of shock due to railway car buffing and we underline: a) The kinematic parameters are the most eloquent in the buffing process equation. They simply exist and are influenced by the energy stored by the elastic elements, such as: - shock insulators; -bearing structures of railway vehicles; - elastic elements of the suspension and railway vehicle equipment; - freight. b) Thus, according to the elements described, we can experimentally observe the certainty that the displacement (contraction) of the shock insulators represents, up to the time t12 (storing of potential deformation energy) as well as the relaxation (t12) , the same value S. We propose an analytical expression for the design phase related to force transmitted during shock. The proposed expression admits the nonlinear dependence between force and contraction for shock insulators. It can be used by designers in order to take into account for calculations the effects of shock for any vehicle. The dynamic characteristics of the shock insulators cannot be established merely by the proposed method buffing test (fig.8 and fig.9). It is necessary for a researcher to design his own methods and specific measurements transducers for the desired parameters (for example the force transducers in fig.12 and fig.13). The capacity for storing potential deformation energy of the shock insulators is decisive on the consequences of shock as an unwanted event (fig. 16 and fig.17).
REFERENCES
[1] Copaci I., Trif E. et.al. Aplicarea metodei tensometrice pentru calcularea forei transmise i a lucrului mecanic nmagazinat de amortizoarele de oc n timpul tamponrii". Revista Transporturilor i Telecomunicaiilor nr. 3 la al II-lea Simpozion Naional de Tensometrie cu participare internaional, pag.33 - 39 , Cluj Napoca - 1980 . [2] Sebean I., Copaci I., Teoria sistemelor elastice la vehiculele feroviare, Editura Matrix Rom Bucureti 2008. [3] Tnsoiu Aurelia, Copaci Ion, Study on the Sock caused by Collision of Railway Vehicles, International Journal of Mechanics, ISSN 1998-4448, pag. 67-76, www.naun.org/journals/mechanics. [4] Aurelia Tanasoiu, Ion Copaci On the shock caused by railway vehicle collision, Al XVII-lea Seminar Iternaional de tiine Tehnice, INTERPARTNER22-27 sept. 2008, Alushta, Crimea, Ucraina.
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[5] Tnsoiu Aurelia, Copaci Ion, Study on the Behaviour of the Self-Unloading SSDT Train Upon the Shock Caused by Collisions, WSEAS Conferences, Computer and Simulation in Modern Science, vol. II, ISSN 1790-5117, ISBN 978-960-474-032-1, www.wseas.org. [6] Aurelia Tanasoiu, Ion Copaci Study on the evolution of kinematic parameters during the shock caused by railway vehicle collision, Simpozionul InternaionalINTERPARTNER 22-27 sept. 2008, Alushta, Crimea. [7] Copaci I. Cercetri asupra ncercrilor de tamponare cu vagon gol i ncrcat la vagonnul cistern pe 4 osii 95 mc pentru transport produse petroliere uoare" - contract de cercetare I.C.P.V.Arad pentru "ASTRA" Vagoane Arad, 181/1993.
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RaDMI 2010
THE ANALYSIS OF THE FRACTURE RESISTANCE FROM THE ASPECT OF THE APPLICATION OF THE PARAMETRES OF THE FRACTURE MECHANICS FOR A WELDED JOINT OF LOW-ALLOY STEEL WITH HIGHER SOLIDITY IN THE PRESENCE OF CRACKS
Ivica amagi1, Zijah Burzi2, Slavica Cvetkovi1
2
The Faculty of Technics Kosovska Mitrovica, SERBIA The Military Institute of Technics, Belgrade, SERBIA, e-mail: smijoc@yahoo.com
Summary: Welded joint like complex and heterogeneous structure presents a critical point in a welded structure. Because of that in many cases, the safety of welded structures is based on characteristics of welded joint as a whole, and characteristics of all its components. Often assessment of the welded joint is based on comparing the characteristics of base metal, heat affected zone and weld metal, but in most cases the behavior of welded joints as a whole is different comparing to the behavior of weld metal, heat affected zone, and base metal. This work shows the use of experimental procedure of fracture mechanics when determining growth parameters of the fatigue crack for characteristic zones of low-alloy steel Nionikral-70 welded joints. Obtained results show that the notching and initiation of a crack has the influence on the limit of fatigue value Kth and parameters of Parises equation. This is mostly expressed when determining growth parameters of the fatigue crack in heat affected zone, where different changes of growth speed of the fatigue crack clearly express differences in structure of the crack pass. Keywords: Crack, fracture mechanics, welded joint, base metal, weld metal, heat affected zone, notch.
1. INTRODUCTION
The thing which is very important for the welded structures, and the subject matter of the fracture mechanics, are the cracks of all types, the problems of unchecked places, the presence of engagements, etc. A complete characterization of the welded joints from the aspect of exploitation features includes the observation of their behavior in the presence of the mistakes that is the estimation of their resistance to the initiation and development of the crack as the most dangerous mistake. The fracture mechanics deals with the examination of the fracture phenomenon, the conditions of the development of the crack and the resistance of the material in the final phase of the deformation process during the effect of the stress. It represents a scientific discipline which inevitably connects the theoretical contemplation and the experimental results and the appearance of the crack, as well as the failure of the exploitation of the structures. The fracture mechanics defined the parameters and established new methods of examination, in order to determine the affinity for the development of cracks, the critical conditions of a fast fracture development, the resistance of the material, or in other words, to show the behavior of the material and the stability of the structure in the presence of the cracks or some other similar mistakes. The stability of the welded joints when affected by the unstable stress is nowadays a dominant issue for all serious researchers in this area of research, so a part of the examination within this theme is directed towards the analysis of the effects of the unstable stress to the behavior of the welded joint of low-alloy steel Nionikral-70, and as the additional material there is a basic low-hydrogen electrode TENACITO-75, in the presence of a mistake such as crack, that is the determination of the growth parameters of the fatigue crack.
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2. MATERIAL
For studying the impact of the selected welding technology on the properties of welded components, the steel was chosen. The deliverer of the material is "AKRONI-SLOVENSKE ELEZARNE" JESENICE. The material is delivered in the form of sheet-irons with thickness 18 mm. Its chemical composition is given in Table , and mechanical properties in Table 2. Nionikral-70 was chosen for the examination of the problem of the influence of the chosen technology of welding on the characteristics of the components of the welded joint. The deliverer of the material is AKRONI-SLAVINIC RAILWAYS JESENICA. Table 1: The chemical composition of the steel Nionikral-70 % mas. Si Mn P S Cr Ni Mo 0,20 0,23 0,009 0,018 1,24 3,10 0,29 Table 2: The mechanical sharacteristics of the steel Nionikral-70
Batch 180079
C 0,10
V 0,05
Al 0,08
Batch 180079
The direction of the examination L-T
The stress of the flow Rp0,2, MPa, min. 710
Tension solidity, Rm, MPa, min. 770
Dilatation , %
14
For welding the plates 18 mm of thickness made of the steel Nionikral-70, as an additional material we chose the basic low-hydrogen electrode TENACITO-75 3,25 and 4,0 mm of diameter, which is defined in the catalogue of the additional material of the manufacturer ACRONI from Jasenica. The selection of the additional material is made according to the characteristics and thickness of the basic material and according to the chosen process of welding. The chemical composition of the used electrode is given in table 3, while the mechanical characteristics are shown in table 4. Table 3: The chemical composition of the electrode Tenacito-75
Electrode Tenacito-75
% mass C 0,06 Mn 1,45 Si 0,25 Cr 0,55 Ni 2,0 Mo 0,35
Table 4: The mechanical characteristics of the electrode Tenacito-75
Electrode Tenacito-75
The stress of the flow Rp0,2, MPa, min 725
Tension solidity Rm, MPa, min. 780
Dilatation , %
12
The energy of the blast, J -20C -40C -60C 110-140 65-95 50-80
The preparation is done according to the standard. The welded joint is 2/3 X-weld metal. The preparation of the channel is done according to the standard SRPS C. T3.030.
3. A QUANTITATIVE DESCRIPTION OF THE CRACK GROWTH AND THE GENERAL DEPENDENCE OF THE GROWTH OF THE CRACK SPEED AND THE FACTORS OF THE STRESS INTENSITY
The need to establish the fracture mechanics in the examination of the behavior of the fatigue crack appeared out of the analysis of the crack growth in the cyclic stress. Graphic 1 shows the change of the length of the crack, a, with the number of cycles, N, for three levels of the upper stress Sg (S1>S2>S3), with the lower stress Sd=0, where each test tube has the same starting length of the crack ao. It is noticeable that the crack grows faster when there is the stress of a higher level and that in that case there appears the fracture in a lower number of cycles. According to that, it can be concluded that the life of the fracture depends on whether the material has a crack at the beginning or not, and on the dimension of the stress and the persistence of the material to the fracture. However, the data shown in graphic 1 cannot directly be used
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during the projection, and because of that the approach of the fracture mechanics should be used. Basically, the fracture mechanics connects the length of the crack a, the intensity of the stress S, and the resistance of the material, which is expressed by the dimension of the factor of the stress intensity K, so we can estimate the speed of the crack growth in view of the crack per cycle, da/dN.
S1 > S2 > S3 The length of the crack, a
S3 S2 S1 Fracture
The number of cycles, N
Figure 1: The dependence of the length of the fatigue crack on the number of cycles The quantitative examinations of the crack growth are done by flat test tubes. In order to get the crack in a wanted position with the minimal use of time, there is an opening or a channel, shaped by the shape of the test tube and the type of the examination. After that, we measure the length of the crack depending on the number of cycles and the speed of the crack growth da/dN. The speed of the crack growth mostly depends on the stress amplittude and the current length of the crack (graphic 1). In the case of the critical length, the stress is so high that there appears the fracture. There are some developed processes which give a theoretical forecast of the speed of the crack growth with the constant stress amplitude [1]. The ground for these kinds of processes is the knowledge of the stress and deformation condition around the crack. Particularly interesting is a plastic deformation, which precedes the crack development. The growth of the crack is mostly a plastic process, so the plastic deformations around the top of the crack with the unstable stress depend on K. Because of that it makes sense to compare the speed of the crack growth da/dN with K, Paris [3, 4].
d m = C ( K ) dN
The measurements show that m is only conditionally constant and that the growth of the crack brings higher values. The exponent m isnt the constant of the material. It can vary in thermal treatments and with the direction of the stress effect. With many alloys, with the growth of the crack there appear some processes which can be explained only by the variable plastic deformation. We should often calculate the normal stresses, which have effect in front of the crack top and that effect is higher with a less plastic material. With these materials the speed of the crack growth depends not only on K, but also on Kg instead of K [2]. A simple possibility for the estimation of the speed of the crack growth is for the half of the crack opening v to be equal to the length of the crack a per cycle. This comes out of the assumption that during the stress there appears a semicircular spot at the top of the crack [4]. In that case a v. During this phase, the crack doesnt change. If it is calculated with the assumption of a flat deformation according to Bilbi-Kotrel-Svinden model [4], we get the speed of the crack growth which looks like this [6]:
da K 2 1 v 1 K 2 = = const dN R p 0 .2 4G E R p 0 .2
Theoretically, the crack can be considered to be a flat eclipse. Under the pressure of the stress, the length of the eclipse increases. If we assume that the growth of one square of the eclipse is equal to the growth of the crack length per cycle, we get [6]:
da S 3 a = dN 2 E 2 R p 0.2 S K 2 2E 1 = ln 2 E R p 0.2 S
2
(1)
(2)
2E 1 ln S
(3)
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If we consider the reinforcement rule, we can estimate the speed of the crack growth in a flat deformation for the low-solidity materials using the solution for a small flow zone [6]:
2 da (1 ) (1 2 ) R p 0 .2 (1 + ) K 2 K 2 = 1,21+ k 2 = const 1+ k 1 k 2 dN E (1 + k ) (1 + k ) R p 0 .2 E R p 0 .2
(4)
It is noticed that the equations (2) to (4), because of the dependence on K2, describe the behavior of many materials in the starting area of the crack growth. During the examination of the crack development, the length of the crack a is considered in the function of the number of cycles N (graphic 1), and the speed of the crack growth da/dN is determined by the diferentiation of a-N curve one spot at a time. That value is compared to a defined ratio of the factor of the stress intensity K (graphic 2), because the growth of the fatigue cracks is usually determined by the cyclic plastic deformations around the crack top, which depend on the ratio of the factor of the stress intensity K. In the examinations with the constant medium stress Sm and the amplitude Sa, during the examination can be determined from the equation:
K = S Y
(5)
So it is obvious that, because of the constant , the value K will increase only with the increase of the length of the crack (graphic 2). The fracture will appear when Kg achieves the value Kc (KIg=KIc) or when the stress in the ligament achieves the tension solidity. This is also the case with the variable stress. The dependence da/dN on K in the log-log coordinate system is expressed by the curve of the shape S , graphic 2. The curve approaches the borders of the growth of the crack Kth and Kc. The value of the ratio of the stress intensity Kth is the limit value under which the fatigue crack doesnt have the possibility to grow (area I), and Kc is the cyclic intensity of the stress, when the fracture appears (Kg=Kc - area III). The limit value Kth can be determined: by a gradual decrease of the stress until the crack stops growing; by glowing the test tube with a crack in order to avert the stress around the crack top and by a gradual growth of the stress until the crack starts growing; by using the test tubes where the intensity of the stress decreases by the crack length. The determination of Kth is a long and expensive process, because it is considered that the value is achieved only when the crack stops growing at a particular stress and with a certain number of cycles (at least 5106 or 107 cycles). In the middle of the diagram in the graphic 2, there is the equation (1).
The ratio of the factor of the stress intensity K is the most important but not the only parameter which affects the growth speed of the crack. The speed of the crack growth is also affected by the relation between the stress R in the way that da/dN increases when R increases [7]. In the middle, linear part of the diagram (graphic 3), for some materials the effect of the value R can be negligible. If we separately observe the effect of the components in the relation between the stress and the crack growth, we get schemes shown in graphic 4 [8]. With the constant value K, the increase of the medium stress and the decrease of the amplitude bring about the increase of the speed of growth of the crack. The increase R provokes not only the increase of the growth speed of the crack, but also the movement of the limit values Kth and Kc to the left (graphic 3).
Figure 2: Schematic view of the sigmoidal behavior of the growth speed of the fatigue crack depending on K
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The additional dependence of the speed of the crack growth on the stress R makes C and m not constant anymore, but they now depend on R. Most works [7, 8] also consider the effect of R on the speed of the crack growth, for example in the equation developed by Forman and the associates [9]:
da C K m C K m = = dN (1 R ) K c K (1 R ) (K c K g )
(6)
This equation describes not only the increase of da/dN with the increase of R, but also the rounding of the sigmoidalne curve where KgKc. The equation (6) is used for the areas II and III in the graphic 2. In a modified shape
C ( K K th ) d = dN (1 R ) K c K
m
(7)
this equation can also be used in area I.
4. THE DETERMINATION OF THE GROWTH PARAMETRES OF THE FATIGUE CRACK

The basic improvement which was achieved in the fracture mechanics in the area of the material fatigue is in the analytic autopsy of the fracture phenomenon in the case of the fatigue in the production process, where there appears the fatigue crack, and in the period of growth or spreading which follows it and in which the crack increases until the critical dimension when a sudden fracture appears. This way the overall number of cycles Nu, which is followed by the fracture, is divided into the number of cycles needed in order to remove the fatigue crack, Ni, and the number of cycles after which the crack grows to the critical dimension, after which there appears the fracture, Np.
Nu = Ni + Np
Figure 3: The effect of R on the diagram of the crack growth (cikluscycle)
Figure 4: The effect of the conditions of the stress on the speed of the crack growth
(8)
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The development in the examination of the behavior of the material during the effect of a variable stress is possible by a paralel establishment of both experimental and theoretical approach, because the theoretical approach alone can't explain the appearance and growth of the fatigue crack. Nowadays, there are intensive examinations of the factors which affect the dependence of da/dN = f(K), in a so-called low-cyclic fatigue, when in the loop of one cycle there appears a plastic deformation. The analysis of the condition of the stress and the deformation at the top of the growing fatigue crack by the linear-elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) brought about the formation of Paris' equation for all types of metal and alloy, which brings the relation between the growth of the fatigue crack with the ratio of the factor of the stress intensity at the top of the crack, equation 1. Although Paris' equation of the fatigue crack growth isn't applied for the whole area, between low speed near the fatigue value (Kth graphic 2), and high speed (KIc) a big middle linear part of the curve is covered by Paris' relation and from the practical point of view it has proven to be the most important because it simultaneously aloows the difference between the initiation and the growth of the fatigue crack. The application of Paris' equation proved to be especially fertile in the area of the fatigue structures made of high-solidity materials. From sharp stress concentrators in the condition of the variable stress after a certain number of cycles there will appear the initiation of the crack and its growth if the fatigue value Kth. is overrun. As the structure won't be endangered in certain circumstances until the crack reaches the critical dimension, with previous analyses, there can be the exploitation of the crack structure in the period of the crack growth. A very important data for the decision about further exploitation is the knowledge of the speed of the crack growth and its dependence on the effective stress. The standard ASTM E647 gives the measurement of the speed of the fatigue crack growth da/dN, which is developed out of the existant crack and the calculation of the ratio of the factor of the stress intensity , K. This means that the test tube should have a fatigue crack. There are two important limitations in this standard: the speed of the growth has to be higher than 10-8 m per cycle, in order to avoid the area of the fatigue value Kth, and that the stress should be of the constant amplitude. The examination in order to determine the growth speed of the fatigue crack da/dN and the fatigue value Kth is done with the standard arpi test tubes with the method of bending the test tube in three spots on a resonant highfrequency pulsar CRACKTRONIC, graphic 5. The examination was done in the force control.
Figure 5: High-frequency pulsar CRACKTRONIC The foil RUMUL RMF A-5 5 mm long is stick on the test tubes, and the crack growth is observed through them (graphic 6), by the device FRACTOMAT, based on the electric potential of the stripe and connected to the instrument.
Figure 6: The scheme of the measure foil and the way of registering the crack growth The stripe is a thick resistant measure foil pasted to the test tube in the same way as classical measure stripes for the measurement of deformations. The only difference is in the examination at 550C is that in this case we use a special glue which is resistant and stable at temperatures up to 700C. The appearance of the prepared test tube is given in graphic 7. As the fatigue crack grows under the foil, the foil rifts following the top of of the fatigue crack, and the electric resistance of the foil changes linearly with the change of the crack length.
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Figure 7: The appearance of the prepared test tube for examining the parameters of the fatigue crack growth The determination of the dependence of the growth speed da/dN and the factor ratio of the stress intensity K is brought down to the determination of the ratio C and the exponent m in the equation Paris. For a current length of the crack, a, the speed of growth should determine the ratio of the stress intensity factor K, which depends on the geometry of the test tube and the length of the crack, as well as on the ratio of the variable force, F = Fg - Fd. For the determination of the ratio of the stress intensity factor, we use the formula:
K = F L B W3 f (a / W )
(9)
where:
3 f (a / W ) =
a
W
3/ 2
a a 21 + 2 1 W W
2 a a a a 1,99 1 2,15 3,93 + 2,7 W W W W
(10)
L [mm] B [mm] W [mm]

a [mm]
- the ratio of support; - the tickness of the test tube; - the width (height) of the test tube;
- the length of the crack.
5.THE RESULTS OF THE EXAMINATION

According to the process of examination, we calculate and draw the dependences log da/dN = log (K). The diagrams of the fatigue crack growth, da/dN-the change of the stress intensity ratio, K, for the examined samples are given in graphic 8 for a test tube with the notch in the base metal (BM), graphic 9 for a test tube with the notch in the weld metal (WM) and in graphic 10 for a test tube with the notch in the heat affected zone (HAZ) [10, 11]. Table 5 shows the values of the ratio C and m for a test tube with the notch in BM, table 6 for a test tube with the notch in WM, and table 7 for a test tube with the notch in the HAZ [10, 11] .
1000
Osnovni metal
100
10
da/dN, m/cyc.
0.1
0.01
1E-3 10
1
K, MPa m
1/2
Figure 8: The diagram of dependence da/dN-K for the BM test tube
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1000
Metal ava
100
10
da/dN, m/cyc.
0.1
0.01
1E-3 10
1
K, MPa m
1/2
Figure 9: The diagram of dependence da/dN-K for the WM test tube

1000
Zona uticaj toplote

100
10
da/dN, m/cyc.
0.1
0.01
1E-3 10
1
K, MPa m
1/2
Figure 10: The diagram of dependence da/dN-K for the HAZ test tube Table 5: The ratios in the Paris equation for a BM test tube The mark of the growth zone Ratio C Ratio m Kth, MPa m1/2 -14 I 4.139 10,22 3.9810 III 3.765 1.6710-13 Table 6: The ratios in the Paris equation for a WM test tube The mark of the growth zone Ratio C Ratio m Kth, MPa m1/2 I 4.798 8.3810-15 II 8.462 8,45 3.3010-19 III 5.078 7.9310-15
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Table 7: The ratios in the Paris equation for a HAZ test tube The mark of the growth zone Ratio C Ratio m Kth, MPa m1/2 -20 I 10.259 1.9010 II 2.667 4.6310-12 -16 6.403 8,71 III 2.9010 -13 IV 3.560 7.8710 V 6.505 1.4810-16 VI 4.929 1.7410-14
6. CONCLUSION
The examinations are done on the test tubes with the notches in the characteristic zones of the welded joint. Tables 1-3 show the reached values of the fatigue value for all treated samples. As we can see the position of the notch and the initiation of the crack, it influences the fatigue value Kth and the parameters of Paris equation. This is mostly visible in determination of the parameters of the fatigue crack growth in the heat affected zone. Here we have six different changes of the growth speed which tells us about different structures of the crack [10, 11]. The stability of the welded joint should be connected with the change in the curve in the zone of Paris rule. A slower increase is confirmed with the samples with the crack in the base metal and the heat affected zone, because the same growth speed of the crack requests a higher stress intensity factor. With higher values KIc we need a higher speed of the fatigue crack growth for passing into the area of fracture which is clearly visible in graphic 8-10. We notice that for WM the speed of passing into the fracture area is somewhat lower than for the BM and HAZ, which is expected because in WM the value KIc is lower [10, 11]. The maximum growth speed can be expected at the level of the stress intensity ratio which approaches the stability of the fracture at flat deformation, because at that level we achieve the fracture. If the values of the fracture stability at flat deformation KIc are brought into the diagrams in graphics 8-10, we can calculate the speed of the growth of the fatigue crack where the fatigue process will consign the place to the development of the fracture at different stress levels. At higher stress level, there will appear an undesirable situation because small stresses cannot provoke higher speed of the fatigue crack growth in order to approach the level of the stress intensity factor which is necessary for the fracture [10, 11].
REFERENCES
[1] Burzi Z.: Micromechanic aspects of the initiation and the crack growth on the basis of Al-Li system, PHD, TMF, Belgrade, 1995. [2] Munz D., Schwalle K., and Mayr P. : Dauerschwingverhalten metalischer Werkstoffe, Werkstoffkunde, Band 3, Vieweg 1971, pg. 10. [3] Paris P. C., and Erdogan F.: A Critical Analysis of Crack Propagation Laws, Trans. ASME, Journal Basic Eng., Vol. 85, No. 4, Str. 528. [4] Bilby A. B., Cottrel A. H., and Swinden K. H.: The Spread of Plastic Yield from a Notch, Proc. Roy. Soc.A272, 1963. [5] Paris P. C., and Sih G. C.: Stress Analysis of Cracks, Fracture Toughness Testing and its Application, STP 381, str. 30-83. [6] Radon J. C.: Determination of Threshold Stress Intensities, Fatigue of Low Alloy Steel BS4360-50D, Int. J. Fatigue, Oct. 1982, str. 225. [7] Schwalbe K. H.: Bruchmechanik metalischer Werkstoffe, Carl Hauser Verlag, Munchen, 1980. [8] Ewalds H. L., and Wanhill R. J. H.: Fracture Mechanics, Edvard Arnold, Delftse Uitgevers Maatschoppij, Delf, 1984. [9] E647-86: Standard Test Method for Constant-Load-Amplitude Fatigue Crack Growth Forman R. G., KearneyV. E., and Engle R. M.: Numerical Analysis of Crack Propagation in Cyclic-Loaded Structures, Trans. ASME, Journal Basic Eng., Vol. 89, No. 3, 1947, str. 459. [10] Ivica amagi, The analysis of the stress and deformations of the welded joints of low-alloy steel with higher solidity in the presence of cracks, MA, The Faculty of Technics, Kosovska Mitrovica, 2009. [11] I. amagi, Z. Burzi, S. Cvetkovi: The usage of the fracture mechanics in determining the growth parameters of the fatigue crack for particular areas of a welded joint, Welding and welded structures, 3/2008, str. 97-103, Belgrade.
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RaDMI 2010
STRUCTURE AND CONCEPT OF E-MANUFACTURING

SaTCIP Ltd, Vrnjaka Banja, SERBIA, e-mail: dasicp@yahoo.com University of Ni, Faculty of Economics, 18000 Ni, SERBIA, e-mail: nada_barac@yahoo.com, 3 University of Ni, Faculty of Economics, 18000 Ni, SERBIA, e-mail: aleksandra_caka@yahoo.com
2 1
Predrag Dai1, Nada Barac2, Aleksandra Anelkovi3
Summary: Knowledge society is a future period in total scientific-technological society and it represents a new specific kind of society whose main goal is, according to many authors, to create e-manufacturing, e-learning, Global Knowledge Infrastructure (GKI) and Knowledge Based Economy (KBE). This paper deals with the structure and concept of emanufacturing and it also provides a brief review of the literature on e-manufacturing. Keywords: Knowledge Based Society (KBS), Knowledge Based Economy (KBE), e-Manufacturing.
1. INTRODUCTION
Changes in knowledge dynamics over time brings to faster changes and development of different concepts of scientific-technological process. In todays development of society, that is, scientific-technical progress, application of knowledge on different areas of human work has led to revolutionary changes, so four different concepts are differed in society development [3-8]: I concept of society development agricultural society (knowledge applied on means for enhancing physical strength of men), II concept of society development industry society (knowledge applied on manufacturing processes and products), III concept of society development information society (knowledge applied on knowledge, that is, on means for multiplication of power of human mind) and IV concept of society development knowledge society (knowledge in function of creativity). Knowledge Society (KS) or often named Knowledge-Based Society (KBS) is future period in total scientifictechnological progress. It is a new specific kind of society, aimed at knowledges who in center of happening puts personality and its knowledge with application of IT, especially Information-Expert Systems (IES), computer networks and Internet. Society of knowledge has new approaches with more aspects: knowledge, product, quality, technology, information-experts systems, time, space etc. According to many authors main goal of knowledge society is to create so called [3-5]: e-Manufacturing, e-Learning, e-Infrastructures or GKI (Global Knowledge Infrastructures) and KBE (Knowledge Based Economy).
2. STRUCTURE AND CONCEPT OF E-MANUFACTURING

E-Manufacturing (Electronic Manufacturing) is understandable model of manufacturing which optimizes usage of manufacturing resources based on information exchange from storage of materials over manufacturing to chain of supply. This model enables the manufacturing operations to successfully integrate with the functional objectives of an enterprise through the use of Internet, tether-free (i.e. wireless, web, etc.) and predictive
234
technologies. Information exchange in this model is being realized based on complete electronic integration of all components of factory, by applying industrial standards and protocols. Stream of information is moved []: EAS (Equipment Automation System), MES (Manufacturing Execution System), YMS (Yield Management System), EEC (Equipment Engineering Capability), SCM (Supply Chain Management), ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning), CRM (Customer Relationship Management), E-Commerce (Electronic Commerce) and etc. E-Manufacturing includes []: WIP (Work-in-Process), ECM (Equipment Control and Monitoring), AMH (Automated Materials Handling), FDC (Fault Detection and Classification), APC (Advanced Process Control), DW (Data Warehouse), DST (Decision Support Tools), QMS (Quality Management System), EAS (Engineering Analysis System), SPM (Spare Parts Management), Systems for testing and many other systems. Structure of employees is being changed from operators to technicians, engineers and managers. E-Manufacturing appeared as a term in the beginning of 2000 and currently is very actual and one general term. The key aim for the 21st century is "sustainable development," which the international community embraced at the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development. Sustainable development seeks to reconcile environmental protection and development; it means nothing more than using resources no faster than they can regenerate themselves, and releasing pollutants to no greater extent than natural resources can assimilate them. On figure 1 is shown one example of modern concept of E-Manufacturing [15, 16].
Figure 1: Preview of model concept of E-Manufacturing [15, 16]
235
From figure 2 [2] it can be noticed that the way to E-Manufacturing leads over successful realization of three main groups of functions, which represent three activities: Security of EEC (Equipment Engineering Capability), Successful functioning of MES (Manufacturing Execution System) and equipment integration and Successful functioning of AMHS (Automated Material Handling System).
Figure 2: Path to e-Manufacturing [2] In the paper E-manufacturingfundamental, tools, and transformation, the author Jay L. introduces emanufacturing as a new concept to answer the needs of business strategies for complete integration of all business suppliers, customer service network and manufacturing units by leveraging the Internet, web-enabling, tether free technologies and computational tools. The authors Jiang, P. and Chen, B. in the paper Some key issues on enabling e-manufacturing as a part of product-driven e-business process via e-service deal with some key issues on implementing e-service-driven e-manufacturing mechanism coupled with e-business process and they describe in details a tree model for configuring the organizational structure of an extended enterprise and an e-service model for sampling bottom manufacturing data and encapsulating them to up-stream to correct management layers. The group of authors: Luo, R.C.; Chih-Chin, Lan; Jyh Hwa Tzou; and Hsiao Cheng Lin in the paper E-manufacturing: Web-based desktop rapid prototyping system deal with the developing of Webbased automated RP system, which provides customers the convenience of distant manufacturing without having an expensive RP machine. A case study on how e-manufacturing is applied to enable preventive maintenance (PM) spacing is presented in the paper E-manufacturing in the semiconductor industry by the authors Tag, P.H. and Mike Tao Zhang.
3. CONCLUSIONS
Over the time, changes in knowledge dynamics bring to faster changes and development of different concepts of scientific-technological process. The application of knowledge on different areas of human work has resulted in revolutionary changes, among which is also the concept of society development knowledge society (knowledge in function of creativity). One of the goals of knowledge society is the creation of e-manufacturing, which is understandable model of manufacturing that optimizes usage of manufacturing resources based on information exchange from storage of materials over manufacturing to chain of supply and it also enables the manufacturing operations to successfully integrate with the functional objectives of an enterprise through the use of Internet, tether-free (i.e. wireless, web, etc.) and predictive technologies.
236
REFERENCES
[1] Coates, J.F.:Manufacturing in the 21st century. International Journal of Manufacturing Technology and Management, Vol. 1, no.1 (2000), pp.42-59. [2] Crandell, B. and Masui, T.: e-Manufacturing requirements, In: Proceedings of SEMI e-Manufacturing Workshop, Tokyo, Japan, 20. July 2001. [3] Dai, P.: Europeans RTD mision for knowledge society. : ii i ii i : i , 21, (): i i (), 2007, . 3-18. ISBN 966-379-149-4. [4] Dai, P.: Osnove PC raunara. Skripta. Trstenik: Via tehnika mainska kola, 2004. 200 s. [5] Dai, P.: Put ka drutvu znanja i trendovi Evropske RTD misije. asopis IMK-14 Istraivanje i razvoj, God. XII, br. (24-25) 1-2/2006 (2006), s. 77-92. ISSN 0354-6829. [6] Drgnescu, M.: Broadband Internet and the knowledge society. Studies in Informatics and Control Journal, Vol. 11 (2002.), No. 3, pp. 243-254. ISSN 1220-1766 (for printed form) and ISSN 1841-429X (for electronic form). [7] eEurope 2005: An information society for all. An action plan. Sevilla (Spanish): European council, 21-22. June 2002. 23 pp. Avaliable on Web site: http://www.tiaonline.org/policy/regional/europe/eEurope.pdf. [8] Gerritsen, B.H.M.: How to adapt information technology innovations to industrial design and manufacturing to benefit maximally from them. Strojniski vestnik Journal of Mechanical Engineering, Vol. 54 (2008), 426-445 pp. [9] Greeff, G. and Ghoshal, R.: Practical e-manufacturing and supply chain management. 2004 461 pp. ISBN-13: 978-0-7506-6272-7 and ISBN-10: 0-7506-6272-7. [10] Jay, L.: E-manufacturingfundamental, tools, and transformation. Robotics and Computer Integrated Manufacturing, Vol. 19 (2003), pp. 501507. [11] Jiang, P. and Chen, B.: Some key issues on enabling e-manufacturing as a part of product-driven e-business process via e-service. International Journal of Manufacturing Technology and Management, Volume 10, no. 4 (2007), pp. 380 399. [12] Ko, M. and Lee, J.: e-Manufacturing- Fundamental, Requirements and Expected Impacts. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Systems, Dec. 2003. [13] Koc, M.; Ni, J, and Lee, J.: Introduction of e-manufacturing. In: Proceeding of the International Conference on Frontiers on Design and Manufacturing, Dalian, China, 2002. [14] Koc, M, Ni, J., Lee, J. and Bandyopadhyay, P.: Introduction to e-Manufacturing. International Journal of Agile Manufacturing, Special Issue on Distributed E-Manufacturing, Vol. 6 (Dec. 2003). [15] Lee, J.: E-manufacturingfundamental, tools, and transformation. Robotics and Computer Integrated Manufacturing, Vol. 19 (2003), pp. 501507. ISSN 0736-5845. [16] Lee, J.: e-Manufacturing Systems: fundamental and tools. International Journal of Robotics and ComputerIntegrated Manufacturing, Vol 9, Issue 6 (2003), pp. 501-507. [17] Luo, R.C.; Chih-Chin, Lan; Jyh Hwa Tzou; Hsiao Cheng Lin: E-manufacturing: Web-based desktop rapid prototyping system, In: Intelligent Control and Automation, 2004. WCICA 2004. Fifth World Congress on Volume 3, pp. 2824-2829. [18] Robert J. Graves: E-Manufacturing: The Tools We Need to Deal with Relationships and Networks, In Book: E-Manufacturing: Business Paradigms and Supporting Technologies, 2003, pp. 11-17. ISBN-10: 1402076541 and ISBN-13: 9781402076541. [19] Tag, P.H. and Mike Tao Zhang: E-manufacturing in the semiconductor industry. IEEE Robotics & Automation Magazine, Vol. 13, Issue 4 (2006), pp. 2532. [20] Xi, L.F.; Zhou, X.J.; Lin, Z.Q. and Lee, J.: Web-enabled intelligent e-maintenance technology. Journal of Compute Integrated Manufacturing Systems, Vol. 9, Issue 4 (2003), pp. 325-329.
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RaDMI 2010
SELECTION OF OPERATING PARAMETERS AND SYNCHRONIZATION OF HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS

2
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Kraljevo, SERBIA, e-mail: djuricic.ljubisa@gmail.com e-mail: radovanfvk@yahoo.com, 3 e-mail: zdravkovic.n@mfkv.kg.ac.rs, 4 e-mail: goranboskovic@gmail.com
Ljubia urii1, Radovan Petrovi2,Neboja Zdravkovi3 , Goran Bokovi4,
Summary: This work deals with general and special hydraulic synchronization of executive organs on hydraulically operated machines. The hydraulic system is usually calculated with an ideal incompressible fluid, ie. ignores the change in volume and viscosity changes in pressure or temperature comparison of the cited synchronization ways enables the selection of synchronization method depending on specified precision and even economic justification of application. Keywords: hydraulic synchronization, executive organs, hydraulic system, pressure, viscosity changes.
1. INTRODUCTION
In oil hydraulics is often a problem synchronizing the speed of two or more executive authority that are not mechanically linked. The most commonly applied systems, synchronization of movement of executive bodies of the various machines where they are required: - Synchronization of movement of cylinders or - Synchronization shaft speed hydro. Choose a synchronization significantly restricted by the desired accuracy of synchronous movement. When work often occurs in the relative position error of executive bodies, and this requires that the system hydraulic oil predict equipment for synchronized management executive. To solve the synchronization problem we encounter difficulties hydraulic character.
2. CHOICE OF WORKING PARAMETERS HYDRAULIC CYLINDER

Principle transfer scheme forces energy-hydraulic cylinders - translation motors as executive hydro system is given in Figure 1
1.Front cover, 2.Sealing set, 3.Piston, 4.Tube, 5.Piston rod, 6.Back cover, 7.Sealing set
Figure 1: Power transmission scheme Hydrostatic power ( p ,Q ) alternate leads to the terminal open (A,B). Mechanical power transmission ( F , N )is performed in both directions of movement, because of difference (difference) surface on the piston, variable speed ( v1 , v 2 ),but with the same speed which is achieved by installing additional devices | Ai in the hydraulic system.
238
In order soft approach - stopping the movement in extreme positions, especially in the transfer of large forces, mandatory installation of damping elements. The work of drawing piston rod: (Suppression)
2 q1 = DC H / 4 10 3
(1)
4
F1 = pD m / 4 10
2 C
(2)
When inserting the piston rod: (Pulling)

2 2 q 2 = DC dK H / 4 10 3
F2 = p D d m / 4 10
2 C 2 K
(3)
4 2 2 C
(4) (5) (6)

2
t1 = H / 10 3 v1 , s v1 = 2 10 Q / 3D v N 1 = F1 v1 2 t1 = 3DC H v / 2 10 5 Q
2 d 2 )H / 2 10 5 Q , s v = 2 10 Q / 3 D d t 2 = 3(DC v v 2 K N 2 = F2 v 2
2 C 2 K
3
(7) (8) (9) (10)
t 2 = H / 10 v 2
where:
q1 , q2 , cm 3 F1 , F2 , kN N 1 , N 2 , kW v1 , v2 , m / s t1 , t 2 , s DC , d K , mm H , mm p , dN / cm 2 Q , l / min v = (0,95 0,97 ) m = (0,85 0,90)
- working volume of the cylinder, - mechanical force - mechanical power, - speed power - time of the walk,
- diameter cylinder, piston rod, - stroke cylinder, - pressure of working fluid (oil) - flow of working fluid, - volume efficiency, - mechanical efficiency.
3. EXAMPLES OF APPLICATION SYNCHRONIZED HYDRAULIC CYLINDER

Synchronization of movement of executive authority can be achieved by mechanical, electrical, hydraulic or other means or combination of these. Thus, synchronization can be achieved in different ways, which mostly depends on the demands of exploitation, the possibility of-use and cost. 3.1. Synchronization adjustable silencers
239
Figure 2: Synchronization adjustable silencers This is one way synchronization of executive authority in two ways from a number of technical shortcomings such as: - Muted I have no pressure compensation. - The regulation of flow is also dependent on changes in viscosity, and the pressure difference (A p) in silencers. - You can see them apply to cases where the executive bodies of the constructional work load and with the established areas. - Before installation of this type must be provided with a symmetry with respect to the other page (the same number of curves, symmetric connection of both cylinders, the same length of pipe the same diameter and the same distance for mounting the device). This performance montage is done to improve the accuracy synchronization. - Systems with this method of synchronization with relatively poor efficiency.
3.2. Synchronization with flow regulator

Here are replaced chokes the flow regulators to balance the pressure, thereby ensuring that the output flow regulator practically does not depend on changes in pressure caused by stress on the cylinders C1 and C2. - Depending on the quality of the performed assembly hydraulic system, changes in external load on the cylinders C 1 and C2, compressibility of working fluid temperature difference in the function of the quality of the selected device, the synchronization accuracy is achieved by 5% to 1%, because the entire flow of the working fluid passes through the hydro system before as to establish synchronization of the cylinders C 1 and C2. Deviation of the accuracy of the synchronization states are almost at the very beginning, because the entire flow of the working fluid passes through the hydro system before the establishment of synchronization of the cylinders C1 and C2. This phenomenon is reflected in the step- Pulsation pressure at the beginning of the working cycle. Unevenness in shock by reducing distances or even better release flow regulator rather than selfsufficient to perform the operation of movement. Described the lack of increases if more stops and starts during the working cycle (feed - drawing piston rod cylinders C1 and C2). It is almost necessary cylinder piston return to the starting position - mechanically. Described the lack of increases if more stops and starts during the working cycle (feed - drawing piston rod cylinders C1 and C2). It is almost necessary cylinder piston return to the starting position mechanically.
240
LOAD
LOAD
flow regulator with non-returnvalve
C1
C2
Figure 3: Synchronization with flow regulator 3.3. Synchronization with schedule links Considering how this system should take into account the fact that in this case the added pressure. It is necessary to pre-determine the value of the working piston surface SI and S2 because of the size significantly affect the accuracy of synchronization. Safety valves VI and V2 provide security bringing video into the final site walk. As in the cases already described, the accuracy of synchronization depends on the internal leak, compressibility and geometrical equality useful volume cylinder. 3.4. Synchronization with separate flow pump Here is the synchronization of cylinders carried by two pumps P1 and P2, which are composite and have a common drive shaft. Independent flows in the pump function of the surface S1 and S2 cylinders C1 and C2, so that the synchronization is provided regardless of changes in external load cylinders. Accuracy synchronization important differences will depend on volume and efficiency of each pump cylinder.
4.CONCLUSION
Choose a synchronization significantly restricted by the desired accuracy of synchronous movement. When work often occurs in the relative position error of executive bodies, and this requires that the hydraulic oil system predict equipment for synchronized management executive. Are unequally burdened executive because of uneven load distribution executive. Executive authorities often work with constant force or torque, and synchronization must take into account changes in the fall of pressure in the system and fluctuation of the working fluid. The differences arise in the force of friction on the desktop and guides hydro-cylinder. Cylinder with less friction resistance ends before working stroke. This is in practice almost impossible to avoid, because the sealing elements are manufactured within the limits of tolerance development.
241
C1
C2
S1
S2
V2
V1
Figure 4: Synchronization with schedule links

LOAD
LOAD
P1
P2
Figure 5: Synchronization with separate flow pump
242
REFERENCES
[1] M. Savkovic, M. Gasic, R. Petrovic, "Voltage analysis of interactive contact segments arrows hydraulic telescopic cranes," serial "14 October" no. 26-27, 2007, original scientific work, Krusevac, pp. 17-22 [2] D. Pri, N. Nedic, R. Petrovi "XML specifications of hydraulic and pneumatic components, France, 31 CONGRESS HIPNEF 2008, 15 - 17 October 2008, Vrnjaka Spa [3] R. Petrovic, J. Pezdirnik, P. Ivanovic, "Development of methodologies and Software for Engineering, Simulation and Optimization of Oil-Hydraulic Cylinders of Large Measurements and Strengths", p. 40-46, The 7 th International Conference on Fluid Power Transmission and Control (ICFP 2009), April 7-10, 2009 in Hangzhou, China. [4] R. Petrovic, J. Pezdirnik, N. Todic, "Optimization of oil-hydraulic cylinders of large measurements and strengths", "VALVE" - Journal of Fluid Power, Automation and Mechatronics, Valve 15/2009/4, p.330-337, University of Ljubljana, Faculty of mechanical engineering, Ljubljana, Slovenia
243
RaDMI 2010
EVALUATION OF LOAD BEHAVIOR IN CORROSIVE ENVIRONMENT, NON-ALLOYD STEEL WELDED JOINTS

T. Fleser
Mechanical Engineering Faculty of Timisoara, Timisoara, ROMANIA, e-mail: trfleser@ yahoo.com
Summary. The combined effects of stress and corrosion can result in a special type of degradation, on metallic alloy in specific corrosive media and local tensile stress. Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is specific active elements of heat power industry, working in conditions of high temperature and pressure, in steam environment. The paper presents results on SCC samples of non-alloy steel and its welded joints, maintained long time on a steam circuit through visual examination, free bend test, metallographic examination and hardness testing. Results showed that the welded joints of OLT45.3K have better resistance than base metal to stress corrosion cracking, under the rigorous control of steam, ie mechanical stress and thermal thermal power plants operating. Keywords: OLT45.3K non-alloy steel, stress corrosion test, assessing welded joints.
1.INTRODUCTION
Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is the cracking induced from the combined influence of tensile stress, especially at elevated temperature and a corrosive environment. The impact of SCC on a material usually falls between dry cracking and the fatigue threshold of that material. Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is the unexpected sudden failure of normally ductile metals. SCC is highly chemically specific in that certain alloys are likely to undergo SCC only when exposed to a certain chemically aggressive fluids. The chemical environment that causes SCC for a given alloy is often one which is only mildly corrosive to the metal otherwise[1, 2, 3]. In actual condition, it is known increasing in technical systems usage the functional parameters. The effects, regarding thermo power plants, are the acceleration of component materials deterioration. The metals and their welding joints are, more or less, stabile in time, in concrete exploitation conditions. In technological installations for steam production, water represents the raw material. Therefore, its important the knowledge of metallic materials attitude under corrosion effect. The corrosion speed is influenced by the metals composition and structure, surface condition, reference and type of stresses, fluids concentration and nature, etc.[ 4, 5]. For preventing those disadvantages, it is necessary the complete knowledge of this phenomenon, its nature, the factors that influence the corrosion speed, as well as proper protection means. So, the projector aims for conservation the usage characteristics correlated with materials nature, followed purpose and environment concrete conditions where the equipment or industrial structure is used. In the same position is the technical system user, too. The user must prove technical and economical efficiency, which impose intensive exploitation regimes of installations. The corrosion phenomenon is more active in the condition where water, steam, or condense, together with suspended contaminants, appears in circuits. Condense circulation is carefully evaluated because of the proved truculence over the metallic components. The resulted condense during installation functionality is took up through pipes with weldings joints which are prefigured with condensate and recast separators devices in the systems thermo circuit. Researches was concentrated on the non-alloyed heat resistant steel OLT45.3K, and their welded joints, used in the fabrication of tubular parts of the energetic boilers. The capacity of the boiler water to produce steel brittleness can be evaluated by an experimental method, which uses a brittleness detector mounted on the boiler element in the interested area. Its so conceived that it simultaneously and continuously reunites three brittle factors: fluid flows, the chemical composition of the water/steam and the thermo-mechanical stress of the steels
244
and welded joints. The proposed testing method for experimentation has an accelerated character as compared with the actual brittleness process in installations by the fact that the most favorable conditions are created to produce cracks in the controlled area of the specimen, easy to be examined and of restrained area. The method has a prospective character and is applied on specimens made out of steels and welded joints in the boiler construction. Here are included mechanical tests, metallographic evaluation, to characterize the pipes belonging to the ducts awarding more attention to corrosion attitude under stress and steam effect transported condense.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

Experimental program used specimens from OLT45.3K and similar welded joints made out of 168 x 8 mm pipes completed by the customer on the basis of welding specifications applied on execution and mounting. [ 6, 7, 8 ]. The unalloyed OLT 45.3k steel is designated for realizing pipes (STAS 8183 80), equivalent with P265GH steel (SR EN 10216-2-2003). It is comparable with steels from: Germany St 45.8, USA A 106 group A, Sweden 1243 44, England HFS 23, France TU 47 e. The temperature regime of these welded joints is until 500C. The verification of the welded joints was performed on the basis of conditions regarding the certificate welding technology. Conditions for taking samples and conducting under Stress Corrosion Test (SCC) are those specified [ 9, 10 ]. The tensile part of the specimen with pre-strained weld contains the characteristic areas and corresponds to the internal walls of the pipes to the welds roots, respectively. From the analyzed steels, as basic materials and afferent welded joints, were sampled tests that were maintained 400 hours, ie 720 hours, at approximately 300 0C steam temperature. The SCC specimens subjected to the specific working regime of the steam circuit continuous purging on the isometric heat circuit have been verified by: visual examination of characteristic areas, determination of the residual strain state, free bending testing, metallographical examinations, hardness testing in the cross section. The aspect of the specimens (pre-tensioned before testing) subjected to SCC testing is represented in figure 1. It is
Figure 1: The specimen (pre-tensioned before testing) subjected to SCC testing remarked a very good chip removal workability and plastic deformation capacity for the analyzed steel and welded joints if are used the qualified technologies.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUTIONS

A.The state and aspect of examined specimens performed the respecting of the specific conditions imposed by the testing procedures of similar welded joints and of the surveillance instructions. So, specimens have no solid substance depositions coming from the corrosive steam. The fluid acted on the tensile surface continuously by the initial and on going correct adjustment. The aspect of the specimens and the details of the tested surfaces are presented in figure 2. All the examined surfaces presented no corrosion cracks on the areas subjected to testing. The predominant colour of the tested specimens is grey to black and characterises the effect of the solid substance in the corrosive fluid.
245
a) b) Figure 2: The aspect of the specimen (a) and the details of the tested surface with welded joint (b). B. After the devices testing, under the steam action and after disassembly, the specimens had the remnant deformation (table 1). For the identification of eventual micro cracks, the predeformed specimens were constrained to free bending at 5, 10, 15 mm. In the presented table are mentioned the final bending angles, the recorded forces and the purposed shifting with 30 mm diameter (d=4g), after supplementary deformations. Table 1: Technical parameters to free bending of specimens. Force [N].10, at InvestigDeformation after deformation [mm] ated corrosion material# maintaining [] 5 10 15 620 583 530 21,5 WELD 1 1 635 605 545 24,0 WELD 2 2 912 770 680 19,0 WELD 3 3 843 740 665 19,5 BM 4 4 565 540 480 17,5 BM 5 5 735 544 500 22,0 BM 6 6 735 700 735 21,0 WELD 7 7 1045 890 770 18,0 WELD 8 8 775 715 643 20,0 WELD 9 9 715 680 605 17,5 BM 10 10 1030 885 770 19,5 BM 11 11 695 650 595 21,5 BM 12 12 # - BM- basic material, WELD welded joint. Mark
Curr. iss.
Free bending final angle[] 70 72 79 82 67 72 71 78 73 68 81 71
After analyzing the table results, was found that there arent significant systematic decelerations between the required forces of the basic material check bars and afferent welds. Also, as the deformation increases from 5 to 15 mm, it can not be distinguished a similarity of the applied forces between analyzed tests belonging to the same group. The force increasing was situated between 16 and 47 %. The final angles are more approached at welded joints tests (70 - 79, respective 71 - 78 degrees), than the basic materials (67- 82, respective 68 - 81 degrees). C.The microscopic examinations according to EN 1321 and SR ISO 643 were performed in the characteristic areas of the welded joints subjected to the corrosive action of the steam in the heat circuits. After exposure period of time was affected approximately 1,5 % base material thickness. No fabrication defects and corrosion cracks have been found in the examined areas of the base metal. The macroscopic examination of the SCC specimens longitudinally subjected to the corrosive action of the overheated steam evinced no corrosion cracks (figure 3). The depth of the corrosion spot in the weld has values of 0.40 mm. In the examined welds were found no technological welding defects, only corrosion microcracks type defects due to the corrosion phenomena of the steam. The corrosion spot was formed in the direct contact area steam - specimen where the most corroded areas appear, the other areas present reduced corrosion phenomena. The corrosion depths varies between 0.03 - 0.12 mm on base metal surface (Figure 4). The area subjected to the corrosive action was sectioned longitudinally by the corrosion spot , wich were optical examinations (figure 4 ). The base metal (BM), the structures are ferrito-pearlitic granular, granulation of 8-9 points, according to SR ISO 643.
246
a) b) Figure 3: Local degradation by corrosion. a BM local, b welded joint (10x).
a) b) Figure 4: Images of sample metallographical examinations. a BM, b - WELD [Nital etched 3%, x 100] In the weld (WELD), the structures are dendritic pearlitic ferritic, with elongated dendrites on the thermal flux direction and on the restrained areas acicular ferrite structures were developed. In the heat affected zones (HAZ1, HAZ2), the structure is pearlite ferritic granular with acicular ferrite and the granulation 4-6 points. D. The HV5 hardness test was performed according to STAS 492/1-85. The distribution scheme of the hardness indentations is according to figure 5, and the results of the tests are included in table 2. The relative justice error E is 3%. The relative fidelity error E is 4%.
Figure 5: The distribution scheme of the hardness To determine hardness estimator HB , were converted into units of hardness HV 5, to hardness HB. The HB estimator represents the local structural hardening of an area reported to another area, the hardening of the (TF) tensile and (CF) compressed area reported to the neutral area (NF). This estimator can be calculated by the relation:
HB =
HBmax (TF ,CF ) HBmin ( NF ) HBmin ( NF )
100
[%]
(1)
When HB > 0 there appears a local structural hardening, and when HB < 0 there appears a local structural softening. Table 3 gives the HB values calculated by relation (1).
247
Sample mark 1
Table 2: Hardness HV5 values Investigated zone HV5 position * BM1 HAZ1 WELD TF 176 294 229 NF 166 233 225 CF 174 225 231 2 TF 169 241 234 NF 164 229 235 CF 175 229 227 3 TF 176 246 240 NF 160 224 223 CF 173 223 237 4 TF 174 240 236 NF 163 225 233 CF 173 232 242 *TF tensile fibre, NF neutral fibre, CF compressed fibre.
HAZ2 241 236 226 247 234 242 241 227 240 243 231 242
BM2 173 162 171 168 154 161 169 156 168 175 165 170
Sample mark 1
Table 3: The HB values calculated HV5 Investigated zone* [%] position * BM1 HAZ1 WELD HAZ2 TF 7,81 4,55 4,68 4,04 CF 7,65 4,11 1,40 4,02 2 TF 5,85 11,38 2,30 8,68 CF 8,43 7,39 1,43 5,92 3 TF 14,55 13,89 9,57 11,54 CF 11,26 4,31 10,65 10,58 4 TF 11,19 10,05 4,39 6,84 CF 10,53 6,72 6,87 8,20 *BM base material, HAZ - heat affected zone, WELD deposited material.
BM2 9,87 5,85 14,80 8,55 12,59 13,27 13,25 7,99
Finds remarkable dispersion of the calculated values of HB (1,40 -14,80 %). Analyzing the whole, have identified the highest values of HB in BM(14,80 %), followed by the HAZ(13,89 %). Lowest values were identified by the welding metal (WELD) (1,40 %), though it can not be neglected some higher values(10,65 %). Can differentiate better reaction to the phenomenon of SCC with metal submitted to the welding area (WELD), the vulnerability more pronounced in areas of BM.
4. CONCLUSIONS
a.The OLT45.3K similar welded joint were inestigated SCC specimens subjected to the specific working regime of the steam circuit continuous purging on the isometric heat circuit by the stress corrosion cracking testing . b. The structural examinations and hardness tests effectuated on the CSC check bars test samples, attests that OLT 45 steel and welded joints have differential crack corrosion resistance under tension on this thermo circuit, considering the pipe material metallurgic condition. c. The OLT 45 steel, respective their welds are corrosion susceptible, being given the water and steam condition and parameters from the analyzed thermo-system circuit. After a exposure period of 720 hours, was affected approximately 1,5% pipe plate thickness. d. The determination of hardness estimator HB was revealed susceptibility to the weakening of the material analyzed: better reaction to the phenomenon of SCC with metal submitted to the welding area(WELD)(1,4010,65%), the vulnerability more pronounced in areas of BM (14,80 %). e. The obtained results confirm that the used steam during experiments contributes differentially welded joints, locally and affects the fragility sensitivity together with non-homogeneity of the analyzed metallurgic areas. f. The results confirmed that the steam produce in power plant installations has no brittle effects in welded areas on the heat circuits of the installations under mechanical and thermal tension.
248
REFERENCES
[1] Pearce, J.,T.: Corrosion a lymans guide. In. INSIGHT, 1997, vol. 39, nr. 1, London. p.10 16 [2] Kelly, R.: Metallic Corrosion Stress Corrosion Cracking. In Corrosion Enginerring, science and Technology, Volume 45 (2010), Online ISSN: 1743-2782, The Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining 1 Carlton House Terrace, London SW1Y 5DB [3] Russell H. Jones Ed.: Stress- Corrosion Cracking. Material Performance and Evaluation, ASM International, New York, 2009, 543 pag. [4] Marcus, P.:Corrosion mechanisms in theory and practice, ASM International, New York, 2002, 742 pag. [5] Herbert, F.W., Roberts, S.G.: Materials science and engineering at National Taiwan University. In International Heat Treatment & Surface Engineering, Volume 4, Number 2, June 2010 , pp. 70-73(4), Publisher: Maney Publishing. [6] x x x Corrosivity Test for Industrial Wear (USBM Embrittlement Cracking Detector Method). D807 52(2006). [7] x x x ASTM G58 - 85(2005) Standard Practice for Preparation of Stress-Corrosion Test . Specimens for Weldments. [8] x x x Corosivite environmental assessment of thermal circuit condensate. 148 Technical Report 2003, ISIM Timisoara. [9] x x x ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessels Code, Section III, VIII, IX, New York, 2004. [10] x x x Pipeline Coating Defects Detector DDRC technique. Multimedia Corosion Guide. 2-th Edition, 2009, INSA Laboratoire the Physicochimie Industrielle Lyon.
249
RaDMI 2010
CHARACTERIZATION OF WELDED JOINTS OF THIN NiTi WIRES AND STRIPS

1
T. Fleser1, Camelia Szuhanek2

Mechanical Engineering Faculty of Timisoara, Timisoara, ROMANIA, e-mail: trfleser@ yahoo.com 2 Faculty of Dentistry of Timisoara, Timisoara, ROMANIA, e-mail: camelia_fleser@yahoo.com
Summary: NiTi wires and strips were welded thin flame, ultrasound and laser orthodontic devices to achieve specific components, ie components of precision measuring devices. Are tested joints between wires, or between thin wires and rings, or slides. Purpose of the study was the assessment used by the mechanical characteristics of tensile strength, metallographic examination and microhardness of the welded joints. The volume of test samples allowed statistical analysis. The tension strengths were measured with a universal testing machine, while smooth surface and characteristic nugget formation microscopically were evaluated. The laser welding technique provided higher strength results comparing to the silver solder or ultrasonic method. The laser welding technique represents expansive goal expensive in the future orthodontic, but also in measuring devices components. Keywords: NiTi wires welded, mechanical, metallographic examination, hardness.
1.INTRODUCTION
Return of processed materials in the form of wires or thin plates in the initial geometric configuration to permit use in fields where maintaining a predetermined application conditions, long term, is essential. Are requirements to achieve orthodontic appliances, but also the construction of precision measuring devices. Industrial development of material property to return to the initial geometric configuration is the result of hard research over the past 20 years. Materials containing Ti, Ni gained significant use in specificated areas. Commonly used form of wire size differential section round, square, rectangular, without excluding strips supply. The alloys in question are used in two distinct structural states of the content of martensite, austenite respectively, resulting from thermal processing. Structural condition is correlated with field use. The technology achievement, or rehabilitation of the areas mentioned components are calling and connecting by welding processes play a definite place. The joining of the metal framework is frequently necessary to set appliances and procedures to achieve efficient treatment (Figure 1) [1, 2, 3].
Figure 1: Constructive elements of NiTi welded: wires, thin strips.

0
Using the easiest to back a long time flame and joint filler material, with melting temperatures greater than 450 C. Heat input on a relatively large volume of material and difficult to control the process induces structural changes in materials processing, with adverse effects on the reliability and security of joints. Use is associated with biocompatibility of orthodontic work in the case, but with no corrosion at all uses. Joint strength is not up to the basic material added due to the specific materials used.
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As an alternative to thermal fusion joining processes, might be used to process based on ultrasound. Solid state joining process carried out without additive material and structural changes due to thermal fields are practically absent. Lack of heat-affected areas will not raise the capacity for plastic deformation, or corrosion. Considerable progress in laser technology has made the process within joints achieve orthodontic appliances. Interactions between lasers and materials is very complex phenomena. The success of laser welding procedures in specificated areas depends on the operator's control of many parameters. The laser welding technique was chosen for thin wires, plates or strips, with versatility in Ni-Ti dental metal processed. With this research is to assess the accuracy, quality and reproducibility of this technique as applied to components joining. The advantages of laser welding systems can be summarized as follows: no solder and thus no galvanic corrosion at the joint. Some phenomena can and dimmed by using inert gases in the achievement of joint protection [4, 5].The application of laser welding technology allows to be localized energy in small area, there by reducing the thermal expansion. Unlike soldering, laser energy can be directed to a small area. Laser welding yields strong, seamless connections. Research indicates that the laser welds is stronger than traditional solder joints and close as strong as the original alloy. As a result, greater they provide patient confort, reliability measuring devices components. Therefore year is fast becoming essential part of today's dental laboratory. The reasons are simple it is quicker, easier and produces better results. Correlated with the above, for the experimental program includes initial implementation processes flame joints, ultrasound, laser. Specific characteristics are determined in tensile tests, metallographic examination, hardness highlight performance, benchmarking and promotion of technical efficiency and technological solutions with applications in orthodontics, namely the realization of components for precision measuring devices.
2.MATERIALS AND METHODS

Materials tested in the program were currently used for fixed orthodontic appliances parts, respectively components of precision measuring devices with required welded joints between thin plate and tensioning screw port arms, respectively afarente between wires (Figure 2). The vast majority require combination of a flat ring and wire.
Figure 2: Welded samples: wires, wire with thin plate NiTi wire used was effective diameter between 0.96 to 0.99 mm, which is the area of 0.746 mm2. The set of delivery is specified tensile strength of 1800 - 2000 N/mm2. Strip rings were minimal in the right section welded wire 3.16 x 0.15 mm, which brings in the contact section for welding to 0.474 mm2. To welding, a metallic contact is satisfied along the generating wire and prefabricated rings at least 6 mm. Similar length of contact was ensured between wires combined generators. Joints were used between the ring wire, or between two wires, flame welding filler material, ultrasound and laser, prepared under the previous figure. Conditions were making joints: a). Welding flame used bottled butane gas. Material added was one mm diameter. b). Ultrasonic welding has provided pressure on the 100N, the duration of 1 s. c). Joints were made at laser pulse power Pp = 900 W, Dp = 10 ms duration, with energy Ep = 8 J. Welded samples were tensile tested, metallographic examination, microhardness HV 0.5 was measured in specific areas of joints. Tensile test was determined tensile strength and fracture location was analyzed. Tensile test was referential SR EN 10002-1/2002 normative, with tensile testing equipment in figure 3. Thus, one end of the wire was restrained in car ferry and eager device has been introduced in the ring attached wire. To test wires welded along the generating overlapping, they were installed between the jaws adapted work equipment. The metallographic examination was to reveal flaws in the merge, combining configuration, structural constituents of nature, according to SR EN 4590-90. Determination of hardness HV 0.5 in the transverse direction was carried out over areas joints. Hardness determination is referential SR EN ISO 14271-2002.
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Figure 3: Tensile testing machinery. Number of samples to permit evaluation of the principles of mathematical statistics. For more accurate determination of the distribution of experimental results were calculated for all variables analyzed, the location indicators and statistical variability by applying specific relationships, determining the arithmetic mean, amplitude and standard deviation [6, 7, 8, 9]. Were used facilities provided by Excel 7.0 software and math-SSA, run under Windows '97.
3.RESULTS AND DISCUTIONS

It has flame-soldered joints of added material, ultrasound and laser for comparative analysis of results. A. Tensile test led to results in table 1. Graphical representation of resistance to fracture is found in figure 4. Curr. iss. 1 Welding Process Table 1: Tensile test results * Wire thin plate joining Rm R S Fracture Rm /N/mm2/ /N/mm2/ site /N/mm2/ added 782,5 155,9 5,1 plate 1051,1 1602,3 1751,1 Wire-wire joining R S Fracture /N/mm2/ site 25,18 9,4 welding 120,9 101,1 6,1 3,9 welding welding
Flame with material 2 Ultrasound 801,2 100,6 3,9 welding 3 Laser 955,5 85,4 2,8 plate *Rm - tensile strength, R - amplitude, S - standard deviation.
Flame
Ultrasound Joining methods
Laser
Figure 4: Tensile strength of welded joints. Comparing the results highlights the lowest average values in samples welded with flame, with added material, while high amplitude levels, ie the standard deviation. Related to these results, joints laser generated values higher breaking strength by about 26%. I remember lower values of amplitude and mean square deviation. Results obtained with ultrasound combined samples were located between the welding flame, with added material, laser respectively. The process of combining hard control of flame allows thermal fields what is found in the results determined. In contrast, more favorable characteristics of laser joints ensure more rigorous background checks of parameters, compared to other processes involved in the experimental program.
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Tensile strength values are higher than those actually required in orthodontic treatments, ie components of precision measuring equipment, highlighted by mathematical modeling, finite element concepts respectriv by [6, 7]. However, what differentiates experienced joining processes are important dispersions flame welding, laser welding compared. Result is found in the behavior during use with impact on joints reliability. B. Metallographic examination results are shown in figure 5 by images of flame joints, ultrasound, laser respectively.
a) b) c) d) e) Figure 5: Metallographic images of flame joints (a) 10x, ultrasound (b, c) 10x, 100x, laser (d, e)10x, 100x. Metallographic examination of samples combined with material added flame highlights incomplete penetration of the connection between wire and plate surface, in terms of negative angle created between the contact surfaces (Figure 5. a). Can cause poor adhesion and ascribe fluidity molten material contribution. Partial bonding components are found combined with added material. Defects are not identified. Thermally influenced area is about 1 mm wide, finger plate thickness of the material that is superior, but comparable to the thickness of wires used. The presence of specific compounds precipitating main alloying elements, combining the beneficial hardening effects, but bad elasticity for its. Joints with ultrasound finding of material diffusion interference components. After macroscopic picture would seem that there was no combination effect, which is inconsistent with the microscopic image (Figure 5.b, c). Interpenetration of material nonlinearity confirm interface components. Surface preparation is very important: smoothness, roughness, cleaning, to ensure metallic contact. In laser welding of the liquid state is involved in the joining area, metallurgical phenomena are induced structural transformation and solidification took place at high speed (Figure 5. d, e). Thermally influenced area is reduced. Not identified defects. High temperature and rapid cooling favors the appearance of chemical compounds and intermetallic. Their presence is reflected by the high hardness of the area under thermal cycling, but also fragile tendencies. C. Results of HV 0.5 hardness determinations are presented in tables 2 and 3. Figures 6 and 7 are the evolution of HV 0.5 hardness values in the transverse direction over areas joints. Table 2: Results of investigations on wire thin plate joints
Curr Welding Base material Heat afected zone Added/Melted Heat afected zone Base material . Process wire HAZ1 material HAZ2 ring/plate iss. S HV0,5 R S HV0,5 R S HV0,5 R S HV0,5 R S HV0,5 R 330 17,2 6,2 372 16,3 4,9 361 10,3 3,6 1 Flame with 390 11,9 3,9 379 15,2 4,1 added material 2 Ultrasound 401 10,9 3,5 398 14,1 2,7 362 14,7 3,0 364 11,9 3,5 3 Laser 396 10,4 3,6 419 12,0 3,5 414 14,1 4,2 405 14,0 3,7 362 9,9 3,5
Previous representation shows the effect of thermal fields concentrated laser related process, comparing to other methods used. Flame bonding of filler material was used which has not complained melting thermal effects and structural changes with pronounced hardening. The joint HAZ sites are found to effect molten mixture of base materials with the addition. Note that the ultrasonic bonding process in solid, no filler material, there is no question the presence of specific structural transformations presence of molten material. Welded components in the interface were not significantly affected by heat processing. Consequently, the hardness values recorded comparable and sometimes lower than the basic materials used. Laser welding process with high concentrated heat input, induces structural changes in rapid heating and cooling system, hard structural constituents propitious, with tendency to merge fragile. It argues that the procedures used to distinguish between values of magnitude lower hardness, ie the least square laser joints compared to joints flame that ultrasound. Explanation derived from more rigorous control and monitoring of process parameters using laser technology, especially the use of flame reported for bonding materials tested.
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Figure 6: Evolution of hardness in areas wire plate/ring joints. Table 3: Results of investigations on wire wire joints
Curr. iss. 1 2 3 Welding Process Flame with added material Ultrasound Laser Base material wire HV0,5 390 401 396 R 11,9 10,9 10,4 S 3,9 3,5 3,6 Heat afected zone HAZ1 HV0,5 R S 381 14,9 4,6 389 420 14,0 12,1 3,5 3,9 Material deposited HV0,5 335 421 R 15,9 13,6 Heat afected zone HAZ2 S HV0,5 R S 6,8 379 13,9 5,3 391 425 14,0 12,5 3,1 3,7
4,8
Wire
Figure 7: Evolution of hardness in areas wire wire joints. The results of analysis and tests performed three procedures related to joint shows clear differences. In tensile testing, using an metallic material with an average temperature of fusion led to the default values of breaking strength lower than for laser welded samples in the molten material from the merged components. Situation is correlated with the results of metallographic analysis, where temperature of molten material flow and has fostered more positive grip joints made by laser. Specific joints concentrated energy laser induced thermal cycles with temperature gradients lift, rapid thermal effect. Precipitation occurrence and chemical compounds with high hardness obviously the result of these conditions to achieve the joints. Consequently in practice, what precautions are necessary on the request and bending stresses, such joints adjustment made.
4.CONCLUSIONS a. Have been used very effectively merge processes: flame with added material, ultrasound, laser components, slide wire, wire-wire that are commonly used in carrying out orthodontic appliances, ie components for precision measuring devices, and results of investigations of tensile, metallographic, hardness have been interpreted by mathematical statistical methods. b. Connecting processes without thermal input connecting different areas, which was evidenced by lower values of tensile breaking strength of joints made with flame and ultrasound compared with those made by laser. c. Structural changes related to laser process is correlated with higher hardness values of the welding heat affected zones, reported the effects of joining processes generated flame or ultrasound. d. There is no thermal changes in the joint interface with ultrasound, leading to hardness values HV0, 5 basic materials comparable wire that slide.
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e. The overall results are distinguished using laser joining process, but optimization of process parameters necessary to minimize the effects of thermal generating areas with high hardness and fragility.
REFERENCES
[1] Bertrand, C.; Le Petitcorps, Y.; Albingre, L. ; Dupuis, V.: The laser welding technique applied to the non precious dental alloys procedure and results. In: Br. Dent J. 2001 Mar 10;190(5), p.255-257. [2] Prasad, S.,Monaco, E., A., Jr.: Repairing an implant titanium milled framework using laser welding technology: a clinical report. In: Journal Prosthet. Dent. 2009 Apr.,101(4), p.221-225. [3] Bertrand, C.; Le Petitcorps, Y.; Albingre, L.;Dupuis, V.: Optimization of operator and physical parameters for laser welding of dental materials. In: Br Dent J. 2004 Apr. 10;196(7), p.413-418. [4] Johannes, Bock, J., et.al.: Fracture strength of different soldered and welded orthodontic joining configurations with and without filling material. In: Journal of Applied Oral Science, vol.16, no.5, Bauru, Sept./Oct. 2008, ISSN 1678-7757. [5] Bardeanu, V., et.al.: Using laser to repair partial dentures movable skeletons (Utilizarea laserului la reparaii ale scheletelor protezelor parial mobilizabile). Proc. Internat. Conf. TIMA, ISIM Timisoara, iuny 2007. [6] Szuhanek, Camelia: Finite element analysis of lingual forces effect in alveolar bone loss cases. In Journal of Lingual News, 2007, may, Volume 5, Number 1, p. 35-39. [7] Szuhanek, Camelia: Biomechanical comparation between tipping forces effect in labial and lingual orthodontics. Procedings Congress European Society of Lingual Orthodontics, Cannes, Franta, 2008, 4-8 iulie, p.245-250. [8] x x x ANSI/ADA Specification No. 32Orthodontic Wires. [9] x x x ANSI/ADA Specification No. 88Dental Brazing Alloys.
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RaDMI 2010
PRELIMINARY HEATING AT WELDING OF COPPER WITH STEEL

P.A. Gavrish, V.I. Tulupov
Donbass State Engineering Academy, Kramatorsk, UKRAINE, e-mail: ltd_kran_dgma@mail.ru
Summary: Possibility of thermal cycle regulation at welding copper with steel is under investigation. The received results show that it is preferably to use impulsive current for preliminary heating. Quality of the welded seams is increased. Keywords: thermal cycle of the welding an impulsive current, high power supply, preliminary heating, copper with steel welding, quality of the welded connection.
Technological properties of the welded connection are determined by the character of the thermal influence on metal in heat-affected zones. Consequently, there can be durable, plastic welding seam, but because of the thermal influence on a detail the welding quality is low in whole. In connection with a high temperature and heat conductivity, hampering a local heating, more concentrated sources of heating and enhanced modes of welding are required. However in connection with copper propensity to growth of grain at multi-layered seams welding for grain grinding the metal of every passage-way at the temperatures of 550-800 is forged [1]. Large heat conductivity of copper creates the high gradients of temperature and cooling speed, that causes the rapid bath cooling, because of what for gases and slags deleting from it enhanced rate of energy input is required and also in most cases preliminary heating and of more active deoxidants application, than at steel welding. Especially this process is complicated when copper and steel are welded. The traditional method of preliminary heating application is carried out by gas burners [2]. At welding gas-ring flame for preliminary heating must close all the space between welding and warm-up gas-rings. A gas-ring for heating must move ahead of gas-ring for welding (or electrode) [1]. The powerful welding gas-rings of preliminary heating provide good results at copper with steel welding [2], however oxidability of superficial layer, the additional welded seam and an unequal temperature gradient on the welded seam section are the undesirable phenomena, causing redaction of welding quality. The complication of preliminary-heating temperature adjusting on all the welding section if the gas heating is used leads to the unequal welding thermal cycle and to reduction of copper with steel welding quality. A gas burner is a source of heat of small concentration; therefore maintenance of optimal temperatures and welded bath sizes is extremely difficult. Gases appearing at welding, particularly hydrogen dissolves in copper. In accordance with the Siverts law solubility depends on temperature and partial pressure of gas atmosphere at welding. Comparing hydrogen solubility in copper and iron at welding it is possible to mark that solubility is unequal [1]. So, hydrogen solubility in copper during crystallization of welding bath, changes two times quicker then hydrogen solubility in iron. Taking into account high-speed of welding bath crystallization hydrogen does not have time to be selected from metal and forms pores. Moreover, concentrated in micro discontinuity flaws, it creates high pressure, that causes formation of cracks violation of metallic connection. On fig.1 hydrogen solubility in copper and iron at welding is shown [1]. For improvement of copper with steel welding quality it is appropriate to use as a preliminary heating pulse heating of metal by rectangular form currents [3]. In this case the forced heating of local area is provided by exact regulation of thermal cycle, and necessary temperature. Regulating the thermal cycle of welding by preliminary heating diminishes the thermal affected zone size and the risk of welded seam molten metal satiation with hydrogen.
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Figure 1: Hydrogen solubility in copper and iron at welding with partial pressure of hydrogen to 1p The use of impulsive current instead of variable sinusoidal one is much preferably, because amount of energy in time unit at the impulsive current of rectangular form is 2 times more than at variable sinusoidal current [3]. At copper with steel welding the generator of impulsive current of rectangular form was applied with power to 2 kW with the managed frequency, porosity and current size (figs. 2) [4]. The control system of the pulse current generator is equipped by the liquid crystal indicator that allows supervising visually set electric modes. The generator has a frequency span 20 8000 Hz, the maximal amplitude of an impulse is 10 V, the maximal value of a current impulse is 200 amp, regulation of porosity is 20 80 %. The estimation of time and frequency characteristics quality of operating signals has shown a low level of frequency and porosity impulses formation error, making a maximum of 2 % for porosity and 2 % for the frequency setting.
Figure 2: The structural diagram of the impulsive current generator; - the operated rectifier, - a control system of the impulsive width converter, - a working zone contact Concentrated source of heat input in metal at welding moving on the surface of welded details, (in our case copper and steel), penetrates the metal area with a cross-section which depends on many factors [5]. As copper and steel have different indexes of heat conductivity, metal is heated unequally. Thermal efficiency of the main metal penetration process is the ratio of specific heat expense, necessary for the main metal penetration, to full thermal power of welding arc or heat input source(1).
F S
0,24 U I
(1)
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Where: F - a penetration area cross - section; - a welding speed;
- a specific gravity;
S - the heat content of the main metal weight unit at melting; U - a tension on an arc; I - a welding current.
Making the calculations of a penetration area and area preheat area, making the calculations of thermal cycle it is possible to build the graphic image of welding thermal cycle (fig. 3).
) it is distributing of maximal temperatures on the welded seam section; ) it is a thermal cycle in the thermal affected zone
Figure 3: Welding thermal cycle of low-carbon steel Thus, regulating the preliminary heating temperature at welding of copper with steel, it is possible to affect structural and mechanical properties of the welded connection. Further work is aimed to the technological process design at welding of copper with steel taking into account that copper and steel are dissimilar metals.
CONCLUSION
1. 2. 3. 4. As preliminary heating at welding of copper with steel it is preferable to use the impulsive heating. Applying the impulsive heating it is possible to regulate the thermal cycle of welding. At welding thermal cycle regulation the minimization of structural dissimilarities at welding is possible. Quality of the welded connection of copper with steel rises.
REFERENCES
[1] /V. R. Ryabov, D. M. Rabkin, R. S. Kurochko, L. G Strizhevskaya .-.:, 1984.-239. [2] A.P. Gavrish / 8- - -8 . 28 1 , 2007, 1. .133 137 [3] / U.S. Avraamov, V.I. Koshkin, V.E. Panin, I.B.Rudenko, A.D. Shlyapin// . 6 2006 . C. 10-15. [4] V.I. Tulupov // : . : , 2008. . 23. . 277-282. ISBN 978-966-379-250-7. [5] N.N. Rykalin. ..: , 1951. 296 .
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RaDMI 2010
RAPID PROTOTYPING IN THE CREATION OF HIP IMPLANTS WITH 3D LATTICE STRUCTURES

Mihai Ovidiu Ghiba1, Mircea Dreucean1, Radu Prejbeanu2, Dinu Vermesan2
Politehnica University of Timisoara, Timisoara, ROMANIA, e-mail: ovidiu@cmpicsu.upt.ro, e-mail: dreucean@cmpicsu.upt.ro 2 University of Medicine and Pharmacy Victor Babes, Timisoara, ROMANIA, e-mail: raduprejbeanu@gmail.com, e-mail: vermesan@gmail.com
Summary: This paper discusses the determination of the equivalent Young modulus of a lattice structure made of CoCr alloy and the behavior of a hip implant which includes a lattice zone in the body of the stem in comparison with a stem made of solid metal. The analyze of the lattice and of the two hip stems is made in Ansys using finite element method. The geometry of the lattice element is determined based on the recommendation of Arcam AB Company, the constructor of the prototyping machine based on Electron Beam Melting (EBM) technology. The focus in the analyze was set on the contact area between the stem and the bone where the bone separation due to stress-shielding effect usually occurs in clinical practice. Keywords: Lattice Structures, Rapid Prototyping, Orthopedic Implants, Finite Element Analysis, Stress-Shielding effect...
1
1. INTRODUCTION
One of the most important problems in the implant surgery and implant revision is the stress-shielding effect [45]. Many producers of hip implants in the world have their own solution for the reduction of this effect. The core of all the solutions is the reduction of stiffness of the implant down to the level of stiffness for the cortical bone, mainly in the proximal area of the implantation where the stress-shielding effect is most effective. The equivalent Young modulus of an implant built on this purpose is very near to the value of the modulus for the bone. In the research work presented in this paper, one type of lattice structure is designed and analyzed with finite element method (FEA) in order to determine the influence of the structure on the mechanical behavior of the endoprosthesis. Using a specific load scheme, the FEA allowed the computation of the equivalent Young modulus for the lattice structure. The solid metal hip implant decreases the loading of the surrounding bone in the proximal end of the femur and transfers the load at the distal end, inside the shaft of the femur, creating the conditions for the stress-shielding to appear at the proximal end. The effect is more obvious at hip stems with a diameter larger than 14 mm, according to the research results published by the producers of implants. In the paper there is presented a stem with a lattice structure, created from biocompatible materials [2] on an EBM based prototyping machine. These structures can be included in the body of implants and facilitate bone in-growth, reduce weight, and absorb impact, and the structures can be engineered to a specific stiffness in specific directions and/or regions. Rapid prototyping (RP) technologies offer an opportunity for the creation of physical complex parts that cannot be built with conventional technologies. Electron Beam Melting (EBM) processes can create complex lattice structures directly from a digital model by additive layers of a metal powder. As shown in this paper, lattice structures with specific geometry can closely match the stiffness of the implant to the stiffness of the human bone. [8]
2. MATERIALS AND EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

The recommendations from the Arcam AB Users Manual were taken into account in what concerns the dimensions of the unit cell in the lattice structure. Table 1 shows the most important dimensions of the 3D unit
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cell, selected from a wide variety of lattice cells recomanded by the Arcam AB Company. Lattice structures were designed using SolidWorks software by repetition of a unit cell on the three directions x, y and z, resulting the 3D structure. This structure was formatted into a negative matrix which was substracted from the body of the solid stem in the design process. In this way a correct shape of a hip stem with lattice structure could be designed and the body could be taken in FEA with no mesh generation errors. Table 1: The lattice cell heigh t width 3.55 mm
2.21 mm
depth
1.8 mm
As shown in Figure 1b, the lattice structure is placed in the central region of the stem, traversing it completely from one side to the other. A hip stem with this kind of structure can be effectively prototyped on the Arcam EBM S12 machine [9]. The biomaterial that was considered in all the FEA is CoCr, with main properties presented in table 2. This material can be used with the Arcam EBM S12 machine for the stem fabrication. Table 2: Mechanical properties of CoCr. [10] CoCr Tensile Strength, Yield 560 Mpa Tensile Strength, Ultimate 960 Mpa Young's modulus 230 GPa Poisson's ratio 0,33 In order to determine the equivalent Young modulus of the lattice structure, a cube with an edge of 9 mm with lattice structure was designed and analyzed. Using the FEA results, the equivalent Young modulus was calculated using the formulas 1-4, representing a simplified version of the general equations of elasticity of materials, based on the assumption that the material is isotropic and the stress state is monoaxial. The values calculated in this way, based on the results of FEA, are concentrated in Table3.
E=
= 1,1387 10 4 MPa l = l0
(1) (2) (3) (4)
F S F l E= 0 S l
Table 3: Load parameters for Young modulus determination E Youngs modul 1,1387x104 MPa tensile strain tensile stress l the change in length of the element of volume (8.7817*10-4 mm) l0 the original length of the object (9 mm) F the force (100 N) S the area (90 mm2)
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For the determination of the behavior of a stem with lattice structure in comparison with a solid metal stem, two models were used in FEA and the analyze was directed to the determination of the strain conditions along the outer boundary of the stem inside the femur shaft, as shown in Figure 1a. Regarding the boundary conditions, the distal end of the hip stem was considered fixed. A load force of 2150 N was applied in the middle plane of the ball of the endoprosthesis and in the lower-back-lateral direction with an angle of 10 in the frontal plane and 10 in the sagittal plane, as specified in ISO7206-4. [11]. The presented results are equivalent strain (Fig. 1 b, c,) for the hip stem with lattice structure and without lattice.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

A more rapid fixation of the stem will occur if the surrounding bone tissue is stimulated with low pressure [12]. If the forces that stimulate the surrounding bone tissue are too high the fixation may not appear because the new grown tissue might break. [13] As it can be seen in Figure 1a lattice structures can make the implant more flexible. The graph shows the distribution of equivalent elastic strain along the right outer surface of the endoprosthesis tail. It was decided to use the mechanostat theory formulated by Frost [12] [14] for the evaluation of the structure. The theory says that bones resorb when the strain is between 0 500 strain, between 500 1500 strain the bone homeostasis occurs, between 1500 4000 strain the bone formation is stimulated and above 4000 strain some micro cracks occur and the bone is resorbed. [12] In Figure 1a, b, c it can be seen that the lattice stem can stimulate the bone tissue without breaking it, because the maximum value of the strain is 2281 strains (Figure 1.b).
a b c Figure.1: Equivalent stress: a) equivalent elastic strain variation along the outer boudary, b) mini lattice stem equivalent elastic strain, c) mini solid stem equivalent elastic strain
4. CONCLUSION
The lattice structure used for the construction of the hip stem can be also included in orthopedic plates, acetabular cups, and other implants. The main advantage of this structure is the better osseointegration and the reduction of stress-shielding effect. The quantity of material used for building a lattice structured stem is smaller, but the manufacturing conditions by prototyping are more difficult than the classical solutions based on forging or machining. The study developed in this paper revealed that the use of a lattice structure can reduce the stiffness of the proximal stem to a value very close to the bone stiffness and in this way the stress-shielding is very much reduced. The equivalent Young modulus determined in Ansys analyze is 1,1387x104 Mpa and the Young modulus for cancelous bone is in the range 0,8-1,4x104 Mpa in many experiments developed worldwide [1518].
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The distribution of strain along te boundary of the stem reveals that the values for lattice structure are 2 times larger in the proximal zone and aproximately the same in the distal zone, in comparison to a solid metal stem. This conclusion comes to stress the presumption that the lattice structure cand reduce the stiffness of the stem and enhance the conditions of contact between the stem and the bone in the proximal zone where the stressshielding usually occurs. As for a future work, the Arcam EBM S12 machine will be used to build the stem with lattice, and mechanical tests will be run in order to validate the results of the simulations.
REFERENCES
[1] Callaghan, J.J.:Current concepts review: the clinical results and basic science of total hip arthroplasty with porous-coated prostheses, The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, Vol. 75-A, No. 2, 1993, p. 299-310, ISSN: 1535-1386; [2] Haeseong, J., Emanuel, S., Surface macro-texture design for rapid prototyping, Rapid Prototyping Journal, Vol. 6, No. 1, 2000, p. 50-60, ISSN: 1355-2546; [3] Jee, H. J., Sachs, E., A visual simulation technique for 3D printing, Advances in Engineering Software,Vol. 31, Issue 2, February 2000, p. 97-106, ISSN:0965-9978; [4] Huiskes R., Weinans H.; Rietbergen B.V., The Relationship Between Stress Shielding and Bone Resorption Around Total Hip Stems and the Effects of Flexible Materials, Clinical Orthopaedics & Related Research, January 1992, Vol. 274, p. 124-134, ISSN: 0009-921X; [5] Makarand G.J., Suresh G.A., Freeman M. and Michael H.S., Analysis of a femoral hip prosthesis designed to reduce stress shielding, Journal of Biomechanics, Vol. 33, Issue 12, December 2000, p. 1655-1662, ISSN:0021-9290; [6] Spoerke E.D., Murray N.G., Li H., Brinson L.C., Dunand D.C. and Stupp S.I., A bioactive titanium foam scaffold for bone repair, Acta Biomaterialia, Vol. 1, Issue 5, September 2005, p. 523-533, ISSN: 17427061; [7] Sridhar I., Adie P.P. and Ghista D.N., Optimal design of customised hip prosthesis using fiber reinforced polymer composites, Materials & Design, Vol. 31, Issue 6, June 2010, p. 2767-2775, ISSN: 0261-3069; [8] Leslie, G., Building strong yet lightweight hip implants, Available on Web site: http://medicaldesign.com/engineering-prototyping/building_strong_yet_1008/index.html; [9] Christensen, A., Lippincott, A.L., Kircher, R., (2007) Qualification of Electron Beam Melted (EBM) Ti6Al4V-ELI for Orthopaedic Implant Applications, Available on Web site: http://www.medicalmodeling.com, Accessed: 2009-03-12; [10] Andrew M. and Pranav S., Onset of nanoscale wear of metallic implant materials: Influence of surface residual stresses and contact loads, 16th International Conference on Wear of Materials, Volume 263, Issues 7-12, 10 September 2007, p. 1117-1123, ISSN:0043-1648; [11] Taylor, M.B., Wroblewski, M., Effect of Hip Stem Taper on Cement Stresses, Available on Web site: http://www.orthosupersite.com/view.aspx?rid=3925, Accessed: 2010-03-10; [12] Cleynenbreugel T.V., Porous scaffolds for the replacement of large bone defects: Abiomechanical design study, PhD Thesis, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, May 2005, ISBN 90-5682-613-1; [13] Ghiba M.O., Prejbeanu R., Rusu L., Vermesan D., Studies regarding personalized hip endoprosthesis with net structures, Annals of DAAAM for 2009 & Proceedings of the 20th International DAAAM Symposium, November 2009, p. 337-338, ISBN 978-3-901509-70-4, ISSN 1726-9679; [14] Webster S.S.J., Integrated Bone Tissue Physiology: Anatomy and Physiology, Bone Mechanics Handbook Second Edition, Stephen C.C., CRC Press, p. 1-56, ISBN 0-8493-9117-2, Boca Raton, 2001; [15] Cheng-Kung Cheng, Yu-Su Lai, Mechanical Property of Trabecular Bone, Genart H., Griffith J., Advanced bioimaging technologies in assessment of the quality of bone and scaffold materials, USA, 2007,Springer, ISBN 978-3-540-45454-0; [16] Rusu L., Surgical implants and research studies for certification, Politehnica University of Timioara, Timioara, Romania, 2006, p. 41-42, ISBN (10): 973-625-375-9, ISBN (13): 978-973-625-375-1, ISSN: 1842-4937 (romania); [17] Donald T.R. and Albert H.B., The Mechanical Properties of Cortical Bone, The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 1974, Vol. 56, Issue 5, p. 1001-1022, ISSN: 1535-1386; [18] Verhulp E., Rietbergena B., Muller R., Huiskes R., Indirect determination of trabecular bone effective tissue failure properties using micro-finite element simulations, Journal of Biomechanics, Vol. 41, Issue 7, 2008, p. 14791485, ISSN:0021-9290.
262
RaDMI 2010
STATIC TESTING NPU3 MEHATRNICKOG AID EQUIPMENT

Tecnical Facultet Cacak.University of Kragujevac,Svetog Save65, 32000 aak, SERBIA, e-mail: tfcacak@tfc.kg.ac.rs 2 Higher Technical Mechanical School, R. Krstica, Street 19, 37240 Trstenik, SERBIA, e-mail: vtms@ptt.rs
1
Dragan Golubovi1, Milomir M. Mijatovi2
1. INTRODUCTION
For the static test tube made of NPU3 need to abide by the following methodology: poeavanje Mehatronikog system pstavljanje tube Writing Program tension setting Setup program for drawing diagrams Setting ms is performed using dynamometer, so that the measuring device is brought to the starting position and measure the value of the experiment starts from scratch. Set the tube is performed by special steznog accessories and holders that are placed on the movable parts Mehatronikog system.
2. SYSTEM SETTIGS
Calculation of tension is performed using the computer program, so that the task speed drive motor with frequency regulator. Tightening starts from zero value and increases continuously up to breaking. Program is set to appear alongside the diagrams of force, pressure and strain comparative dijadram tube all the way to breaking.
Figure 1: tube in accessories for the device postsvvljanje 2. TESTING RESULTS STATIC Based on the calculation of load profile UNP3 strength, the system is configured as shown in figure 2 and.3. Based on the floor so the table for the material from which the 0460 made NPU3 Profile maximum tension force is Fmax = max x A = 500x 240 = 120 000N
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Figure 2: Setup of force
Figure 3: The appearance of the monitor for static testing
Label Materials
0270 0370 0460 0545 0645 0745
Table 1: static material properties STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIAL (structural steel) Tensile strength, Rm Yield strength, Re N/mm2 N/mm2 d=16mm 16-----40 40-----100 340- 420 210 200 290 370- 430 240 230 220 420- 500 260 250 240 500- 600 300 290 280 600- 700 340 330 320 700- 800 370 360 350
In the diagram (Fig..4) force Kidane, and the comparative diagram (Fig.5) indicating a moment of cutting tube made of aircraft U3 provila, force na dijagramu the value calculation
Figure 5: Chart tightening material
Figure 6: Schedule voltages up to breaking
Figure 6: Test tube of unit
Figure 7: Instant tube cutting
In addition to monitoring the process tightening diektnog metrrijala mechatronic device to monitor and enables printing results, it is a document of the completed survey. Considering that a laboratory accredited for this type of testing companies such as EPS mnogea Railways as well as many construction companies perform tests of its construction in this laboratory
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4. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF FINAL ELEMENTS AND METHOD FOR STATIC TESTING TO HELP Pro / ENGINEER
Mechanica Structure Version K-01-29:spg Diagnostic Log Sun Aug 16, 2009 08:43:20 Average element matrix size (kb): 14.6 Iteration 1 Residual norm 1 ------------- ------------2 0.000588968 3 2.25547e-005 4 1.94679e-005 5 1.38997e-006 6 4.90537e-007 7 2.0197e-007 8 2.15355e-008 9 6.08387e-009 10 1.06857e-009 11 6.70703e-011 12 9.04726e-012 13 4.71496e-013
6. CONCLUSION
The device developed and described herein mechatronic device for mechanical programme testing of elements and complex strructures (programmable MEHATRONIK TF 100/10) thanks to the incorporated measuring and regulation equipment offers a variety of possibilities of reception tests, and also of quality verification. Some of the possibilities can be seen in the functional and control schemes. It can be used for testing of cables, chains, levers, connecting elements, and many other parts and devices. Major users include MI Proleter Arilje, Power Supply Industry of Serbia, Railways of Serbia and Montenegro. One of the advantages of this device is that it can be upgraded and reconstructed, thus increasing the possibility of its use for testing. The possibilities of static tests it had in the past, thanks to this work, now also include dynamic programmable tests. To accomplish this task, besides upgrading the hydraulic control system, by developing a new programme to control the system, it was made possible to have programmable change of the material stress and to count the cycles of load change, which is one of the conditions for dynamic tests. The programme makes it possible to directly observe the process on the screen, number of cycles, stress force, stress amplitude, and the relation between all the parameters is presented in the form of a diagram. The described methodology and capacities of the device greatly incresae accuracy of dynamic tests, and decreases to almost one third the time that was needed by previous methods of dynamic
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7. REFERENCE
[1] Mijatovi M, Golubovi D, Robajac O, Znaaj mehatronike u razvoju tehnikih nauka, TF aak, 2004 [2] Golubovi D., ivkovi M.: Kidalica kalibrator mehatronik TF 1000/8 (elaborat dogradnje), Tehniki fakultet - aak, 2003. (str. 28). [3] Adamovi , Mijatovi M, Hdraulike komponente i sistemi, Tehniki fakultet Zrenjanin, 2002. [4] Mihajlovi G., ivkovi, M., Golubovi: Optimizacija senzitivnih parametara hidrostatikog davaa sile [5] za industrijske aplikacije, NSS IRMES 04, 1617.09.2004., Kragujevac, MF Kragujevac i JUDEKO (str. 105110). Jacoby G.: Mechaniche-sowie servohydrauliche Ein-und Zweizylinder Reson anzwachen Carl Schenk-Darmstadt (prospekt), 1992., (str. 10). [6] Grabulov V.: Static and impact testing (tensile test, drop weight test, explosion bulge test) and result analysis, VIII Meunarodna kola mehanike loma IFMASS 8 (OD MEHANIKE LOMA DO OCENE INTEGRITETA KONSTRUKCIJE), DIVK-GOA Institut-TMF Beograd, Beograd,2327.0.
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RaDMI 2010
FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING AND THE USE OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS WITHIN

Ljubinko Janjuevi, Marina Kutin, Bojana Radojkovi
Institute GOA, 35 Milana Rakia, Belgrade, SERBIA, e-mail: ljubinkoj@yahoo.com
Summary: Analysing the properties and possibilities of the application of new systems helps equipment designers and manufacturers adequately respond when organizing new and improving existing technologies. Relying upon the already organized elements of flexible manufacturing systems, the essential aim of further automation activities of operational units and entities is to raise the productivity i.e. lower unit manufacturing price. The circumscription of the parameters encountered when introducing and maintaining such systems enables their comparison with the requirements. The world is daily witnessing ever quicker engineering and technological progress, where robots place becomes more and more important. By their versatility and ever increasing numbers, they penetrated not only industry, but also other spheres of human activity and life. Contemporary industrial robots very successfully perform many tasks not to be foreseen in advance. Their complexity satisfies strict control criteria. Oftentimes they are ireplaceable, while replacing or resembling humans if necessary. However, for more complex tasks some assembly jobs where high motion speed, acceleration, accuracy, repeatability, and adaptability are requiered, there are still problems with achieving desired robot performance. Key words: industry, flexibility, robot, automation.
1. INTRODUCTION
As a new manufacturing philosophy, flexible manufacturing systems are expected to solve the most important dilemmas of manufacturing relationships. In order to apply the newest experiences, one also has to know all elements such systems comprise. As a part of new technologies, robots successfully come to grips with the requirements placed before them. Their work is high-grade, withal lowering operating costs, while their manufacturing tasks become more and more complex in terms of manipulating capabilities, speed of motion, accuracy and repeatability, adaptability, energy saving, cost price etc. Therefore the control problems of industrial robots need to be deeper looked into, and they are tightly coupled to contemporary electronics. Fulfilling all potential clients' requirements and surviving on a choosey market is considered the basic chore of manufactures of flexible manufacturing systems of complex architectures; to control them is the engineers greatest challenge. Hardware problems are to a great extent solved, and much is expected from the solution of the software ones. Running the system as a whole brings about amelioration of quality and reduction of the final product price. Nowadays, robots are used as flexible machines in the cases their accuracy and repeatability satisfy the job requirements, the economic criteria by implication already being satisfied. Due to specific requirements of assembly work, they are less often used for that purpose. However, robots often can highly augment the efficiency (productivity) in processes of spray painting and spot or arc welding. For dirty technologies they can be indispensable. Introducing and using robots increases the level of automation, and largely also the productivity. Engineering aspects of manufacturing are often constrained by economic reasoning. If an engineering solution be ever so successful and even revolutionary, its feasibility must also be judged from the economy standpoint. Two low-cost operations may be a better solution than an excessively expensive one, however productive it may be. Naturally, in practice there also arise situations when the economic aspect is advisedly neglected and a process solution is pursued notwithstanding its price. The upshot shows pronounced correlation between developing automated means of production and the product quality. In numerous cases of industrial production, the application of highly automated means of production and equipment is a necessary precondition for making the product of desired quality. When analyzing the
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contribution to raising the quality and lowering product cost, a significant factor at any rate must be flexible manufacturing systems of various degrees and designations, numerically controlled machines being their basic engineering components. Immediate results of automation, which encompassed all industries during the last twenty years, by common appraisal of techno-economic analysts were not only multiple increase of productivity, but also increase of the product quality. As an example, Fig.1 shows statitistical data on rejection rate depending on automation level in a programmable logic controllers (PLCs) factory (electronic industry). The measurements were taken on automaton subassemblies assembly line. The automation level is defined as the ratio of existing to feasible (optimal) automation, ranging from 0 to 1. The rejection rate is shown as a percentage value of total production.
4 ,0 % 3 ,5 % 3 ,0 % 2 ,5 % 2 ,0 % 1 ,5 % 1 ,0 % 0 ,5 % 0 ,0 %
3 1 5 7 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 9
Figure 1: The rejection rate versus feasible (optimal) automation level
2. OPERATIONAL TASKS AND THEIR PROPERTIES (MANUFACTURING REQUIREMENTS)

Limited-quantity and piecemeal manufacturing are bound to use universal machines and a great deal of labour. Therefore much effort is put into organizing such manufacturing systems as to achieve, even at limited-quantity manufacturing, the economy characteristic of large scale production. The most often represented model today is the previous way of manufacturing with universal and rounded technological processes. Since the development of manufacturing oriented itself toward market, new cognizance surfaced on the influence of this component on the total development of organization. Besides limited-quantity, piecemeal manufacturing is nowadays also present. Such manufacturing means to make a single product on order. In this case, objects of manufacturing are mutually dissimilar. Market requirements orient the manufacturing and the entire development of industry towards new directions of evolution of organization and manufacturing technology. The properties of market conditions oriented manufacturing are: - a small number of diverse component parts are manufactured, - combining and varying of component parts during assembly, - a multitude of different products is made up out of a limited number of component parts, - specialization of manufacturing on the base of group technology. To survive in the market, all clients' wishes must be met, which often additionaly burdens the whole setup. The manufacturing must be able to quickly respond to all market disturbances, because all clients' wishes must be met under stiff competition. This cannot be done by technology designated for large scale manufacturing. One is often forced to sell the wares, even if at market demanded limited-quantity manufacturing, at prices appropriate to large scale manufacturing. All this makes the manufacturer assume the role of a big creator and inventor of new technologies. In contemporary conditions, something most often on hand is the automation of engagements, processes, the entire manufacture.
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The analysis of market, its requirements and possibilities is conducent to the manufacturing program which may ensure the best utilization of the manufacturing capacity. On the other hand, the services market, the cooperation without and the manufacturer's own scope heavily affect the process of circumscription of technology of manufacturing of the product demanded. Engineering requirements are the base for forming the tasks every operational unit (manufacturing cell, automated workplace) is to execute ... Each workplace is then analyzed on its own. For instance, if it is ascertained that a part of the task would be more efficiently accomplished by machines served by the robot, then the designer keeps transferring parts of the task from the robot to the served machines until an optimal solution regarding their capabilities is found, while allways considering the economic effect (justifiability of the investment per se and the total investment capabilities). Mostly it happens that tasks assigned to the designated robot cannot be performed by the served machines on their own or the customization of existing machines to the given task is impossible or too costly. During the design process all the operations take place sequentially, but the designer contemplates them as a highly interdependent whole. If need be, technology itself is adapted to the new conditions, Fig. 2. Finally, if the necessity of some changes in the technological process is established, one has to redefine the tasks each manufacturing unit is to bring off.
Figure 2: The course of circumscription of manufacturing tasks Before deciding on the production, one has to solve the problems of relationships with the necessary cooperation and the common participation on the market. In this paper, the emphasis is put on areas of application of robots and their way of executing operational (manufacturing) tasks. This information is gathered mostly by a detailed analysis of the technological process optimal in the given conditions.
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3. THE SCOPE OF APPLICATION

Beside adaptivity, an important property of flexible manufacturing is the large scale automation. The introduction of an optimal level of automation in manufacturing is impossible unless each manufacturing task (process) is singly planned in detail. By itself, the contemporary way of manufacture implies a certain degree of automation of processes. Flexible automation is primarily enabled by the latest achievements in the engineering automation and communication abilities, with hardware and software being equally important. Hardware, the equipment of the system of flexible manufacturing, consists of all the sub-systems necessary for the successfull functioning of the entire system. The software (program) plans, runs and controls the operation of all the hardware. The development of flexible manufacturing due to automation is very intensive. Prerequisites are being made for the factories of the future, the so-called automatic factories i.e. the computrerized factories operating according to the CIM (computer-integrated manufacturing) principles. Modules are being developed which enable the concept of modern manufacturing and later also the automation of factories, so one can already talk about the totally computer-integrated manufacturing i.e. CIM. The process of flexible manufacturing automation begins even with product engineering and design, when modern computer networks and program tools are used. CAD (Computer Aided Design) package facilitates the designing of the product. CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing) facilitates the computer support of the manufacturing. CAD and CAM are the prerequisites, while their integration is a prerequisite for the CIM manufacturing. Flexible manufacturing organized and integrated as CIM manufacturing integrates business, namely the overall activity from planning through engineering and manufacturing to maintenance ... This is supposed to be the base for making manufacturing expert systems, which will run all of the manufacturing by applying the methods of artificial inteligence. The CIM so defined is still not widely prevalent and it is at present hard to conceive of the entirely implemented CIM as an automatic factory. Flexible automation on the CIM level is, above all, a complex of engineering systems and housekeeping measures by means of which a high economy of business is achieved. In this sense CIM is reality, but only in the most developed industrial nations. With us, its beginning phase of development is yet to come. The enquiries made in the leading USA factories pertaining to mechanical industry show that the robotization of manufacturing has reached an epidemic level. Growing economic efficiency of usage of industrial robots inevitably led to their evermore massive adoption. As an illustration, an information is given that 2008 in the leading USA machine industry companies one industrial robot together with a system of automatic design and control, as well as automated preparation of manufacturing, was capable of substituting eight labourers at full load and three shifts. The immediate outcome of the robotization was the four times increased business quality, while the number of interruptions of technological processes shrank more than fifteen times. The impact of industrial robots on the rise of productivity and enhancement of product quality significantly grows when the robotization is pursued parallel to organizing other automated systems, principally the procedures of automated design and preparation of manufacture. In the sight of American experts, robotization on its own contributes only 15-20% to the increase of the productivity, but together with the systems of automated design the productivity gains rise to 60%. A number of eminent scientists in the field even claim that productivity gains, in case of total automation, can reach upwards of 80%. So pronounced economic effects are realized mostly through increased production volume, but also by increased product quality, better organization of manufacturing and equipment utilization.
4. DESIGNATION OF ROBOTS
As the first axiom, the properties of the first generation robots are defined and compared with characteristics of industrial automatons executing motion and manipulation tasks, their starting and stopping being effected by end switches or mechanical limiters. Although by some definitions even these devices count as robots, the presently accepted viewpoint is that such automatic manipulators are not robots because their universality and reprogrammability is meager, and they do not need control units of their own. First generation robots can automaticly repeat the defined operation, which is not a single motion, but arbitrary tasks specified to the robot via, for example, records on magnetic tape. A new task also meant a new program. This is the way to communicate with robot, its autonomy mirrored in the precise automatic repeating of the operations specified. Contemporary robots behave like humans in so far as observing the situation first and deciding on it later. They are capable of separating the process of information gathering and deciding from the later motion pursuing the decision. And since they possess numerous diverse sensors, there is the need for complex algorithms for their
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processing. It is considered that further development of robots is tied to the development of methods of artificial inteligence, primarily shape and speech recognition. In order to more precisely and easily define the characteristics, the present practice is to divide robots according to their place and way of application in four big groups, Fig.3: 1. Transfer of material and servicing of machines 2. Process operations 3. Assembly jobs 4. Checkout jobs A part of operations belonging to the first group may be successfully executed by the older models of more modest robots and various manipulative automatons. Such operations typically consist of gripping the workpiece and carrying it to the place specified. It may amount to simple transfer of elements during manufacturing process, while sometimes it is necessary to put the object in a machine or take it out of it; that is machine servicing. Depending on the task properties, desired accuracy of robot gripper position, its path and similar requirements can be specified. The second group comprises operations in which the robot carries a tool or device by which it executes the specified job on the workpiece. The characteristic examples for this category are arc and spot welding, spray painting, grinding, polishing etc. Spray painting requires less precision than welding. Spot welding requires only accurate point-to-point motion, while arc welding requires path control. Finally, grinding and polishing require that the force on the workpiece be controlled.
6% 12% 57% transfer processes assembly check-up
25%
Figure 3: The kinds of robots and their spread Research has shown that assembly cost constitutes a substantial part of some products total manufacturing cost, sometimes over 40% of it. Thence robotization of those jobs offers much scope for cost reduction and increase of productivity. When forming a sub-assembly, its elements can be joined in various ways: by welding, soldering, glueing, screwing/bolting, rivetting, various cotters, friction. The first step when forming a sub-assembly is fitting up specified elements, followed by joining them. Only in the simplest of cases does joining boil down to elements being brought into contact and kept at it. Sometimes elements have to be pressed together (in the case of glueing). However, the most often and the most complex problem is for one element to be retraced into anothers aperture. The task of retracing an object in an aperture requires very precise initial positioning of the object. Hence the control system must ensure high repeatability and accuracy in all six coordinates i.e. all degrees of freedom. Checkout procedures are divided into two basic groups: (I) checkout of geometric and physical properties, and (II) functional checkout. Dimensions, weight, surface quality checkouts pertain to the first group. As an example, checkouts of tranzistor characteristics, coil (electrical) resistivity, lightbulbs etc. pertain to the second group. Checkout of geometric and physical properties is performed by various kinds of sensors. Shape and dimensions of elements may be checked out by various kinds of visual systems. Besides shape and dimensions, visual systems may also check out objects surface machining quality. Products weight is checked out by various kinds of scales. For force measurements, scales may be outfitted with strain gauges or some other sensors. Functional checkout means testing characteristics which determine the purpose and the usage of the product. Testing devices are of varying complexity. Sometimes an ohmmeter or ammeter will do, as in testing electrical resistivity of wires and cables. Even simpler an example is an ordinary photocell to test whether lightbulbs lit up or not. Occasionally, complex measuring equipment is necessary to test products functioning.
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One of the classifications much talked about lately is according to the workspace size. One group is made up by the robots whose workspace is less than 100mm3, the other by those whose workspace is bigger than that, Fig. 4. The first one comprises robots working in electronic industry mostly (manufacture of sensors, filters). The manufacture of PAT sensors is a typical example. The other group is primarily installed in mechanical industry (manufacture of automobiles, ...).
100% 82% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% 1995 2000 2005 2008 18% 22% 27% 31% 78% 73% 69% 1. group 2. group
Figure 4: The relationship of workspace sizes Other robot classifications are also present in the literature, such as according to the level of autonomy (independence), kind of control, time of emergence, ...
5. THE USE OF ROBOTS IN THE HOME INDUSTRY

Robots are nowadays applied in all industries. They can repeat complex operations endlessly, execute them more efficiently than people, while having the quality of the work more even. They often operate under conditions harsh and dangerous for humans, such as handling toxic and radioactive materials, operation at elevated temperatures and pressures, and generally under all sorts of conditions unfavourable to human organism. This makes them very suitable for mechanizing certain operations of industrial facilities. Robots can be said to be applied for two reasons generally: - humanization of work, i.e. freeing people of toil and dangerous work, - increase of productivity. In market economy, increasing productivity is one of the basic causes of survival on the market, so the second reason mentioned is dominant, and it will also stay that way in the near future. That is to say, the price of robots is anticipated to rise three times slower than the price of labour in industrialy developed countries. On the other hand, high initial price makes the so-called heavy automation able to pay for itself back only if employed at large scale manufacture. Robots are economically justified even at smaller scale manufacture, because their operation can be easily adjusted to new batches of parts by changing the computer program. These advantages of robotization can be discussed from several points of view, but if labour becomes cheaper than machine, the conditions and relationships within become very specific. The odds of robots being applied in home industry in the near future are not very good, because: - we have cheap labour and high unemployment, so designs of new factories often anticipate employment of as much labour as possible, - machines are costly, particularly the imported ones. The introduction of market economy will contribute to and probably even dictate the installation of robots due to necessity of increasing and levelling of product quality, but also in order to raise the productivity. For more complex tasks, high motion velocities, high accuracy and repeatability, high reliability, autonomy, adaptability, and the like, it is necessary to design such control systems which will also satisfy the economic side, very sinister in our country at the moment. It is assumed that automation will also find its place in the near future, regardless of the low cost of labour. Since this country wishes to enroll in many world organizations and follow the latest techno-economical trends, that also implies accepting many regulations and norms. These laws go to extremes to protect people and environment, which calls for using the most modern engineering equipment available.
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6. CONCLUSION
One characteristic of contemporary manufacturing is the introduction and development of robotized and computer oriented flexible manufacturing processes. Functioning of automated manufacturing systems results from harmonious composition of their manufacturing elements. Such systems consist of parts mutually dependent, connected and unified by common business, manufacturing, investment, and development targets. Analyzing such a complex object presents a big problem, it being the complexity of the system and the interconnectedness of great many components of mutually dependent elements. It should be noted that mass produced control components cost drastically less lately. A big effort is input worldwide in designing flexible systems of various destinations and properties, most often comprising a great many robots. Manufacturers are forced to increase the assortment and lower the prices of their products. Giving concessions to market and to potential buyers requires from the manufacturer to constantly stay in touch with all new technological accomplishments and new design solutions, in order to be able to constantly lower product unit prices. An imperative today is to quickly manufacture as many alternatives of the same model as possible, giving the manufacturer great opportunities to accomodate buyers demands, usually at minimal cost prices. One of the solutions seems to be the growing automation of all business forms and readiness to adopt all new engineeringtechnological solutions. As a component part of business, manufacture heavily contributes to the successfulness of the entire company. Studying properties of manufacture should contribute to its efficiency and reveal potential loci of application of automated machines. On the other hand, studying properties of these devices gives the designer of the technological process the possibility to use all the automation scope at his or hers disposal.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper was financially supported by the Ministry of science and technological advancement of the Republic of Serbia as a part of the project -11026.
REFERENCE
[1] tefani N. Krian O. i ala I. Models and Methods of Production Management, Strojarstvo, Vol. 50 No. 3, 2008, pp. 175-184 [2] Janjuevi Lj. Milutinovi Z. The irreplaceability of robots in flexible manufacturing systems (in Serbian), ICDQM 2009, Belgrade 2009, pp. 728-733. [3] Prospectuses
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RaDMI 2010
CREATING RELIABLE CONTROL SYSTEMS OF HYDRAULIC PRESSES RETURN CYLINDERS

Elena S. Korchak
Donbass State Engineering Academy, Kramatorsk, UKRAINE, e-mail: helen_korchak@ukr.net
Summary: Distinguishing features of construction and maintenance of control systems of return cylinders are considered in the article. Disadvantages of up-to-date control systems of return cylinders working are revealed. New technical decisions with reasonable conditions of its performing are developed. Practical recommendations to provide increasing productivity, workability and reliability of hydraulic presses are given. Keywords: return cylinder, friction element, hydraulic press, throttle.
1. INTRODUCTION
In hydraulic presses of different purposes to return ram into the top initial position return cylinders are used. To perform its duty plungers of return cylinders are connected with the ram and its housings are built in the upper or lower frame depending on the press design [1].
2. DISADVANTAGES OF HYDRAULIC PRESS RETURN CYLINDERS WORKING

To limit hydraulic press ram speed while approaching stroke to the forging in the inlet of every return cylinder non-regulated throttling washers with narrow orifice are mounted. But while return stroke these washers obstruct filling process of return cylinders cavities with high-pressure hydraulic fluid. It reduces ram speed on its moving upwards. Moreover throttling washers are often clogged by burr and metal abrasive parts brought in return cylinders during its maintenance. In consequence of this factor emergency appears when on the working stroke pressure in return cylinders because of multiplication increases approximately in 10-12 times from the nominal one. As a result components of return cylinders system are being failed. That is why it is necessary to equip this system with subsidiary safety system [2]. Every safety system even of high reliability has considerable disadvantage makes control system of return cylinders more complicated. That is why improvement of return cylinders system can be realized by removing safety system and emergency elements (non-regulated throttling washers) together with it [3].
3. NEW PECULIARITIES OF HYDRAULIC PRESS RETURN CYLINDERS CONSTRUCTIONS AND ITS MAINTENANCE
Flexible and without impact regulation of ram speed can be achieved by mounting in return cylinders regulated throttle [4] or friction [5,6] elements which are to get in work according to the limits of return cylinders distributor valves opening and shutting down. 3.1 Taking advantage of regulated throttle elements Regulated throttle elements (see Figure 1 a) are mounted in the inlet of every return cylinder and connected with programmed means of control (individual servo drives 5, 6) and monitoring (displacement transducers 7, 8) of
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the valves 3 and 4. This construction provides absence of non-regulated throttling washers in return cylinders inlet, which can cause emergency.
a)
b)
1 return cylinder, 2 valve distributor, 3 pressure valve, 4 drain valve, 5, 6 individual servo drive, 7, 8 displacement transducer, 9 regulated throttle element (a) and regulated friction element (b), 10 device of program control
Figure 1: Control system of hydraulic press return cylinders with regulated throttle elements (a) and regulated friction elements (b) 3.2. Making the best use of regulated friction elements Regulated friction elements (see Figure 1 b) are mounted in the inlet of every return cylinder and connected with programmed means of control (individual servo drives 5, 6) and monitoring (displacement transducers 7, 8) of the valves 3 and 4. This construction also provides absence of non-regulated throttling washers in return cylinders inlet, which can cause emergency. Friction elements can be designed in different ways. Here are some variants (see Figure 2). Return cylinder (see Figure 2) contains housing 1 with plunger 2 and sealing 3. Its equipped with the device of changeable regulated friction in the form of: Elastic elements 5 made from wear resistant friction material (see Figure 2a) are mounted in housings 6 fixed in separator 7. Depending on the ram speed required control system 8 deforms elements 5 by means of increasing pressure level in housings 6. The more pressure is in housings 6 the more deformation of elements 5 occurs the less speed ram has. Corrugated elastic insert 5 made from wear resistant friction material (see Figure 2b) is mounted in housing 6 with piston 7. Depending on the ram speed required insert 5 is being deformed by means of increasing pressure level in housings 6 under piston 7. The more pressure is in housings 6 the more deformation of insert 5 occurs the less speed ram has.
275
a)
b)
1 return cylinder housing, 2 plunger, 3 sealing, 4 regulated friction element, (a) 5 elastic element, 6 housing, 7 separator, 8 control system (b) 5 corrugated elastic insert, 6 housing, 7 piston
Figure 2: Return cylinders with changeable regulated friction elements It is possible to change ram speed not only by means of special devices of changeable regulated friction but with usage of regulated sealing either. Such technical decision is shown on Figure 3. Regulated sealing 3 contains rings 4 and 5. The groove 6 between them is connected with regulated pressure from control system. Depending on the ram speed required regulated pressure is applied to the groove 6 deforming sealing. The more pressure is between rings 4 and 5 the more deformation of sealing occurs the less speed ram has. Owing to these constructions of return cylinders with changeable regulated friction elements there is no necessity of emergency non-regulated throttling washers usage. Depending on the special hydraulic press design any of the constructions proposed can be used. All the proposed technical decisions have been patented in Ukraine.
1 return cylinder housing, 2 plunger, 3 regulated sealing, 4, 5 rings, 6 groove
Figure 3: Return cylinders with regulated sealing
3. CONCLUSION
Absence of throttling washers in return cylinders inlet gives possibility to remove unreliable and complicated safety system. Using individual servo drives and displacement transducers in the valve distributor of return cylinders creates favorable conditions for flexible and accurate regulating of ram speed. Proposed technical decisions and recommendations provide increasing productivity, workability and reliability of control systems of hydraulic press return cylinders.
276
REFERENCES
[1] .. . - . 1987. 2. . 19-22. [2] .., .., .. . . -. 2010, 1-2 (68). .28-29. [3] Patent 46495 Ukraine, B21 J9/00. Control system of hydraulic press return cylinders/ Korchak E.S.; Appl. 30.06.2009; Pub. 25.12.2009, Vol.24. [4] Patent 39748 Ukraine, B21 J9/00. Way of regulating hydraulic press ram speed/ Korchak E.S.; Appl. 07.10.2008; Pub. 10.03.2009, Vol.5. [5] Patent 31438 Ukraine, B21 J9/00. Way of hydraulic press ram deceleration on return stroke/ Korchak E.S.; Appl. 28.11.2007; Pub. 10.04.2008, Vol.7. [6] Patent 51880 Ukraine, B21 J9/00, F03 B15/00. Control system of hydraulic press return cylinders/ Korchak E.S., Popovich Y.V.; Appl. 28.12.2009; Pub. 10.08.2010, Vol.15.
277
RaDMI 2010
ALGORITHM OF CALCULATION OF CONDITIONS EILWH

S. Kovalevskyy1 V.Tulupov2
1
DSEA, Kramatorsk, UKRAINE, e-mail: kovalevskii@dgma.donetsk.ua, 2 e-mail: tulico@rambler.ru
Summary: The algorithm of calculation of the conditions of treatment by the electro-impulse hardening by lathe turning is developed. This algorithm allows to automatize the process of calculation of the modes of treatment, applying MathCad software Keywords: current, impulse, turning, algorithm.
1. INTRODUCTION
One of actual tasks of modern industry is providing of longevity of details of machines. It results in the necessity of increase of efficiency and quality of processes of tooling, requires creations of new and perfections of existent technological methods. Methods, allowing to provide a necessary structure, tensely-deformed state, phase and chemical composition of superficial layer of metal, and also optimum distributing of physics-mechanical properties, on the work-hardened surface depending on the concrete external environments of details, are perspective. By large potential possibilities in the improvement of operating properties of surfaces of details of machines, working in the conditions of friction and contact loadings, the methods based on application of the concentrated streams of energy possess, that related to locality of action on a surface, work part. Among them, takes place the electro-impulse lathe work hardening (EILWH) [1, 2], based on the size treatment by cutting, accompanied by the local heating of metal by an impulse current. Essence of this method consists in that simultaneously with forma transformation work-hardening is made at education in the superficial layer of regular discrete structures [1]. It is the unique feature of speed electro-heat treatment of steel, forming of especially dispersible structures steel, which gave her high durability and plasticity.
2. BASIC PART
The purpose of work in development of algorithm of calculation of the modes of treatment of allowing providing the depth of hard enable layer of work parts and hardness of the work-hardened fragments at EILWH For development of algorithm of calculation of the modes of treatment, is needed will concerne with technological parameters which provide the necessary indexes of quality of superficial layer of work parts. We classify them as follows: physics-mechanical properties of detail and instrument; geometrical indexes of detail and instrument; descriptions of technological equipment; mechanical and electric modes of treatment. We take all basic data in a table (tables. 1). For application EILWH is needed will concerne with technological possibilities of this method is depth of work-hardening, micro hardness of the work-hardened fragments to 5 P, processed material middling and the high-carbon became. In the algorithm of calculations of the modes of treatment the basic data entry is the first step on material of the processed purveyance, tool piece, descriptions of machine-tool and generator of impulse current and also terms of work of the processed surface of detail. The terms of work of detail (high speed, high-rate and etc) determine the sizes parameters of the work-hardened fragments and location them on a working surface [2, 4, 8]. Length of the work-hardened fragments of l is provided by a pulsewidth , which is calculated [3]:
278
60 l
D n
(1)
where l is length of the work-hardened fragment mm; D is the diameter of surface of detail, that is processed, mm; n is the number of turns of spindle, minute 1; k is coefficient depending on work material, density of current at the region cutting of him through the area of cutting and cutting speed. Frequency of impulse current f, provides periodicity of formation of the work-hardened fragments, that the circular between fragments S (radial) step and is on a formula [3]:
f =
60 (l + l )
D n
(2)
where l is distance between the fixed fragments mm Table 1: Basic data for the calculation of the modes of EILWH Workpiece Physical information: Geometrical information: Initial state of material; Diameter of treatment D; Specific durability ; Length of the processed surface L; Heat capacity ; Initial roughness Ra Heat conductivity ; Density ; Conductivity g Cutting tool Physical information: Geometrical information: The heat capacity of material ; Tool cutting edge angle ; Heat conductivity ; Corner angle ; Density ; Corner radius r; Tool rake ; Conductivity g Tool clearance ; Cutting edge radius r; Wear land h For forming of on-the-spot, workpart, that dense net of the work-hardened fragments, with set axial S9 and circle by the between fragments S steps and corner of direction of the work-hardened fragments , for the exception of the repeated treatment of the already work-hardened areas in a superficial layer, it is necessary to choose the size of longitudinal serve from correlation:
S=
D tg
(3)
where; D is diameter of surface, work part, mm; is corner of getting up of spiral line of the fixed fragments, degree:
= arccos
S + 2S
(4)
Depth of the work-hardened fragments will concerne by the initial state of the processed material and in depth thermal influence of thermal streams actually cuttings and caused by an impulse current [6]. Density of thermal stream equipartition on the area of contact of instrument with a detail, arising up in the process of cutting:
q = b P v A
(5)
where is area of contact of instrument with a detail [2];
279
v is cutting speed; b is part of warmth [5], entering detail:

b= 1
1+1,18 l i 2,34+ ln l2
(6)
where; coefficients of heat conductivity of instrument and detail; and is the coefficients of diffusivity of instrument and detail; l is the size of bar source; is time of action of source. In the moment of passing of impulse of current through the blivet of instrument with a detail, in the elementary volume of dV in times of is selected warmly by law of heat Joule, even:
1 dS dx dQ = j 2 g where: j is closeness of impulse of current; g is electric permittivity of material of purveyance. Density of thermal stream of the current created by an impulse:
(7)
b I U q = A
(8)
where: b is particle of warmth, that enters detail at the key-in of electric current through a blivet detail of cutting tool; I is amplitude of impulse of current of rectangular form; U is the size of tension, that is given, from the generator of impulse current on a chisel and detail; is a coefficient, that takes into account the losses in an electric chain. Thus, in the process of cutting, closeness of thermal stream in the moment of passing of impulse of current through the blivet of instrument with a detail which will allow to define the thermal field in the superficial layer of detail, will be equal to the sum of qp and q:
q = q p + q = b P v + b I U A
(9)
On foundation [7] at setting of the modes of hard-facing with the use of the concentrated sources of heating we use integral temperature-temporal description of S, which allows completer to describe the thermal processes of transformations in a metal:
S = T ( )d AC1 ( 3 1 ) .
3 1
(10)
For the receipt of even depth of work hardening, it is necessary to provide the permanent closeness of impulse current, that related to the change of area of contact by the caused wear of tool piece. Knowing functional dependence of wear of instrument on the way passed by an instrument f(x) enters the correction of current of I that will provide a condition jmin < j < jmax, where:
j= I A
(11)
(12)
On the basis of foregoing we will make the algorithm of calculation of the modes of treatment of EILWH:
280
Began Descriptions of detail and instrument Descriptions of terms are the robots of detail
Introduction of basic data
Calculation of frequency of impulses of f and of q technological current Calculation of area of contact on the back surface of instrument with the detail of Calculation of amplitude of impulse technological current I Determination of density of current j
To decrease a calculation current I I
To multiply a calculation current I + I Yes
j <j min No Yes No Conclusion of results of calculation End j > jmax
Figure 1: is Algorithm of calculation of the modes of treatment of ILWH The developed algorithm allows to automatism the process of calculations of the modes of treatment of the electro-impulse consolidating sharpening, applying computer and software product of MathCad.
REFERENCES
[1] , ..; , ..; , .. & , ..: . : . - : , 2007. . 21. . 233-237. ISBN 978-966-379-149-4 [2] .. . // : . : , 2008. . 23. - . 277282. ISBN 978-966-379-250-7 [3] . 28828, 23 5/00. / .. , .. , .. u200708520; . 24.07.2007; . 25.12.2007; . 21. [4] . 31437, 23 5/00. / .. , .. , .. u200713240; . 28.11.2007; . 10.04.2008; . 7. [5] , ..; , ..; , .. & , ..: : , , . : , 2003. 318 . ISBN 502-031735-7 [6] .., .. . .: , 1990. 288 .
281
[7] , .. . . 05.03.01 - , 2007. 35 . [8] 24773-81. . , . . 19810521. . : - , 1988. 14 . ( ; ).
282
RaDMI 2010
DETERMINATION OF TECHNOLOGICAL CONDITIONS BY ELECTRO-IMPULSE LATHE WORK HARDENING

DSEA, Kramatorsk, UKRAINE, 1 e-mail: kovalevskii@dgma.donetsk.ua 2 e-mail: tulico@rambler.ru
Summary: The analysis of methods of prognostication of quality of the processed surface is conducted for ultra high speed heat turning. Chosen as maximally exact and acceptable for determination of the modes of turning of the developed technological method of the electro-pip hardening by lathe turning, method in-use integral temperaturetimeline description and developed algorithm in the software product of MathCAD allowing the model of evolution the thermal fields in real time depending on technological parameters. Keywords: current, impulse, lathe work, thermal field.
S. Kovalevskyy1 V.Tulupov2
1. INTRODUCTION
Decision influence on the structural changing and phases transitions do the kinetic and thermodynamics terms of turning of metal, forming the physical-mechanical state of superficial layer of detail, that influences on his operating properties here [1]. For the technological providing of the set hardness, structure and phase composition, strengthening depth, in the process of impulsive turning of working surfaces of details of machines, there is the issue of the day of estimation of dynamics of the temperature fields which depend on the power terms of the impulsive strengthening. In the process of the electro-impulse lathe work hardening (ILWH) that includes tooling by the clean sharpening with the simultaneous key-in of impulsive current of rectangular form through the area of contact of cutting instrument with a detail [2, 3], which forms the regular discrete structure (RDS) of surface as the fixed fragments of white layer. The fixed fragments form RDS, depending on frequency and pulse width current, and also modes of tooling (longitudinal serve and frequency of rotation of spindle), distributing of these fragments is set on a surface that is processed. Hardness of these fragments will depend on the temperature-timeline mode, brands of material that is processed and his initial state.
2. BASIC PART
Determination of method of pointing of the modes of ILWH is the purpose of work depending on the necessary depth of strengthening of surface and hardness of the fixed fragments that determines technological possibilities of this method of turning in public. Author [1] based on the results of researches asserts, that at implementation of terms (1) to transformation of high-quality white layer is provided:
=
(1)
283
where: is power coefficient (set experimentally); is the specific heat capacity of metal, that is processed, J/(g); is the temperature of temper of metal, ; is middle specific pressure on the local volume of metal, P; is time of thermal action on the local volume of metal, that is processed. The offered method does not take into account the law of division of thermal stream and temperature-timeline description of process of turning, and that is why is not accomplished. In [4], for determination of the necessary technological modes of electro-mechanics turning, authors use found by the critical temperature (by the veritable temperature of beginning of education) of which suggest to find operating by the following empiric equalization of similarity of temperatures at different speeds of heating:
1 1 2 T12 exp k T = T exp k T nv , 1 where: is temperature of temper at the known mode; 1 is temperature of temper at the sought mode after; k is a permanent size that depends on the brand of material; nv is the factor of similarity of speed of heating and stalling speed of temper of V:
VK = Ac Tmin
(2)
min
(3)
where: Ac is temperature of critical point; min is the temperature of minimum firmness of austenite; min is time of minimum firmness of austenite. This method of determination of the modes of turning has also failings is small exactness of calculation. The results of the conducted researches [5] show that to set synonymous connection of numeral values of thermal cycles indexes with the modes of turning and descriptions of quality of the fixed layer is not possible. Obviously, what the numeral values of thermal cycles indexes concerne by the size of the entered energy and character of its distributing in material. On the basis of it is offered [6] at setting of the modes of hard-facing with the use of the concentrated sources of heating to use in place of two parameters: middle speed and maximal temperature of heating, one complex integral temperature-timeline description of S (4), which allows completer to describe the thermal processes of education in a metal (Figure 1):
S = T ( )d AC1( 3 1 )
3 1
(4)
By the compatible design of the temperature fields and process of processes of transformations austenite of steel the set numeral values of description of S, which provide the completeness of process of transformations austenite of steel, and also certain dependences of values of this description from maintenance of carbon at steel (Figure 2) and initial state of material, were an author [6] (Figure 3).
Figure 1: Kinetic curve of heating and cooling became in the process of hardening [6]
284
Curve 2 answers the uncompleted process of , at which in the stage of cooling can be fixed 50 % martensite, if in this layer there will be the attained values of description of S, proper to the curve 1, it guarantees the receipt in this layer of homogeneous shallow corn of austenite and, consequently, and shallow dispersion martensite in the process of the proper cooling of steel. Thus, taking advantage of the built graphs of evolution of the thermal fields (figure 4) which arise up in the process of ILWH and integral temperature-timeline description of S (figure. 2, 3), during the lead through of their analysis possibility of prognostication of quality of flowing of process of turning appears with the purpose to getting of the necessary state phase-structural of surface layer of detail.
Figure 2: Dependence of temperature-timeline description on the concentration of carbon in steel (a0 = 0,810-3 mm) [6]
: 1 is steel 45; 2 is steel of 8; 3 is steel of 10 [6]
Figure 3: Dependence of temperature-timeline description on the structural factor of 0
Figure 4: Graph of evolution of the thermal field of compatible action of thermal streams from the process of cuttings and one impulse on the local fragment of surface, that is processed
285
So for example, at turning of ILWH detail from steel 45 -1050-88, critical point of what 1=730, with cutting speed v=100 m/min.; by the serve S=0,2 mm/rev.; by the depth of cut t=0,5 mm; by frequency of impulse current of f =100 Hz; by a pulse width = 510-3 s; by density of current j=1,25103 /mm2 matters 1=110-4 s and 3=4,210-3 s.
Figure 5: Graph of description S = T ( )d AC1 ( 3 1 ) in dependence on the values of 1 and 3,

1
which concerne from the graph of evolution of the thermal field Defining at a maximal temperature Tmax=1800 value of description S=5,25, after the graph of dependence of temperature-timeline description from the concentration of carbon in steel (Figure 2) and after the graph dependence of temperature-timeline description on the structural factor of 0 (Figure 3), we draw conclusion, that the process of transformations austenite not is completed, here in the stage of cooling can be fixed 50 % martensite.
3. CONCLUSIONS Thus using the model of the thermal field, which arises up in the process of ILWH description of S, that determines the integral temperature-timeline action on a metal in place of middle speed and maximal temperature of heating allows more precisely to forecast the general depth of receipt more shallow dispersion structures of the fixed layer and to appoint the modes of turning for this technological method.
REFERENCES [1] , ..: . .: , 1988. 238 . [2] , ..; , ..; , .. & , ..: . : . - : , 2007. . 21. . 233-237. ISBN 978-966-379-149-4 [3] , ..: . : . : , 2008. . 23. . 277282. ISBN 978-966-379-250-7 [4] , ..; , ..; , .. & , ..: : , , . : , 2003. 318 . ISBN 502-031735-7 [5] , ..: . .. , .. . , 2005. 6. . 43-46. [6] , ..: . . 05.03.01 - , 2007. 35 .
286
RaDMI 2010
CUTTING TOOL WEAR OPERATING ON HEAVY LATHE

Viktor D. Kovalov, Galyna P. Klymenko, Mykola A. Tkachenko, Yana V. Vasylchenko
Donbass State Engineering Academy, Kramatorsk, UKRAINE, e-mail: msi@dgma.donetsk.ua
Summary: A mathematical model to estimate the average number of parts, processing which is possible to achieve the criterion of maximum allowable wear on the back of the cutter heavy lathe, and the maximum allowable amount of tool material, removed from the front surface of the tool. Keywords: playground wear, hole wear, contact stress, cutting edge, cutting temperature, adhesive wear, the adequacy of the models.
1. INTRODUCTION
While working on the details of heavy lathes main types of fault-alloy cutters are wearing them on the front and back surfaces, as well as fatigue damage cutting plates. Determination of maximum permissible values of wear on the back surface were carried out based on economic criteria. For practical use have a value of mathematical models to estimate the average number of parts, which was processed to reaching the criterion of wear.
2. EVALUATION OF RESISTANCE OF CUTTING TOOL CRITERION FOR MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE WEAR ON THE REAR SURFACE
Developing a model to assess the average number of parts, processing which is possible to achieve the criterion of maximum allowable wear on the rear surface is made to the following basic assumptions: criterion of maximum allowable adhesion wear on the back of the formation of a high wear areas [h] = 1,2 mm; basic mechanism of cutting tool wear on the back of the adhesion mechanism is; average temperature of the material the instrument is fixed for the whole region back surface contact with the processed material; stress of the cutting tool is a flat; tool material in contact with the workpiece the tool is characterized by a constant value for the whole region stresses fluidity R; number of parts, processing which is possible to achieve the maximum allowable height of platform wear [h] is:
N 0.1 =
[h ] ,
h
where h increased wear platform for processing one part. Based on studies of normal contact pressure distribution on the back of the instrument q(x) can be represented by dependence:
x , q( x ) = qmax . 1 h
287
(1)
where h width areas of physical contact in this case wear areas; distance from the cutting edge cutter; qmax. maximum contact pressure at the back of the: qmax . = 2 (1,3 ) sin 2 , (2) (plus sign corresponds to negative front angles); where tension changes in a layer that trimmed, with the average temperature at the site contact the back of the instrument with the processed material. To determine the value used dependence:
= 0,72 R 60, 6
where R ultimate strength of the material processed at an average temperature at the site of contact; 5 elongation of the material processed at an average temperature at the site of contact. To evaluate the quantities R, 5 used depends obtained on the basis of statistical data processing: (3) R ( ) = R 0 exp(a1 (0 )) , 5 ( ) = 5 0 exp(b1 ( 0 )) , where average temperature cutting;
R 0 , 50 Tensile strength and elongation of the material processed at
a temperature test 0 = 700; a1, b1 coefficients determined by the method of least squares. The average contact pressure at the back of the instrument can measure the expression q:
q=
1 h
x dx . qmax . 1 h
To determine the average temperature dependence of cutting used by the author, obtained by statistical processing of experimental data: (4) where a1, a2, a3, 4 calculated ratios determined by the method of least squares. To determine the number of the parts to achieve the criterion of maximum allowable adhesion wear on the back of the take that amount of material d, removed from the back of the instrument for the elementary time interval d physical contact with the workpiece material back of the cutter, can be estimated from geometrical considerations:
= a1v a 2 s a3 t a 4 ,
1 dQ = b h dh tan + dh 2 tan 2 tan ; 2 t b= , sin
(5)
where h altitude areas of wear, which corresponds to the moment of time ; dh increase in areas of wear during d; , , under the front corner and rear corner of the main corner in terms of the instrument; t depth of cut. On the other hand, the volume of material removed from the rear surface during d, measured the expression:
dQ = Pu vb d , =
q , q*
9
(6)
where the likelihood that the zone of adhesion failure of communication is not in the treated material, and material of the instrument; v speed cutting; thickness of which is the destruction of products bearing adhesive ties: 3 10 ...5 10 m; the relative share areas of plastic surface microirregularity crumple in contact with the back of the instrument of processed material; q* maximum pressure required to crumple the full surface microirregularity processed material at the site of contact, estimated the expression:
10
q* = 2,5Re (1 ) ,
(7)
where Re meaning limits yield of processed materials in accordance with the average temperature in the cutting zone; constant friction. If the average pressure at the site of contact, the workpiece material with the rear surface instrumente such that the value > 1, we adopted = 1. Size can be estimated from the ratio of the critical crack lengths Hryffitsa that triggered the destruction of adhesion due:
Pu =
lu l R2 , u = lu + l l Ru2
where l, l under the critical length of cracks in the surface layers of tool and workpiece material; Ru, R tensile strength of the material and tool material processed at an average temperature at the site of contact.
288
Taking the tool material and workpiece material hard plastic, the expression
2 R Re2 can be replaced by , 2 Reu Ru2
where Re, Reu border fluidity workpiece material and tool material at an average temperature at the site of contact, respectively. To determine the value of Re used the dependence obtained by statistical processing of experimental data: (8) Re ( ) = Re0 exp(b(0 )) , where the average temperature at the site of contact;
Re0 the boundary strength of the material processed
at a temperature test 0 = 700; b estimated coefficient determined by the method of least squares. To determine the value of Reu used dependence obtained by statistical processing of experimental data:
e &e p Reu = 1,1RT (9) arsh e , p , &0 e0 &0 , 0 intensity of deformation speed and intensity of accumulated strain during mechanical testing where e
instrument; RT boundary strength of the material instrument at ambient temperature; S constant characteristic of the tool material. If the temperature does not exceed cutting temperature early intensive removed , instrumental material, it shall Reu = RT. Comparing expressions (5) and (6) and respect for value dh2, as the second largest order little, after the integration date was changing altitude areas of wear from time to time contact:
h =
l 2vPu , = , tan nS
(10)
where time of processing one part, n speed spindle. After substituting the values of and Pu obtained:
2 qmax v R qmax 2 e 2 if <1 ( ) 4 , 5 tg 1 R R + 7,5 Re (1 ) e e h = 2 qmax 2 v Re if 1 tg R 2 + R 2 7,5 Re (1 ) e e .
Then the number of parts, processing of which is available until a maximum allowable height of areas on the back of the depreciation is:
2 3,75 tan (1 ) Re2 + Reu [h ] qmax vRs N 0.1 = 2 tan Re2 + Reu [h ] 2vRe
if
qmax <1 4,5 Re (1 )
qmax 1 if 4,5 Re (1 )
(11)
The main mechanism of wear of cutting tools on the front surface are adhesion mechanism. As a criterion of maximum allowable wear of the front surface is proposed to adopt the appearance of the front surface of the hole cutter wear depth [hnn]. Average number of blocks and treatment are possible until a maximum allowable depth of the hole wear, can be evaluated dependence:
N 0.2 =
[Q] , Q
(12)
where [Q] the maximum allowable amount of tool material, removed from the front surface of the tool that meets [hnn]; Q volume of tool material, removed from the front surface of the tool during the processing of one part. Value [Q] is determined from geometric considerations the following expression:
[Q] =
fb , f =
R 2 (R [h ])l [h ] l 2 , , R = + 2 8[h ] 2
(13)
where l length of the hole, b width of the contact front surface of cutting tools with workpiece: b = t / sin.
289
The volume of material Q, which is removed by an elementary interval of time of physical contact with the chip front surface of the tool is determined by the equation d:
Q = Pu vcb dt , vc =
(14)
where the likelihood that the zone of adhesion failure of communication is not in the treated material, and material tools, assessments expression (9); vc speed chips on the front surface of the tool; v speed cutting; coefficient of shrinkage of the chip; thickness of the layer from which the products bearing the destruction of adhesive contacts: for most metals and alloys 3 10 ...5 10 m; the relative share of regions full of plastic crumple mikronerivnostey chip surface in contact with the chip front surface:
10 9
q , q*
(15)
where q the average pressure at the site of contact; q* average pressure required to crumple the full surface mikronerivnostey processed material on this site, estimated expression (7). Based on studies of normal contact pressure distribution on the back of the instrument q(x) can be represented by dependence:
x , q( x ) = qmax . 1 l k
where lk chip contact length on the front surface: lk = a( (1 tan ) + sec ) , a = s sin ; qmax.n maximum normal pressure on the front surface: qmax . = 2 (1,3 ) . The average value of normal pressure on the site of contact is:
l 1 k x dx . q = 2 (1,3 ) 1 lk 0 l k
(16)
(17) (18)
(19)
The volume of material instrument removed from the front surface of the tool during the processing of one part , is recognized by dependence:
Q = Pu vcb dt
0
(20)
Then, taking into account (17), (18):
R2 v 1 t 1 Q= 2 e 2 * Re + Reu q sin lk Re R2 + R2 e eu Q 2 Re 2 2 Re + Reu v
lk
q
0 0
max
1 x dxdt . lk
(21)
On the assumption that the value of Pu, vc, , b insignificant change in contact time, according to a theorem on the average integral obtained:
qmaxt qmax <1 4,5 sin (1 ) 4,5Re (1 ) qmax 1 4,5Re (1 )
t sin
(22)
Then the number of parts, processing which is possible to achieve the criterion of maximum permissible adhesion wear on the front surface is:
2 [Q ] Re2 + Reu 4,5 sin (1 ) qmax <1 Re vqmaxt 4,5 Re (1 ) . = 2 2 qmax [Q ] Re + Reu sin 1 4,5 Re (1 ) Re2vt
( (
) )
N 0.2
(23)
290
3. EVALUATION OF RESISTANCE OF CUTTING TOOL CRITERION FOR MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE WEAR SIZE
For the finishing details stochastic equation has the form of wear:
dx + dx = N (t ) , dt
(29)
Failure occurs when the details of its size to achieve maximum permissible value max, which happens after a random interval of tool t = Tn. Maximum permissible value of the parameter max determined from the condition of normal operation of the instrument. Operating time to failure Tn is a function of random arguments tool wear rate of change of , ie Tn = f (C ) . Failure occurs tool for achieving detail maximum permissible value max, what happens after a random period of time to process it. Processed on a machine part has size, which tolerance is within the boundaries min max. With increasing wear on the back of the instrument the size of parts changed. In average (Fig. 1) size of the parts is beyond the tolerance only after an interval time T4. But during work tool in the initial period of operation from T1 to T2 there is a danger for details, treated on the upper field tolerance, then the reliability of their increases. Excess of the tolerance field components finished to the lower limit of tolerance is possible at time t = T3, with T2 < T3, T3 < T4, as
C C (a, b ) = ; + max = ( xmin , xmax ) .
(30)
Expected value and variance of dimensional stability of the instrument from the initial values gap 0, constant velocity component wear and the coefficient of proportionality : W ( 0 ) = ( 0 0 ) :
W (C ) = (C C ) , W ( ) = ( ) .
(31)
In this case, the probability density of the coordinates x in equation (29) at the initial time t = 0 is a delta-like function, ie
C W0 ( x ) = ( x x0 ) = x 0 .
(32)
The probability that a random x coordinate at the time t reaches the limits of the interval (xmin, xmax) through Pxmin,xmax(t,x). For continuous Markov process that can take wear and tear, the specific probability satisfies the equation:
Pxmin,max t
with
= K 1 ( x0 )
Pxmin,max x0
initial
conditions
Px min , xmax (t , xmin ) = Px min , xmax (t , xmax ) = 1 .
2 Pxmin,max 1 K 2 ( x0 ) 2 2 x0 Pxmin,max (0, x0 ) = 0
(33) and boundary conditions
lim Pxmin , xmax (t , x ) = 1 .

t
(34)
Coefficients K1(x0), K2(x0) in equation (33) as determined in accordance with expectation rate depreciation in the initial time and a spectral density of the process N(t) by the formula: K 1 ( x0 ) = C + 0 ; K 2 ( x0 ) = Marked the one-dimensional moments in time limits to achieve a
1 2 N . 2
Tn = Tn ( xmin , x0 , xmax ) = t n
0
Pxmin , xmax dt , t
Equation (33) differentiating both parts by t, multiplying result by exp(jvt) and then integrating in t from 0 to , returned the following equation for the characteristic function:
jvxmin , xmax
xmin , xmax 1 d 2 xmin , xmax = K 1 ( x0 ) = + K 2 ( x0 ) 2 dx0 2 dx0
xmin , xmax ( jv, x0 ) =
Pxmin , xmax (t , x )e jvt dt . t 0
(35)
Equation (35) to find the first moments of time reaching the limits of tolerance parts and used to determine the dimensional stability of the instrument (Fig. 1).
291
x xmax
0 xmin
Figure 1: Moments of time reaching the limits of tolerance parts To check the adequacy of the models developed experimental unit for measuring tool wear. Based on performance testing tools in industrial conditions obtain wear curves cutting plates, their example shown in Fig. 2. The probability of adequacy of mathematical models is 0,71.
B,
h, hl, l,
Q, 3 1 5 2 4
8,0 7,0 6,0 5,0 4,0 3,0
4,0 3,5 4,0 3,0 2,5 2,0 2,0 1,5 1,0 0,5 0 0 25 50
3
75 100
2,0 1,0
, 3
1 width, 2 length 3 deep hole, 4 width chamfer wear on the rear surface, 5 the amount of material the tool is withdrawn from the front surface Figure 2: Crooked wear plate cutting SNMG 380932 On the basis of studies have developed analytical calculation based cutting tool wear on the front and back surfaces of the parameters of the operation, which averages to estimate the period of stability instrument, proposed method of determining the dimensional stability of the instrument with a given probability (for finding the size of workpieces in a given field admission), which depends on tool wear during the finishing details.
292
REFERENCES
[1] Chou, Y. K. and Evans, C. J., Tool wear mechanism in continuous cutting of hardened tool steels. Wear, Vol. 212 (1997.), pp. 59-65. [2] Dai, P., Analysis of wear cutting tools by complex power-exponential function for finishing turning of hardened steel 20CrMo5 by mixed ceramic tools. The Annals of University "Dunarea de Jos" of Galati, Fascicle VIII Tribology, Vol. 5 (2006), pp. 1-8. [3] Dolinek, S. and Kopa, J.: Mechanism and types of tool wear; particularities in advanced cutting materials. Journal of Achievements in Materials and Manufacturing Engineering (JAMME), Vol. 19, Issue 1 (Novembar 2006), pp. 11-18. [4] Dolinek, S.; utari, B. and Kopa, J.: Wear mechanisms of cutting in high-speed cutting processes. Wear, Vol. 250 (2001), pp. 349 -356. [5] ISO 3685:1993 Tool life testing with single-point turning tools. Geneve: International Organization for Standardizations (ISO). [6] Kalpakjian, S., Manufacturing processes for engineering materials. 3rd Edition. Menlo Park (California): Addison Wesley Longman Inc., 1997. 950 pp. [7] Sandvik Coromant, Modern Metal Cutting A Practical Handbook, Sandwiken, Technical department, Sweden, 1998.
293
RaDMI 2010
DEVELOPMENT OF SELF-RESTORING GEL-LIKE POLYFUNCTIONAL MATERIALS

E.F. Kudina, G.G. Pechersky
V.A. Belyi Metal-Polymer Research Institute of NASB, Gomel, BELARUS, e-mail: kudina_mpri@tut.by
Summary: This work deals with the development of advanced high-elastic gels combining the properties of elastic polyacrylic acid or polyacrylamide chains that impart high elasticity, resilience and capability of shape recovery after unloading with the properties of polysilicon acid enabling to evenly reinforce gel through its volume. The developed gels show perfect service characteristics and can be employed as proofing, sealing and water-insulating materials in building and oil-producing sectors of economy. Key words: gel, high-elastic, polyacrylic acid, polyacrylamide, liquid glass.
1. INTRODUCTION
One of the leading trends in modern materials science is the creation of novel composite materials for mechanical engineering and other industries with improved characteristics and functional parameters, including corrosion-resistance, durability, high elasticity and so on. Gels have gained intensified use recently in encapsulating, sealing and hydroinsulation spheres. One of the methods of producing gel-like materials with high physicomechanical characteristics is to combine different in nature ingredients. Much attention has received lately the materials based on alkaline silicate binders thanks to their low cost and availability, high viscous and adhesive properties meeting the requirements of ecological safety. Depending on the nature of the original components gels are subdivided into the ones composed of rigid particles (brittle gels) and the gels formed of flexible macromolecules (elastic gels). The compositions based on inorganic silicates with condensed structure display high enough mechanical strength as compared to polymeric gels. These gels, however decompose irreversibly due to aging under the loads surpassing their ultimate strength. Polymer-based gels are produced by formation of a spatial network in the initial polymer solution via crosslinking of macromolecular chains using chemical reagents. The structure of this kind adds to the system the property of low mobility, resilience and elasticity. These gels are able to preserve their structure under significant deformations and to restore partially or fully the initial shape after removal of the mechanical load. It is challenging for the researchers engaged in designing new materials in this field to understand whether it is possible to create such systems whose organic fragments responsible for resilience, elasticity and self-restoring properties to intercalate into a strong silicate matrix or to make them interact chemically in order to improve physicomechanical characteristics of the material. One more unsolved question is the importance of determining the parameters affecting service characteristics of the final materials and their prediction proceeding from the analysis of the initial components. The main fields of application of the gel-like materials based on alkaline silicates are the restoration and conservation of buildings, hydroinsulation, and anticorrosion treatment of underground structures, earth paving, repair and insulation works in oil-production industry, etc. Sealing, hermetic encapsulation or hydroinsulation can be done by the gel-like materials even when all other methods turn to be useless or impossible for realization The aim of the present work was to study the methods of obtaining self-restoring gel-like materials based on modified water-soluble alkaline silicate.
294
2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The objects of investigations were the combined systems on the base of liquid glass (LG) (n = 2.6), acrylic acid (AC) and acrylamide (AA); and the gels obtained from the combined systems. To control acidity of the reacting blend we have used mineral acids and to make the polymerization reaction of the organic modifier complete a polymerization initiator (PI) was used. The reagents were mixed under T=(202) in certain proportions and sequence. To conduct the gel-formation process and cross-linking the compositions underwent heat-treatment under =(702) during 3-5 h. The gelformation time (GFT) was measured as a time upon which the solution looses fluidity. Strength of the achieved gels was measured 24 hours after solidification by the penetration method. The gel-forming compositions were tested for their corrosion activity towards metals by the weighing method. The molecular structures of solutions of the initial agents with the combined system at =(202) and the gels formed at =(702) were compared by the IR spectroscopy (IR spectrometer with Fourier transform Nicolet 5700). The samples (5050)1 mm in size were used to study water absorption of the materials, Water absorption (W) was calculated in percents by mass using the formula:
W=
m2 m1 100, m1
where 1 dry sample mass; g; 2 mass of the sample after endurance in water, g. Adhesive strength of the material-gel-material junction and the effect of the gel-forming compositions on the cement stone strength were studied on a test machine INSTRON 5567.

Proceeding from the relevant published data we have come to a conclusion that the use of alkaline silicone alone as a gel-forming component does not make grounds for the efficient combination of physicomechanical properties of the final material. Figures 1 and 2 present the results of modification of LG by mineral and organic acids.
Figure 1: Time dependence of gel formation at 70 on acid concentration in the system LG/acid
1-sulfuric cid; 2-hydrochloric acid; 3-orthophosphoric acid; 4-succinic; 5-acetic; 6-oxalic; 7-maleic; 8-acrylic
295
1-sulfuric cid; 2-hydrochloric acid; 3-orthophosphoric acid; 4-succinic; 5-acetic; 6-oxalic; 7-maleic; 8-acrylic acid
Figure 2: Gel strength vs. acid concentration in LG/acid system Investigations have shown that even 1 wt% of the acid introduced into the solution may result in a fast gel formation. We have established experimentally that the increasing acid content in the binary system brings about GFT reduction and strength augment. Strength of the forming gels turned to be the highest when combined with the weakest organic acids. The forming gel may be strong enough at a certain correlation of components with acceptable time of gel formation, but it turns to be inelastic and undergoes brittle fracture. Silicic acid released during the reactions of hydrolysis of sodium silicate aqua solution contains silanole groups (SiOH), prone to polycondensation reactions with formation of siloxane bonds (SiOSi). The polymeric silicic acids formed during polycondensation are having four equivalent functional groups enabling the formation of different by structure linear, branched, cyclic, mixed) polysilicic acids. The experiments have shown that the rate of polycondensation depends much on pH in a multicomponent system. The minimal polycondensation rate corresponds to the region pH 23. At 6.0 the process runs 100 times quicker than at 4.0. In order to forecast the gel-formation process and to raise the obtained gel strength it is necessary to ensure the optimal conditions for polycondensation of silicic acid in the systems under study. The problem was solved by reducing pH of combined systems down to the values corresponding to their minimal polycondensation rate. To attain this result, we have used additions of mineral acids. The improved physicomechanical characteristics of the gels based on alkaline silicate solution are attainable only upon introduction of organic modifiers. However, impregnation of organic reagents in the alkaline silicate solution may often lead to the uncontrolled coagulation of the compound systems. Due to the existing problem of compatibility of different by their chemical nature components in the aqua solution, we have calculated solubility parameters based on the molecular attraction constants found, in their turn, from the structural formula and density of the substances proceeding from the relation:
= Fi ( /
i
)
i i
where is the F molecular attraction constant at 25; solubility parameter, density of the substance; M molecular mass. Compatibility of components in a mixture correlates with the difference between their solubility parameters. Close parameters of solubility make possible to obtain good compatibility of the ingredients even without consideration of possible chemical interactions between their molecules. Table 1 presents physicochemical characteristics of the reagents used in the investigations. As it follows from investigation results, solubility parameters of the used chemical agents are close in values, but differ from this parameter of LG. A considerable difference in solubility parameter values of the initial components indicates their poor compatibility and possible difficulties in formation of homogeneous stable compound systems. This fact, however, opens the possibility of using small amounts of modifiers able to vary in a wide range the properties of the forming gels. To impart elasticity to the gels based on LG aqua solution modified by inorganic acids we have used unsaturated carbonic acid, i.e., acrylic acid (2=) and acrylamide (CH2=CHCONH2).
296
Table 1: Chemical structure and physicochemical characteristics of initial components Fi103 103(J1/2)/m3/2 Components Chemical formula 1/2 (J )/m3/2 mole Acetic acid 3 592.5 12.1 Orthophosphoric acid 34 705.5 12.8 Maleic acid HOOCCH=CHCOOH 874 12.9 Sulfuric acid 2SO4 887.0 13.1 Hydrochloric acid HCl 328.5 13.1 Succinic acid 22 911 15.2 Acrylamide CH2=CHCONH2 968 15.4 Acrylic acid 2= 647 15.6 Liquid glass (2,9SiO2Na2O)n 3036 The investigations have shown that it is possible to obtain elastic gels able to self-restore after removal of the load only by using AC or AA together with PI, although in the absence of LG-structurizing mineral acid in the system the strength of the resultant gel will be poor. Table 2 compares physicomechanical characteristics of the gels obtained from the developed gel-forming compositions and those of silicon insulating material AKOR-BN102 (Russia) Table 2: Physicomechanical characteristics of compositions and based on them gels GFT at Strength of gel, F, Description of gel =(702), h kN/m2 After mechanical loading above ultimate strength AKOR-BN102 2-5 87 (87 kN/m2) the gel does not self-restore, is brittle After mechanical loading the gel self-restores LG/AC/acid/PI 2-5 400 fully, its shape and size, is highly elastic After mechanical loading the gel self-restores LG/AA/acid/PI 2-5 80 fully, its shape and size, is highly elastic Gel-forming composition The test data indicates that at =(702) the compositions show similar GFT values. However, the gel formed from the AKOR-BN102 compound shows less mechanical strength. The gel undergoes irreversible breakage under mechanical loading and fails to perform the sealing function. The gels produced from compositions LG/AC/acid/PI and LG/AA/acid/PI are highly strong and simultaneously elastic. The IRS readings show that there is no acrylic acid in the formed gels and acrylamide in the form of monomers is also absent. In the course of gel formation under =(702) the combined systems LG/AC/acid/PI and LG/AA/acid/PI are releasing polysilicic acid as a result of LG interaction with acids simultaneously with polyacrylic acid or polyacrylamide due to polymerization of the organic phase. As a consequence, the formed gel acquires the properties of the flexible organic chains, which impart high elasticity, resilience and the ability to self-restore its configuration at mechanical impacts along with the properties of polysilicic acid that reinforce the gel uniformly through its volume. When sealing and encapsulating underground structures or fulfilling hydroinsulation works, strict requirements should be obeyed on aggressiveness of the gel-forming compositions towards metal accessories. To estimate the corrosion rate of the metals in contact with the gel-forming compounds, we have performed the corrosion tests. Table 3 presents the results of corrosion tests of the gel-forming compounds. Table 3: Results of corrosion tests of gel-forming compounds Composition Corrosion rate of steel at = (25 2), g/(m2h) AKOR-BN102 0.29-0.37 LG/AC/acid/PI 0.23-0.27 LG/AA/acid/PI 0.11-0.14 The test results have proved that the corrosion rate of steel in contact with the compositions LG/AC/acid/PI and LG/AA/acid/PI under =(252) meets the requirements for the given materials, so there is no need in additional use of corrosion inhibitors. An important role in ensuring tightness and durability of water-insulating, tamping and pressurization works plays the property of the insulating material to form strong adhesive bonds. To estimate strength of the adhesive junction between the developed gels and different materials we have subjected the junctions material-gelmaterial to investigations of their adhesive strength. Table 4 illustrates the results of testing adhesive strength of the developed gels in contrast to single-component sealants.
297
Table 4: Investigation results in adhesive strength of gel-forming compositions LG/AC/acid/PI and LG/AA/acid/PI in contrast to a single-component sealant Materials in contact Adhesive Aluminum Titanium LDPE Polypropylene PVC Wood LG/AC/acid/PI 3.89* 128.8 0.01 0.34 0.01 3.86 LG/AA/acid/PI 4.4 134.2 0.01 0.17 0.01 3.2 Silicon neutral 2.54 105.4 0.01 0.30 0.01 * Adhesive strength (N/m2) of material-gel-material junction As it can be seen, the forming gels possess higher adhesion to metals, which together with their low corrosion activity makes grounds for their use as sealing and tampering materials in metal structures. Figure 3 illustrates the investigation results of sorption properties of hybrid organosilicate xerogels.
1- LG/AC/acid/PI; 2-LG/AC/salt/PI; 3-LG/AA/acid/PI; 4-LG/AA/salt/PI; 5-organosilicate water-insulating material AKOR-BN102
Figure 3: Water absorption of gels (at T=20 oC) of compositions
Above data indicate that the developed compositions possess high water-absorption capacity. After a complete drying the gels are able to restore their initial shape, elastic properties and water-absorption capacity for up to 10 cycles. This property of organosilicate materials raises significantly the efficiency of repair and renewal operations when watering producing wells in oil and gas-producing industry, or making hydroinsulation in underground structures (tunnels, trunk pipelines, etc.). To study the effect of the gel-forming compounds and the forming gels themselves on building materials, special investigations were conducted during which the samples were subjected to a maximal pressure with compression till failure after their cyclic heating in the gel-forming compounds under study during 7 and 14 days. The mean values of the maximal pressure for compression of the samples to failure and variations of this parameter in wt% as related to the initial cement stone for the samples after a cyclic heating in the studied gelforming compositions during 7 and 14 days are presented in Table 5. Table 5: Investigation results of the effect of gel-forming compounds on strength of building materials
acetic acid
298
The lowered chemical resistance of the mineral building materials to the mineral and organic acids is caused by the presence of the free calcium hydroxide (till 20 wt%), tricalcium aluminate and other hydrated calcium compounds. This is due to the composition of the cement stone containing 67 wt% of calcium oxide found in water as complex compounds with iron, aluminum and silicone. When the acidic media affect the cement stone the acid liquors interact with alkali and calcium hydroxide forming the salts with different solubility in water. During the first 10 minutes of interaction between the gel-forming composition LG/AC/34/PI and the mineral building materials, a strong polymeric film is formed that fills surface irregularities of the material. The formed film hampers further contact of the material with the gel-forming composition and seals the surface of the sample by filling its porous space. According to the experimental data obtained, the gel-forming composition LG/AC/34/PI does not exert any damaging effect on the mineral building materials. An important advantage of the developed compounds is their low cost as compared to the silicate sealant. For instance, the composition that includes AC is by 30% and the one with AA is by 50% cheaper, while the composition with AC is 2 to 3 times and the one with AA is 3 times as cheap as the silicone hydroinsulation composition AKOR-BN102.
4. CONCLUSIONS
The results of investigations have clearly shown that it is possible to obtain highly elastic hybrid gels based on solutions of alkaline silicates with addition of acrylic acid and acrylamide. The developed gel-forming compositions and based on them gels acquire much better service characteristics as compared to widely used today traditional materials. The developed gels have found application as tamping, sealing, water insulating materials in construction, oil-producing and other industries.
299
ss
RaDMI 2010
DEFLECTION STUDIES OF A FORCE TRANSDUCER

National Physical Laboratory (CSIR), New Delhi, INDIA, e-mail: harishkec@gmail.com 2 University School of Engineering & Technology, GGSIP University, Delhi, INDIA 3 Indira Gandhi Institute of Technology, Delhi, INDIA, e-mail: chitrabisht@rediffmail.com 4 Terminal Ballistics Research Laboratory (DRDO), Chandigarh, INDIA, e-mail: sanjiv1081@gmail.com
1
Harish Kumar1,2, Chitra Sharma3, Sanjiv Gupta4
Summery: Study of behavior of force transducers under external forces is very important for optimization of their design for various applications. Mostly ring shaped force transducers are used for measurement of force due to ease in machining, being economical and easy to use. The present study involves the study of ring shaped force transducer under external forces and comparing the deflection by analytical driven expressions and experiment method. The study brings to the notice that the analytically driven expressions do not represent the deflection as measured experimentally. This study also efforts to unearhen the reasons for deviation between the deflection measurements using both methods. Keywords: force transducer, deflection.
1. INTRODUCTION
The forces transducers plays an important role in various engineering applications like calibration of material testing machines, weighing balances, jet engines, rolling mills etc. The force transducers are of various shapes and sizes depending upon the application it is intended for. The force transducers may be like ring shaped, elliptical shaped, strain gauged load cells or tuning fork type force sensors. The force transducers measures the force applied in various ways. It may be deflection as in case of ring or elliptical shaped force transducers or electrical output (generally voltage) in strain gauged load cells or frequency in case of tuning fork type force sensors. A ring shaped force transducer is commonly used force measurement due to simplicity in construction, economy and easy to use. The ring shaped force transducer consists of an elastic ring with a measuring device (dial gauge / vibrating reed / micrometer) for measurement of diametric deflection of the elastic ring. The applied force is measured in terms of the reading of the deflection measuring device. The study of behavior of the ring shaped force transducers under influence of external forces is very important in optimization of their design for various applications as listed above. The ring shaped force transducers have been designed and developed for use in research [1] and their finite element studies have been carried out [2], and attempts have been made for design of ring shaped force transducers for measurement of cutting forces in different machining processes like drilling, milling etc. [3-4]. Computer programs have been developed for deflection measurement and designing force transducers with uniform strength [5] also. Mostly, bending moment has been considered under certain approximations to derive analytical expressions for stress / strain and a lot of expressions have been available now. From the available expressions, the expressions for measurement of deflection and stiffness may further be deduced. But, an effort has been done here to study the validity of the expressions deduced for deflection measurement against the experimental observations. A number of the ring shaped force transducer of different capacities has been studied and the deflection measured analytically and experimentally compared and the conclusion has been drawn on the basis of the present study regarding the suitability of the analytically derived expressions. Further, this study also draws attention towards the possible reasons for the deviations in the deflections obtained from both methods. The possible reasons have been discussed in the coming sections of the paper.
300
2. ANALYTICAL STUDIES
A ring shaped force transducer has been idealized as a ring due to ease of simplicity (Fig 1). The ring has symmetry to either axis and hence, a quadrant of the ring may be selected for the analysis of the ring under external forces. Consider the ring as this ring and it is under action of two equal and opposite forces, F. The Ri and Ro are the inner and outer radius respectively, while r is the mean radius. From the free body diagram of the quadrant of the ring, it is found that it is difficult to find the moment using statics. Hence, small terms due to shear forces and compressive forces are neglected in the quadrant of the ring and the strain energy, U for the quadrant of the ring is only due to the bending moment, M in the ring. Using, Castiglianos theorem,
F/2
Ri
A Ro
Figure 1: Idealizing Force Transducer as Ring U / MA = 0 (1)
and, it is assumed that there is no rotation at A and it is true from the symmetry. Now, consider the increment of the ring defined by angle and d. The bending moment at the cross section may be, M = MA F (r-x) / 2 = MA Fr (1 cos) , as x = r cos and, the strain energy is, U = (M2/2EI) ds since, ds = Rd U = (M2/2EI) Rd 0 taking partial derivative of U w.r.t. MA must be zero (eq. (1)), hence,
/2 /2
(2)
(3)
U / MA = (r / EI) M (U / MA) d
0
(4)
from, eq (2), M2 d = (M (Fr /2) (1 cos)) d 0 0 solving for MA, it is obtained, MA = Fr (1/2 1/) M = Fr (cos 2/) according to Castiglianos theorem, the axial deflection at A, fv = U / M
/2 /2
(5)
301
for a ring, the deflection may be given by, fv = 1.79 PR3 / 12 EI (6)
The deflection for a number of ring shaped force transducers has been evaluated using eq. (6) and the findings have been summarized in table 1, along with dimensions of the force transducers.
3. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES
The experimental method involves the application of the forces to the circular ring shaped force transducers using 50 kN dead weight force machine (Fig 2), having uncertainty of force applied is 0.003% at k = 2 [6], according to the calibration procedure based on the standard for calibration of force proving instruments, IS 4169 1988 (re-affirmed in 2004). The machine employs dead weights of nominal force values which take into account of local values of gravity and buoyancy correction for applied axial force. Main components of the force machine are loading hanger, sets of dead weights, a rigid main frame supporting these components and pneumatic system for loading and unloading the weights to minimize the oscillations so that force is stabilized in least possible time once applied or removed. The minimum force applied is 0.5kN as the force applied by hanger, which is always the first load applied. A force is applied through the upper beam of hanger to the force transducer while the lower end of the beam is connected to the stacks. All dead weights are connected directly to the stack. The machine has 18 stainless steel dead weights whose nominal force values ranging from 0.5 kN to 5 kN. Dead weights have the capacities 0.5kN, 1kN, 2kN and 5kN. The machine has the flexibility to apply dead weights in any sequence or in combinations and the maximum force applied is 50kN. A dial gauge (least count 0.002 mm) has been used to record the observations (deflection) at the forces applied in form of divisions. Deflection (mm) =Reading by dial gauge (divisions) x resolution of dial gauge (mm) The resolution of the dial gauge is 0.002 mm in the present study. The results in terms of deflection obtained using experimental studies have been summarized in table 1.
Figure 2: 50 kN Dead Weight Force Machine
5. RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS

The present study derives the analytical expressions for measurement of moment and deflection in case of ring shaped force transducers using the Castiglianos theorem and idealizing the force transducer as a ring. The deflection of a number of ring shaped force transducers have been calculated according to the derived expression and have been summarized. But, after the experimental study of force transducers and measuring the deflection of the force transducers by calibrating the force transducers using the 50 kN dead weight force
302
machine, it is observed that there is there is considerable deviation between the results obtained by the both methods. The deviation may be attributed to the assumptions for deriving the analytical expressions in addition to the effect of the end bosses, which has not been considered while deriving the analytical expressions. Further, the small terms due to shear and compression forces are neglected during the analytical studies. Table 1: Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 P 3000 5000 5000 5000 5000 10000 20000 20000 ro 190.0 162.0 170.0 166.0 168.0 162.5 192.0 191.0 ri 175.0 148.0 155.0 151.0 152.0 146.5 172.0 171.0 R 91.25 77.50 81.25 79.25 80.00 77.25 91.00 90.50 t 7.5 7.0 7.5 7.5 8.0 8.0 10.0 10.0 b 25.0 24.5 24.0 25.0 23.0 23.5 45.0 50.0 t/R 0.08 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.10 0.10 0.11 0.11 A 187.50 171.50 180.00 187.50 184.00 188.00 450.00 500.00 E 210000 210000 210000 210000 210000 210000 210000 210000 fv Analytic Experimental 1.828 0.994 2.343 1.716 2.241 1.576 1.996 1.310 1.839 1.376 3.242 2.018 2.834 1.732 2.508 1.732
6. CONCLUSION
The present study signifies the shortfall of the analytically derived expressions for deflection measurement for ring shaped force transducers in meeting the experimental findings. But, the study further discusses the possible reasons for the deviation caused in the findings of the both methods. The present paper discusses that it is the assumptions which are being assumed so that the analytical expressions for moment and deflection may be derived easily and with less complexity, but the results obtained by these expressions are not coherent with the experimental findings. The major reason is to idealize the ring shaped force transducer as a ring as the effect of the end bosses is neglected. Besides it, it is assumed that there is no rotation at A and small terms due to shear stress and compressive stress are neglected. Hence, the study may be extended further to develop the analytical expressions after including the existing shortcomings and validation by using the suitable numerical methods like finite element analysis in addition to the experimental studies. This study also may help in design and development of ring shaped force transducers by studying the effect of nominal quantities over the behavior of the ring shaped force transducers.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors express their sincere thanks to Prof. R. C. Budhani, Director, National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi (INDIA) for his support to carryout the present study.
REFERENCE
[1] Josue Njock Libii; Design, analysis and testing of a force sensor for use in teaching and research, World Transaction on Engineering and Technology Education, Vol. 5 No. 1 (2006), pp. 175-178. ISSN 1446 2257. [2] B Chen, X Wu, X Peng; Finite element analysis of ring strain sensor, Sensors and Actuators A, Vol. 139 (2007), pp. 66-69. ISSN 0924 4247. [3] Sedat Karabay; Analysis of drill dynamometer with octagonal ring type transducers for monitoring of cutting forces in drilling and allied processes, Materials and Design, Vol. 28(2007), pp. 673-685. ISSN 0261 3069. [4] M J ODogherty; The Design of Octagonal Ring Dynamometers, J. Agric. Engg Res., Vol. 63 (1996), pp. 918. ISSN 0021 8634. [5] M A Rehman, S Rehman; A computer program for designing circular proving rings of uniform strength, Journal of the Institution of Engineers (India) Mechanical Engineering Division, Vol. 88 (2007), pp. 3-7. ISSN 0020 3408. [6] Kamlesh K Jain, S K Jain, J K Dhawan, Anil Kumar; Realization of force scale upto 50kN through dead weight force, Vol. 20, No. 3 (2005), pp. 249-257. ISSN 0970 - 3950.
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RaDMI 2010
EXPANDED NON-LINEAR MATHEMATICAL MODELS IN THE THEORY OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: A CASE STUDY
2
Ministry of Mining and Energy, Belgrade, SERBIA Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Ni, SERBIA, e-mail: andjela.lazarevic@mre.gov.rs
A. Lazarevi1, V. Marinkovi2, D. Lazarevi2
Summary: Real processes and systems are characterised by non-linearity. Therefore, non-linear mathematical models are, as a rule, applied in the study of their behaviour. As far as non-linear mathematical models are concerned, researchers have higher order polynomials, power, exponential, and other functions at their disposal. The application of the multiple power function is presented in this paper, with or without the interactions between influential factors, in modelling a technological problem. The analysis shows that the proper mathematical model is selected, one that guarantees high accuracy in the entire experimental space. Furthermore, an important conclusion is reached, stating that interactions between influential factors are not of importance in such mathematical models, thus they can be neglected. Key words: theory of experimental design, non-linear mathematical models, forming process.
1. INTRODUCTION
The theory of experimental design addresses the preparation, physical realisation of the experiment, processing and analysis of experimental results according to a previously determined plan, which enables the variations in influential factors simultaneously on various levels, that is, in the every following series of trials. In that sense, the theory of experimental design represents a qualitatively new approach to the theoretical-experimental analysis and optimization of complex processes/systems, with universal application and range of advantages in comparison to the concept and practice of the one-factor-at-a-time method. [1], [2]. The basic characteristics and advantages of the theory of experimental design (especially becoming evident in complex research objects, with a large number of influential factors) are as follows [1], [3], [4], [5], [6]: minimum number of needed trials, maximum amount of information from the given number of trials, successively conducting experiment in stages (step by step), from simpler to more complex designs, simple statistical (regression and dispersion) analysis of experimental results, possibility of qualitative and quantitative assessment of effects of each influential factor (perhaps, their interaction) on the target function, easy optimization of a process/system which is the subject of research, on the basis of obtained empirical (regression) model of the target function, that encompasses the complete experimental space, minimum time and material losses (expenses) for experiment realization, eliminating the subjective influence of the researcher, etc. The selection of the mathematical model, which is used to establish a connection between influential factors (inputs) and target function (output), depends on the goal of research, complexity of the phenomenon being researched, and the selected experimental design. Quantity and quality of information on the subject of research also influence the selection of mathematical model, as well as the knowledge of theory of experimental design and experimental techniques by the experimenter. Therefore, the selection of mathematical model, which is conducted in the initial phase of experimental design, represents its most significant segment, regardless of the ultimate goal of the undertaken research. The quality and accuracy of a mathematical model, that is, regression equation, is defined by the complexity of selected function. Theory and practice have shown that in most cases the best choice is a mathematical model in
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the form of polynomials (linear, quasi-linear, square, etc.). More complex mathematical models ensure higher accuracy in the prediction of researched process/system behaviour in the selected hyperspace. However, such models also imply a more complex experimental procedure, and more complex and time-consuming analysis and interpretation of experimental results, as well as greater time losses and material expenses, etc. On the other hand, the selection of the simplest-linear-mathematical model does not enable the analysis of the effects of factor interactions, and various examples undoubtedly show that the effects of factor interactions on the target function can be more significant than the effects of separate factors. It should also be emphasised here that it is the case of lower-order factor interactions, since the higher-order factor interactions can be neglected. Namely, interactions of many factors, as a rule, do not influence the accuracy of the selected mathematical model. Various experiments and practical knowledge point to the fact that the mathematical models usable for the analysis and optimisation of complex processes/systems are those in the form of multiple power, exponential, or some other function instead of polynomials. Such mathematical models are easily transformed into linear functions (first order polynomials). As it is known, in the theory of experimental design the procedure of statistical data processing (regression and dispersion analysis) is entirely and unambiguously defined for such mathematical models. Thus, the synergy of a complex non-linear mathematical model and simple processing and analysis of experimental data is established. Upon linearization of the aforementioned functions a basic mathematical model without interactions is obtained. As it was mentioned, the influence of interactions should not be rejected a priori. Therefore, the accuracy of basic non-linear models without interactions and expanded non-linear mathematical models with interactions are comparatively analysed on examples in this paper.
2. MATHEMATICAL MODELS IN THE FORM OF COMPLEX POWER FUNCTIONS

Numerous experiments have shown that a successful approximation can be made for modelling most diverse technological processes using a complex power equation in the form [7], [8], [9], [10]: p (1) Fc = C X 1p X 2p X 3 X ip X kp where X i (i = 1,2,3...k ) is the influential factors (natural coordinates), C and pi are constants to be determined, k is number of factors (inputs). By logarithming, Eq. (1) is formally reduced to the linear form: (2) y = b0 + b1 x1 + b2 x 2 + b3 x3 + + bi x i + + bk x k where y = ln Fc ; b0 = ln C ; bi = p i ; xi = ln X i (3) Equation (2) is shown in coded coordinates. The connection between natural and coded coordinates is established through the following transformation equations [4]: (4) ln X i ln X i max xi = 1 + 2 ; i = 1,2,3....k ln X i max ln X i min
1 2 3 i k
According to Eq. (4), coded coordinates take integer values ( xi = +1 0 1 ). For the purposes of dispersion analysis it is necessary to repeat trials at certain points in the experimental hyperspace. The systems of trial repetition are as follows: 1. Repetition for n 0 times only in the central point of the experimental design ( x i = 0 ); 2. Uniform repetition for n times in each vertex of an experimental hypercube ( x i = 1 ); 3. Non-uniform repetition for nu times in certain vertices of an experimental hypercube, or possibly, only in one point. It should be emphasised that for such mathematical model the determination of basic levels of influential factors is conducted by applying the following relations: (5) X i20 = X i max X i min After determining the coefficients of linear regression (2), the unknown constants of the target function (1) are calculated using the following formulas [4], [5]:
305
pi =
2bi ln( X i max / X i min )

k k
(6)
C = exp ( bi pi ln X i max )
i =0 i =1
The mathematical model can be expanded by introducing interactions of influential factors, when Eq. (2) turns into the quasi-linear form. By introducing transformation equations into this equation, one gets the expanded form of power function (1) in the form:
K=C X1p1 X2p2 X3p3 Xipi Xkpk exp(p 12lnX 1 lnX 2 +p 13lnX 1 lnX 3 +p 23lnX 2 lnX 3 +p 123lnX 1 lnX 2 lnX 3 + + pijlmlnXi lnXj lnXl lnXm + +pijlm k lnX i lnXj lnX l lnX m lnX k)
(7)
3. EXAMPLE: MODELLING FLOW CURVE FOR WARM METAL FORMING

Material behaviour in forming processes depends on its rheological properties, deformation process scheme, tribological and other conditions of forming process realization. Rheological material properties can in a simplified manner be described using flow curves. Flow curves represent the elementary and most important source of information on the possible material behaviour in forming processes. Flow curves represent the connection between flow stress and the so-called thermomechanical forming process factors. This dependence can be expressed in different formulas, e.g. in the form of a multiple power function. For the purposes of engineering calculation, it is convenient to use graphs, while it is necessary to display flow curves in the analytical form for the purposes of numerical simulations of forming process. Three influential factors (input values, independent variables) were chosen for modelling flow curves: strain & ) and temperature ( T ) (Table 1). Flow stress ( K ) was chosen for the target function (output ( ), strain rate ( value, dependent variable). Influential factors were varied on two levels. For the purposes of this research, a sample of 31 trials was extracted from a large experiment [11], whereas 8 trials were used for conducting the regression analysis (Table 2), while 23 trials were used for the verification of selected mathematical models (Table 3). Alloy steel .4732 (42CrMo4 - DIN EN designation) was selected for testing. Experimentation was done on the torsional plastometer SETERAM. Temperature and strain rate were kept constant during the experiment. For greater accuracy each experiment was repeated three to five times. Table 1: Forming factors and their levels Factor levels Symbol Unit Level 1 (Low) Level 2 (High)
&
Forming factor Strain Strain rate Temperature
(-) (s-1) (C0)
0.374 1.26 800
2.256 7.55 1250
Note: For the purposes of using equations from Chapter 2, the following substitution of variables was & ; X 2 = ; X 3 = T . The need to determine the unknown constant introduced: Fc = K ; p1 = n ; p2 = m ; p3 = t ; X1 = C and exponents n, m , t in this case arises from the basic Eq. (1). The regression analysis was conducted, coefficients of the linear mathematical model were generated, thus the regression equations in coded coordinates obtain the following form: for the mathematical model without interactions, y = 4.519055 + 0.173430 x1 0.044542 x 2 0.863418 x 3
& K = 2978.7 10 T for the mathematical model with interactions,
10 0.193729
0.049571 3.869339
(8a) (8b)
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y = 4.519055 + 0.173430 x1 0.044542 x 2 0.863418 x3 + 0.030876 x1 x 2 + + 0.000846 x1 x3 + 0.015385 x 2 x3 0.009752 x1 x 2 x3

& 0.199618 1.04556 T 3.86239 exp (0.413683 ln & ln 0.00038 ln & ln T + K = 28.291012 & ln ln T ) + 0.137925 ln ln T 0.5433 ln
(9a)
(9b)
From Eqs. (8) and (9) follows that the flow stress increases with the increase in strain rate because the exponent & is positive, whereas the exponents of and T are negative, indicating a decreasing tendency of flow stress, of with increasing strain and temperature.
&
7.55 (+1) 1.26 (-1) 7.55 (+1) 1.26 (-1) 7.55 (+1) 1.26 (-1) 7.55 (+1) 1.26 (-1)
2.256 (+1) 0.374 (+1) 0.374 (-1) 0.374 (-1) 2.256 (+1) 2.256 (+1) 0.374 (-1) 0.374 (-1)
T
1250 (+1) 1250 (+1) 1250 (+1) 1250 (+1) 800 (-1) 800 (-1) 800 (-1) 800 (-1)
K exp
45.69 30.91 46.43 34.18 253.60 165.56 263.58 202.44
Table 2: Main experiment
K cal
3.6664 0.0000
3.6664 0.0000 0.6606 0.0000 3.6306 0.0000 0.4880 0.0000 2.4102 0.3943 5.6717 0.6040 2.6431 0.7588 5.5272 0.4940
44.0148 45.6900
31.1142 30.9100 48.1157 46.4300 34.0132 34.1800 247.4877 253.5999 174.9501 165.5601 270.5468 263.5798 191.2507 202.4401
0.6606 0.0000 3.6306 0.0000 0.4880 0.0000 2.4102 0.3943 5.6717 0.6440 2.6431 0.7588 5.5272 0.4940
+0.0643 0.0069
3.0872 0.2814
Note: Results in the numerator are related to the basic mathematical model, while in the denumerator to the extpanded mathematical model
The following relations were used for the calculation of errors: for percentage error ( ) and mean percentage error ( ),
= ycal yexp 100 (%) ; = yexp n
(10a)
for absolute percentage error ( ) and mean absolute percentage error ( ),

= ; =
(10b)
where n is the number of trials in the experiment. Into Table 2 and Table 3, the calculation results obtained by applying Eqs. (8b) and (9b) are also inserted, as well as corresponding errors. On the basis of data from Table 2 and Table 3, one can conclude that the calculation errors are very small, either when basic regression equation (8b) or expanded regression equation (9b) is applied. Thus, by using Eq. (8b) the following errors are obtained: max = 5.67 (%) and = 3.09 (%) , while by using Eq. (9b) even lesser errors are generated: max = 0.76 (%) and = 0.28 (%) . As it could have been expected, calculation errors are larger in relation to confirmation experiment results. In this case, the following results were obtained (table 3): for regression equation (8b),
max = 17.34 (%) , = 7.88 (%)
for regression equation (9b),

max = 19.19 (%) , = 7.89 (%)
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The coincidence assessment of prediction of a mathematical model with the experiment can also be conducted using the correlation coefficient (R).
&
1.26 1.26 1.26 1.26
1.26 1.26 1.26 5.03 5.03 5.03 5.03 5.03 5.03 5.03 5.03 7.55
0.752 1.128 1.128 1.504

1.504 1.880 1.880 0.752 0.752 1.128 1.128 1.504 1.504 1.880 1.880 0.752
T
1200 1000 1100 1000
1100 900 1200 900 1200 1000 1100 1000 1100 900 1200 900
K exp
41.41 83.11 53.36 79.07
51.39
Table 3: Confirmation experiment
K cal
-7.0843 - 6.9346 -8.1232 - 8.7695 -1.0332 - 1.5232 -4.7965 - 6.3961 1.3055 0.1559 -16.4242 - 19.1916 2.1895 1.2810 -12.6598 12.9141 -7.3637 - 7.8448
7.0843 6.9346 8.1232 8.7695 1.0332 1.5232 4.7965 6.3961 1.3055 0.1559 16.4242 19.1916 2.1895 1.2810 12.6598 12.9141 7.3637 7.8448 5.3872 5.0217 12.4158 11.9736 1.7263 0.8124 8.7730 7.6891 6.6109 5.7250 6.1294 8.3139
133.92 35.98 175.35 54.31 105.53 78.84 100.16 74.62 156.71 45.30 199.86
38.4764 38.5384 76.3588 75.8217 52.8087 52.5472 75.2774 74.0126 52.0609 51.4701 111.9247 108.2186 36.7678 36.4409 153.1511 152.7051 50.3108 50.0495 99.8449 100.2306 69.0514 69.4000 98.4309 99.3463 68,0736 68.8824 146,3501 147.7383 48,0766 49.0662
-5.3872 - 5.0217
-12.4158 - 11.9736 -1.7263 0.8124 -8.7730 - 7.6891
6.9423 - 6.6803
7.8778 7.8851
-6,6109 - 5.7250 6,1294 8.3139
-17.0976 17.0976 165.6887 164.5850 - 17.6499 17.6499 7.55 0.752 1200 57.50 54,4295 -5.3400 5.3400 54.0384 - 6.0202 6.0202 7.55 1.128 1000 119.91 108.0185 -9.9170 9.9170 108.7836 9.2790 9.2790 7.55 1.128 1100 90.38 -17.3443 17.3443 74.7042 75.3020 - 16.6829 16.6829 7.55 1.504 1000 112.30 106,4889 -5.1746 5.1746 108.3087 - 3.5541 3.5541 7.55 1.504 1100 83.13 -11.4083 11.4083 73.6463 75.0310 - 9.7426 9.7426 7.55 1.880 900 179.41 158.3308 -11.7492 11.7492 161.8675 - 9.7779 9.7779 7.55 1.880 1200 51.43 1.1324 1.1324 52.0124 53.5413 4.1052 4.1052 Note: Results in the numerator are related to the basic mathematical model, while in the denumerator to the expanded mathematical model
308
a)
b) Figure 1: Correlation between the prediction of the mathematical models and experiment for flow curve: a) basic model b) expanded model
Figure 1 shows that high degrees of correlation, which were almost identical for the entire experimental space, were obtained for both mathematical models. Both models ensure an excellent prediction within the selected experimental space, which is very close to perfect. All of the abovementioned in this example results in the fact that it is more purposeful to use the basic regression equation (8b) than the expanded regression equation (9b) for practical reasons.
4. CONCLUSION
The application of non-linear mathematical models in modelling a technological process is presented in the paper. It is possible to draw the following conclusions from the analysis of described example: 1. The accuracy of mathematical models is significantly larger in experimental points than in other points of experimental hyperspace.
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2. Non-linear mathematical models, without interactions of influential factors, show lower accuracy in the points of experiment than expanded mathematical models. However, the mean error of both models within the entire experimental space is practically identical. 3. As it is known from the classical theory of experimental design, non-linear mathematical models in the form of higher-order polynomials ensure a higher accuracy than the linear ones. However, non-linear mathematical models in the form of complex power functions with interactions do not guarantee higher accuracy than the same models without interactions. On the other hand, such mathematical models make intricate the analysis and interpretation of modelling results. Therefore, the application of such mathematical models can be justified only in specific cases. 4. The analogous analysis should indicate whether the same conclusions can be reached for other mathematical models of this type.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The paper is result of the realization of project Modeling of the correlations between the parameters of the plasma arc cutting and heat balance analysis using methods of artificial intelligence, financed by the Ministry of Science of the Republic of Serbia.
REFERENCES
[1] [2]
Montgomery, D. C.: Design and analysis of experiments, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 2001. Czitrom,V.: One-factor-at-a-time versus designed experiments, The American Statistician, Vol. 53/2, 1999, pp. 126131. [3] Novik, F.S. & Arsov, J.B.: Opimization of technological processes using methods of experimental design, Mashinostoenie, Moskow,1980, (in Russian). [4] Stani, J.: Method of engineering measurements, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Beograd, 1990, (in Serbian). [5] Marinkovi, V.: Application of some non-linear mathematical models to the theory of experimental design. Facta Universitatis, Series: Mechanical Engineering, Vol.1, No 1, 1994, pp. 103-117. [6] Marinkovi, V.: Rationalization of experimental investigations using theory of experimental design, ''IMK-14'', No.12, 2007, pp. 23-36, (in Serbian). [7] Choudhury, I.A. & El-Baradie, M.A.: Tool-life prediction model by design of experiment for turning high strength steel (290 BHN), Journal of Material Processing Technology, Vol. 77, 1998, pp. 319-326. [8] Choudhury, I.A. & El-Baradie, M.A.: Surface roughness prediction in the turning of high-strength steel by factorial design of experiment, Journal of Material Processing Technology, Vol. 67, 1997, pp. 55-61. [9] Heller, C. & Schmoeckel, D.: Umformen von Aluminium-blechen bei erhhten Temperaturen, ALUMINIUM, Vol. 64, No 4, 1988, pp. 398-405, (in German). [10] Dasgupta, R., Thakur, R. & Govindrjan, B.: Regression analysis of factors affecting high stress abrasive wear behaviour, Practical Failure Analysis, Vol. 2/2, 2002, pp. 65-68. [11] Kovaevi, R.: Contribution to the identification of the formability of a steel with the choice of optimal methods for the examination of their plastic properties, PhD Thesis, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Titograd, 1978, (in Serbian).
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RaDMI 2010
SURFACE QUALITY EVALUATED BY 3D FUNCTIONAL PARAMETERS

Lorena G. Deleanu1, Alina M. Cantaragiu2, Ciortan N. Sorin1
1
University Dunarea de Jos, Galati, ROMANIA, e-mail: lorena.deleanu@ugal.ro, 2 e-mail: alina.cantaragiu@ugal.ro
Summary: The paper presents a statistical analysis for evaluating the quality of metallic and coated surfaces in order to use the conclusions for improving the coating technology. Surface investigation was done by the help of a 3D profilometer, for squared areas of 500m and there are analyzed the 3D functional parameters (the surface bearing index, Sbi, the core fluid retention index, Sci, the valley fluid retention index, Svi, the reduced summit height, Spk, the core roughness Depth, Sk, The reduced valley depth, Svk). There were investigated three types of surfaces (the stainless steel surface as support for coating, and two coated surfaces with different technology parameters). For two samples there were done 25 measurements and for one - only 5. There were studied the scattering of parameter values extracted from these measurements around the average value of each analyzed parameter in order to give a recommendation for the surface quality of these types of surfaces. Keywords: 3D profilometry, functional parameters, bearing area, statistical approach.
1. INTRODUCTION
3D profilometry equipments are now capable of a higher accuracy in measuring surface profilometry but in the same time a smaller scale suppose a smaller area of investigation [1, 12, 13]. Multiple measurements in different areas on the sample can produce results within a large range. This range is due to variations of the surface texture across the sample surface. Consequently, the results of any single measurement may not be representative of the overall surface quality [1, 7, 9]. A solution to the problem of variation in the measured values is to take multiple measurements in different areas of the surface. The number of measurements taken on a part is determined by the measured results and the part tolerance, as imposed by its design. How many measurements does one have to perform to be inside this tolerance? Further, how big a tolerance can one accept when using 3D parameters? [1, 4, 8] These are questions that have not yet a clear and standard answer. The expectation of 3D measurement is that only one measurement (or at least a small number) should be sufficient for the analysis of a part, mainly due to the long time needed per measurement. The large number of data points in one 3D measurement was hoped to give a statistically stable basis for the analysis of a surface [1], but recent studies have pointed out that a statistical approach is steel needed, especially for manufactured and damaged surfaces (by wear, corrosion etc.) [3, 6]. The method accepted for calculating the average and the tolerances for these measurements depends of the nature of the investigated surfaces, especially in studies implying wear, corrosion and even both, because of local processes, with different contributions to modify the surface quality.
2. TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS 2.1. Investigated parameters

This study is dealing only with two sets of 3D functional parameters, as described bellow. All the parameters are based on two-dimensional standards that are extended to three dimensions [10, 11, 13]. The functional parameters for characterizing bearing and fluid retention properties are described by six parameters defined from the surface bearing area ratio curve shown in the figures below [13].
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Figure 1: Bearing curve illustrating the calculation of Figure 2: Bearing curve illustrating the calculation of Surface Bearing Index, Core Fluid Retention Index and Reduced Summit Height, Reduced Valley Height and Valley Fluid Retention Index Core Roughness Depth The hybrid parameters can be described graphically by the above Figures 1 and 2. Horizontal lines are drawn through the bearing area ratio curve at the ratio values 5% and 80%. These lines are marked Z0.05 and Z0.8 and the three zones created are called the peak, the core and the valley zone. Three parameters are calculated based on Figure 1: - the surface bearing Index, Sbi, is defined as: (1) Sq
Sbi =
Z0.05
where Z0.05 is the distance from the top of the surface to the height at 5% bearing area. - the core fluid retention index, Sci, is defined as:
Sci =
Vv ( h0.05 ) Vv ( h0.80 ) 1 ( M 1)( N 1) x dy Sq
(2)
where Vv(Zx), is the void area over the bearing area ratio curve and under the horizontal line Zx. - the valley fluid retention index, Svi, is defined as:
Svi =
1 ( M 1)( N 1) x dy Sq
M 1 N 1 k =0 l =0
Vv ( h0,80 )
(3)
The root mean square parameter Sq, is defined as:
1 Sq = MN
z ( xk , yl )
(4)
Parameters associated with the two-dimensional DIN 4776 standard are also calculated based on the bearing area ratio curve [12] (Figure 2): the reduced summit height, Spk, is the height of the upper left triangle, the core roughness depth, Sk, is the height difference between the intersection points of the found least mean square line, the reduced valley depth, Svk, is the height of the triangle drawn at 100%. 2.2. Investigation methodology Commercially available 316L stainless steel specimens were used as the substrate of the analyzed samples in the present study. The electrochemical process of deposition was performed in a small three-electrode cell on plate stainless steel specimens. The process was carried out potentiostatically with a potentiostat / galvanostat connected to a computer. Then the coatings are thermally treated in order to obtain a certain range of hardness. Sample 1 whiteness-sample made of stainless steel; Sample 2 electrochemically coated with TiO2, maintaining time being 30 minutes. Sample 3 electrochemically coated with TiO2, maintaining time being 60 minutes. The coating technology was established by physicist Alina Cantaragiu and it is the subject of [2] as a possible solution for increasing durability of knee replacement prosthesis. The samples were discs of 10 mm in diameter. The simple steel sample (without coating) was polished by the help of laboratory facilities. The coated samples are investigated without any other process of surface finishing. Profilometer PRO500 3D (with stylus) was used to measure the surface topography assisted by a dedicated soft [12]. The choice of area size is important since this should be large enough to characterize a representative part of the surface or at least generate stable parameter values. There were investigated squared areas of 500m x 500m, in the central zone of the disc sample. Vertical range was set at 500 m as the authors have less information about this coating technology, and scan speed was selected as 35 m/s. All records have been done with 200
312
point on each line. Pitch between lines was set 5 m. All 3D parameters were calculated for raw profiles because it offer the possibility of pointing out extreme values and that was one of the aim of the paper: to detect extreme values of the analyzed parameters and, as it is written in raw profiles help building a virtual image closer to the actual one. The equivalent contact force of the stylus was set hard metallic surfaces, at 63 mg. There was investigated 25 square areas for samples 1 and 3, and only 5 for sample 2 (Figure 3), the areas being one to each other, roughly meaning there was investigated o zone of ~2,500 x 2,500 m. A single 3D measurement is not sufficient for qualifying the surface quality, especially if is required to have a certain value for a particular parameter [3-6]. In 2D study there are recommendations even in ISO standards [10, 11], but for 3 D measurements references are still few and the number of investigated areas will be established by the equipment range of measure, the experience and skills of the investigator and the type of surfaces to be investigated. Specialists talk about an actual measuring strategy [3-8, 10, 11].
Figure 3: Investigated areas as done for Sample 1 and 3; for Sample 2 the measurements are done only measurements noted with 1 to 5. After each new measurement, the mean and the standard deviation are calculated for each of the subgroups (2, 3,, 25). The number of measurements needed for calculating a stable mean value depends on which parameter is needed. It was found that it is often necessary to perform at least 5 measurements to obtain a stable mean value for many roughness parameters while others needed a larger number. The reason for this is that there is often one or a few measurements that diverge from the expected normally distributed result. It can be argued that this dispersion depends on the manufacturing process being unstable, resulting in a surface that is not equal at different places on a part. The point in [1] is that the investigated surfaces are typical engineering surfaces but this paper is dealing with quality assessment for coated surfaces by the help of top technologies and it is important to have a survey of the influence of the coating technology on the initially generated surfaces. Therefore, the authors expected that some kind of rule (similar to the 16%) needed to take account of the natural deviations that occur within a standard engineering surface, could or would not be fulfilled.
3. DISCUSSIONS
The values for the 3D functional parameters are given in Figures 4, 7 and 9. Analyzing data, the 3D functional parameters could be grouped in two categories: - more robust: Sbi, Sci, Svi are good example of parameters with smaller dispersions and it is relatively less sensitive to sampling number of measurements, - less robust: Spk, Sk and Svk are very sensitive for the investigated surfaces: Sample 1 made of grinded stainless steel, is particularly influenced by the grinding method revealing that the manufacturing process could be improved in ordered to avoid the presence of rare, sharp and high asperities. For the coated surfaces the scattering of the values are not so large as compared to the initial (uncoated) surface, the prove that the coating process cover the very deep valleys, but also making the surfaces rougher as the sum (Sbi+Sci+Svi) becomes greater, from 2 to 2.5. The shape of the bearing areas differ from one measured zone to another, examples for the extreme values of the investigated parameters Spk, Sk and Svk being given in Figures 5, 8 and 10 together with chromatographic maps of the investigated areas. The aspect of plots from Figures 7 and 9 reveals that the deposition is proportionally done in the three zone described by Sbi, Sci and Svi, but for Sample 3 the materials seems be more uniformly deposited as Sci and Sbi varies in a narrow range as compared to Sample 2. The material has a porous structure as revealed by SEM investigation (see Figure 6) but a longer depositing time makes the surface layer more compact: (Sci)Sample 3>Sci)Sample 2. The number of measurements needed for the calculation of a stable mean value depends to a large extent on which parameter is needed. It was found that it is often necessary to perform at least 5 measurements to obtain a stable mean value for many roughness parameters while others needed a larger number. The reason for this is that there is often one or a few measurements that diverge from the expected normally distributed result. This dispersion depends on the manufacturing process being unstable, resulting in a surface that is not equal at different places on a part, especially for research/laboratory studies. Therefore, all the analyzed parameters does
313
not obey that kind of rule (similar to the 16% recommended in [12, 13]) and further laboratory work is necessary for reducing their deviation range.
3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Sbi Sci Svi
a)
5 4 Spk 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Sk Svk
b) Figure 4: Values for 3D functional parameters for Sample 1
a) Bearing area for measured area no 11 b) Bearing area for measured area no 23 Figure 5: Sample 1
314
a) Sample 2 b) Sample 3 Figure 6: SEM images for the coated surfaces

3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 1 2 3 4 5 Sbi Sci Svi
5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 1 2 3 4
Spk Sk Svk
a) b) Figure 7: Values for 3D functional parameters for Sample 2
a) Bearing area of measured area no 1 b) Bearing area of measured area no 5 Figure 8: Sample 2
315
3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Sbi Sci Svi
a)
5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Spk Sk Svk
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
b) Figure 9: Values for 3D functional parameters for Sample 3
a) Measured area no 8 Figure 10: Sample 3
b) Measured area no 16
In order to evaluate the influence of coating technology there were compared the maximum, minimum and average values of the functional parameters as a function of depositing time (Figures 11 and 12). Sbi decreases with ~25% meaning that the high at 5% bearing area is reduced (Figure 11a); Svi is also reduced but less significant (Figure 11c). Sci is the parameter that increases approximately linear for the minimum values but the average values give a non-linear dependency in time, revealing an increase of material porosity for samples 2 and 3. The asperities in the peak zone are larger as reflected by Spk values (see Figure 12a), their average having
316
a linear tendency as a function of depositing time. Same tendency has parameter Sk but about Svk is hard to express how the depositing time influences it. Taking into account the average values obtained for parameters Svk, Sk, Spk, the microareas having these parameters closed to these values are measurements 4, 5, 21 and 22 for Sample 3 and 3 for Sample 2.
Svi max Svi min Svi av
2
2.5 Sbi max 2 Sbi min Sbi av 1.5
2.5 S c i ma x S c i min 2 Sciav
2.5
1.5
1.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0 0 30 60
0 0 30 60
0 0 30 60
a) b) c) Figure 11: Comparing maximum, minimum and average values for 3D parameters Sbi, Sci and Svi, as a function of depositing time (initial surfaces are given for zero deposition time).
3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 30 60
Spk max Spk min Spk av
3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0
Sk max Sk min Sk av
3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0
Svk max Svk min Svk av
30
60
30
60
a) b) c) Figure 12: Comparing maximum, minimum and average values for 3D parameters Spk, Sk and Svk, as a function of depositing time (initial surfaces are given for zero deposition time).
3. CONCLUSION
The main conclusion resulted from this study when measuring hard surfaces, with quite high finishing quality, at the given sample spacing and measurement area size, is that it is sufficient to take an average value of 5 measurements to obtain 3D parameter values within an acceptable range of variation bellow the actual value characterizing the entire surface. Attention has to be done to word, corroded surfaces that could had developed local deviation from this average due to the particular processes in the superficial layers. Analyzing the scattering of functional parameters values (especially Spk, Sk and Svk) it was concluded that the finishing of the surface on which the coating is deposited should be improved in order to reduce rare and randomly distributed high peaks and also for eliminating the micro-abrasive tracks in one direction due to the finishing process already used. Comparing the data from Sample 2 and Sample 3 the physicist could do a correlation between surface quality and parameters involved in the coating process. Thus, the following conclusions could be given: the quality of the initial surface could be improved as it exhibits local high values for Skp+Sk+Svk and also the larger relative deviation ranges for these parameters;
317
coatings have reduced the dispersion for Sbi, Sci and Svi, their sum (Sbi,+Sci+Svi) increasing only for Sample 3 (characterized by a larger time of exposure); it could be necessary to apply a technology (mechanical process as honing or polishing) after they are deposited, in order to have a better quality of this type of coatings; the values for the coated surfaces strongly recommend a running-in process in order to decrease especially Spk, a further investigation being necessary for assessing the surface quality after running-in process.
REFERENCES
[1] Blunt De L., Jiang X., Advanced techniques for assessment surface topography, Elsevier 2003, ISBN 1903996-11-2. [2] Cantaragiu A.M., Biocompatible nanostructured coatings practical applications, PhD Report article, 2009, pp. 80-88. [3] Kakaboura A., Fragouli M., Rahiotis C., Silikas N., Evaluation of surface characteristics of dental composite susing profilometry, scanning electron, atomic force microscopy and gloss-meter, J. Mater. Sci.: Mater Med., 18, 2007, pp. 155163, ISSN 1573-4838. [4] Malburg M.C., Feature Extraction in Dimensional Metrology Applications, International Dimensional Workshop, Nashvilee Tennessee, SUA, 2002. [5] Rivire J.P., Brin C., Villain J.P., 2003, Structure and topography modificationsof austenitic steel surfaces after friction in sliding contact, Materials Science & Processing. Applied Physics A, 76, 2003, pp. 277283, ISSN: 1432-0630. [6] Stachowiak G.W., Batchelor A.W., 2005, Engineering Tribology, 3rd edition, Butterworth Heinemann 2005, ISBN: 978-0-7506-7836-0. [7] Stout K.J., et al., 1994, The development of methods for the characterization of roughness on three dimensions, no. EUR 15178 EN of the Commission of the European Communities, Luxembourg. [8] Thomas T.R., Rough Surfaces, Imperial College Press, 1999, ISBN-10: 1860941001. [9] Zanoria E.S., Watkins T.R., Breder K., Riester L., Bashkansky M., Reintjes J., Sun J.G., Ellingson W.A., Blau P.J., Assessment of Techniques for Characterizing the Surface Quality of Ground Silicon Nitride, J. of Materials Engineering and Performance, vol. 7(4) August, 1998, pp. 533-544, ISSN 1059-9495. [10] **** SR EN ISO 4287:2003, SR EN ISO 4287:2003/AC:2009 Geometrical product specifications (GPS). Surface texture: Profile method. Terms, definitions and surface texture parameters. [11] **** SR SR EN ISO 4288:2002 Geometrical product specifications (GPS) - Surface texture: Rules and procedures for the assessment of surface texture. [12] **** The Scanning Probe Image Processor SPIPTM, Version 4.7, 2008. [13] **** CETR, Evaluation of Mechanical Properties of Hard Coatings, http://www.cetr.com/
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RaDMI 2010
COMPARISON BETWEEN ANALYTICAL, EXPERIMENTAL AND FINITE ELEMENT ANALISYS DATA FOR RUPTURED FORCE OF WELDED CONSTRUCTION
2
UNIPROMET, aak, SERBIA, e-mail: igicamar@yahoo.com University in Kragujevac-Technical Faculty, aak, SERBIA, e-mail: golubd@tfc.kg.ac.rs
I. Marii1, D. Golubovi2
Summary: A paper presented approximate results of ruptured force in testing the welded samples between experimental, analytical and numerical method. Used material is constructional steel S235JR with tensile strength Rm=360 [MPa]. Experiment is realized on breaking machine. Analytical calculation is based on implementation of ISO formula. Numerical analysis is calculated by CATIA V5 software package. Keywords: welding, Von Mises stresses, stress analysis, finite element static analysis.
1. INTRODUCTION
Welding can be described as the joining of two components by coalescence. Welded joints are inseparable and welded parts are lighter then molded or forged parts approximately about 50%. This technology is very old, but very used in (chemical, shipping, automotive, process etc.) industry, building construction etc. Welded seam is always a special discontinuity in every welded steel construction. The level and distribution of stress concentration in welded joint is more suitable then others art of joints realized with bolts, rivets, glue or hard solder (see Figure 1.).
Figure 1: Different types of joints, realized with: bolts, rivets, glue, hard solder and welded seam. Considered welded structure made from steel S235JR, is representative type of lap joint, loaded with axial force. In welded area appear normal (tensile zone) and tangential (shear zone) stresses (see Figure 2.).
319
Figure 2: Presentation of tensile and shear zones of welded seam. Static stress condition of welded joint is very complex and defined with several types of normal and tangential stresses. Thanks to simplicity, some of them are neglected. The empirical ISO formula for reducing normal and tangential stresses is:
r = 2 + a 2
(1)
The factor a depends on strength hypothesis used: for Misess (also named Huber-Hencky-Mises), this formula has the form:
VM 1 = 2 + 3 2
This is a first formula for calculation of reduced stress. Ample tests of welded joint gave another formula, [4]:
(2)
VM 2 = 2 + 1.8 2
(3)
This is second formula for calculation of reduced stress and gives more approximate results to experimental results.
2. ANALYTICAL SOLUTION
Calculations of reducing stress (Von Misess) include determining real loaded surface and analyzing direction and magnitude of load. There are two real loaded surfaces, first (A1=165 [mm2], tensile zone) and second (A2=330 [mm2], shear zone). Axial force (F) divided in two same components (F1=F2=F/2), because the construction has two equivalent external sheet metal parts with thickness of 3 [mm]. Data of summary calculation are tabulated in table 1. Table 1: Usage of formula (2) and formula (3) for calculation of reduced stress. First formula:
VM 1 = 2 + 3 2
Force [N] F/2=F1=F2 90000/2 Tensile zone A1 [mm2] 165 Shear zone Normal stress A2 [mm2] [MPa] 330 272.7 Second formula: Shear stress [MPa] 136.4 Reduced stress [MPa] 360.7
VM 2 = 2 + 1.8 2
Force [N] F/2=F1=F2 98500/2 Tensile zone A1 [mm2] 165 Shear zone A2 [mm2] 330 Normal stress [MPa] 298 Shear stress [MPa] 149 Reduced stress [MPa] 359
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Thus, the final analitical value of ruptured force is Fanalitical=98500 [N].
Welded construction tested with three samples. Experiment realized on complex programmable breaking machine Mechatronic TF 1000/10. Figure 3. shows first sample.
(a)
(b)
(a) whole view; (b), (c) ruptured parts of the first sample
(c)
Figure 3: Appearance of first sample Ruptured force for this sample is F1=100000 [N]. Obtained functional dependence between force-displacement presented on Figure 4.
Figure 4: Experimental results of force and displacement for the first sample. The analitical formula for final (average) ruptured force, has the form:
Fexp erimental =
F1 + F2 + F3 = 101000[N ] 3
(4)
Experimental results are accurate and adobted.
4. NUMERICAL (FINITE ELEMENT STATIC ANALISYS) RESULTS

Investigation of a stress analysis of this welded construction is performed with the finite element method (FEM) simulation. This method is used to determine critical location and stress distributions of the construction. The FEM is numerical analysis technique for obtaining approximate solutions to a wide variety of engineering problems. For this analysis it is used the module GSA (Generative Structural Analysis) from the CATIA V5 software package, [2]. The 3D model welded construction (see Figure 5.) designed in CATIA, too.
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Figure 5: Appearance of 3D model of welded construction. Program requires several steps in order to analyze the 3D model: material, load (ruptured force) and restraints, [3]. The load tab in program is used to define ruptured force (see Figure 6.).
Figure 6: Definition of ruptured force. Stress distribution for the 3D model is shown in Figure 7. The value of the maximum stress due to this analysis was 545 [MPa]. This maximum stress caused local plastic deformations and located on inner side of holes.
Figure 7: Global appearance of stress distribution. Significant zones of this welded construction for stress analysis are welded seams. In this area appeared local maximum stress 394 [MPa] (see Figure 8.). This value is less then tensile strength Rm=360 [MPa] and caused rupture of construction.
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Figure 8: Local appearance of stress distribution in welded seam. Thus, the final experimental value of ruptured force is Fnumerical=78500 [N].
5. COMPARISON BETWEEN ANALYTICAL, EXPERIMENTAL AND FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS DATA

Fanalitical=98500 [N]; Fexperimental=101000 [N]; Fnumerical=78500 [N] Analytical and numerical data compared with experimental data which are accurate and adobted, [1]. Relative error for analytical solution has the form:
101000 98500 % = 2.5% 101000

Relative error for numerical solution has the form:
(5)
101000 78500 % = 22.3% 101000

6. CONCLUSION
(6)
The paper described optimal admission in respect of involving analytical and numerical solutions with real experimental data. In this example, analytical solution better approximate experimental results than numerical. However, numerical solution based on compare maximum stress with lower limited value of tensile strength Rm=360 [MPa]. Next similar determination of ruptured force could bee realized without need for experiment, but with including upper limited value of tensile strength Rm=470 [MPa] for steel S235JR. This approach to problem will reduced a relative error of 22.3%.
REFERENCES
[1] Marii, I.: Master Thesis-The comparative analysis of simulate and experimental stress-strain conditions of mechanical assembly, University of Kragujevac, Technical Faculty, aak, 2010, pp. 97. [2] CATIA Version 5 Release 12, IBM, Dassault Systems, Generative Structural Analysis, Documentation. [3] Nader G. Zamani.: CATIA V5 FEA Tutorials, Schroff Development Corporation, Release 14. [4] Domazet .; Krstulovi-Opara L.: Metal constructions and design, University of Split, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Naval Architecture, 2006, pp. 67.
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RaDMI 2010
THE FAULT TREE AND RELIABILITY ANALYSIS IN PROCESS INDUSTRY

1
Aleksandar Mari1, Olga Risti2, Ljubodrag orevi3

Faculty of Industrial Management, Kruevac; SERBIA,e-mail: fimmanager@gmail.com 2 Technical Faculty, aak, SERBIA, e-mail: olgar@tfc.kg.ac.rs 3 High Technical Mechanical School, Trstenik, SERBIA, e-mail: vtms_ts@ptt.rs
Summary: Fault-tree modes of phenol formaldehyde and urea resin production plant were established and failure modes were used to find the weakest components in system. Here is given graphic of two subsystems for phenol formaldehyde and urea resin production. The fault trees is constructed for critical system elements (compressor C-101, pump P-106 and reactor R-101). System reliability is used in the processing industry to reduce or prevent the risk of process out of control (failures of process equipment). Therefore, the requirements imposed in the reliability analysis with which these systems perform their function. Production of chemical products is critical because toxic substances may be pour from the production system. This will be happening if maintenance and reliability analysis on production system are not applicable. It is therefore necessary to determine the most critical elements of the system and perform their constant maintenance. Keywords: reliability, process industry, FTA method,
1. INTRODUCTION
Reliability prediction standards and methodologies are applied to wide range of components used in process industries. There are many national and international reliability prediction standards. They are different and each standard should be applied in different situation. Here are given some of them: FMEA/FMECA (Failure Mode, Effects, and Criticality Analysis) FTA (Fault Tree Analysis) MTBF Analysis FRACAS (Failure Reporting, Analysis, and Corrective Action System) Implementation Life Data Analysis Reliability Program Assessment Design for Reliability/Design for Maintainability Risk Analysis Advanced System Modeling Today, due to the rapid development of science and technology, the information technology is used in system reliability and safety analysis. The requirements for tolerable risk in industry are becoming stricter. Safety analysis started from individual components to entire security systems. In modern international standards in this field have become more quantitative requirements applicable to reduce the risk of systems reliability and security. For quantitative risk analysis can't be applied all the reliability analysis methods. Also, the results of different methods are not always comparable. This leads to problems in comparing the analysis results, because the standards do not prescribe appropriate methods to be used for analysis. The final conclusion is that the analysis methods support determined group of data that are important in this field. In complex systems, such as plant for production of chemical products, nuclear energy or spacecraft, it is necessary to analyze the possible failures and their intensities. Typically, such systems are in some way unique, because there are no identical systems (that mean the same elements are connected and work under the same conditions) for which the data will be collected on the dismissals, so that statistical analysis of failure is not possible. In addition, it is not important only probability approach, but taking into account the causes and combinations of events that will lead to certain failure.
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There are different reliability analysis activities into each phase of the product development lifecycle (Figure 1). These activities depends of production system, an some phases are longer and some are shorter. Unwanted events are happening and then maintenance must be carry out. Natural way to solve this problem, where many events in the interaction leads to the creation of other events, is to put these events in the mutual logical dependence (intersection, union, etc.) and make logical and methodological structure that will represent the system.
Figure 1: The reliability analysis activities into each phase of the product development lifecycle
2. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROCESS FOR UREA FORMALDEHYDE AND UREA RESIN PRODUCTION
Formaldehyde resins used as binders in whetstone used to connect abrasive grains into a whole. Types of embroidery determine the basic technology development. The type and amount of binder is determined by strength and hardness of grinding wheels or grinding capacity. Bakelite resin (some kind of formaldehyde resin) is a binder that provides excellent mechanical properties of whetstone. It is suitable for reinforcement with glass knitting or other types of fittings. Compared with bonded ceramic is less sensitive to sudden changes in temperature and shock, but it is sensitive to chemical effects and extended storage. Plant for the production of U/FA semiproduct and formaldehyde is based on the oxidation of methanol catalytic oxidation of formaldehyde in the air phase and subsequent absorption of formaldehyde. Functional block diagram of the subsystem for the production of formaldehyde and urea resin is given in Figure 2.
Catalytic oxidation Methanol Polycondensation Formaldehyde Semiproduct FU-80 Polycondensation UF resin
Urea + NaOH
Resin + NaOH+ CH COOH 3
Figure 2: Subsystem of urea formaldehyde resin production The functional block diagram for the production of urea resin is given in Figure 3. The main production phases are presented on this diagram. Subsystems for production formaldehyde and urea resin with semiproducts are giving on Figures 4 and 5. On this figures are presented main elements which are critical in reliability analysis.
325
Catalytic oxidation Mehtanol
Polycondensation Formaldehyde Phenolic resin
Phenol + NaOH + Oxalic acid Three Ethyl Amyl Figure 3: Functional diagram of phenol resin production
Atmosphere Waste water
Resin
HV-101 LIC 105 TC-3 LV-105
To C-101 LEGEND: TC-Reactor E-Coolers P-Pumps LV-Valves for level TV-Valves for cooler cold water
FIC 103 FV 103 Demi water FV 104 FIC 104
TC-2
LIC 104 TIC 104 Final product continual
LV-104
TV-104
TC-1 E-103 E-104 E-105 E-106
AR 111 Formaldehyde steam o t=150 C
LV-103 LIC 103 Reversible water
Filter
H-110 DF-101
TV-105
TV-103
DF-102
Water for cooling
P-101 Sidium hydroxide

M
P-105
P-106
P-107
P-101
Figure 4: Subsystem of formaldehyde and semiproduct production

From T-101 P-101 Mixer B-101 BOJLER Reactor R-101 To T-101
Methanol Air
E-102 FV 101 FIC 101 FIC 102
Steam methanol
Formaldehyde steam
Heat exchanger
Steam pressure 6 bar
Main Collector
D-101 D-102 PIC 132
Methanol LIC 101 LV 101
E-101
PV 101 PIC 101 Steam

M
Water supply from boiler
P-103
Water for cooling
System lubricant
C-101
Figure 5: Subsystem of urea resin production
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3. FAULT TREE ANALYSIS-FTA

Fault tree analysis is one of the main methods for analysis of reliability and safety systems. It is developed in the sixties (1961) in Bell's laboratories, and today is widely used in various fields such as chemical processes, electrical and electronic systems, nuclear power, quality assurance and so on. This method is based on one type of system failure and provides qualitative information about the possible emergence of adverse events, the causes that lead to the development at a time when certain events occur that lead to a state of unwanted events. This can be solved by determining the likelihood of the primary events in accordance with the calculated probability of top events. A fault tree analysis (FTA) is a deductive, top-down method of analyzing system design and performance. It involves specifying a top event to analyze (such as a fire), followed by identifying all of the associated elements in the system that could cause that top event will be occured. Fault trees provide a convenient symbolic representation of the combination of events resulting in the occurrence of the top event. Events and gates in faulttree analysis are represented by symbols. Fault tree analyses are generally performed graphically using a logical structure of AND and OR gates. Sometimes certain elements, or basic events, may need to occur together in order for that top event will be occured. In this case, these events would be arranged under an AND gate, meaning that all of the basic events would need to occur to trigger the top event. If the basic events alone would trigger the top event, then they would be grouped under an OR gate. The entire system as well as human interactions would be analyzed when performing a fault tree analysis. In the figures 5, 6 and 7 are shown fault tree for individual components of absorption and reaction sections. The primary events are marked with circles, and intermediate (top) events are rectangles. OR logic gates, which produce output if it happens one or more input events, linking primary and intermediate (top) events. In this case the events are connected only with the logic gates, which means that if it happens that the primary event, there will be fail of the entire system.
Figure 5: Fault tree of compressor C-101
Figure 6: Fault tree of pump P-106
327
Figure 7: Fault tree of reactor R-101
328
3.1 The state of plant for production of urea and phenol formaldehyde resins The most frequent element failures in system are the research in the determined periods of operation as follows: PUMP 103 (period of 1 year and 10 months) COMPRESSOR C-101 (period of 1 year and 9 months) Reactor R-101 (period of 2 years and 1 month) Comparative review of failures and failure modes of plant element is given in the following table, while their failure are listed in chronological order (table 1). This data are collected in firm PKS in Cacak. Table 1: The failure mode of elements
Num. PUMP 103 of failure 1. Impeller housing replacement -3 pieces Impeller replacement -3 pcs Cords replacement 2. Impeller replacement -1 piece Impeller housing replacement -1 piece Rubber 10-262 Replacement of seals in the impeller-17 pcs Bearing replacement 6303 - 1 pcs Bearing replacement 6305 - 1 pcs Bearing replacement 8306 - 1 pcs Splice 300 mm Impeller replacement -2 pieces Impeller housing replacement - 18 pieces Gasket replacement -18 pieces Shaft replacement - 1 piece Bearing replacement 6305 - 1 piece Bearing replacement 51306 - 1 piece AIR COMPRESSOR C-101 Repair: Impeller replacement; Stamped tin (maze); Balancing, testing impeller magnetic flux Sealing axial bearing cover REACTOR R-101 Repair: Melting salt in the pipe between the reactor and auxiliary vessels to transfuse salt Disassembly mixer belt REACTOR R-101 continue Install disk Set valve to fully discharge Set motor engine
3. 4.
Bearing and vibration control Repair valve No-50, sliding oil; fuses replacement
Disassembly mixer motor engine Disassembly of pipe between the reactor and auxiliary vessels for the salt and melted salt out of it Raise a cover 450 mm
Melted salts from auxiliary vessels for the salt reactor Set rope and closed salt reactor Clamped cover and discs
5.
The valve body cooling oil replacement Disassembly of sliding bearings; Shaft showering, Washing and polishing; Installation of the bearings lower carcass; Measurement of radial and axial clearances Control of gear teeth
Reactor steam seals replacement Belt replacement -6 pcs. Bearing replacement 6317 Replacement bearing Nu 218 ECP-1 pc. Bearing 6317 Graphite ring Eraser on the cover-2 pcs. Replacement of the mixer shaft Replacement of seals on the line for water and steam-2 pcs.
6.
Installation of pipes for salt between salt reactor and auxiliary vessels Design and installation of four tubes for the outbreak of spring Disassembling of old disks, and cleaning all surfaces on the cover of the cords and making new seals
7.
8.
The company has regular maintenance that is performed periodically and consists of pumps review, pouring oil or replace individual parts if worn (if there are visible signs of wear parts). Some of the pumps (such as pump P103) are important for the functioning of the whole system. If there is a failure on the pump whole production will be stopped. The picture of time between failures can be formed based on the time when there was a failure occurrence and time of cancellation of certain parts of the system for U/FA resins production. That will bi serve as the basis for determining the system reliability.
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4. CONCLUSIONS
FTA is an effective method, which can evaluate system reliability and safety from top event to basic event. But it have limitations using in practice engineering. The new approach aims is to identify the most significant groups of basic events, potential risk and failure modes. The approach is used to identify the component that most probably caused the phenol formaldehide production plant to fail. Several fault trees are constructed, and the possible critical routes of causing equipment failure are given out. The weakest components of the system are pointed out by means of FTA. The failure models in the system are determined by defining an unstable operating as the top event, and finding all the equipment items as the basic events. The verification of engineering cases demonstrates that the approach is suitable for estimating reliability of a complex process plant. Effective management processes can be improved features to system maintenance which may positively influence the effectiveness of the technological system, with resources allocated for the rationalization of technological systems described in the chemical industry.
REFERENCES
www.fer.hr/_download/repository/EMIT_V2.pdf www.cek.ef.uni-lj.si/u_diplome/kese1971.pdf www.fsb.unizg.hr/zavod_za.../992c7ac5bfe46b3a7e8a1c90767f830b.ppt Popovi,R., ivojinovi, M., Tehnoloki procesi-procesna proizvodnja, ICIM, Kruevac, 2001. orevi, T.: Tehnoloki procesi, ICIM+, Kruevac, 2009. Tehniko-tehnoloka dokumentacija PKS Lateks iz aka Vulanovi, V. i grupa autora: Metode i tehnike unapreenja procesa rada, Fakultet tehnikih nauka, Institut za industrijsko inenjerstvo i menadment, Novi Sad, 2003. [8] Mari A., Robajac O., orevi Lj: Analiza otkaza i pogodnost odravanja tehnikih sistema, Fault analysis and dependability of technical systems, XXXI Nauno struni skup o odravanju maina i opreme OMO, Beograd 15.jun, 2006., Budva, 20. 23. jun 2006. (zbornik radova), Srbija-Crna Gora [9] Robajac O., Mari A., orevi Lj.: Odravanje i sigurnost sloenih tehnikih sistema, Maintainability and safety of complex technical system, IMK 14 istraivanje i razvoj, asopis Instituta IMK 14. oktobar Kruevac, broj (24-25) 1-2/2006., (str. 183 190). [10] Dai, P.: 100.000 Technical and ICT Abbreviations and Acronyms. Vrnjaka Banja: SaTCIP Ltd., 2010. pp. 1200. ISBN 978-86-6075-001-5. [11] Dai, P.: Algorithm approach to determination of reliability of components technical systems. Plenary and invitation paper. In: Proceedings of 5th International Conference Research and Development in Mechanical Industy - RaDMI 2005, Vrnjaka Banja, Serbia and Montenegro, 04-07. September 2005. Edited by Predrag Dai. Trstenik: High Technical Mechanical School, 2005, pp. 34-45. ISBN-13 978-86-83803-20-0. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7]
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RaDMI 2010
HEAT GENERATION TEMPERATURE PHASES OF THE FSW PROCESS

1
Miroslav M. Mijajlovi1, Dragan S. Mili2, Miroslav B. uranovi3

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Ni, SERBIA, e-mail: miroslav_mijajlovic@masfak.ni.ac.rs 2 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Ni, SERBIA, e-mail: milcic@masfak.ni.ac.rs 3 e,mail: djurdjan@junis.ni.ac.rs
Summary: Friction Stir Welding has appeared in the early 1990s and since numerous scientists work on mathematical explanation of it. Operational phases of the process, geometry of the welding tool, optimal technological parameters of the process and many other physical facts are the goal of researches around the world. Friction Stir Welding is a process where temperature has significant influence on weld creation. Temperature is one of the main reasons why some welds are qualitative and some are not. Just like during any other welding process, Friction Stir Welding has temperature phases which, if properly described and explained before application of welding, can help in definition of the parameters needed for adequate welding procedure. This paper gives an overview on these phases. Keywords: Friction Stir Welding, Heat Generation, Temperature.
1. INTRODUCTION
Friction stir welding (FSW) is a solid state welding process (metal of the welding pieces and/or filler metal are not melted during the welding process), and is used mostly for applications on sheet or plate shaped parts, usually on large parts which cannot be easily heat treated post weld to recover temper characteristics. FSW is used where the nominal metal characteristics should remain unchanged or minimally changed during the welding process. FSW was invented and experimentally proven by Wayne Thomas and its team at The Welding Institute UK in December 1991 and this institute holds numerous patents on the process [1]. This process is primarily used on: 2000, 5000, 6000, 7000 series aluminum, Aluminum based metal matrix composites, Copper and its alloys, Titanium and its alloys, Zinc, stainless steel and nickel alloys, Lead, Plastic, Some combinations on previously mentioned materials (for example, welding of bronze and aluminum).
2. PRINCIPLE OF WORK AND OPERATIONAL PHASES OF FSW

During FSW process (1 and 2-welding plates; 3-backing plate; 4-shoulder; 5-probe; 6-shoulder tip; 7-weld joint line Figure 1), a cylindrical shouldered tool, with a profiled threaded/unthreaded probe (1 and 2-welding plates; 3backing plate; 4-shoulder; 5-probe; 6-shoulder tip; 7-weld joint line
Figure 1, 5) and flat or coned shoulder (1 and 2-welding plates; 3-backing plate; 4-shoulder; 5-probe; 6-shoulder tip;
7-weld joint line
331
Figure 1, 4) is rotated at a constant speed and fed at a constant traverse rate into the start point of the joint line (1 and 2-welding plates; 3-backing plate; 4-shoulder; 5-probe; 6-shoulder tip; 7-weld joint line Figure 1, 7) between two plates (1 and 2-welding plates; 3-backing plate; 4-shoulder; 5-probe; 6-shoulder tip; 7-weld
joint line
Figure 1, 1 and 2). Welding plates are butted together and clamped rigidly onto a backing plate (1 and 2-welding
plates; 3-backing plate; 4-shoulder; 5-probe; 6-shoulder tip; 7-weld joint line
Figure 1, 3) in a manner that prevents the abutting joint faces from being forced apart. The height of the probe is slightly less than the weld depth required (height of the welding plates) and the shoulder tip (1 and 2-welding
plates; 3-backing plate; 4-shoulder; 5-probe; 6-shoulder tip; 7-weld joint line
Figure 1, 6) is in intimate contact with top surfaces of the welding plates. Friction stir welding uses two types of physical mechanical processes, that happen with materials, to create weld: friction processes and deformation processes (as the most dominant stirring). Friction processes result with generation of heat [3]. Frictional heat is generated between the welding tools active surfaces - probe side, probe tip, shoulder tip and the material of the work pieces. This heat generated during sliding and sticking of welding tool and welding material [5, 6], along with the adiabatic heat within the material, cause the stirred materials to soften without reaching the melting point allowing the traversing of the tool along the weld line in a plasticised tubular shaft of metal.
1 and 2-welding plates; 3-backing plate; 4-shoulder; 5-probe; 6-shoulder tip; 7-weld joint line
Figure 1: Principle of the FSW There are various shapes and design of welding tool, backing plate etc, but that does not affect basic friction stir welding process, without any concern on technology varieties, friction stir welding process can be separated to five phases: a) plunging, b) dwelling, c) welding, d) dwelling, and e) pulling out.
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Figure 2: Phases of the friction stir welding process Figure 2 shows these phases of friction stir welding process. Last two phases are non productive phases and they only finalize the weld but they are unavoidable. During the first phase, the rotating welding tool is plunged vertically into the joint between the weld pieces into the joint line (Figure 2, a) and it is the classical welding process. The plunge phase is followed by the dwell phase, where the toll stays steady relatively to the welding pieces but still constantly rotating (Figure 2, b). The mechanical interaction, due to the velocity difference between the rotating tool and the stationary work piece, produces heat by frictional forces. This heat dissipates into the surrounding material welding pieces, temperature of the material rises and it softens. After these two phases, the welding process is initiated by moving either the tool or the work piece relative to each other, traversal along the joint line (Figure 2, c). Welding is processed until the welding pieces become connected along the planed weld distance. After welding phase traversal movement between tool and weld pieces stops but welding tool continues its rotation. This is the third phase or the second dwelling phase (Figure 2, d). There is no special need for this phase and if machine used for welding has ability to pull out the tool the same moment when traversal movement along the joint stops, this phase can be avoided. Final phase is pull out of the welding tool from the weld (Figure 2).
3. HEAT GENERATION TEMPERATURE PHASES OF THE FSW

Analyzing the FSW process it is clear that operational phases of process explain the kinematics of the FSW. On the other hand, temperature rising and heat generation at the contact of welding tool and welding metal show that heat generation phases are not necessarily bonded with operational phases. From the aspect of welded joint heat treatment during welding, FSW can be described in four heat generation or, simple, temperature phases: 1) Dwelling: the material is preheated by a stationary, rotating tool in order to achieve a sufficient temperature ahead of the tool to allow the traverse movement. This period includes the plunging of the tool into the work pieces at one point of the joint line. 2) Transient heating: when the welding tool begins traversal movement along joint line there is a transient period where the heat production and temperature around the tool rises until pseudo steady-state is reached.
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3) Pseudo steady state. Although fluctuations in heat generation will occur the thermal field and temperature around the tool remain effectively constant, at least on the macroscopic scale. Microscopic transformations are present on a high level. 4) Post steady state. Near the end of the weld heat may reflect from the end of the weld pieces and backing plate leading to additional heating around the tool. Heat generation temperature phases can not be compared with the existence of operational phases since temperature of the welding plates changes during the process. In order to show existence of the heat generation phases it was necessary to determine temperature of welding plates. For that purpose, results from the experiment given in [5] were compared to the results of the analytical approach. Estimation of the generated heat by the proposed mathematical model given in [6] is done for the same conditions and welding parameters presented in the paper [5] dimensions and material properties, technological parameters, welding length etc. Experiment given in [5] is conducted on plates made of aluminum 2024 T3 alloy, height h=3 mm, length L=150 mm and width of a single plate B=60 mm (Figure 3).
0 y
Figure 3: Plates used in experiment [5] In experiment is used welding tool made of steel. Probe of the tool has left oriented tread (Figure 4), probe diameter is d=6 mm, tread pitch is 0,8 mm and complete height of the probe is H=3,5 mm (Hmax4 mm). Diameter of the shoulder is D=18 mm with cone angle of =10. Effective plunging depth of the probe is he=2,5 mm.
Figure 4: Welding tool used in experiment [5] Welding tool rotated with n=400 rounds/min, and traveled along joint line with velocity vx=2 mm/s; rotation axis of the welding tool has been tilted for 1 to the front and shoulder tip has plunged approximately 0,2 mm to the welding plates in every moment of welding. Welding plates had no technological hole (d0=0 mm). Plunging/Pressing force and power on the work shaft of the machine were measured during the process of welding. Paper [5] gives graphs representing phases of welding process and timeline of phases: -plunging phase: tpl=8.7 s, -first dwelling phase: tdw1=5 s, l 105 -welding phase: tw = = = 52.5 s, vx 2 where l=105 mm welding length.
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Paper [5] didnt analyze second dwelling and pulling out phases so there is no explicit data to be fully analyzed. The amount of generated heat is necessary for temperature determination. Using mathematical model for heat generation [6] and using the finite differences method, solving adequate temperature 3D heat equation (Equation 1) for FSW conditions given in [5], temperature of the welding plates is estimated in sufficient number of points in order to get applicable data for further analysis.
Figure 5: Control volume and elements mesh used in Finite Differences Method application to the FSW temperature determination
2T 2T 2T T = 2 + 2 + 2 t y z x + qv
Eq. (1)
Figure 6 shows some of the results and temperatures of specific points on welding plates.
500 450 400 350 300 T [C] 250 200 150 100 50 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 t [s]
(10,50,3) (5,50,3) (25,50,3) (50,50,3) (100,50,3) (125,50,3) (75,50,3)
Figure 6: Temperature of some specific points (x,y,z) on the welding plates during FSW process
3. CONCLUSION
It is obvious that heat generation phases or temperature phases do exist for every FSW and they can be analyzed after analysis of the weld plates temperature. Figure 6 shows that temperatures of different points on plates differ one to another and the temperature changes depending from position and operational phase of the welding tool. But shape of all temperature curves (Figure 6) indicates one common curve that fully describes all heat generation temperature phases of the FSW (Figure 7).
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Figure 7: Heat generation temperature phases of the FSW Unfortunately, FSW is still not completely investigated process and there is no mathematical model that can describe neither when temperature stages start and finish nor what extreme temperatures can be reached. The only possible opportunity is to conduct an experiment, measure temperature and define phases by experience.
REFERENCES
[1] Thomas, WM; Nicholas, ED; Needham, JC; Murch, MG; Temple-Smith, P;Dawes, CJ.Friction-stir butt welding, GB Patent No. 9125978.8, International patent application No. PCT/GB92/02203, (1991), [2] Stephan W. Kallee, John Davenport, E. Dave Nicholas: Railway Manufacturers Implement Friction Stir Welding. American Welding Society, published on 29. Jan. 2008, http://www.aws.org/wj/oct02/feature.html, [3] uranovi, M., "Prilog razmatranju primene toplote generisane trenjem", Tehnika - Mainstvo, vol. 52, no. 6, pp. 1-7, 2003, http://scindeks.nb.rs/article.aspx?artid=0461-25310306001D, [4] Bowden, F.P. and Tabor, D. Friction An Introduction to Tribology, Anchor Press / Doubleday, Reprinted 1982, Krieger Publishing Co., Malabar 1973, [5] H Schmidt, J Hattel and J Wert: An analytical model for the heat generation in Friction Stir Welding, Modeling Simul. Mater. Sci. Eng. 12 No 1 (January 2004) p. 143-157, PII: S0965-0393(04)69225-4, http://iopscience.iop.org/0965-0393/12/1/013/, [6] uranovi M, Mijajlovi M, Mili D, Stamenkovi D: Heat Generation During Friction Stir Welding Process, Tribology in Industry, no. 1-2, 2009, Serbia, Kragujevac, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Kragujevac, May, 2009, Journal, vol. 31, pp. 8-14, no. 1-2, ISSN 0354-8996, http://scindeks.nb.rs/article.aspx?artid=0351-16420902008D [7] Miljkovi, N., uranovi, M.B., Stamenkovi, D., "Application of FSW procedure in railway industry", eleznice - nauno-struni asopis Jugoslovenskih eleznica, vol. 61, no. 1-2, pp. 28-35., 2005, http://scindeks.nb.rs/article.aspx?artid=0350-51380502028M.
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RaDMI 2010
PROGRAMMABLE DYNAMIC TESTS OF ELEMENTS AND COMPLEX STRUCTURES BY MECHATRONIC SYSTEMS

Higher Technical Mechanical School, R. Krstica, Street 19, 37240 Trstenik, SERBIA, e mail: vtms@ptt.rs 2 Tecnical Facultet Cacak, University of Kragujevac, Svetog Save65, 32000, aak, SERBIA, e mail: tfcacak@tfc.kg.ac.rs
1
Milomir Mijatovi1, Dragan Golubovi2
Summary: In recent years, the importance of dynamic resilience of parts and structures has increased, and failure due to fatigue (fatigue failure) has gradually become an important criterion in design of mechanical structures, along with standard criteria of flow limits. This paper deals with programmable dynamic tests of elements and complex structures by mechatronic systems. Keyworks: Mechatronic system, dynamic test, software.
1. INTRODUCTION
Metal structures exposed to variable or cyclic loads may fail without ever experiencing the projected static loads. That type of damage in structures, consisting of appearance and expansion of a crack or cracks is called fatigue, and resistance of a structure to such damages called dynamic endurance. In recent years, the importance of dynamic resilience of parts and structures has increased, and failure due to fatigue (fatigue failure) has gradually become an important criterion in design of mechanical structures, along with standard criteria of flow limits. Cyclically variable loads of structures cause vibrations, in case of the main drive system operation, temperature fluctuation and effect of wind and waves. Request for higher load capacity initiated optimization of structures and increased use of steels with increased strength, which caused an increase in general endurance stress of mechanical structures. Elongation tests help determine major features of materials like tensile strength, elongation crack, proportionality limit, elastic limit, etc. These parameters are still fundamental in a wide range of material applications. Even if a certain type of material is determined to be applied to a required stress (through dynamic strength or crack due to embitterment), we should not rely only on the analysis of static strength, a part of which is elongation test. This paper deals with dynamic analysis of a real profile U3 by Mechatronic system. The action of periodically variable load within cross section of machine parts cause periodically variable stress. With static destruction, the stress intensity contributes most to destruction of machine parts. Unlike this case of action of periodically variable load, destruction of machine parts does not depend only on the load intensity, but also on the number of its variations. This type of destruction is called destruction due to fatigue. Dynamic characteristics of materials are obtained by testing several samples with action of periodically variable load. This paper describes the methodology and an experimental analysis of dynamic axial stress carried out by Mechatronic system TF100/10 developed at Technical Faculty in aak.
2. CHARACTERISTICS OF MECHATRONIC SYSTEM FOR DYNAMIC TESTS

- mechanical structure - electro-computers structure - software support, - implementation.
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2.1. Mechanical structure The support frame structure (figure 1) is in the form of spatial frame 1.4 x 1.2 x 30m, with the possibility (depending on the length of tested part) of fixing the immobile traverse part. The mobile part of the device (trolley) is guided parallel on the cast support by turntable rolls (wheels of SL18 movable). The support part of the structure is fixed by profiles U14 every 2.5 m, and additionally fixed by horizontal bars. The tested parts are fixed by chucks to the mobile and immobile parts of the device, and the force of stress, depending on the tested length, is generated by two hydraulic cylinders. The maximum tensile strength of 1000 kN can be achieved on the 5 m span , and 500 kN on 12 m span. In this work will we shall test elements of various structures, as an experimental example. Programmable increase of elongation L, as well as deformation of the tested part (sample) by various velocities and forces is achieved by a hydraulic system presented in fgure 2.
Figure 1: Support frame structure

1 2 16
F U
29
L
L0 UZORAK
F F
18
11.1 10
24 VDC
11.2
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UP
B160/90x1800
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A
20
A A
28 22 A/D
F n
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9.4 9.3 13 9.6

6.1 9.1 9.2 6.2
24 VDC
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B160/90x1800
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broja ciklusa
24 UEH
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p= 1 ,4 0,2 bar a
26 UEM
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14
M
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P=4kW (220/380V, 50Hz) 300 < n < 900min -1 q=13,8 cm3
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9.5
Frekventna regulacija broja obrtaja elektro motora
1. Support structure 2, Immobile traverse 3 Mobile traverse 4. Valve block 5 Pressure relief valve 6. Proportional safety valve 7. Hydraulic power pack 8. Ball shut-off valve 9. Proportional solenoid-operated control valve 10. Regulation control valve 11. Hydraulic cylinder (linear motor) 12. Hydraulic cylinder (linear motor) 13. Valve grope of pressure accumulator
14. Hydraulic accumulator 15. Force booster 16. Pressure booster 17. Induction stroke booster 18. Digital measurement . 19. Measurement bridges 20. Inductor generator 21. A/D convector 22. Hydraulic interface 23. Control electronics for proportional va 24. Actuators interf 25. Controller of motor speed 26. Electronics power supply
Figure 2: Functional scheme of programmable hydraulic system
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3. DEFINING THE CONTROL SYSTEM

The control system is a set of electronic devices and equipment which provide stability and accuracy of the process or production activities. It can be of any form and it can vary in size depending on the use, ranging from power supply facilities to simple machines. These systems are a result of fast technological development, and they resolve complex control tasks achieved by highly-automated control system which can be in the form of PLC (Programmable Logical Controller), and server. Besides the signal within the device area (such as work panel, motors, sensors, switches, solenoids, valves, etc.,), the possibility of communication within the network allow exceptional application and coordination of the process in providing higher flexibility in realization of the distributed control system. Each element of the control system has an important role depending on the size. For example, in figure 3. PLC does not know what is happening around it without a sensor. If necessary, there should also be a server to coordinate the activities within a certain area. A PLC can also control simple applications and devices. An important characteristic of mechatronic systems is precise control by computers. Control in this aspect comprises control of the operators interface work safety, diagnostics and signal processing , and in any other place requiring multiple control.
Figure 3: Position of PLC within the control system
4. METHODOLOGY OF EXPERIMENTAL DYNAMIC TESTS

For any test, depending on the its aim, test equipment and installation used, the methodology involves the following elements (figure 4): - the aim of testing, - the manner of preparing the subject of testing, - the method of taking required measures and required characteristics of measuring instruments, measuring and testing installations, - method of placing the measuring instrument, measuring and testing installations, - method f operation, conditions of performing the tests, - the procedure of carrying out the measurement and method of presenting, that is processing of the test results. According to the nature of required characteristics, all tests can be divided into: - performance tests, i.e. testing the functional characteristics of the tested subject or an engineering system, - test of operation loads and the conditions of exploitation of the machine and its constituent parts, mechanisms, assemblies and elements, - testing the reliability, i.e. maintaining the output functional parametresover a certain period of time, under certain operation loads and operation conditions. Testing aimed at the evaluation of operation ability of mechanical assemblies and elements is based at:
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testing of accuracy of elements and assemblies, testing of wear and tear, testing of elements and assemblies durability, testing of elements and assemblies at high and low temperatures, etc.
Figure 4: Methodology of experimental dynamic tests
5 DYNAMIC TESTS
After reconstruction, that is adding a proportional distribution control valve, the mechatronic system is prepared for variable loads, which makes it possible to carry out dynamic tests. For this experiment there is a programme written to control the system by easily changing parametres which determine the system behaviour. The following methodology has been used for programme dynamic tests: setting the testing system placing the test sample starting the programme setting the stress force determining the number of changes per a time unit determining the process duration printing.
Figure 5: Programme select
Figure 6: Programme starting
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Figure 7: Determining the number of changes per a time unit
Figure 8: Setting the force amplitude for dynamic t sts e
Figure 9: Setting the force amplitude for dynamic tests 5.1. Results of dynamic tests In order to determine the metal sensitivity to fatigue, we performed tests with a variable force, determining the lowest variable stress at which the fatigue will not occur. The variable force is defined according to sinusoid law of change. In the figure, the following symbols are used: g maximum stress, the highest stress in the cycle, d minimum stress, the lowest stress in the cycle, a stress amplitude, a half of the algebric difference between the maximum and the minimum stress, SR average stress, absolute value of the arithmetic medium value oft he maximum and the minimum stress, R range of stress, the difference between the maximum and the minimum stress. In testing by variable stress force, three test samples were used and they were exposed to various external variable loads and tested to fatigue failure. The test results are shown as diagrams (figures 11, 14 and 15). The first test sample is exposed to a variable stress which is determined by the highest selected G amplitude stress, at which g has the value under the value of tensile strength Rm. At such load, the failure fatigue appears after a certain number of cycles figure 12. The second test sample is exposed to a variable stress lower than that of the first test sample, and is determined by the medium selected stress (SR) at fixed amplitude a stress. The fatigue failure appears after N" cycle changes. In this way, reducing the medium stress with more test samples (gradually) gives the complete Velers diagram. The variable force is defined according to the sinusoid law of change. If dynamic load capacity for NPU3 in the table 1 is D=280 N/mm2, the initial dynamic force FD can be calculated for carrying out the experiment.
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FD= D A=280 240=67200 [N ] (1) This value is taken also as the maximum force in this experiment for dynamic load capacity. Since the programme allows the force range-20 to20 [KN ] ,the force amplitude and stress amplitude, FA,i A.,can be calculated (as in figure 10) MATERIAL CODE Table 1: Dynamiccharacteristics of materials DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS Pulling
D(0)
Bending
D(0)
Torsion
D(0)
Pulling
D(-1)
Bending
D(-1)
Torsion
D(-1)
0270 0370 0460 0545 0645 0745
200-230 220-250 240-280 280-340 320-380 350-430
230-280 260-310 300-350 350-420 400-480 430-540
120-150 140-180 150-180 170-240 200-230 220-270
100-140 120-140 130-170 160-200 200-240 220-280
150-200 170-200 190-240 220-270 280-330 300-380
80-120 100-120 110-140 130-160 160-190 170-220
Hardnes s HB 95-120 102-125 120-140 140-170 170-195 195-240
Figure 10: Amplitude of dynamic load
(3) Therefore, the average stress is: (4) S=47200/240=195N/mm2 To carry out the experiment, it is also necessary to determine the other steers sand force amplitudes by reducing the force amplitude by 50N for the second and 50N for the third experiment. Therefore FA2 =15 [kN ] . A (5) (6) FA3=10 [KN ] , Based on this, the stress amplitude is calculated, so: 2 (7) A2=150000/240= 62.5N/mm 2 (8) A3#10000/=240=41,6N/mm Based on the values calculated, the Mechatronic system was set and the programme was written for dynamic testing of the required profile. The behavior of the material is observed by diagrams in the computer, and typical points and results are recorded. The first test sample is exposed to the force F = 67200N, and the load diagram indicates the load decrease as the cycle number increases (fig. 11), and figures 11 and 12 show the fractured sample.
S-Average dynamic stress is calculated from the expression: S=FS/A,aFS=F-FA1=67200-20000=47200N.
=84N/mm2 A=FA/A= 20000 240
(2)
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Figure 11: Diagram of the first test sample load to fracture
Figure 12: Dynamically fractured test sample
Figure 13: Appearance of a fractured test sample
The second test sample was exposed to the same force, but the load amplitude was reduced at FA2 = 15 KN as per expression 5. The diagram of dynamic load for the second experiment shows that at appropriate amplitude decreasing gradually, regardless of increase in the number of cycle changes, results in slower and gradual stress drop (fig. 14)
Figure 14: Stress diagram at carrying out the second experiment
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The third test sample was exposed to the same force as the previous ones, and the load amplitude was reduced from FA=10KN according to the expression 6. The observed behavior of the material as in diagram in figure 15 indicates that based on all the set parameters, at any number of stress changes, the total stress will not decrease, and the results of permanent dynamic load capacity in case of force F=67200 [N ] , and the load amplitude from 5 to 20 [KN ] .
Figure 15: Behavior of materials at carrying out the third experiment
It can be easily seen from the diagram that the average dynamic stress ranges between 200 and 190 N/ mm2.. This means that the maximum force of dynamic pull without causing further material deformation, i.e. permanent dynamic force is FD = 200 240 = 48000 N. The results given in diagrams for all the three test samples give the collective diagram which, at the whole, represent the behavior diagram of NPU3 profile to dynamic axial stress.
6. CONCLUSION
The device developed and described herein mechatronic device for mechanical programme testing of elements and complex strructures (programmable MEHATRONIK TF 100/10) thanks to the incorporated measuring and regulation equipment offers a variety of possibilities of reception tests, and also of quality verification. Some of the possibilities can be seen in the functional and control schemes. It can be used for testing of cables, chains, levers, connecting elements, and many other parts and devices. Major users include MI Proleter Arilje, Power Supply Industry of Serbia, Railways of Serbia and Montenegro. One of the advantages of this device is that it can be upgraded and reconstructed, thus increasing the possibility of its use for testing. The possibilities of static tests it had in the past, thanks to this work, now also include dynamic programmable tests. To accomplish this task, besides upgrading the hydraulic control system, by developing a new programme to control the system, it was made possible to have programmable change of the material stress and to count the cycles of load change, which is one of the conditions for dynamic tests. The programme makes it possible to directly observe the process on the screen, number of cycles, stress force, stress amplitude, and the relation between all the parameters is presented in the form of a diagram. The described methodology and capacities of the device greatly incresae accuracy of dynamic tests, and decreases to almost one third the time that was needed by previous methods of dynamic
REFERENCE
[1] Mijatovi M, Golubovi D, Robajac O, Znaaj mehatronike u razvoju tehnikih nauka, TF aak, 2004 [2] Golubovi D., ivkovi M.: Kidalica kalibrator mehatronik TF 1000/8 (elaborat dogradnje), Tehniki fakultet - aak, 2003. (str. 28). [3] Adamovi , Mijatovi M, Hdraulike komponente i sistemi, Tehniki fakultet Zrenjanin, 2002. [4] Mihajlovi G., ivkovi, M., Golubovi: Optimizacija senzitivnih parametara hidrostatikog davaa sile
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[5] za industrijske aplikacije, NSS IRMES 04, 1617.09.2004., Kragujevac, MF Kragujevac i JUDEKO (str. 105110). Jacoby G.: Mechaniche-sowie servohydrauliche Ein-und Zweizylinder Reson anzwachen Carl Schenk-Darmstadt (prospekt), 1992., (str. 10). [6] Grabulov V.: Static and impact testing (tensile test, drop weight test, explosion bulge test) and result analysis, VIII Meunarodna kola mehanike loma IFMASS 8 (OD MEHANIKE LOMA DO OCENE INTEGRITETA KONSTRUKCIJE), DIVK-GOA Institut-TMF Beograd, Beograd,2327.0.
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RaDMI 2010
WOOD FURNITURE PARAMETRIC MODELING AS AN INTERIOR DESIGN STRATEGY

1
Dragan S. Mili1, Miroslav M. Mijajlovi2, Milan Radojevi3

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering in Ni, Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, 18000 Ni, SERBIA, e-mail: milcic@masfak.ni.ac.rs 2 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, 18000 Ni, SERBIA, e-mail: miroslav_mijajlovic@masfak.ni.ac.rs 3 Ratare, 35256 Sikirica, SERBIA, e-maiil: milan_radojevic1981@yahoo.com
Summary: Product shaping is an important phase of the design process. Theory of product shaping is scientific discipline which studies approaches and methods applied in product development and this theory is applicable to the parts and assemblies as well. Part and assembly modeling is final operation of shape forming process. That is the phase when product gets its final, defined 3D shape. Compute Aided Design (CAD) technologies which support parametric part modeling as a support to the design process, give following advantages: time necessary to design family of similar parts is significantly shorter and quality of products is the same or better than during design part by part. This paper gives a glance on parametric modeling and its application in wooden furniture manufacturing as an interior design strategy. Keywords: Wood furniture design, Interior design, 3D parametric modeling
1. INTRODUCTION
Its the information revolution that is metamorphosing product development, architecture and urban design. Digital technologies are transforming the nature and intent of architecture and creativity, blurring the relationships between matter and data, between the real and the virtual and between the organic and the inorganic and leading us into the area from which rich, innovative forms are emerging. At the end of 20th century, humanitys concept of space has suddenly experience a great change with the arrival of the Internet. Cyberspace or networked space now exists alongside actual space. Computer simulation technology has allowed building to be create in virtual space that were never intended to actually be constructed. This virtual space has not only influenced the direction of architectural design, but has overturned our existing spatial theories, interior design and furniture design. The success of particular furniture has always depended on the quality and range of the connections it makes, or the designer is able to make through it, while addressing a specific need. At the functional level, furniture makes physical and psychological connections with its form and material. At the same time, it may embody meanings and values which connect with the user at an intellectual, emotional, aesthetic, cultural and even spiritual level. Over the past 150 years, the evolution of the chair has paralleled development in architecture and technology and reflected the changing needs and concerns of society to such an extent that it can be seen to encapsulate the history of design. While the digital architecture is a revolutionary factor, none of which can be ignored, the furniture themselves express the coherence of emergence in the digital architecture era. Figure1 demonstrates the historical context of furniture design from Art & Craft Movement to Virtual Furniture Design.
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Figure1: The historical context of furniture design
2. THE FURNITURE DESIGN STRATEGY IN DIGITAL ARCHITECTURE ERA

The digital design media and digital construction methods have liberated form and space in architecture, and have turned architecture into more of pure art form than previously. The digital architecture has been changing the design materials, and appearance of architecture, which are main factors to furniture design. There features are: generative & Sculpture form, free form, carries of visual information and interactive environment. Through the exploration above, we may induce that the digitalization goes wild and be more intangible. The existing furniture design strategy can no longer satisfy the multiform representation of architecture in real and virtual world.
Figure 2: The furniture design strategy in digital architecture era [15] The goal was to provide business customers and consumers with a differentiated, low-cost product with input from the customer and efficient production and delivery using information and manufacturing technology. The mass customization paradigm is one of the methods for creating customer-centric product. Figure2 explains the two different ways the production process can be triggered by transforming customer data into production data or by making inquiries of the customers. Mass customization is ability to quickly and efficiently build massively usable and customized product. It uses all the techniques presented so far for the build of standard products and extends that to custom products. These products can be customized for individual customers or niche markets, such as version optimized for certain market segments, industries, regions, or countries. Mass customization may need effective web sites through configurators convert order entry data into parametric CAD models, CNC programs, electronic manual instruction, supplier pull signals, and shipping instructions. The most advanced configurators can display solid models and advanced graphics to show the customer what the contemplated product will actually look like. For very new products, this visualization capability can help early customers understand and comprehend new concepts and approaches. This can help get early feedback from customers. Web-based configurators offer the tantalizing prospect of customers not only placing their own orders but also designing their own products, all through automatic systems that are carefully constructed to allow ease of use and permit only valid product configurations. Different categories of key value attributes can be distinguished and each type has implications for product design, process design, and inventory.
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3. MODELING IN WOOD FURNITURE MANUFACTURING

Parametric modeling of wooden furniture is very useful approach in furniture manufacturing since schemes and models used in this area are similar and belong to a family of similar parts. Wood based panels for furniture manufacturing are delivered as 2750-2800 mm long and 2070-2120 mm wide, depending on the manufacturer of wood panels. For further furniture manufacturing it is necessary to prepare these panels to adequate dimensions. Common usage of these panels is usually below 90% what makes them more expensive then they are. Manufacturing program of a furniture factory is usually adjusted to a single wood panels manufacturer, but unexpected contract canceling between them might be a problem if furniture factory is not capable to quickly transform existing documentation according to the proposal of a new panel distributer. One way to prevent delays in work of such a factory is parametric modeling of parts and assemblies. It is a powerful service for the panel-based furniture that is typically manufactured by CNC machines. We first build a digital 3D model with all the parts required to build the actual product. We then use this model to generate subsequent manufacturing data and drawings for precise and fast production. 3D virtual models are developed in some CAD application (Inventor, SolidWorks etc.) and they have numerous applications (Figure 3). These models can give final technological documentation, lists of parts, and numerous details such are: price of a product, mass, density, volume etc. For example, furniture factory must make a business proposal in a few hours and parametrically modeled parts and assemblies can ease that problem and make a proposal possible in a few minutes. Price, as a prime factor of any proposal, is given in seconds. Development of montage schemes is crucial in furniture design process as well. Furniture should be home friendly and every buyer has different taste for his living space. Parametric modeling can provide fast adjustments and buyer can easily give brief overview to a manufacturer what does he wants to see in his home. 3D renderings give realistic images of furniture. Developed models can be converted into the STEP or IGES files and easily used in any other application, such is 3D planner used for living space planning.
Figure 3: Application of 3D model In children, living and bed room primary furniture can be described as a member of a family: lockers, commode, show case, wardrobes, closets.
4. 3D PARAMETRIC MODELING OF THE WOOD PANEL FURNITURE

There are several types of wooden panels in corpus manufacturing program (Figure 4): floor of the roof, back sides, separating verticals, separating horizontals, divisions, wings (application with glass), masks.
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Figure 4: Model of commode with 2 wings and 2 drawers
Figure 5: An example of the furniture
A single corpus element has corpus and color. One corpus is considered to consist of: floor roofs, back sides, separating verticals, separating horizontals and divisions. All of them are made in dcor of beech, light ash, oak and sweet cherry. Every element has its length, width and depth. Manufacturing program considers raster between drilled hole of 32 mm precisely defined with the distance of masks and edges from the roof floors and separating horizontals. For parametric modeling of these elements, it is important to accept several standard heights of elements that will fulfill functionality and ergonomic criteria. Width of elements is defined with the model of furniture: if it is one winged, two winged etc. Two winged furniture can be a variant with separating vertical or without it. If we use the separating verticals, that makes six possible widths of corpus elements. If we consider the orientation of the wood it can be said that width of the panel is the length of the floor panel. Depth of the furniture gives functionality. Program has two options. So, lockers, commodes and show cases have smaller depth while closets and wardrobes have greater depth. Depth determines the width of the floor, back side, divisions, separating horizontals and separating verticals. Parametric model generation is possible on 2 different ways. First approach uses a template of the model created in CAD and systematic parameters are read over dll files by the CAD application. Another approach uses Microsoft Excel file as a database where parameters of the model are inserted .Previously modeled basic models of furniture, parametrically connected one to another are already in the M. Excel. After start of the CAD application, in this case Autodesk Inventor, CAD connects to the M. Excel file, starts a template of the model and updates it according the data from the Excel. For parametric modeling of the furniture, it is used second approach. Since every element has its dimensions in the Excel table (Figure 5) these are the main parameters necessary for modeling. For quick exchange and program adjutancy with new cutting schemes (for panels) 3 parameters are used: length, width and depth.
Figure 6: Basic parameters
349
Checking the adequate parameters it is possible to choose characteristic parameters of the furniture. These parameters are responsible for further manipulation of the furniture data. Figure 7 gives and example how parameter exchange involves the shape of the furniture and its elements.
Figure 7: An example how parameter exchange involves the shape of the furniture and its elements Parametric modeling eases the changes in technological documentation of a certain part of the furniture what is the main goal of parametric modeling in manufacturing of the wood furniture. Figures 8, 9, 10, 11 give example variants for the lockers, commodes, wardrobes and closets. Numerous variants are made and converted into adequate model capable to be inserted into interior design software (3D planner) and further more used for custom development. Buyer can create his own childrens room, bedroom, without even coming to the factory. Parametric modeling has enabled virtual world to improve realistic word without increasing the price of the furniture.
Figure 8: Lockers
Figure 9: Commode
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Figure 10: Chases
Figure 11: Wardrobe After analysis of the market, management can easily change parametric modeled furniture and adjust the factory to the new market demands. On the demand side of the industry, market research suggests that customer value is made up of seven components (Figure 12). Price, Product Quality and Design have been identified as consumers primary value drivers, helping to explain the increased market share captured by fashionably designed affordable, high quality imports.
Figure 12: Customers decision making parameters while buying furniture Explicit and adequate help to customers give software for interior design with furniture and accessories Libraries with sofas, chairs, tables, beds, desks, storage items, home office items, and more. These software enable customers to choose items from pre-arranged furniture groupings bedroom sets, dining and living areas, and more. They enable customers to resize furniture, to create any custom size height, width, depth, thanks to the parametric modeling of furniture.
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Figure 13: Wood living room furniture from a program KIKI
5. CONCLUSIONS
The digital architecture has been playing an important role not only in architecture design but also in visual communication design and virtual furniture design. Through the exploration and the implement of virtual furniture design, we can conclude that: 1. The generative form and free form give architecture and furniture more dimensions on creation new form of representation. 2. Usage of CAD drastically decreases the time necessary for the furniture design and direct influence on the design process increases the quality of the system. Parametric furniture modeling put its advantages to the design process and helps engineers of every class and type get better products. So, the biggest advantages of the furniture parametric modeling are: It saves money since there is no need for the probe manufacturing (0 series). Errors and difficulties can be seen on the virtual furniture model and simulated. Better, easier and faster optimization of the process and products. Easy and fast solution change during furniture design process. Designer can easily redefine and change construction if product manufacturing process changes. Easier and simpler work on technological documentation creation. It is easy to create family of similar parts that differ one from another only in dimensions, It is easy to determine the price of every part or an assembly. If we pay attention to the application on the furniture manufacturing it is important to note that price is calculated as a price per surface. It is important to determine the surface that has been used what is not so easy to do without virtual models.
REFERENCES
[1] Spur, G.; Krause, F., F.- L.: CAD - Technik. Carl Hanser Verlag, Mnchen, Wien 1984 [2] Pahl, G.; Beitz, W.: Konstruktionslehre. 3. Auflage, Springer- Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg 1993 [3] Mili, D., Janoevi, D., Jovanovi, M.: Primena CA - tehnologija u razvoju proizvoda. IMK-14 Istraivanje i razvoj, asopis instituta IMK 14. Oktobar Kruevac, Godina VIII, Broj (14-15), 1-2. 2002., s. 55-60. [4] Mili, D. Integrisani programski sistem za konstruisanje prenosnika snage veza sa CAD sistemom, IMK-14 Istraivanje i razvoj, asopis instituta IMK 14. Oktobar Kruevac, Godina XIV , Broj (28-29), 12. 2008., s. 91-98. [5] Mili, D., Markovi, B., Mijajlovi, M.: Konstruisanje univerzalnih zupastih prenosnika kao virtuelni proces, Zbornik radova 9. SEVER-ovog simpozijuma o mehanikim prenosnicima, Subotica, Srbija, 10.10.2003., str. 23-28. [6] Mili, D., Mijajlovi, M.: Parametarsko modeliranje delova zupastog prenosnika snage, Trei skup o konstruisanju, oblikovanju i dizajnu 3. KOD 2004, 19.5.2004., Novi Sad, Srbija, str. 67-72. [7] Mili, D., Miltenovi, V. Design of Gear Drives as Virtual Process, The International Conference on Gears 2005, September 14th to 16th, 2005, Garching near Munich, Germany, VDI-Berichte Nr. 1904, 2005, pp. 399-415. [8] Mili, D., Anelkovi, B., Mijajlovi, M. Automatisation of power transmitters design process within ZPS system, Machine Design - Monograph, University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences,
352
[9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15]
ADEKO Association For Design, Elements And Constructions, 2008., Novi Sad, Monograph, pp. 1-8., ISBN 978-86-7892-105-6. Mili, D., Miltenovi, V. Design of Gear Drives as Virtual Process, The International Conference on Gears 2005, September 14th to 16th, 2005, Garching near Munich, Germany, VDI-Berichte Nr. 1904, 2005, pp. 399-415. Mili, D. Programski sistem za konstruisanje prenosnika snage PTD 3.0, Zbornik radova, Yu Info 2005, Kopaonik, 2005, CD. Mili, D., Mijajlovi, M. Parametarsko modeliranje delova zupastog prenosnika snage, Trei skup o konstruisanju, oblikovanju i dizajnu 3. KOD 2004, 19.5.2004., Novi Sad, s. 67-72. Mili, D., Mijajlovi, M. Automatizacija procesa prorauna i oblikovanja remenog prenosnika, Zbornik radova, Yu Info 2009, Kopaonik, 2009, CD. Janoevi, D., Mili, D. Virtualni razvoj proizvoda, VIII Meunarodna konferencija fleksibilne tehnologije, Novi Sad, 2003, s. 89-90. Radojevi, M. Parametarski pristup modeliranju nametaja u drvnoj industriji, Diplomski rad, Mainski fakultet u Niu, 2010. Lin C. H., Hsu Y. L. The Strategy of Virtual Furniture Design in the Digital Architecture Era,http://203.72.2.115/EJournal/4061000109.pdf, pp. 101-108
353
RaDMI 2010
INFLUENCE OF THE PLATE GEOMETRY ON THE STABILITY OF A PLATE WITH TWO FIELDS
Sneana Miti
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Ni, SERBIA, e-mail: snemitic@gmail.com
Summary: This paper determines the influence of the plate geometry on the elastic stability of a rectangular plate with two fields by using the thin plate theory. The rectangular plate has three simply supported edges while the fourth is clamped. By using the general Levy method, the influence of the plate length and width ratio and the plate field width and thickness on the stability of the buckling load is investigated. The obtained results are shown graphically and in the tabular form. Keywords: Levy method, stability criteria, buckling factor, constructive discontinuity
1. INTRODUCTION
Rectangular plates with two fields of non-uniform thickness are extensively used in constructions in order to economize on the plate materials, enhance stiffness, reinforcement, etc. The analysis of a buckled plate with fields of non-uniform thickness has attracted a lot of attention during the last couple of decades. A variety of theoretical approaches have been formulated for this class of problems. These approaches may be applied to the study of plates of non-uniform thickness where the plate thickness is allowed to vary either as piecewise constant step functions (e.g. Chopra, 1974; Yuan and Dickinson, 1992; Lam and Amrutharaj, 1995; Guo et al., 1997; Eisenberger and Alexandrov, 2000; Ju et al., 1995; Cheung et al., 2000), a linear function (e.g. Wittrick and Ellen, 1962; Ohga et al., 1995), piecewise linear functions (e.g. Hwang, 973), or as a non-linear function (e.g. Pines and Gerard, 1947; Malhorta et al., 1987; Navaneethakrishnan, 1988). The paper is organized in the following manner. Theoretical formulations are presented in Section 2. The Levy method is used to develop the analytical analysis for rectangular plates with constructive discontinuities and fields of non-uniform thickness. In Section 3, the exact solutions for the stability of the rectangular plate when three edges are simply supported and the fourth is clamped are presented. The results and discussions are presented in Section 4. This paper ends with a conclusion.
2. THE ANALYTICAL MODEL

A rectangular plate of length a and width b is simply supported on the edges which are parallel to the X- axis (Figure 1). Assume that the rectangular plate is compressed in its middle plane by forces uniformly distributed along the sides X = 0 and X = . The longitudinal constructive discontinuities divide the plate into n fields of different thickness hi and and a common elastic surface area. The plane is isotropic and elastic, with modulus of elasticity and Poisson's ratio . With the gradual increase of the load Nx, the equilibrium of the plate becomes unstable and buckling occurs. Based on the classical thin plate theory, the governing differential equation for the i th field is given by: 4 wi 4 wi 4 wi N x 2 wi + + = 2 , i=1,2...n (1) Di X 2 X 4 X 2 Y 2 Y 4
354
in which the subscript i refers to the ith field of plate, wi ( X , Y ) is the transverse displacement, X and Y are the Cartesian co-ordinates, Di = Ehi3 12 1 2
( (
))
is the flexural rigidity of the field, N X is the in-plane
compressive load. Using the following transformations: (2) X = a x, 0 x 1 , Y = b y , 0 y 1 , the differential Equation (1) of the deflection surface can be written in the following form: 4 wi 4w 4 wi 2 wi (3) + 2q 2 2 i 2 + q 4 + K p 2q2 = 0, 4 4 x x y y x2 where K i is the buckling factor for i th field of the plates and which, for certain materials and load, depends on the dimensions of the plate. The boundary conditions for the two simply supported edges at y=0 and y=1 are that the deflection and the buckling moment along these sides are zero. 2 w (x, y ) n 2 w (x, y ) i i = 0, + 2 wi (x, y ) = 0 , D1 (4) 2 y2 y= 0 q x y = 0
2 w (x, y ) n 2 w (x, y ) i i = 0. (5) D2 + 2 2 y2 y= 1 x q y = 1 By using the Levy approach, the transverse displacement function for the ith field of the plate can be expressed as: wi (x, y )= fi (x)sin b n y, b n = n p , (6)
wi (x, y ) = 0,
where n is the number of sinusoidal half-waves of the buckling in the y direction and fi (x) is an unknown function to be determined. Eq. (6) satisfies the boundary conditions [Eqs. (4) and (5)] for the two simply supported edges at y=0 and y=1. In view of Eq. (6), the partial differential equations in Eq. (3) may be reduced to fourth-order ordinary differential equations as: 2 4 (7) f i (4) ( x) - (2q 2 b n - K p 2q 2 ) fi ( x) + q 4 b n f i ( x ) = 0. Depending on the roots of the characteristics equations of the differential equations, there are particular solutions to the above fourth-order differential equations.
3. PLATE WITH THE EDGE X=0 CLAMPED AND THE EDGE X=1 SIMPLY SUPPORTED
Figure 1 shows a rectangular plate with longitudinal constructive discontinuity which divides the plate into field 1 and field 2. The discontinuity is at the arbitrary distance x = x , 0 x 1, from the X-axis. The plate edge x=0 is clamped and the edge x=1 is simply supported.
Figure 1: The flexural rigidities of field 1 and field 2 and their ratio are:
3 D1 h1 D1 = , D2 = ,Y= = . D2 h2 12 (1- n 2 ) 12 ( 1- n 2 )
E h13
E h23
(8)
355
According to Equation (6), the transverse displacement function for the field of the plate can be expressed as: w1 (x, y )= f1 (x)sin b n y, b n = n p , (9)
w2 (x, y )= f 2 (x)sin b n y, b n = n p .
Equation (7) for field 1 and field 2 of the plate has the following form: 2 4 f1(4) ( x) - (2q 2 b n - K p 2 q 2 ) f1 ( x) + q 4 b n f1 ( x) = 0,
2 4 ( x) + q 4 b n f 2(4) ( x) - (2q 2 b n - YK p 2 q 2 ) f 2 f 2 ( x) = 0.
(10) (11) (12)
where the buckling factors are given by the following expressions: N b2 D N b2 (13) K = K1 = x 2 , K 2 = 1 x 2 = YK1 = YK . D2 D1 p D1p The general solution of the differential Equations (8) and (9) for certain values of the buckling factor have the form: f1 (x)= C1 cos a 1 x + C2 sin a 1 x + C3 cos b1 x + C4 sin b1 x , (14)
f 2 (x)= C5 cos a 2 x + C6 sin a 2 x + C7 cos b 2 x + C8 sin b 2 x ,
(15)
where 1, 1, 2, and 2 are the roots of the characteristics equations for certain values of the buckling factor K: K K 2 2 2 2 (16) a 1 = q2 b n - 1)+ (1- 2K - 1 , b1 = q 2 b n - 1)- (1- 2K - 1 , ( ) ( ) 2 2 n n n n
2 2 2 2
YK 2 q2b n2 (2n - 1)+ (1- 2YnK ) The constants of integration C j , j = a2 =

2 2
YK 2 1 , b 2 = q 2 b n 2 . (17) (2n - 1)- (1- 2YnK ) - 1 1, 2 K 8 in solutions (11) and (12) are determined from the boundary
2 2
conditions along the edges x=0 and x=1 and the continuity conditions along the constructive discontinuity. The boundary conditions on the edges x=0, which is clamped, and x=1, which is simply supported, are: w1 (x, y ) (18) w1 (x, y ) = 0 , = 0, x= 0 x x= 0
2 w (x, y ) 2 w2 (x, y ) 2 2 = 0. + nq (19) = 0 , D2 2 x2 x= 1 y x= 1 To ensure the displacement continuities and equilibrium conditions at the discontinuity, the following essential and natural conditions must be satisfied: w1 (x, y ) = w2 (x, y ) , w1 (x, y ) = w2 (x, y ) , (20) x x x= x x= x x= x x= x 2 2 w (x, y ) 2 2 w1 (x, y ) 1 2 = D w2 (x, y ) + nq 2 w2 (x, y ) , (21) + D1 nq 2 x2 x2 y2 y2 x= x x= x
w2 (x, y )
3 3 w (x, y ) 3 3 w1 (x, y ) 1 2 = D w2 (x, y ) + (2 - n )q 2 w2 (x, y ) . (22) + D1 2 n q ( ) 2 3 x3 x y2 x y2 x x= x x= x From the conditions (18-22), a system of homogenous equations linear in unknown constants of integration is obtained. The buckled form of the equilibrium of the plate becomes possible only if the determinant of this system of equations becomes zero. The determinant of the system of equations contains parameters which influence the stability of the plate. The elements of the determinant are:
a11 = cos a 1x - cos b1x a 21 = - a 1 sin a 1x + b1 sin b1x

2 2 2 2 q )cos a 1x + (b12 + nb n q )cos b1x a 31 = Y - (a 12 + nb n 3 3 2 2 a sin a 1x - b1 sin b1x + (2 - n )b n q (a 1 sin a 1x - b1 sin b1x ) a 41 = Y 1
(23)
356
a12 = sin a 1x -
a1 sin b1x b1
a 22 = - a 1 (cos a 1x - cos b1x ) a 2 2 2 2 a 32 = Y - a 2 + nb n q )sin a 1x + 1 (b12 + nb n q )sin b1x ( 1 b1 3 2 2 - a cos a 1x - a 1 (2 - n )b n q (cos a 1x - cos b1x )+ a 1b12 cos b1x a42 = Y 1
(24)
a13 = sin (1- x )a 2 a 23 = - a 2 cos (1- x )a 2

2 2 2 a 33 = (a 2 + nb n q )sin (1- x )a 2 2 2 2 a43 = - a 2 a2 + (2 - n )b n q cos (1- x )a 2 a14 = sin (1- x )b 2
(25)
a 24 = - b 2 cos (1- x )b 2
2 2 2 a 34 = (b 2 + nb n q )sin (1- x )b 2 2 2 a44 = - b 2 b 2 + 2 - n )b n q cos (1- x )b 2 2 (
(26)
4. NUMERICAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The elements of the determinant contain values which determine the plate geometry (a,b,h1,h2,,) and influence the stability of the buckling plate. The values of the buckling factor K in the function of values which determine the plate geometry are derived and boundary curves, below which a stable area is found, are drawn.
20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
n=1 h2 / h1=2
=0.3 =0.5 =0.7
a/b
Figure 2: The buckling factor K in the function of the ratio a b for the different position of AA of the constructive discontinuity Figure 2. For the constant ratio h2/h1=2, the buckling factor K decreases with the increase of the plate edges ratio a/b and approaches the value of 4.847. The values of the K are greater for a plate with a smaller co-ordinate of position because in this case the plate length is smaller and with a smaller thickness h1 (h2). Figure 3. For a square plate and the positon of discontinuity =0.5, the values of the K are greater for the greater ratio h2/h1. With the increase of the ratio a/b, the values of the K decrease. Figure 4. A square plate has been analysed. For the constant position , greater values of the K are for the greater ratio h2/h1. For the ratio h2/h1>1, with the increase of the co-ordinate the length of the field with smaller thickness increases and the factor K has greater values. For the ratio h2/h1<1, with the increase of the coordinate the length of the field with smaller thickness decreases (h2) and the factor K has greater values (h2/h1=0.6).
357
12
n=1 =0.5
10
h2 / h1 =1.2 K
8
h2 / h1 =1.5 h2 / h1 =2
4 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
a/b
Figure 3: The buckling factor K in the function of the ratio a b for the different ratio h2/h1
35
30
n=1 =1
h2 / h1 =0.6 h2 / h1 =1 h2 / h1 =1.2 h2 / h1 =1.5 h2 / h1 =2
25
20
K
15 10
4.8471
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Figure 4: The buckling factor K in the function of position of the constructive discontinuity for the different ratio h2/h1 Figure 5. For h2/h1<1, a plate with a smaller has greater values of the K. When h2/h1=1, the position does not influence the K because there is no change of thickness, K=4,8471. For h2/h1>1, the value of the K is greater for the smaller co-ordinate of position (the field length is smaller with a smaller thickness h1). The values of the buckling factor K (from the table) for the square plate (a/b=1) are consistent with the values obtained during research. Table 1: Values of the buckling factor K
a/b h2/h1
=0.3
4.8471 7.7409 13.0780 18.790 6.5313 8.5518 11.1937 5.7996 6.7258 7.2643
=0.5
4.8471 6.8258 9.0189 12.3580 5.6097 6.2882 6.5839 4.9770 5.1857 5.2965
=0.7
4.8471 5.8235 7.0847 9.0650 5.0247 5.2974 5.3997 4.5860 4.6762 4.7135
2 3
1.0 1.2 1.5 2.0 1.2 1.5 2.0 1.2 1.5 2.0
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20
n=1 =1
15
10
4.8471
= 0.3 = 0.5 = 0.7
0 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
h2/h1
Figure 5: The buckling factor K in the function of the ratio h2/h1 for the different position of the constructive discontinuity
5. CONCLUSIONS
This paper presents the applicability of the Levy method for the analytical study of the buckling stability of a rectangular plate with two fields of non-uniform thickness. Three plate edges are simply supported, while the fourth is clamped. The influence of the plate geometry on the stability of the plate has been investigated. By using a numerical analysis of the determinant of the system of equations, the criteria of the stability of the factor K in the function of the plate edges length ratio, plate field thickness ratio and the position of the longitudinal constructive discontinuity have been obtained. The minimal values of the critical loads are derived and boundary curves below which a stable area exists are obtained.
REFERENCES
[1] W. H. WITTRICK and C. H. ELLEN 1962 Aeronautical Quarterly 13, 308-326. Buckling of tapered rectangular plates in compression. [2] S. K. MALHORTA, N. GANESAN and M. A. VELUSWAMI 1987 Journal of Sound and vibration 119, 184-188. Vibrations of orthotropicsquare plates having variable thickness (parabolic variation). [3] N. OLHOFF 1974 International Journal of Solids and Structures 10, 93-109. Optimal design of vibrating rectangular plates. [4] S. J. GUO, A. J. KEANE and M. MOSHREFI-TORBATI 1997 Journal of Sound and vibration 204, 645657. Vibration analysis of stepped thickness plates. [5] M. Eisenberger and A. Alexandrov, Stability analysis of stepped thickness plates, Computational Methods for Shell and Spatial Structures, IASS-IACM 200 Athens, Greece: 2000 ISASR-NTUA. [6] F. JU, H. P. LEE and K. H. LEE 1995 Journal of Sound and vibration 183, 533-545. Free vibration of plates with stepped variations in thickness on non-homogeneous elastic foundations. [7] D. Rakovi, Teorija elastinosti, Nauna knjiga, Beograd, 1980. [8] P.S. Timoshenko, Gere M. James, Theory of Elastic Stability, McGraw-Hill, Book Company, Inc, 1961. [9] Y. Xiang, C.M. Wang, Exact buckling and vibration solutions for stepped rectangular plates, Journal of sound and Vibration 250, 503-517, 2002.
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RaDMI 2010
STABILITY OF STEPPED PLATES WITH A CLAMPED EDGE

Sneana Miti
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Ni, SERBIA, e-mail: snemitic@gmail.com
Summary: This paper presents the exact solutions for the buckling of stepped rectangular plates with two opposite edges simply supported and the remaining two edges simply supported and clamped. The general Levy type solution method and a domain decomposition technique are employed to develop an analytical approach for dealing with stepped rectangular plates. Exact buckling loads are obtained for plates with varying step thickness ratios. The influence of the step width ratios, step thickness ratios on the buckling of rectangular plates is examined. The presented exact results may serve as benchmark solutions for such plates. Keywords: Levy method, stability criteria, buckling factor, stepped plates.
1. INTRODUCTION
Engineers aim at reducing the weight of structures without jeopardizing their load-bearing capacities. This approach is used in a number of engineering constructions (aircrafts, automobiles, waggons, buses, transport vehicles, construction machines, boiler constructions, etc.), where each ton saved due to weight reduction causes great material saving, which leads to the reduction of petrol consumption and the reduction of the costs of production. This aim has been a great motive for the continuous work on finding and developing theoretical soulutions of the problems and at the same time improving the quality of the used materials. However, these two factors often lead to a great reduction of the dimensions of the constructive elements, which has caused another problem, i.e. the instability of the elements due to the occurence of buckling. Thus, it is of vital importance to test all the elements on buckling when researching any mechanical improvements. In particular, buckling analysis of stepped plates has attracted much attention in the past few decades. A variety of theoretical approaches have been formulated for this class of problems. [1-7]. This paper deals with a rectangular plate with two steps of different thickness. The steps of different thickness are formed by the longitudinal constructive discontinuity.The stability analysis of rectangular plates with two opposite edges simply supported and the other two simply supported and clamped has been performed. By using the Levy method, the buckling factor of the plate has been determined analytically and numerically. The results are shown graphically and the stability range for all the considered plate parameters is determined.
2. THEORETICAL FORMULATION
Consider an isotropic, elastic, stepped rectangular plate of length a, width b, modulus of elasticity E, Poissons ratio . The discontinuity divides the plate into two steps of different thickness h1 and h2. The plate is of constant thicknesses in the X-direction and two-steps in the Y-direction. The discontinuity is at the arbitrary distance y = h , 0 h 1, from the Y-axis. The two edges of the plate parallel to the Y-axis are assumed to be simply supported and the remaining two edges are simply supported and clamped (Figure 1). Assume that the rectangular plate is compressed in its middle plane by forces uniformly distributed along the sides X = 0 and X = . With the gradual increase of the load Nx, the equilibrium of the plate becomes unstable and buckling occurs. The problem at hand is to determine the critical buckling loads for such a rectangular plate.
360
Y
Figure 1: The governing differential equations based on the classical thin plate theory can be derived as: 4 w 4 wi 4 wi 2 wi i Di N 2 , i=1, 2 + + = x X 4 X 2 Y 2 Y 4 X 2 are the Cartesian co-ordinates, Di = Ehi3 12 1 2 compressive load. Using the following transformations: X = ax , 0 x 1 ,
(1)
in which the subscript i refers to the ith step of the plate, wi ( X , Y ) is the transverse displacement, X and Y
( (
) ) is the flexural rigidity of the field and
N X is the in-plane
(2) Y = by , 0 y 1 , (3) q = a/b , (4) the differential equation (1) of the deflection surface for step 1 and step 2 can be written in the following form: 4 w1 ( x, y ) 1 4 w1 ( x, y ) 1 4 w1 ( x, y ) p 2 2 w1 ( x, y ) (5) + 2 + + K = 0. y4 q2 x 2 y 2 q4 x4 q2 x2
4 w2 ( x, y ) 2 4 w2 ( x, y ) 1 4 w2 ( x, y ) p 2 2 w2 ( x, y ) + 2 + 4 + YK 2 = 0 4 2 2 4 y q x y q x q x2
(6)
where K is the buckling factor and Y = D1 / D2 = (h1 / h2 ) . The flexural rigidities of step 1 and step 2 are:
D1 = Eh13 / 12 (1- n 2 ) , D2 = Eh23 / 12 (1- n 2 ) ,
(7)
The solutions of the partial differential equations (5) and (6) for step 1 and step 2 can be written in the following form (Levy approach[8,9]): w1 ( x, y ) = f1 ( y ) sin a m x , a m = mp , (8)
w2 (x, y )= f 2 (y )sin a m x , am = mp ,
(9)
where m is the number of sinusoidal half-waves of the buckling in the X direction, f1 (y ) and f 2 (y ) are unknown functions to be determined. Solutions (8) and (9) satisfy the boundary conditions for the two simply supported edges at x = 0 and x = 1 : 2 2 w ( x, y ) 2 w1 ( x, y ) 1 D1 nq + = 0, w1 ( x, y ) x = 0,1 = 0 and (10) 2 x2 y x = 0,1 2 2 w ( x, y ) 2 w2 ( x, y ) 2 w2 ( x, y ) x = 0,1 = 0 and (11) + = 0. D2 nq x2 y2 x = 0,1 In view of eqs. (8) and (9), the partial differential equations in eqs. (5) and (6) may be reduced to fourth-order type ordinary differential equations: 2 a 4 a 2 2 am m f1(4) ( y ) - 2 m f ( y ) + K p (12) f1 ( y ) = 0 , 1 q4 q2 q2
361
f 2(4) ( y ) - 2
2 a 4 a m2 2 am m f ( y ) + Y K p f2 ( y) = 0 . 2 4 q2 q2 q
(13)
The general solution of the differential equation (12) and (13) in the case, when K < m 2 / q 2 or K < m 2 / (Yq 2 ) , has the form: f1 (y )= B1 cosh a '1 y + B2 sinh a '1 y + B3 cosh b '1 y + B4 sinh b '1 y
f 2 (y )= B5 cosh a '2 y + B6 sinh a '2 y + B7 cosh b '2 y + B8 sinh b '2 y
(14) (15)
The constants Bi
(i = 1,K ,8) are obtained from the boundary conditions along the edges y = 0 and y = 1 and
also the conditions along the discontinuity.

a) The boundary conditions for the simply supported edge y = 0 are: 2 w ( x, y ) n 2 w ( x, y ) 1 1 = 0. w1 ( x, y ) y = 0 = 0 and D1 + 2 y2 q x2 y = 0 b) The boundary conditions for the clamped edge y = 1 are:
w2 ( x, y ) y =1 = 0
(16)
and
w2 ( x, y ) y
= 0.
y= 1
(17)
c)
The boundary conditions along the discontinuity are:

y= h
w1 (x, y )
= w2 (x, y )
y= h
, ,
y= h
(18) (19)
w1 ( x, y ) y
=
y= h
w2 ( x, y ) y
2 2 w ( x, y ) n 2 w ( x, y ) 2 1 1 = D2 w2 ( x, y ) + n w2 ( x, y ) , (20) D1 + 2 2 2 2 2 2 y y q q x x y = h y = h 3 3 w ( x, y ) (2 - n ) 3 w ( x, y ) 3 1 1 = D2 w2 ( x, y ) + (2 - n ) w2 ( x, y ) . (21) + D1 2 2 3 2 2 y3 q q x y y = h x y y y = h From the conditions (16-21), a system of homogenous equations linear in unknown constants of integration is obtained. The buckled form of the equilibrium of the plate becomes possible only if the determinant of this system of equations becomes zero. The determinant of the system of equations contains parameters which influence the stability of the plate. The elements of the determinant are:
b11 = sinh a 1 h b 21 = a 1cosh a 1 h

2 2 am (a sinh a 1 b 31 = Y n h ) 1 q2 2 2 am (a 2 b 41 = Ya 1 n h ( ) ) cosh a 1 1 2 q
(22)
b12 = sinh b1 h b 22 = b1cosh b1 h

2 2 am (b sinh b1 b 32 = Y n h ) 1 q2 2 2 am (b cosh b1 2 b 42 = Yb1 n h ( ) 1) 2 q
(23)
362
cosh (1- h )b 2- cosh a 2 b13 = cosh a 2 h-
a2 sinh (1- h )b 2 sinh a 2 b2
cosh (1- h )b 2 sinh a 2 - a 2 sinh a 2 cosh a 2 sinh (1- h )b 2 b 23 = a 2 h - b2

2 2 2 2 am am cosh (1- h )b 2 b 33 = - a n cosh a h b n + ( ) ( ) (cosh a 2 2 2 2 q2 q2
- -
a2 sinh (1- h )b 2 sinh a 2 b2
(24)
2 2 am cosh (1- h )b 2 b 43 = a 2 b n 2 ( ) ( ) sinh a 2 2 2 q 2 2 2 (a )2 - (2 - n )a m (b ) - (2 - n )a m sinh (1- h )b 2 a h b sinh - a2 cosh a 2 2 2 2 2 q2 q2 a cosh ( - sin a 2 sinh (1- h )b 2 b14 = sinh a 2 1- h )b 2 h - 2 cosh a 2 b2
cosh a 2 cosh a 2 cosh (1- h )b 2 - b 2sinh a 2 sinh (1- h )b 2 b 24 = - a 2 h+ a2

2 2 am cosh (1- h )b 2 b 34 = - b n ( ) sinh a 2 2 q2 2 2 (a ) - n a m hsinh a 2 2 q2
2 am a2 a sinh (1- h )b 2 - b n cosh a 2 2 2 2 b q 2 2 2 2 2 am am + a n a h b n 2 cosh 2 b 44 = ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 2 2 2 q2 q2
(25)
(a 2cosh a 2cosh (1- h )b 2- b 2sinh a 2sinh (1- h )b 2)
, and b 2 are the roots of the characteristics equations for certain values of the buckling factor where a 1, b1 , a 2 K:
a '1 = p am q K+
2 am , q2
b '1 =
2 am a - p m 2 q q
K ,
(26) (27)
= a2
am q
YK +
2 am , q2
= b2
2 am a - p m 2 q q
YK .
3. NUMERICAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The elements of the determinant contain values which determine the plate geometry (a,b,h1,h2,,) and influence the stability of the buckling plate. The values of the buckling factor K in the function of values aspect ratio of the plates edges, the step width ratios (defined by the position of the discontinuity ) and step thickness ratios are derived and boundary curves, below which a stable area is found, are drawn. Figure 2 shows the buckling factor K in the function of the aspect ratio a/ b of the edges of the plate for the different ratio h2/h1 of the thickness of the plate steps. The steps are of constant thickness ( =0.5). The buckling factor K is greater for a greater ratio h2/h1. For a plate with the aspect ratio a/ b =4.5 of the plate edges, the number of half-waves (m=5) of the buckled plate is the same for plates of different thickness and up to the value of the ratio h2/h1 =1.5. Figure 3 shows the dependence of the buckling factor K in the function of the aspect ratio a/b for different widths of step 1 and step 2. The step widths are defined by the position of the discontinuity for the ratio h2/h1=2, four half-waves occur for a plate with the ratio a/b =4. For h2/h1>, the factor K increases with the decrease of because the width of step 2, which also has a greater thickness h2, is greater.
363
14
=0.5
12
m=1 m=2
10
h2 / h1 =1.5
m=3 m=4 m=5
h2 / h1 =1.2
h2 / h1 =1
4 1 2 3 4
a/b
Figure 2: The buckling factor K in the function of the aspect ratio a b for the different ratio h2/h1 and with more half-waves
30
h2/h1=2
=0.3
m=2 m=3 m=4
m=1
25
20
=0.5
15
=0.7
10
a/b
Figure 3: The buckling factor K in the function of the aspect ratio a b for the different position of of the constructive discontinuity and with more half-waves
The values of the buckling factor K (from the table) for the square plate (a/b=1) are consistent with the values obtained during research.
Table 1: The values of the buckling factor K h2/h1 =0.3 =0.5 =0.7 1.2 9.2035 7.9649 6.8547 1.5 15.4514 11.1273 8.2315 2.0 28.6264 17.0739 10.4923 1.0 5.7402 5.7402 5.7402 1.2 8.6604 7.6638 6.6916 1.5 14.1858 10.5585 8.1744 2.0 25.2159 15.9792 11.2198 1.2 8.6604 7.5487 6.6916 1.5 14.1858 10.5874 8.1744 2.0 25.2159 15.9792 11.2198
a/b
0.6
364
4. CONCLUSIONS
This paper presents an analytical approach for studying the buckling of rectangular plates with two steps. The Levy solution method is employed for the step buckling in the plates.The exact solutions for the buckling of stepped rectangular plates with two opposite edges simply supported and the remaining two edges being either simply supported or clamped are presented in this paper. The influence of the aspect ratio of the plates edges, the step width ratios and step thickness ratios on the buckling behaviour of square and rectangular plates is investigated. The author believes that the presented exact solutions for the buckling of the stepped plates are very valuable as they may serve as benchmark results for future researches in this area.
REFERENCES
[1] W. H. WITTRICK and C. H. ELLEN 1962 Aeronautical Quarterly 13, 308-326. Buckling of tapered rectangular plates in compression. [2] S. K. MALHORTA, N. GANESAN and M. A. VELUSWAMI 1987 Journal of Sound and vibration 119, 184-188. Vibrations of orthotropicsquare plates having variable thickness (parabolic variation). [3] N. OLHOFF 1974 International Journal of Solids and Structures 10, 93-109. Optimal design of vibrating rectangular plates. [4] S. J. GUO, A. J. KEANE and M. MOSHREFI-TORBATI 1997 Journal of Sound and vibration 204, 645657. Vibration analysis of stepped thickness plates. [5] M. Eisenberger and A. Alexandrov, Stability analysis of stepped thickness plates, Computational Methods for Shell and Spatial Structures, IASS-IACM 200 Athens, Greece: 2000 ISASR-NTUA. [6] F. JU, H. P. LEE and K. H. LEE 1995 Journal of Sound and vibration 183, 533-545. Free vibration of plates with stepped variations in thickness on non-homogeneous elastic foundations. [7] Y. Xiang, C.M. Wang, Exact buckling and vibration solutions for stepped rectangular plates, Journal of sound and Vibration 250, 503-517, 2002. [8] D. Rakovi, Teorija elastinosti, Nauna knjiga, Beograd, 1980. [9] P.S. Timoshenko, Gere M. James, Theory of Elastic Stability, McGraw-Hill, Book Company, Inc, 1961.
365
RaDMI 2010
REDUCING POLLUTION FROM ELECTRICITY -DUSTING FACILITY MODERNIZATION FROM ENDOWMENT A LARGE COMBUSTION PLANTS
Valentin Nedeff, Mirela Panainte, Bogdan Constantin Macarescu, Emilian Mosnegutu, Mihail Ristea
VASILE ALECSANDRI University of Bacau, Bacau, ROMANIA, E-mail: vnedeff@ub.ro
Summary: The pollution is a problem particularly in the XXI century, due to rapid developments of the last century of determinants such as industrialization, urbanization, chemicals, population density. This paper aims to demonstrate the efficiency of an electric dusting power plant (electro filter, noted short ELF) which is intended retention of gas resulting from combustion of lignite in a large combustion plants (IMA). Keywords: pollutions, electro filter, combustion plant, emission.
1. INTRODUCTION
Required for compliance concept of sustainable development in recent years, environmental issues have become a great extent. From economic point of view the products and services intended to be of higher quality, realized with a low environmental impact. In other words, it requires the production technologies and environmental services to be ecologies and the results of which - "clean" [5, 6]. Sustainable development requires the society to satisfy consumer demand by increasing the productive potential of its members, but also by providing fair access to resources for its members. A component of sustainable development concept is to control the environmental impact of social economics activity. Control the impact requires detailed knowledge of the phenomenon, which involves steps of identification, estimation and its assessment [1, 6]. Pollution and environmental protection are considered the major problems currently facing humanity in general. The changes which taking place at globally regarding the environment imposes founding solutions to theoretical and conceptual based, to maintain ecological balance of the planet. Atmospheric contamination occurs due to the discharge of gas generated from various industrial activities and transport activity. These pollutants form of films, smog, heavy odor, occurring mainly in development processes, combustion and containing different proportions of gases such as SO2, NOx, CH4, CO, etc. [3, 4, 5]. This paper aims to demonstrate the efficiency of an electric dusting power plant (electric filter, noted short ELF) which is intended retention of gas resulting from combustion of lignite in a large combustion plants (IMA).
2. LEGISLATIVE REGLEMENTATION
Quality standards of environmental factors (air, water, soil, etc.) are extremely important for decisions concerning the protection of air, whether are used in impact assessments of industrial facilities on the environment, whether it is used in the monitoring of environmental quality factors as level of reference [4]. Government Decision 440/2010, which abrogates Government Decision 541/2003 establishes measures to limit air emissions of certain pollutants from large combustion plants [8, 9]. According to regulatory documents business owners of large combustion plants existing - type I, which does not comply with emission limit values for sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and dust, provided under the regulatory
366
provisions, should own and update programs to reduce progressive annual emissions of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and particulates, to achieve these emission limit values. Progressive reduction programs of annual emissions of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and particulates include deadlines, arrangements for implementation and annual ceilings for emissions of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and dust for each large combustion plants. Government Decision transposes Directive 2001/80/EC of the European Parliament and the Council of 23 October 2001 regarding the limitation of air emissions of certain pollutants from large combustion plants [10]. Emission limit values for large combustion plants in S.C. CET S.A. Bacau, established according to GD 541/2003 and which remain valid and in GD conditions 440/2010 are presented in Table 1. Table 1: Emission limits values for large combustion plants and IMA 1 and IMA 2 FROM S.C. CET S.A. Bacau Polluting IMA 1 - 343 MWt SO2 NOx Dust IMA 2 - 76,5 MWt SO2 NOx Dust Emission limits values* (mg/Nm3) - GD 440/2010
Focus powered by solid fuel (6%O2) Powered focus fuel (3%O2) Powered focus fuel gas (3%O2)
[8, 9].
1028 600 100 -
1420 450 50 (100*) 1700 450 50(100*)
35 300 5 35 300 5
* - the limits values de 100 mg/Nm3 is applied when fuel has an ash content greater than 0.06%
3. CASE STUDY
S.C. CET S.A. Bacau goal is to ensure public service supply heat to the inhabitants of Bacau by producing heat and power to according at quality parameters as required, in terms of efficiencies and continuity. The main activities of S.C. CET S.A. Bacau, as required by law, are [7]: generation, transmission and distribution of heat; production of steam and hot water; transmission and distribution of steam and hot water; production of electricity; the transmission of electricity; distribution of electricity; development of advanced energy balance. Production capacity S.C. CET S.A. Bacau is 800000 Gcal/year of heat and 350000 MWh/year of electricity. Of the total heat energy 69.28% (52.11% is hot water and steam is 17.17%) and 30.72% electricity. Power plants have the following configuration [7]: IMA 1 with a thermal power of 343 MWt, formed by power boiler type CRG 1870 that can produce a steam output of 420 to/h. The steam produced to boiler is used to produce electricity and heat in cogeneration through its detente in turbine type DSL 50. Basic fuel is lignite to natural gas or oil added; IMA 2 with a thermal power of 76.5 MWt, consisting of industrial steam boiler (CAI) type Babcock that can produce a steam flow of 100 to/h. The boiler uses natural gas or fuel oil. Steam produced is supplied industrial users of heat or used to heat water circulated through the district heating networks. Residual gas resulted in two combustion plants (which operate alternately) are discharged through the funnel of 220 maters height. Operating modes of the energy block at S.C. CET S.A. Bacau are as follows [7]. in winter, production at electricity and thermal energy is carried by unit operation in cogeneration mode (about 6-9 months per year); during the summer for approximately 30 days are carried maintenance operations, maintenance and repairs.
367
Gases resulting from coal combustion processes (lignite) in power boiler at 420 t/h containing a large amount of ash (70 g/Nm3), for which the power plant was designed with a retention system of the solid dust in suspension in flue gas discharged from the funnel. This installation consists from two electric filters, one of each channel the exhaust from the combustion plant. Each electric filter consists of four fields [2, 7]. Working principle of the electric filters is: in dust separators are generates a strong electrostatic field generated by the electric voltage difference between electrodes (75 - 100 kV), flue gas is ionized when passing through the field, and solid particles in suspension are collected on electrodes deposition. These electrodes are periodically shaken (automatically), the ash is collected in the bottom of electric filters and discharge hydraulic to ash landfill through intermedium Bagger pumps. Electric filter from S.C. CET S.A. Bacau are by type BS 672 with four fields each, the actual size being 140385 m2/electric filters. Project value of flue gas flow is 1240000 m3/h (nominal load) and retention efficiency of solid particles in suspension is 99.98%. Connection between the electric filters and funnel are realized through two gas channels (left/right) with dimensions of 2.97 m/4.15 m [7]. Specific hazards of the combustion in boilers, according to the National Pollutant Emission Guidelines are: CO2, CO, CH4, N2O, NOx, SO2, As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, dioxins and furans, chlorine, fluoride. Annual emissions levels from large combustion plants IMA 1 and IMA 2 from S.C. CET S.A. Bacau for the period 2002 - 2009 is shown in Table 2 [7]. Table 2: Level of annual emissions from large combustion plants IMA 1 and IMA 2 from S.C. CET S.A. Bacau [7].
No. 1.
Equipment IMA 1
Polluting SO2 (t/year) NOx (t/year) Dust (t/year) CO2 (t/year) SO2 (t/year) NOx (t/year) Dust (t/year) CO2 (t/year)
2009 2904 402 75 163380 0 0 0 43186
2008 1927 324 68 192000 0 56 0 1560
2007 3300 310 105 178566 0 220 0 13708
2006 1921 308 826 194197 0 92 0 16830
2005 2734 462 113 278243 0 20 0 16560
2004 4401 796 1154 405323 0 23 0 7940
2.
IMA 2
After analyzing the data contained in environmental reports, resulting performing the measurements of pollutant emissions in exhaust gases from S.C. CET S.A. Bacau, was found exceeding the emission limit values (VLE) to indicators of sulfur dioxide and dust discharged from IMA1, values established by Government Decision no. 541/2003, and included in integrated environmental authorization (AIM) no. 33/2006 [8, 9, 11]. S.C. CET S.A. Bacau had a period for compliance until 15/12/2008 from dust and has a period of compliance for SO2 emissions until 31/12/2012. Concentration of gaseous pollutants in the flue gas discharged from the IMA2 fall in VLE establish through AIM no. 33/2006 [11]. To compliance with AIM regarding reducing dust emissions than 100 mg/Nm3 he appeal to upgrading electric filter (ELF) boiler 420 to/h respectively "equipment gas input channels ELF, uniformity sieve in entry/exit coupling (Fig. 1), changing the distance between electrodes in field no. 4 of each electric filter, investment completed in 2008.
Figure 1: Electric filter assembly, boiler 420 to/h S.C. CET S.A. Bacau (location measurement section).
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In this respect it has achieved: Fitting entrance the gas channel electric filter. Were equipped gas channels at input into the ELF as follows: elbow input with fixed blinds type I and elbow output with blinds fixed type II; Uniformity sieves: O input coupling: uniformity sieves location in input coupling; O output coupling: uniformity sieves location in input coupling; O uniformity sieves, input coupling final version; Change the distance between the emission electrodes and the deposing electrodes to each four ELF fields; To reduce erosion in gas channels was plating with iron plate following sections: input coupling, out coupling.
4. RESULTS OBTAINED
Cinders balance sheet resulting from the combustion of solid fuels (coal) discharged from an IMA I, are presented in Table 3. Values presented in Table 3 are for period 2008, 2009 and first semester of 2010. Table 3: Cinders balance sheet resulting from the combustion a certain quantity of fuel in the period 2008 -2010. No. Year Month Concentration mg/Nm3 Cinders volume thousands Nm3/month Cinders balance sheet (to)
Retained in Retained in Discharged fireplace ELF in atmosphere January February 1. 2008 March November December January 2. 2009 February March October November December January 3. 2010 February March 112.53 131.63 112.36 55 76.56 93.78 92.97 68.85 41.797 58.49 27 77 76 78 438426.4 479580 281470 222048 223000 225239 210233 116241 15001 203262 507780 226126 214449 143845 3278 2910 2100 683 3003 3727 3449 1412 110 2098 2424 3074 2878 1983 18557 16479 11891 3865 16998 21102 19527 7996 626 11878 13725 17404 16293 11225 18.6 16.5 11.9 3.86 17 21 19 8 0.62 11.89 13.73 17.4 16.3 11.23
Deposited
21835 19385 13992 4547.79 20001 24829,9 22976 9408 737 13976 16149 20478 19171 13208
In Figures 2 4 is represented graphic the efficiency of electro filters before and after modernization (2008 respectively 2009 2010).
369
Cinders concentration, mg/Nmc
140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 January February March November December Operation period, m onth cinders concentration, mg/Nm3 VLE, 100 mg/Nm3
Figure 2: Efficiency of electric filters operation in 2008.

120 100 80 60 40 20 0 January February March October November December Operation period, m onth cinders concentration, mg/Nm3 VLE, mg/Nm3
Cinders concentration, mg/Nmc
Figure 3: Efficiency of electric filters operation in 2009.
cinders concentration, mg/Nmc
120 100 80 60 40 20 0 January February Operation period, m onth cinders concentration, mg/Nm3 VLE, mg/Nm3 March
Figure 4: Efficiency of electric filters operation in the first semester of 2010.
4. CONCLUSION
Following data analysis issued by accredited laboratories when measuring the emission of pollutants in exhaust gases from SC CET S.A. Bacau, before upgrading electric filters, was found exceeding the maximum value of concentration of dust discharged from IMA 1 (respectively 100 mg/Nm3) for 2008, values establish through AIM no. 33/2006. With the upgrading of electric filters see increasing at retention efficiency and with it the requirements of BAT (best available techniques) to prevent and control dust emissions, respectively dusting using electric filters. We appreciate that this efficiency increasing was obtained to the gas flow uniformitarian through dusting equipment (ELF).
370
This modernization, rehabilitation, worth 72940 Euros, makes the company to comply with the provisions of the "Action Plan", part of the Integrated Environmental Authorization no. 33/2006. Continuous monitoring of dusts and implement measures to reduce dust emissions is considered a BAT measure to reduce emissions of heavy metals. Conformation at VLE for particles involve and respecting the VLE for heavy metals. There is a continuous measurement of particulate emissions system (opacimeter), to flue gas channels for an IMA I, in order to determine concentrations of dust and independent, to exit of the boiler, measure relevant parameters of the process operation (content of O2, CO, temperature). Continuous measurements are imposing for SO2 and NOx.
REFERENCES
[1] Beelen, R., Hoek, G., Pebesma, E., Vienneau, D., Kees de Hoogh, Briggs, J.D., Mapping of background air pollution at a fine spatial scale across the European Union, Science of The Total Environment, Volume 407, Issue 6, 1 March, 2009, pp. 1852-1867, ISSN: 0048-9697. [2] Ionel, I., Ungureanu, C., Termoenergetica i mediul, Editura tehnic, Bucureti, 1996. [3] Karademir, A., Evaluation of the potential air pollution from fuel combustion in industrial boilers in Kocaeli, Turkey, Fuel, Volume 85, Issues 12-13, September, 2006, Pages 1894-1903, ISSN: 0016-2361. [4] Macarescu, B.C., Nedeff, V., Panainte, M., Moneguu, E., Legislaie, reglementri i standarde de protecia mediului, vol. I i II, Ed. Performantica, Iai, 2006, ISBN 973-730-212-5, ISBN 973-730-213-3,. [5] Nedeff, V., Raveica, I.C., Procedee i tehnici de protecia mediului n agricultur i industria alimentar, Editura Tehnica, Chiinu, 1998, ISBN-9975-910-37-8. [6] Nedeff, V., Panainte, M., Mcrescu, B.C., Moneguu, E., Savin, C., Ristea, M., Research on the environmental impact caused by emission of particulate matter (PM10), produced by the activity of plants producing concrete. Energy efficiency and agricultural enginnering International Scientific Conference EE&AE 2009, Rousse Bulgaria 2009, pp. 703-709. [7] *** S.C. CET S.A. Bacu, Raport de mediu pentru anul 2008, 2009. [8] *** Hotrrea de Guvern nr. 440/ 2010, privind stabilirea unor msuri pentru limitarea emisiilor n aer ale anumitor poluani provenii de la instalaiile mari de ardere. [9] *** Hotrrea de Guvern nr. 541 din 17 mai 2003, privind stabilirea unor msuri pentru limitarea emisiilor n aer ale anumitor poluani provenii din instalaii mari de ardere. [10] *** Directiva 2001/80/CE a Parlamentului European i a Consiliului din 23 octombrie 2001 privind limitarea emisiilor n atmosfer a anumitor poluani provenind de la instalaiile de ardere de dimensiuni mari. [11] *** Autorizaia Integrat de Mediu (AIM) nr. 33/2006.
371
RaDMI 2010
RESEARCH OF THE RELAXATION PROCESSES OBSERVED DURING THE WORK OF HYPER ELASTIC MATERIAL IN CLOSED CELL
P. Nenchev1 , A. Anchev2
1
TU Gabrovo , Gabrovo, Bulgaria, e-mail: nenchev@tugab.bg, 2 , e-mail: anchev@tugab.bg
Summary: This paper presents the results of an experimental study of cyclic loading of a specific rubber mixture elastomer. That elastomer is used as a medium for the pressure transmission in closed cell in the shape of a truncated cone. The constructive decision allows the force intensification in clamping devices. The parameters of the cycle are considered to the operating conditions of clamping devices with universal purpose. The experimental test confirmed that, despite the expressed viscous properties of the material the elastomer is sustainable. After the forth cycle the hysteresis loop is practically not changed. For that reason the examined hyper elastic materials can be used as medium for pressure transmission in clamping devices and mechanisms. Key words: hyper elastic materials; experimental study; cyclic loading; relaxation
1. INTRODUCTION
As well known the hyper elastic materials (HMs), also called rubber like materials [1,3] belong to the polymer materials group. Some of the most widely used materials are the vulcanizers (rubber mixtures) which can be assigned to the virtually incompressible materials marked by large displacements, large strains and nonlinear elasticity [2,4]. The rubber mixtures are used for different reasons in the machine engineering and in the instrument engineering, but most often they are used as buffers (for vibration isolation in inter factory transport), sealing elements in various technical devices, elements in the elastic mechanisms and clamping devices. Despite of the wide range of hyper elastic material elements used in the clamping devices, the most interesting are those in which trough the hyper elastic material passes power flow in such a way that there can be observed enhancement of transformation of this flow towards the tighter handling. In [6] that idea has been developed and as medium for pressure transmitting is used elastomer made of rubber mixture. For that purpose it is assembled without clearance in closed steel cell with truncated cone shape. As quantative measure for the transmitting of the power flow is introduced coefficient of intensifying k=F/F1 where F and F1 are respectively the input and the output forces, relative to the top of the elastomers contact surfaces (fig.1). In order to determine the possible use of HM as medium for the pressure transmission in the attachment equipment it is necessary to know the mechanical behavior of the particular elastomer. It is known that after the applying of a single mechanical impact the reaction of HM has two components: instant (hyper elastic) reaction and another, revolving over time viscose elastic (internal damping) [3]. In cyclic loading the material reaction has some other components: hysteresis, respectively hysteresis loop change in time, damping effect, known as Mullins effect [3]. As a whole, the mechanical behavior of HM depends on the specific material, as well as on the specific operating conditions. In this aspect the conditions of the true experiment should correspond as much as possible to the specific application. The main object of the study is based on true cyclic experiments assessment of time change of the output power in elastomer made of specific rubber mixture used as medium for pressure transmission in closed cell (fig.1). Thus, for the specific application, can be predicted the influence of the depending-on-time components in the mechanical behavior of the HM examined - creep and relaxation.
372
F > F1
piston 2
elastomer
cell piston 1 kinematic impact
F1
Figure 1: Mechanical system with elastomer
2. FORMULATION OF THE EXPERIMENTAL STUDY

Elastomers geometry is shown on fig. 2 and its chemical composition on table 1.
Figure 2: Elastomers geometry Table 1: Chemical composition Rubber compound (mass units) Cauchuc ZnO Stearine China clay Captax Sulphur Dynamic ballindentation hardnes (ShoreA) rubber composition 1 100 5 3 0 1.25 1.5 25,75 2 100 5 3 20 1.25 1.5 30 3 100 5 3 40 1.25 1.5 37 4 100 5 3 60 1.25 1.5 39,25 5 100 5 3 80 1.25 1.5 55
The experimental set is shown on fig.3. It enables real-time registration of the changes in the input and output forces and the movement of the changes 2. ZD 10/90 is used as universal testing machine. On it is mounted
373
inductive linear displacement sensor along with the device used and described in [7]. For the measuring of the small displacements it has been developed a virtual instrument shown in [5]. Cyclic test parameters are selected in accordance with the idea for the practical usage of the elastomer in clamping devices with universal purpose. The following scheme of cyclic testing has been followed: Loading with input force 2500N and retaining for 900s Subsequent unloading and 300s rest New loading with the same value of input power for 900s Subsequent unloading and 1800s rest. That sequence is repeated 5 times.
Figure 3: Experimental set
3. RESULTS FROM THE EXPERIMENTAL SURVEY

F, N 4000
3200
2400
1600
800
275
550
825
1100
1375
1650
1925
2200 t, s
Figure 4: Graph of variation of output force for two consecutive cycles Based on the experimental scheme described above there has been conducted cyclical test and by the metering devices of the set have been recorded the results of the experiments. Fig.4 presents a diagram which shows the reduction of the output force over time for two consecutive loading cycles. For one loading cycle the force decreases with 230N (6, 4%) Fig. 5 presents the graphic dependence of elastomers deformation for two consecutive loading cycles. For one loading cycle the deformation change is only from 1.0592 to 1.0591 (0,009%).
374
1.06 1.05 1.04 1.03 1.02 1.01 1 2200 t, s
Figure 5: Graphic dependence of elastomers deformation for two consecutive loading cycles. Fig. 6 presents the
275
550
825
1100
1375
1650
1925
dependence for these two cycles.
, Pa
2.2x10 1.76x10 1.32x10
6
first second
0.88x10
0.44x10
1 1.02 1.04 1.06 Figure 6: Graphic of the dependence of the two cycles
Fig.7 presents the dependence for all the 10 cycles of loading and unloading. In order to refine the experimental results a control test has been made in which the model of HM has been replaced by steel one. The change in the resultant force over time has been reported. The time and the conditions for the control test are identical to those of the main test. Table 2 presents the corrected values and their impact on rates, based on the control test and its results. Because of these results there have been made program correction in the main test. Table 2. Presentation of the differences in the values of the resultant forces for tests carried out on HMs Difference in the Corrected value Number of Difference in the resultant force, of the resultant cycle,n resultant force, N % force, % 1 278 7.1 6.3 2 235 6.1 5.3 3 217 5.3 4.5 4 181 4.8 4 5 208 5.2 4.4 6 174 4.5 3.7 7 224 5.1 4.3 8 188 4.6 3.8 9 213 5.3 4.5 10 167 4 3.2
375
, Pa
2.25x10 2.03x10
6 6 6 6
1.80x10
1.58x10
1.35x10
1.13x10 0.90x10 0.68x10 0.45x10 0.23x10
6 6
1.01
1.02
1.03
1.04
1.05
1.06
Figure 7: Graph of the dependence for all cycles
4. ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSIONS OF THE EXPERIMENTAL SURVEY

The preparation, the conduct and the results of the experimental survey on the behavior of a particular HM in closed cell lead to the following comments: The experimental results confirm the viscose properties in the examined HMs behavior trough its apparent hysteresis (fig.6 and fig.7). In all cycles performed elastomer has relatively stable behavior and shows good tolerance towards the cyclic loading. Time relaxation changes are graphically visualized on fig. 8. Obviously, for the HM examined there can be observed relaxation of the tension in the range of 6,3 to 3,2%. It is significant also the reducing and practically stabilizing of relaxation between 4,5 and 3,5% after the forth cycle, and that can be explained by materials training.
% 6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Figure 8: Relaxation change according to cycles number 10 n
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Because of the results from the conducted experimental study the experiments with a real clamping device can be continued and in this test the particular HM can be used as medium for pressure transmitting in order to increase the input force. The average arithmetic range of the ten cycles resultant power for the experiment is 4.4%, equal to 208N. This range fits the fixture limitations.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Research supported under contract BG051PO001-3.3.04/28, "Support for the development of scientific staff in the field of engineering research and innovation. The project is implemented with financial support from the Operational Programme "Human Resources Development" 2007-2013, financed by the European Social Fund of the European Union.
REFERENCE
[1] Duncan BC, Crocker LE, Urquhart JM. Evaluation of Hyperelastic Finite Element Models for Flexible Adhesive Joints. Project PAJex2-Flexible Adhesives, NPL Report CMMT(A)285, National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, Middlesex, UK, TW11 OLW, September 2000. [2] Guo Z, Sluys LJ. Application of a new constitutive model for the description of rubber-like materials under monotonic loading. International Journal of Solids and Structures 2006;43(9):2799-2819. [3] Hibbit, Karlsson and Sirensen Inc. ABAQUS/CAE Theory Manual, Version 6.5, ABAQUS Inc. Rising Sun Mills, 166 Valley Street Providence, RI 02909-2499, 2004. [4] Meske R, Sauter J, Friedrich M. Optimization of Elastomer-Metal Components with TOSKA nad ABAQUS. FE the Optimization Company, Report, June, 2006. [5] ., , , 38 (2009), . 24-27. [6] . ., . ., , 2003 [7] .., . , , 36(2008), . 3-9.
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RaDMI 2010
MODEL OF TEMPERATURE FIELD IN THE CUTTING TOOL DURING DRY MACHINING AS A BASIS FOR RESEARCHING THE NEW COOLING SYSTEMS
Radovan Nikolic1, Ljubodrag Djordjevic2, Dragan Trifunovic2
1 2
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Kraljevo, SERBIA High Technical Mechanical School, Trstenik, SERBIA
Summary: The study of heat processes and temperature fields is very important in metal cutting not only from the aspect of machinability but from the aspects of reliability, durability and quality of the machining object being under exploitation conditions. The resultant heat has many negative influences on the quality and accuracy of the machining process, so it is undesirable, but still always present. This paper is a result of the need to develop a model of temperature field in the tool during dry machining within the research on new cooling systems in the cases when classic cutting oils cannot be used. Keywords: temperature field, tool, heat sources, heat transverses.
1. INTRODUCTION
The main aim of metal cutting is to provide high quality product with minimum machining costs, which is impossible without studying and controlling the heat process and accompanying heat phenomena. The heat energy generates by continuous plastic deformation and shearing of the material during chip occurrence, and by frictions caused by the chips moving along the front surface and by machining objects moving along the back surface of the tool. During this process nonstationary temperature fields arise together with the change of the body volume (the chips can be examined as a bar of constant cross section whose length increases in the unit time for the value v). It is well known that most heat from the cutting zone goes into chips, so high-productive methods of machining, called high-speed machining, have been applied. When these methods are applied, the heat goes over chips because the cutting speeds are such that there is no time to exchange heat with the tool so the tool and machining object remain almost cold. However, this kind of machining requires the machines with special bearing and balanced revolving mass because they enable very high revolving speeds. Also, special multicutting tools enabling deeper cutting in a pass are used, which makes this machining high productive method having high accuracy and quality of surfaces machined. However, if the quality of machined surface has to be high, then other solutions, which would be applicable to existing machines, must be found. Therefore, the idea is to apply the cooling systems which lower the temperatures of cutting tool without wetting the contacting surfaces. The precondition for applying the above systems is to study the temperature fields in the cutting tool and to develop their model.
2. SOURCES AND TRANSVERSES OF HEAT IN THE CUTTING ZONE

Heat sources are: - q1 - heat source caused by friction at the contact between the tool and chips, - q2 - heat source caused by the inside friction in the boundary layer of the chips (upper layers move at higher speed, while the boundary layers move at lower speed), - q3 - heat source occurring at the contacting zone between the tool (back surface) and machining object, - q4 - heat source caused by plastic deformation of the material at the shearing zone.
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Heat transverses are: -q4 and q12 - heat transverse where the heat from the tool is delivered to the machining object, - q5 - heat transverse at the chips where the heat is delivered to the cutting tool by radiation, - q6, q10, q7, and q9 - heat transverses at the tool where the heat is delivered to the environment by radiation, - q7A - heat transverse occurring at the back surface of the tool where the heat is radiated into environment, - q11 - heat transverse at the chips where the heat is radiated into environment, - q13 - heat transverse at the machining object where the heat is delivered to environment.
Figure 1: Tool model during dry machining Even though most of the heat goes into the chips, the toll is exposed to high thermal stress because dimensions of cutting top are small and there is a big heat density in that zone. It is observed that if the cutting speed gets higher the position of field of maximum temperature moves away from the cutting top, whereas it moves towards the cutting top when the cutting speed gets smaller. One should also bear in mind that the hardness of hard metal significantly decreases during heating, from 1800HV at the room temperature to 380HV at the temperature of 1070C [8]. Because of the big deformation and because of its high speed at high temperatures in that zone, the chips get harder so at some point its hardness exceeds the hardness of the tool material, which
379
intensifies the wearing process. Therefore, the field of maximum temperature can be located on the basis of the position and depth of wearing zone. For practical problems related to temperature fields in the cutting tool only the heat sources q1 and q3 are important, while the source caused by heat radiation from the bottom side of the chips towards the front surface of the tool can be neglected because the power of this source is considerably lower than the previous two, so its part in total heat flux can be neglected, too [8, 9]. The sources whose influence is neglected are not shown in the model figure. Also, in order to simplify the model, heat transverses, which include radiation from the tool to the machining object, are neglected and only convection into environment will be taken into account at all free tool surfaces. (Fig. 1)
3. MATHEMATICAL MODEL
Differential equation of heat passing has the following form [8, 9]:
The boundary conditions are: - the heat received by the tool at the contact with chips
- the heat received by the tool at the contact with the machining object
- convection of heat through outside surfaces into environment
where: 7A - heat transmitted to the tool support, m and n - factor of heat distribution, L - length of the tools. The angle of chip falling, which is important for precise definition of the contact with the chips on the front surface, is defined as follows:
and its value for concrete cutting conditions is 53,9. The boundary conditions regarding heat transverses are:
At the back surfaces, the speed field is caused by rotation of the machining object in fluid, and it affects the convection coefficient during heat exchange between back surfaces and environment. In this paper the solutions for longitudinal flux around the flat plate [2, 3, 8, 11, 12]. The mean value of fluid velocity is defined as:
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The mean temperature of the fluid is 40C, and appropriate convection coefficient is:
Other tool surfaces are in steady fluid and that is why the heat exchange between the tool and surrounding air is done by natural convection. The convection coefficient of heat has been calculated for vertical surfaces while the previously calculated value multiplied by factors 0,7 (for lower) and 1,3 (for upper) are taken for horizontal surfaces. For vertical surfaces the value of convection coefficient is:
For horizontal surfaces the convection coefficients are:
At the contact between the tool and support the heat exchange is done by conduction. The conduction coefficient is reciprocal value of the transmission resistance. The bar of the cutting tool is made of 1730. The value of resistance R t = 0,05 m2 K/W [8, 9] is defined for the following contacting conditions: contacting pressure p = 5 kN/cm2, temperature T = 40C, and quality of surface machining N6. The conduction coefficient yields:
Specific power of the source q1 at the contact between the chips and front surface of the tool is proportional to the work of specific frictional force at front surface:
If replaced in the previous equation, the following expression is obtained:
The part of this heat going into tool is defined by multiplying total source power and distribution coefficient:
Specific power of heat source at the back surface q3 is calculated as:
For concrete machining regime yields:
381
4. EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF THE MODEL

Experimental research of temperature field is done at a universal lathe TA 631P, made by "POTISJE'', Novi Sad, Serbia. Cutting regimes are: v = 100m/min, ap = 1,0mm, f = 0,15mm/o. Machining conditions are: longitudinal machining, fixation between centres, dry machining. The cutting tool is a plate made of hard material TPMN 16 04 08, the quality P 20, made by ''Sandvik koromant'', the support is CTEPR 30 30-16 made of 4732. Cutting geometry is: = 0, = 11. At the back surface of tool there is a secondary cutting edge lc1 = 0,3mm. The machining object is made of 1730, it is not thermally treated, it has the form of a bar whose diameter is 80 mm. The characteristics of hard material P 20 are presented in the following table. Mark Yang's modulus kN/mm P20 520 Stiffness modulus kN/mm 215 Electrical resistance cm 38 Heat conductivity W/mK 40 Coefficient of the mean value of heat extension 20-400C -6 10 /K 5.8 20-800C -6 10 /K 6.3 Specific density Gr/cm 11.60 11.79
The values of heat flux from front surface into the toll and the values of flux at the back surface are shown in Figure 2. It is noticed that maximum is not at the blade, but it is moved for 0,25 x/lc for the concrete case. The results are obtained by the programme package PAK, at the Department for Applied Mechanics, at the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering in Kragujevac, and they are based on above mathematical model (Figure 3). The temperature is measured by means of thermocouple (Pt-PtRh 10%) because of method simplicity and reliability of the results. The temperature measurement is done at one point of the tool, at the half of contacting width with chips, 0,5mm far from the blade. Its value is 850C and it represents the mean value in the volume covering the weld of the thermocouple. The calculated value for this field is in the range from 780C and 880C, which is satisfactory. The results obtained by PAK have been compared with the results obtained by Solid Works and it is conclusive that the first ones are much closer to real values. Besides, PAK provides the calculation of temperature values of nonstationary temperature filed, which is necessary for solving the cooling problem.
Figure 2: Specific power of sources at the front and back surfaces
382
Figure 3: Temperature field of the cutting tool after t = 480s
5. CONCLUSION
After thorough considering all relevant sources and transverses of heat, the cutting process is analyzed from the aspect of machining system consisting of the machining object and the tool to which the mechanical energy is brought. The energy is expended on plastic deformation when the chips are formed and on frictions within the contacts between the chips and machining object which causes temperature fields (we are mainly concerned with the filed in the cutting tool). The calculation of the temperature filed within the tool is done to research new cooling systems based on thermoelectrical modules, i.e. their modelling. Since the obtained values of the temperatures correspond to the measured ones, from the beginning of cutting to the bluntness of tool, the model appears to be satisfactory for the above purpose. According to the diagrams presenting the change of P20 hardness depending on the temperature [10], it is conclusive that the cooling system makes sense if it lowers the tool temperature under 800C, while its extreme efficiency would be achieved by lowering the values under 500C.
6. REFERENCE
[1] Bil H.: Simulation of orthogonal metal cutting by finite element, magistarski rad, The Middle East Technical Universitu- The Departmeht of Mechanical Engineering, 2003. [2] Cvijovi} D. S., Toplotne operacije, zadaci sa izvodima iz teorije, Akademska misao, Beograd, 2007. [3] Jiji M. L., Heat convection, Springer - Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg, 2009. [4] Lazi} M., Obrada metala rezanjem, monografija, MF, Kragujevac, 2002. [5] Mller B., Renz U.: Numerische Simulation des termischen Verhaltens eines Zerspanprozesses, FLUENT CFD-Konferenz, Bingen am Rhein, 2003. [6] Mler B., Termische Analise des Zerspanes metallischer Werkstoffe bei hohen Schnittgeschwindungkeiten, doktorska disertacija, Fakultt fr Maschinenwesen, Achen, 2004. [7] Reznikov A. N., Teploobmen pri rezanii i ohla`denie instrumentov, MA[GIZ, Moskva, 1963. [8] Vukelja D., Temperatursko polje strugarskog no`a s obzirom na kompleksnu analizu toplotnih izvora i distribuciju toplotne energije, doktorska disertacija, MF, Beograd, 1969. [9] Vukelja D., Termodinamika rezanja, monografija, Gra|evinska knjiga, Beograd, 1990. [10] Vukelja D.,Konstrukcija alata za obradu rezanjem , IROGra|evinska knjiga, Beograd,1982 . [11] http://www.egr.msu.edu/~somerton/Nusselt/i.html [12] D:\Internet\Heat Convection - Google Books.mht
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RaDMI 2010
MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF DYNAMIC IMAGES

O. Oleshchuk, O. Popel, M. Kopytchuk
National Polytechnic University of Odessa, Odessa, UKRAINE, E-mail: oleg_popel@mail.ru
Summary: In the article, the process of transformation of the continuous signal in a discrete form is considered in detail. The features of discrete signal got at different limits on the parameters of discretization and conditions of measuring of entrance signal are analyzed. Taking into account reasonable assumptions the row of mathematical models, which can be used in the methods of the computer processing of images, is offered. Keywords: processing of images, image recognition, mathematical models.
1. INTRODUCTION
Majority of practical tasks that are connected with measuring of parameters of objects deals with time-varying objects. The area of the computer processing of images operates such concept as an "image of object". As a rule, it is necessary to interpret it as a static image, characterizing the observable object only in certain moment of time t . For development of methods of filtration and recognition of images it is necessary to enter the concept of dynamic image, which extends the concept of static image and allows to take into account change of a condition of object in time.
2. BASE MATHEMATICAL MODELS

We will name brightness as function the continuous dynamic image (CDI) of object from time and two spatial co-ordinates
f = f ( x, y , t )
(1)
where x, y spatial co-ordinates, t time. It is necessary to take into account that observing an object is conducted from some initial moment of time and has the limited duration. Then
tmin t tmax ,
where tmin , tmax time of beginning and completion of observation accordingly. By analogy with a discrete static image the concept of discrete dynamic image (DDI), got as a result of transformation, is entered
f ( x, y, t ) g (m, n, )
(2)
where m, n discrete counting of spatial co-ordinates x, y ,
384
time, passing from the moment of beginning of observation. Then

t = tmin + .
At the even counting of temporal intervals with a step , it will be got
= k ,
(3)
where k an integer in a range

0 k K 1 ,
(4)
where K an amount of frames of image. Obviously, that

K= tmax tmin .
Then DDI will be considered as function of brightness

g = g (m, n, ) ,
(5)
got as a result of transformation (2), or function of brightness

g k = g k (m, n, k ) ,
(6)
got as a result of analogical transformation

f ( x, y, t ) g k (m, n, k ) .
Using (3), DDI is determined as a sequence of discrete static images, got under condition (4).
3. FEACHERES OF FORMING OF DYNAMIC IMAGE Examining more detailed discretization of images at times the even counting of temporal intervals is taken for simplicity. In this case measuring of every frame of image begins in the moment of time concordantly (3), but as any image has an unzero duration, the result of measuring will not be a function of kind (5), but function
G (m, n, ) = ( P (m, n, ), ) ,
(7)
where function of automatic control of level (ACL) in the moment of time , function ACL in the moment of time , P(m, n, ) =
( n +1) y + ymin ( m +1) x + xmin n y + ymin
m x + xmin
F ( x, y, + tmin )dxdy ,
(8)
F ( x, y , ) =
f ( x, y, T )dT ,
(9)
where time of display, i. e. measuring duration, temporal interval from the moment to + .
385
A function (9) is the integral of function of brightness in an interval of time, corresponding duration of measuring of one frame, and function (8) is an integral of function (9) on spatial co-ordinates according to the sizes of one pixel. ACL includes automatic selection of brightness, contrast and gamma-correction depending on intensity of illumination in a viewpoint. A function ACL is continuous, droningly increasing on P(m, n, ) . The features of it conduct depend on the using hardware and software. If depends only on a brightness g in the moment of time T and does not depend on a function ACL in previous moments of time, so, all parameters are proposed by hand to beginning of time of observation, i.e. automatic control is not used. A function (7) will have features depending on a value .
4. MODEL OF DYNAMIC IMAGE AT CONSTANT LONG TIME OF EXPOSURE

At time of exposure, comparable at a speed of change of brightness in a viewpoint (figure 1), the brightness is averaged at the enough long temporal interval.
gt
dt Dt
dt Dt
dt Dt
Figure 1: Forming of image at long time of exposure A brightness in a viewpoint is in direct proportion to intensity of illumination and reflectivity of the observed objects, i. e.
f ( x, y , t ) = R ( x , y , t ) L ( x , y , t ) ,
(10)
where R( x, y, t ) reflectivity of object in a point with co-ordinates x, y in the moment of time t , L( x, y, t ) luminosity in a point with co-ordinates m, n in the moment of time . It is possible to write down like expression (10)
g (m, n, k ) = g (m, n, ) = R (m, n, ) L (m, n, ) ,
k
(11)
where R (m, n, ) the quantized reflectivity of object on discrete spatial co-ordinates m, n in the moment of time . L (m, n, ) the quantized luminosity in a point with discrete co-ordinates m, n in the moment of time . Descriptions of intensity of illumination substantially depend on the type of illumination natural, artificial or combined. In the case of the use of artificial illumination the changes of intensity in time can be neglected. At the use of natural light time of substantial change of luminosity, as a rule, considerably exceeds a size , therefore the changes of intensity of illumination can be compensated by the system ACL. At assumption, that the reflectivity of objects does not change in course of time, it will be got, that the most substantial influence on the change of function g will be given by the change of spatial location of the observed objects. Lets consider a situation, when the only one object of observation, which within the limits of time of observation moves rectilinear and uniformly along a horizontal axis, perpendicular to direction of "look" of videosensors (figure 2), is present. Such mutual motion and location of sensors and observed object is
386
characteristic for many systems of machine sight: for recognition of details on a conveyer, and also at the readout of numbers on railway carriages [1]. n B E b H D C
Figure 2: Moving of the observed object during For time the point B of observed object will move in point E. Lets accept, that distance of AH from a view point A to observed object is great as compared to the length BC, which gets in sight, i.e. a corner is small enough. Then a statement will be just: angular speed of moving of every part of observed object does not depend on her spatial location. That the assumption about uniformity of angular speeds was true, the corner of vision must be small enough or the difference of angular speeds must be compensate optical or algorithmic methods. For an object, which satisfies to the above-described terms, expression (8) taking into account (9) becomes P(m, n, ) =
( n +1) y + ymin ( m +1) x + xmin + n y + ymin
m x + xmin
f ( x + vT , y, tmin )dTdxdy
(12)
where v speed of movement of object. That the absolute value of size v is equal to the module of vector of speed, and a sign of this size will be positive, if direction of motion of object coincides with direction of horizontal axis, and negative if direction of motion is opposite to direction of horizontal axis. Thus, changes of expressions x and vT have an analogical influence on the change of value of resulting function P (m, n, ) , consequently, that influence of time of exposure on the measured value for every pixel will be insignificant it is necessary that a condition was satisfied
v(( + ) ) << (( m + 1) x + xmin ) ( m x + xmin ),
That got taking into account the limits of integration in expression (12). From here
v << x .
<<
x . v
(13)
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From this expression (13) follows, that maximally possible time of exposure in direct ratio to the size of pixel and inversely proportional to speed of movement of object. Conclusion 1: If speed of movement of object and time of exposure are fixed, then there is a maximum border value of resolution, at exceeding of which not arrived at substantial improvement of quality of image. On a figure 3 the process of measuring of one pixel of image during time of exposure at uniform motion of object along a horizontal axis is shown. Measured value of pixel t, c Pixel position changing during motion t, c
A B
A B
x,
x,
Figure 3: Forming of pixel of image of moving object: a a high resolution of videosensors, b a low resolution. Integration at times and a co-ordinate x results in forming of rectangular area, shown by thick line. Its inside is the measured value of brightness of a pixel. The measured pixel in course of time is displaced along a horizontal axis, creating a parallelogram. The value of measured pixel as a result coincides with true one only in area B. Area A contains part of pixel, which is on the left of measured one, and an area C is part of the measured pixel. A measuring error will depend on correlation of correct and erroneous information, i.e. from correlation of areas B and A. Comparing of figure 3 to the figure 3b allows to make conclusion, that at the identical speed of movement (graphically the angle of slope of parallelogram corresponds speed) more reliable will be measuring of pixel through videosensors of low-resolution. For the increase of authenticity of measuring by the sensors of high resolution, it will be necessary to add up neighboring pixels, i.e. artificially to understate resolution. There is mathematical dependence, which allows to recover an initial signal at "greasing" of object [2], but at considerable displacement of object a task passes to the digit of uncorrectly put, consequently, does not allows to get an exact and reliable result. An extreme case is a situation, when = . Here measuring of entrance signal is carried out at every moment of time, i.e. it is only acceptable mode for watching of brief changes of signal.
5. MODEL OF DYNAMIC IMAGE AT CONSTANT SHORT TIME OF EXPORSURE

Figure 4 reflects a situation, when time of exposure is small as compared to speed of change of brightness in a view point, i.e. a condition (13) is executed. In this case shaded area on a figure 4, corresponding to the measured value of brightness in the certain moment of time can be considered rectangular, i.e. values of function (12) will be in direct ratio to . The got scale factor at a function (12) will be taken into account by the ACL system and is compensated by an strengthening of brightness factor, inversely proportional to the size . Conclusion 2: If a condition (13) is satisfied, then a size substantially does not influence on the value of expression (7).
388
gt
dt Dt
dt Dt
dt Dt
Figure 4: Forming of image at constant short time of exposure The interval of time increases with reduction of time of exposure, when measuring of signal is not conducted. Consequently, work with short time of exposure can be recommended only for objects which are in sign of videosensors prolonged enough time, substantially exceeding a size . The choice of concrete value with a possible range can be done taking into account the features of illumination and of ACL system.
6. MODEL OF DYNAMIC IMAGE AT CHANGING TIME OF EXPOSURE

Influence of time of exposure on the range of brightness, perceived by the system of measuring of image, became basis for the ACL systems, which use automatic control of speed of shutter for the account of illuminance. At such approach, time of exposure for every frame will be varied within the scope (figure 5).
0 <
gt
dt Dt
dt Dt
dt Dt
Figure 5: Forming of image at changing time of exposure Absolute advantage of such approach is speed of self-correction of range of brightness unlike programmatic or electromechanic methods, but, the use of changing time of exposure unites in itself the lacks of the options of ranges of time of exposure considered higher, namely, there can be the protracted pauses, when a signal is not measured, and averaging of signal can be executed on the protracted time domain, that results in the effect of "greasing". Thus, beforehand unknown, when what one from defects will take place. Consequently, the measuring mode with changing time of exposure is little suitable for the receipt of images of moving objects.
7. CONCLUSION
Depending on the features of illuminance, of movement speed of observed object and quickness of its possible changes it is necessary to use the different approaches of discretization of image at times.
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In most cases it is necessary to form images at constant short time of exposure. Such approach, especially if the terms of illumination allow not to take into account a correction which is brought in by the ACL system, enables substantially to simplify the methods of processing of images. Because it will be possible to use as mathematical models a function (5), but not more generalized function (7). The offered mathematical models were, in particular, used in technology of identification of railway carriages [3] and fixed in basis of methods of recognition of text information on images [4].
REFERENCES
[1] Oleshchuk O.: System of recognition of numbers of railway cars. Vestnik ChDTI, No. 2 (2004), pp. 17-22. [2] Methods of computer image processing. Under a release Sojfera's, V., 2-nd edition. M.: FIZMATGIZ, 2003, pp. 784. ISBN 5-9221-0270-2. [3] Kopitchuk N., Oleshchuk O. & Popel O.: Formalization of process of identification of railway vehicles in automated control systems of goods traffic. In: Proceedings of 7th International Conference Research and Development in Mechanical Industy - RaDMI 2007, Beograd, Serbia, 16-20 September 2007. Edited by Predrag Dai. Trstenik: High Technical Mechanical School, 2007, pp. 838 841. ISBN-10 86-83803-20-1 and ISBN-13 978-86-83803-20-0. [4] Oleshchuk O., Popel O. & Kopytchuk N.: Standard-dependent symbol recognition. In: Proceedings of 9th International Conference Research and Development in Mechanical Industy - RaDMI 2009, Vrnjaka Banja, Serbia, 16-19 September 2009. High Technical Mechanical School, 2009.
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RaDMI 2010
MICROCONTROLER MEASURING SYSTEM FOR ELECTROMECHANICAL DEVICES

Tsvetozar Petkov1, Hristo Andreev2
1
Technical University Gabrovo, Gabrovo, BULGARIA, e-mail: tsvetozar_petkov@mail.bg 2 EuroDisign Corp., BULGARIA, e-mail: hristo_andreev@abv.bg
Summary: The development of the electronic technique allows creating systems for control, measuring and monitoring based on mathematical analysis by using microcontroller hardware and software. The paper presents four-channel system for measuring voltages and currents, suitable for measuring and monitoring of electro-mechanical apparatus. The results of the measuring are processed by software and personal computer. The paper describes the result of DC motor monitoring and some characteristics of the electric drive system investigated. Keywords: microcontroller, electro-mechanical system, DC motor, current shunt, Hall-effect sensor.
1. INTRODUCTION
The main task of the paper is to describe a scheme solution about microcontroller system used for monitoring low voltages apparatus. The research is made on DC motor with permanent magnets, by measuring the armature current and voltage. The calculations are based on mathematical model of DC machine. The system is suitable for investigation of relay devices, contactors, motors, etc.
2. TECHNICAL SOLUTION
The block diagram of the system investigated is shown on Figure 1. It contists of DC motor with separate excitation coil or permanent magnets, current sensor, electrical divider and microcontroller system with PCoutput.
Figure 1: Block diagram of the system
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For current measuring a Hall Effect sensor or a current shunt could be used. The mathematical relationships proposed are made according to the following system of equations, which describe the machine monitored [1, 2]:
U a = I a Ra + E + La U c = I c Rc + Lc Me Mr = J dI c dt dt dI a dt
(1)
d r
where: U a , U c - armature and coil voltages, [V ] ;

I a , I c - armature and coil currents, [ A] ; E = cer - electromotive force (E.M.F.) of the armature, [V ] ; Ra , Rc - ohmic resistance of the armature and the coil, [] ; La , Lc - inductance of the armature and the coil, [ H ] ;
r - angular speed of the armature, [

J - total inertia [ kg .m ] ;
2
rad s
];
M e , M r - electro-magnetic and resisting torques [ N .m] .
Using mathematical equations (1) dependencies about angular speed and electro-magnetic torque could be found:
U a I a Ra La ce dI a dt
r =
(2)
M e = cM I a
(3)
It is possible to obtain a solution when expressions ce , cM are known only. For rated mode these dependencies could be found by using data from rating nameplate of the motor and the value of the armature resistance:
ce n = U n I n Ra
r n
Mn
(4)
In The scheme solution is presented on Figure 2. It consists of measurement amplifiers, microcontroller and accessory components such as connectors and series PC hardware.
cM n =
(5)
392
Figure 2: The microcontroller scheme The supply voltages come from standard scheme transformer, rectifier and voltage stabilizers as shown on Figure 3:
Figure 3: The power supply block Divider and current shunt are used for measurering of the voltage and the current. The signals from these devices are enhanced by amplifiers with galvanic divider. These connections are shown on Figures 4 and 5:
393
Figure 4: The scheme of the galvanic divide amplifiers The second amplifiers set have frequency range of 10 MHz with Rail-to-Rail inputs and outputs:
Figure 5: The scheme of the second amplifier For appropriate work, it is necessary to adjust the dynamic range of the amplifiers. In order to adjust it, one must use reference voltages and current sources. The results of the adjustment are shown on figures 6 and 7:
394
Uout = f(Uin)
6
4 Uout [V]
0 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 Uin [V] 10 20 30 40 50
Figure 6: The adjustment results for voltage measurement channel

Uout = f(Iin)
4 3.5 3 2.5 Uout [V] 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 -15 -10 -5 0 Iin [A] 5 10 15
Figure 7: The adjustment results for current measurement channel
Figure 8 shows the results for the DC motor with permanent magnets investigated. The change of the angular speed, torque and shaft power are shown. The instantaneous values of these parameters could be found using Marker for moment value shown on Figure 8 in green color.
3. CONCLUSION
The system created has got high sensitivity, therefore high accuracy, also. The software is very flexible which allows easy change of the devices and systems investigated. The development of the measurement microcontroller systems allows the complete investigation of different apparatus, mechanisms and systems. Nowadays the low cost of these systems, having great possibilities at the same time, make their application very perspective.
395
Figure 8: The results of the measurement obtained
REFERENCES
[1] Angelov, A. M.; Dimitrov, D. A.: Electrical Machines, part 2, Tehnika, Sofia, 1976 (in Bulgarian). [2] Dinov, V. R.: Non-Symmetrical Regimes and Transient Processes in Electric Machines, Tehnika, Sofia, 1974 (in Bulgarian). [3] Kluchev, V. I.: Electric Drive Theory, Tehnika, Sofia, 1989 (in Bulgarian).
396
RaDMI 2010
IDENTIFICATION AND OPTIMIZATION OF HYDRAULIC PNEUMATIC CILINDAR PARAMETERS

1
Radovan Petrovi1, Ljubia urii2, Neboja Zdravkovi3, Goran Bokovi4

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Kraljevo, SERBIA, e-mail: radovanfvk@yahoo.com 2 e-mail: djuricic.ljubisa@gmail.com, 3 e-mail: zdravkovic.n@mfkv.kg.ac.rs, 4 e-mail: goranboskovic@gmail.com
Summary: In this article the method of evaluation of optimum choice of hydraulic or pneumatic working cylinder is suggested. The notion of installed work has been introduced and the efficiency of use of the working cylinder is suggested. It has been shown that the basic influence on the quality of solution has the choice of hanging points of the working cylinder and that their choice is reduced on the geometry of hyperbola. Keywords: optimum choice, working cylinder, efficiency, hanging points, geometry
1. INTRODUCTION
Hydraulic or Pneumatic cylinder is working, as a rule, a member of a motor mechanism. The subject of this paper is to analyze the impact of choice of working points of suspension cylinder on its use, the function that it is checked. In addition to working cylinder are characterized by their "external characteristics" maximum force which can produce and walk piston cylinder.
2. ELEMENTS OF THE PROBLEM

The main consideration when choosing the working cylinder, which provides the function of the mechanism, the amount of work required by the executive body of the mechanism related to the function he performs in one of its cycle. The parameters of the working cylinder: his stroke, radial extent (diameter piston and piston rod) and the working fluid pressure is not even close to the time and the solution of this task are possible in an infinite number of ways. In addition to the impact of working fluid pressure in the radial piston and piston rod measures and the total stroke, the stroke in turn significantly affected and it is about choice points unambiguous suspension working cylinder, in a broader sense, respectively, namely, the choice points connecting rod suspension and the working cylinder. In each case, the kinematics analysis of the task, which should have resulted in an optimal solution in terms of choice of working points of suspension cylinder. Sizing working piston cylinder and the choice of working fluid pressure caused by the maximum force by the working cylinder has to ensure that the work by fly-cylinder, these two parameters are a sort of compromise to the taste of designers. It is obvious that decision making in two ways: the choice of points of suspension of work cylinder, and in a radial measure of work pressure and the other can not provide the optimal solution, if it is done independently of one another. You will. Be deemed to have been developed and standardized working groups for each cylinder at me and discuss only the impact of choice of working points of suspension cylinder on its exploitation.
3. THE NOTION OF INSTALLED WORK

The characteristic of a working cylinder sizes H, Aa and p, where: H working stroke cylinder A a active area of piston in the working walk p pressure working fluids,
397
the work is done cylinder. if the entire job walk using maximum working pressure, working pressure and the maximum force that determines the working cylinder. Let's call this amount of installed work. It is equal to
Ai = pAa H = Fmax H
Installed work is, therefore, the maximum work that can work cylinder in one go. and one cycle mechanism.
(1)
4. UTILIZATION COEFFICIENT OF CYLINDER

If you need the work per cycle mechanism is marked with Ac installed closer to work Ai and even the choice of suspension kinematics characteristics of the cylinder was successful. Out of the discussion is the fact that most cylinder installed work requires greater investment in the hydraulic installation, or as a result of the working cylinder of larger dimensions and greater consumption of working fluid to or greater work pressure. From all results suggest that it may be optimal selection evaluation working cylinder as the ratio of the required work per cycle and the installation of the selected working cylinder. Call it the coefficient of utilization of working cylinder, we get
c =
Ac Ai
(2)
If you are in the process of evaluation of size Ac and Ai and first consider the losses of the mastering friction in kinematic pairs of mechanisms, and other external and internal losses due to friction within the working cylinder, then the above ratio as defined utilization of working cylinder has a practical significance and can be used in the assessment of each specific solution. The future will be, in order to concretize the idea, discussed a concrete task in terms of choice of working points of suspension cylinder.
5. TASK
It is necessary to choose the parameters of the external characteristics of the working cylinder, which raises a platform OF Crafts around the horizontal axis O, the horizontal position to vertical position OD2, or in a vertical position close to the ODI (Figure. 1). It is well known platform of gravity G and the position of its center of gravity - point C. At the same time, strictly
D2
D1 D
B C 0
D0
Figure 1: Working cylinder which raises a platform In general, G the weight of the platform corresponding to a working cylinder. Suspension points A and B are determined by the working cylinder length and position of OB point A in the plane OAB.
398
5.1. Primary route In Figure 2 shows the approved label. The initial position of the platform corresponds to index "A" and the final position of indices "1". Any position (Figure. 3) does not carry the index. Point B is located at a distance OB = b of the rotating axis, and point A is determined by the length and angle a. The role and meaning of the angle (3 will become clear during subsequent exposure. At the moment equations from the point O (Figure. 3) receives the required force F working cylinder mechanism in any position depending on the angle
F=
G c cos h
(3)
For the area of a triangle OAB can be written:
1 1 b sin ( ) = h AB 2 2 2
(4)
From the cosine theorem for triangle follows the same:
AB = b 2 + a 2 2ab cos ( ) 2
Which allows to write the definitive expression of F
(5)
F=
G c cos b 2 + a 2 2ab sin ( ) b a cos( )
(6)
B1 C1 C0 0
b
B0
Figure 2: Approved label 5.2. Maximum force of cylinder You must examine your behavior F ( ) . The statement observed that cili
dF G c sin = b 2 + a 2 2ab sin ( ) d a b cos( ) + cos sin ( ) 2 b + a 2 2ab sin ( ) 2 cos ( )

(7)
a b cos( ) cos 2 2 cos( ) b + a 2ab sin ( )

Collecting is obtained:
399
+ a 2 2ab sin ( ) ] } dF From the last expression is clearly seen that it is always < 0 when 0 which means that d 2
2 2
{ab cos cos ( ) + sin [b
Gc dF = d ab cos 2 ( ) b 2 + a 2 2ab sin ( )
(8)
F ( ) monotonically decreasing and we get:
F
a
B
h
C 0 G
Figure 3: Required force F working cylinder
Fmax =
Za
Gc 1 a b cos Ga 0 a b sin
a 2 + b 2 + 2ab sin
(9)
=0
Fmax = a 2 + b 2 + 2ab cos = 0
(10)
For
The minimum force working cylinder by the assumption of the task ( = 1 ) will be
F (1 ) =
G c cos 1 b 2 + a 2 2ab sin (1 ) b a cos(1 )
(11) and the appropriate configuration is shown in
Max force Fmax (9) corresponds to horizontal platform figure 4.
= = 0
a
h= 0 R
C0 0
c
B0
b Figure 4: Max force
400
At the moment the basic equation (3) for
= = 0
reads (12)
Fmax =
Gc Gc = h0 R
Which together with (9) gives:
G c G c a 2 + b 2 + 2ab sin = h0 ab cos

And after elementary transformation gives form:
(13)
b a sin + = h0 a 2 + b 2 2ab cos + 2 2

5.3. Hanging point position of cylinder
(14)
From equation (12) shows that adopted or selected maximum force working cylinder Fmax uniquely determined and its corresponding arm ho = R (Figure 4). The size of a, b, , which define the position of points A and B must satisfy a relationship (14), which means that they can freely choose. We can therefore conclude that when a Fmax point of suspension of work cylinder may choose very different., provided that the foreign AB touches the circle along the radius R (13) with center at O. An illustration of this important conclusion is figure 5
=R h0
0 Figure 5: Different choose of point

5.4. Walk of cylinder
=R h0
T B0
Figure 6: Selecting the point A
401
By selecting the point Bo is determined by the point Bo, while the position of point A is not unambiguous and can be taken anywhere on the direction BoT (Figure 6). Decision; enjoyment in terms of point A has a large specific weight, because it contains in itself a decision on the length of the working stroke cylinder. At a certain point A (Figure. 6) working stroke cylinder is
H = AB0 AB1
(15)
Discussion of the position of point A can lead to a clear characteristic when used hyperbole to point distance is the difference in hyperbole of its constant focus. This constant is in our case, the working stroke cylinder (15). Adopt the point B0 and Bt for the focus of the hyperbola (Figure. 7) and drawing this point family hyperbole for various elcscentricitete e. The position of a point anywhere on a specific hyperbola (eg hyperbole E2) of the family business requires the same stroke cylinder. This means that when walking the same point a working cylinder can still be a wide choice. On the other hand, each corresponding to a particular family hyperbole second walk of working cylinder. We should expect, and it will also show, that in this interpretation. the selected focal distance, the cam hyperbole synonym for the working stroke cylinder H.
A e1 e3 e2 B1
e4
e1<e2<e3<e4
=R h0
T B0
Figure 7: Family hyperbole Focal distance of hyperbole (Figure. 7) corresponds to a longer B0 B1 , and can be written
B0 B1 = 2 f = 2OB0 sin
1
2
= 2b sin
1
2
(16)
On the basis of (15) to walk the working cylinder is obtained
H = AB0 AB1 = 2a =
b 2f = 2 sin 1 e e
(17)
Where is the eccentricity hyperbola. 5.5. Assessment solutions through utilization coefficient of cylinder If you use the concepts introduced in section 3 and 4 and the corresponding analytical expressions (1) and (2), can be written coefficient. utilization of the working cylinder
c =
Where is
Ac G c sin 1 = Ai Fmax H
(18)
Ac = G c sin 1
402
(19)
which is obvious. Taking further into account (12) and (17) and evident connection (Figure . 7)
R = b sin
We get finally:
(20)
c = e sin cos
1
2
(21)
On the basis of (21) can be discussed on the impact points of suspension of work on his cylinder coefficient of utilization. Conspicuous by the fact that the c affect only the geometrical characteristics hyperbola (e ekscentricitetj and angle which is related to the focusing distance), that is, a choice of hanging points working cylinder. In the special case of a lifting platform in the vertical position ( 1 = / 2 ) obtained
c =
e
2
sin
(22)
6. CONCLUSION
The proposed approach to evaluating business solutions suspension cylinder with views optimality is based on very reasonable terms of the installed work and coefficient of utilization of the working cylinder. Thinking is illustrated by the example of the elementary enough that it can be very track, and to perceive the basic ideas and to clearly see the rerouting path to solution. Selecting suspension points of the working cylinder and its influence on the stroke of working cylinder is clearly remarkable reduction follows the geometry of the hyperbola. Number of influential parameters corresponding to the number of parameters of the curves. Weight assignment is the fact that every concrete structure mechanism requires specific approach and appropriate mathematical processing problems. Though. and a knowledge of the dependencies that affect the quality of solutions and a number of influential parameters on the solution, it has its value.
REFERENCES
[1] M. Savkovic, M. Gasic, R. Petrovic, "Voltage analysis of interactive contact segments arrows hydraulic telescopic cranes," serial "14 October" no. 26-27, 2007, original scientific work, Krusevac, pp. 17-22 [2] D. Pri, N. Nedic, R. Petrovi "XML specifications of hydraulic and pneumatic components, France, 31 CONGRESS HIPNEF 2008, 15 - 17 October 2008, Vrnjaka Spa [3] R. Petrovic, J. Pezdirnik, P. Ivanovic, "Development of methodologies and Software for Engineering, Simulation and Optimization of Oil-Hydraulic Cylinders of Large Measurements and Strengths", p. 40-46, The 7 th International Conference on Fluid Power Transmission and Control (ICFP 2009), April 7-10, 2009 in Hangzhou, China. [4] R. Petrovic, J. Pezdirnik, N. Todic, "Optimization of oil-hydraulic cylinders of large measurements and strengths", "VALVE" - Journal of Fluid Power, Automation and Mechatronics, Valve 15/2009/4, p.330-337, University of Ljubljana, Faculty of mechanical engineering, Ljubljana, Slovenia
403
RaDMI 2010
THERMAL ASPECTS OF RUBBER LIP SEAL - POLYMER ROD COUPLE BEHAVIOR IN DRY SLIDING CONDITIONS
Geanina Podaru1, Sorin Ciortan1, Iulian Gabriel Birsan
"Dunarea de Jos" University, Galai, ROMANIA, e-mail: geanina.podaru@ugal.ro
Summary: The paper presents a possible method to analyze the rubber lip seal- polymeric rod couple behavior, for pneumatic cylinders with dry sealing systems. Polymeric materials can be a good option in situations where metals are not allowed. If the total absence of lubricant is required, the rubber lip - polymeric rod sealing system working in dry sliding conditions can lead to accelerated rod's wear, eventually the seal's efficiency being compromised. Assuming that in case of non-metallic rod drives the temperature has a high influence on the materials behavior, using a thermography based method to monitor the temperature of sealing system, the authors investigate the rubber lip seal- polymeric rod couple behavior in different working conditions. Keywords: polymer-rubber couple, lip-seal efficiency, thermographic method.
1. INTRODUCTION
Due to their ecological low impact and efficiency, pneumatic drives are ones of the most used lately. The power fluid - the air - provides some outstanding advantages like: totally fire proof, smell less, non-toxic, low prices, large availability, [1]. Pneumatic drives' sealing systems require special care in design phase, because here one can find low or missing lubrication - requiring appropriate sealing systems, low fluid pressures - leading to possible missing auto-sealing effect, high temperatures in sealing area - requiring special sealing materials and, a very important observation, in pneumatic drives case between an accidental leakage and a high friction force into the sealing system, the first one is desirable, the second leading to a accelerated wear of the lip seal, [2]. If, due to environment compatibility requirements, the absence of lubricant is imposed, the pneumatic drives' sealing system works in heavy duty conditions. On one hand the friction regime is totally dry on the other hand; the sliding movement leads to a periodic change of sliding speed and acceleration - from zero to a maximum value, figure 1
Figure 1: Sliding movement particularities: speed and acceleration variation . The friction coefficient also varies from static, at stroke ends, to kinematic in the middle part of the stroke [3], figure 2a. Even the overall friction force shows a different evolution for in-and out-strokes, [4], figure 2b. All these presented leads to an un-uniform wearing distribution on the stroke's length.
404
b)
c)
a) friction coefficient evolution; b) friction force evolution
Figure 2: Sliding friction particularities In case of polymeric rods, a late option in pneumatic drives' design [5], the working conditions above presented leads to different behavior of materials, comparing with the metallic ones. The main problem is linked to the lower thermal transfer coefficient of the polymers, leading to the higher heat dissipation time and to higher values of the temperature in the sealing system area. In these conditions, "heat spikes" can occur for short periods of time on the rod, leading to local over-heating and micro-melts areas [6]. In order to investigate the sealing system behavior and performances, several measurements on a special designed test rig were performed.
2. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
Figure 3 presents the rig used for testing the polymeric rod - rubber lip sealing system. The rig simulates a real pneumatic drive working conditions, allowing monitoring and recording of sliding speed, air pressure, friction force and rod temperature values.
1-electric drive; 2-crank mechanism; 3-electronic rotation speed controller; 4-pressurized enclosure; 5pressure gauge; 6-polymeric rod; 7-termographic camera
Figure 3: Pneumatic drives ' sealing systems testing rig As pneumatic cylinder simulator, a pressurized enclosure is used and the alternate linear motion is obtained from a rotation speed controlled electric drive through a crank based mechanism. In table 1 are presented the used materials and corresponding testing conditions. The air pressure and sliding speed values were established based on some preliminary tests, in order to maintain the maximum working temperature for the tested materials. As target parameters, the rod surface temperature, wear and efficiency of the sealing system were followed. Table 1: Materials and testing conditions Rod / lip-seal materials POM C Silicone rubber Air pressure [bar] 8 Sliding speed [strokes/min] 105 ; 263 ; 365 Stroke length [mm] 50 Rod diameter [mm] 8 Rod-lip tightening difference [mm] 0.15 Maximum working temperature [C] 140 300
405

During the tests the rod surface temperature was recorded, the acquired data allowing drawing the graph presented in figure 3.
Figure 3: Rod surface temperature evolution during the test Looking into figure 3, it can be observed that the rod temperature reach the highest value in first moments of the test, due to the low thermal transmission coefficient of the rod material. As the heat starts to dissipate into the rod, the temperature decrease, an equilibrium being established. When the wear of the sealing system (rod and lip seal) became important, the temperature decrease dramatically, both because of friction force decrease and of air leakage which has a cooling effect. The sealing system efficiency is appreciated by maximum number of strokes until the air leakage is unacceptable. Taking into account that in pneumatic systems leakages are not strictly forbidden being compensate by special system's components (pressure accumulators) [7], a new parameter is defined (PDR pressure drop rate, equation 1) in order to establish the acceptable leakage limit.
PDR =
nominal service pressure - minimun service pressure 0.7 decreasing time
(1)
The wear of the rod and lip is quantified as percentage of lost mass from original mass of the corresponding element. Several tests were performed for each sliding speed and the obtained averaged results of the measurements are presented in table 2. Table 2: Sealing system efficiency and wear measurements results Sealing system wear [%] Sliding speed [strokes/min] Rod Lip 105 0.10 9.04 263 1.20 6.86 365 1.53 7.69
Case number 1 2 3
Working time [strokes] 297200 304000 54400
The test results show that the longest sealing system life is obtained in low sliding speed conditions, case 1 and 2 in table 2. An interesting observation is that the wear rate of the lip in case 1 is higher than in case 3, when the shortest life is obtained. The explanation is that, due to high friction forces, the temperature in sealing area is high too and the worn lip material is plasticized and stacked on the rod surface as an elasto-plastic rubber transferred film, figure 4a. This film acts both as lubricant and as quasi-liquid sealant, leading to a friction force decrease, to a rod protection and to an improvement of the sealing efficiency. These are the conditions when the heat flow equilibrium (figure 3) is obtained. In case 2, even the rod wear is higher than in case 1, the service life is longer. The transferred material film leads to a maximum increase of the sealing efficiency compensating the components' wear, figure 4b. In high sliding speed conditions, case 3 in table 2, the transferred material growing conditions are not achieved, the worn lip material being evacuated from sealing area. As consequence, the friction force remains high, the wearing rate of the rod and lip seal is high and sealing efficiency is lower. After the test, the rod show visible wear, figure 4c.
406
a)
b) Figure 4: Rod surface evolution during the test
c)
a) case 1; b) case 2; c) case 3: A - original rod area, B - worn rod area
The above observations are in good concordance with others references in literature regarding rubber-polymer couple in dry sliding behavior [8]. The sliding speed and, linked by this, contact area temperature are the main influencing parameters that can allow the development of adhesion processes leading to the transferred material growing and, through this, can improve the sealing system efficiency. In the design sage of the pneumatic drive, these conditions should be favored in order to obtain high performances of the system.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Taking into account all presented above, following conclusions can be drawn: - Due to specific behavior, rubber lip-polymer rod sealing couple working in dry sliding shows, in certain working conditions, a transferred lip material film on the rod. - The presence of the transferred film has very good influence on the sealing system efficiency, compensating the rod and lip seal wear and prolonging the service life of the drive. - The working conditions that allow the transferred material film growing can be identified and investigated using termography based methods. - Favoring the transferred material film during the design stage of the pneumatic drive is a possible solution for obtaining better working performances and longer service life.
REFERENCES
[1] Norgren Co.: The Norgren Guide to Specifying Pneumatic Actuators, Technical Catalog, 2009. [2] Fritz S.: Diagnostic Potential in Pneumatic Systems. Technical report, Aachen University, 2008, Germany. [3] Khayati K., Bigras P., Dessaint L.A.: LuGre model-based friction compensation and positioning control for a pneumatic actuator using multi-objective output-feedback control via LMI optimization, Mechatronics, vol.19, pp.535-547, 2009 [4] Muller H.K.: Fluid sealing technology - principles and applications, Mechanical Engineering, ISBN 0-82479969-0.. [5] Pawel, K.: Pneumatic power servo-mechanism made from polymeric materials - analysis and optimization, Wydzial Mechaniczny, Politechnicka Krakowsa, Poland, 2009. [6] Podaru G., Birsan I., Ciortan S., Deleanu L.: Pneumatic drives' seals efficiency monitoring by thermography based methods. In: Proceedings of the ASME 2010 10th Biennale Conference on Engineering Systems Design and Analysis ESDA 2010, Istanbul, Turkey, July 12-14, 2010. [7] Granozic G., Borenstein J.,: Minimizing Air Consumption of Pneumatic Actuators in Mobile Robots, Proceedins of IEEE Conference on Robots and Automation, pp. 3634-3639, New Orleans, USA, 2004. [8] Myshkin N.K., Petrokovets M.I., Kovalev A.V. - Tribology of polymers: Adhesion, friction, wear and masstransfer, Tribology International, vol. 38, pp. 910-921, 2005
407
RaDMI 2010
CONSTRUCTIVE TECHNIQUES OF IMPROVING THE ACCURACY OF MACHINE TOOLS

M. Roganov, L. Roganov, Y. Korotenko
Donbass State Engineering Academy (DSEA), Kramatorsk, UKRAINE, E-mail: lev.roganov@dgma.donetsk.ua
Summary: Constructive techniques of improving the accuracy of machine tools by reducing the gaps in the cylindrical sliding and roller guideways are considered. This is possible in automatic and manual modes after manufacture of the machine and during its operation, extending the running time with high accuracy. Keywords: machine accuracy, gaps, guideways, adjustment.
1. INTRODUCTION
Precision machining is a key to the assessment criterion, along with productivity. Precision characterizes the deviation of the obtained product from the ideal requirements for tolerances conditioned by component drawings. The notion of machine accuracy includes shaping and sizing errors, mutual arrangement of surfaces, and errors depending on the dynamic, thermal and other impacts arising during machining. Guidelines of improving the machine accuracy have been worked out [1], among which we select: improving the accuracy of manufacture and assembly of machines or the use of layouts of structures with reduced sensitivity to fabrication and assembly; reducing errors caused by various forces during processing, reduction of elastic and thermal strains, increase of the dynamic quality; accuracy improve by the use of adjustable and automatic devices, including error compensation using CNC systems, feedback systems, active control; reduction of errors arising during the machine operation by reducing friction in movable joints, increasing wear resistance, ensuring stability form of basic components. These well-known and widely used ways of improving the machine accuracy can be joined by constructive techniques of improving the accuracy by making possible the gap adjustment of the guideways, of hydraulic equipment of machine-tools and other machines [2]. The greatest effect can be obtained by adjustment of the cylindrical guideways of machine-tools since precision of machine tools effects the accuracy of machine parts, manufactured by the machines. If the design scheme of the existing cylindrical guideways of machine tools modified, provided with adjustable bushings of special design [2], there can be an effective way of obtaining regulatory clearances in machine-tools either automatically or manually. The aim of this work is the study and consideration of possible constructive techniques that can provide the reduction of gaps in the cylindrical guideways of machine-tools. Clearances in cylindrical guideways are preset at manufacture of machine-tools and increase due to the wear-out during operation. Especially effective is the hydraulic automatic control of gaps that is appropriate for machines with hydraulic drive.
2. DESCRIPTION
The scheme of the developed controlled slotted guiding device with a control system is shown in Fig. 1a, 1b. The principle of the slot guide device is when the distortions of the cylindrical part 2 appear, the signal from the misbalance gauge of actuated machine part 10 is applied to the pressure regulator 8, which increases the pressure in the gap 3. Higher pressure in the gap 3 causes deformation of the bush 1 and the change of the radial gap size in the gap 4, which leads to the elimination of misbalance in the actuated machine part 2. Misbalance gauge 10
408
in the absence of distortions and displacements of the part 2 supports, using the pressure regulator 8, even level of the slit 3 and the constancy of the gap 4 and only changes (increase) of the gap 4 leads to the automatic triggering of the gauge 10 and accordingly of the controller 8. If there is imbalance or radial displacements of part 2, gauge 10 signals to the remote machine control about an unacceptable gap in the gap 4 between part 2 and bush 13. Therefore, a worker manually pulls the pin 15, which by the flange 10 shifts bush 14 in body 12 and causes pinch of bush 13, which would reduce the gap 4 and eliminate distortions and displacements of part 2 on the rails 13, 14 of the body 12. Thus the gaps in the cylindrical machine guides can be maintained at a given level for a considerable period of operation of the machine.
Figure 1a: Diagram of a self-adjusting guide

1 guide bush; 2 actuated part of the machine-tool; 3 outer surface of the bush 1; 4 inner surface of the bush 1; 5 fixed seals; 6 hydraulic line; 7 pressurizing source; 8 pressure regulator; 9 flange; 10 misbalance gauge of actuated machine part 2; 11 graph of pressure in the gap 3
Figure 1b: Diagram of an adjustable guide with manual adjustment

12 body; 13 directing wedge bush; 14 adjusting bush; 15 pin
Such adjustment is possible for cylindrical sliding and roller guideways of machine-tools, either manually or in automatic mode.
409
3. CONCLUSION
Constructive techniques of improving the accuracy of machine tools with hydraulic drive by reducing the gaps in the sliding and roller guideways are developed. The presence of the hydraulic drive allows adjusting the gap in the automatic mode. Devices for controlling the gaps in the manual mode of the sensor distortions and displacements of the machine parts during operation are also developed. In certain justified cases replacement of the machine guides by cylindrical ones may be recommended that is possible with the new design or retrofit.
REFERENCES
[1] .. / .. , .. . .: , 1986. 336 . [2] .. - / .. , .. // : ... , 2001, .42-46.
410
RaDMI 2010
RESEARCH OF DIAMOND WHEEL PRODUCTIVITY WHILE MACHINING FINE-GRAINED DIAMOND HARD PLATES
National Technical University Kharkov Politechnical Institute, Kharkov, UKRAINE, e-mail: rudnev-av@mail.ru and grinko@kpi.kharkov.ua
Summary: The results of the research of diamond wheel productivity while machining fine-grained diamond hard plates are presented in the paper. As a criterion for productivity the wear of diamond grains is taken. Keyword: diamond-spark grinding, diamond hard metal plate, wheel wear.
A.V. Rudnev
1. INTRODUCTION
The process of diamond-spark grinding proceeding with introduction in a zone of cutting of additional energy as electric pulses [1] allows to support stable conditions of interaction of a working surface of a diamond wheel with a processable material during the long period of work that is especially important at processing of hard-tomachine materials. In NTU KhPI wide experience of researches of this process on the special and modernized universal - toolgrinding equipment with reference to various problems of grinding of details and sharpening of tools from hardto machine materials is saved up[2, 3]. Recently research on reception of two-layer diamond-hardmetal plates () with the small size of a grain of diamond which could be applied as edge tool are conducted by Institute of superhard materials (Kiev, Ukraine). The received plates with the size of a grain 3 - 60 microns have received designation . Research on machinability of this material is carried out and presented in this paper.
2. TECHNIQUE OF RESEARCH
In the course of diamond-spark grinding of diamond hard plates the diamond wheels of the type 122 45 6 1-01 with the grain size of 160/125, 100/80, 50/40, and the concentration of 50, 100, 150% were used. The grinding was performed according to the stiff scheme. The cutting conditions in the course of experiments varied in the following way: cutting speed from 15 to 35 mph, cross-feed motion from 0,005 to 0,011 mm/double stroke, line feed remained constant 0,5 mpm. Allowance for machining remained constant 0,8 mm. The dimensional wheel wear was measured with the help of a special device (Fig. 1) directly on-the-spot. The device is textolite disk, on one face of which along the circle hard plates with the epoxy adhesive are attached, which were finished on a flat surface grinder after the attachment. In the axial bore of the device the indicating gage with a division value of 0,001mm is attached with a bolt. The wheel wear was measured in five main points, which was achieved by placing a wheel on a mark before and after the experiment, with the leg of the indicator thrusting against the bolt head, which surface serves as a base for measuring. As a criterion for optimum grinding conditions the unit discharge of diamond q, mg/mm3 is used, which is defined according to the formula:
q= 378 ( D 2 d 2 ) K S , mg/mm3; 4 105 V
(1)
411
with: D, d outer and inner diameters of the circle correspondingly, mm; relative diamond concentration in the layer; S volume of removed material, m3.
2 3
1 hard plares; 2 - body; 3 - bolt; 4 - indicating gage. Figure 1: Device for measuring wheel wear The productivity of wheels was studied in accordance with the methodology of multifactor planning of experiments, which allows to describe the process in the form of equations of regression and to receive the mathematical models of optimization parameters. It is essential to estimate correctly the area of independent variables change, which correspond to approximate to the optimum values of the researched parameter of optimization. The intervals of varying factors were chosed in the range of grinding conditions, providing the smallest values of unit discharge of diamond. The research of factor space, adjoining to the optimum was performed by planning the second order, because the linear equation of regression cannot adequately describe the surface of response due to the steepness of hyperplanes of factor space. When researching the grinding process with diamond wheels, the plans approximate to D-optimum, built on a cube, are of most interest, as in this case the factors vary only on three levels, with top and lower levels being symmetric to the plan centre and having integral values. Thus, a preference was given to Box-Wilson plan, approximate to D-optimum and referred to in literature as B4 plan for four factors - transversal serve of Spop, mm/double stroke; cutting speeds V, m/sec; grittiness Z, mcm; and concentration K, %. Realization of 4 plan allows to receive the mathematical model of optimization parameter in the form of equation of regression for the unit discharge of diamonds. In general case the surface of response is described by a complete equation the second order:
K ) y = bo + bi xi + i =1
1 i j K
bij xi + bii xi2

i =1
(2)
) y - selective estimate of the studied function; b0, bi, bij, bii - selective coefficients of regression; xi, xj - independent variables; - incurrence of independent variables. On the basis of experimental data and taking into account technological possibilities of equipment the factors, intervals and levels of their varying, which are presented in Table 1 are chosen.
with:
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Levels
Table 1: Notations of factors, levels and intervals of their varying Factors Spop, mm/double Z, mcm V, m/sec stroke 1 2 0,011 0,008 0,005 0,003 3 160/125 100/80 50/40 45 15 25 35 10
, % 4 150 100 50 50
Top /+/ Zero /0/ Lower /-/ Interval of varying
In Table 2 the matrix of planningand the result of the experiment is presented (middle value of three experiments). Table 2: Matrix of planning of 4 plan and the results of experiments V Spop Z K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 + + + + + + + + + 0 0 0 0 0 0 + + + + + + + + 0 0 + 0 0 0 0 + + + + + + + + 0 0 0 0 + 0 0 + + + + + + + + 0 0 0 0 0 0 + q, mg/mm3 7,0541 17,3277 10,7240 15,4466 7,0541 7,1477 5,4995 9,4023 5,5785 5,0267 5,8169 6,6726 6,5454 5,5294 6,9803 9,5323 8,6091 14,9123 15,5668 13,5227 6,3287 7,9071 11,5971 4,2171
3. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
The planning matrix and the results of experiments are processed by a computer by the universal package of Microsoft Excel, as a result the following equation of regression is received for the unit discharge of diamonds:
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q=10,991 - 1,357X1 - 0,773X2 + 0,4023 + 1,5674 + 0,6151**2 + + 3,5552**2 (3) 3,8703**2 -3,0804**2 + 1,68312 + 0,23913 1,07414 + 0,09123 - 0,61124 + 0,20134; In an order not to cause the distortion of model, the sifting out of inessential factors was not made. In figures 2, 3, 4 the results of processing of experimental data are presented as the graphs of response surfaces.
0,011 Spop, mm/d.str. 0,008 18,000-19,000 17,000-18,000 16,000-17,000 15,000-16,000 14,000-15,000 13,000-14,000 12,000-13,000 11,000-12,000 10,000-11,000
0,005 15 25 V, m/se 35
19 17 15 11 9 7 5 3 1 0
35
25 V, m/sec
0,011 Spop, mm/d.str. 15 0,005
18,000-19,000 17,000-18,000 16,000-17,000 15,000-16,000 14,000-15,000 13,000-14,000 12,000-13,000 11,000-12,000 10,000-11,000
Figure 2: Dependence of unit diascherge of diamond on cutting speed and transversal serve
160/125 z, mcm 100/80 15,000-16,000 14,000-15,000 13,000-14,000 12,000-13,000 11,000-12,000 10,000-11,000 9,000-10,000 8,000-9,000 7,000-8,000 6,000-7,000
50/40 0,005 0,008 Spop, mm/d.str. 0,011
16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0
160/125 z, mcm 50/40 0,005 0,008 0,011 Spop, mm/d.str.
15,000-16,000 14,000-15,000 13,000-14,000 12,000-13,000 11,000-12,000 10,000-11,000 9,000-10,000 8,000-9,000 7,000-8,000 6,000-7,000
Figure 3: Dependence of unit discharge of diamond on the grittiness of wheel diamonds and transversal serve
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160/125 z, mcm 100/80
12,000-13,000 11,000-12,000 10,000-11,000 9,000-10,000 8,000-9,000 7,000-8,000 6,000-7,000 5,000-6,000
15
25
V, m/sec
50/40 35
13 11 9 7 5 3 1 0
12,000-13,000 11,000-12,000 10,000-11,000 9,000-10,000 8,000-9,000 7,000-8,000 6,000-7,000 5,000-6,000 160/125 15 z, mcm 25 V, m/sec 35 50/40
Figure 4: Dependence of unit discharge of diamond on cutting speed and grittiness of wheel diamonds As shown in the figures, most influence on a unit discharge of diamonds is exerted by transversal serve, grittiness, concentration, least influence is exerted by cutting speed. Thus at the increase of grinding speed V m/min the unit discharge q mg/mm3 goes down due to strong dynamic durability of diamond grains. If the level of grittiness is low, the unit discharge shows low values, which is explained by the fact that fine-grained diamond wheels possess more grains than coarse-grained ones. Thus a wheel with a grittiness of 50/40 has the amount of grains almost sevenfold more than the wheel with a grittness of 160/125. Moreover fine grains work with the finer cut thickness. Small values of unit discharge during working with coarse-grained wheels can be explained by the fact that large grains due to the greater value of sealing-off are better hold out in a copula. Great unit discharge at small values of longitudinal serve is explained by the greater unit load on grain. At further growthof serve the unit loading diminishes, resulting in diminishing of unit discharge, and then grows again, resulting in catastrophic wear of grains and growth of unit discharge. At the high values of relative concentration relief of the wheel has a grest relatively bearing surface and greater amount of grains that results in the low values of unit discharge.
4. CONCLUSION
Having analyzed the graphs of surface a conclusion can be drawn that the points of optimum correspond to the maximum values of such factors of varying as grittiness Z (50/40, 160/125) and relative concentration (50%, 150%) (2, 6). Therefore it is more reasonable to work at a cutting speed V=35 of mm/double stroke, and on the transversal serve S=0,008 mm/double stroke. Thus the unit discharge lies within the limits of 4 6 mg/mm3.
REFERENCES
[1] .. - // , , ( . , 23-25 1976.). .: , 1976. . 21-24. [2] / .. , .. , .. , .. . . , 1983. 95 . [3] .. - .: , 2003.359 .
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RaDMI 2010
LOST MOTION OF TOOTH GEARINGS OF ASYMMETRIC TOOTH PROFILE

Svetoslav K. Simeonov1, Genadi Ts. Tsvetanov2, Miroslava D. Nencheva3,
1
Technical University Gabrovo, Gabrovo, BULGARIA, e-mail: ssim@tugab.bg, 2 e-mail: gencvet@tugab.bg, 3 e-mail: nencheva@tugab.bg
Summary: Reducers employed in electromechanical devices appear to be units which, in most cases, determine the service life of an instrument or a system. The principal function of tooth gearings in instruments is the accurate processing of the input signal. Since in most cases this type of gearings operates in reverse regime then a key indicator of their accuracy is the lost motion. A number of methods of calculating the maximum lost motion are available in instrument making. These methods only allow the assessment of the initial accuracy of a party of single-type reducers. However the gears of asymmetric tooth profile are made discrete in them. This paper presents a theoretical study of the probable lost motion of reducers which comprise gears of asymmetric profile. Dependencies for determining lost motion on the existence of backlash in engagement and radial clearings in bearings have been proposed. Keywords: lost motion, asymmetric tooth profile.
1. INTRODUCTION
Reducers employed in electromechanical devices appear to be units which in most cases determine the service life of an instrument or a system. The principal function of fine mechanical tooth gearings is the accurate processing of the input signal. Since in most cases this type of gearings operates in reverse regime then a key indicator of their accuracy is the lost motion. A number of methods of calculating the maximum lost motion are available in instrument making [1,2,3]. However the gears of asymmetric tooth profile are made discrete in them. This paper presents a theoretical study of the probable lost motion of reducers which comprise gears of asymmetric profile. Dependencies for determining lost motion on the existence of backlash in engagement and radial clearings in bearings have been proposed.
2. TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS
The lost motion of a mechanism is the idle running (i.e. it is not transmitted to the driven link) of the driving link appearing when its motion is reversed [4]. Lost motion error is the driven link lag arising when the motion of the driving link is reversed, equal to the difference of output coordinates corresponding to one and the same input coordinate in forward motion. The lost motion of a particular gearing is a functional quantity. This accounts for the fact that eccentricities (of gears, bearing rings, etc.) are among the basic manufacturing errors which result in periodic lost motion variation [5]. In the operating range of displacement of links, the lost motion is a random quantity and it varies within its maximum and minimum values.
C = C +
_
(1)
The maximum probable lost motion in a tooth gearing is calculated by probability addition of the constituents of the lost motion:
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C = C jk + C0
k =1 n =1
(2)
k =1
2 2 jk + 0 , n =1
(3)
where Cjk, are, respectively, the mean value of the gearing lost motion, caused by the backlashes and the limit deviation from it;
C 0 , are, respectively, the mean value of the lost motion caused by clearances in the bearings of n shaft and
the limit deviation from it; q is the number of gearings; k is the gearing number; s is the number of shafts; n is the shaft number. In this paper this probability is chosen 99.7% as a sequence of normal distribution law. When the formula of determining the probable lost motion caused by backlash of a cylindrical gearing with nonadjustable centre distance has been worked out, only these accuracy parameters which have a dominating effect on the lost motion have been taken into consideration [4, 6]. They are: centre distance deviation fa; addendum modification shift EHS and gear ring eccentricity. In compliance with the working standards and eliminating the radial run-out, since the margin tolerance of the addendum modification shift TH includes its full value, for the lost motion Cjk of a single-stage gearing with gear transmission ratio of 1, from the backlash between the asymmetric profiles [7], we obtain:
C jk =
tg + tg* d
' ' + k '2 + k3 . (k1 + k2 ) k1 ,
(4)
where:
k1 = 2.E HS1 + TH 1 ; k 2 = 2.E HS 2 + TH 2 ;
' ' 2 2 k1 = TH ; k '2 = TH ; k3 = (+ fa + fa ) . 1 2 2
The values of coefficients taking part in the formula for determining Cjk are given in Table 1. ble 1: The values of coefficients taking part in the formula for determining Cjk depending on the gear diameter aw, d (mm) 12 20 32 50 80 7 90 100 116 135 155 E 8 108 122 136 153 170 9 130 146 166 183 197 7 114 146 160 185 209 D 8 138 152 166 193 220 9 156 170 196 223 251 7 1156 1296 1600 2025 2401 E 8 1444 1764 2116 2809 3600 9 2116 2500 3136 3969 5041 7 1156 1296 1600 2025 2401 D 8 1444 1764 2116 2809 3600 9 2116 2500 3136 3969 5041 7 3600 5184 6400 10000 14400 E 8 3600 5184 6400 10000 14400 9 3600 5184 6400 10000 14400 7 8100 12100 15876 25600 32400 D 8 8100 12100 15876 25600 32400 9 8100 12100 15876 25600 32400
k1 k2 k1 k2
k3
125 170 193 217 230 257 277 2500 4489 5929 2500 4489 5929 19500 19500 19500 48400 48400 48400
Radial clearances in bearings cause shaft journal displacements and lost motion appears. If we assume, that the value of the radial clearance obeys the normal distribution law and the dispersion law is the same for the two
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bearings, then the formula of lost motion which is a linear function of these clearances, taking into account asymmetry [7] is: j + j R max j R min + j R max l +l . C0 = R min + 1 2 * rw . cos w rw . cos w L , (5) j R max j R min j R max j R min l l . 1 + 2 + * rw . cos w L L r . cos w w where jR is the radial clearance l1, l2 L are geometric dimensions characterizing the relative position of supports and gears (Fig. 1a, b); rw is the radius of the initial centroid of the driving gear; w, *w are the pressure angles with asymmetric profiles determined by the sufficient condition of the theorem of reversing the direction of motion [8,9]:
inv w = 2.(x2 x1 ).tg + inv z2 z1
* db db = cos w cos * w
(6)
inv * w =
2.(x2 x1 ). tg + tg * + inv + inv * inv w z2 z1
where w and *w are profile angles of engagement along the initial cylinders of the two composite parts of the asymmetrical tooth profile; db and d*b the diameters of the basic cylinders which form the two parts of the profile; z2 and z1 number of teeth of the gear wheel; x2 and x1 coefficients of dislocation of the initial contour for the respective wheels; and * the profile angles of the initial contour. According to (6) the sign (+) refers to the external engagement and the sign (-) refers to the internal engagement. The displacement coefficient of the wheel with internal teeth indicates the displacement of the tool profile of the equivalent gear with external teeth.
l1 L
l2
l1 l2
a)
b)
a) symmetric mounting of bearings, b) cantilever mounting of bearings
Figure 1: Geometric dimensions characterizing the relative position of gears with respect to supports: Figure 2 shows how the dimensions determining the overhanging position of the gear with respect to the supports affects the lost motion variation in the gearing. Due to the different service and assembly conditions, radial bearings are manufactured in different clearance groups. Elastic deformations arise when the bearings are assembled with tightness: the inner ring diameter increases, and the outer ring diameter decreases. The operating clearance in bearings differs from the assembly clearance as a result of load and thermal deformations. When the operating clearance is small, the load is spread over a greater number of shots and therefore the life of the bearing gets longer.
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C0, -3 rad.10
0,1
0,2 l1
0,3
0,4
0,5
1. d = 12 mm; 2. d = 20 mm; 3. d = 32 mm; 4. d = 50 mm; 5. d = 80 mm; 6. d = 125 mm.
Figure 2: Effect of dimensions determining the overhanging position of the gear towards the supports on the lost motion variation in the gearing: Small lost motion can occur when the radial forces are large, if the bearings are assembled with zero assembly clearance or tightness, which turns into a clearance during operation. Friction bearings have some advantages over rolling bearings and owing to this they have found advantageous application in reducers in instrument making of lower accuracy requirements. Taking into account the allowable disalignment and their reciprocal displacement because of non-parallelism of the plates, the guaranteed clearance should be 0,0010,003 mm. Then for diameters up to 3 mm the preferred fit appears to be not (H7/e8) but (H7/d8).
3. CONCLUSION
Analytical dependencies concerning the lost motion in fine pitch tooth gearings versus the backlash in engagement and radial clearances in bearings, taking into account the asymmetry of tooth profiles have been obtained. The effect of various factors as: accuracy grade, type of joint operation, pitch diameter, manner of fixing, etc., on lost motion variation has been studied and so ways to decrease lost motion have been found.
REFERENCES
[1] , . .: . , , 1972 (Handbook of Precision Instruments Designer). [2] , .: I.: , 2004. (Theory of Optical Systems, Part 1). ISBN 954-8914-15-8. [3] , . .: . , 1969 (Accuracy of fine pitch gears and its manufacturing control). [4] , ..: . ., , 1983 (Study of the efficiency of fine pitch metal-plastic tooth gearings by lost motion criterion). [5] , . .; -, . .: . M, , 1968 (Calculation of statistic moments and lost motions in kinematic chains of precision instruments).
419
[6] , . .: , . , , 1979 (Interchangeability, standardization and technical dimensions). [7] , . .: . ., , 2004 (Study of fine pitch tooth gearings of asymmetric profile). [8] , .; , .: . -, 32, 2005 (Theorem of reversing the direction of motion in involute cylindrical gearings of asymmetric tooth profile). [9] , .; , .: 2- . UniTech 05 , 2425.11.2005, . , II (Geometric synthesis of 2K-H gearings of asymmetric tooth profile).
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RaDMI 2010
THE METHODOLOGY OF VIBRATION ISOLATION OF TECHNOLOGICAL SYSTEMS

Radomir Slavkovi, Nedeljko Dui, Nikola Bokovi
Technical faculty Cacak, SERBIA, e-mail: slavkovic@tfc.kg.ac.rs
Summary: Vibration isolation of machine-tools and devices with the aid of elastic supports represents an effective method of protecting technological equipment against mechanic vibrations. Elastic support of technological equipment by using elastic pads is applicable to most machines and devices in order to perform passive or active vibration isolation. The best technoeconomic effects concerning the use of elastic supports for the protection against vibration and impact load are achieved with precision devices and machine-tools used in final machining processes. With the use of elastic supports the construction of heavy and expensive foundations rigidly connected to the machines via fundamental screws can be avoided. This paper presents an example of lathe founding with the active vibration isolation using elastic pads MEO1x70, produced by Industrial combine Guca. Key Words: vibration, founding, technological equipment, elastic pads.
1. INTRODUCTION
The term technological systems implies a great number of machines and devices used in mechanical engineering, from machine-tools for rough machining, over precision machine-tools and machines used in final machining processes to extremely precise metrology devices and measuring machines. Manufacturing plant where technological process performed by the man takes place, usually includes a great number of machines and devices which interact through vibration and sound, having the effect on the man as well. The source of vibration is the machine itself and surrounding environment. Therefore, there are active and passive vibration isolation. Putting machines on elastic supports suppresses mechanical energy that is transferred to the environment and vice versa. Light and medium machines are mostly positioned on elastic pads, while expensive concrete foundations are used for heavy machines and special machines of high fluidity. Positioning technological systems on the appropriate elastic supports has proved to be an effective and by far the cheapest method in antivibration process. Active isolation includes the reduction of vibration and sound transmission from the machine as a source to the floor and surroundings. Technological systems which are the source of vibrations include machine-tools for rough machining such as: lathes, millers, planers, excenter presses, compressors etc.
Figure 1.1 Active vibration isolation Passive isolation refers to the problem of reduction of vibration and sound transmission from the surroundings to certain technological system. Passive isolation is applied to finishing machine-tools, precise measuring devices, sensitive instruments etc.
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Figure 1.2 Passive vibration isolation
2. CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF MACHINE-TOOL VIBRATIONS

Machine-tools are very complex engine generators comprising a great number of rotary/linear motion components (assemblies and elements) moving at different speed. Consequently, causes of machine-tool vibrations are miscellaneous and numerous: Structural characteristics of the machines in which mechanical shocks and convulsions normally occur during operation (forging hammer, eccentric press, compressors), Technological flaws such as: unbalanced inertial forces of rotating and linear mass, excessive clearances and backlashes in the assemblies, inaccuracy of steps and conjugate gear set action, Excessive fatigue in the assemblies, throwing of roller bearings etc., Untimely and low quality performance of periodical inspection and planned repair, replacement of worn-out parts, non-compliance with recommendations and regulations for lubrication which brings forth the occurrence of variable frictional force and unevenness of slide movements, Variable resistance force in the cutting process, Divergence between the center of mass and the center of base, slant and eccentric load, Samopobudne...Eigenfrequency vibrations occurring at specific machining regime between the tool and workpiece, Insufficient stiffness of elements and machine assemblies, Low quality foundation and placing of technological equipment into production drives and inaccurate leveling that causes unauthorized bending of the stand and the occurrence of centering error. Thus caused vibrations are further carried over to the foundation and environment. Another direction of vibration transportation, which is very significant, is towards the processing zone workpiece and tools. Intensity and the character of the caused vibrations have a negative effect to: the quality of the workpiece surface, accuracy of the measures and shapes, wear of the tools, wear and the lifetime of the mechanical system elements, productivity, level of vibrations and environmental noise. In order to attain high quality and accuracy of the treated surface, the isolation of machines from external and internal vibrations is highly significant. Accordingly, a special emphasis is placed on the founding of machining systems. In normal workshop conditions foundation vibrations have a wide range of frequency from several Hz to more than 100 Hz with amplitude ranging from a micrometer to 10m. This wide range of frequency impedes effective achievement of vibration isolation, forcing the manufacturers to make elastic pads of various sizes, shapes and materials. Correct founding enables better quality of machining systems, and this quality is reflected in the following: the effect of external disturbances on machining process is lowered, the transmission of disturbances from machining system to the environment is lowered, higher geometric and kinematic accuracy of the machine-tool is provided, higher static stiffness of machine-tool systems is achieved. The above mentioned indicators have great significance in the technology of machine building industry not only due to their effect on the quality of machining systems but also due to their importance in the quality of production systems within optimum solution to the problem of vibration and noise protection. Dynamic perturbation component from the machining system is carried over to the environment either through the base in the form of vibrations and conductive noise or through the air in the form of air noise, whereas negative effect of the mentioned perturbations is significantly reduced by appropriate founding. As a result of the perturbations, support structure of the machine-tools joined together by elastic bonds, oscillate as a whole around their starting
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position, and thus have a negative effect on the current machining process or surrounding technological equipment. The character and type of vibrations depends on the following: place of their occurrence, nature of the oscillatory motion (mechanic, electric and similar oscillations), cause of oscillatory motion, size of oscillation amplitude, number of freedom degrees etc.
3. AN EXAMPLE OF LATHE VIBROISOLATION THROUGH ELASTIC SUPPORTS MEO1x70

This chapter presents an example of lathe vibroisolation through elastic supports, type MEOx70, produced by Industrial combine Guca.
Figure 3.1 Lathe HOBIMATIK H-81 Technical characteristics of the lathe are such as to enable it to be used both for educational purposes and in small workshops. Its mass is 70 kg, and since it is rigidly fastened to the plate weighing 80 kg, total mass of the system amounts to 150 kg.
Figure 3.2 Lathe HOBIMATIK H-81 rigidly fastened to the plate The system shown in Figure 3.2 is leant on four elastic supports MEO1x70 (figure 3.3)
Figure 3.3 Elastic support MEO1x70
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Figure 3.4 Lathe HOBIMATIK H-81 leant on four elastic supports Elastic viscose part of the support shown in figure 3.3 is made of rubber and has a special shape which enables the rubber to be resistant to pressure and shearing when the technological equipment is in operating mode. This provides rather good amortization ability and the system is able to calm down within a relatively short time. Elastic viscose element is placed between the inner metal part to which the machine is fastened, and the outer metal part which is, if necessary, fastened to the base. In this case, the element is made of rubber vulcanized with special tools.
Figure 3.5 Statistic stiffness of the elastic support MEO1x70 Figure 3.4 shows the unbalance of rotating masses, i.e. eccentricity, which is the cause of the system vibrations. As a result of placing the eccentric workpiece into the lathe chuck, vibrations will be detected, i.e. inertial forces will appear. These forces influence the bearing and tools causing vibrations and wear out. This is highly significant for the machines used in rough machining processes. Figure 3.6 shows a workpiece placed into the lathe chuck.
Figure 3.6 Eccentric workpiece at rest
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Figure 3.7 eccentric workpiece during the rotation The lathe on elastic pads represents a complex oscillatory system with multiple degrees of freedom, whose analysis requires knowledge of many features of the system. This system will be analyzed as a single-degree-offreedom system of mass m oscillating only vertically. Figure 3.8 shows a mechanical model of this system.
Figure 3.8 Single-degree-of-freedom system =176.1g. Mass Therefore, the main cause of the vibrations is the eccentricity of the working part weighing system amounts to , revolutions per minute of the chuck and working part are 1350 . Appropriate static stiffness depending on weight intensity per a pole/support is read from the diagrams, shown in Figure 3.5. Starting data are the following:
Mass system evenly arranged on four supports amounts to 37.5kg. According to this fact read from the diagram shown in Figure 3.5, the static stiffness of the pole can be estimated:
Stiffness of the entire system can be obtained by summing the stiffness of every single support due to the parallel relation, therefore:
(where stands for modal damping of the rubber, which amounts to According to the relation: ), we can estimate the value of the damping of one support, and then, the damping of the total system as well:
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Forced frequency is obtained on the basis of the number of rotations, using the relation:
Self-frequency is obtained in the following way:
When forced and self frequencies are calculated, their relation leads to: Differential equation describing the oscillation of the system is: Its solutions are:
The following relation gives the amplitude of the oscillation:
Phase difference is obtained according to the relation:
Therefore, the final solution of the differential equation is:
Figure 3.9 Oscillation of the single-degree-of freedom system leaned on MEO1x70 Oscillation speed has been obtained by differentiating with time(t). Dynamic amplification factor of vibrations can be estimated by the following expression:
In this specific case, dynamic factor for the given RPM, eccentric mass and centering error amounts to:
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Perturbation transfer coefficient:
Vibroisolation:
Figure 3.10 Dynamic factor of amplification The diagram in Figure 3.10 shows the dynamic factor of vibration amplification and its dependence on the relation between forced and self-frequencies. Point A shows the value of dynamic factor for the data processed through the calculation. The diagram explicitly shows that higher relation between the frequencies is necessary for calmer operation of the system. Replacement of the supports or machining regime would contribute to the reduction of dynamic amplification factor of vibrations. Reduction of stiffness enables higher relation between forced and self frequencies. Nevertheless, the same effect and calmer operation of the system are brought about by an increase in the number of revolutions.
4. VIBRATION MEASUREMENT
Vibration measurement has been realized by vibrometer VB-8212. This device enables speed and acceleration measuring. The measuring is also supported by software SW-U801-WIN, which is appropriate to the device. This software is designed for versions of WINDOWS operating systems, including Windows XP. Communication between the computer and the device is realized via RS 232 interface, more precisely via specialized cable UPCB-01. Once all required physical connections have been realized, the program is activated. Its Setup (Figure 4.1) serves for the setting of the parameters such as: results recording period (System Scan Rate), maximum size of the recorded data, appropriate communication port, choice of the number of windows (channels) intended for the textual and graphic display of the recorded values of the size measured.
Figure 4.1 Parameter settings in System Setup
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Exit option succeeds the setup of the parameters, after which Monitor mode is entered. Monitor mode provides graphical display of the measured results. Once the sensor is placed on the elastic support (Figure 4.2), the value of oscillation speed (mm/s) of the system is shown on the display.
Figure 4.2 Setting the sensors for measuring oscillation speed
Figure 4.3 Vibration speed measurement
Switching to Monitor mode, display of the measurements will be shown on the monitor. (Figure 4.4).
Figure 4.4 Display of the results during the measurements Graphic display of the measured value is obtained in Chart display window (Figure 4.5)
Figure 4.6 Graphic display of the oscillation speed in System Monitor
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The measured values of the particular size can be exported to MS Excel or MS Access. It is also possible to get a report in a txt document which contains speed value in every second. Monitor Data Report Tuesday, August 10, 2010 Page: 1 Date Time Display1 Unit -------------------------------------------------------------------------------2010/08/10 12:34:00 17.7 mm/s 2010/08/10 12:34:01 17.8 mm/s 2010/08/10 12:34:02 17.8 mm/s 2010/08/10 12:34:03 17.8 mm/s 2010/08/10 12:34:04 17.9 mm/s 2010/08/10 12:34:05 17.9 mm/s 2010/08/10 12:34:06 17.8 mm/s 2010/08/10 12:34:07 17.5 mm/s 2010/08/10 12:34:08 17.5 mm/s 2010/08/10 12:34:09 17.7 mm/s ---------------------------------------------------------------------2010/08/10 12:35:52 17.7 mm/s 2010/08/10 12:35:53 17.7 mm/s 2010/08/10 12:35:54 17.7 mm/s 2010/08/10 12:35:55 17.7 mm/s 2010/08/10 12:35:56 17.7 mm/s 2010/08/10 12:35:57 17.7 mm/s 2010/08/10 12:35:58 17.7 mm/s 2010/08/10 12:35:59 17.7 mm/s 2010/08/10 12:36:00 17.7 mm/s The report is formed for 120 seconds of the system oscillation speed measuring. As can be seen from the above, the report contains the date when the measuring is performed and the value of the measured size after every second during the two-minute period. Figure 4.7 shows the window with the settings concerning the organization of the measured values in the report and the graphic display of these values during the specified time period.
Figure 4.7 Find Data Window for data organization and graphic presentation
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5. COMPARISON OF THE RESULTS OBTAINED BY MEASUREMENTS AND THROUGH CALCULATION

The measurement result shows that the peak of speed oscillation of the system has the following values 17.5 mm/s, 17.7 mm/s, 17.8 mm/s i 17.9 mm/s, 18.2 mm/s, 18.5 mm/s at interval of 120s. Different values of the measured oscillation speed can be considered an outcome of clearance in mechanic assemblies. Measurement is performed at RPM of 1350 o/min. The comparison between the measured values with the value obtained through the calculation which amounts to 17.15 mm/s, leads to the conclusion that the calculation of the system with a single degree of freedom (for elastic suports, type MEO1x70) produced the result that is approximate to the value measured by VB-8212 vibrometer. Figure 5.1 shows the measured values of oscillation speed amplitudes during 120s, whereas Figure 5.2 shows the law of the system oscillation speed.
Figure 5.1 Graphic display of oscillation speed of the system during 120 seconds
Figure 5.2 Graphic display of the system oscillation speed equation obtained through the calculation
6. CONCLUSION
The use of elastic pads on technological equipment for active and passive vibration isolation is applicable to most machines and devices. The best techno-economic effects concerning the use of elastic supports for the protection against vibration and impact load can be achieved with precision devices and machine-tools for final machining processes. With the use of elastic supports the construction of heavy and expensive foundations rigidly connected to the machines via fundamental screws can be avoided. Positioning of technological equipment on the industrial building floors, rapid position change due to the changes of technological process and the use of upper electricity distribution require the application of an adequate elastic support. And, if the requirements of hygiene-technical protection against noise and vibrations are taken into consideration, one can evidence great advantages and necessity for the application of cheap elastic pads for placing technological equipment. When choosing the elastic pad, it is necessary to be acquainted with the features of the technological equipment which should be isolated from vibrations, in both active or passive vibroisolation. This paper presents the analysis of the active vibroisolation of a rough machining device. The application of the elastic pads, type MEO1 has been analyzed. During the process of calculation for a single-degree-of-freedom systems, we arrived at general conclusion that better vibroisolation effects are achieved with MEO1 pads of lower hardness.
REFERENCES
[1] Slavkovi, R., Tehnologija fundiranja obradnih sistema, Tehniki fakultet aak, aak (2000). [2] Slavkovi, R., Milievi, I., Industrijski prototip modularnih elastinih oslonaca za fundiranje tehnoloke opreme, Tehniki fakultet aak, aak (2010). [3] Uzunovi, R., Gligori, B., Prilog problematici postavljanja alatnih maina na elastine oslonce, Institut za alatne maine i alate, Beograd (1974). [4] Gligori, B., Prilog problematici postavljanja alatnih maina na elastine oslonce,Institut za alatne maine i alate, Beograd (1966). [5] Uzunovi, R., Problemi elastinog oslanjanja tehnoloke opreme, VI Savetovanje o proizvodnom mainstvu, Opatija (1970).
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RaDMI 2010
METHOD FOR OPTIMIZING MACHINE PARTS DESIGN BASED ON ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWOKS
Constantin Spanu1, Sorin Ciortan1, Iulian Birsan1, Valentin Mereuta1
1
"Dunarea de Jos" University, Galati, ROMANIA, e-mail: constantin.spanu@ugal.ro
Summary: The paper proposes a new approach of design methods for machine parts, based on ANN's. The method allows establishing the individual influence of main design factors on the flexional deformation and on reliability of new designed part. This way, an optimized procedure can be developed, leading both to a longer duty-life and to higher reliability. Keywords: design method, neural networks.
NOMENCLATURE For some of the designations see Fig. 1 a : Shaft overhang b : Distance between bearings l1 ,l2 ,l3 ,l4 ,l5 : Lengths for various shaft parts d1, d2, d3, d4, d5: Diameters for various shaft parts f 2 : Elastic deformation in point 2
f 2 : Average elastic deformation in point 2
f a : Admissible elastic displacement in point 2

f a : Admissible average elastic displacement in point 2
mn : Normal modulus of the gear a f : Flexional safety statistical parameter
D fa : Dispersion of the f a t x : Half tolerance range for f a D f : Dispersion of the f

CvT : Variation coefficient of the torsion torque R f : Flexional deformation reliability
( x ) :Laplace function
x,y: Design hints
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1. INTRODUCTION
The design of a machine element assumes the correlation of many variable parameters: material, basic shapes (cylinder, cone etc.), dimensions, adjustments curves' radius between the basic shapes and heat treatment. Between these variables, an optimal correlation must be found, so the strength calculus and strength verification to be into limitations. A difficulty in solving the design problem results in fact that the design hints are large enough [1] so the designer must consider many solutions for the same problem. Another difficulty consists in the strength calculus and other calculus that are implied in establishing the final form that must be done for every solution whenever is necessary. ` Not all these efforts are ensuring the finding of the optimal solution because it considers a finite number, relatively small of variants. In this paper, it is proposed a new design method of a machine element based on artificial neural networks. More precisely, the method is used for designing of a gear shaft, part in a one-step gear reducer. The calculus was made for flexional deformations of the shaft and its reliability for these deformations. The shaft (Fig.1) is seated in points 3 and 4 and is subjected to forces in points 1 and 2. In point, number 1 is acting a pulley force with components in vertical and in horizontal planes. In point, number 2, there is gearing force with axial, tangential and radial components. The gear part dimensions were kept constant: - diameters d a = 43.094 mm, d f = 32.685 mm - length l5 = 45 mm. In addition, the dimensions linked with case and cover is kept constant (see the dimension of 50 mm between the inner part of the case and the flange and the dimension of 12 mm between the inner part of the case and the pinion)
Figure 1:The designed gear shaft and the variables considered The variable dimensions are presented in table 1, where
l31 = 1.5 l3
and
(1)
l41 = 2l4
(2)
The dimensions are in mm. For l2 the increment is 1mm and for the l41 is 2 mm. It were obtained 396 variants, 82 of them exceed the admissible flexional deformation. The length of shaft parts was established considering the x and y , as intermediary variables, that takes the values presented in table 2.
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Table 1: The variants and the parameters that its defines Variant I II III IV V VI 21 21 20 20 18 18 l1 l2 32,,37 28,,43 34,,49 26,,41 34,...,49 24,...,39 27 33 24 36 24 39 l31 l41 24,,34 24,,34 24,,34 24,,34 24,,34 24,,34 45 45 45 45 45 45 l5 25 25 18 18 20 20 d1 28 28 20 20 24 24 d2 30 30 20 20 25 25 d3 32 32 25 25 30 30 d4 d5 32.685 32.685 32.685 32.685 32.685 32.685
The diameters values were computed through a dimensioning procedure, from torsion torque or equivalent bending moment, considering the dimensions a and b. [2]. Table 2: Intermediary variable values Range values 0; 1; 2; 3; 4 10; 11; 12; 13; 14
Variable x y
The diameters values were established based on standards' recommendations for shaft end ( d1 ), sealing elements ( d 2 ) and rolling bearings ( d 3 ). More, the condition d 4 d f was imposed. The shaft's elastic deformations were considered in point number 2 ( f 2 ), where the loading has maximum values and, because of the gear part, the maximum value of the elastic deformation is restricted to:
f a = ( 0.02 0.01) mn
where: mn = 2.25 mm. From Eq.3 results:
(3)
f a = 0.045 mm
Deformations' computing were made following [3]. All the acceptable variants must fulfill the condition:
(4)
f2 f a
For shafts that fit to the condition presented in Eq. 5, the flexional deformation reliability was computed. The reliability estimation is based on [4]:
(5)
af =
where:
f a f2 D fa + D f
(6)
f2 = f2
(7) (8)
D fa =
2 tx = 5.6 10 5 mm 2 9
with:
t x = 0.01 mn = 0.0225 mm
2 D f = 4 f 2CvT
(9) (10)
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where:
CvT = 0.15
Finally, flexional deformation reliability is:
Rf = af
( )
(11)
For the necessary calculus, a mathematical template was built in MathCAD, based on specific design requirements for gear shafts. The variables are those presented in table 2.
2. NEURONAL NETWORKS
Artificial neuronal networks are software tools that simulate the functioning of biological brain. Basically, they are made by a limited number of individual units neurons connected in network shaped architecture, with several layers Fig.2. The most common neuronal network architecture is the multilayer perceptron with three layers types: input connected with the corresponding data sources, hidden inaccessible from outside the network and output connected to the corresponding output data sources. The hidden layers and the units within number can vary, leading to the very large network architectures.
Figure 2: General Artificial Neural Network architecture Each unit receives the information, process it based on a specified transfer function and passes it away to other units. Simulators based on these networks are capable to performing "intelligent" tasks, similar to those performed by the human brain, the similarities being quite astonishing: they acquire knowledge through learning from a set of presented input-output correlations; the information is memorized by a special configuration of links between the units (weights); they can forget by randomizing the weights values. Because the input-output relationships are represented as numerical weights values, very complex phenomenon can be processed. The true power and advantage of neural networks is their ability to learn the relationships directly from the data being modeled. These simulators are used when the mathematical support is either very complicated, either absent but there are lot of correlated input-output datasets. After a learning stage, the network is capable to provide output values when only the input values are known the queering stage.
3. DESIGN OPTIMIZATION WITH NEURAL NETWORKS

The machine parts design optimization assumes a lot of feedback calculus, until a desired goal (shape, dimensions, service life etc.) is achieved. In reliability case, large mathematical relationships are involved. Also, there is a stage when data values must be found in tables. This way precious time is lost and errors occurrence is bigger. Taking into account the possibilities offered by neuronal networks [6], a simulator was built with the goals to analyze the designing process of reducers gear shaft and identifying the most suitable points to change for optimization. Also, an optimized value of a certain optimization target can be obtained. The training data sets were obtained in the manner discussed above. Random working conditions were imposed and the corresponding results were collected. In table 3 are listed the corresponding inputs and outputs of the neuronal network.
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Table 3: Neuronal network inputs-outputs Inputs l1 - shaft sector length d1- shaft sector diameter l2 - shaft sector length d2 - shaft sector diameter l31 - shaft sector length l41 - shaft sector length d3 - shaft sector diameter d4 - shaft sector diameter Outputs
f 2 :elastic deformation in point 2 R f :flexional deformation reliability
Taking into account that a neuronal network offer different performances following its architecture, an optimization is required in order to obtain the best suitable one for the chosen problem. This can be achieved by two ways: trying several architectures and choose that offer less error and train cycle number or using special software that allow, based on genetic algorithms, obtaining of best fitted one. As software support builder for neuronal network, EasyNN was used. The software, including a genetic evolution module, allowed obtaining the best network architecture for the gear shaft designing, presented in Fig.3. The network has three hidden layers and a total of 28 nodes. In order to train the network 308 data sets were prepared. After 14674 cycles the maximum training error was less than 0.001 and the training stage is accomplished. The trained network can be used for design process analyze. EasyNN software include a sensitivity analyze module [6], that can identify which are input values that can be modified in order to obtain the biggest output value modification. In this purpose, each input is varied from lowest to biggest value, keeping the others constant and the effect on output is measured.
Figure 3: Neuronal network architecture Performing the sensitivity analyze on the trained network, the hierarchy presented in Fig.4 was obtained.
Figure 4: Outputs sensitivity versus inputs variations It can be seen in Fig.4 that two inputs (l2 and l31) are the most suitable to be modified in order to change the outputs' values. This is in very good concordance with traditional design rules.
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Another use for the neuronal network simulators is the queering, in order to find unknown output values corresponding to known inputs. The queering values for each must be between the minimum-maximum of the corresponding training used values. In order to test the network accuracy in predicting values, a data set of input-output couples, with known values, was used. In Fig.5 are presented comparative plots between the network results, obtained by querying it with input data set and the corresponding known output values.
Calculated 0.014 0.0135 0.013 0.0125 0.012 0.0115 0.011 0.0105 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 Test number Predicted
Calculated 1.00000 0.99995 Value 0.99990 0.99985 0.99980 1 3 5 7 9 11 13
Predicted
Value
15
17
19
21
23
Test number
a)
a)
b)
f2
factor, prediction error = 0.88259%, b) reliability
Rf
, prediction error = 0.001024
Figure 5: Calculated versus predicted values The errors obtained in querying stage are higher than those from training stage, especially for the f 2 factor. Anyway, the errors values are more than satisfactory for designing. The EasyNN software allows also a reverse query procedure. During this one, desired values for outputs are prescribed (only maximum or minimum) and the corresponding input values are obtained. Some inputs can be locked offering this way a valuable method for design optimizing, when a desired reliability is required, Fig.6. The reliability optimizing procedure require performing few steps - preliminary establishing the inputs values; - adjusting and locking the inputs according to the design prescriptions (rolling bears diameters); - computing final values for inputs. In table 4 are presented the performed optimizing steps for obtaining the highest reliability value. First, the preliminary optimize operation deliver the inputs' values. The appropriate values for shaft diameters where the rolling bears are placed are selected and locked. The final optimization gives the final values of inputs for the selected goal.
Figure 6: Output optimizing with locked inputs Table 4: Output optimization Inputs Outputs
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25
Optimization step 1 l1 - 18 d1- 23 l2 - 24 d2 - 23 l31 - 24 l41 - 24 d3 - 21 d4 - 25 d3 - 25 d4 - 26 l1 - 18 d1- 20 l2 - 24 d2 - 20 l31 - 24 l41 - 24 d3 - 25 - locked d4 - 26 - locked
f 2 = 0.01240 R f = 1.000
Optimization step 2 for designing reasons Optimization step 3
f 2 = 0.01239 R f = 0.999
The above presented procedure can be used for reliability optimization, both for find highest values - in case of long life service shafts or the lowest values - for short life service.
4. CONCLUSIONS
The classical design method for machine parts imply difficulties connected to a large number of solution that must be considered and calculus difficulty. For all that, the optimal solution cannot be found. The paper proposes an alternative for the classical design methods, based on the artificial neuronal network simulators. For building, training and querying the neuronal network the specialized software EasyNN was used. The training data sets were obtained from the MathCAD template. The neural network simulator allows predicting values for inputs data not used in training stage. Also an optimization analyze can be made, based on the output's sensibility to the inputs variance. Based on the presented method, the reliability calculus for machine parts can be easily performed. It is also possible to found the appropriate solution for longest or shortest service life.
REFERENCES
[1] Crudu, I., et.al.: Atlas reductoare cu roti dintate, Ed. Didactica si Pedagogica, 1981, Bucuresti. [2] Posea, N., et.al.: Rezistenta materialelor- Probleme, Editura stiintifica si enciclopedica, 1986, Bucuresti. [3] Gafiteanu, M. et.al.: Organe de masini, vol.1, Ed. Tehnica, 1999, Bucuresti, ISBN 973-31-1400-6. [4] Tudor, A., et.al.: Durabilitatea si fiabilitatea transmisiilor mecanice, Ed. Tehnica, 1988, Bucuresti. [5] Anderson, J.A.: An introduction to neural networks, Bradford MIT Press, Cambridge, 1995, USA. [6] *** : Neural Planner Software Ltd. 2008, EasyNN - User Guide, www.easynn.com. [7] Anderson, J.A.: An introduction to neural networks. Bradford MIT Press, Cambridge, 1995, USA. [8] Haykin, S.: Neural networks, a comprehensive foundation, MacMillan College Publishing Co., 1994, New York. [9] Krose B., Smagt P.: An Introduction to Neural Networks, University of Amsterdam, 1996,Holland [10] Fujii, H., Mackay, D.J.C., Bhadeshia, H.K.D.H.: Bayesian neural network analysis of fatigue crack grow rate in nichel base superalloys, ISU International, vol.3 (11), (1996), pp. 1373-1382.
437
RaDMI 2010
A MICROSCOPIC MODEL FOR THE ORIGIN OF PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT IN HTSC YBCO THIN FILMS
1
Ioan Stanca1, Tania Popa2, Constantin Bungu3

University of Oradea, Faculty of Sciences, Physics Department, Oradea, ROMANIA, RO-410087, E-mail: istanca@uoradea.ro 2 University of Oradea, RO-410087, Oradea, ROMANIA, E-mail: tania_popa@yahoo.com 3 University of Oradea, Faculty of Management and Technological Engineering, Oradea, ROMANIA, RO410087, E-mail: bungau@uoradea.ro
Summary: The response of a superconductor to optical illumination, manifesting itself as a voltage signal in a currentbiased sample, is of undeniable interest from both fundamental and practical points of view. A model for the microscopic asymmetry of the flow of the photocurrent generated at the boundaries of an isolated defect was proposed, and the contributions coming from some types of extended structural defects into the effect were estimated. Keywords: Thin films of YBa2Cu3O7; Intrinsic junctions; Optical response of superconductors.
1. INTRODUCTION
High performance materials used in multifunctional heterostructures, nanostructures, thin films and multilayers are at the core of new and improved technologies that have achieved these goals. Oxides materials, in particular, have suitable properties such as ionic conductivity, superconductivity, thermoelectricity or ferroic behaviour, to successfully address these challenges. The advancement of our understanding coupled with the development of new and more efficient processes, better characterization tools, and newer functionalities for these materials are required to meet future challenges. In particular, decreasing thin films deposition and/or annealing temperatures without adversely affecting their structure and properties in a good example of such a challenge encountered for many of these materials. Moreover, the reduction of the lateral and vertical dimensions and the understanding of the major role of the interfaces are key issues that must be overcome for the development of new applications based on such materials. Some previous studies of OIV in YBCO thin films [1,2] have revealed that the observed signal is a superposition of at least three components of different origins, one of them being a PV signal. The above discussion concerned mainly elucidation of the origin of the macroscopic asymmetry of YBCO films required for macroscopic PV voltage generation. The reason for asymmetry in generation and/or separation of the photoexcited charge carriers in the space charge region of potential barriers at the planar defect boundaries is more complicated. To find it, fairly detailed investigations of sample morphology are required. However, using the literature data and results of this work, we can propose a microscopic model for the PV effect in YBCO allowing estimation of a possible participation of one or another type of planar structural defects or inhomogeneities in the PV current generation. Such specific features of the OIV in YBCO as the dependence of the signal on the laser beam incidenceangle [3] and sign inversion on illumination of the sample from the side of a transparent substrate [4,5] suggest that the observed photosignals are associated with the so-called anomalous photovoltaic effect (APE)[6]. APE is typically observed in the films prepared under an oblique incidence of the evaporated material on the substrate. As it is supposed in one of the APE models, this preparation technique results in formation of intrinsic junctions (pn junctions, Shottky barriers, etc.) inclined to the substrate plane. Though this technique is not typically used in preparation of YBCO films, we can list several factors (first of all, internal stresses of different natures) which are able to cause inclination of the planes of extended crystallographic defects, such as grain boundaries, planar
438
stacking faults, twin boundaries, and so on. (Bending of twin boundaries was observed, for instance, in YBCO single crystals [7]).
2. THEORETICAL MODEL
A detailed discussion of this supposition is beyond the scope of this paper, so the reader can judge himself as to what extent the model proposed below is justified for YBCO films. In the general case the expression for the PV current density generated at a junction is given by:
j0 = e w I 0W
(1)
Here, e is the charge of electron, is the yield quantum of photo carriers, and w and W are absorption coefficient and some effective thickness of the region of the junction, where generation and separation of photoexcited carriers occur. Let us assume that the carrier generation asymmetry at the planar defect
Figure 1 (a): Model of a planar defect explaining the origin of the microscopic asymmetry for the photogenerated current at the normal incidence of light and (b) simplified scheme of the defect junctions used for the PV current calculations in the two cases: without (second boundary shown as solid line) and with (second boundary shown as dashed line) the effect of shadowing. boundaries is associated with inclination of its plane with respect to the substrate surface (Fig. 1a) and with the difference between the absorption coefficients of some region near the defect (2) and the remaining part of the sample volume (1). Among the defect parameters used in the model, only the effective defect thickness (d) can be reliably compared with the experimental data available for YBCO. Therefore the goal of the calculations given below is to obtain the expression for the PV current which will include d. This will allow us to estimate the defect thicknesses which will ensure the experimentally observed currents (to be more precise, the parameter j/I0 ). Let us calculate the net current (i) flowing in the film plane which is a difference between the currents generated at the opposite boundaries of a planar defect of the length l. It is reasonable to assume that w and w for both boundaries are equal. In addition, the condition w <<1 is supposed to be satisfied. Then, to simplify calculations, the regions of effective charge separation can be regarded as planes with a zero thickness (see Fig.1b). At first we consider the case when d satisfies the condition d > h tg , i.e. there is no effect of shadowing of one boundary by the other at the normal incidence of light (the second boundary position is shown by solid line in
439
Fig. 1.b). The current generated by each boundary can be obtained in an obvious way, namely, by integrating elementary currents from the boundary regions with the area d s = l d x/sin lying at distances y = x ctg from the illuminated film surface:
htg 0
i j = e W w cos I 0 sin exp( j xctg )(ldx / sin ) = j0 l (sin / j )[1 exp (- j h)]
(2)
where j are corresponding absorption coefficients. It can be easily seen from Eq. (3) that the net current markedly depends on the condition of light absorption, goes to zero for weak absorption (jh << 1), and reaches the maximum:
i = j0l sin (1 2 ) / 1 2
(3)
in the opposite case. In the case under consideration, d does not enter the expression for i and therefore it is necessary to pass to the case of current generation when the effect of shadowing (d < h tg) occurs (see dashed line in Fig. 1b). It is quite obvious that shadowing is appreciable only in the case of sufficiently strong light absorption. On the other hand, it is easy to understand that jd / tg should be of the order of unity because in the opposite case the expression for i will again reduce to Eq. (3). Thus in deriving the expression for i in this case, the conditions ih >>1, jd / tg ~1 are thought to be satisfied. For the nonshaded boundary i1 is still described by Eq. (2). The expression for i2 includes now two 2 components (see Fig. 1.b), one of which has the previous form:
' i2 = j0 l cos exp( 2 xctg)dx = j0 l (sin / 2 )[1 exp( 2 dctg)] 0 d
(4)
and derivation of the second is quite obvious:

'' i2 = j0 l cos htg d 0
exp(1 xctg) exp( 2 dctg)dx =
(5)
j0 l (sin / 1 ) exp( 2 dctg) {1 exp{[1 (h dctg]}}
Taking into account the above conditions, the final expression for i2 becomes:
" i2 = j0l (sin / 1 ) exp( 2 dctg)
(6)
and, hence, i will be:

' " i = i1 (i2 i2 ) = j0l ( / 1 2 ) sin [1 exp( 2 dctg)]
(7)
here = 1 2. Using Eq. (7) we can estimate the order of magnitude of the lower limit for d (dmin ) providing the experimentally observed magnitude of j/I0 ~ 10-6 V-1. For , it is reasonable to use the value equal by the order of magnitude to the absorption coefficient itself, i.e. ~ 105 cm-1 [8]. Now assuming that w ~ 0.3d, ~ 1, w ~105 cm-1, l is of a unit w length, and the optimal value of is about 450, we obtain dmin~ 10-5 cm.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Now we can evaluate different types of planar structural defects and inhomogeneities observed in YBCO from the point of view of their consistency with the obtained estimate of d. First of all, we should exclude from probable candidates coherent twin boundaries, since the twin wall thickness is estimated to be of the order of 3 10-7 cm [9, 10]. However, it should be borne in mind that the twin boundary thickness can increase with oxygen removal [10]. The contribution of incoherent boundaries between subgrains with different orientations of twinning planes into the observed PV effect is more probable. From the data obtained by Ossipyan et al. [9], the
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thickness of this type of boundary can be as large as 10-5 cm. Evidently, thicknesses of other frequently occurring extended defects, such as boundaries of grains or blocks, can also satisfy the criterion under consideration. In our opinion, just these defects are responsible for the appearance of the PV signal in HTSC thin films samples. This conclusion is based, first of all, on the data on the film morphology [11] and the fact that max is observed in the same direction as the maximum of the film resistivity [12]. So the origin of the PV voltage in YBCO thin films is naturally to associate with the boundaries between the ab-planes of the a/b-oriented grains. The anisotropy of PV voltages points to their connection with the planar defects elongated in the direction of the c-axis projection on the film surface. For this reason, a possible contribution of incoherent twin boundaries should be excluded. On the other hand, the electron microscopic data indicate that the film morphology repeats the twinning pattern of the sapphire substrate [13]. Namely, there are planar structural defects aligned parallel to the twinning planes of the substrate, the projection of the c-axis on the film plane being parallel to the twinning planes. That is why it is reasonable to associate the PV effect in first of all with these defects. We are aware that the suggested model of the PV effect in YBCO films is fairly simplified. The real mechanisms of formation of APE voltages can be more complicated as it is illustrated, for instance, by the study of APE in such a material as ZnTe thin films [18]. Nevertheless, we hope that in this work the first step in clarifying the true nature of the photovoltaic effect in YBCO was done.
4. CONCLUSIONS
The main reason for the photovoltaic voltage generation is supposed to be the presence of internal junctions associated with planar structural defects or inhomogeneities. The results of this work suggest that, anisotropy of physical characteristics, including photovoltaic voltage, in the film plane points to the presence of a macroscopically preferred direction which is a necessary condition for the macroscopic photovoltage generation. The mechanism of photoresponse caused by Cooper pair breaking or by magnetic excitation are most likely insignificant under the present conditions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Many parts of this article are based on the work of Thin Films PLD Research Group at University of Leipzig, Faculty of Physics and Geosciences (Germany). One of the authors (I.S.) thanks for the support given by Dr. Michael Lorenz (University of Leipzig) and Prof. Paul Seidel (Friedrich Schieller University, Jena) for fruitful discussion on this subject.
REFERENCES
[1] A.I. Grachev, I.V. Pleshakov, A.P. Paugurt, S.G. Shulman, Phys. Solid State 38 (1996) pp. 1598. [2] A.I. Grachev, I.V. Pleshakov, Solid State Commun. 101 (1997) pp. 507. [3] A. Kleinhammes, C.L. Chang, W.G. Moulton, L.R. Testardi, Phys. Rev. B 44 (1991) pp. 2313. [4] C.L. Chang, A. Kleinhammes, W.G. Moulton, L.R. Testardi, Phys. Rev. B 41 (1990) pp. 11564. [5] K.L. Tate, R.D. Johnson, C.L. Chang, E.F. Hilinski, S.C. Foster, J. Appl. Phys. 67(1990) pp. 4375. [6] J.I. Pankove, Optical Processes in Semiconductors, ch. 14, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1971. [7] V.K. Vlasko-Vlasov, M.V. Indenbom, Yu.A. Ossipyan, Pisma JETP 47(1988), pp. 312 [8] H. Yasuoka, H. Mazaki, T. Terashima, Y. Bando, Physica C 175 (1991), pp. 192. [9] Yu.A. Ossipyan, Phys. Scr. T 29 (1989), pp. 87. [10] Y. Zhu, M. Suenga, Y. Xu, R.L. Sabatini, A.R. Moodenbaugh, Appl. Phys. Lett. 54 (1989), pp. 374. [11] M. Lorenz, H. Hochmuth, D. Natusch, M. Kusunoki, V.L. Svetchnikov, V. Riede, I. Stanca, G. Kastner, D. Hesse, High-quality Y-Ba-Cu-O thin films by PLD - ready for market applications, IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity Volume 11, Issue 1 III, (2001), pp. 3209-3212 [12] I. Stanca, Intermodulation in microwave resonators on the basis of high-temperature superconductors, Modern Physics Lett. B., 21 (2007), No. 11, pp. 679 [13] I.Stanca, Superconductivity. Applications. I. (in Romanian: Supraconductibilitatea. Aplicaii vol.I) University of Oradea Press, (2009) ISBN 978-973-759-823-3 [14] U. Pal, S. Saha, A.K. Chaudhuri, H.D. Banerejee, J. Appl. Phys. 69 (1991) pp. 6547.
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RaDMI 2010
DETERMINATION OF DEFLECTION AND SLOPE OF SPATIAL TRUSS BEAMS BY CONTINUUM MODELLING

1
Milica Todorovi1, Milan Dedi2 , Stanimir ajetinac3, Vladeta Jevremovi4

High Technical Mechanical School, Trstenik, SERBIA, e-mail: mtodorovic_vtms@yahoo.com 2 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Kraljevo, SERBIA, e-mail: dedic.m@mfkv.kg.ac.yu 3 High Technical Mechanical School, Trstenik, SERBIA, e-mail: caja.dublje@gmail.com 4 High Technical Mechanical School, Trstenik, SERBIA, e-mail: vladetaj@yahoo.com
Summary: Apart from other methods, deformation analysis of truss structure can be also done by the method of continuum modelling (the method of equivalent continuum beam). The method is based on replacement of truss beam with equivalent continuum beam, but the expressions for equivalent bending stiffness and equivalent shearing stiffness are derived for each beam type. The equivalent stiffnesses are used in the formulas for determining deflection and slope of plane and spatial truss structures. The results obtained by this method have been compared with other authors' results and with FEM results. Keywords: deflection, slope, spatial truss, continuum modelling, equivalent stiffness.
1. INTRODUCTION
In carrying structures there are often trusses with parallel longitudinal bars having constant section and uniform filling type. The calculation of deformation of truss structures with a large number of bars is an extensive and lengthy job. Deformation analysis of truss structure can be done by any package of finite elements but truss beam cannot be treated as a complex structure; it should be treated as a continuum beam with equivalent resisting characteristics, i.e. the method of continuum modelling [1], [2], [3], [4] can be applied. The method of continuum modelling is based on establishing the relation between geometrical and material characteristics of the truss beam and geometrical and material characteristics of continuum beam. This method also provides simple engineering formulas. The parameters of equivalent continuum beam are identified separately for each beam type according to loading, geometrical characteristics and filling type. The advantages of this method become prominent during preliminary phase of design, when it is more important to define global dimensions than structural detailing. Besides, this approach offers some analytical advantages in comparison to purely numerical methods. This paper is based on theoretical examinations presented in the papers of the authors [5], [6], [7], [8], but the stress is laid on deformations of spatial trusses with different loads.
2. DETERMINATION OF DEFLECTION AND SLOPE OF PLANE TRUSS BEAMS
Figure 1: Geometry of a truss beam
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The basic model is a truss console beam, which is statically defined, with one-sided and slant diagonals, with n repeating cells (its geometric characteristics are presented in Figure 1). The sectional areas of upper and lower longitudinal bars are denoted by Ab and At, while the sectional areas of vertical and diagonal bars are denoted by Av and Ad. All bars are made of the same material, flexibly connected, in compression and in tension only. When the force is applied to the truss at its free end (Figure 2a), the forces in the bars are obtained from equilibrium conditions and then deformation energy of entire beam is determined. By Castigliano's theorem,
fF after grouping and introducing the values I xe ( n ) and Se, the expression for deflection of the truss free end is obtained and it has the same form as the expression for continuum beam:
U Fl 3 Fl = + (1) fF F 3EI xe ( n ) Se The first and second addends in the expression (1) represent bending component of deformation fB and shearing component of deformation fS, respectively. Since the bars are axially loaded, i.e. there is no bending or shearing in the bar material, these terms are related to structure bending and structure shearing. The papers [5], [6], [7], fK =
fF fF [8] show that I xe ( n ) from expression (1) represents equivalent axial moment of inertia (the product EI xe (n) represents equivalent bending stiffness):
fF I xe (n)=
1 2 h Ab
3 1 1 1 + 2 n + 2 + 2 2n h At
1
3 1 1 2 n + 2 2n
(2)
while Se represents equivalent shearing stiffness of the truss beam:

tg 1 Se = E + 2 Av sin cos Ad
(3)
Figure 2: Truss load needed to determine deflection In the following, the equivalent axial moment of inertia depends on deformation type and load type, so the exponents ''f'' and ''F'' are introduced in the formula. The general form of the expression for equivalent axial moment of inertia is:
do b K tdo do I xe (n ) = K + 2 2 h Ab h At
1
(4)
do do (n) which changes by Kb ( n ) and K tdo ( n ) are stiffness coefficients being the part of expression I xe deformation type ''d'' (''f'', '''') and by load type ''o'' (''F'', ''q'', ''M''). The expressions for stiffness coefficients from formula (2) are shown in Table 1. The same procedure is done for the case of evenly distributed load q[N/m] (which is replaced with concentrated forces in nodes Q=ql/n) or for the case of couple M (which is replaced with two forces F=M/h) (Figure 2b,c). The expressions for deflection of truss free end, which are the same as the expressions for the continuum beam, are obtained:
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q l2 for continual load: f K = + fq (n ) 2Se 8EI xe
ql4
and for couple load: f K =
M l2
fM (n ) 2 EI xe
.
Figure 3: Truss load needed to determine slope

fq fM The values I xe ( n ) and I xe ( n ) in these formulas are equivalent axial moments of inertia and their related stiffness coefficients are presented in Table 1. The above procedure is redone for slope determination but the forces in bars are defined according to external load and dummy couple (Figure 3). The formulas for slope of truss end with force applied to its free end (Fig. 3a) are as follows:
Fl 2 F U = + F M i M = 0 2 EI xe ( n ) Se The formulas for continual load and couple load (according to Fig. 3b,c) are:
K =
(5)
K =
q l3 6 EI xe (n )
q
ql 1 2Se n
K =
M (n ) EI xe
Ml
Load type
Table 1: Stiffness coefficients of plane truss structures Stiffness coefficients Deflection 3 1 F K bfF = 1 + + Kb = 1+ 2 n 2n 2 3 1 K t fF = 1 + K t F = 1 2n 2n 2
1 K bfq ) = 1 + n 1 K t fq = 1 n 1 K bfM = 1 + n 1 fM Kt = 1 n
2 2
Slope
1 n 1 n
3 1 + 2n 2n 2 3 1 K tq = 1 + 2 2n 2 n
q Kb = 1+
M Kb =1
K tM = 1
1 n
3. DETERMINATION OF DEFLECTION AND SLOPE OF SPATIAL TRUSSES

Deformation analysis of spatial trusses is more complex than deformation analysis of plane beams, so the results for plane trusses are used whereas the total load is doubled (2F, 2q, 2M). Figure 4 shows cross section and loads of console beam having rectangular section. Only symmetrical half of the truss beam is analysed so loaded bars are indicated by bold line. Determination of deformations of the beam having rectangular section is based on defining deformations of lateral side, i.e. plane beam, and on using deformation expressions for plane beam. The expressions for equivalent stiffnesses are defined for plane trusses, and they are also applicable to spatial trusses having rectangular section, while stiffness coefficients are shown in Table 1.
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Figure 4: Cross section and loads of the beam having rectangular section
Figure 5: Triangular cross section
Figure 5 shows triangular section of the truss beam with the slope of lateral sides , and two forces F are applied to its free end (Fig. 6). The length lv of transverse bars of lateral sides is not equal to the beam height h, but it is h=lv cos . The sectional area of upper longitudinal bars is 2At, i.e. the half of beam on which force F is applied includes upper longitudinal bar having the area At. Hence the truss is symmetrical in terms of geometry and loading, so internal forces in related symmetrical bars of lateral sides are equal. The component in the plane of lateral side F'=F / cos is obtained by decomposing the force F (Fig. 5). If F' is a load, all expressions for forces in the bars of lateral sides get the same form as the expressions for plane truss. The components of deflection fB and fS have the same form as in the expression (1), with the following corrections: 1) The expression for equivalent bending stiffness is not modified but now h is the section height, not the bar length ''v''; 2) Because of the slope of lateral beam sides, the expression for equivalent shear stiffness is different from the expression for stiffness of plane truss Se for cos2, and its form is as follows:
tg 1 2 + (6) S etr = E cos 2 A sin cos A v d When the force is applied, all filling bars of the truss bottom side are considered as unloaded, while the transverse bar at free end (whose section is Ap) is loaded (Fig. 6) so there is component fP in the expression for deflection:
fP = 1 Fl sin 3 tg EA p cos 2 n
1
Figure 6: Cross section and loads of the beam having triangular section
When the deformation components fB, fS and fP are added, the final expression for transverse displacement of nodal points at free end of the beam loaded with two forces (Figure 6) has the following form:
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1 Fl Fl sin 3 tg + (7) (n) Setr EAp cos 2 n The same conclusions are made for the slope caused by the force and for the deformations caused by continual load: along with above mentioned corrections, deformation components fB and fS (i.e. B and S) are used for plane trusses. When the couple is applied only the component fB (i.e. B) is used. Figure 6 shows symmetrical half of the beam, where the grey line shows unloaded bars i.e. if trusses are loaded by forces or continually, one or more transverse bars of the bottom side will be stressed. In these cases, the expressions for deformations include appropriate components fp, i.e. P, due to deformation energy of transverse horizontal bars: fK =
fF 3EI xe
F l3
F P =
F sin 3 tg , EA p cos 2
q fP =
ql 2 sin 3 tg , 2 EA p cos 2 n 2
q P =
ql sin 3 tg 2 EA p cos 2 n
1.0005 1 0.9995 0.999 0.9985
Ratio
0.998 0.9975 0.997 0.9965 0.996 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Number cells n
Figure 7: Ratio between deflection fpr = fB + fS and real deflection fstv = fB + fS + fP for the truss having triangular section
The following analysis should show how big the influence of component fP is. Figure 7 depicts the ratio between approximate deflection fpr = fB + fS (the component fP is omitted) and real deflection fstv = fB + fS + fP. The data for truss, whose angle of lateral sides is = 300, are used. For the beam with two cells, the above deflection ratio is 0,99625 but if the number of cells increase it tends to be 1. Thus the component fP can be neglected when calculating the deflection of the beam having triangular section. The same conclusion is also drawn by analysing the influence of the component P in the expression for deflection.
4. NUMERICAL RESULTS
Figure 8: Spatial console and truss beam
Numerical values of transverse displacement of the end of spatial truss beam having square cross section (Fig. 8) are presented in the paper [4]. The beam having the same height and width h = lp = 5m consists of n = 10 cells. It is loaded by unit force F at its free end. The beam is made of steel with elasticity moduli Ed = 25,571010 Pa, Et = Eb = Ev = 24,821010 Pa. Cross sections of all bars are the same At = Ab = Ad = Av = 2,35910-4 m2. The value of transverse displacement of nodal point K of the truss beam, from unit force at the end, is defined according to expression (7); it is presented in Table 2 and compared with the results from references.
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Table 2: Comparison of numerical results for fK / F [cm/N] Deflection obtained from Deflection obtained by Deflection obtained by expression (7) FEM Noor, Mikulas [4] Noor, Mikulas [4]
0 ,30208 10 4 0 ,2969 10 4 0 ,3028 104
5. CONCLUSION
The expressions for equivalent bending and equivalent shearing stiffnesses are derived for console plane truss beam for cases of continual loading, force loading and couple at the free end. The equivalent stiffnesses are used in the formulas for defining deflection and slope of truss structure. The paper shows that these results can be used in the same form in the case of spatial beam having rectangular section. In the case of equivalent stiffness of spatial beam having triangular section there are some corrections caused by the slope of lateral sides. Besides, there is an influence of deformation of the truss bottom side but it is proved to be negligible. Comparison of numerical results with the FEM results and other authors' results shows satisfying conformity.
REFERENCES
[1] KENNER, W., S.: Lattice Truss Structural Response Using Energy Methods, North Carolina A&T State University, A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Old Dominion University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of Master of Sciences, 129 pages, NASA-TM-112361, 1987. [2] BURGARDT B.; CARTRAUD P.: Continuum Modelling of Beamlike Lattice Trusses, Advances in Computational Techniques for Structural Engineering, pp. 51-59, August 21-23, Budapest, Hungary, 1996. [3] TEUGHELS A.; DE ROECK G.: Continuum Models for Beam- and Platelike Lattice Structures, IASS-IACM 2000 Fourth International Colloquium of Computations of Shell & Spatial Structures, pp.1-20, June 5-7, Channia Crete, Greece, 2000. [4] NOOR A. K., MIKULAS M. M.: Continuum Modeling of Large Lattice Structures, Status and Projections, NASA, Technical Paper 2767, 1998. [5] DEDI M.; TODOROVI M.: An Analysis of The Equivalent Stiffness of Beam-like Trusses with Constant Cross-section, Congress of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, pp 347-352, April 10-13, Kopaonik, 2007. [6] TODOROVI M.; DEDI M.: An Analysis of The Deformation of a Beam-like Truss Structure Using Method of Equivalent Continuum Beam, 7th International Conference Research and Development in Mechanical Industry RaDMI 2007, 16 - 20. September 2007, Belgrade, Serbia, pp. 670-674, 2007. [7] TODOROVI, M.; DEDI, M.: A Deformation Analysis of a Spatial Truss Beam with Triangular Crosssection by means of Continuum Modeling, The Sixth Triennial International Conference Heavy Machinery, HM 2008, E. 67, 24-29 June 2008, Kraljevo. [8] TODOROVI, M.; Odreivanje deformacijskih veliina u ravni reetkastih linijskih nosaa konstantnog preseka metodom ekvivalentnog punog nosaa, Doktorska disertacija, Mainski fakultet Kraljevo, Univerzitet u Kragujevcu, 112 strana, 2010.
447
RaDMI 2010
OPERATING READINESS OF DISC PLOUGHS AS A CRITERION FOR SUCCESFULNESS OF ITS MAINTENANCE

1
M. Velji1, V. Pozhidaeva2, D. ivkovi3, M. Medenica4

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, SERBIA, E-mail: mveljic@mas.bg.ac.rs 2 University of Mining & Geology St.Ivan Rilski, Sofia, BULGARIA, E-mail: vpojidaeva@abv.bg 3 High Technical School of New Belgrade, Belgrade, SERBIA, E-mail: zivkkev@drenik.net 4 High Technical School of New Belgrade, Belgrade, SERBIA
Abstract: This paper analyzes corrective maintenance of disc ploughs, i.e its operating readiness as a measure of quality of its total (preventive and corrective) maintenance. The research included determining the operating readiness of a heavy disc plough with a hydraulic system at a farm, and the results are presented in this paper. Also suggested are the measures that should contribute to their better preventive maintenance, and therefore to the reduction of corrective maintenance activities. Keywords: Disc plough, hydraulic cylinder,operating readiness, realiability
1. INTRODUCTION
For agriculutural technology users it is very important to know the reliability of the existing technical means, i.e. the available machines. Without knowing the value of spcific reliability parameters, it is unrealistic to expect successful planning and organizing of agricultural production, as well as organizing and planning of machine maintenance. When new technical equipment is purchased (especially an expensive one), the first thing to be asked should be about its reliability, how long will it work without failure. Low realiability leads to costs, time loss, negative psychological effects, and in some cases, affects achieving the production goals as planned. Therefore, when purchasing new technical equipment, reliability should be a primary criterion and not the price [4]. Disc ploughs work for a very short period of time during the year (approx. one month), spending the rest of the time preserved and stored. As their work is limited in time, and also depends on meteorological conditions, every failure during season can be very serious. Therefore, due attention has to be paid to their preventive maintenance. The objective of maintenance is to prevent, through preventive maintenance, failures from occurring, and by that also the losses relating to the amount of harvest.
2. DISC PLOUGHS
Disc ploughing is one of the auxiliary operations in preparing the agricultural soil, where chunks produces by basic ploughing are being reduced in size. In this way the soil is smoothed and prepared for sowing, and for weeding. In exceptional cases, as is the preparation for sowing wheat in autumn, this can be done wothout previous ploughing. It is carried out at depths of 10 to 15 cm, and it is also possible to achieve greater depths, if the disc plough is loaded with additional weights. The heavy disc plough represents one of the more robust add-on agricultural machines. It consists of a moving and fixed frame structure, and of operating devices (batteries/diskcs) with the possibility of setting the disc angle relative to the driving direction (figure:1). A heavy add-on disc plough (figure:2), which can have an additional cylindrical harrow or packer cylinder on the rear side, is more and more used in basic agricultural soil preparation, without turning the soil over. Depending on the intensity of soil preparation, the operating device of
448
the disc plough changes. The operating devices of disc ploughs are plate-shaped discs (figure:3). In that they are very similar to discus ploughs. If the edges of the disc-plate are jagged, then they cut into the soil easier and reduce the plants mass. The plates are arranged on a shaft and that set of plaets is called battery (figure:4). The battery is through bearings attached to the frame.
1-hydraulics; 2-wheels; 3-frame structure; 4-operating elements Figure 1: Osnovni delovi tanjirae
Figure 2: Heavy add-on disc plough for basic soil ploughing with a cylindrical harrow
Figure 3: Basic shapes of operating elements (plates) of a disc plough
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1 shaft; 2 plates-discs; 3 distance sleeves; 4 slide bearing with twin housing; 5 plate-disc scraper Figure 4: Parts of a disc plough battery:
3. HYDRAULIC SYSTEM OF DISC PLOUGHS

The purpose of the hydraulic system of disc ploughs is to determine the transport and operating positions, and to control the operating devices. The control of position is carried out by hydraulic operating cylinders, which are driven by the driving machine, the tractor. Figure:5 shows the hydraulic operating cylinders on the frame structure of the disc plough, which control the position of the machine itself and the operating devices.
1-selfsealing couplers; 2-serial reduction coupling; 3-rubber hoses; 4-hydraulic cylinder for defining the position of the pulling shaft; 5- hydraulic cylinder for defining the tranport position; 6-hydraulic cylinder for defining the position of the operating battery Figure 5: The schematic diagram of the disc ploughs hydraulic installation
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4. MAINTENANCE OF DISC PLOUGHS

Maintenance of disc ploughs can be defined as the need for undertaking technical and other activities, the basic objective of which is to ensure the proper condition of equipment during the production process, together with minimum maintenance costs caused by standstills due to failure repair or maintenance costs, which are not directly caused by standstills. Maintenance has the task to remove failures and prevent their occurrence thorugh preventive maintenance, i.e. to ensure reliable function of the production system during its work and to eliminate all standstills that may occur in the process of exploitation u procesu eksploatacije. The basic goals of an organized maintenance process are: minimizing costs related to standstills in work, caused by unpredicted failures, ensuring the necessary reliability level of production equipment, achieving better product quality, increasing work productivity.
Timely diagnose of the state of the elements allows for: better analysis of damage occurrence, planning maintenance activities, better organization of maintenance activities, less spare parts supply cost, stopping the machine before more serious damage occurs, greater reliability, availability i readiness of equipment.
5. CRITERIA FOR EVALUATION OF QUALITY

Measuring means comparing a known value to an unknown value , that is examined. i.e. measured. Measuring quality is not always an easy job. Nevertheless, in order to be able to measure quality, we have to define certain criteria based on which the quality of a product or service can be evaluated. Some of the criteria, not the only ones, could be: reliability of a technical system, failure occurrence intensity, operating readiness, availability of equipment, functionality, compliance to standards, fitness for use, design(appearance), documentation and so on.
6. OPERATING READINESS
REAdiness is the probability that the system functions in a satisfying way and is ready for use in any monent of time, when it is used in a proper way. The basis for determining readiness is the total time (calendar time of use), time in operation and time in failure. Mathematiaclly, readiness can be determined by the following formula: G(t) = where: G(t) readiness function (for time t) tK (h)- time in operation (summary value, from 0 to n, for time t), includes the time when equipment is used and the time when it is not used, but is ready for use (except the time spent in storage), tO (h)- time in failure (summary value, from O t o n, for time t), t (h)- total time of use (calendar time), Readiness of an agricultural machine is its readiness to be included in the work process at any point in time and to work properly. Readiness is a feature of random nature, because the factors that determine its value are random. As with reliability, for readiness there are several definitions, tooa. Generally, readiness can be defined by the following formula: From the viewpoint of maintenance needs, sometimes it is not enough to express readiness only as a ratio of time spent in operation and total time. It is often necessary, to envisage the influence of certain factors through readiness, as a measure of the quality of maintenance. Since the times in operation and in failure are complex time values, readiness can be expressed through the corresponding components of that time, which more closely define some characteristics of this maintenance system. In that sense, internal and realized readiness, are of essential importance.
tO tO = = t t K + tO
Ki
+ t 0i
Ki
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GO(t)= where:
tK + tS t K + t S + tO ,
tK (h)- time of use, tO (h)- time the system spends in failure, tS (h)- time during which the system is not used. Operating readiness is very similar to availability, the difference being that operating readiness includes the possibility that the system is in a storage facility for a certain period of time, which very often is the case with agricultural equipment. Since most of the agricultural equipment spends most of the time stored, the operating readiness is suitable for defining the reliability of agricultural equipment. Operating reliability can mathematically be expressed as follows: "Different from the system effectiveness, that considers the probability during a time interval, operating readiness considers probability in a moment of time. Additionally, while system effectiveness takes into account the built-in capability of the system, operating readiness considers only the readiness of the system for a certain task in a given period of time" [7].
7. REESEARCH RESULTS
The monitoring of the work of disc ploughs was carried out at a farm in Serbia, has 1600 ha of arable land. At their maintenance facility, the number of failures and the failure repair time on the hydraulic subsystem of the disc plough were statistically monitored and the results are shown in table 1. The failure repair time on the hydraulic subsystem of the disc plough is 137 min = 2,28 3 h per year. Actually, the repair of one failure lasts several hours, and often a whole day (reporting, arrival of service personnel or transport to the service centres, diagnosing, etc.). Failures are mainly caused by leakage of working fluid, i.e. by poor sealing of some of the hydraulic elements. The data from table 1 are shown in the form of a diagram, as in figure 6. No. Table 1: Number of failures on hydraulic elements of disc ploughs Name of element No. of Type of Failure Failure in failure failure failure repair time repair s (min) method per year Selfsealing coupler 1,8 leakage 10 replacement spojnica Serial coupler 1,8 leakage 10 replacement Rubber hose 0,6 leakage 10 replacement Cylinder 0,3 malfunctiont 140 replacement /leakage Distributor 0,4 malfunction 120 replacement /leakage Safety control valve 0,3 malfunction 15 replacement in operation
1. 2 3 4. 5. 6.
Figure 6: Graphical representation of the number of failures per year of hydraulic elements of a disc plough
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Analyzing the time needed for corrective maintenance of a hydraulic subsystem frim table 1., we get
50 Failure repair time (min/yr) 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Hydraulic elements of disc plough
Figure 7: Graphical representation of failure repair time of hydraulic elements of disc ploughs Operating readiness is: GO=(tK+tS)/ (tK+tS+tO) = (297+3350)/(297+3350+3)=0,9991 where: tK=297 (h/year)-time of use, tS=3350(h/year)-time when equipment is not in use but ready for use, tO=3 (h/year)-time in failure.
8. CONCLUSION
Disc ploughs work only for a short period of time during the year (approx. one month), spending the rest of the time preserved and stored. Since their work is limited in timeand depends on meteorological conditions, every failure during season leads to the reduction of the production volume. Despite a good operating readiness (0,9991), failure during the additonal processing of the soil can make quality processing of the available soil envisaged for sowing, impossible. Proper maintenance of the hydraulic subsystems of a disc plough, regular lubrication and the use of quality oils can largely reduce the number of random failures. Reducing the number of failures on disc ploughs increases their working capacity an reduces production losses caused by the halt of production activities due to repair and restoring of operating functions.
REFERENCES
[1] ivkovi, D. Pozhidaeva, V. Molnar, R. Documentation Accompanying the Lubrication of Agricultural Machines and Requirements Relating to Quality Sistem Standards, 6th International Conference on Tribology Balkantrib-08, Tehnical University Sofia-Association Balkan Tribology, Sozopol, 2008. [2] Veljic, M. Zivkovic,D. Availability of a Tractors Hydraulic System as a Criterion of Sccessfulness of Maintenance, XVIII International Conference on Material Handling, Constructions and Logistics, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade, 2006. [3] Velji, M. Poyidaeva,V. ivkovi,D. Availability of Hay Presses the System of Maintenance, 8th International Conference on -Advanced Manufacturing Operations, Tehnical University Sofia, Karnevo, 2008,pp.381-385. [4] , . -, , , (ISBN 978-86-86691-22-4), 2010. [5] . -, , , (ISBN 978-86-86691-24-8), 2010. [6] Mici, J. Ercegovi, . Novakovi, D. evi, M. Oljaa, M. Radivojevi, D. Boi,S. Savremena poljoprivredna tehnika u biljnoj proizvodnji-monografija, Univerzitet u Beogradu, Poljoprivredni fakultet u Beogradu, Institut za poljoprivrednu tehniku, Beograd, 1977. [7] Vujanovi N., Teorija pouzdanosti tehnikih sistema,Vojnoizdavaki centar, 1990, Beograd,1990.
453
RaDMI 2010
EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF VIBRATIONS AT WEAVING MACHINE IN ORDER TO IDENTIFY SOURCES OF VIBRATION

1
C. Vigaru1, L. Rusu2
Politehnica University of Timisoara, Timisoara, ROMANIA, e-mail: cosmina.vigaru@mec.upt.ro 2 Politehnica University of Timisoara, Timisoara, ROMANIA, e-mail: luck@cmpicsu.upt.ro
Summary: The presented study consisted of experimental measurements performed on the Sulzer weaving machine, in order to evaluate the vibration amplitudes. The transducer was positioned on each point, to determinate both the longitudinal, transversal and vertical vibrations. In this paper are presented only the results obtained for the vertical vibrations recorded on the launching mechanism. The recorded data were analyzed using Matlab software. The amplitude spectrum of accelerations was obtained using the FFT. Keywords: vibration, slay, warp, weaving machine.
1. INTRODUCTION
In the case of weaving machine it is difficult to identify each source of vibration. In weaving process all the mechanisms work simultaneously and generate vibrations having different amplitudes and directions. There are many theoretical studies regarding the influence of the vibrations on the weaving process [7], [4] but few experimental results. Most of the studies consider only one mechanism of the machine or vibrations on a single direction in space. The used methods for these studies are based on the classical vibration theory or finite element method [5]. The aim of the whole study was to experimentally evaluate the resultant vibrations of a weaving machine on a set of points and each direction. Based on the experimental results the final goal is to reduce the vibrations level. In the framework of the performed experimental study of vibration influence, the measurements were effectuated by placing the transducer on different elements of the machine, to record longitudinal, transversal and vertical vibrations. The paper presents the vibrations obtained from the transducer fixed on the launch box recording on longitudinal, transversal and vertical direction.
2. THEORETICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL STUDY

The most important sources of vibrations for the weaving process are: the slay mechanism, launching mechanism, shedding mechanism, and warp regulator. For the experimental study of vibrations, the measurements were effectuated by placing a Bruel&Kjaer accelerometer on different elements of the machine, to record longitudinal, transversal and vertical vibrations. The experimental data were analyzed following the cyclical diagram for the most important mechanism for the weaving process [8]. 2.1 Cyclical diagram for the warp regulator In the case of warp regulator the cyclogram is given by the angle of the main shaft rotation: 1 = 2150 the main shaft rotation angle of the weaving machine corresponding to warp regulator which released the necessary amount of warp; 2 = 850 - the main shaft rotation angle of the weaving machine corresponding to return of warp
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regulator; 3 = 2900- the main shaft rotation angle of the weaving machine corresponding to stationary warp regulator. 2.2 Cyclical diagram for the slay mechanism For the Sulzer weaving machine the cyclogram of the slay mechanism is given by the following angles: 1 = 700 - the rotation angle of main shaft, corresponding to the moment when the slay is moving in extreme frontal position; 2 = 700 - the rotation angle of main shaft, corresponding to the moment when the slay is moving in extreme posterior position; 3 = 2200 - the rotation angle of main shaft, corresponding to the moment when the slay is in extreme posterior position. 2.3 Cyclical diagram for the launching mechanism The cyclical diagram of the launching mechanism is obtained following the four phases of a complete rotation of the main shaft. A complete cycle for the launching mechanism is characterized by the phase angles: (1) + + + = 360 0
1 2 3 4
where: 1 = 3060 the rotation angle of the main shaft, corresponding to energy potential stored by the torsion bar; 2 = 450 - the rotation angle of the main shaft, corresponding to projectile lifting on carrier; 3 = 10 the rotation angle of the main shaft, corresponding to the launching mechanism; 4 = 80 the rotation angle of the main shaft, corresponding to projectile launching. In this experimental study of the weaving machine vibrations, the amplitudes of accelerations were analyzed as function of time. This study was realized taking into account the movement of each mechanism for only one rotation of the main shaft [6]. The functioning of each mechanism and the way of vibration transmission to the whole machine were analyzed. The following aspects were observed: slay generates vibrations on vertical and longitudinal directions; shedding mechanism generates vibrations on vertical and longitudinal directions; warp regulator generates vibrations on longitudinal and vertical directions; launching mechanism generates vibrations on vertical an transversal directions. Since weaving machine represents an assembly of many mechanisms, the resulting vibrations are transmitted to the frame and to the other machine elements [3]. There were set up the following directions: longitudinal direction corresponds to the sense of the warp threads; transversal direction coincides with the shaft machine direction; vertical direction is perpendicular to the floor.
3. RESULTS AND DISSCUSIONS

For the experimental study of vibrations, the measurements were realized by placing the transducer on different elements of the machine, to record longitudinal, transversal and vertical vibrations. In this paper are presented only the results obtained when the transducer was positioned on the box of the launching mechanism (figure 1).
Figure 1: Transducer positioning on the transversal direction (A1T point)
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In the case of transversal vibration the signal is presented in figure 2.
Figure 2: Initial acceleration signal It is observed a maximum value for acceleration a=3.6 m/s2 for t=0.119s. That value corresponds to the interval when the warp mechanism is activated. By applying the Fourier Transform, it results the vibration amplitudes as a function of time (figure 3).
Figure 3: Vibration amplitudes as a function of time In order to obtain the maximum value of acceleration amplitude and the corresponding time, shown in figure 4, the amplitude was represented as a function of time. The maximum value was correlated with the functioning of mechanism in the (0.1s - 0.2s) interval.
Figure 4: Acceleration amplitude as a function of time on the (0.1 - 0.2) s interval
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In that interval of time the torsion bar was loaded with potential torsion energy. In the same time the launching mechanism acts on the warp mechanism which effects the active range and delivers warp yarn in (0 - 0.133)s interval. In order to obtain the moment corresponding to amplitude peak it was analyzed figure 5 on the (0.2 - 0.3)s interval.
Figure 5: Amplitude represented on (0.2 - 0.3) s interval, in A1T point

It was observed in figure 5 a peak of amplitude corresponding to the moment when the micro projectile was accelerate. Another peak appears for t=0.2385s and corresponds to the moment when the launching process was finished. So, we can say that the vibrations transmitted to the box of launching mechanism on the transversal direction were generated by the launching mechanism and the warp mechanism. When the transducer was positioned on the box of the launching mechanism on the vertical direction (A1V point) (figure 6), the diagram of acceleration as function of time can be observed in figure 7.
Figure 6: Transducer positioning on the box of launching mechanism on the vertical direction (A1V point) The maximum value of accelerations was 0.9m/s2 and corresponds to t=0.350s. In order to determine the maximum value of the acceleration amplitude, the spectrum was represented as function of time (figure 8). In that case the vibration transmitted on the vertical direction was caused by the slay mechanism which moves to the extreme front position and the mechanism which moves the thread. In figure 9 can be observed the transducer fixed on the box of launching mechanism on the longitudinal direction. The acceleration as function of time is represented in figure 10.
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Figure 7: Acceleration signal as a function of time, when the transducer was fixed in A1V
Figure 8: Amplitude as a function of time in A1V point
Figure 9: Transducer fixed on the box of launching mechanism on the longitudinal direction (A1L point) The maximum value of acceleration in that case is 1.03m/s2, corresponding to t=0.12s. In figure 11 are represented the acceleration amplitude as function of time in (0-0.25)s interval. So, the maximum value 21m/s2 correspond to t= 0.014s especially to the launching mechanism vibration.
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Figure 10: Acceleration signal as a function of time in A1L point
Figure 11: Amplitude as a function of time in A1L point
5. CONCLUSIONS The experimental study allowed to evaluate the vibration amplitudes and each mechanism influence on the general vibrations acting on the Sulzer weaving machine, but do not offer information for identifying the vibration source of the mechanism. The maximum value of amplitude was caused, in the same time, by the warp mechanism and launching mechanism, when the transducer was fixed in A1T point. In the case of transducer fixed in A1V point the vibrations were caused by the slay and warp mechanism. The launching mechanism does not transmit the vibration on vertical direction on the launch box. The peak amplitude is mainly due to the shedding mechanism and slay mechanism in the moment when starts the movement toward extreme frontal position. When the transducer fixed in A1L point the vibration was caused by the launching mechanism.
REFERENCES [1] Luca, Gh.; Vigaru, C.; Chiriac, A.: Study of Vibration at the Lauching Mechanism of the Sulzer Weaving Machine, Studia Universitatis Vasile Goldi, 2006. Seria Stiine inginereti i agro-turism, ISSN 18420508, pg.265-272. [2] Buzdugan, Gh.; Fetcu, L.; Rade, M.: Vibraii mecanice, Ed. Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti, 1979. [3] Vigaru, C.; Luca, Gh.; Rusu, L.: Experimental determination concerning the weaving machine vibrations, Annals of DAAAM for 2009& Proceedings of The 20th International DAAAM Symposium "Intelligent Manufacturing & Automation: Focus on Theory, Practice and Education", 25-28th November 2009, Vienna, ISSN 1726-9679, pg. 783-784. [4] Demeulenare, B.: Dynamic balancing of reciprocating machinery with application to weaving machines. International Conference on Noise &Vibration Engineering, 20-22 September, 2004, Leuven, Belgium. [5] Deger, Y.: Structural dynamics of weaving machines: combined use of experimental modal analysis and FE simulation as an optimization tool. International Conference on Noise &Vibration Engineering, 13-15 September 2000, Leuven, Belgium. [6] Luca, Gh.; Vigaru, C.: Weaving machines, Politehnica Timisoara Publisher, 2009, ISBN 9789736268183, Timisoara [7] Reicher, F.; Dragoi, L.: Basic design of weaving machines, 1985, Polytechnic Institute, Iasi. [8] [Stefanuta, I.: Weaving technology, Lucian Blaga University Publisher, 1997, Sibiu.
459
RaDMI 2010
EFFECTS FROM DEVELOPMENT OF EURO STANDARDS AND PROMOTION USE OF ALTERNATIVE FUELS
Sneana Vreki
Zastava automobile-Automotive Development Department, Kragujevac, SERBIA, e-mail: vreki@yahoo.com
Summary: One of the biggest challenges in the automotive industry is the reduction of greenhouse gases and development of clean vehicles in order to preserve natural resources. The new emission regulations, ECE regulations and EEC directives and any stricter regulations on environmental protection promote the use of alternative fuels, develop new technology and fuel oil, as well as the application of new materials. The fact that petrol engines produce 80 percent of CO, 60 percent of HC and 50 percent of NOx should no be lost from view. Baseline analysis that were presented in this paper are based on the standards of Euro 4 and Euro 5, which provide a set of values of toxic components. Keywords: Euro standard, emission of exhaust gases, alternative fuels
1. INTRODUCTION
The car has to meet a large number of international and national regulations on the security aspect, which include active and passive safety, ergonomics and ecology. Reducing fuel consumption of vehicles is one of the important challenges in terms of conserving natural resources and global environmental protection. In motor vehicles industry, more and more attention is paid to the rational use of energy and environmental conservation. Certain stages in the conquest and exploitation of new products such as construction, manufacturing, servicing, maintenance and recycling are continually tested and improved. In mass production must be reviewed every detail from the aspect of the environment. The stage design of the vehicle, a constructor is faced with a number of requirements, which must satisfy the derived structures. Some of them are of a general nature, such as: To achieve a minimum mass for the default design, Tensile structures at the possibility of lodging a normal working load without the occurrence of plastic deformation and structural breaks, Torsion and bending rigidity of the vehicle must be high enough to ensure the normal functioning of all systems related to the vehicle under various conditions of exploitation, Environmental requirements (protection of the environment and reduce pollution ie. reduce CO2, HC, CO, NOx). These requirements are uniquely defined by the international ECE regulations on safety at the level of satisfaction of the average load representative from exploitation and binding for all manufacturers of vehicles. The analysis of requirements can be noticed some contradictions (minimum weight required level of satisfaction with the strength parameters of structure), which represent a serious restriction for constructor. Recommendations for the optimal structure are related to the use of recycled materials. The best way to achieve environmental protection are the use of environmentally sound materials (recycled is, it is easy to postpone, etc.). The global environmental movement promotes the production of acceptable ecological ("environmentally friendly") vehicles on the world market. These vehicles play an important role in the prevention of global warming and pollution caused by reduce nitrogen oxides and corpuscular emissions, as well as vibration and noise as well as specific forms of environmental pollution. The goal of every designer to create a zero emission vehicle (ZEV-Zero Emission Vehicle).
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Figure 1: First Order Analysis for automotive design
2. URBAN TRANSPORT
More than 75% of the population of the European Union (EU) lives in urban areas. Urban transport contributes to global warning. More than 10% of all carbon dioxide emissions in the EU come from road traffic in urban areas which is also the main source of carbon monoxide and fine particulates in European cities. The Kyoto protocol calls for an 8% cut in total EU carbin dioxide by 2008-2012 with respect to 1990 levels, but if current trends continue, CO2 from transport will be some 40% higher in 2010 than it was in 1990.
3. HARMFUL MATERIALS THAT EMIT VEHICLES

Having considered the impact of motor vehicles on the environment, it is evident that the negative impact comes from the exhaust gases. Increase number vehicles, an increase of total fuel consumption, a direct effect on overall emissions, and therefore the pollution of the environment. Mechanisms to reduce total emissions are numerous and can be divided into global and individual. Containing the global activities related to the organization of traffic, traffic restructuring measures in areas where pollution is greatest, the restructuring of our fleet to vehicles that are less pollutants, fuel reformulation and delivery of fuel market that reduce emissions, legislation, etc.. Basic research diesel engine is taken towards reducing emissions and energy characteristics and performance (fuel consumption reduction).
4. EMISSIONS
According to the official data, there are in total 800 millions of registred motor vehicles, out of which over 600 millions are passenger cars. If this kind of linear growth continues, by the year of 2025 there will be well over one billion vehicles on the world's roads. The quantity of CO2 in exhaust gases is in direct proportion with fuel consumption. However, many vehicle technologes are commercially available today to reduce GHG (greenhouse gas) emissions. Car exhaust emission requirements for light road vehicles have existed in the EU since the early 1970s, while the first requirements for heavy vehicles came in at the end of the 1980s. Compared with the US and some European countries (Sweden, Norway and Austria), the EU was late in introducing requirements that were strict enough to force the use of catalytic converters in petrol vehicles. Road transport contributes to air quality problems through vehicle emissions. Poor air quality leads to health problems such as respiratory and cardiovascular disease. The European union has its own set of emission standards that all new vehicles sold in EU member states must meet. Currently, emissions of NOx, NC, CO, and particulate matter (PM) are regulated for all road vehicles, trains, barges and "nonroad mobile machinery", but excluding seagoing ships and airplanes. European Emission standards for passenger cars and light commercial vehicles (Category M1) are summarized in the following Table 1. The Regulatuon covers vehicles of categories M1, M2, N1 and N2, with a reference mass not exceeding 2640kg. This includes, among others, passenger vehicles, vans, and commercial vehicles intended for thwe transport of passengers or goods or certain other specific uses (for example ambulances), which should
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have positive-ignition engines (petrol, natural gas or liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) or compressed ignition (diesel engines). In the case of vans and other light commercial vehicles intended for goods transport, the Regulation includes three categories of emission limits, depending on the reference mass of the vehicle: under 1305 kg, between 1305kg and 1760kg, and over 1760kg. The limits that apply to the last of the three categories also apply to goods transport vehicles (category N2). The European automotive industry, which is assembled in the European Automobile Nanufacturers Association (ACEA), bound itself to reduce the average carbon dioxide emission of their entirety of vehicles to 25% between the years 1995 and 2008, from avetagely 186 gCO2/km (1995) to averagely 140 gCO2/km (2008) and new plans limit (European Commission) of 120 grams of CO2 per kilometer by 2012. Outside the EU several other test cycles are used, so emission standards from different countries are not always directly comparable. In December 2003 however, the EU, US, Japan and China agreed to draw up a common scientific platform to measure and benchmark air pollution from traffic. Table 1: European emission standards for passenger cars (Category M*), g/km Date CO THC NMHC NOx HC+NOx Jule 1992 Januare 1996 Januare 2000 Januare 2005 September 2009 September 2014 Jule 1992 January 1996 January 2000 January 2005 September 2009 September 2014 2.72 (3.16) 1.0 0.64 0.50 0.500 0.500 2.72 (3.16) 2.2 2.3 1.0 1.000 1.000 0.97 (1.13) 0.7 0.56 0.30 0.23 0.17 0.97 (1.13) 0.5 PM 0.14 (0.18) 0.08 0.05 0.025 0.005 0.005 0.005** 0.005**
Tier Diesel Euro1
Euro2 Euro3 Euro4 Euro5 Euro6 (future) Petrol (Gasoline) Euro1 Euro2 Euro3 Euro4 Euro5 Euro6 (future)
0.20 0.10 0.100 0.100
0.068 0.068
0.50 0.25 0.180 0.080 0.015 0.08 0.060 0.060
** Applies only to vehicles with direct injection engines CO2 is the most important of the greenhouse gases which are contributing to Climate Change. Compared to improvements in the car exhaust emissions of toxic pollutants, there has been less progress on reducing CO2 from cars. For a given type of fuel the CO2 emissions of a car are directly proportional to the quantity of fuel consumed. Until recently the average fuel consumption of new cars was unchanged relative to that in the mid 1980s. This was because while engines had become more efficient over this period, average vehicle mass had increased due to additional features to meet crash safety requirements and the widespread addition of features such as power assisted steering and air conditioning. However, there are signs that in the last few years, average fuel consumption has begun to drop in response to voluntary agreements by vehicle manufacturers to reduce CO2 car exhaust emissions. Optimized engines and the three-way catalytic converter already allow exhaust gas cleaning rates between 85 and 90% compared to the values of 1970. However, the most important problem to tackle is still carbon dioxide, CO2. On average, a passenger car emits approximately 200g CO2 per kilometer and thus contributes to the approximately 120m tons of CO emission annually (1991 value). In relation to the overall CO2 emission in Germany (value 1991) cars emit a total of 12.5%. Car manufacturers want to confront this problem with improved engine technology, optimized fuels and the "three-liter-car". At the same time, engineers are active in developing alternative drive systems such as natural gas, electric and hydrogen engines. Within the European Union, road transport is responsible for about 20% of all CO2 emissions, with passenger cars contributing about 12%. The target fixed at Kyoto Protocol was an 8% reduction of emissions in all sectors of the economy compared to 1990 levels by 2008-2012. Relative CO2 emissions from transport have risen rapidly in recent years, from 21% of the total in 1990 to 28% in 2004, but currently there are no standards for limits on CO2 emissions from vehicles. EU transport emissions of CO2 currently account for about 3.5% of total global CO2 emissions.
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Figure 2: Dramatic reduction in the limits from Euro 0 to Euro 5 Today and in the near future, diesel engines will still be the best compromise between economic running between economic running efficiency and environmental compatibility. Mandatory limits for the pollutant emissions of disel engines were first laid down in 1991, Figure 2. At the same time as the Euro 3 exhaust gas regulations valid from October 2000 were decided in 1999, the emission values for Euro 4 from October 2005 were also fixed, alongside a proposal for Euro 5 limits from 2008.
5. FROM EURO 4 TO EURO 5 STANDARDS

The start was marked with introduction of EURO standards that treated the level of HC, NOx, CO and particles in exhaust gases. EURO 4 standards are currently valid, which are more strict than initial standards in many ways. The Euro 5 standards for cars will further restrict emissions, from both petrol and diesel cars, of carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and particulate matters (PM), which are considered harmful to human health. The tighter standards will apply as of September 2009 for new models of cars and in January 2011 for all new cars. The original aim of the Commissions Euro 5 proposal was that the new rules come into force by mid-2008 for new car models and in 2010 for all new cars, but Parliament and member states agreed to delay its introduction by one year (EurActiv 18/09/06) in order to provide sufficient preparation time for building and testing adapted engines.
6. OPTIMISING DIESEL ENGINES

Emissions of the highly noxious pollutants known as nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter (PM) from diesel vehicles are currently four to five times higher than for petrol vehicles. The Euro 5 Directive aims to make diesel cars "catch up" - although not completely. The Euro 5 limits will reduce emissions of particulates from diesel cars by 80% compared to Euro 4. They will however be more lenient as regards NOx emissions, which will only have to be cut from 250mg/km to 180mg/km against the current 70mg/km for petrol vehicles. To prepare for the new standards, carmakers are working on technologies to optimise diesel engines. The quantity and composition of emissions vary depending on several technical factors, including the quality of diesel fuel used; the type of engine and the engine tuning, etc. Fuel modifications are necessary to allow the introduction of new technologies that are needed in order to meet the tighter emissions standards.
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7. USE OF ALTERNATIVE FUELS

All of stricter regulations on environmental protection in the world promote the production of vehicle fuel alternative. The main goal is to reduce consumption of imported oil and reduce polluting gas emissions. Production and development of vehicles operated on alternative fuels is being developed and includes areas: engine, engine control system, the strategy of starting a cold engine, emission control, material compatibility and safety. The alternative fuel vehicles include: Natural Gas (CNG compressed and liquefied LNG) Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) Ethanol, matanol, biodiesel and hydrogen. A number of these fuels are significantly different from conventional automotive fuels and their use requires significant changes to the engine and system supply. Very soon the aspect of quantity of consumed classical fuel was additionally effectuated, because the quantity of CO2 in exhaust gases is in direct proportion with fuel consumption. At first look, the justified criticism of vehicle producers that other branches of industry emit much more quantities of CO2 than automotive industry was not taken into consideration. The latest researches in Great Britain confirm this as well and show that only 5 greatest individual contaminants emit more CO2 than the whole car fleet of 26 million vehicles in that country per annum. At this very moment, fuels of fossil origin of high power value, small volumes for car motion, vast autonomy, acceptable prices, with large number of stations for supply have absolute domination for car drive. On the other hand, some alternative fuels currently have high price and undeveloped infrastructure for car supply. Even besides that, accelerated growth of these fuels shares in the total fuel consumption for car drive has been planned, as shown in Figure 3, according to forecasts for West Europe.
16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 7 5,75 2 0 5 2
15 15
biodiesel CNG and LPG 5 hydrogen
2010.
2015.
2020.
year
Figure 3: Planned shares of alternative fuels in the total consumption of West Europe The Figure shows that by 2020 it has been planned that alternative fuels in West Europe have share of 35%, where biodiesel and gas have share of 15% respectively and hydrogen of 5%. Already in 2010, the planned share of alternative fuels will amount to 8% and now it amounts about 1%, most of all thanks to vehicles powered by liquid petroleum gas LPG and compressed natural gas CNG with symbolical share of hybrid vehicles on additional electric drive besides classical drive with engines powered by fossil fuels-petrol and diesel. It can be concluded that vehicles with high-sophisticated and expensive hybrid drive will have dominant growth in USA and more and more vehicles that use ethanol E-85, while biodiesel and gas are largely used in Europe. Ethanol produced from sugar cane has been used for a long time in Brazil per several million vehicles, which is being sold with mark E 85, which means that ethanol share is 85%, and petrol 15%. Other proportions of these two fuels are also possible with contemporary engines, which are adjusted for use of mixed fuels or 100% of ethanol and 100% of petrol, as provided by Renault company for Clio Hi-Flex model for Brazilian market. Ethanol is an alcohol based alternative fuel produced by fermenting and distilling starch crops that have been converted into simple sugars. Feedstocks for this fuel include corn, barley, and wheat. Ethanol is most commonly used to increase octane and improve the emissions quality of gasoline.
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8. CONCLUSION
For more than last 20 years, the world politicians have been leading selective campaign and imposing new and increasingly strict regulations on automotive industry about the allowed level of harmful exhaust gases from traditional engines using petrol and diesel fuel for drive. The start was marked with introduction of EURO standards that treated the level of HC, NOx, CO and particles in exhaust gases. Faced today with air pollution, global warning, and limited amounts of fossil fuels, growing environmental and economic concerns have led automotive companies to spare no efforts to produce advanced vehicles with high fuel efficievcu and low emissions. Optimum alternative fuels at this moment, primarily for the vehicles in urban traffic, are natural gas and LPG. It is also worth considering bio diesel and ethil alcohol because of the natural resoureces and the possibility of their industrial production. Using alternative fuels in vehicles can generally reduce harmful pollutants and exhaust emissions. Globally, the auto industry spends EUR 85 billion per year on R&D to help build safer, cleaner and more fuelefficient automobiles, with the majority of this investment dedicated to technologeies which lower the carbon impact of vehicles throughout their development, manufacture and use.
REFERENCES
[1] Gruden, D.: Technical measures to reduce carbon dioxide emissions on the road traffic, International Congres Motor Vehicles&Motors 2006, MVM2006, Kragujevac, Serbia, 04-06. October 2006, ISBN 8680581-95-X (CD). [2] Kokic, M.;Vrekic, S.; Obradovic D.: Prospects and conditions for wider use of alternative fuels, International Congres Motor Vehicles&Motors 2006, MVM2006, Kragujevac, Serbia, 04-06. October 2006, ISBN 8680581-95-X (CD). [3] www.auto-technology.com
465
RaDMI 2010
CALCULATION METHODS OF WORKING PARAMETERS OF THE MESHING MECHANISM OF RARELY IMPACT WRENCH WITH INERTIAL MESHING
1
Vodolazskaya N.1, Iskritzskiy V.2, Vodolazskaya E.2

Donetsk National Technical University, Donetsk, UKRAINE, E-mail: vodolazskaya_nat@rambler.ru 2 Donbass State Machinebuilding Academy, Kramatorsk, UKRAINE
Suvmmary. Features of designs of percussion mechanisms are defined by a kind of movement and character of interaction of elements of the controlling device and a design of these elements. In paper calculation methods of working parameters of the meshing mechanism of rarely impact wrench with inertial locking is offered take into account these features. Keywords: rarely impact nut wrenches, flywheel, anvil, weight, threaded connection, impact.
1. THE INTRODUCING
In conditions of serial and small-scale manufacture one of perspective directions of the decision of a qualitative assembly problem of threaded connections is use impact wrenches. Their version are rarely impact wrenches in which the impact moment of a flywheel with an anvil is defined not by a corner of a flywheel speedup, and its angular speed [1, 2]. Percussion mechanisms of rarely impact wrenches contain flywheel (shockblock) with anvil blocks, an anvil with working cams and the device of the impact control, providing periodic meshing of anvil blocks of shockblock with an anvil. The design of the controlling device provides an anvil blocks inclusion on meshing at the predetermined angular speed of shockblock and in strictly focused relative position of colliding details. These conditions of meshing are provided a regulator of speed and unit of orientation of colliding details included in the controlling device. Features of designs of percussion mechanisms are defined by a kind of movement and character of interaction of elements of the controlling device (anvil blocks, a regulator of speed, unit of orientation) and a design of these elements.
2. MAIN BODY
Systematization of wrenches designs is necessary for a correct choice of the percussion mechanism at designing their various standard sizes to characteristic attributes. Structural- morphological classification of various types of percussion mechanisms of rarely impact wrenches (tab. 1) are developed on the basis of their qualitative analysis. It consists of seven semantic dividers in horizontal lines, on each of which independent attributes in vertical columns are allocated. The important semantic dividers in this classification, determining kinematics and dynamics of the device, are, first of all, a way of input anvil blocks in meshing. Wrenches are classified on wrenches with kinematic and power (inertial and spring-pneumatic) meshing , and on character of relative moving of anvil blocks in a flywheel. Moving can be translational in a radial or axial direction, to be carried out as rotation around of an axis, a perpendicular axis of a flywheel, etc. In wrenches with kinematic input of anvil block in meshing [3] moving of anvil block to an anvil occurs as a result of interaction of a longitudinal surface of an anvil with placed in a radial groove anvil block controlling finger. Controlling finger at speedup of a flywheel under action of centrifugal forces moves to a longitudinal surface of an anvil. In such wrenches the law of movement of anvil block is determined by kinematics of the
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mechanism and excludes an opportunity boundary collisions. However here is required additional power of the driving motor for realization of forced moving anvil block. It is necessary to provide non-impact input of a controlling finger in meshing with a profile surface in a design. Table 1: Structural-morphological classification percussion mechanisms rarely impact wrenches Properties on semantic dividers A semantic divider 1 2 3 4 Quantity of anvil Anvil block is One Two More than blocks absent two Input of anvil blocks Kinematic Power inertial SpringCombined in meshing pneumohydraulic Moving of anvil Spatial Spatial Plane radial Plane rotary blocks in a flywheel translational axial translational rotary A condition of anvil Anvil blocks are Anvil blocks make blocks at speedup of stopped in preliminary a flywheel shockblock moving Character of collision Metal - metal Through a layer of Hydroimpact a liquid A design of a Centrifugal Pressure of a Electromagnetic regulator of speed cargoes working muff environment A design of A radial finger, a A ball - controlling A ball,V- shaped Fork - rollers orientation unit profile path a cam groove
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
It is required the additional power consumption of driving motor on forced moving anvil block and in rarely impact wrench [2] with rotary anvil block. Swinging anvil block is placed in radial flute the flywheel covering an anvil with a sector working cam. At the prescribed angular speed by means of the lever driving muff, established on a shaft of driving motor, anvil block turns around of an axis of fastening before meshing with a cam of an anvil. Advantage of such mechanism consists in reduced, in comparison with a flywheel, the radial sizes of an anvil that reduces its inertness and, thus, raises factor of transfer of energy at impact. In wrenches with power spring-pneumatic meshing [4] anvil block during speedup of a flywheel is kept pneumo(hydro)cylinder, and after achievement of the prescribed angular speed moves effort of a spring in an axial direction to cams of an anvil. In serially issued rarely impact wrenches IE3112, IE3115, IE3118 [5] power inertial meshing is carried out at radial displacement of centrifugal cargoes (balls or conic rollers) which, interacting with conic surfaces of a flywheel and anvil block, move anvil block in an axial direction to cams of an anvil. Necessity of increase in the axial sizes such wrenches promotes increase in inertial parameters of a flywheel that reduces its specific energy output. Energy developed on such construction arrangement rarely impact wrenches made 25 100 J. Higher energy output is reached in rarely impact wrenches with power inertial meshing and radial moving of anvil blocks. Pilot samples such wrenches [6] with energy of individual impact 100 400 J intended for a tightening of fasteners with diameter of threads 42 85 mm have passed industrial tests at repair of the metallurgical and heat power equipment [7]. Constantly being improved, designs of percussion mechanisms such wrenches are carried out at a level of inventions and protected by patents. In the first pilot samples wrenches such type [1], submitted on figure 1, anvil blocks 5 were stopped in a flywheel 2 through placed on an axial core of a flywheel spring-loading the bushing 7 to which they hinged incorporated by means of levers 3. Orientation of a flywheel concerning cams 4 anvils 6 was carried out a cargo 9 centrifugal regulators kinematic connected to the radial finger 2 cooperating after speedup of a flywheel with a profile path 13 of anvils. It is necessary to relate nonlinearity of effort of a returnable spring 16 that complicates calculation of its parameters, and also increase in inertness of an anvil because of accommodation on it of a profile path to lacks of this design.
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Figure 1: Impact wrenches with power inertial meshing and radial moving anvil blocks
At the following stage of perfection the wrench [8], submitted on figure 2, with radially moving anvil blocks 2 has been developed. The hinged connected levers to them are replaced gear rackes 3 (figure 2), cooperating with the tangential spring-loading gear-shaft 4, turning after it unstopping concerning a flywheel 1. Version of a speed regulator and unit of orientation in this design remained former. 2
4 1
6 3 Figure 2: Rarely impact wrench with power inertial meshing and the rack-and-gear synchronizer of movement anvil blocks
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The further improvement wrenches this type is connected to change of a design of a centrifugal regulator and unit orientations (figure 3). Here the centrifugal cargo 8 of speed regulators is placed in an internal hole established in radial boring a flywheel of the clamp 9 stopping at speedup of a flywheel 2 mobile central axis 5 to which by means of levers 6 are connected anvil blocks 3. Fork-asperity 10 of orientation units, providing an exit of anvil blocks to cams of an anvil 4 at the moment of presence fork-asperity 10 in clearance between rollers are placed on a face surface of the central axis 5. 1 8 5 9
10 4 11
Figure 3: -The basic circuit rarely impact wrench with radially moving anvil blocks:
1- motor, 2-flywheel, 3- anvil blocks, 4-anvil, 5-mobile central axis, 6-levers, 7-returnable spring, 8-cargo of a centrifugal regulator, 9-clamp, 10-ledges of the central axis, 11-rollers orienting devices
This design is considerably simplified in comparison with the previous variants. Flywheel durability and inertness increase because of reduction of quantity radial borings in this design, absence of a profile path on an anvil improves a ratio of inertial parameters colliding weights that is important for effective transfer of energy from a flywheel to an anvil. However nonlinearity of a returnable spring 7 is kept. New rarely impact wrench [9] with power inertial input in meshing radially moving anvil blocks is offered now. The hinged levers attached to anvil blocks and the central axis are absent. Levers angle of slope at functioning of the mechanism changes. Function of levers (figure 4) carry out connected with the central axis 14 guides 16 with the inclined channels 17 executed in them cooperating with pins 18 anvil blocks 12. The design of a speed regulator and unit of orientation in this wrench was kept same, as well as in the previous case. At a stage of meshing when angular speed of a flywheel reaches a predetermined value a mobile axis 11 are released from stopping by a finger 22 clamps 19. Thus anvil blocks under action of centrifugal forces begin movement to periphery, forcing the central axis 14 by means of pins 18, through channels 17 to move in an axial direction. If the flywheel isnt orientate properly concerning cams 6 of anvils 4 faces of fork-asperities 7 of central axes rest against faces of rollers 9. The further radial moving anvil blocks is limited until fork-asperities appear in a clearance between rollers. It provides the greatest possible corner turn of a flywheel, for realization of process of occurrence anvil blocks in a solution of cams of an anvil. The correct choice of elastic-inertial characteristics of the mechanism which values are defined on the basis of the dynamic analysis movement of its elements is required for achievement boundaryless collision during meshing .
469
1 15 16 17 10 18 6
2 3 19 20 21 11 22 12 14
4 13
9 -
Figure 4: Wrenches with power inertial input in meshing radially moving anvil blocks
According to the resulted design model (figure 5) rectilinear movement of anvil blocks along an axis under force of inertia and efforts of returnable spring F at meshing is described by the differential equation:
(2m
& = 2m1 2 (a + x) c(0 + xctg )ctg , + m2 ctg 2 & x
(1)
Where m1 - weight of the anvil block; m2 - weight of the central axis; - factor of rigidity of a returnable spring;
470
= const - angular speed of a flywheel - distance from an axis of a flywheel to the center of weights anvil block in the beginning of movement; 0 - initial deformation of a spring; - inclination corner of a channel of guide to an axis of a flywheel.
z C2 b C1 O
F
x
x a S
Figure 5: The design model of movement of wrench elements in process of meshing The equation is made without taking into account forces of friction. The equation (1) can be submitted in a canonical form:
& & + k 2 x = B, x
where it is designated:
(2)
k2 =
and
c ctg 2 2m1 2 2m1 + m2 ctg 2
(3)
2m1 2 a c0 ctg B= 2m1 + m2 ctg 2

The analysis of these equations allows to establish such possible movements of anvil block: - oscillatory motion under the law
(4)
x=
B (1 cos kt ) k2
2 2
(5)
under the stipulation that c f 2m1 tg - aperiodic motion under the law
471
x=
B 0,5(e kt + e kt ) 1 k2
]
2 2
(6)
If the factor of rigidity of a spring decreases up to value c p 2m1 tg Applying the received equations for calculation of parameters of a returnable spring it is necessary to provide moving anvil blocks on required value S for limited time t determined through constructively set angular speed a flywheel and a corner of meshing with dependence t = Than designated dependences (5) and (6) will become:
S=
B (1 cos kt ) (7) at oscillatory character of motion of anvil blocks, and k2 2B 0,5(e kt + e kt ) 1 (8) - at aperiodic character of motion of anvil blocks. k2
S=
At a stage of return of anvil blocks after the ending of an impact cycle when the flywheel has postimpact angular speed 1, the returnable spring should provide movement of anvil blocks to an axis of a flywheel for what fulfillment of a condition is necessary:
c(0 + S ctg ) 2m1 12 (a + S )
(9)
heavy spring F0 = c0 . Thus postimpact angular speed of a flywheel is recommended to be accepted for a case of infinitely impact unceasing mode of collision [10], considering that:
The received dependences allow to offer the following calculation methods of mechanism parameters of meshing of rarely impact wrench. From the equation (9), structurally having set by sizes of weight anvil block m1, angular postimpact speeds 1, distance a from the centre of gravity anvil block to a flywheel in a initial position, to a corner an inclination of a channel of guides to an axis of a flywheel and size S of a course of anvil block at meshing , define of initial
1 =
where
[1 R(1 + 2 )] (1 + ) (1 R)
I1 - the inertial parameter equal to a ratio of the moments of inertia of an anvil and a flywheel; I2
R - factor of restoration of speed at impact 2 From the equations (7) or (8) at a stage of movement of anvil blocks to periphery we calculate factor of rigidity from a returnable spring. For what meshing t is preliminary specified by time. At a stage of meshing this time choose from a condition of exclusion of anvil blocks returnable movement at oscillatory character of sliding blocks movement, the described equations (5) and (7). There is limited to the first semi-range of oscillations in time, a little bit smaller a half-cycle of oscillations: t
..
In a case aperiodic motion of anvil blocks time of meshing is defined from expression (8) dependence:
1 S k2 + 1 t = ln + k 2 B
2 S k2 1 1 + 2B
The analysis shows, that at aperiodic motion time t an exit of anvil blocks on identical distance S will be less, than at oscillatory motion.
472
3. CONCLUSIONS
The parameters chosen by this calculation methods enable to select the returnable spring providing a duly exit of anvil blocks and their full meshing with cams of an anvil, at the minimal relative speed at the end of their moving, excepting occurrence boundary impact.
REFERENCES
[1]. . ., . . . // . , 1982, 2. . 14-16. [2]. . 44544 , 25 21/02. . /. . , . . , . () // . 2002. - 2, .1, .4.80. [3]. . .., .. . . . 126998525 21/02 12 15.11.1986 . [4]. .. . . . 977147, 25 21/02. 44 30.11.82 . [5]. .., .., .. . .: , 1978. 109 . [6]. .., .., .. . International scientific conference UNITECH03. Procedings. Volume 1. Gabrovo, Bulgaria, 20-21 November 2003. P.1-522-1-524. [7]. . . . ., .. // . 4, 1998. . 391-392. [8]. Vodolazskaya N., Vodolazskaya ., Iskrizkiyi V. Calculation of inertia kinematics and power parameters of mechanisms for assembly of threaded connections. Research and Development in Mechanical Industry. RaDMI 2007. Proceedings. Belgrade. Serbia. 16 20 September, 2007. P. 313-320 [9]. . 46389 , 25 21/02. . /. . , . , . . , () // . 2009. - 24. [10]. Vodolazskaya N., Iskrizkiyi V., Vodolazskaya ., Calculation features of the frictional limiters parameters of the torque shock tightening of threaded cnnections. Research and Development in Mechanical Industry. RaDMI 2009. Proceedings. Vol.1. Vrnjaka Banja. Serbia. 16 19 September, 2009. P. 407-414.
473
RaDMI 2010
LOAD ANALYSIS OF THE ARTICULATING BOOM SECTIONS OF THE MOBILE ELEVATING WORK PLATFORM IN RELATION TO THE OPERATOR BASKET POSITION
2
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Kraljevo, SERBIA, e-mail: zdravkovic.n@mfkv.kg.ac.rs e-mail: gasic.m@mfkv.kg.ac.rs, 3 e-mail: savkovic.m@mfkv.kg.ac.rs, 4 e-mail: markovic.g@mfkv.kg.ac.rs
Neboja Zdravkovi1, Milomir Gai2, Mile Savkovi3, Goran Markovi4
Summary: The structural analysys of typical mobile elevating work platform articulating boom, moving quasi-statically in the vertical plane, has been carried out. Along with certain approximations, a model for calculating the load transmission from basket to the support on the vehicle chassis has been developed. Thus, it made possible to track changeable load conditions of every structure element, as well as to track force changes in hydro cylinders, depending on boom joints angles and geometric parameters of the boom sections. Analytical forms of boom sections load and hydro cylinders forces enable the optimization of the characteristic boom sections dimensions, cross-sections parameters and hydro cylinders abutment points position. In addition, obtained functions can be used for hydro cylinders and hydro pumps workflow control. Keywords: mobile elevating work platform, articulating boom, load transmission, geometric parameters.
1. INTRODUCTION
Hydraulic elevating platform is a hoisting device that provides temporary access of men and equipment to hardly reachable spots, which are placed at certain heights (from a few meters to several tens of meters). Named application features distinct them from hoisting devices with permanent access to working places and put them into special purpose construction hoisters. In contemporary urban conditions, just because of configuration of terrain which has lot of obstacles such as street lights, traffic signs, advertising panels, trees, electric, phone and other public installations, parked cars and other objects, the advantage in exploitation often goes to hydraulic elevating platforms with articulating booms, which are typical representatives of structures with variable geometry [3]. The most important parameters of an elevating platform are, besides the lifting capacity, maximum platform height and horizontal reach. Appropriate way of showing these parameters are working diagrams or usage diagrams, shown in Figure 1. In them, the space of usage is marked as a constelation of working points that elevating platform can achieve. The most often in use are the hydraulic elevating platforms mounted on vehicle. Such machine is called Mobile Elevating Work Platform - MEWP, [5].
2. BASIC ASSUMPTIONS AND CALCULATION MODEL

Articulating boom with hinged sections is a complex mechanism, which is exposed to various loads such as load weight, self-weight of structure elements, dynamic loads at accelerating and decelerating and wind. It can be taken that on/off switching of hydraulic actuators is slow (gradual), by which the slow initiating and final movements of boom sections are realized. In this way, the dynamic loads are considerably decreased, that is the loads can be considered as quasi-static. If the wind is taken out of consideration as an exceptional type of load, calculation model of boom sections load is shown in Figure 3.
474
Figure 1: MEWP boom types: telescopic, articulating and combined Main construction elements of a typical MEWP with articulating boom are shown in Figure 2.
1- Vehicle; 2-Chassis; 3-Outriggers; 4-Revolving bearing; 5-Revolving pillar; 6,8,10-boom sections; 7,9,11-Hydro cylinders; 12-Basket carrier; 13-Basket; 1420-Bar system for basket floor horizontality maintenance (leading bars); 21- Bars for boom joint angle increase
Figure 2: Construction elements of a typical MEWP with articulating boom Sections lengths from one, and appropriate boom joint angles from the other side determine basket position within the work range (lifting height and horizontal reach). The angles defining basket position are those that sections enclose with constant directions: 1 and 2 are the angles that sections 1 and 2 enclose with the horizontal direction and 3 is the angle that section 3 encloses with the vertical direction. Each section is attached to the local (separate) movable coordinate system ( ii i , i = 1,2,3 ), at which the coordinate origin is placed at the joint connection with the previous section and i axes are perpendicular to the figure plane. At the section 1 support, that is the whole boom support, the global coordinate system AXYZ is set. In Figure there is also shown the boom position at maximum joint angles that are: 1max = 75, 2 max = 70, 3max = 150 . During the work MEWP, there is a number of limitations for angles of sections 1, 2 and 3, which are the result of acting of electrical and mechanical position limiting devices or structure limitations: 1 + 2 15; 2 3 2 + 80; 2 < 0 3 = 0;1max = 75; 2 max = 70; 3max = 150 Thus, Table 1 shows the possible combinations of these angles values. Table 1: Possible combinations of angles 1 , 2 and 3 values 75 45 -60 020 -30 050 0 080 15 1595 0 45 45125 70 70150
1 [ ] 2 [ ] 3 [ ]
475
Figure 3: Model for calculation and analysis of boom sections load in relation with basket position At basket position change, each boom section load is continually changing in the vertical XZ plane. In order to define loads, it is necessary to determine functional relations between all the forces that act on each section and joint angles 1 , 2 and 3 , as well as forces projections on local coordinate systems. Then, each section can be taken out of the structure and analyzed as separate carrier. At calculating the forces in relation to the named angles, the sections weights are taken to act in their middle points. Beside this, the model simplifying was done by reducing the influence of forces that act in leading bars on carrying sections, according to figure 4.
476
Figure 4: Leading bars forces influence The leading bars (four bar linkage system) provide the basket floor horizontality and it is taken that they are approximately parallel with boom sections at distance lO const for any boom position. On this basis, bar extension force is slightly changeable, so it can be, for the sake of simplifying, excluded from analysis. Work load consists of the basket and load mass mT = mk + mQ , where mk stands for basket mass and mQ stands for mass of the operator and tools in the basket.
3. BOOM SECTION LOAD DETERMINATION IN RELATION TO BASKET POSITION

At determining each boom section load, we must start from section 3, at whose end the reduced weight of basket and load GT acts. Section 3 calculation model is shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5: Section 3 calculation model Force in hydro cylinder FC is obtained from moment equation for joint C :
L3 = FC sin 33l33 (1) 2 For defining the angle 33 , as well as the other angles which appear in consequent workflow, the sine and cosine theorems are used:
T
Mc = 0 G
sin 3 L3 + G3 sin 3
477
sin 33 =
It shows that:
Fc =
l32
2 l33 2 + l32
2l33 l32 sin( 2 3 )
cos( 2 3 )
(2)
2 2 L3 sin 3 l33 + l32 2l33 l32 sin( 2 3 )
l33l32 cos( 2 3 )
( GT + 0,5G3 )
(3)
Out of section 3 static equilibrium conditions, we get the reaction of section 2 on section 3 at joint C :
Rc = ( G3 + GT )2 + Fc2 2( G3 + GT )Fc cos
(4)
In order to obtain the diagram of section 3 loads, all the forces should be projected on the local coordinate system C33 3 . After adequate angle transformations and equation substitutions, we get the expressions for the force in the hydro cylinder and section 3 loads:
Fc =
2 2 L3 sin 3 l33 + l32 2l33 l32 sin( 2 3 )
l33l32 cos( 2 3 ) L3 ( GT + 0,5G3 )sin 3 l33
( GT + 0,5G3 )
(5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
Fc 3 = Fc sin 33 =
Fc 3 = Fc cos 33 =
( GT + 0,5G3 )l3 l33 l32 sin( 2 3 ) sin 3 l33 l32 cos( 2 3 )
L L Rc 3 = ( 1 3 )GT + ( 1 3 )G3 sin 3 l33 2l33 ( GT + 0,5G3 )l3 l33 l32 sin( 2 3 ) sin 3 Rc 3 = ( GT + G3 )cos 3 l33l32 cos( 2 3 )
Section 2 calculation model is shown in Figure 6. Forces FC and RC are already defined, but now we take them in opposite directions. Force in hydro cylinder FB we determine from moment equation for joint B :
l2 cos 2 ( GT + G3 + 0,5G2 ) + l3 sin 3 ( GT + 0,5G3 ) = FB sin 22 l22
(10)
Reaction of section 1 on section 2 in joint B is:

2 RB = ( GT + G3 + G2 )2 + FB 2( GT + G3 + G2 )FB cos
(11)
In order to obtain the diagram of section 2 loads, all the forces should be projected on the local coordinate system B 22 2 . After adequate angle transformations and equation substitutions, we get the expressions for the force in the hydro cylinder and section 2 loads: l G Rc 2 = ( G3 + GT )cos 2 3 sin 3 ( GT + 3 ) (12) l32 2 G l3 sin 3 ( GT + 3 )( l32 + l33 sin( 3 2 )) 2 (13) ( G3 + GT ) sin 2 Rc 2 = l33 l32 cos( 3 2 )
Fc 2 = l3 G ( GT + 3 ) sin 3 l32 2 G l3 sin 3 ( GT + 3 ) l32 + l33 sin( 3 2 ) 2 = l33 l32 cos( 3 2 )
(14)
Fc 2
(15)
478
Figure 6: Section 2 calculation model

FB = FB 2 =
2 2 l21 + l22 2l21l22 cos( 1 + 2 ) l2 cos 2 ( GT + G3 + 0,5G2 ) + l3 sin 3 ( GT + 0,5G3 )
l21l22 sin( 1 + 2 )
(16) (17) (18) (19)
l G l2 G ( GT + 2 + G3 )cos 2 + 3 ( GT + 3 )sin 3 l22 2 l22 2
G G l l cos( 1 + 2 ) FB 2 = l2 sin 3 ( GT + 2 + G3 )cos 2 + l3 ( GT + 3 ) sin 3 22 21 2 2 l22 l21 sin( 1 + 2 ) l G l G RB 2 = ( GT + G2 + G3 )cos 2 2 cos 2 ( GT + G3 + 2 ) 3 sin 3 ( GT + 3 ) l22 2 l22 2 RB 2 = ( GT + G2 + G3 ) sin 2
G3 G2 2 2 l2 sin 3 ( GT + 2 + G3 )cos 2 + l3 ( GT + 2 )sin 3 l21 + l22 2l21l22 cos( 1 + 2 ) l21l22 sin( 1 + 2 )
(20)
479
Section 1 calculation model is shown in Figure 7. Forces FB and RB are already defined, but now we take them in opposite directions. Force in hydro cylinder FA we determine from moment equation for joint A :
l1 cos 1 ( 0,5G1 + G2 + G3 + GT ) l2 cos 2 ( 0,5G2 + G3 + GT ) l3 sin 3 ( 0,5G3 + GT ) = FAl11 sin 11
(21)
Reaction of boom support in joint A is obtained as follows:

2 RA = ( G1 + G2 + G3 + GT )2 + FA 2( G1 + G2 + G3 + GT )FA cos
(22)
In order to obtain the diagram of section 1 loads, all the forces should be projected on the local coordinate system A11 1 . After adequate angle transformations and equation substitutions, we get the expressions for the force in the hydro cylinder and section 1 loads:
RB 1 = ( GT + G3 + G2 )cos 1 l G l2 G ( GT + G3 + 2 )cos 2 3 ( GT + 3 ) sin 3 l21 2 l21 2
(23)
RB 1 = ( GT + G2 + G3 ) sin 1 + G3 G2 l2 sin 2 ( GT + 2 + G3 )cos 2 + l3 ( GT + 2 ) sin 3 [l21 l22 cos( 1 + 2 )] + l21l22 sin( 1 + 2 ) FB 1 = l G l2 G ( GT + 2 + G3 )cos 2 + 3 ( GT + 3 ) sin 3 l21 2 l21 2
(24)
(25) (26)
G G l l cos( 1 + 2 ) FB 1 = l2 ( GT + 2 + G3 )cos 2 + l3 ( GT + 3 ) sin 3 21 22 2 2 l22 l21 sin( 1 + 2 ) l cos 1 ( 0,5G1 + G2 + G3 + GT ) l2 cos 2 ( 0,5G2 + G3 + GT ) l3 sin 3 ( 0,5G3 + GT ) FA = 1 l10 l11 sin( 1 + 0 ) FA 1 =
2 l10 2 + l11
(27)
2l10 l11 cos( 1 + 0 )
l G l1 G l G ( GT + 1 + G2 + G3 )cos 1 + 2 ( GT + 2 + G3 )cos 2 + 3 sin 3 ( 3 + GT ) l11 2 l11 2 l11 2
(28)
G G G FA 1 = l1 ( GT + 1 + G2 + G3 )cos 1 l2 ( GT + 3 )cos 2 l3 sin 3 ( 3 + GT 2 2 2 l G l G RA 1 = 1 ( GT + 1 + G2 + G3 )cos 1 2 ( GT + 2 + G3 )cos 2 l11 2 l11 2
l l cos( 1 + 0 ) ) 11 10 (29) l11l10 sin( 1 + 0 )
l3 G ( GT + 3 ) sin 3 ( GT + G1 + G2 + G3 )cos 1 l11 2 RA 1 = ( G1 + G2 + G3 + GT )sin 1
(30)
G G G l1 ( GT + 1 + G2 + G3 )cos 1 l2 ( GT + 2 + G3 )cos 2 l3 sin 3 ( 3 + GT 2 2 2
l l cos( 1 + 0 ) (31) ) 11 10 l11l10 sin( 1 + 0 )
In Figures 8, 9 and 10 there are shown the diagrams of some of the forces and their projections on local movable axes in relation to 1 , 2 and 3 angles. For diagram plotting purpose, the following numerical values were used:
L1 = 7602mm,L2 = 8210mm,L3 = 2400mm,l33 = 540mm,l32 = 1288mm,l22 = 876mm,0 = 35, l21 = 3361mm,l11 = 2987mm,l10 = 1215mm,G1 = 15kN ,G2 = 10kN ,G3 = 4kN ,GT = 5kN Negative sign of force value from diagrams tells that the force projection is of the opposite direction in relation to the coordinate axes on which it is projected. Functional relations are shown for some of the section angle values according to Table 1, at which the angles 1 and 2 are fixed while the angle 3 is changing according to structure limitations. While plotting the diagrams, the influence of leading bars force FP , mentioned in chapter 2, was excluded.
480
Figure 7: Section 1 calculation model
Figure 8: Diagrams FC , RC , FC 3 and RC 3 for 2 = 70 at angle 3 change
481
Figure 9: Diagrams FB ,RB ,FB 2 and RB 2 for 1 = 75 and 2 = 15 at angle 3 change
Figure 10: Diagrams FA ,RA ,FA 1 ,RA 1 and RB 1 for 1 = 75 , 2 = 70 at angle 3 change
4. CONCLUSION
The significance of determining the functional dependences of the MEWP articulating boom sections loads can be seen through the possibility of finding the critical boom positions from the aspect of each structure element. In this way, each element can be analyzed separately with its changeable loads at joints with contiguous elements and hydro cylinders abutments. Analytical forms also open a possibility for software development, which would enable instant generation of all static diagrams for an arbitrary selected basket position within the space of usage.
REFERENCES
[1] Jerman, B.; Kramar, J.: A study of the horizontal inertial forces acting on the suspended load of slewing cranes. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, Volume 50, Issue 3, March 2008, Pages 490-500 [2] Jerman, B.; Podraj, P.; Kramar, J.: An investigation of slewing-crane dynamics duringslewing motion development and veri&cation of a mathematical model. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, Volume 46, Issue 5, May 2004, Pages 729-750 [3] Bonjak, S.; Zrni, N.; Dragovi, B.: Dynamic Response of Mobile Elevating Work Platform under Wind Excitation. Strojniki vestnik - Journal of Mechanical Engineering, Vol. 55, No. 2 (2009), pp. 104-113. ISSN 0039-2480. [4] M. Gaic, M.; Savkovic, M.; Bulatovic, R.; Petrovic, R.: Optimization of a pentagonal cross section of the truckcrane boom using Lagranges multipliers and differential evolution algorithm. Meccanica - An International Journal of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, DOI 10.1007/s11012-010-9343-7 [5] Radoii G.: Experimental testing of vibro-confort on mobile elevating work platform, Research and Design in Commerce & Industry, No. 11, year IV(2006), pp. 25-35, ISSN 1451-4117. [6] Farkas Jozsef.: Optimum Design of Metal Structures, Akademiai Kiado, Budapest, 1984., ISBN 963-053435-5.
482
RaDMI 2010
ALGORITHM FOR ASSESSING THE QUALITY OF METAL ACCORDING TO THE CRITERION OF DEFECT GROWTH AT SYMMETRICAL CYCLIC LOADING
Daniela I. Zhelezarova1, Ivan A. Angelov2
1 2
Technical University of Gabrovo, BULGARIA, E-mail: daniela_zhel@abv.bg Technical University of Gabrovo, BULGARIA, E-mail: angelov_iv@tugab.bg
Summary: In this paper an algorithm for assessing the reaction of metal at availability of a crack in the conditions to symmetrical cyclic loading has been composed. This algorithm ought to be included in the developing automated apparatusprogram system for evaluating the strength of reducer shaft and laboratory specimens. Keywords: algorithm, reaction of metal, availability of crack, cyclic loading, grades of steels, selection of metal.
1. INTRODUCTION
The serviceability of machine elements operating at cyclic loadings depends on the proper selection of material and the mode of heat treatment. For the moment as basic criteria for selecting of material are appeared to be the conventional mechanical characteristics by selecting through the level of strength with accounting for the coefficient of reserve [1, 2]. However, during these calculations the defects from a type of crack are not accounted for (technological, metallurgical, etc.). It is established from the practice [3] that the durability of many elements is determined mainly by the origin process of defect up to a macrocrack whose growth leads to final fracture. It should be noticed that the appearance of crack in detail still does not mean its exit from a service. This will depends on the time (number of cycles) for propagating the crack up to its critical value. That is why, the problem about crack growth is appeared to be actual both in a theoretical aspect and in an applied one. This is directly connected with widening of application field of the high-strength materials in engineering, since at them the sizes of critical defect are smaller than these ones of the materials with mean strength. In research laboratory Metal testing at low and high temperatures at the Technical University of Gabrovo, profound studies on the conventional mechanical properties of 23Mn2SiVN steel microalloyed with nitrogen have been conducted [4]. For the commercial use of this grade of steel, results for assessing the cyclic cracking resistance on notched laboratory specimens have been obtained as the impact of cyclic toughness on the limited life about tested specimens made of 23Mn2SiVN steel in condition of supply has been described [5]. The objective of present paper is to compose an algorithm for assessing the quality of metal according to the criterion of defect growth at symmetrical cyclic loading.
2. ALGORITHM FOR ASSESSING THE QUALITY OF METAL ACCORDING TO THE CRITERION OF DEFECT GROWTH AT SYMMETRICAL CYCLIC LOADING
In Fig.1 an algorithm for assessing the quality of metal according to the criterion of defect growth at symmetrical cyclic loading is shown, which is developed on the basis of the methodology presented in [6].
483
Start
Data base with test specimens: - notched - smooth Data base with testing machines: - MUI 6000 Calculating scheme for determination of the bending moment M about concrete machine P a Number of specimens m=(8,9,1015) Number of cycles N=107
Selection of test specimen
Scheme of test specimen
Selection of testing machine
Determination of the bending P.a moment M M=

2
Diagram of the bending moment
Testing m-number of specimens - plotting of the fatigue curve - determination of the fatigue limit 1
Graphical representation
N1 = (10 4 106 )
1 = 1.2 1
N 2 = (10 4 106 )
Testing of two specimens in the region of limited resistance at set values of N and
2 = 1.4 1
N1 j ( j = 1, 2...7) N 2 j ( jmin = 5)
Marking of the crack edge with a short-decrease in loading (0.31; 0.3 2 )
Is a set number of cycles for marking reached?
No
Yes 1
Figure 1.a: Algorithm for assessing the quality of metal according to the criterion of defect growth at symmetrical cyclic loading
484
Instrumental microscope with an increase min x 50
Measurement of the crack depth after the fracture of specimen
Recording of li about separate rings; r Graphics of summary crack depth
li
Plotting of the graphics of summary crack depth
Graphics of summary crack depth
Determination of the crack dl growth rate dN
M r l
Determination of the stress-intensity factor K fc formula (1)
K fc
dl dN l a
Determination of material constants C and n formula (2)
C; n
K fc
Determination of the critical crack length lk formula (3)
lk
K fc a l n l0=0.2 mm
C
Determination of the critical number of cycles N k formula (4)
Nk
End
Figure 1.b: Algorithm for assessing the quality of metal according to the criterion of defect growth at symmetrical cyclic loading
485
The parameters from static fracture mechanics [7, 8] at plane-stressed state K c and flat deformation K Ic allow to assess the metal at the moment of fracture according to the defect size, but they do not provide information how quickly the output defect is developed up to its critical sizes. For determining the critical value of stress-intensity factor at cyclic loading K fc , the Harriss formula is used as follows [9]:
K fc = 2.257 . M r 2 0.8 7.12 + l r
(1)
where: M bending moment; l depth of crack from the surface; r distance from the crack tip up to the section centre. Since according to [10] the stressed state in crack tip depends on the stress-intensity factor K fc , then it can be dl supposed that the crack propagation rate also will influence on the factor K fc . dN The final objective is to determine the critical number of cycles N k required to grow the output crack in linear
dl K Im ax up to critical size [6, 11]. For obtaining of this dependence it is proceeded dN from a formula, which gives the connection between crack propagation rate in a function of the stress amplitude at symmetrical cyclic loading [12]:
sector of the diagram
dl n 2 = C. n a .l dN
(2)
where: C and n are material constants. For determining of these constants the least-squares method and the results obtained by experiment are used. The final brittle fracture will occur when the crack reaches to a critical value. This value is determined by the following dependence:
lk =
2 K fc
(3)
2 a .
where: K fc is the critical value of stress-intensity factor determined by experimental data at cyclic loading using the formula (1). After performing the corresponding transformations, the following final dependence has been obtained:
n n 2 1 2 . . l 1 2 K fc 2 a 0 Nk = n n 2 1+ n n 1 C 1 - 2 . a 2
(4)
The obtained formula (4) affords an opportunity to determine the number of cycles N k required for growing the output crack up to a critical size lk .
3. CONCLUSION
The algorithm for assessing the quality of metal according to the criterion of defect growth at symmetrical cyclic loading has been composed. This algorithm ought to be included in the developing automated apparatus-program system for evaluating the strength of reducer shaft and laboratory specimens.
486
REFERENCES
[1] Pisarenko, G., V. Agarev, A. Kvitka, V. Popkov, E. Umanskii: Strength of Materials, Kiev, Visha Shkola, 1979 (in Russian). [2] Kuzmov, D., T. Nedev, A. Arnaudov: Calculation and Testing on Fatigue in Mechanical Engineering, Sofia, Tehnika, 1979 (in Bulgarian). [3] Collins, J. A.: Failure of Materials in Mechanical Design. Analysis-Prediction-Prevention, New York, John Wiley&Sons, 1981. [4] Angelov, I.: Study the Structure Strength of Nitrated Low-Alloyed Steels of G2SAF type, Dissertation, Gabrovo, 1985 (in Bulgarian). [5] Zhelezarova, D. I., I. A. Angelov: Fatigue Testing of Notched Specimens Made of C-Si-Mn-V-N Steel and Determining the Critical Cracking Resistance Impact on Limited Life, 30th Scientific-Expert Conference with International Participation Hipnef 2006, 24-26 May 2006, Vrnjacka Banja, Serbia, pp.467-474. [6] Zhelezarova, D. I., I. A. Angelov: Methodology for Assessing the Quality of Metal According to the Criterion of Defect Growth at Symmetrical Cyclic Loading, J. IMK-14 Istrazivanje i Razvoj, Institut IMK 14.Oktobar, Krusevac, Broj (28-29) 1-2/2008, Srbija, pp.67-72. [7] Knott, J. F.: Fundamentals of Fracture Mechanics, London, Buterworths, 1978. [8] Anderson, T. L.: Fracture Mechanics: Fundamentals and Application, CRC Press, 2005. [9] Gulyaev, V., N. Koshelev, A. Liglaev: Perspective Methods for Examination of Brittle Fracture of Metals, Novosibirsk, Nauka, 1977 (in Russian). [10] Dalya, V.: Behaviour of Steels at Cyclic Loading, Moscow, Metalurgia, 1983 (in Russian). [11] Dasic, P.: Algorithm Approach to Determination of Reliability of Components Technical Systems, 5th International Conference RaDMI 2005, 04-07 September 2005, Vrnjacka Banja, Serbia and Montenegro, pp.34-45. [12] Hekkel, K.: Technical Application of Fracture Mechanics, Moscow, Metalurgia, 1974 (in Russian).
487
RaDMI 2010
LITERATURE REVIEW OF ADVANCED MODELING TECHNIQUES FOR CONTAINER TERMINAL PLANNING

1
Branislav Dragovi1, Dong-Keun Ryoo2, Nataa Kova1, Maja kuri1

Maritime Faculty, Maritime Transport and Trffic Division, University of Montenegro, Kotor, MONTENEGRO e-mails: branod@cg.ac.yu; romeo@ac.me; majask@t-com.me 2 College of International Studies, Division of Shipping Management, Korea Maritime University, REPUBLIC OF KOREA, e-mail: dkryoo@hhu.ac.kr
Summary: The increasing number of publications in the late decade indicates the importance of operations research models in the field of optimizing logistic operations at a container terminal (CT). We attempt to provide a representative literature review concerning operations research models and applications in this important logistics field. A CT must be planned to satisfy prompt accommodation of ships with minimum waiting time at berth, and with maximum use of berth facilities. Somewhere between these opposing objectives each container terminal must reach a compromise, the number of berths which will achieve the most economical transfer of cargo between ships and shore. Keywords: literature review and classification, combinatorial optimization and simulation, container terminal (CT).
1. INTRODUCTION
All the considered studies assumed that the objective mathematical models are developed in different environment, and that optimal solutions can be obtained. However, in CT, there are many complicated constraints to be satisfied, and so, finding an optimal solution itself is a difficult problem. This is why mathematical models of dynamic transfer operations based on real-time positioning are applied to the many deployment problems in CT. This paper is organized as follows. In Section 2 we review the related literature and discuss main topics and problems analyzed in the basic models for CT planning. Literature review of container port operations planning by simulation models are given in Section 3. In Section 4 we review the literature focused on operational research algorithms. This Subsection provides a new classification scheme based on previously mentioned classes. Finally, Section 5 concludes the paper.
2. BASIC MODELS FOR CT PLANNING

Numerous studies have been conducted regarding the improvement of the efficiency of ship operations or berth and QC scheduling and planning problem at CT. Plumlee [73] has discussed the problem of optimum number of berths such as that the annual cost of the time that ships spend waiting for a berth plus annual cost of vacant berths and related facilities that stand idle waiting for a berth are on minimum. Nicolaou [59, 60] has defined the port performance measures as degree of occupancy and degree of congestion, percentage occupancy and percentage congestion. Noritake and Kimura [62, 63] extended the application of queueing models to the shipberth link in relation with the researches of Plumlee [73] and Nicolaou [59]. In addition, they defined the approaches for determination of optimal number of berths and optimal berth capacity. Noritake [61] has considered the port congestion in relation with the cost and the optimal berth utilization. Schonfeld and Sharafeldien [64] were the first who discussed the problem of optimal berth and crane combinations at CT. In the same context, Huang et al. [36, 37] assumed a similar form of equations to measure the transfer time a ship spends at CT. Furthermore, Chu and Huang [8] discussed the degrees of interferences for multiple cranes that
489
work simultaneously in the port of Kaohsiung. They found that a degree of mutual crane interference among terminals depends on operational modes applied in the container yard (CY). Haralambides et al. [31] presented a general overview of dedicated CTs (DCTs) and stresses, trough the use of a generalized port cost function, that one of the main factors that could explain this development is the increasing gap between the objectives of ports and those of shipping lines. The main implications of a DCT, from a port viewpoint, are analysed next through the employment of a simple queueing model. Yamada et al. [86] presented a mathematical model with the queuing theory for determining optimal container handling systems so that the total cost incurred in a container terminal is minimized. A simulation model was also developed to investigate the performance of the mathematical model.
3. SIMULATION MODELS FOR CT PLANNING

Simulation models have been used extensively in the planning and analysis of operating processes at a CT. Many different simulation models regarding terminal operation, especially anchorage-ship-berth link, CT design, CY optimization planning, YC (yard crane) deployment, container handling and storage operations in a yard and others, have been developed in papers which are given Table 1. These models are coded in different simulation languages, as it can be seen in Table 1. In addition, Kozan [45] gives a review on recent analytical and simulation models. It should also be pointed out, as shown in Table 1, that there are a few overview concepts of CT operation literature given by Vis and Koster [84], Steenken et al. [79], Stahlbock, and Vo [78], Gnther and Kim [25] and Kim [43]. Good surveys of CT operation have been done by these papers. Table 1: Literature overview of container port operation planning by simulation models
Considered problems Simulation of ports and container terminals (CT) Approaches PORTSIM Modsim III Object oriented programming, C++ ARENA, SLX Visual SLAM AweSim Witness software Taylor II GPSS/H Extend-version 3.2.2 Scenario generator Java Discrete event simulation Overview concept and surveys of recent research on CT Quantitative models for various decision problems in CT; Logistics processes and operations in CT optimization methods; Operations research at container terminals: a literature update; CT and terminal operations; Models and methods for operations in CT. References [57]; [23, 24]; [85];
[80]; [53, 54];
[48]; [67-69]; [21]; [46]; [55]; [58]; [75]; [51]; [42]; [65]; [15-20]; [76]; [32]; [3]; [11];[7]; [71]; [70]. [84]; [79]; [78]; [25]; [43, 44].
Tugcu [82] used a port simulation model to aid investment planning for the Istanbul seaport. El Sheikh et al. [27] developed a simulation model to help the planning of future berth requirements of a third-world port. Chung et al. [9] proposed a method that uses buffer space to reduce container loading times and optimize equipment utilization, and a simulation was developed to justify their method. Silberholz et al. [77] employed simulation to study the impact of work crew schedules on container port productivity. Hassan [30] presented a simulation to be used as a decision support tool for evaluating and improving port activities. Ballis and Abacoumkin [2] developed a simulation with animation to simulate the operational activities of a CT with straddle carriers. Ramani [74] developed a simulation to support the logistics planning of seaports. Merkuryev et al. [53] used simulation to improve logistics processes at Riga Harbour CT. Merkuryeva et al. [54] considered simulation of containers processed at the Baltic CT in Riga as a basic simulation research, and then its complementing by a metamodelling study is discussed. Nevins et al. [57] simulated the operations of a seaport, and provided detailed statistics on seaport throughput and resource utilization. Gambardella et al. [23] developed models of an intermodal CT to aid container allocation in the CY, resource allocation and operations scheduling. Thiers and Janssens [81] used a port simulation model to investigate the hindrance of a river quay. Bruzzone and Signorile
490
[6] employed genetic algorithms and simulation to make strategic decisions about resource allocation and CT organization. Yun and Choi [85] proposed a CT simulation model using an object-oriented approach. Gambradela et al. [24] presented a solution to the problems of resource allocation and scheduling of loading and unloading operations in a CT. Legato and Mazza [46] focused on the berth and allocation of berths to arriving ships with queueing network based on the model which is simulated by Visual SLAM software in various scenarios. Key issues of the application of modeling and simulation for the management of the Malaysian Kelang CT are discussed by Tahar and Hussain [80]. Nam et al. [55] examined the optimal size of the Gamman CT in Busan, in terms of berths and quay cranes using the simulation analyses which were performed in four scenarios, representing different operational patterns. Shabayek and Yeung [75] developed simulation model employing the Witness program to analyze the Hong Kongs Kwai Chung CT performance. Kia et al. [42] investigated the role of computer simulation in evaluating the CT performance in relation to its handling techniques and their impact on the capacity of CT. Pachakis and Kiremidjian [65] presented a ship traffic modeling methodology based on statistical analysis of container ship traffic and cargo data obtained from a port in the United States. Sgouridies et al. [76] focused on the simulated handling of incoming containers. Demirici [13] developed simulation model to analyze port operations and was run especially for investment planning. van Renzburg et al. [83] described a computer simulation model of ocean container carrier operations. Ali Alattar et al. [1] simulated different condition to find out the queue of containers at the port and also analyses the effect of increase in the facilities at the port to reduce this queue. Ng and Wong [58] developed a simulation model for studying the impact of the vessel-traffic interference in Hong Kong's CT basin on its container terminals' capacities. Due to the cost and complexity involved in CT and ship operations, the simulation models have been used extensively to understand the behaviour and test different strategies in the CT systems and the modeling, planning and analysis of container CT, e.g. see ([3, 7, 11, 14-22, 48, 66-72]. Bielli et al. [3] proposed simulation model which can improve ports efficiency and they gave the architecture components that are implemented with Java. Canonaco et al. [7] focused on the optimal management of container discharge/loading at any given berthing point, within a real CT. Dahal et al. [11] developed a genetic algorithm based approach to provide an optimization capability to the port simulation tool. Dragovi et al. [14-22] gave the simulation and analytical models results for ship berth link of the Pusan East CT (PECT). They developed simulation models which can be used by the port management to improve different operations included in the process of ship service at the shipberth link. Dragovi et al. [15] developed simulation models of ship-berth link with priority service in container port. In order to determine the performance evaluation of ship-berth-container yard link in port Dragovi et al. [16-20] proposed two models based on simulation and queueing theory, respectively. Numerical results and computational experiments were reported to evaluate the efficiency of the models for PECT. Different from them, the papers ([21, 22]) studied the integration of container berth and yard simulation planning and modelling wit more attention on the close form analysis about cost strategy in a container terminal as well as optimal throughput calculation. Lee et al. [48] presented the modelling and analysis of the dynamics of business processes and interaction between business entities in a supply chain with multiple objectives. Results on the service level, i.e., service times, utilization factor, and queues, are generated for analysis. Park et al. [66-69] developed simulation models to calculate optimal throughput of a quay by port type and determine terminal performance. It is shown to provide good results in predicting the actual terminal operations system of the Korean container port. Petering et al. [70] developed a real-time yard crane control system and show that a terminals long-run average quay crane rate depends on the portion of this system that dispatches yard cranes in the storage area in real time. Petering and Murty [71] investigated how two parameters - (1) the length of the storage blocks in a terminal's container yard and (2) the system that deploys yard cranes among blocks in the same zone - affect the overall, long-run performance of a seaport container terminal as measured in terms of GCR (i.e. average quay crane work rate). Petering [72] investigated how the width of the storage blocks in a terminals CY affects the overall, long-run performance of a container terminal as measured in terms of GCR.
4. OPERATIONAL RESEARCH ALGORITHMS FOR CT PLANNING

Authors in [4] do not solve the berth allocation problem and the quay crane allocation problem simultaneously. They prefer to develop an efficient heuristic for the berth allocation problem and, then, in a subsequent study, to devise a decision support system where the quay crane allocation problem is solved considering non-linearities. Test instances are derived from analyses of real traffic and berth allocation data in port of Gioia Tauro. In real world examples a large number of constraints occur in dynamic berth allocation problem. This was a motivation for work [28] where authors presented an equivalent, more compact, formulation of dynamic berth allocation problem suitable for mixed integer programming. The minimum cost berth allocation problem has been introduced in [29].
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Proposed Variable Neighborhood Search heuristic is compared with Multi-Start, a Genetic Search algorithm and a Memetic Search algorithm. It appears that the use of systematic exploration of neighborhoods is superior to multiple restarts or use of a crossover operator. Hendriks et al. [33] included due dates of vessels into a dynamic berth allocation problem. For periodically arriving container vessels predetermined time windows are defined. The model also incorporates crane capacity reservations for every vessel. The objective is to minimize the maximum crane capacity reserved for a period. Legato et al. [47] proposed two phase approach to the quay crane deployment problem. They use outputs from model introduced in [66], such as berthing position and berthing time as well as due time. After that, optimal number of cranes that must be assigned to each vessel for each time period is identified in the first phase. The heuristics in second phase is used to identify which cranes must be assigned to the vessel. Lim [50] examines ship berthing problem represented as directed acyclic graph. This is a NP-complete problem hence near optimal solutions are generated by greedy algorithm and tabu search. A vertex in graph is assigned to every ship. The vertex weight is set to the length of the ship. If two ships have time overlap then there is an edge between them with weight calculated as the larger number of the two ships intership clearance distances. Park and Kim [66] have introduced a non-linear integer programming model that also considers quay crane assignments. The main assumption that allows integrating the berth allocation problem and the quay crane allocation problem is that handling times vary linearly with the number of quay cranes assigned to a vessel. The quay is represented as a continuous line. The objective function to minimize is the sum of penalty terms over all ships. The assumption is that an optimal berthing point is known. Whenever a different choice is made a penalty is applied. Penalty costs are incurred as well as to early ship arrival and late departure. The algorithm uses Lagrangean relaxation and a subgradient optimization technique. 4.1. Artificial Intelligence Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a discipline of science developed by vision as having machines or software act more like humans. Genetic algorithm (GA) based heuristic is widely used in solving difficult problems and has a practical short computational time. Genetic algorithm produces answers near to optimal results. This heuristic work on the principle of evolving a population of trial solutions over several iterations, to adopt them to the fitness landscape expressed in the objective function. Imai et al. [41] describes a linear model and a GA-based solution algorithm convenient for an indented terminal. Multiple small ships can be served by the same berth simultaneously. Integer linear program of the problem is presented. Solutions are compared with solutions in a conventional terminal of the same size. Mega ships are served faster but total serviced time of all ships is longer in intended terminals. Imai et al. [38] solved a discrete berth structure by developing a genetic algorithm based heuristic also incorporating service priorities for vessels. They assume that each berth can serve one ship at a time and there are no restrictions where ship can be moored. Ship handling time is assumed dependent on the berth where it is assigned. Objective function minimizes the sum of waiting and handling times for every ship. In [39] objective is minimization of the total service time of ships in continuous berth allocation problem. Handling time of ship depends on the quay location assigned to it. Two stages heuristic is presented as a solution for this problem, by improving discrete case solution. Directions of edges are fixed in such manner that obtained new graph is directed acyclic graph with minimal longest path. The study [41] deals with minimization of the total service time of ships and with minimization of the total of delay of ships from the expected departure time. A genetic algorithm is proposed in [56] for a nonlinear formulation of the discrete berth allocation problem. The approach allows simultaneous service for up to two vessels assigned to the same berth area if total vessel size does not exceed the size of the berth area. Ships cannot be always serviced at the assigned berth. Linear Programming model is used in [5] for improving berth assignment and a simulation model which represents the marine-side operations of a container terminal. All factors involved in the berthing process such as stochastic process of the incoming ships, sea conditions, and the consequent extra costs due to additional wharf occupation for improper dock schedule are considered in this model. All operations are divided in tasks. Every task requires the work specialization and the availability of the resources allowed doing this task. The objective function minimizes the penalty cost from the delay of the departure of vessels behind the requested departure time and the distance from best berthing position. Up to now, there are only a few studies on such an integrated multi-agent approach, providing an optimized system including several agents (agents for ship, berth, yard, and gate and utility agents, for quay crane, gantry crane and transport). In papers ([34, 35]) authors described how container terminal entities can be implemented trough a multi agent system approach. 4.2. Specific heuristics Dai et al. [12] solve the static berth allocation planning problem as a rectangle packing problem with side constraints. The chosen objective function involves a delicate trade-off between the waiting time experienced and the deviation from preferred berthing space allocated. The packing algorithm must minimize the delays
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faced by vessels, with higher priority vessels receiving the promised level of services. Guan et al. represents a vessel as a job [26]. The m parallel processors represent m cranes located along the berth, where the size of a job represents the number of cranes that will serve the vessel simultaneously. The objective of minimizing the total weighted completion time corresponds to the minimization of total weighted waiting time of the vessels. In [49] the quay is represented as a continuous line. A heuristic solves the problem of deciding the berthing points given the berthing time of the ships, assuming constant handling times. This approach does not solve the general problem in which the berthing time is a decision variable and the handling time varies along the quay. Meisel and Bierwirth [52] considered the integration of the berth allocation problem and the crane allocation problem. Objective function that aims at a reduction of quay cranes idle times is introduced. The problem was solved heuristically by a priority-rule based method. 4.3. Literature classification We attempt to provide a representative literature review concerning operations research models and applications in this important logistics field. The classification of literature has been made upon the algorithm and model implementation, thus forming the Operational research literature class, Artificial intelligence literature class and the specific heuristics class. Within this classification, an additional classification has been made upon spatial, as well as temporal attribute. In addition to this, we also review some specific features of each model. This classification is summarized in the Table 2. Most models given thus far aim at the minimization and optimization of the port stay time of vessels. A frequently addressed issue is the berthing position different from the desired one. An optimized berth allocation is especially important in case of ship delays when a new berthing place needs to be allocated. Table 2: BAP literature classification
Classification Solution method
Tabu search Mixed Integer Programming Variable neighborhood search MILP Operational research techniques
Spatial attribute
Discrete Discrete Discrete Continuous
Temporal attribute
Dynamic, due Dynamic Dynamic Dynamic, due Dynamic, due
Characteristics
The BAP and the QCAP are not solved simultaneously Exact solution of berth allocation problems of a realistic size A compact reformulation for the dynamic BAP is provided Construction of a window-based periodic berth plan is established - vessel has a maximum number of cranes that can be assigned - vessel has a minimum number of cranes that must be assigned - number of quay cranes assigned to a vessel linearly determines handling times - BAP and the QCAP integration Graph representation of a BAP Areas where certain vessels have already been moored are recognized as forbidden regions Short string chromosome representation Service priorities for vessels Handling time depends on the quay location where the ship is moored The berth allocation ignores the FCFS rule
Papers [10] [28] [29] [33] [47]
Integer Programming
Continuous
Non-linear integer program Greedy algorithm, Tabu search Packing algorithm Genetic Algorithm Genetic Algorithm Genetic Algorithm Artifical inteligence techiques Subgradient optimization, Lagrangian relaxation, Genetic Algorithm Non-linear integer program, Genetic Algorithm Multi-agent system Linear Programming, Symulation Heuristic H Heuristic Priority-rule based heuristic Graph based heuristic
Continuous Continuous, draft Hybrid Hybrid Discrete Continuous
Static Dynamic Dynamic Dynamic Dynamic Dynamic
[66] [50] [12] [38] [39] [40] [41]
Discrete
Dynamic
Hybrid, draft Continuous Continuous Continuous Continuous Continuous
Dynamic Dynamic Dynamic Static Dynamic Dynamic
Chromosomes are represented as character strings All CT entities are represented as agents Decision support system is implemented M processors with agreeable job processing times and job sizes Integration of the BAP and the CAP Concise graph representation of the problem is proposed
[56] [34, 35] [5] [26] [52] [49]
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5. CONCLUSIONS
The importance of planning operations at CT becomes more and more obvious. An increasing number of theoretically and practically oriented papers during the last decade can be observed. Lately, there has been a tendency to move from relatively theoretical publications to more practical ones and even apply them in real terminals. A prerequisite for such applications is an increased availability of modern information and communications technology. Comprehensive surveys of CT operation planning have been done by these papers. The past few years have been an increasing interest in combinatorial optimization models and their solution techniques. One of the driving forces behind this area has been new developments in CT modeling, especially in dynamic logistic systems and wide area maritime networks. Finally, one can conclude that all of these main port links have been adequately analyzed and modeled by using different mathematical approaches. Various operations research models and methods in the field of optimizing main port link planning are applied more and more in world terminals.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
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[70] Petering, M.E.H., Wu, Y., L, W., Goh, M., de Souza, R. (2009), Development and simulation analysis of real-time yard crane control systems for seaport container transshipment terminals, OR Spectrum, 31(4), 801-835. [71] Petering, M.E.H., Murty, K.G. (2009), Effect of block length and yard crane deployment systems on overall performance at a seaport container transshipment terminal, Computers and Operations Research, 36(5), 1711-1725. [72] Petering, M.E.H. (2009), Effect of block width and storage yard layout on marine container terminal performance, Transportation Research Part E, 45, 591-610. [73] Plumlee, C. H. (1966), Optimum size seaport, Journal of the Waterways and Harbors Division, 92(3): 1-24. [74] Ramani, K. V., (1996), An interactive simulation model for the logistics planning of container operations in seaports, Simulation, 66(5), 291-300. [75] Shabayek, A. A., Yeung, W. W., (2002), A simulation model for the Kwai Chung container terminal in Hong Kong. European Journal of Operational Research, 140(1), 1-11. [76] Sgouridis, S. P., Makris, D. and Angelides, D. C., (2003), Simulation analysis for midterm yard planning in container terminal. Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean Engineering, 129(4), 178-187. [77] Silberholz, M. B., Golden, B. L., and Baker, E. K., (1991), Using simulation to study the impact of work rules on productivity at marine container terminals, Computers & Operations Research, 18(5), 433-452. [78] Stahlbock, R. and Vo, S.: Operations research at container terminals: a literature update, OR Spectrum, Vol. 30, No. 1, pp. 1-52, 2008. [79] Steenken, D., Vo, S., and Stahlbock, R. (2004), Container terminal operation and operations research a classification and literature review, OR Spectrum, Vol. 26, No. 1, 3-49. [80] Tahar, M. R. and Hussain, K., (2000), Simulation and analysis for the Kelang Container Terminal operations. Logistics Information Management, 13(1), 14-20. [81] Thiers, G. F., and Janssens, G. K., (1998), A port simulation model as a permanent decision instrument, Simulation, 71(2), 117-125. [82] Tugcu, S., (1983), A simulation study on the determination of the best investment plan for Istanbul seaport, Journal of the Operational Research Society, 34(6), 479-487. [83] van Rensburg, J.J., Yi He, Kleywegt, J.A., (2005) A computer simulation model of container movement by sea, Proceedings of the 2005 Winter Simulation Conference, 1559-1566. [84] Vis, I.F.A., and de Koster, R. (2003), Transshipment of containers at a container terminal: an overview, European Journal of Operational Research, Vol. 147, No. 1, 1-16. [85] Yun, W. Y., Choi, Y. S., (1999), A simulation model for container-terminal operation analysis using an object-oriented approach, International Journal of Production Economics, 59(1-3), 221-230. [86] Yamada, T., Frazila, R.B., Yoshizawa, G., Mori, K. (2003), Optimising the handling capacity in a container terminal for investigating efficient handling systems, Journal of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, 5(1), 597-608.
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RaDMI 2010
CONTAINER SHIPS EVOLUTION: IMPLICATION FOR QUAY CRANES DEVELOPMENT

Maritime Faculty, Maritime Transport and Traffic Division, University of Montenegro, Montenegro e-mails: branod@ac.me 2 University of Belgrade, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Department for Material Handling, Constructions and Logistics, 11000 Belgrade, Kraljice Marije 16, Serbia; e-mail: nzrnic@mas.bg.ac.rs
1
Branislav Dragovi1 , Nenad Dj. Zrni2
Summary: This paper looks at some of the issues that present problems in container ships and cranes design and terminal operations. The paper also focuses attention to some areas of crane performance for improvement of cycle time and increasing productivity. Because crane performance is reaching a peak in its present form, some new design ideas have been pointed out. Quay cranes (QCs) have had a dramatic development in the period from 1959 to 2009 in depending on the generation of ship. For these reasons, faster serving of ships at berths can be reached by: generally increase the QC efficiency; increase the QC rate by lifting two loaded containers simultaneously; and the new technical solutions. Keywords: container ship evolution, QCs development, QC efficiency.
1. INTRODUCTION
Container ships with higher container capacities have to sail at higher speeds than those ships with lower capacity, because they need more port time. This is the reason why the ship speed is of such enormous importance for large container ships. Therefore, the projection and introduction into service the bigger and bigger container ships on particular routes present a special challanges to ship yards and their designers and construction engineers, on the one hand, and to the shipowner managers, on the other. In addition, this tendency is supported by considerable growth in volume of container trades particularly in all the major trade routes of the world. Consequently, today, the largest mega container ships have a capacity of over 9000 TEU, and ships with 10000 14000 TEU are reality. QCs have had a dramatic development in the period from 1959 to 2009 in depending on the generation of container ship. For example, the third generation of container ships can stow container boxes up to 13 rows across, while the 6th generation Post-Panamax can stow 18 rows across and in the recent future one must expect container ships that will be 22 containers wide. This increase in size must be met with sufficient QC capacity, because as the ships get longer their time becomes more precious and berth time is unproductive time. The longer container ships use today up to five or six QCs simultaneously. For these reasons, faster serving of container ships at berths can be reached by: generally increase the QC efficiency; increase the QC rate by lifting two loaded containers simultaneously; the new technical solutions, for example, introduce a dock system where one can load and unload the container ship from both sides. This paper is organized as follows. Section 2 presents a brief description of container ships evolution and dimensional trend in container ships. Section 3 gives the historical development of mechanical and structural design of QCs. Development of mechanical design of trolley is presented in Section 4. Section 5 provides QC productivity, automation and efficiency while Section 6 gives the relationship between ship and QCs development. The final Section gives concluding remarks.
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2. CONTAINER SHIPS EVOLUTION

The capacity of world cellular container fleet is more than 12 million TEU in operations and about 3 million TEU on order in the 2009 and 2010. Further data can be seen in Table 1. Very rapid development of the container cellular fleet is difficult to comprise in the whole. Therefore, the structure of the cellular fleet according to the size of ships on 1 January 2009, with the deliveries in the years 2009 and 2010, and cellular fleet projection on 1 January 2011, is given in the Table 1 [1, 3, 4]. Table 1: Structure of world cellular fleet according to the size of ships on 1 January 2009, with the deliveries in the years 2009 and 2010 and cellular fleet projection on 1 January 2011
Ship size Types of ships Cellular 1162 1279 722306 1800382 - average TEU per ship 621 1407 Cellular ships deliveries in the years 2009 and 2010 80 148 - number 64349 216113 - TEU - average TEU per ship 804 1460 Cellular fleet projection on 1 January 2011 1212 1369 - number 765729 1935123 - TEU - average TEU per ship 631 1413 to 999 1000 to 1999 2000 to 2999 731 1853550 2535 60 153784 2563 759 1925129 2536 3000 to 3999 330 1124534 3407 53 183111 3455 366 1249914 3415 Ship size in TEU 4000 5100 to to 5099 7499 540 2444378 4526 152 677969 4460 685 3092346 4514 378 2284948 6044 74 481616 6508 452 2766564 6120 7550 to 9999 214 1832199 8561 62 538937 8692 276 2371136 8591 10000 to 15500 25 302808 12112 61 750699 12306 86 1053507 12250 Total
- number - TEU
4659 12365105 2654 690 3066578 4444 5205 15159448 2912
Figure 1 shows trend functions of cellular ships in last 3 years and estimation of future trend in the next 3 years. Firstly, it is given trend function of number of cellular ships, then trend function of capacity of cellular ships and, at the end trend function of average TEU per cellular ship. Figure 2 presents largest container ships characteristics delivered in 2008 and 2009, and container ships orderbook until 2012 [1, 4].
5500 5000 4500 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
18000
Average TEU per ship
3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
No. of ships
[000] TEU
16000 14000 12000 10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Figure 1: Trend function of ship number, fleet capacity and ship carrying capacity
90 80 70 Number of ships 60
TEU
>7500
1000000 900000 800000 700000 600000 500000 400000 300000 200000 100000 0
>7500
12000 10000 TEU / ship 8000 6000 4000 2000
>7500
50 40 30 20 10 0 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
0 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Figure 2: The Largest Container Ships delivered in period of time 2008 January 2010 and container ships orderbook until 2012 (number of ships per year, TEU per year and average TEU per ship) The size of the largest CS has almost increased 6 times within the last two decades. Since 1980, when the largest CS in operation was 2500 TEU, there has been a consistent growth in ship size and during the year 2006, ships in excess of over 12000 TEU with 22 containers across the deck, came into operation, see Table 2 [3, 4]. Table 2: Containerships characteristics and dimensional trend
Characteristics Dimensional trend Fifth (1992s) Sixth (1996s) Seventh (2000s) Eighth (2005s) Ninth (2006s) Capacity in TEU >4,900 >6,000 >8,000 >10,000 >11,000 Length in m 290-320 305-310 345-360 368 397 Speed in kn 25 25 25 25.5 Beam in m 39-47 38-40 38-40 43 56.4 Draught in m 13-14 13.5-14 15 15 15.5 Arrangement of rows Lower deck 9 high 9 high 10 high 10 high Upper deck 6 high 6 high 6 high 6 high Rows 15 17 20 20 22
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3. DEVELOPMENT OF DESIGN OF QCs

The basic structural form of QCs (A-frame) remains practically unchangeable compared with the first structure built in 1959. The A-frame gantry crane takes its name from its A-shaped noticeable when observed from the bridge. On 7 January 1959 the worlds first container crane was put into service at the Encinal Terminals in Alameda, California, Figure 3 [18]. Of course some modifications are done. The basic structural shape of QCs can be divided into two groups: Conventional or modified conventional cranes, Figure 5 [8]; Low profile cranes, Figure 6 [18]. Conventional QCs are used for servicing the following ships: 1. Panamax ships: III-generation ships with a beam of less than 32.3 m (width of Panama Canal) their structure was developed from end of 1960s up to early 1980s, and they operate with up to 13 containers abeam on deck and with maximum capacity of 4,700/4,900 TEU (Twenty Equivalent Unit); 2. Post-Panamax ships: IV-generation ships, developed from 1984, whose beam is greater than the width of the Panama Canal they operate with up to 20 containers abeam on deck and with a maximum capacity of 7,000 TEU; 3. Mega ships or Jumbo ships: Ships of the most recent generation, pioneered in the last years of the 1990s, they operate with more than 20 containers abeam on deck and with a capacity of more than 7,000 TEU. In the meantime, to keep up with the growth of container traffic, container ships and QCs are getting bigger and bigger. During the first 48 years since the first QC was designed, the size of QCs and lifting capacity has almost tripled, Figures 3 and 4 [2, 6, 7, 11, 18]. Figure 3 presents growth of QCs, 1959-1995, while Figure 4 shows comparison between the first QC (1959) and MalaccaMax QC (2003).
Figure 3: Growth of QCs
Figure 4: QCs Comparison
Figure 5: Conventional QC
Figure 6: Low profile QC
The state of the art of modern Post-Panamax and Mega cranes is given in Table 3 [18]. Technical specifications of QCs are presented in Table 4 [9, 10]. Table 3: State of the art of Post-Panamax and mega QCs
Features of Post-Panamax and Mega cranes Gantry rail gage (m) Clear between legs (m) Lift above rails (m) Total main hoist lift (m) Clear under portal (m) Out-to-out bumpers (m) Outreach from waterside rail Hoisting with rated load m/min Hoisting with empty spreader m/min Trolley travel m/min 16 wide 30.48 18.3 34 50 12 27 45-47 50 120 200 18 wide 30.48 18.3 34 52 12-15 24-27 50-52 60 130 245 20 wide 30.48 18.3 36 54 15 24-27 56 75 150 245 22 wide 30.48 18.3 36 60 12-18 24-27 60 70-100 180 250
4. DEVELOPMENT OF MECHANICAL DESIGN OF TROLLEY

The selection of a cranes trolley system type is significant for the structure of crane, for wheel loads, and for maintenance considerations. The trolley can be rope towed (RTT) or machinery type (MOT). A hybrid of the two systems, commonly known as a fleet-through machinery trolley (or semi-rope trolley, [5, 16]), was adopted by some manufacturers. For the fleet-through machinery trolley the main hoist machinery is placed on the gantry frame, but the trolley is self-driven. Since the machinery in the machinery house tow the trolley and hoist the load by a system of wire ropes, this system is called a RTT system. The main hoist ropes run from the machinery house to the landside of the crane, through the trolley and head block, and usually dead end at the waterside tip of the boom [18]. The trolley tow ropes run from the machinery house to the sheaves at the landside of the crane, through the trolley to the tip of the boom, and back to the house. This arrangement allows the trolley to be shallow and lightweight, permitting greater lift height and smaller loads on the crane structure and wharf [8].
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Table 4: Technical specifications of QCs

QCs Features of QCs Lifting capacity (t) Double/twin spreader Single spreader Under cargo beam Fore trolley speed (m/s) Hoisting speed full Hoisting speed empty Aft trolley speed (m/s) Hoisting speed full Hoisting speed empty Boom up time single (s) Hoisting/lift height (m) Fore trolley Above rail top Below rail top Aft trolley Maximum outreach (m) Back reach (m) Rail span (m) Conventional 4065 75100 1.24.2 0.41.5 0.83.0 180300 36 14 3065 15 30.5 Double trolley 5761 3.74.0 1.21.3 3.0 4.0 0.50.8 1.21.6 Twin 40-ft single trolley 80 65 100 4.2 1.5 3.0 300 41 19.5 68 23 30.5 Twin 40-ft double trolley 80 65 4.0 1.5 3.0 4.0 0.8 1.7
38.542.0 20.023.0
41 15
6163 1625 35.0
63 19 35.0
With the RTT design, there was concern that the rope would stretch and that catenary effect would reduce productivity. The auxiliary catenary trolley is the typical solution for reducing the catenary effect due to greater outreach of modern cranes and longer trolley travel. But even with the catenary trolley, the long runway will result in a significant catenary effect. A machinery trolley has the trolley and main hoist machinery on board. No trolley drive ropes are required, and the main hoist ropes are shorter than for a rope-towed trolley [8]. For the structural design, weight is the main difference between the two types of trolleys. The weight of the rope-towed trolley is approximately one-third that of a machinery trolley. The main disadvantage of the machinery trolley is the increase in crane weight and wheel loads on the wharf. Why was the MOT system chosen? 1) Depending on the design, approximately 1,650 m of wire rope is eliminated from the main hoist, trolley drive, and catenary trolley; 2) Approximately 36 sheaves of various sizes are eliminated; 3) Hydraulic rope tensioning devices are eliminated; 4) The spare parts inventory is reduced; 5) The intensity of maintenance is reduced; 6) Up-time reliability is increased because of the reduced number of crane components; 7) Wire rope lubrication is reduced. Table 5 presents a comparison of both mechanical systems [8, 14]. Table 5: Comparison of mechanical systems of trolley
Reeving Assemblies Trolley Positioning Festoon Trolley Accelerations Rope Lubricant Rope-towed Trolley RTT Main Hoist, Trolley Drive Catenary Trolley Drive Movement due to trolley travel rope stretch Spreader power only 0,6 m/s2 Exposed to environment. Oil spillage on ground. Machinery On Trolley MOT Main Hoist Movement due to skidding Power for main hoist (including trim, list, skew, and snag device), trolley drive, and spreader 0,6 m/s2 Enclosed, spillage contained Advantage MOT MOT RTT --MOT
5. PRODUCTIVITY AND AUTOMATION OF QCs

QC productivity has always been one of the critical components of terminal productivity. But the crane is only one of the terminal elements that control production. Within the next decade crane productivity may become the limiting component of the terminal production. Increasing productivity is always desirable, but for large ships is necessary. Ship service time in port depends on: ship and crane parameters, operating parameters and container yard performances. It will take nearly four days to service a 12000 TEU ship exchanging 75% of its containers, using 6 assigned QCs producing 30 lifts an hour. Increasing productivity to 55 lifts an hour cuts the turnaround time to a little less than two days. In Figure 7 are presented some typical turnaround times for various vessels and crane lifts per hour. Some improvements increase production incrementally, by 5-20 %, and other
501
improvements make a quantum jump, by 25-40 %. This paper deals merely with the increasing of port terminal productivity, as a part of logistics network, due to automation of QC. The productivity is usually discussed in terms of lifts per hour, i.e. frequency "f". To better evaluate productivity, it should be given the inverse relationship, i.e. hours per lift, or seconds per lift. This value is reciprocal to the frequency, and presents the period, T = 1/f. Although, this calculation is very simple, Figure 8 presents the illustration of the difficulty in attempting to decrease period as the period decreases. Considering that dwell times, starting and stopping motions, finding spots on the vessel and quay, and checking clearances, whether automatically or manually, takes about 30 seconds, it can be seen that to achieve e.g. 40-second, only 10 seconds is available to actually move the load. Even a 48-second period leaves only 18 seconds to move the load. However, it should be noticed, this is nearly twice long as for the 40-second case.
140 120 Ship service time in hours 100 80 60 40 20 0 20 30 40 12000 TEU (6 QCs/ship) 10000 TEU (6 QCs/ship) 8000 TEU (5 QCs/ship) 6000 TEU (4 QCs/ship) 50 60
Lifts per hours
Figure 7: Ship service time in hours vs. lifts per hour
Figure 8: Frequency versus period
More current QCs control systems depend on the skill of the operators to put the load in the right place, quickly and safely. Full crane automation, from ship to shore, may be the answer to greater crane speeds and productivity demands [12, 13, 15, 17]. The higher operating speeds make the control task more difficult. This is difficult to achieve for several reasons: accuracy will be required to automatically pick a container from a ship, Figure 9, and set it on a truck on the quay, Figure 10; the new container cranes have increasing degrees of automation that increase crane productivity [12, 13, 15, 17]. The realization of automation for the cranes at container terminal has been delayed compared with indoor service cranes caused by various problems at the outdoors environment.
Figure 9: Schematical drawing of crane operation
Figure 10: A desired trajectory of container
For the QCs, the main objection to achieving the full automation is that relative position of the ship to the crane could not be surely recognized due to the ships rolling motion.
6. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SHIP SIZE AND QCs

Figure 11 gives a visual impact of what has happened to QCs and CSs and in 50 years. Structural engineers have had the task of keeping up with size, weight reduction, fatigue life, etc. The civil engineers keep driving more piles to support what the structural engineers develop. This figure is a base reference here for illustration and comparison. It shows two basic subsystems: QCs and CSs. A way has been found to calibrate the combined effect of CS development, ship service time on the main container port link for main generation of ship and QC evolution, by making certain assumptions which are described in Figure 11 [3, 4]. The new concept port layout regarding efficiency handling system can be explained in two variants (see Figs. 11-e and 11-g). QCs can be either renovated or developed as new concept that are different from existing methods in order to facilitate improved productivity in berth (Figures 11-e 11-g).
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Figure 11: The relationship between ship size and QCs
7. CONCLUSIONS
The development of efficient, automated, high-technology loading/ unloading equipment has the potential of considerably improving the performance of terminal operations. Advances in QCs technologies, as the major part and the biggest investment (capital costs for container cranes are 70% of total costs in ports basic price of QCs in seaports is 5-7 millions $, with modern electronic and advanced control systems approaches 11 millions $) of the cargo storage and retrieval system have a significant effect on the efficiency of port terminal operations once properly implemented. Container loading automation investments will continue to increase efficiency of ports, supplemented by improved infrastructure for storing and transferring containers on the landside. Precise control of the spreader and load is only possible using mathematically correct algorithms, and properly implemented sensor systems. We can expect some others more sophisticated control solutions in future researches. The main utility of this paper is to show a short survey of researches in operational and control strategies of QCs and to present an overview of relationship between CSs and QCs in port. The evolution in supply chains and logistics models urges liner shipping and container terminals to reconsider their function in the logistics process described with the trends in mega ships and mega QCs in ports. These performances require the new ideas and concepts in container terminal planning in order to keep pace with the development of the mega QCs in relation to mega CSs.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
A part of this work is a contribution to the Ministry of Science and Education of Montenegro funded project No. 05-1/3-3271, and to the Serbian Ministry of Science and Technological Development Project TR (14052).
REFERENCES
[1] Containerisation International, viewed 15 January 2010; http://www.ci-online.co.uk [2] Davis Rudolf III, C. (2007). Ship-to-Shore productivity: can it keep up with mega-ship size increases? Part I, Port Technology International, No. 34, summer issue, pp. 78-84. [3] Dragovi, B., Ryoo, D.K., Park, N. K. and Radmilovi, Z. (2007b). Container Ship Development: A Review of State-of-the-Art, The Proceeding of Annual Conference The International Association of Maritime Economists, IAME 2007, Athens, Greece, Conference Proceedings on CD, pp. 1-25. [4] Dragovi, B., Zrni, N. and Ryoo, D-K. (2009). An Overview of Relationship between Container Ships and QC in Port, The Proceeding of IAME 2010, Lisbon, Portugal, pp. 1-20. [5] Jordan M. A. (2002). Quay crane productivity, Proceedings of TOC Americas, November, Miami, FL, USA.
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[6] Jordan, M., Morris, C., Dix, A. (2007). The Floaterm Concept: Reducing Terminal Congestion with Waterside cranes, CD-ROM Proceedings of the Ports 2007 Conference, paper 16, March 25-28, San Diego, California, ASCE. [7] Lind, D., Hsieh, J.K., Jordan, M. (2007). Tandem 40 Dockside Container Cranes and Their Impact on Terminals, CD-ROM Proceedings of the Ports 2007 Conference, paper 15, March 25-28, San Diego, California, ASCE. [8] Morris, C. A., Mc Carthy, P. W. (2001). The Impact of Jumbo Cranes on Wharves, Proceedings of the Conference "PORTS 01", American Society of Civil Engineering, section 30, chapter 4, Norfolk, VA, USA. [9] Stahlbock, R., Voss, S. (2008). Operations research at container terminals: a literature update, OR Spectrum 30(1), pp. 1-52. [10] Vazifdar, F. R., Florin, J. (2004). Operating Jumbo Cranes on Existing Wharves, "TOC Asia 2004", Singapore, March 2-4. [11] Verschoof, J. (2002). Cranes - Design, Practice, and Maintenance, 2nd edition, Professional Engineering Publishing Limited, London and Bury St Edmund. [12] Zrni, N. (2001). The influence of some container cranes design characteristics on terminal system performances, In: Modelling and Optimisation of Logistic Systems Theory and Practice, University of Miskolc, Hungary, pp. 159-171. [13] Zrni, N., Dragovi, B., Petkovi, Z. (2003a). Survey of some new concepts that increase STS container cranes productivity, Proceedings of ''Miskolcer Gesprche 2003'', ''Die Neuesten Ergebenisse auf dem Gebiet Frdertechnik und Logistik'', Hungary,, pp. 133-138. [14] Zrni, N., Dragovi, B., Petkovi, Z. (2003b). Analysis of new solutions as a way to increase quayside container cranes productivity, Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference ''RADMI 2003'', Herceg Novi, Montenegro, pp. 2030-2034. [15] Zrni, N., Hoffmann, K. (2004). Development of design of ship-to-shore container cranes:1959-2004, In: History of Machines and Mechanisms, edited by Marco Ceccarelli, Kluwer Academic Publishes, Dodrecht, Printed in Netherlands, pp. 229-242. [16] Zrni, N, Petkovi, Z., Bonjak, S. (2005). Basic principles in design of large container cranes (Part II): Historical development in design, evolution of container cranes industry and procurement strategy, J. of Mec. Engineering Design, Volume 8, Number 2, pp. 2132. [17] Zrni N., Petkovi, Z. (2005). Quayside container cranes general classification, state-of-the-art and some expectation in development, Proceedings of the 5th International conference Heavy Machinery, Kraljevo, Serbia, pp. IA.69 IA.72. [18] Zrni, N., Hoffmann, K. (2009). Ship-to-Shore container cranes: from the beginning up to now (1959 2009), sterreichische Ingenieur- und Architekten-Zeitschrift (IAZ), 154. Jg., Heft 7-12/2009, pp. 267276.
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RaDMI 2010
THE CYCLES OF MARITIME DISRUPTIONS IN THE AUSTRALIAN INDONESIAN WHEAT SUPPLY CHAIN
Saut Gurning1, Stephen Cahoon2
1
Australian Maritime College, Launceston-Tasmania, AUSTRALIA, e-mail: s.gurning@amc.edu.au 2 e-mail: s.cahoon@amc.edu.au
Summary: Maritime operations have the potential capability to generate wide-scale disruptive effects to all tiers in the supply-chain. Therefore, the cycle analysis of maritime disruptions may provide a number of key values to recognize the characteristics of every stage of maritime disruptions in the phase of discovery and recovery. This paper explains the generic cycles of stages in four different maritime disruptive events including congestion due to handling equipment breakdown, severe weather, earthquake, and the shortage of dry bulk ships all in the context of empirical results from a 2010 study of the Australian-Indonesia wheat supply chain. By exploring and understanding the critical components of disruption cycles, this paper argues that decision makers will be better equipped to plan for the effects of supply chain disruptions. In addition, the paper recommends effective multi-mitigation strategies for further consideration when managing maritime disruptions. Keywords: Cycles of maritime disruptions, wheat supply chain.
1. INTRODUCTION
Supply chain operators are facing a variety of uncertainties on their particular leg of the supply chain due to various internal and external factors disrupting the shipment of goods from the source to the planned destinations. For example, Gaonkar and Viswandham [1], Robert et al. [2], and Rodrigues et al. [3] argue that global outsourcing strategies implemented by dominating international supply chain operators create uncontrollable deviations from their original plans when disruptions occur in one or more of the many stages of the chain flow. These disruptions also occur in the maritime related processes, which are part of the transportation cluster services in the downstream operations of the supply chain. Maritime disruptions present substantial risks in the transport of cargo in shipping-related activities caused for example by the shortage of ship fleets on a particular route or shortage of cargo at a certain period of time; or natural hazard conditions at sea such as severe wave height; or a supply/demand imbalance of containers [4-6]. Ideally, maritime disruptions could be minimised if effective disruption management systems are in place and senior managers have an understanding of how to prepare and plan for the probability of a maritime disruption. Therefore to make a strategic response to maritime disruptions requires an appreciation of the complete cycle process of maritime disruptions to enable a decrease in disruption consequences and their propagation effect due to the cycle of disruptions being a consequence of instigating factors over time. This paper explores the cycle process of maritime disruptions using the Australian-Indonesian wheat supply chain as a comprehensive view of a potential disruption configuration. By exploring and understanding the cycles of maritime disruptions, supply chain entities may be better prepared to manage the causes and effects presented by maritime disruptions and hence recognise the benefits of developing disruption management strategies.
2. DISRUPTION CYCLES
Studies on disruption cycles suggest that investigations on crisis lifecycles have provided a foundation for researchers on how to discover risk related events [7-14] (see Table 1). Due to this reason, the dominant perspectives of the risk lifecycles research tends to focus on crisis or disaster related events. The issue then is
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that the lifecycles analysis framework focuses primarily on crisis behaviours and correlating them with responses collected in a short period of time and then concentrating on the internal factors of an organisation where the uncertainty event occurs. Table 1: Categorisation of crisis and disruption lifecycle
Orientation Eventbased cycle Fink (1986): *Prodormal *Acute *Chronic *Resolution Response based cycle Barton (1993);Mitroff (1994) *Detection *Probing / prevention *Containment *Recovery *Learning Shortcycle Roberts (1994); *Pre event *Emergency/intermediate phase *Long term phase Lauge et al.(2009) *Pre crisis *Crisis *Post crisis
Crisis
Shrivastava (1993): *Cause *Consequence *Caution *Coping Tomlin (2006;2009) *Normal *Reaction *Failure *Recovery Disruption British Standard (2009) *Event occurs *Damage assessment *Plan activated *Disasterassessment *Critical processes resumed
Blackhurst (2004);Handfield et al. (2008) *Discovery *Recovery
As shown in Table 1, Fink [9] appears to be the first study exploring the behaviours of a risk-related event called a crisis with four major stages namely prodormal, acute, chronic, and crisis resolution. The investigation of Finks research, which was mainly derived from medical cases, was elaborated on by Gottschalk [15], Parlar and Perry [16], Pearson and Clair [13], and Coombs [17] in various general public applications including transport operations. Under the investigation of Finks [9] four stages, an unexpected negative event was observed by the study that mainly focused on the cognitive assessment of the causes of the disruptive event along various causal possibilities, which in turn impacts on only one crisis resolution. Three crisis study reports [7, 11, 14] demonstrate that internal inadequate controllable responses resulted in worse risk reactions than external uncontrollable influences. Using natural disasters, Mitroff [11] reveals that the external uncontrollable triggers (severe weather and earthquake) resulted in less resistance, greater support, and higher cautions and response than the internal controllable cause (such as a poor maintenance system). By providing five risk stages namely detection, probing/prevention, containment/damage containment, recovery, and learning, Barton [7] and Mitroff [11] found that the more internal and manageable a risk being handled, the more responsible an entity was considered to be. Therefore, unlike the research by Fink [9], the scope of the risk lifecycles as noted by Mitroff [11] is more related to risk-related responses rather than the cycle behaviour of the crises. Similar to the natural disaster focused research, a less complex crisis cycle is proposed by Roberts [18], and Lauge et al. [10] who define risk-related events mainly into three stages such as pre-crisis, crisis (emergency and intermediate phase), and post crisis. Using industrial accidents (significant and non-significant), Williams and Treadaway [19] and Shrivastava [8] found that the internal controllable catastrophe (with a high consequence such as infrastructure failure or fire due to outdated equipment) led to higher caution and responsibility of an organisation. With the four stages of cause, consequence, caution, and coping, Shrivastava [8], Manion and Evan [20], Sriramachari [21] and Chang et al. [22] define the crisis cycles with proposed mitigation initiatives related to industrial situations. However, the industrial network beyond certain crisis cycles was not considered significantly in their research. The importance of the disruption risk lifecycle in supply chain studies has been initiated by Blackhurst et al.[23], Paul and Denis [12] , Tomlin [24, 25], Pinto and Wayne [26], Handfield et al. [27], Kuster [28], and Lauge et al. [10]. Unlike the research on crisis, the cycle investigations on disruption in the supply chain mainly suggest less complex stages because they focus on risk management strategies rather than identifying the disruption behaviours. The study of Blakhurst et al. [23] and Handfield et al. [27] for example, suggest two stages to the cycle of disruptive events namely discovery and recovery, whereas Tomlin [24, 25] propose four stages starting from normal condition to failures, reaction, and then the recovery prior to once again returning to the normal condition again. The mechanism of the disruption cycle mentioned above could be as a result of observations of the disruptions structure focusing mainly on the combination of disruption response phase with strategies taken in a short period of time and relating it to past events. Similar to this, the British Standard (2009) also identifies disruption as having five stages namely the event occurs, damage assessment, disaster assessment, disaster declared plan activated, and critical process resumed. Previous studies as highlighted above do not take into consideration the
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interval periods and the tendencies of disruptive events investigated. Therefore, it can be argued that effective disruption management may be prepared in advance of the actual realisation of the disruption. An early detection of the pre-disruption period can assist entities in the supply chain to significantly handle disruptions. In addition, in the post-disruption phase, senior managers may consider the mechanism of disruptions to recognise why it occurred and how to prevent it from happening again. An efficient post-disruption strategy can reduce the disturbances which can create other disruptions or pre-disruptions from one entity to other entities along a supply chain. In regard to these arguments therefore, it is consequently necessary to define and understand the concept of disruption cycle for all maritime disruptive events in this papers study.
2. EMPIRICAL DATA COLLECTION ON MARITIME DISRUPTION

To complement the above literature review, key stakeholders in various parts of the wheat industries in Australia and Indonesia were invited to participate in a telephone survey during 2009-2010, which examined senior managers views on future maritime disruptions and the impact on wheat transport demands. Through this approach, a sample of potential respondents from the general population in both the upstream and downstream clusters of the Australian-Indonesian wheat supply chain was derived. Of all the methods employed in qualitative surveys, a telephone survey is the preferred choice to maximise response rates as well as to maintain control over the quality of the data as it produces a relatively high response rate compared to other qualitative approaches, especially compared to face-to-face interviews [29-32]. Further, as the study had a limited budget, the telephone survey was one method which incurred efficient costs for gaining data [30, 31, 33, 34]. A telephone survey also allows for data to be collected in a complete and accurate format with an acceptable level of total error at the time of the interview [35-37]. The benefits of using this technique include richness of data and deeper insight into the phenomena of maritime disruptions on the wheat supply chain. However in order to avoid the time consuming process of collecting data from the entire population of the Australian-Indonesian wheat supply chain, smaller numbers of senior managers were chosen through a sample frame. To cover the research purpose outlined above, wheat supply chain entities transporting wheat commodities from Australia to Indonesia were interviewed. Accordingly, a mixed mode of quantitative and qualitative survey was selected to collect data focusing on previous maritime disruptive events and their consequences on the wheat supply chain. By using a multi-cluster sampling method, four parameters were used to classify the sample, similar to the approach used for selecting the population. Firstly, it was decided the trade orientation has to deal only with the wheat market between Australia and Indonesia. Secondly, as it was intended to include the whole wheat trade population of the maritime industry in the results, the selected sample population needed to represent the views of wheat supply chain entities in every sector from Australia to Indonesia. In terms of transportation and maritime operations, the process of agricultural shipment through maritime operations should be clearly indicated as the dominant mode of transport with a handling capacity of wheat of more than 100,000 tonnes annually. In relation to this, both dry-bulk and containerised wheat shipments were included as the other selected population. The third factor is the quantity of shipments, which has to indicate a large volume. This may be referred to as consecutive voyages of wheat cargo from Australia to Indonesia. The fourth is the position level of the respondents, which was expected to be from the senior management level such as CEO (Chief Executive Officer), COO (Chief Operating Officer), or Risk Manager (RM) rank. These four selecting factors of potential sample respondents were determined primarily to fulfill the generalisability concept across the wheat supply chain population and to ensure responses were from participants most likely to have an overview of the full supply chain and disruption factors. The interview questions of this study are mainly designed to assess the responses or reactions of wheat supply chain entities when dealing with decision making processes in the three main stages of disruption periods namely pre-disruption, during the disruption and post-disruption. A total of 34 interviews were recorded that ranged in length from five minutes to 90 minutes with an average length of 34 minutes per interview. One recording was unintelligible due to background noise and was subsequently difficult to transcribe, while another interview was recorded in two parts (i.e. two separate files) as some additional time was offered by this respondent to continue the previous interview that had not finished due to their limited time. This resulted in the recording and transcription of 33 completed interviews.
3. THE SURVEY RESULTS

The survey obtained details of four major disruptive events as experienced by the respondents during the period of 2007-2009 namely congestion due to equipment breakdowns, port stoppages due to the influence of severe weather, disruption due to earthquake and disruption due to a shortage of dry bulk ships. However, all respondents in the survey contributed uniformly in providing information regarding the period of discovery and
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the recovery phase of the various disruptive events that they experienced in their wheat supply chain. The period duration of days and hours are used to measure the stage of discovery and the recovery interval of the different disruptive events. 3.1. General disruption process Figure 1 below shows the general cycle of maritime disruptions as a finding of the maritime disruption survey. Fifty-three per cent of respondents suggested that they tend to discover various maritime disruptive events from somewhere along the supply chain seven days after the events have occurred. These events are usually discovered through shared information given to them by their business partners and agents. In addition, 52 per cent of respondents stated that on average the maritime disruptive events added seven additional days to their lead times or service times. In terms of the time needed to return to their normal operational level (recovery), 18 per cent of respondents mentioned that they required about fourteen days after the disruption was discovered as an initial recovery phase to return to their limited operations.
Figure 1: The general cycle of maritime disruptive events
3.2. Congestion due to equipment breakdown Figure 2 details general cases of port congestion due to equipment breakdown that occurred in the operational area of respondents in Indonesia. The data was obtained through historical reports of the congestion cases via the telephone survey. Analysis of the data identified that the disruption, a breakdown of unloading or loading equipment was initially indicated from a delay of ports operations on the first day after the handling equipment partially failed. This further led to a deviation phase of the ports services (on the fifth day after the disruption happened) as unloading operations could not fulfil the operational contracts between stevedoring companies and shipping agents. By the 19th day, the capacity of the equipment was down to 70 per cent and consequently the main handling services of the ports were unavailable by the 22nd day.
Figure 2: The cases of port congestion due to handling equipment breakdown The port general managers ordered back-up equipment immediately; but it still took 15-16 days to get the backup equipment on-site, set up and working. A majority of respondents stated that the ports needed 38 days to initially recover to 50 per cent of normal operations, 72 days to achieve 70 per cent of normal port operations (intermediate recovery) and about 90 days to fully recover to normal operational level as they had to complete a retrofitting and replacement program of their broken unloading equipment.
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3.3. Port stoppages due to weather factors Figure 3 indicates the disruption cycle of port stoppages due to severe weather factors as explained by respondents particularly in Indonesia. Different from the other cases, this cycle was explained in an hourly-based period instead of day by day. The cycle began with the operational delay discovered one to six hours after the severe weather occurred in the port of the respondents. Six hours after the start of the delay, the port managers found there was a significant deviation of port services as according to navigational warnings received by the port authorities from the Badan Meteorologi Klimatologi dan Geofisika (BMKG) of Indonesia, ships and facilities at the port, including trucks, had to be shifted in order to avoid fatal injuries at the port. Further, at the 24th hour, the majority of respondents in Indonesia stated that the port authorities closed their ports and consequently stopped operations of the ports along with those with changes in the weather by the 36th hour, the ports were initially opened and recovered 30 per cent of their services; by the 48th hour the ports had recovered by 60 per cent and finally they had fully recovered by the 60th hour.
Figure 3: The cases of port stoppages due to severe weather [38]
3.4. Disruption due to earthquake Figure 4 denotes the cycle of cases of disruptions due to earthquakes as explained by particular respondents in Indonesia. One day after the earthquake destroyed a particular port, port senior manager respondents indicated that 50 per cent to 60 per cent of the port facilities were damaged and dry bulk ships that were going to call at the ports had to reroute to other ports. On the 7th day, the port could not provide its main services as 70 per cent of their facilities were unavailable. After finding back-up supports, providing temporary facilities and new operational procedures, the port managed to recover with 30 per cent of the port facility ready for operation on the 50th to 62nd day. It took a further month until the 90th day for the port facility to be fully restored.
Figure 4: The cases of port disruptions due to earthquake 3.5. Disruption due to shortage of dry bulk fleet The cycle analysis of a disruption case due to dry bulk fleet shortage as informed by respondents in both Australia and Indonesia in the period 2007-2008 is shown in Figure 5. The figure indicates that the cycle started from the discovery of the shortage in the dry bulk fleet by supply chain partners on the 7th day after the disruptive events occurred. This event was driven by a rise in international bulk freight rates. Consequently,
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seven days later, significant delays in shipping operations were identified and experienced by shippers. In response, the respondents promptly decided to top up the wheat cargoes at the loading port while waiting for available ships to transport the cargoes to unloading ports assigned by buyers. This response was followed with other immediate actions such as rerouting the cargoes to other nearby ports including revising shipping contracts with 3P/L (third party logistics) or 4P/L (fourth party logistics) partners. By implementing these actions, the respondents found that the initial recovery stage was achieved 50 days after the disruption occurred. Next, the intermediate recovery was attained 75 days after undertaking significant measures to change the transport mode from bulk to containerised shipment. Further, on the 80th day the full recovery stage was achieved after changing the unloading ports to those previously assigned by buyers. The next sub-section will discuss how more insight into respondents views on responses and preparedness was gained as their previous mitigation strategies including various significant factors were required in the preparation of the mitigation strategies. The findings from the telephone interview may provide a general indication that existing mitigation responses applied by respondents were not efficient in terms of time required to manage maritime disruptions. This is due to taking seven days to discover the disruptive events and up to 90 days on average being needed to recover from the disruptions. Some new effective strategies are needed to shorten the cycle of maritime disruption which has occurred previously.
Figure 5: Cases of port disruptions due to the shortage of dry bulk ships
4. RECOMMENDATION
The survey of senior managers explored the issue of mitigating actions predominantly within the context of individuals or entities along the wheat supply chain using a maritime leg in their operations. By interviewing senior managers along the wheat supply chain, various problems and resolutions were realised as empirical mitigation responses in three stages namely pre-disruption, disruption and post-disruption for uncertainty and interruptions particularly in the maritime leg. In the pre-disruption stage, the existing mitigation strategy at this stage (as appears in Figure 6), identified that the dominant reactions of maritime users in the wheat supply chain were to apply contingency planning which principally consists of supply flexibility and insurance management (generally for marine cargo insurance). This is achieved through transferring risk or risk-sharing decision methods such as insurance plans and outsourcing strategies. Other entities along the chain may also apply reserved maritime routes, provide strategic stock (through agency service) and back-up systems and optimum ordering policies in their contingency plans for responding to worst case scenarios of maritime disruptions. Those mitigations were taken especially when they have problems with the shortage of dry bulk ship in the market and port congestion problems particularly in some Australian grain terminals.
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Figure 6: Existing multi-mitigation strategies of wheat supply chain from entities [39]
5. CONCLUSION
The discussion of maritime disruption cycles experienced by respondents above may further explain whether the previous mitigations are effective or not. The findings through the telephone interview may provide a general indication that existing mitigation responses applied by respondents were not efficient in terms of time required to manage maritime disruptions. This is due to taking seven days to discover the disruptive events and the 90 days needed to recover from the disruptions on average. Some new effective strategies are needed to shorten the cycle of maritime disruption which has occurred previously.
REFERENCES
[1] Gaonkar, R.S. & Viswanadham, N.; Analytical framework for the management of risk in supply chains. IEEE Transactions on Automation Science & Engineering, Vol. 4, No. 2 (2007), pp. 265-273. [2] Robert, W.; Threat of disruption hangs over US west coast ports, in FT.com. 2008: London. [3] Rodrigues, V.S., Stantchev, D., Potter, A., Naim, M. & Whiteing, A.; Establishing a transport operation focused uncertainty model for the supply chain. International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management, Vol. 38, No. 5 (2008), pp. 388-411. [4] Jula, H.C. & Ioannou, P.; Port dynamic empty container reuse. Transportation Research Part E: Logistics and Transportation, Vol. 42, No. 1 (2006), pp. 43-60. [5] Song, D., Zhang, J., Carter, J., Field, T., Marshall, J., Polak, J., Schumacher, K., Sinha-Ray, K. & Woods, P.J.; On cost-efficiency of the global container shipping network. Maritime Policy & Management, Vol. 32, No. 1 (2005), pp. 15-30. [6] Lin, L.C. & Tseng, C.C.; Operational performance evaluation of major container ports in the Asia-Pacific region. Maritime Policy & Management, Vol. 34, No. 6 (2007), pp. 535-551. [7] Barton, L.; Crisis in Organisation: Managing and Communicating in the Heat of Chaos. 1993, CicinnatiOhio: South-Western Publishing Company. [8] Shrivastava, P.; Crisis theory/practice: Towards a sustainable future. Industrial and Environmental Crisis Quarterly, Vol. 7, No. 1 (1993), pp. 23-42. [9] Fink, S.; Crisis Management: Planning for the Envitable. 1986, New York, USA: Amacom Books. [10] Lauge, A., Sarriegi, J.M. & Torres, J.M.; The dynamics of crisis lifecycle for emergency management. in "27th International Conference of the System Dynamic Society". 2009. Albuquerque, New Mexico-USA: System Dynamic Society. [11] Mitroff, I.I.; Crisis management and environmentalism. California Management Review, Vol. 36, No. 2 (1994), pp. 101-113. [12] Childerhouse, P. & Towill, D.R.; Reducing uncertainty in European supply chains. Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management, Vol. 15, No. 7 (2004), pp. 585-598.
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[13] Pearson, C.M. & Clair, J.A.; Reframing crisis management. Academy of Management Review, Vol. 26, No. 2 (1998), pp. 155-171. [14] Seymour, M. & Moore, S.; Effective Crisis Management: Worldwide Principles and Practice. 2000, London: Cassell. [15] Gottschalk, J.A.; Crisis Response: Insider Stories on Managing Image Under Siege. 1993, Detroit, Mich: Visible Ink. [16] Parlar, M. & Perry, D.; Inventory models of future supply uncertainty with single and multiple suppliers. Naval Research Logistics, Vol. 43, No. 2 (1996), pp. 191-210. [17] Coombs, W.T.; Impact of past crises on current crisis communication: Insight from situational crisis communication theory. Journal of Business Communication, Vol. 41, No. 3 (2004), pp. 265-289. [18] Roberts, V.; Flood management: Bradford paper. Disaster Prevention and Management, Vol. 3, No. 3 (1994), pp. 44-60. [19] Williams, D.E. & Treadaway, G.; Exxon and the Valdez accident: A failure in crisis communication. Communication Studies, Vol. 43 (1992), pp. 56-64. [20] Manion, M. & Evan, W.M.; Technological catastrophes: Their causes and prevention. Technology in Society, Vol. 24, No. 1 (2002), pp. 207-224. [21] Sriramachari, S.; Bhopal gas tragedy: Scientific challenges and lessons for future. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, Vol. 18, No. 1 (2005), pp. 246-267. [22] Chang, S.E., Mikawoz, T.L. & Peterson, K.; Infrastructure failure interdependencies in extreme events: Power outage consequences in the 1998 Ice Storm. Natural Disasters, Vol. 41 (2007), pp. 337-358. [23] Blackhurst, J., Wu, T. & O'Grady, P.; Network-based approach to modelling uncertainty in a supply chain. International Journal of Production Research, Vol. 42, No. 8 (2004), pp. 1639-1658. [24] Tomlin, B.; Disruption-management strategies for short life-cycle products. Naval Research Logistics, Vol. 56, No. 4 (2009), pp. 318-347. [25] Tomlin, B.; On the value of mitigation and contingency strategies for managing supply chain disruption risks. Management Science, Vol. 52, No. 5 (2006), pp. 639-657. [26] Pinto, C.A. & Wayne, K.T.; The security incident cycle of ports. Maritime Economics & Logistics, Vol. 8, No. 3 (2006), pp. 267-286. [27] Handfield, Blackhurst, J., Elkins, D. & Craighead, C.W.; A framework for reducing the impact of disruptions to the supply chain: Observations from multiple executives, in Supply Chain Risk Management: Minimizing Disruptions in Global Sourcing, Handfield and McCormack, Editors. 2008, Auerbach Publications: New York. p. 29-49. [28] Kuster, J.; Providing Decision Support in the Operative Management of Process Disruptions. 1st ed. 2008, Vienna: GITO-Verlag. [29] Cahoon, S.; Seaport marketing: a census of Australian seaports, in School of Management. 2004, University of Tasmania: Launceston, Tasmania. [30] Leon, J.J., Brown, W.C., Itamura, J., Ruch, L.O. & Itamura, J.; Telephone survey methods and practices. 2005, Streamline Surveys Inc. [31] Zikmund, W.; Business Research Methods. 7th ed. 2007, Mason, Ohio: South-Western College Publisher. [32] Fowler, F.J.; Survey research methods. 2008, SAGE Publication Ltd. [33] Saunders, M., Lewis, P. & Thornhill, A.; Research Methods for Business Students. 1st ed. 2009, Harlow, England: Prentice Hall. [34] Walton, L.W.; Telephone survey: Answering the seven Rs to logistics research. Journal of Business Logistics, Vol. 18, No. 1 (1997), pp. 217-231. [35] Groves, R.M., Fowler, F.J., Couper, M.P., Lepkowski, J.M., Singer, E. & Tourangeau, R.; Survey methodology. 2004, Wiley Ltd. [36] Gray, P.S., Williamson, J.B., Karp, D.A. & Dalphin, J.R.; The research imagination: an introduction to qualitative and quantitative methods. 2007, Cambridge University Press. [37] Rubin, H.J. & Rubin, I.S.; Qualitative interviewing: The art of hearing data. 2nd ed. 2004: Sage Publications. [38] Gurning, S., Cahoon, S. & Sambodho, K.; Supply chain risk management strategies for managing maritime disruptions due to the effects of climate change: Evidence from the Australian-Indonesian supply chain in "Japan - Indonesia Workshop on Estuary and Climate Change". 2010. Surabaya, Indonesia. [39] Gurning, S. & Cahoon, S.; Analysis of multi-mitigation scenarios on maritime disruptions in "12th World Conference on Transport Research (WCTR)". 2010. Lisbon, Portugal.
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RaDMI 2010
MOBILE HARBOR CONCEPT FOR SHORT SEA SHIPING

School of Port and Logistics Management, Tongmyong University 535, Yongdang-dong, Nam-gu, Busan, Republic of Korea, e-mail: nkpark@tu.ac.kr 2 Tongmyong University, 535, Yongdang-dong, Nam-gu, Busan, REPUBLIC OF KOREA , e-mail: cklim@tu.ac.kr 3 Maritime Faculty, Maritime Transport and Traffic Division, University of Montenegro, Kotor, MONTENEGRO e-mails: branod@ac.me
1
Nam Kyu Park1, S.K. Heo 2, Branislav Dragovi3
Summary: Mobile Harbor (MH) is the combined entity which has the function of both ship and container port. In estimating the optimized size, the total cost concept is applied to the different size of MH. Trade-off factors for calculating total cost are MH cost and the lost sales cost. The factors for MH cost estimation are the cargo demand, distance from origin to destination, voyage route and MHs fixed and variable cost in both sailing and port. The other cost is the lost sales cost which is occurred from dead space in case of oversize compared with a voyage demand. The alternatives for the least cost are 250 TEU, 500 TEU, 750 TEU and 1,000 TEU sized vessel. The result of research is that 250 TEU sized vessel is optimized in a South Korea costal service. If the coastal area be separated in terms of voyage distance or the specific area in considering trade, the optimized size is changed depending upon distance. Keywords: mobile harbor, optimization, cost structure
1. INTRODUCTION
Mobile Harbor (MH) has the dual function of sea transportation and container handling armed with high mechanical and systematic technology. As technical specification of MH, it has 8 knots speed, 250 TEU laden capacity, 4 meters draft, 92 meters LOA, 26 meters breadth, 30 moves handling rate capacity per hour-ship. Depending on trade where MH plies, the optimal size of MH can be decided. The aim on the paper is to estimate the optimized size of MH which would be operated in South Korea coast area. MH has strong point which is used for cross docking by which mother ship cooperates with MH in handling containers using cranes. As the trait of MH which has cranes and low draft, it can access the general cargo berth without container handling equipment or low depth cannel. In reality, short sea shipping (SSS) in Korean peninsula is not well developed due to short distance. Several steps and long transit time between origin and destination are main reason for under developed SSS. In the difficulty of expanding SSS in Korea, MH can be emerged as an alternative of modal shift from road to sea. Under the boundary of costal transportation with MH, the estimation of MH optimal size is prerequisite for designing and building. This paper is organized as follows. Mobile harbor concept is explained in section 2. Section 3 represents the methodology of cost structure for SSS domestic service. Section 4 consists of data collection analysis and results. Last section concludes this paper.
2. MOBILE HARBOR CONCEPT

Container terminals are becoming increasingly more congested and expensive to operate. Highways and railways are already congested by container traffic and this congestion will worsen. The Floaterm or MH concept utilizes waterside container cranes on a barge to form, in effect, an offshore wharf. The container ship is moored to the crane barge or vice versa. Containers are transferred from the ship to the barge deck or to feeder barges [7]. The concept was originally developed by Liftech in 2000 at the suggestion of the Port of Oakland Executive Director Charles Foster. Simultaneously, Louisiana State University developed a parallel concept. Investigators
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at Delft University studied the Floaterm concept in 2005. Although the concept may not be economically viable at this time, the costs of conventional waterfront terminal development and operations combined with the associated congestion and pollution, will eventually justify full development of the Floaterm concept [7]. Figures 1 and 2 present a floating transshipment terminal with two sided handling ([1 and 4]). The floating terminal system inverts the notion of a port. Instead of ships coming to port, the port is coming to ship. Another radical change allowed by the pontoon base ship to ship transfer is the handling of multi box units. This way of serving could enhance productivity and reduce the number of cranes per ship, although the size of cranes needs to increase.
Figure 1: Mega ship in a floating dock loading/unloading stage (Floating Transshipment Terminal)
Figure 2: Float term concept: barge ship barge
Ottjes et al. [11] presented a self propelled floating platform with one or more container crane. A simulation investigation of Sailing Container Terminal for the port of Rotterdam has been explained. With landside operations becoming increasingly congested and land for expansion limited one solution is for terminal operators to move their operations to the water [14]. Table 1: Mobile Harbor Design type and Characteristics
Type Characteristics MH Size (TEU) LOA (meter) Gross Tonnage Deadweight Draft (meter) 250 92 2,468 4,386 5
Integrated
500 118 7,506 8,726 6 750 144 13,379 16,640 8
Separated
1,000 169 16,731 22,740 9
Design Type of MH
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Type Characteristics Speed Draft LOA MH Height of Full Capacity Capacity Handling Capacity Number of C/C 8~15 kts 5m 50 m 15.5 m 250 TEU 30 moves/hour 1
Integrated
(A-1 type) MH with Crane 12 kts 7m 150m 15.5m 1,200TEU 120 moves/hour 2
Separated
(B-1 type) MH with Crane n/a n/a 300~400m n/a n/a 200 moves/hour 8
This paper presents two applications of MH concepts: Integrated and Separated two-sided operations, Table 1. Our calculations have been prepared to verify estimating the optimized size, the total cost concept is applied to the different size of MH [12 and 13]. The two-sided application reduces under-crane traffic and increases productivity. With increased production, the ship spends less time at the port, and more berths are available [7].
A floating quay type container terminal is assessed for loading and unloading among a floating quay, a container ship and a fixed harbor. However, advantages and disadvantages must be taken into account. There are advantages and disadvantages of the floating harbor compared to the ground based harbor as explained below [8 and 9].
Advantages Advantages and Disadvantages of Floating Mobile Quay System Disadvantages
Capability of loading and unloading is easily expanded or changeable; Floating Quay System is least effected by the change of water-level by tide and storm surge; The container freights, cargos and floating quay structure can be protected from direct seismic shocks on earth, because it is positioned on the water surface; It is less effected by sea-bottom condition such as scour, liquefaction, sinkage, and deposition; It requires less expensive construction cost and no foundation work. Each unit can be built at different places before final assembly step at the purported harbor; Easy relocation.
Potential non-operability in relatively extreme wave condition; Due to the materials of the floating harbor, floating structures must be offered with anti-corrosion system; Potential degradation due to corrosion or crack growth (fatigue) needs proper ways for inspection and monitoring.
3. METHODOLOGY
The optimized size of MH in Korea costal area can be suggested with total cost concept. Total cost consists of ship operating cost and lost sales cost which has trade off relationship. Ship operation cost is divided into variable cost and fixed cost. The variable cost as occurred in activity consists of the bunker cost and the port charges and dues when entering the port for loading and unloading. The fixed cost is called running cost which is the preparing cost for navigation regardless in navigating or in port or at lay up. As the items of running cost, depreciation cost, capital cost, ship store cost, repair cost, insurance cost and crew cost are included in the cost category. The fixed cost can be measured on yearly basis. Although there are some arguments about the classification of individual cost into variable or fixed cost ([2 and 10]), this paper follows Drewry classification based on usual practice ([3, 5 and 6]).
As a consequence, it is obvious that optimal size is to consider not only shipping cost, but also lost sales cost which is the missed revenue for over sized capacity. As optimal size is the function of total cost which is the sum of shipping cost and lost sales cost, U shaped graph can be drawn as Fig. 3. For calculating the total cost, the optimization formula with minimum total cost is to be developed. As early mentioned, total cost consists of shipping cost and lost sales cost. The former consists of running cost as fixed cost, bunker cost, port charges and dues as variable cost.
Figure 3: Total cost concept for optimal ship size
Before solving the optimal size problem, quantity model for total cost is to be designed, then voyage routes from origin port to destination port are set up in considering route distance, demand volume and hinterland industry. In the model, the number of voyage routes is defined as m and daily running cost is defined Hc. The bunker cost per ton is defined Bc, and daily bunker consumption in navigation and in port is defined Fm and Fp each. Navigation time and port time in hour unit is defined Tm and Tp. According to above definition, daily bunker cost in navigation is calculated Bc x ((Fm x Tm)/24), and bunker cost in port is calculated Bc x ((Fp x Tp)/24). Daily
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port dues, berthing charge, cargo handling charge and line handling per voyage are defined Pc, Mc, Cc and Lc. Based on above definition, daily port charges per voyage can be modeled ((Pc + Mc + Cc + Lc) x Tp)/24. Three types of cost being summed and being divided by decision variable G and the number of voyage, the consequence will be the total cost of shipping per unit and route. Last component of total cost is lost sales cost defined Cl . This cost is restricted within the lost revenue occurred by dead space. As MHs draught is under 5 m, the channel depth and berth time windows are not to be considered in the Cl definition.
MinTc =
{H
m =1
+ B C [( Fm Tm ) / 24 + ( Fp T p ) / 24] + [( Pc + M c + Cc + Lc ) T p ] / 24} GM
C
m =1
2G M
s.t. C , G.M > 0
G is decision variable which is one of 250 TEU 500 TEU, or 1,000 TEU capacity of mobile harbor. The dimensions and characteristics of MH type are given in Table 1.
4. DATA COLLECTION ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

New shipbuilding cost of MH with 250 TEU is estimated US$ 30,000,000 by Korean ship builder (KAIST, 2009 [12 and 13]). The cost is 2 times higher than that of feeder ship in equivalent size ([5 and 6]). As the cost of others including 500 TEU, 750 TEU and 1,000 TEU is not informed, the estimation is tried by the ratio based on feeders new building cost of equivalent size. The running cost which is fixed regardless of voyage consists of ship depreciation cost, ship store cost, lubricating cost, water supply cost, ship repair cost, manning cost, capital cost, general overhead cost (Table 2). Table 2: MHs Running Cost
MH Size (TEU) Ship Building Cost (US $) Yearly Running Cost (US $) Daily Running Cost (US $) 250 30,000,000 5,961,217 16,332 500 38,400,000 7,291,352 19,976 750 46,800,000 8,621,486 23,621 1,000 55,200,000 9,951,621 27,265
Variable cost consists of port dues and charges and bunker cost in port and in navigation, Table 3. As MH is mainly operated within a harbor or between domestic harbors, port dues, MH operator will pay for only MH berthing charge and line handling charge occurs, but it is assumed that container handling charge will be freed for utilizing own facility. Table 3: MHs Port Dues and Port Charge
MH Size (TEU) Port Dues (US $) Berthing Charge (US $) Cargo Handling(US $) Line Handling (US $) Total of Port Dues and Charges (US $) 250 316 84 7,500 86 7.986 500 961 255 15,000 86 16,302 750 1,713 455 22,500 86 24,753 1,000 2,142 569 30,000 86 32,796
In calculation of bunker cost, navigation and port time is to be estimated because ship engine consumes two types of bunker oil of which cost is different in navigation or in port. As voyage time is dependent on the number of entering ports and distance from origin to destination, the voyage route is to be designed first before estimating navigation and port times of MH and bunker cost. Fourteen routes are developed in considering the frequency of departure, round trip time, calling ports in cluster and cargo demand. Annual cargo demand from the port of Busan to destination port can be drawn from origin destination statistics (Inner Report of MOLM 2009 [12 and 13]), which shows container flow between sixteen origin cities and provinces to sixteen destinations on land transportation. As the statistics is the only official data, it is necessary to allocate O-D volume to that of destination port from the port of Busan. First step is to select calling ports from the port of Busan in considering the distance from origin, proximity between ports and supporting function of hinterland industry. Second step is to find the ration of modal shift from land transportation to costal shipping. In this paper, 16% of ratio is applied based on conservative assumption. The assumption is based on the ratio of SSS case in Europe ([12 and 13]).
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In designing routes, the assumed scenario is that mother vessel call at the port of Busan and then the MH is alongside of mother ship and handles containers for transporting to destination port. Destination ports which do not own the dedicated quay crane facility are selected in elevating the value of MH function. According to the above route, daily bunker consumption and cost are estimated on each route. Summing the bunker cost, port charges, and the total variable cost per voyage on each route can be produced in Table 4 and then daily total cost per voyage after summing the variable and running cost will be shown in Table 4. The cost which is occurred from over sized capacity than the demand volume is called lost sale cost. After calculating the difference value between ship capacity and demand volume, the value is multiplied by lost profit. On the case of MH with 250 TEU capacity and 8 knots speed, the daily average total shipping cost is estimated US$ 77.7 and lost sale cost is US$ 53.9. Following the same procedure for estimation, daily average shipping cost on route and daily lost cost will be drawn as Table 5. In a consequence, daily cost of MH with 250 TEU and 8 knot speed is drawn as optimal size. Table 4: Route specification
Route 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Origin : Port of Busan Calling port Final Port Ulsan Pohang Ulsan Pohang Masan Tongyoung Masan Tongyoung Kwangyang Wando Kwangyang Wando Gunsan Boryung Gunsan Boryung Pyungtak Incheon Distance (mile) 88 208 227 87 99 119 216 310 375 650 707 716 850 870 Navigation Time (Hour) 11.1 26.0 28.4 10.8 12.4 14.9 27.0 38.8 46.9 81.3 88.4 89.5 106.3 108.8 Port Time (Hour) 10.3 13.9 24.2 16.2 16.2 17.2 5.2 6.2 6.2 5.2 4.4 9.6 10.3 4.1 Demand (TEU) 210 290 500 342 342 342 94 94 94 95 76 171 209 70
Table 5: Daily Total Cost on Route of MH with 8 knots speed and 250 TEU Capacity (Unit US $)
Costs Route 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Bunker Cost in Navigation 1,980 4,659 5,081 1,940 2,215 2,668 4,839 6,944 8,400 14,561 15,838 16,039 19,041 19,489 Bunker Cost in Port 6,186 6,471 7,301 6,655 6,655 6,736 5,770 5,850 5,850 5,773 5,707 6,125 6,180 5,686 Port Dues and Charges 7,986 7,986 15,971 7,986 7,986 15,971 7,986 7,986 15,971 7,986 7,986 15,971 7,986 7,986 Daily Variable Cost 12,222 8,531 8,861 9,216 9,047 12,367 11,960 9,767 12,255 Daily Running Cost per Voyage 16,332 16,332 16,332 16,332 16,332 16,332 16,332 16,332 16,332 Daily Total Shipping Cost per Voyage 28,554 24,863 25,193 25,548 25,379 28,699 28,292 26,099 28,587 23,748 23,629 24,755 22,618 23,136 114 Daily Lost Sale Cost 5,286 -8,963 -79,994 -16,463 -17,049 -18,774 24,330 33,296 38,594 59,382 70,420 35,992 21,923 87,729 54
7,416 16,332 7,297 16,332 8,423 16,332 6,286 16,332 6,804 16,332 Route Average Daily Cost per TEU
Table 6: Daily Total Cost per TEU on MH size

MH Size Daily Costs Shipping Cost per TEU Lost Sale Cost per TEU Total Cost per TEU 250 TEU 102.6 53.9 156.5 500 TEU 71.5 90.4 161.9 750 TEU 57.8 109.3 167.0 1000 TEU 55.9 118.7 174.6 MH Size Daily Costs Shipping Cost per TEU Lost Sale Cost per TEU Total Cost per TEU 250 TEU 116.2 32.4 148.6 500 TEU 83.2 57.3 140.5 750 TEU 68.0 71.2 139.3 1000 TEU 66.6 78.2 144.8
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Optimal Size, 8 kts

(US $)
200.0 180.0 160.0 140.0 120.0 100.0 80.0 60.0 40.0 20.0 0.0 250TEU 5OOTEU 750TEU Daily Shipping Cost per TEU Daily Lost Sale Cost per TEU Daily Total Cost per TEU 1000TEU 53.9 71.5 57.8 55.9 20.0 0.0 250TEU 32.4 102.6 100.0 90.4 109.3 118.7 80.0 60.0 40.0 156.5 161.9 167.0 174.6 160.0 140.0 120.0 116.2 148.6
Optimal Size, 15kts

(US $)
140.5 139.3 144.8
83.2
71.2
78.2
68.0 57.3
66.6
5OOTEU 750TEU Daily Shipping Cost per TEU Daily Lost Sale Cost per TEU Daily Total Cost per TEU
1000TEU
Figure 4: Optimal size of MH in keeping 8 kts speed Figure 5: Optimal size of MH in keeping 15 kts speed Table 6 presents daily total costs per TEU for different MH size. In addition, figure 4 explains the optimal size of MH, 8 kts speed, while figure 5 gives the same indicators for 15 kts speed. On second sensitivity analysis, if the speed of MH is increased to 15 knots, the optimal size would be changed in to 500 TEU~750 TEU capacity.
5. CONCLUSION
This papers aim is to identify the optimal size of MH which is used for the tool of SSS strategy. Due to a MH having limitation with low speed mobility, the scope of usage is assumed to be restricted on costal or river transportation. Within the coverage, total cost which consists of total shipping cost and lost sale cost is to be estimated. As the designed specification of MH is 250 TEU laden capacity, 8 knots speed, 30 van handling capacity per hour and 5 meter draft, the quantitative model and rout design on Korea costal area is to be developed for calculating total cost. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This research was supported by the MKE (The Ministry of Knowledge Economy), Republic of Korea, under the ITRC (Information Technology Research Center) support program supervised by the NIPA (National IT Industry Promotion Agency (N I PA-2009-C1090-0902-0004).
REFERENCES
[1] Ashar, A., Revolution now! Containerization International, January, 2002, 56-59. [2] Branch, A.E., Elements of Shipping, 8th edn (Chelten: Stanley Thorenes), 2007. [3] Containerization International (2007), Year Book 2007. [4] Dragovi, B., Ryoo, D.K., Park, N. K. and Radmilovi, Z, Container ship development: A review of state-ofthe-art, Proceeding of IAME 2007, Athens, Greece, Conference Proceedings on CD, 2007, pp. 1-25. [5] Drewry (2005), Ship Operation Costs Annual Review and Forecast, 2005. [6] Drewry (2006), Annual Container Market Review and Forecast (2006/ 2007), 2006. [7] Jordan, M., Morris, C. and Dix, A., The Floaterm Concept: Reducing Terminal Congestion with Waterside Cranes, ASCE Ports 2007 Conference, San Diego, CA, 2007, 1-10. [8] Kumar, B., Dynamic analysis of floating quay and container ship for container loading and offloading operation, MSc Thesis, Texas A&M University, 2005. [9] Lim, S-H., Global performance analysis of a floating harbor and a container ship for loading and offloading operations, MSc Thesis, Texas A&M University, 2007. [10] Mconville, J., Economics of Maritime Transport: Theory and Practice (London: Withby), 1999. [11] Ottjes, J.A., Hengst, S. and Tutuarima, W.H., A simulation model of a sailing container terminal service in the Port of Rotterdam. [12] Park, NK and Suh, SC., A study on the demand feasibility of mobile harbor, Proceedings of 12th WCTR, Lisbon, Portugal, 2010. [13] Park, NK and Heo, SK., A study on optimized size of mobile harbor, Proceedings of 16th PANAM, Lisbon, Portugal, 2010. [14] van Schie, P., Floating crane - Evolution or revolution?, World Port Development, March Issue 2009.
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RaDMI 2010
PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF THE CONTAINER PORTS WITH DEA

Nam Kyu Park 1 , Bo LU 2
1
School of Port and Logistics, The TongMyong University, Busan, KOREA, e-mail: nkpark@tu.ac.kr 2 Department of Distribution Management, Tong Myong University, Busan, KOREA, e-mail: lubo_documents@hotmail.com
Summary: This study applies different models of data envelopment analysis (DEA) for acquiring a variety of analytical results regarding the operational efficiency of the worlds leading container ports. The results of this study can provide the potential areas by applying Slack variable method and the identification and optimization of the operating performance. Keywords: Container port efficiency, data envelopment analysis.
1. INTRODUCTION
Recently, with rapid expansion of global business and international trade, one distinctive feature of the current container port industry is that competition among container ports is more intensive than previously [25, 35, 38]. The rapid development of international container and intermodal transportation has drastically changed the market structure from one of monopoly to one where fierce competition is prevalent in many parts of the world. Many container ports no longer enjoy the freedom yielded by a monopoly in handling of cargoes from their hinterland. Instead, they have to compete for cargo with their neighbouring ports [12]. To maintain its competitiveness in such competitive condition, Cullinane et al. [12] claimed container ports have to invest heavily in sophisticated equipment or in dredging channels to accommodate the most advanced and largest container ships in order to facilitate cost reductions for the container shipping industry. In this context, improving the productive efficiency of port appears to be the viable solution [23]. Considering the facts, port authorities have shown strong interest in efficient port management. Thus, they are continually searching for strategies to meet growing demands by utilizing their resources reasonably [8, 9, 10, 26, 27, 33, 34]. For a container port, productivity performance makes significant contribution to the prospects of competitiveness. It is also important tool in informing port authorities and operators port planning. Traditionally, the productivity of container ports has been variously evaluated by numerous attempts in calculating and seeking to improve or optimize the operational productivity of cargo handling at berth and in the container yard [2, 3, 6, 13, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 22, 30, 36]. If container ports can conduct effective evaluation of their productivity performance, it will provide valuable information for port management in their attempts to establish competitive strategies for the future. From this perspective, DEA model provides a more appropriate benchmark for the container port. The aim of this study is assumed to be the minimisation of the input(s) and maximisation of the output(s) by applying three models: DEA-CCR, DEA-BCC, and DEA-Super Efficiency. The results of these models first show the inefficiency. Applying Slack variable method, the identification of the potential inefficient areas is improved. Finally, results for the twenty-one worlds leading container port are given in this study. The paper is structured as follows: Section 2 is followed by the description of three DEA models and its applying. The required input and output variables are defined and the data that has been collected is described in Section 3. Estimates of the efficiency for container ports are derived also in this Section. Finally, conclusions are drawn in Section 4.
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2. RESEARCH METHOD
2.1. Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) DEA can be roughly defined as a nonparametric method of measuring the efficiency of a Decision Making Unit (DMU) with multiple inputs and/or multiple outputs. This is achieved by constructing a single virtual output to a single virtual input without pre-defining a production function. The term DEA and the CCR model were first coined in [7]. The influence of the CCR paper is reflected in the fact that by 1999 it had been cited over 700 times [14, 15]. Among the models in the context of DEA, the two DEA models, named CCR (due to Charnes et al., [7]) and BCC models (due to Banker et al., [4]) have been widely applied. The CCR model assumes constant returns to scale so that all observed production combinations can be scaled up or down proportionally. The BCC model, on the other hand, allows for variable returns to scale and is graphically represented by a piecewise linear convex frontier. Because the CCR model gives a value of 1 for all efficient DMUs, it is unable to establish any further distinctions among the efficient DMUs. Andersen and Petersen [1], therefore, presented Super-efficiency DEA model which removes an efficient DMU, and then estimates the production frontier again and provides a new efficiency value for the efficient DMU that had previously been removed. The new efficiency value can thus be greater than 1, and the efficiency values of inefficient DMUs do not change. In recent years, DEA has been increasingly used to analyze port production. Compared with traditional approaches, DEA has the advantage that it can cater for multiple inputs to and outputs from the production process. This accords with the characteristics of port production, so that there exists, therefore, the capability of providing an overall summary evaluation of port performance [12]. The DEA methodology has been applied to the evaluation of port performance in the previous literature. For example, Roll and Hayuth [31] probably represents the first work to advocate the application of the DEA technique to the ports context. However, it remains a purely theoretical exposition, rather than a genuine application. For the period 19901999, Itoh [18] conducted a DEA window analysis using panel data relating to the eight international container ports in Japan. Tongzon [34] uses both DEA-CCR and DEA-Additive models to analyze the efficiency of four Australian and 12 other international container ports for 1996. Barros and Athanassiou [5] apply DEA to the estimation of the relative efficiency of a sample of Portuguese and Greek seaports. However, most previous studies have adopted two basic models of DEA (the CCR model and the BCC model) to obtain aggregate efficiency, technical efficiency and scale efficiency. In contrast, this study applies DEA-CCR, DEA-BCC, and DEA-Super Efficiency, three models, to acquire a variety of analytical results regarding the productivity efficiency.
Figure 1: Flow process of DEA analyses [28, 29] In this study, the DEA model includes three types of analysis. With respect to the efficiency value analysis, when technical efficiency is less than 1, that is technically inefficient, this means that the efficiency of the inputs and output being used is not appropriate, and that it is necessary to decrease input or increase output. However, when the scale efficiency is less than 1, that is scale inefficient, it means that the operational scale is not achieving an optimal value, and that the operational scale should be enlarged or reduced (based on the return to scale). In addition, it is possible to compare the technical efficiency value with the scale efficiency value, with the smaller value of the two indicating the major cause of inefficiency. Finally, the Slack variable analysis handles the
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utilization rate of input and output variables. It does this by assessing how to improve the operational performance of inefficient DMUs by indicating how many inputs to decrease, and/or how many outputs to increase, so as to render the inefficient DMUs efficient. This facilitates an overall understanding of which input variable is more critical for efficiency improvement [24]. Finally, the flow process of multiple DEA analyses can be shown in figure 1. 2.2. Research Procedure The research procedure of the study defined above is summarized in Fig. 2. After the selection of container ports, the output variable for the study should have been selected firstly. Considering the literature review, site survey and interview, brainstorming to eliminate the duplication factors, the initial inputs variables can be chosen.
Figure 2: Research procedure [28, 29] Then, in order to provide a more comprehensive picture of research, and for the purpose of finding the operational efficiency value, an exploration composed of the CCR, BCC and Super-efficiency DEA models and three analytical approaches which include efficiency value analysis, Slack variable method and Return to scale approach, have been applied. After that, the evaluation results and suggestions will be given.
3. RESULT ANALYSIS
3.1. Data Collection and Definitions of variables In spite the fact that it is difficult to acquire data of international ports, most of the previous documents have focused on the evaluation of ports within a single country. For doing a typical analysis, the sample comprises the twenty one worlds leading container ports from the list of world top container ports published in 2008 (Table 1), including eight Chinese ports: Shanghai-Waigaoqiao, Shanghai-Yangshan, Hongkong, Qingdao, Tianjin, Shenzhen, Ningbo, Guangzhou; thirteen other region portsSingapore, Rotterdam, Hamburg, Dubai, Los Angeles, NJ/NY, Tokyo, Kaohsiung, Port Klang, T/Pelepas, Antwerp, Long Beach, Busan. Thus, it has facilitated the acquisition of more reliable and timeliness, on a comprehensive scale. With respect to definitions of variables, a thorough discussion of the importance, difficulties and potential impact of variable definition can be found in [32] and can be summarised as follows. Because the most container ports rely heavily upon sophisticated equipment and information technology, rather than being labour-intensive; and the competition among the world ports has become increasingly fierce [11]. Therefore, in this study, the main criterion of the choosing inputs and output is assumed to be the minimisation of the use of input(s) and maximisation of the output(s). However, as far as the process of container port production is concerned, a container port depends crucially on the efficient use of infrastructures and facilities. On the basis of that, yard area, the quantities of quay crane, yard crane, yard tractor, berth length, and water depth have been deemed to be the most suitable factors to be incorporated into the models as input variables. Other input factors that possibly influence the efficiency estimates that may be derived from this analysis include aspects such as: berth occupancy, crane operating hours and equipment age and maintenance. With respect to output variable, container throughput is unquestionably the
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most important and widely accepted indicator of container port output. Almost all previous studies treat it as an output variable, because it closely relates to the need for cargo-related facilities and services and is the primary basis upon which container ports are compared, especially in assessing their relative size, investment magnitude or activity levels. Most importantly, it also forms the basis for the revenue generation of a container port or terminal [11]. Synthesizing the former research, in this study, the port productivity indicator is defined as the per berth handling capacity by dividing annual throughput by number of berth. Table 1: Data collection of the worlds leading container ports in 2008 year [37]
Ports Hong Kong Waigaoqiao T/Pelepas Dubai Tianjin Shenzhen Singapore GuangZhou Yangshan Ningbo Qingdao Kaohsiung Port Klang Busan Rotterdam Hamburg Los Angeles Tokyo Antwerp NJ/NY Long Beach Variabe Country China China Malaysia UAE China China Singapore China China China China Taiwan Malaysia Korea NL Germany USA Japan Belgium USA USA Average Yard area/per berth 116.2 342.5 200 90.1 161 150 85.5 245 1642.5 200 167 111.5 78.9 155.5 166.1 116.2 239.9 167 177 150 116.6 232.3 QC/per berth 4.1 4 4.5 3.6 4.5 3.3 3.1 3.1 4.1 3.7 2.8 2.8 2.27 2.9 2.24 2.4 2.5 2.2 2.65 2.5 1.71 3.1 Inputs TC/per berth 12.8 13.5 11.2 16.7 12.6 10.8 6.6 6.6 12.5 9 3.9 4.3 6.4 7.2 8 12.2 6.1 13.7 16.2 11.5 4.8 9.8 YT/per berth 27.5 22.8 15 24.1 26.8 12 12 10.5 25.3 16.1 12.13 7.5 9 9.3 9 14.4 12.8 13.5 3.4 23.2 11.9 15.2 Berth Length 325 301 360 288 377 306 311 275 342 340 317 287 251 321 319 280 330 311 353 293 232 310 Output Throughput/per berth 1010417 975000 933333 845000 669063 645000 586667 578947 576923 561500 386363 372308 362273 347110 328182 293939 290741 261717 254706 201538 190882 508172 Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
3.2. Efficiency Results derived from DEA Models As with using the data of twenty one worlds leading container port by applying with DEA approaches, for proving the production function of container ports exhibits either constant or variable returns to scale, the DEACCR and DEA-BCC models were chosen from among several DEA models to analyse port production. In addition, for ordering the efficiency ports, the DEA-Super-efficiency was adopted. The efficient analytical results for container port are summarized in Table 2, and the following observations can be made. The column and row totals represent, respectively, the efficiency value of each port and the condition of return to scale in 2008 year. Table 2: Efficiency under three DEA Models
Model Ports Hong Kong T/Pelepas Antwerp Qingdao Singapore Dubai Waigaoqiao Guangzhou Kaohsiung Shenzhen Port Klang Ningbo Rotterdam Tianjin Busan Yangshan Los Angeles Hamburg Long Beach Tokyo NJ/NY Average CCR efficiency 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.925 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.977 0.654 0.785 0.736 0.672 1.000 0.599 0.584 0.561 0.508 0.489 0.486 0.327 0.776 Efficiency Super efficiency 1.242 1.209 1.204 1.115 1.099 1.079 1.079 1.017 0.977 0.925 0.785 0.736 0.672 0.654 0.599 0.584 0.561 0.508 0.489 0.486 0.327 0.826 Score Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 6 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Reasons of inefficiency BCC efficiency 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.754 1.000 0.812 0.992 1.000 0.863 0.777 0.847 0.866 1.000 0.877 0.795 0.933 Scale efficiency 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.925 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.977 0.868 0.785 0.907 0.678 1.000 0.694 0.752 0.662 0.587 0.489 0.554 0.412 0.823 Return to scale Constant Constant Constant Increasing Constant Constant Constant Constant Increasing Increasing Increasing Increasing Increasing Constant Increasing Increasing Increasing Increasing Increasing Increasing Increasing
It is clear from Table 2 that, the DEA-CCR model yields lower average efficiency estimates than the DEA-BCC model, with respective average values of 0.776 and 0.826, where an index value of 1.00 equates to perfect (or maximum) efficiency. The Super-efficiency model was utilized to reinforce the discriminatory power of the CCR model. Hong Kong has the best performance among these twenty one ports. T/Pelepas and Antwerp port ranked as the second and third best in this model, respectively. The scores are more than 1.200, with these efficiency values far exceeding that of other ports.
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By using of efficiency value analysis, Slack variable approach, and Return to scale method, the analytical results can be summarized as: Firstly, the aggregate efficiency value acquired from the CCR model of Shanghai-Waigaoqiao, Hong Kong, Tianjin, Guangzhou, Singapore, Dubai, T/Pelepas, and Antwerp are all equal to 1. The efficiency values of other ports in the years were less than 1, which indicated that they were relatively inefficient ports. The pure technical efficiency value obtained from the BCC model represented the efficiency in terms of the usage of input resources. If a port had an efficiency value equal to 1 in the CCR model, the value of its pure technical efficiency would also be equal to 1. However, if the efficiency value on the CCR model was less than 1, a comparison could be made between the pure technical efficiency value and the scale efficiency value. All of the pure technical efficiency values of Shanghai-Waigaoqiao, Hong Kong, Tianjin, Qingdao, Guangzhou, Singapore, Dubai, Kaohsiung, Port Klang, T/Pelepas, Antwerp, and Long Beach are equal to 1. The technical efficiency values of other ports are less than 1, thus indicating that they would need to improve their usage of resources. Among these, New York/New Jersey port had the least pure technical efficiency value. Secondly, according to the results of return to scale, Shanghai-Waigaoqiao, Hong Kong, Tianjin, Guangzhou, Singapore, Dubai, T/Pelepas, and Antwerp were relatively efficient ports and had constant return to scale. In addition, apart from constant return to scale, Shanghai-Yangshan, Qingdao, Shenzhen, Ningbo, Rotterdam, Hamburg, Los Angeles, NJ/NY, Tokyo, Kaohsiung, Port Klang, Long Beach, and Busan were in a state of increasing return to scale in 2008. Finally, the Slack variable analysis showed, in Table 3, that Shanghai-Waigaoqiao, Hong Kong, Tianjin, Guangzhou, Singapore, Dubai, T/Pelepas, and Antwerp were relatively efficient; their ratios of input variables to output variable were appropriate, and they were capable of applying their input resources effectively to achieve enhanced efficiency. Table 3: Slack variable analysis results
Ports Hongkong Waigaoqiao T/Pelepas Dubai Tianjin Shenzhen Singapore Guangzhou Yangshan Ningbo Qingdao Kaohsiung Port Klang Busan Rotterdam Hamburg Los Angeles Tokyo Antwerp NJ/NY Long Beach Country China China Malaysia UAE China China Singapore China China China China Taiwan Malaysia Korea NL Germany Malaysia Japan Belgium USA USA Variable Yard area/ per berth QC/per berth Inputs TC/per berth Rank YT/per berth Berth Length 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
13.69 0
0 0
0 2.16
1.33 0
0 39.65
877.97 60.34 0 0 17.39 26.8 0 95.63 16.13 25.89 33.52
0 0 0.73 0 0.05 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0.76 0 1.24 2.38 0 3.17 1.21 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.51 0 2.1 0.96
10.29 3.09 89.5 37.72 55.54 96.06 47.05 53.71 68.79 31.02 41.58
In contrast, Shanghai-Yangshan, Qingdao, Shenzhen, Ningbo, Rotterdam, Hamburg, Los Angeles, NJ/NY, Tokyo, Kaohsiung, Port Klang, Long Beach, and Busan were relatively inefficient as a result of inappropriate application of input resources; however, in these cases, an inappropriate production scale was the cause of the inefficiency. The results indicated that Shanghai-Yangshan, Tianjin, Ningbo, Rotterdam, Los Angeles, NJ/NY, Tokyo, Long Beach, Busan ports should have adjusted their area of container yard. Kaohsiung and Busan should have adjusted their number of quay crane. Shenzhen, Rotterdam, Hamburg, Los Angeles, NJ/NY and Long Beach ports should have adjusted their number of yard crane. Tianjin, Los Angeles, NJ/NY and Long Beach ports should have adjusted their number of yard tractor. In addition, Shanghai-Yangshan, Shenzhen, Ningbo, Rotterdam, Hamburg, Los Angeles, NJ/NY, Tokyo, Kaohsiung, Port Klang, Long Beach and Busan should have adjusted their berth length.
4. CONCLUSIONS
By using a range of DEA models, this study has evaluated the twenty one leading container ports of the world, and in the process has acquired varied and complementary conclusion from the different models. The study has making efficiency value analysis, and has established a return to scale to compare the technical efficiency value with the scale efficiency value, with the lesser of the two indicating the major cause of inefficiency for each port. Moreover, using Slack variable analysis, the study has provided useful information that indicates how relatively inefficient container port can improve their efficiency.
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Empirical results reveal that substantial waste exists in the production process of the container ports in the twenty one worlds leading container ports. For instance, the average efficiency of container ports using the DEA-CCR model amounts to 0.776. This indicates that, on average, the ports under study can dramatically increase the level of their outputs while using the same inputs. Also, this results reveal that the ports under the study were found to exhibit a mix of increasing and constant returns to scale at current levels of output. This indicates that, the scales of leading container ports are not saturated. Such information is particularly useful for port managers or policy makers to decide on the scale of production.
REFERENCES
[1] Andersen, P. and Petersen, N. C., (1993), A procedure for ranking efficient units in data envelopment analysis. Management Science, 39, 12611264. [2] Ashar, A., (1997), Counting the moves. Port Development International (November), 2529. [3] Avriel, M., Penn, M., Shpirer, N., (2000), Container ship stowage problem: complexity and connection to the colouring of circle graphs. Discrete Applied Mathematics 103, 271279. [4] Banker, R. D., Charnes, A. and Cooper, W. W., (1984), Some models for estimating technical and scale inefficiencies in data envelopment analysis. Management Science, 30, 10781092. [5] Barros, C. P., & Athanassiou, M. (2004). Efficiency in European seaports with DEA: Evidence from Greece and Portugal. Maritime Economics and Logistics, 6(2), 122140. [6] Chu, C., Huang, W., (2002), Aggregate crane handling capacity of container terminals: the port of Kaohsiung. Maritime Policy and Management 29 (4), 341350. [7] Charnes, A., Cooper, W. W. and Rhodes, E., (1978), Measuring the efficiency of decision making unit. European Journal of Operational Research, 2, 429444. [8] Coto-Millan, P., Banos-Pino, J., Rodriguez-Alvarez, A., (2000), Economic efficiency in Spanish ports: some empirical evidence. Maritime Policy and Management 27 (2), 169174. [9] Cullinane, K.P.B., Song, D.-W., Gray, R., (2002), A stochastic frontier model of the efficiency of major container terminals in Asia: assessing the influence of administrative and ownership structures. Transportation Research A, 36, 743762. [10] Cullinane, K.P.B., Song, D.-W., Ji, P., Wang, T.-F., (2004), An application of DEA windows analysis to container port production efficiency. Review of Network Economics 3 (2), 186208. [11] Cullinane, K.P.B., Ji, P., Wang, T.-F., (2005), The relationship between privatization and DEA estimates of efficiency in the container port industry. Journal of Economics and Business 57 (2005) 433462. [12] Cullinane K., Wang, T.-F., and Song, D.-W., (2006), The technical efficiency of container ports: Comparing data envelopment analysis and stochastic frontier analysis. Transportation Research Part A 40 (2006) 354 374. [13] Evers, J.J.M., Koppers, S.A.J., (1996), Automated guided vehicle traffic control at a container terminal. Transportation Research A: Policy and Practice 30 (1), 2134. [14] Forsund, F.R., Lovell, C. A. K. and Schmidt, P., (1980), A survey of frontier production functions and their relationship to efficiency measurement. Journal of Econometrics, 13, 525. [15] Forsund, F.R., Sarafoglou, N., (2002), On the origins of data envelopment analysis. J. of Prod. Analysis 17, 2340. [16] Gehring, M., Bortfeldt, A., (1997), A genetic algorithm for solving container loading problem. International Transactions of Operational Research 4 (5/6), 401418. [17] Imai, A., Nishimura, E., Papadimitriu, S., Sasaki, K., (2002), The containership loading problem. International Journal of Maritime Economics 4, 126148. [18] Itoh, H. (2002). Efficiency changes at major container ports in Japan: A window application of data envelopment analysis. Review of Urban and Regional Development Studies, 14(2), 133152. [19] Kim, K.H., (1997), Evaluation of the number of rehandles in container yards. Comp. & Ind. Enginee., 32 (4), 701711. [20] Kim, K.H., Bae, J.W., (1998), Re-marshaling export containers in port container terminals. Computers and Industrial Engineering 35 (3/4), 655658. [21] Kim, K.H., Kim, H.B., (1998), The optimal determination of the space requirement and the number of transfer cranes for import containers. Computers and Industrial Engineering 35 (3/4), 427430. [22] Kim, K.H., Kim, K.Y., (1999), An optimal routing algorithm for a transfer crane in port container terminals. Transportation Science 33 (1), 1733. [23] Le-Griffin, H. D., and Murphy, M., (2006), Container terminal productivity: experiences at the ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach. [24] Lin, L. C. and Tseng, C. C., (2007), Operational performance evaluation of major container ports in the Asia-Pacific region. Maritime Policy Management, December 2007 Vol. 34, No. 6, 535551.
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[25] Liu, Z., (1995), The comparative performance of public and private enterprises: the case of British ports. Journal of Transport Economics and Policy 29 (3), 263274. [26] Martinez-Budria, E., Diaz-Armas, R., Navarro-Ibanez, M., Ravelo-Mesa, T., (1999), A study of the efficiency of Spanish port authorities using data envelopment analysis. Inter. Journal of Transport Economics XXVI (2), 237253. [27] Notteboom, T., Coeck, C., van den Broeck, J., (2000), Measuring and explaining the relative efficiency of container terminals by means of Bayesian stochastic frontier models. Inter. Journal of Maritime Economics 2 (2), 83106. [28] Park. N. K., (2008), Critical Factors for Container Terminal Productivity. J. of Korean Navigation and Port Research. [29] Park. N. K. and Bo, LU, (2010), A Study on Productivity Factors of Chinese Container Terminals. Journal of Korean Navigation and Port Research. [30] Robinson, D., (1999), Measurements of Port Productivity and Container Terminal Design: A Cargo Systems Report. IIR Publications, London. [31] Roll, Y., & Hayuth, Y., (1993), Port performance comparison applying data envelopment analysis (DEA). Maritime Policy and Management, 20(2), 153161. [32] Song, D. W., Cullinane, K. P. B., & Wang, T., (2003), An application of DEA window analysis to container port production efficiency. In International association of maritime economists annual conference. [33] Tongzon, J.L., (1995), Determinants of port performance and efficiency. Transportation Research A, 29 (3), 245252. [34] Tongzon, J. L., (2001), Efficiency measurement of selected Australian and other international ports using data envelopment analysis. Transportation Research A, 113128. [35] Tongzon, J., Heng, W., (2005), Port privatization, efficiency and competitiveness: some empirical evidence from container ports (terminals). Transportation Research A, 39 (5), 405424. [36] Wilson, I.D., and Roach, P., (2000), Container stowage planning: a methodology for generating computerised solutions. Journal of the Operational Research Society 51 (11), 2481255. [37] World Top Container Ports, (2008), Journal of Container Management in July 2009. [38] Yap, W.Y., Lam, J.S.L., (2005), Competition dynamics between container ports in East Asia. Transportation Research A.
525
RaDMI 2010
QUEUE LENGTH OF INDIVIDUAL SHIPS AT INDEPENDENT WATERWAY LOCKS

1
Zoran Radmilovi1 , Tomislav Markolovi2

Faculty of Traffic and Transport Engineering, University of Belgrade, Vojvode Stepe 305, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia, email: z.radmilovic@sf.bg.ac.rs 2 Maritime Faculty, University of Montenegro, Montenegro
Summary: This paper presents the development of analytical method for approximating mean queue length of individual ships at waterway lock taking into account the directional effect of upstream and downstream navigation. The lockage time for ships and tows traveling in the same direction would be different from those traveling in the opposite direction. We are assuming that the lock is independent, then however a lock operates, it does not affect performance of any other locks upstream and downstream. Keywords: Queue length, inland waterway, approximation.
1. INTRODUCTION
The queue length of ships at a waterway lock is affected by numerous characteristics such as the interarrival time distribution, the service time distribution, tow and convoy sizes distributions, the tow and convoy configurations and speeds, the lock chamber sizes, the service discipline, the share of upstream and downstream tows and ships with directional effects of interdependencies etc. All mentioned characteristics are mainly the random variables in real lock systems. These characteristics make it fairly difficult to estimate the queue length of ships at locks. The effects on congestion and ship or barge tow transportation productivity depend, in part, on how many hours the transportation means wait for service. As known, the queueing theory is helpful in identifying the most relevant lock performance measures such as: the average number of ships/convoys in the lock system (L), the mean queue length of ship/barges (Lq), average time of ships/convoys in lock system (W), average time of ships/convoys in the queue (Wq), and average waiting time/average service time ratio () depending on the different variables or lock operating parameters (traffic intensity, directional effect of upstream and downstream navigation of ships/convoys/tows, ship batches, and several ships or tows together in one chamber or chamber packing). As mentioned, we are trying to determine approximating mean queue length of individual ships at independent waterway lock with the help of general bulk queueing system using renewal theory [2, 3], the Kimura approximation formula [4] and Kirschnick heuristic extension [5]. The states of the lock chamber are changing as a result of the following basic operations: (A) Upstream navigation (Closing of the gates at the lower lock head; Filling with water of chamber; Opening of the gates at the upper lock head) and (B) Downstream navigation (Closing of the gates at the upper lock head; Discharge of water in the chamber; Opening of the gates at the lower lock head). Study [1] has developed a waiting time lock model. Some studies have been conducted in relation to the ship lockage operations to date [1, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11].All these studies referred to ship locks as different queueing systems and networks, heuristic and simulation models. The effects of tow sequencing on capacity and delay at a waterway lock, the control alternatives at a waterway lock and the efficiency versus fairness in priority control waterway lock case have been considered as heuristic models [7, 8, 9]. Prediction of mean queue length of individual ships is important, among other things, for evaluating the benefits associated with improving given conditions of processing time of lockage and reconstruction projects of lock system.
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2. BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
We consider model of a ship/convoy waterway lock link as single server bulk queueing systems MX/Ma,b(RTISPddlc)/M(RTISPudlc)/1 in which the service facility suffers the random time intervals of ship passing/lockage in upstream or downstream direction through lock chamber. It means that these time intervals simultaneously present the random breakdowns for lockage of ships from one (same or opposite) direction. The models can be applied to waterway locks with two-way traffic through common bi-directional lock chamber. The waterway lock must open or close the gates for one direction in order to the ships/convoys pass through the lock chamber. The lock has the periodical random breakdowns for ships/convoys from one direction or ships/convoys have to wait until the lock becomes operable again for that direction, for example, upstream and downstream navigation in inland waterway transport. Consequently, such breakdowns have a definite effect on the inland vessels/tows, particularly on the queue length and ship waiting time at locks, since the processing time of ships/tows often depends on the direction of navigation in the lock system. The assumptions in this paper are as follows: The lock queueing systems are the systems where the sources of ship arrival patterns are not integral part of a lock system; The ship arrivals may be single (motor ships and selfpropelled barges) and in batches as convoys and barge tows (pushed and pulled barge tows), a random arrivals follow exponentially and arbitrary probability distributions; All batches of ships or convoys wait until served at the lock (lock anchorage + lock chamber); Each ship/tow passes through a lock separately from other ships/tows. Thus, the lock chamber capacity may be underused or without the full batch service policy; The tows are not divided to fit through lock chamber. The maximum tow size corresponds to the lock chamber capacity; The service channel is an independent single lock chamber, similarly to lock operations on main European inland waterways. The ships are serviced as single ships and in the batches of variable size with a minimum size (a) when the lock starts the service and a maximum tow/convoy size or maximum capacity of ship lock chamber (b). In that case of a minimum number of ships (a), a < b, is sufficient to start service of the batch. If there are more than (b) waiting ships, only (b) ships are collected into a batch and serviced together. The batch service times in lock are independently distributed according to exponentially and arbitrary probability distributions; Theoretical capacity of the lock, assuming that during opening hours the lock is continuously in both directions fully used, will never be met, since there is a diversity of vessel types and the arrival pattern is, in practice, not optimal, there may be an imbalance in intensity per direction. The quality level of the lock is determined by the average ship waiting time or mean queue length of individual ships at the lock. The comfort capacity is the capacity that corresponds to this quality level [1], while breakdowns of lockage by the directions are a matter of policy and an option for the lock, there could be situations such as random breakdowns which are beyond control of the lock management. For these reasons, we consider service interruptions in waterway lock system as random time intervals of ship passing in upstream or downstream direction through lock chamber. The random breakdowns by directions may be distributed in accordance with exponentially and arbitrary probability distributions; The batch/convoy size is a random variable. However, the queueing systems here are systems in which number of ships or barges in convoy/tow has uniformly distributed batch sizes of the arriving ships/barge tows; The service discipline is first come, first served (FCFS) by batch/convoys and random within the convoys. We are assuming that the lock system does not offer priorities for the service of ships/convoys, although in practice the passenger and other non-cargo ships have the service priority.
3. MX/Ma,b(RTISPddlc)/M(RTISPudlc)/1 QUEUE
Using mathematical derivations [12], we can begin with general explanations of analytical model. The arrival process is assumed to be compound Poisson in which the ships/convoys arrive to the locks in groups of size (i) with arrival rate
ai ,
where 0 ai 1 ,
a
i =1
= 1 , and > 0 is mean arrival rate of convoys/tows. The
service time of a batch is exponential with mean service time 1/ ( > 0). The probability that the lock will be in the state of ship lockage in the downstream direction during the interval (t, t +dt) is dt . The random time intervals of ships passing in upstream direction (RTISPudlc) are exponential with mean time interval 1/ ( > 0). Finally, we assume that the interarrival times of ships/tows, service times of ships/tows, and random time intervals of ships passing in same and opposite directions through lock chamber are all independent of each other. The following probabilities are applying in this delayed system: Wn ( t ) probability at time t that there are n
( n 0 ) ships/convoys at the lock in upstream direction. Fn ( t ) probability at time t that there are n ( n 0 ) ships/convoys in the lock system and the lock operates in the downstream direction. Pn ( t ) probability
527
at time t that there are n ( n 0 ) ships/convoys in the lock system regardless of whether the lock operates in same or opposite direction (upstream or downstream navigation). The differential difference equations can be written in the usual way for this delayed system [12,13].The limiting case or behaviour is treated when we can determine the steady-state probability and adequate performance measures. If the steady-state probability that the lock is idle (P0) is determined, the other probabilities and operating characteristics of the ship lock will be determined as well. Using mathematical derivations and simplifying [12] for M/M(RTISPddlc)/M(RTISPudlc)/1 queue (X = 1; a = b = 1), we can write the final formulae for the probability that the ship lock is idle, the average waiting time of ships, and mean queue length of ships at lock only from one direction as: 1. The probability that lock is idle:
P0 =
where:
( + ) < 1 holds as the stability condition under which the steady-state
(1)
solution exits. time interval of ships passing in opposite direction through lock chamber. time interval of ships passing in same direction through lock chamber. Note that the lock occupancy or utilization factor (), the proportion of time when the lock is busy, is given by:
=
2.
, <1
(2)
Mean queue length of ships at lock
Lq =
3.
( + ) + 2 ( + ) ( + ) ( + ) ( + ) ( + )
2
(3)
Average waiting time of ship
Wq =
If
= 0 , i.e. the lock does not operate in opposite direction, then Equations 1, 3, and 4 yield: 2 P0 = 1 , Lq = and Wq = ( ) ( )
+ ( + ) ( + )
(4)
(5)
The probability P0, the mean queue length of ships, and average waiting time of ship are valid to classical delayed system M/M/1. By using Equations 2, 3, and 4 and a minimum size, a = 1 (single ship), when lock starts the service and maximum capacity of lock chamber, b = 1, we are presenting the numerical results of mean queue length of ships at lock in one direction in Table 1 depending on the lock occupancy = 0.2, 0.5, and 0.7, the random time intervals of ships passing in downstream direction () and in upstream direction () through lock chamber. Table 1: Mean queue length, Lq, for M/Ma,b(RTISPddlc)/M(RTISPudlc)/1 random time intervals of ships passing in downstream direction () and in upstream direction () through lock chamber and lock occupancy = 0.2 (a = 1, b = 1)
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
0.25 0.05 0.8238 1.4736 2.1442 2.9346 3.9667 5.4544 7.8789 12.669 26.952
0.30 0.05 0.6182 1.1 1.5778 2.1036 2.7286 3.5222 4.6 6.1864 8.8
0.35 0.05 0.4880 0.8644 1.2301 1.6167 2.0516 2.5664 3.2048 4.0355 5.18
0.40 0.05 0.4 0.7048 0.9978 1.3 1.6283 2 2.4364 2.9667 3.6352
0.45 0.05 0.3374 0.5909 0.8333 1.0794 1.3405 1.6274 1.9522 2.33 2.7815
0.50 0.05 0.2912 0.5063 0.7118 0.9181 1.1333 1.3649 1.6205 1.9090 2.2416
0.55 0.05 0.2560 0.4417 0.6189 0.7956 0.9779 1.1709 1.38 1.6108 1.8703
0.60 0.05 0.22857 0.3909 0.5460 0.7 0.8574 1.0222 1.1982 1.3893 1.6
0.65 0.05 0.2067 0.3502 0.4876 0.6236 0.7617 0.905 1.0563 1.2186 1.3949
0.70 0.05 0.1889 0.3171 0.44 0.5614 0.6841 0.8105 0.9429 1.0833 1.2342
0.75 0.05 0.1742 0.2897 0.4005 0.5099 0.62 0.7329 0.8502 0.9737 1.1052
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The Figures 1 and 2 show the variation of mean queue length of individual ships depending on same variables.
30 mean queue length of ships 25 20 15 10 5 0 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.5 0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.7 0.6 0.8
60 Mean queue length of ships 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 1.4 0.5 1.1 1.3 1.2 0 1 0.9
Fig. 1: Analytical solutions for mean queue length of individual ships in lock queueing system M/Ma,b(RTISPddlc)/M(RTISPudlc)/1, (a = 1, b = 1), = 0.2
Fig. 2: Analytical solutions for mean queue length of individual ships in lock queueing system M/Ma,b(RTISPddlc)/M(RTISPudlc)/1, (a = 1, b = 1), = 0.5 .
4. CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, a new waterway lock queueing model was proposed. That is development of the general singleserver queueing system with batch arrivals and batch service to be used for lock management based on the approximation solutions since these systems cannot be treated analytically in explicit form. Our results offer different possibilities of determining the congestion costs for inland waterway transport. In the theoretical framework, the mean queue length of ships can be valued and analyzed for different types of vessels according to given lock occupancy and the time intervals of ships passing through lock for both directions.
REFERENCES
[1] ECORYS transport and METTLE. Charging and pricing in the area of inland waterways Practical guideline for realistic transport pricing. Final Report, European Commission DG TREN, 2005. [2] Zisgen. H. Warteschlarigennetzwerke mit Gruppenbedienung. PhD thesis, Department of Mathernatic, Technical University Clausthal, Germany, 1999. [3] Bolch, G., S. Greiner, H. de Meer, and K. S. Trivedi. Queueing Networks and Markov Chains. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey, 2006. [4] Kimura, T. Heuristic Approximations for the Mean Waiting Time in the GI/G/s Queue. Technical report B55, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 1985. [5] Kirschnick, M. Approximative Analyse von WS-Netzwerken mit Batchverarbeitung. Diplomarbeit, Universitat Erlangen-Niirnberg, IMMD IV, 1991. [6] Jovanovi, S., J. Olivella, and Z. Radmilovi. The ship/convoy waterway lock link as single server queueing system with bulk arrivals and bulk service. Proceedings of International Congress on Maritime Technological Innovations and Research, Barcelona, 2004, pp. 337-348. [7] Martinelli, D., and P. Schonfeld. Approximating Delays at Interdependent Locks. Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Vol. 121, No. 6, 1995, pp. 300-307. [8] Ting, C., and P. Schonefeld. Effects of Tow Sequencing on Capacity and Delay at a Waterway Lock. Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Vol. 122, No. 1, 1996, pp.16-26. [9] Ting, C., and P. Schonefeld. Efficiency Versus Fairness in Priority Control. Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Vol. 127, No. 2, 2001, pp.82-88. [10] Ting, C., and P. Schonefeld. Control Alternatives at a Waterway Lock. Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Vol. 127, No. 2, 2001, pp.89-96. [11] Radmilovi, Z., V. Mara, and S. Jovanovi. Ship Lock as general Queueing System with Batch Arrivals and Batch Service. Scientific Journal on Traffic and Transportation Research, 2007, accepted for publishing. [12] Madan, K., W. Abu-Dayyeh, and M. Gharaibeh. Steady-state analysis of two M X/M a,b/1. Journal of Information and Management Science, Vol. 14, No. 3, 2003. pp. 37-51. [13] Chaudhry, M.L., AND J.G.C. Templeton. A First Course in Bulk Queues. John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1983.
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RaDMI 2010
CONTAINER YARD MODELING AND HANDLING EQUIPMENT

Maja kuri1, Branislav Dragovi1, Tomislav Markolovi1, Duanka Jovovi1
Maritime Faculty, Dobrota 36, 85330, Kotor, MONTENEGRO E-mail: majask@t-com.me ; branod@ac.me ; bdragovic@t-com.me
1
Summary: This paper deals with methodology estimating the expected parameters analysis for container yard (CY) modeling. In a container yard, storage space is divided into multiple blocks. Each block has storage stacks and each stack has storage bays. The width and height of a bay (container column) in the container stack are important decision variables in storage modeling. Total number of container ground slots (TGS) is provided in the study. Since the investment in CY size, container yard equipment systems and rate of cargo handling (TEU/h) are interrelated, their trade-offs are traced starting from the traditional terminal operations and extending to the opportunities offered by new sophisticated technology. Their results indicate that there is an untapped cargo handling potential in CY operation (terminal transports and stacking operations), which is highly relevant for the intelligent planning and modeling of new CY subsystems. Keywords: container yard, storage modeling, intelligent planning, total ground slots.
1. INTRODUCTION
The container yard (CY) operation plays a vital role and acts as the control hub among all operations in a container terminal. All the other operations are either destined for the CY (from the quayside to the yard for an inbound container) or originated from the CY (from the yard to inland transportation for an inbound container) then to the further operation. When planning the size of the CY and determining the system of operation, an important consideration is to provide a sufficient annual container-handling capability rather than the storage capacity of the container terminal. Generally, the container yard equipment (CYE) can be used in the following operations: land vehicles to yard; yard to ship shore gantry crane; ship shore gantry crane to yard; yard to land vehicles (terminal transports); handling in the container stack stacking operations; re-handling in the container stack and CFS activities. The required investment for container yard handling equipment increases constantly. It is likely that this ratio will be increasing, according to the following statements [4, 15, 21]: There is tendency to increase the utilization of the container stacking area. Such utilization will increase the number of machines used, and hence the increase of equipment investment costs concerning civil engineering work; The dialogue between users and traditional manufacturers will result in production of more reliable equipment. This will be demonstrated by increases in purchase price; The equipment design that meet demands of high productivity and reduction of driver fatigue will result in increased costs. It is likely that the increased capital cost for container yard equipment will be off-set by increased operating hours. Thus, the final result should be in reduced cost per container handled. Various types of container yard equipment used in container port terminals may be categorized as it is shown in Figure 1. The evolution process of various container yard equipment systems has left four basic survivors: namely, tractor-trailer systems (TT) or multi tractor-trailer systems (MTT) (long train and short train) or seadlifter trailer (SLT), automated guided vehicles (AGV), straddle carriers (SC), rubber tyred gantry crane (RTG) or rail mounted gantry crane (RMG), automated stacking crane (ASC) and various systems forklift trucks (FL, SL and RS). A wide variety of container yard equipment is utilized in container port terminals worldwide, depending on factors associated with annual throughput, facilities available and local conditions in port processes.
530
Total container handling time, regarding yard equipment, consists of times shown in Figure 2. This focuses on how to optimally select the yard equipment systems in order to minimize the total handling time. This problem is formulated as a mixture integral time. The objective function of the formulation in block scheme (see Figure 2) is to minimize the total handling time of various handling yard equipment systems.
Figure 1: CY handling equipment aspect [5, 21]
Figure 2: CY equipment total container handling time
Figure 3: Relationship between technical engineers, terminal operators, planners and designers
The optimal planning of the CY is the most important terminal performance indicator because it is a synthetic parameter which enables the evaluation of the entire relationship between technical engineers, terminal operators, planers and designers activities (see Figure 3).
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
There are a few research results published on the operation or modeling of CY. Al-Kazily [1] examined the effect of container handling rate on system cost or productivity. Balis et al. [3] did a comparison between conventional and unmanned handling systems based on simulation methods. Bubeer [4] analyzed container handling equipment. Bunce [5] suggested broad range of yard equipment. Castilho and Daganzo [6] developed general expressions for estimating the expected number of handling to retrieve one container from a storage stack under segregation and no-segregation storage policies and developed a space allocation model for the import containers. Chung [11] and Chung et al. [12] proposed a strategy of utilizing a buffer space as a method to increase the utilization of handling equipment and reduce the total time of container loading. Daganzo [13] investigated the quay crane (QC) scheduling problem by effectively assigning a set of QC to a set of ships. Dally et al. [14] show analysis systems of an existing operating ones in CY. De Monie [16, 17] analyzed the container handling operation and effect of planning on the efficiency of a container terminal case study. De Monie [16, 17] developed a methodology for container terminal capacity calculations. Dragovi [19, 20] and Radmilovi [39] explained various types and categorization of container yard equipment used in container port terminals. Hatzitheodorou [23] compared various container handling alternatives (TT, FL, SC). Kim [26] developed a formula for estimating the number of rehandles. Kim and Kim [27] discussed how to determine the optimal number of transfer cranes for import containers. A cost model is developed for the decision making. Kim and Bae [28] considered the re-marshaling of export containers that have to be moved from one container stacking block to another, where they are stacked in the order of loading. Kim and Kim [29, 30, 31, 32] focused on how to optimally route transfer cranes in a CY during loading operations of export containers at a port terminals. These routing problems formulated as a mixed integer program (MIP). They formulated a MIP and solved it by using Dynamic Programming. Nam and Ha [33] discussed sets the criteria for the evaluation of handling systems, and applied them to cases in Korea. McDowell et al. [35] analyzed container handling operations including rehandling problem. Taleb-Ibrahimi [40] suggested various strategies to allocate spaces and utilize CYE in container terminals. Taleb-Ibrahimi et al. [41] discussed the relationship between storage space utilization and complexity of handling operations as a crucial problem and were solving this problem by using an analytical model. Watanabe [43] suggested a simple method of estimating the number of rehandles which will be compared with the method of this paper in a later section. Zrni and Dragovi [44] gave some elements of extended methodology for planning and designing the basic segments of container terminals. A literature review reveals that two approaches are generally applied to calculate the handling capability of a CY. One is obtained from the demand point of view [22, 24, 42] given values such as the number of containers handled per year, the dwell time for various statuses of containers (import, export or transhipment), the mode of operation system, the height of the containers stacked and the peak factor. Then, one must evaluate the land area needed for a CY. Another is obtained from the supply point of view, Dally [14] computes the number of containers a CY could accommodate on the basis of a given yard space. Dharmalingam [18] added a slot
531
utilization factor into the above-mentioned computation. Itsuro [25] further introduced the container-stacked height, based on the index of accessibility and transshipment ratio, to compute the handling capability. However, it was found that none of the approaches can produce a satisfactory answer to the problems for both the ground area occupied by a TGS and the total number of TGSs achieved in a CY. Although Atkins [2], UNCTAD [42], Frankel [22], Chen [7] and Itsuro [25] have proposed some figures for the determination of the ground area occupied by a TGS, the results were based on specific yard sizes and dimensional characteristics of cranes, and therefore did not cover the majority of layouts with various yard sizes and crane dimensions. Chu et al. [8, 9] proposed more comprehensive tables for determining the number of TGSs under various CY sizes, crane types and dimensions. Studies [36-38] developed a real-time yard crane control system and show that a terminals long-run average quay crane rate depends on the portion of this system that dispatches yard cranes in the storage area in real time.
3. THE MODELS
3.1. The cost model Functional cost model together with a thorough procedure for determining container terminal capacity based on yard sizes, the adopted yard handling system and the ground slot computation have been formulated and presented. The equation was then used to improve the results for both academic and practical usage. On the other hand, the containers must stay in the terminal the shortest time possible. In modeling a container terminal, among other data useful to the planners and designers is the size of the CY. At this area, different equipment systems for handling containers (would they stack or wheel the containers in the CY, or would they follow both ways) may be adopted by the terminal operator in order to minimize required CY or minimize operating costs. This study uses the following formula for calculating space requirements [12]:
ACY = TA tt 1 1 AT 365 1 kp
(1)
where: ACY = required space in ha; TA = annual number of TEU to be stored; tt = container average transit time; = area utilization coefficient; AT = square meters per TEU (area per TEU required for stacking or parking) and kp = reserve capacity coefficient. On the other hand, here we used MATLAB program in order to calculate the total cost of stacked and wheeled operations under different conditions. The following two equations were written for the purpose of such calculation, i.e. for wheeled operations total annual cost:
CTT = ACYT C L + C t LT
and for stacked operations total annual cost:
H t CTS = ACYS LL + c t E LS
(2)
(3)
where: ACY = required space in ha for wheeled operations; ACYS = required space in ha for stacked operations; T CL = cost of land in $ per square meter per year; Hc = (Hc=TA(tt/365)) requirement handling capacity in containers or TEUs; E = the yard equipments efficiency, i.e. number of containers or TEUs (RTGs or SCs or FLs) can handle in a day. According to Hatzitheodorou (1983), LT = CTT K + C oc + (PT / 15) and
LS = C SS K + C os + C f + (PS / 15) , where: PT = cost of chassis or trailers in $; K = interest rates in percent; Coc =
chassis or trailers maintenance in $/year; 1/15 of their purchase price = depreciation of chassis or trailers and RTGs/SCs/FLs; PS = cost of RTGs/SCs/FLs; Cos = RTGs/SCs/FLs maintenance and operation in $/year; Cf = cost of labor for operating the RTGs/SCs/FLs. Since the ratio N t = CT / CT is a nonlinear function in parameters, we then get N t = f ( AT , tt , E ) . Accordingly,
S T
if Nt < 1, then stacked operations should be more economical, and if Nt > 1, then wheeling is preferred. 3.2. The ground slot model
532
It is clear that a general equation is still required to evaluate the total number of TGSs under a supply viewpoint or the total area requirement for a container terminal under a demand viewpoint and for calculating the container-handling capacity incorporated with yard sizes and crane dimensions. The thrust of the present research is thus to propose such a general equation. As discussed, the computation of TGSs can be simply divided into two major components. The first is the number of containers in each stacked row. The second is the number of the corresponding container rows affected primarily by the sizes of the equipment. By multiplying these numbers, the total ground slots provided by the specified CY can be obtained. The number of containers in each stacked row (NC) equals to [10]
NC =
(Wy Wr 2 Wp Ws )
Lc + Cr
(4)
where are Wy = the width of the CY; Wr = the width of the perimeter roadways; Wp = the total width of passageways and the turning area; Ws = the total width required for special needs such as refrigerated boxes, truck parks, etc.; Lc = the length of a 20-foot container (i.e. 6.1 m); Cr = the space for containers placed end to end according to the rule of customs (0.4 m). The number of crane rows (NCR) is equal to [10]
NCR =
Dy Wc + Wt + Wa
(5)
where are Dy = the depth of the CY; Wc = the width of the handling equipment; Wt = the width for rail/rubber wheel traveling (1,5-2,0 m za SC; 2,0 m za RTG); Wa = the space between two adjacent rows of handling equipment. The number of container rows aligned parallel to the quay wall (CR) is [10]
CR = NCR n
(6)
where n is the number of container rows the handling equipment spans. The container storage capacity, which is static for the CY, is obtained from the product of the number of one-tier-high 20-foot container ground slots (TGSCY) and tiers of stacked container. Following that, the total number of ground slots in CY is equal to [10]
TGSCY = ( NC CR) (1 Iar )
(7)
where Iar = the interchange area requirement (%): for a one-berth SC, FL and TT terminal, it is between 3-5%; for RMG and RTG systems, it is between 1-3%. The dimension of this area depends on yard equipment and number of lanes. The interchange area provides an interface where containers can be received from or delivered to inland transport vehicles. Such an area is typically on the bottom of the CY landward side near the gate complex.
4. COMPUTATIONAL RESULTS
Firstly, some numerical examples considering cost model are illustrated comparing SC and RTG systems. The solution procedure was programmed using MATLAB program and run on an IBM 586 PC. The computational time was 1 second. The base values assigned to those variables are given in Table 1, while other data for the examples are K = 0.25; CL = 10 $ per square meter per year; TA = 0.1 million TEU per year; = 0.88; kp = 0.25 for SC systems; and =0.92; kp = 0.20 for RTG systems. Also, an evaluation for container-handling capacity can be separated into two parts. The first is to take into account the terminal layouts such as the total number of TGSs and the proposed stacking height of cranes based on container status. The second is to figure out the influence of the operation characteristics for terminal operators such as quay length and container yard depth. Table 1: Data used in calculation
Stacking height Cost of labor for Cost of trailer or Cost of maintenance Straight line operating the RTG/SC/FL and operation [containers deprecation over 15 AT CYE yr RTG/SC [$/year] [million $] [$/year] number] 2 15,0 SC 0,600 90.000 PS / 15 35.000 3 10,0 3 10,0 35.000 RTG 1,0 120.000 PS / 15 4 7,5 Sources: De Monie [16, 17]; Bubeer [4]; Hatzitheodorou [23]; Kim and Kim [28-32]; Nam and Ha [33]; Nam et al. [34], Dragovi et al. [21].
533
The example problem data came from a practical case. A combination of basic feasible solutions which leads to an optimal solution is represented in Figure 4.
30 25 20 15 10 5 0 60
Nt
15
Nt
15
Nt
30 25
Nt
10
10
20 15
10 5
0 40
40 10 15 20 0 0
0 15
30 20 10 10 0 0 5 15
0 15
10 15
20 5 0 5
10 15
20 5 0 5
tt
tt
tt
10
tt
10
a) Cost ratio of stacking (SC(2high))/wheeling operations (TT) as a function of E, E = 5,6,...,60 and tt, tt = 2,3,,15
b) Cost ratio of stacking (FL(2high))/wheeling operations (TT) as a function of E, E = 5,6,...,40 and tt, tt = 2,3,,15
c) Cost ratio of stacking (FL(2high))/wheeling operations (TT) as a function of E, E =5,6,...,20 and tt, tt = 2,3,,15
d) Cost ratio of stacking (SC(3high))/wheeling operations (TT) as a function of E, E =5,6,...,15 and tt, tt = 2,3,,15
Figure 4: 3D Presentation of cost ratio curves and relationship between basic parameters changes Nt , E and tt Secondly, this study is based on the fact that assumed CY has different dimensions. Depth of CYs is 300, 400, 500m and quay length is 300, 320, 350m for one-berth terminal, respectively. The selected handling cranes for the following computation are as follows: SC units with lift heights of one over two and one over three; RTG units with spans for five container rows plus one truck lane and six container rows plus one truck lane with lift heights of one over four and one over five. Thus, using equations 4-7, the total number of TGS for SC and RTG (5+1; 6+1) systems is presented in Table 2. This is very important for calculating the total handling capacity. Moreover, the equation of TGS is the first step for terminal operator to make decisions. For calculating the TGS, the input data are as follows: Wy = 300 m, 320 m i 350 m; WrSC = 5 m; WrRTG = 22 m; WpSC = 20 m; WpRTG = 11 m x 2 + 22 m = 44 m; Ws = 0; Lc = 6.1 m; Cr = 0.4 m; WtSC = 1.6 m; WtRTG = 2.0 m; Wa = 0 for SC and RTG; WcRTG = 20 m for (5+1) and 23.5 m for (6+1); WcSC = 3 m; Iar = 3-5% for SC; 1-3% for RTG. This calculations are done in MS Excel. Table 2: Total number of TGS for different size of CY using SC, RTG (5+1) and RTG (6+1) systems
Quay length (m) 300 320 350 300 RTG (5+1) 2202 2409 2721 Container yard depth (m) 400 RTG RTG RTG SC (6+1) (5+1) (6+1) 2279 3468 2906 3008 2494 3724 3180 3292 2817 4110 3591 3718 500 RTG (5+1) 3595 3934 4443 RTG (6+1) 3722 4073 4600
SC 2628 2822 3114
SC 4289 4607 5084
Cranes with larger spans do not always occupy smaller areas per TGS in every situation. The SC system shows its advantages under the condition of one-berth terminals. However, larger yard cranes reveal their land advantages only for larger size CY. RTG cranes occupy more area than SC units and because of that the terminal operators are keen to choose system with greater span as their main advantage. The minimummaximum ranges in RTG are also larger than SC due to the variation of span for RTG.
5. CONCLUSION
In parameters analysis for modeling CY and planning as well as the container stack designing and CYE, the throughput performance of the yard equipment is an important factor to be considered. In this study, we propose several block schemes which may be used to estimate the determinations of the space requirement and the number of container handling yard equipment (various container handling alternatives SC and RTG). Also, the ground slot computation (TGS) is a good parameter for calculating the total handling capacity in a container port. In the introductory part of this study, CYE is specified and previous investigations have been summarized. Thus, this study shows the difficulty in modeling the handling operations and CY contents. Finally, to complete the study a functional cost model has been developed and ground slot computation, also. This model compares various handling techniques at CY such as SC and RTG. Numerical examples have been discussed with corresponding results. It is clear that a general equation is still required to evaluate the total number of TGSs under a supply viewpoint or the total area requirement for a container terminal under a demand viewpoint and for calculating the container-handling capacity incorporated with yard sizes and crane dimensions. The thrust of the present
534
research is thus to propose such a general equation. Still, local conditions vary from one to another terminal, so it is recommended to terminal operators to adapt the input variables to the real situation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
REFERENCES
[1] Al-Kazily, J., 1983, Productivity at marine - land containers terminals, Transportation Research Record 907, TRB, 57-61. [2] Atkins, W. H. (1983) Modern Marine Terminal Operations and Management (Oakland, CA: Port of Oakland). [3] Balis, A., Golias, J., Abakoumkin, C., 1997, A comparison between conventional and advanced handling systems for low volume container maritime terminal, Marit. Pol. Mgmt., 24(1), 73-92. [4] Bubeer, E., 1983, Container handling cranes, Seminar on Container Terminal Management, UNCTAD and APEC, Belgium, 319-345. [5] Bunce, F. A., 1983, Container handling techniques and trends, Container Terminals and Transport, CS Publications Ltd, McMillan House, England, 7-16. [6] Castilho, B.D., Daganzo, C.F., 1993, Handling strategies for import containers at marine terminals, Trans. Research B, 27, 151-166. [7] Chen, T. (1998) Planning land utilization of the container terminal a strategic perspective, Trans. Planning J,, 27(3), pp. 509543. [8] Chu, C.-Y. and Huang, W.-C. (2002a) A study on ground slot layout and capacity of container yards, MQ, 11(4), pp. 1534. [9] Chu, C.-Y. and Huang, W.-C. (2002b) Land utilization comparison of container yard with different operation systems, Maritime Research Journal, 13, pp. 4760. [10] Chu, C-Y., and Huang, W-C., (2005), Determining Container Terminal Capacity on the Basis of an Adopted Yard Handling System, Transport Reviews, 25(2); pp. 181199. [11] Chung, Y-G., Randhawa, S.U., McDowell. E.D., 1988, A simulation analysis for transtainer-based container handling facility, Computers Ind. Engng., Vol. 14, 113-125. [12] Chung, Y-G., 1987, An animated simulation model for a transtainer based container handling facility, Master Thesis, Oregon State University. [13] Daganzo, C.F., 1989, The crane scheduling problem, Transportation Research B, 23, 159-175. [14] Dally, H. K. (1983) Container Handling and Transport A Manual of Current Practice (London: Cargo Systems IIR Publications Ltd). [15] Dally, H. K., Marshal, F. K., Chattaway, F., 1983, Terminal design, Container Terminals and Transport, CS Publications Ltd, McMillan House, England, 31-69. [16] De Monie, G., 1983a, Alternative containership and terminal system: Layouts and operational features of pure and combined terminals, Seminar on Container Terminal Management, UNCTAD and APEC Antwerpen, Belgium, 43-161. [17] De Monie, G., 1983b, Container terminal capacity calculations and exercise on capacity calculations, Seminar on Container Terminal Management, UNCTAD and APEC, Antwerpen, Belgium, 161-187. [18] Dharmalingam, K. (1987) Design of storage facilities for containers a case study of Port Louis Harbour, Mauritius, Ports and Harbors, September, pp. 2731. [19] Dragovi, B., 1994, Port container handling equipment, Proceedings of the XIII Conference on Material Handling and Warehousing, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Materials Handling Institute, 133-140. [20] Dragovi, B., 1997, Port container terminals, Libertas - Bijelo Polje/Kotor, (in Serbian). [21] Dragovi, B., Zrni, Dj., Radmilovi, Z., (2006), Ports & container terminals modeling, Research monograph, Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering, University of Belgrade, 2006, ISBN 86-7395203-4. [22] Frankel, E. G. (1987) Port Planning and Development (New York, New York: Wiley). [23] Hatzitheodorou, G., 1983, Cost comparison on container handling techniques, Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean Engineering., ASCE, 109(1) 54-62. [24] Hoffmann, P. (1985) Container facility planning: a case description, in: Port Management Textbook Containerization, pp. 353364 (Bremen: Institute of Shipping Economics and Logistics).
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[25] Itsuro, W. (2001) Container Terminal Planning A Theoretical Approach (Leatherhead, UK: World Cargo Publishing). [26] Kim, K.H., 1997, Evaluation of the number of rehandles in a container yard, Computers Ind. Engrg., Vol. 32, 701-711. [27] Kim, K.H., Kim, H.B, 1998, The optimal determination of the space requirement and the number of transfer cranes for import containers, Computers Ind. Engrg., Vol. 35, 427-430. [28] Kim, K.H., Bae, J.W., 1998, Re-marshalling export containers in port container terminals, Computers Ind. Engrg., Vol. 35, 655-658. [29] Kim, K.H., Kim, K.Y, 1999, An optimal routing algorithm for a transfer crane in port container terminals, TS, Vol. 33, 17-33. [30] Kim, K.Y., Kim, K.H, 1999, A routing algorithm for a single straddle carrier to load export containers onto a containership, Inter. J. of Production Engrg., Vol. 59, 425-433. [31] Kim, K.H. (2005) Models and methods for operations in port container terminals, Book Chapter, Logistics Systems: Design and Optimisation, Edited by Andre Langevin and Diane Riopel, Springer, 213-243. [32] Kim, K.H., Park, Y-M. Jin, M-J. (2008) An optimal layout of container yards, OR Spectrum 30(4), p. 675 695. [33] Nam, K.C. and Ha W. I., 2001, Evaluation of handling systems for container terminal, Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean Engineering, ASCE, 127(3), 171-175. [34] Nam, K.C., Kwak, K. S., Yu, M. S., 2002, Simulation study of container terminal performance, Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean Engineering, ASCE, 128(3), 126-132. [35] McDowell, E., Martin, G., Cho, D. and West, T., 1985, A study of maritime container handling, Oregon State University, Sea Grant College Program, Ads 402, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, 1-10. [36] Petering, M.E.H., Wu, Y., L, W., Goh, M., de Souza, R. (2009), Development and simulation analysis of real-time yard crane control systems for seaport container transshipment terminals, OR Spectrum, 31(4), 801-835. [37] Petering, M.E.H., Murty, K.G. (2009), Effect of block length and yard crane deployment systems on overall performance at a seaport container transshipment terminal, Computers and Operations Research, 36(5), 1711-1725. [38] Petering, M.E.H. (2009), Effect of block width and storage yard layout on marine container terminal performance, Transportation Research Part E, 45, 591-610. [39] Radmilovi, Z., 1995, Port Planning and development, Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering, University of Belgrade. [40] Taleb-Ibrahimi, M., 1989, Modeling and analysis of container storage in ports, Ph.D. Thesis, University of California at Berkley. [41] Taleb-Ibrahimi, M., Castilho, B.D., Daganzo, C.F., 1993, Storage space vs handling work in container terminals, Transportation Research B, 27, 13-32. [42] United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (1985) Port Development A Handbook for Planners in Developing Countries. TD/B/C.4/175/rev. 1 (New York, New York: UN). [43] Watanabe, I., 1991, Characteristics and analysis method of efficiencies of container terminal An approach to the optimal loading/unloading method, Container Age., March, 36-47. [44] Zrni, Dj., Dragovi, B., 1995, Conditional criteria for planning and designing of CY at container terminals, Proceedings of the I National Conference State and development on Material Handling and Warehousing, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Materials Handling Institute, Belgrade, Yugoslavia, 59-62.
536
RaDMI 2010
SYSTEMIC ANALYSIS OF TRANSPORT AT LIVEZENI MINE

Gheorghe Bogdan Urdea1, Vilhelm Itu2, Iosif Dumitrescu3, Bogdan Zeno Cozma4
University of Petroani, Faculty of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Petroani, ROMANIA, e-mail: urdeagh@yahoo.com1 , e-mail: ituv@upet.ro2 ,e-mail: dumi_iosif@yahoo.com3, e-mail: cbogdy@netlog.ro4
Summary: Transportation is an important factor for increasing economic efficiency, because the share of this activity in the production costs of a ton of mineral extracted from the mine reaches up to 40 ... 50%. The paper propose an analysis of existing transport system in mine plants, and establish the lines of action for refurbishment, respectively to make more efficient the system. Key words: Systemic analysis, calculation of the transport system, reduced element, operating characteristics, reduced calculation scheme, the scheme for calculating the system, probability of state.
1. INTRODUCTION
Systemic study of the complex installations of transport in general and those in mining and quarrying, in particular, is an effective and high refinement tool required to answer the question "where, when and how?" should be invested to modernize the whole system or an individual component. It can be shown in which situation is beneficial to invest in upgrading , respectively when is justified to modernize and improve the maintenance activities. The systemic analysis highlights the real capacity of the transport complex system, outlines the weaknesses and the bottlenecks of the transport flow. Machines and equipment in mining and other fields that are intended for the transport of mined-out minerals, excavated rocks, other materials, equipment spare parts, in a word all kinds of goods, have the generic name of transport systems.
2. THE METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN LIVEZENI MINE

The method of calculation is used in the practical application of the presented method of calculation of transport systems in the case of Livezeni Mine . 2.1. Setting technological scheme The object of this work consists in applying the method of calculation of transport systems. Technological scheme under which the calculation is made is shown in Figure 2. which was carried out after the current technological flow of Livezeni mine which is shown in Figure 1. 2.2. Establishing the transfer and distribution points The elements of transport systems can convey the mined-out material: - from an element of the system on another element (in case of belt conveyors in series or scraper conveyors in series). - from two or more elements of the system on a single element (when several face conveyors discharge material on the same conveyer ). Such a mode of transmission is called node- point of the system;
537
Figure1: Production transport flow from Livezeni Mine (preparatory workings are not included in the scheme)
538
Figure 2: Transportation Technological Schedule flow of to the Livezeni Mine 2.3. Setting operating characteristics of elements Operating characteristics of all the elements that perform the transport of mined-out material were collected from the field. In determining the characteristics of the systems elements one should take account of states in which the system is. In this respect we may have: - the state of operation A0 = {a 0} , when the plant is in operation;
- the off status A2 = {a 2} , when the plant is in downtime due to a common external failure (eg power disconnected); - the coercive off status A4 = {a 4} these states will be achieved by the elements ready to work through coercion with states a1 and a2. In table 1 the features of the elements of the transport system are presented, taking into account the status A1 (downtime when the plant is due to a failure in it), where is a factor that characterize the uptime(1/hour), and is a factor that characterize downtime (1 / hour) and x is a coefficient of failure is defined as the ratio / . For determining the characteristics of the elements and taking into account the state A2 it is necessary to know the functioning of machines until the emergence of an interruption due to causes outside the plant (energy failure, other causes). Thus was considered an average of uptime between two interruptions to about 500 hours of operation. In the state A4 (of coercion) were included the technological and non-technological interruptions of equipment operation. Characteristic of operation that occurs because the state is A2: = 0.002 , = 1 , x = 0.002 Table 1: Characteristic of operation that occurs because the state is A1 at Livezeni Mine Features of the operating system elements that occur because of the state A1 No. The elements of system Average time of Time for operation interruption Days / h/day h/day h 1 h 1 year 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 Ab. BS Pan 4 S 220 8,00 3,25 0,125 0,333 2 Ab. BS Pan 1 S 207 7,45 3,15 0,131 0,310 3 K 3M 230 5,40 4,50 0,185 0,222 4 TR1, TR2, TR3, TR4, B35, B34, B33 215 8,00 2,90 0,125 0,345 5 TR5, TR6, TR7 210 7,45 2,70 0,134 0,370 6 TR8, TR9, TR10, TR11, TR12, 208 10,40 2,10 0,096 0,476 TR13, TR14, B31A, B32A 7 B32, B31, S8, B3, B2, B1 207 14,00 1,70 0,071 0,588
- the off status A1 = {a1}, when the plant is in downtime due to a failure with internal cause;
x x= / 7 0,407 0,423 0,833 0,362 0,362 0,202 0,120
[ ]
[ ]
2.4. Determination of the calculation scheme The construction schedule reduced elements can be tracked in the figure 3 and table 2:
539
Figure 3: Reduced technological flow scheme the of Transportation to the Livezeni Mine Table 2: Elements reduced Symbol elements reduced 1 2 3 4
Nr. crt. 1 2 3 4
Elements reduced
Ab. BS Pan 4 S, TR1, TR2, TR3, TR4, B35, B34, B33 Ab. BS Pan 1 S, TR5, TR6, TR7 K 3M, TR8, TR9, TR10, TR11, TR12, TR13, TR14, B31A, B32A B32, B31, S8, B3, B2, B1
2.5. Operating characteristics of reduced elements Determining the operating characteristics of the reduced element, is achieved with II nd reduction rule of Gladysz. The results are shown in Table 3 Table 3: Operating characteristics of elements reduced Operating characteristics of elements reduced Elements reduced 1 2 3 4 1,002 0,537 1,051 0,426 h
[ ]
1
h 0,340 0,356 0,549 0,592
[ ]
1
x 2,943 1,510 1,915 0,720
2.6. Determination of technically possible states of the transport system The transition scheme for calculating the system is shown in figure3 transport In the followings we will determine in part the technically possible states. The transition scheme of the system I which will be considered is drawn up like this: suppose that at the moment t a state of possible technical operation occurred that we consider to be the 1234, and this state in the time dt make a transition in another state with the intensity of passage ij , the states in which it can transiting are 234.1, 134.2, 124,3 and 123,4. Using states already determined for the operating system (on the right side of the scheme) we will work with each state in an analogue way, as with the state 1234, but avoiding any redundances. The transition schemes as follows in figure 4. 2.7. Equations to determine the probability of state Equations for calculating the probability are determined knowing the transition schemes which causes all the forms of technical service possible and using the relationship:
p j ( t ) jk +
k j
k j
pk ( t ) kj = 0
(1)
540
The system of equations thus obtained is a homogeneous system of equations, from which to obtain a unique solution:
k =1
pk = 1
(2)
Figure 4: Transition schemes The system of equations is:

p1234 (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 ) + p123.4 4 + p124.3 3 + p134.2 2 + p 234. 1 1 = 0
(3)
p134. 2 (1 + 3 + 4 + 2 ) + p1234 2 + p13. 24 4 + p14. 23 3 + p34. 12 1 = 0
p124. 3 (1 + 2 + 4 + 3 ) + p1234 3 + p12. 34 4 + p14. 23 2 + p24. 13 1 = 0 p234.1 (2 + 3 + 4 + 1 ) + p1234 1 + p23.14 4 + p24. 13 3 + p34. 12 2 = 0
p13. 24 ( 2 + 4 ) + p134. 2 4 + p123. 4 2 = 0
p123.4 4 + p1234 4 = 0
p12. 34 ( 3 + 4 ) + p124. 3 4 + p123. 4 3 = 0
p14. 23 (1 + 4 + 2 + 3 ) + p124. 3 2 + p134. 2 3 + p1. 234 4 + p4. 123 1 = 0 p34.12 (3 + 4 + 1 + 2 ) + p134. 2 1 + p234.12 + p3. 124 4 + p4. 123 3 = 0 p1. 234 4 + p14. 23 4 = 0
p2.134 4 + p24.13 4 = 0 p24.13 (2 + 4 + 1 + 3 ) + p124. 3 1 + p234.13 + p4. 123 2 + p2. 134 4 = 0
p23.14 ( 1 + 4 ) + p234.14 + p123. 4 1 = 0
p4.123 ( 1 + 2 + 3 ) + p24. 13 2 + p34.12 3 + p14. 23 1 = 0
p3.124 4 + p34.12 4 = 0
The system is a linear homogeneous one . To be able to resolve replace an equation of the system with the relationship:
p1234 + p41. 23 + p23. 41 + p412. 3 + p42.13 + p4.123 + p413. 2 + p12. 43 + p1. 423 +
(4)
541
+ p423.1 + p43.12 + p2. 413 + p123. 4 + p13. 42 + p3. 412 = 1

Replacing the values of and in the equations, values given in table 3 and resolving the system, the following solutions are obtained:
p1234 = 0 ,023 p34.12 = 0 ,102 p123 = 0 ,037

p3. 12 = 0 ,455
p123. 4 = 0 ,017
p124. 3 = 0 ,044 p134. 2 = 0 ,035 p23.14 = 0 ,049 p13. 2 = 0 ,115

p1. 23 = 0 ,094
p234.1 = 0 ,068 p24.13 = 0 ,13 p4.123 = 0 ,196
(5)
p12. 34 = 0 ,032 p13. 24 = 0 ,025 p23.1 = 0 ,148

p2. 13 = 0 ,121
p14. 23 = 0 ,066 p3.124 = 0 ,074 p 12. 3 = 0 ,031
p1. 234 = 0 ,048 p2.13 4 = 0 ,093
3. CONCLUSIONS
To be able to study in a scientific manner the behavior of the complex transport plant and equipment , it is necessary a systemic approach to the operation in time, so that can determine the coefficients for use in the meantime, how-to-faults, weaknesses in the system areas of strangulation, the influence and the final actual capacity of transport. Following the application of analytical method for calculating the transport systems can draw the following conclusions: - method of calculating the transport system requires a large amount of calculation and use of computer systems to solve linear-homogeneous equations; - the flow of technology of mining operation is more complicated with the growing number of equations and unknown parameters (probabilities of states ) of the systems; - the method takes into account all states technically possible of the operating systems which in practice is rarely possible; - can compare the likelihood of them running, so that downtime and can make changes to a subsystem with a disadvantageous operation or changing her internal structure, or altering its ties with neighbouring elements;
RERENCES
[1] Nan, M.S., Jula, D - Capacitatea sistemelor de transport. Editura Universitas, Petroani 2000 [2] Strzodka, K., .a -Tagebau Technik band II , Leipzig 1980 [3] Urdea Gh.B. - Contributions to the improvement of the transportation systems in Jiu Valley mining plants conditions Ph.D. thesis , Petroani 2009
542
RaDMI 2010
DEVELOPMENTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL FRIENDLY TECHNOLOGIES FOR RTG CONTAINER CRANES

Nenad Zrni1, Milo orevi1, Sran Bonjak1, Branislav Dragovi2
University in Belgrade Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade, SERBIA, e-mail: nzrnic@mas.bg.ac.rs 2 University of Montenegro, Maritime Faculty, Kotor, MONTENEGRO, e-mail: branod@ac.me
1
Summary: The paper deals with some recent developments of environmental friendly technologies for rubber tired gantry (RTG) container cranes and principally focuses on the eco hybrid solutions as a way to improve eco performances. Two eco solutions established by relevant companies Railpower and Siemens are analyzed. Both presented solutions enable considerable fuel savings and diminution of emission of greenhouse gases, as well as the reduction of noise. The solutions can be applied either to existing cranes (retrofit or modernization) or to new equipment. Keywords: RTG crane, eco design, hybrid technology, energy consumption.
1. INTRODUCTION
Eco-designing is present in the current investigations in the field of engineering logistics, according to five main criteria which connect the eco-design tools [1]: 9 Product technological feasibility comprising material characteristics and various production options; 9 Recycling (technologies, quality, kind of recirculation, energy, materials, etc.) 9 Work conditions (risk, emissions of different types); 9 Competitiveness (costs of all types); 9 Environmental protection. Work conditions, costs and environmental protection concern a similar manner of reflection as regards to life cycle assessment (LCA). It is predicted that by 2015 Europes electrical energy requirement will be a whopping 1,320 TWh/year, with about 707 TWh delivered through electric motors of one sort another. The analysts of the Vacon Company (Finland, specialist in AC drives and controls) believe that the use of high efficiency motors instead of standard ones and by using drives the energy saving potential in Europe alone could be 90 TWh/year, with corresponding reduction of about 36 m tones of CO2. Moreover, world electricity demand as forecasted by the World Energy Outlook 2009 (OECD/IEA) is projected to grow at an annual rate of 2.7% in the period 2007 to 2015, then slowing slightly to 2.4% per year on average in the period 2015-2030, as economies mature and as electricity use becomes more efficient. Over 80% of the growth between 2007 and 2030 is in non-OECD countries. In the OECD, electricity demand is projected to rise by 0.7% per year on average between 2007 and 2015, which takes into account the impact of the current financial and economic crisis. Growth in the period 2015-2030 is slightly higher, averaging 1.1% per year. Demand in non-OECD countries grows by 5% per year over 2007-2015, slowing to 3.3% per year in 2015-2030. In contrast to all other final forms of energy, projected electricity demand in 2030 is slightly higher than in last year's World Energy Outlook. Container terminals today face many challenges among them managing power consumption costs and the requirements to achieve greener operations. The actual challenges of the container terminals in the world are [2]: Increasing capacity requirements; Cargo volume growing dramatically; Terminal congestion; Rising fuel prices;
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Increasing environmental concerns; Ship emissions and container handling equipment emissions; Growing CO2 emission market; Noise abatement concern; Public awareness of environmental impact. The above mentioned challenges are followed by the several risks as [2]: Backlog at terminals; Escalating costs; Loss of competitiveness; Impact of regulations; Increasing public image and media coverage. Nowadays, the environmental protection and energy saving are the central topics when designing container terminals. The fast growing container terminals are confronted with rising fuel prices, Fig. 1, and the main goal is to reduce operational costs, as well as the environment benefits with a considerable reduction of emissions (greenhouse gases) and noise. So, having in mind the terminal needs (higher throughput by increasing productivity, improving dispatching and tracking, acquiring bigger equipment) and terminal challenges (reduction of costs, fuel consumption and emissions) the various energy saving solutions for greener transportation have been pioneered in the past years. Rubber Tired Gantries (RTGs) as possibly the worlds largest rubber tired vehicle are mobile equipment that load and unload containers onto trucks in the terminal. Conventional RTGs are driven by electric motors powered by large on-board generation sets. RTGs poor inherent efficiency offers a good opportunity for energy saving improvements, Fig. 2. The problem of cranes modernization is very important particularly for cranes operating in container terminals in seaports and river ports [3]. Also, crane modernization is an important link in the life-cycle approach for cranes, Fig. 3.
Figure 1: Increase of fuel price in the past 150 years
Figure 2: Energy cost per container movement on terminal
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Figure 3: Life-cycle approach for cranes
2. ECO SOLUTIONS FOR RTG CRANES

The power and requirements of RTG cranes used for unloading shipping containers are highly suitable for a hybrid application, because frequent lifts require short bursts of power and most of the energy is regenerated when the container is hoisted down. According to the data given by the company Railpower Technologies Corporation [4], their solution of hybrid ECO crane enables a reduction in fuel consumption and greenhouse gas emission of RTG cranes by up to more than 70% (74% fuel savings during first active duty tests) and this is achieved by replacing the on-board diesel generator power plant, with ECO crane battery generator sets hybrid system, Fig. 4 [2].
Figure 4: ECO-RTG power plant This system is smaller than conventional diesel generator and a lead-acid equipped energy storage system. It can be used as a replacement for existing generator set as well as being installed on new crane equipment. RTG traditional generator sets are usually sized much larger than the peak power demand from the load in order to maintain sufficiently stable voltage supply for the electric motor drives. However, peak power itself is sparsely
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used for lifts and fuel consumption does not follow the same path. The hybrid ECO crane solution enables to shrink the generator set rating to the average demand and significantly trim down the fuel costs. During the load lifting the system spends energy, while during the load lowering the system reclaims energy, Fig. 5 [3] The ECO crane batteries provide the complementary power that adds up to the generator set power needed to achieve peak power (capacity to level the power provided by the prime power source to the average demand). This is also a reservoir that recuperates the energy regenerated (an average of 70% of the energy when hoisting containers down) by the hoist drive when the load is hauled down. Finally, the recycled energy enables the reduction of fuel consumption. The fuel burn rate observed during active typical duty cycles was 2,08 gal/hour for a fuel power efficiency of 12 kWh/gal, very close to the most efficient existing generators used for residential and industrial power supply. The conventional diesel generators used on conventional RTGs of this size burn approximately 8,0 gal/h for active duty cycle. As RTGs usually operate in active duty during 1/2 to 2/3 of the time that they are powered for service, the average fuel savings over a long period could even be improved (60-80% fuel savings, adding up to an economy of 150,000 liters of fuel per year). Also, the reduction of 60-90% of green-house gases is fulfilled. The ECO crane energy storage technology enables satisfaction of simplicity and clean energy to container handling requirements: maintenance-free batteries, requires no water, rarely need to be replaced (2-3 year intervals), capacity to recharge from shore power for even more fuel savings, provide clean mobile yard standby electrical power easily powering small electrical tools for hours without the use of an additional generator, quieter operation, etc. The hybrid ECO-RTG system is also developed by Siemens [5, 6] by installing a power control system and helps to reduce the energy consumption of diesel-electric systems, Fig. 5. The ECO-RTG is based on the rugged technology developed by Siemens for hybrid city buses similar to the technology used in hybrid cars such as Toyota Prius. The ECO system will store the energy during container lowering (traditional RTGs burn off into the atmosphere by resistor banks the energy generated during container lowering) and reuse it for further efficiency. The ECO system is designed for simple installation of energy storage devices such Ultra Capacitor banks which can store the energy released when lowering the container. The experience given by Siemens for 15 RTGs (manufacturer ZPMC) equipped with the mentioned hybrid system in the container terminal in Tangiers (Morocco) reveals that the ECO-RTG drive system gives a fuel saving of over 50% compared to conventional RTG drive systems while keeping the same productivity. The combined reduction in the annual emissions of CO2 of all 15 ECO cranes equals 13,000 tons of CO2, equivalent to the output of 1,400 European households, or 3,800 cars. Also, the reduced emissions of noise and fumes are achieved, as well as the smaller drive and unnecessary high speed idling. For instance, after two weeks of running four of the new ZPMC-Siemens units supplied for the Port Algeciras (Spain) [2, 6], measured fuel consumption is down from 21,3 liters/hr for a standard machine to 6,5 liter/hr for the ECO (reduction of 69,5%). Main features of Algeciras Terminal cranes are: Rated load 50 t (Exceptional load 61 t); Lifting height 18,1 m; Clearance inside legs 21 m (6 lanes + tuck lane); 2 wheels per corner, 8 wheel totally; 8-ropes reeving system for load control. If the mentioned date are trustworthy, the Port Algeciras will save over 60,000 per machine per year, or 1,2 million per year for the twenty machines delivered from ZPMC. The cranes in Port Algeciras typically run 21 hours/day, 362 days/year and make 8,5 moves/hour. However the increase of moves/hour will to some extent decrease the fuel savings. There are some other possibilities to further reduce emissions of greenhouse gases, for instance implementation of the biodiesel fuel program. Also, there are some other solutions for energy savings. For instance, the recently developed GREENLINE family of spreaders is designed to lower consumption costs while advancing the environmental agenda of container terminals [7]. This mention solution of spreader is lighter than most comparable quayside and yard container spreaders. The lighter weight of the spreader should result in a crane power consumption savings of some US$ 4,000/year. Secondly, the GREENLINE family is all-electric, eliminating the environmental risks and higher service expenses associated with hydraulic spreaders. There is no oil to change, no possibility of oil leaks and no risk of costly oil clean-ups. By eliminating hydraulics on the spreader, many routine service points have been also eliminated and that means significant service-related lifetime cost savings. All-electric design lightens maintenance and enhances uptime in three important ways: Reduced scheduled service time, thereby increasing spreader uptime; Lower service material cost for oil and filters; Reduced un-scheduled service time, due to the elimination of many of the downtime events that occur due to spreader hydraulics, such as faulty hose connections, etc. An example of eco design solutions for environmentally improve existing RTG cranes by using ECODESIGN PILOT, downloadable from the web and showing a large tree structured questionnaire not only with impact classes but also with life cycle stages [8], is given in [9].
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Figure 5: Recycled energy for RTG crane
Figure 6: Hybrid installation established by Siemens
3. CONCLUSIONS
Most terminal operators are interested in increasing the efficiency and availability of their terminals and following the up-to-date environmental aspects for the existing equipment in order to get an eco improvement of the product. ECO RTG cranes are designed for fast growing, flexible and innovative container terminal operators which are confronted with rising fuel prices. Also, in the front line of the needed equipment for environmental improvements RTGs are most important (green technologies are central to most modern gantry crane systems) and this is where some leading companies such as Siemens and Railpower Technologies Corporation are focused to provide best eco solutions for their clients targets. The ECO crane solutions presented in this paper enables 50%+ fuel savings, they are cost effective, fast Return On Investment (ROI) on fuel and maintenance, reduced operating and Life Cycle Cost, as well as reduction of greenhouse gases and quieter operation. The effects of the solution exceed the local government requirements, and the solution can be applied to existing cranes (retrofit), as well as applicable to new equipment. The amortization period for the additional costs of an ECO_RTG crane compared with a conventional ECO-RTG crane is less than four years. In order to develop arguments in this area of upgrading cranes there are two critical areas: availability of the cranes and cost implications. Both areas and the foregoing analyses impose the necessity for developing a new area of DfX: Design for Modernization
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work is a contribution to the Ministry of Science and Technological Development of Serbia funded project TR 14052.
REFERENCES
[1] Czaplicka, K: Eco-design of non-metallic layer composites with respect to conveyor belts, Materials & Design, Vol. 24, pp. 111-120, 2003. [2] Zrni, N., orevi, M., Recent development of environmental friendly technologies in container terminals, Proc. of the 19th International Conference on Material Handling, Constructions and Logistics - MHCL09, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Belgrade, pp. 347-350, Belgrade, 2009, ISBN 978-86-7083-672-3. [3] Zrni, N., Bonjak, S., orevi, M.: Design for modernization A way for implementation of eco improvements of ports cranes, Machine Design, edited by S. Kuzmanovi, pp. 13-18, University of Novi Sad, 2010, ISSN 1821-1259. [4] http://www.railpower.com [5] http://www.automation.siemens.com [6] Kuilboer, R: Evaluating the ECO-RTG concept, Port Technology International, issue 33, pp. 75-76, 2007. [7] Bromma Group, Cost-effective and operationally efficient environmentally advanced spreaders, Port Technology International, issue 39, pp. 68, 2008. [8] http://www.ecodesign.at/pilot/ONLINE/ENGLISH. [9] Chevalier, J.P: Product Life Cycle Design: Integrating Environmental Aspects into SMEs Product Design and Development Process, in: Proc. of the Conference on Ecologic Vehicles and Renewable Energies, 26-29 March 2009, Monaco.
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RaDMI 2010
DIDACTIC SYSTEM FESTO MPS - SORTING STATION AND ITS APPLICATION IN EDUCATION IN THE FIELD OF MECHATRONICS
Slobodan Aleksandrov1, Stanimir ajetinac 2, Dragan elija3 Technical School, Trstenik, SERBIA, e-mail: aleksandrovs@yahoo.com 2 High Technical Mechanical School, Trstenik, SERBIA, e-mail: caja.dublje@gmail.com 3 Faculty of Technical Science, Novi Sad, SERBIA, e-mail: seslija@uns.ac.rs
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Summary: The paper deals with the didactic electropneumatic system Festo MPS - sorting station. The system is a smaller version of a real industrial system, with commercially available components and devices. The system is controlled by advanced programmable logical controller equipped with sensors, actuators and communication interface. Modular system provides assembly, connecting, programming, testing, and disassembly of industrial components. The sorting station is designed for education in the fields of mechanics, pneumatics, sensors, electrotechnology, PLC programming, and electropneumatics. 3D simulation software, named Cosimir PLC, is presented in the paper, and it simulates the real operation of the sorting station along with monitoring all parameters of the system, simulation and detection of errors in mechatronic sorting system. Keywords: Festo MPS, education, PLC, Mechatronics.
1. INTRODUCTION
Education in the field of automatic control of the systems and mechatronics demands advanced training systems, which follow automation trends and meet the needs of modern industry. Development of new technologies and their application in industry requires up-to-date teaching material in order to properly educate mechatronics engineers. A mechatronics system is a fusion of mechanical system, sensors, pneumatic, hydraulic and electric actuators, and it is controlled by advanced industrial computer. Since mechatronics comprises many fields, modern didactic systems are necessary for proper education. One of the leading manufacturers of didactic systems for education in the filed of mechatronics is the company Festo. This paper deals with the didactic system for element sorting, and it belongs to Festo's Modular Production System MPS. The distinguishing characteristic of these systems is that they represent real industrial systems with industrial components, but they are smaller and thus suitable for teaching and studying in laboratory conditions. These systems are supported by the software for programming controlling devices, for communication, and the 3D simulation. The basic characteristics of didactic systems, hardware organization of the sorting station, and software for programming and system simulation are presented in the first, second and third part of the paper, respectively.
2. HARDWARE ORGANIZATION OF SORTING STATION

The sorting station is an electropneumatic mechatronic system intended for teaching and studying in the fields of system control and mechatronics, as shown in Fig. 1. The distinguishing property of Festo MPS systems is their modularity, which provides system assembly and disassembly, servicing, replacement, testing, enlargement of the system by new components, and change of the operation algorithm. The electropneumatic system of the sorting station is controlled by the programmable logical controller (PLC) which has available inputs/outputs, which enables additional sensors and actuators to be connected. When hardware components change it is necessary to modify or write a new program, and then to reprogram PLC.
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2.1. Hardware description The sorting station consists of the following modules: Sorting conveyor module Slide module Profile plate PLC board Control console Trolley
Figure 1: Sorting station
Figure 2: Conveyor with sensors and actuators
The sorting station needs an electrical supply of 24V DC max. 5A and supply by compressed air of 6 bars. The system can work in manual and automatic mode defined by a switch on the control console. The basic function of this system is to sort the materials according to their characteristics. The system has a base with little wheels, and PLC is in it. The control console is at the front upper side of the sorting module. This module consists of the conveyor belt (see Figure 2) which is driven by a DC motor, three photoelectrical sensors for subject detection at the initial part of the conveyor, three single acting pneumatic cylinders with limit microswitches which inform about the position of pneumatic actuators. The pneumatic actuators are controlled by PLC by electromagnetic valves. The storage is composed of three separated fixed parallel belts, which are inclined and where the separated parts having different characteristics are stored. The reflexive photocell is on the top of the storage, and it informs whether the storages are full. The control console is at the front side (Figure 3) and there are buttons used for starting, pausing and resetting the sorting station, as well as signal diodes, which inform on the system state. There are also information indicators, which activate in the case of error detection. The entire system is controlled by PLC Festo FC640 (Figure 4).
Figure 3: Control console of the sorting station
Figure 4: PLC board
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2.2. Functioning The main part of the sorting station is the conveyor; around it there are sensors for part detection and pneumatic cylinders for sorting. Black, red and grey cylinder-type objects are sorted. Black and red parts are plastic, while grey parts are metallic. At the entrance of the conveyor, there is a diffusion photo sensor which identifies the incoming part. When PLC receives the signal from this sensor, the motor of the conveyor belt turns on and activates the first pneumatic cylinder - ramp which stops the part to be identified. The identification is done by two sensors: the inductive sensor identifies metal parts, whereas the photo sensor identifies plastic parts because it recognizes red and black color. This sensor is adjustable so during testing it is adjusted to identifying only the red parts. When the red parts are identified, the pneumatic cylinder is withdrawn, and the part goes through the conveyor entrance. Then pneumatic cylinder 2 turns on, and it directs the red parts towards their storage place. When metallic parts are identified, the third cylinder activates, and it directs the parts towards their storage place. If none of these two sensors activates, the red parts are transmitted to the conveyor end, and they are automatically sent to the storage for the red parts. All three storages are parallel and inclined so that the parts slide towards the storage bottom. At the storage top, there is a reflexive photocell which detects when the storage is full. This sensor stops the sorting operation when at least one of the storages is full. Signal lamp on display informs the operator about the error. The sorting station is controlled by PLC Festo FC 640, which is programmed by software Festo FST V4.02. 2.3. PLC programming The sorting system is controlled by PLC FEC - FC 640 having 32 digital inputs, 16 outputs, serial interface RS 232 used for programming, and Eternet connector. The main advantage of this PLC is its support to TCP/IP protocol and integrated WEB server, too. This Eternet network support enables identification of static IP address of PLC, connection into LAN network, access to the system through the local network or through WEB searching from any place on earth. PLC programming is done by Festo Software tools V.4.10.50, by LADDER diagram and Statement List Languages (STL). This software provides programme writing, compiling, error detecting, and PLC programming. Figure 5 shows the display of the software for PLC programming. There is a possibility to communicate on-line with PLC, to make tests in real time, to monitor the state of input and output variables, to monitor the state of counter and timer, and to monitor the state of special memory variables. By adding drivers for TCP/IP and WEB support, it makes PLC connect into Eternet network; thus, system parameters can be monitored from any network computer and remote system control is available, too. Application software Festo IPC server is used for using network resources of PLC, and it provides safe remote access to the systems and support to Windows applications.
Figure 5: Software for PLC programming
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3. MECHATRONICS EDUCATION WITH SORTING STATION

3.1 Possibilities These systems enable training in a large number of activities, as shown in Table 1. Application Mechanics Table 1: Fields in which sorting station is applied Knowledge and skills Identification of mechanical components Assembly and disassembly of mechanical components Designing and modeling of mechanical components Identification and use of pneumatic components and devices Designing and connecting of pneumatic installation Detecting and eliminating the errors at pneumatic systems Identification of the sensor type and its purpose Setting and connecting different sensor types Testing the proper operation of sensors and their replacement Identifying the structure of different types of PLC Connecting sensors and actuators PLC programming and testing Identification and use of electric symbols Designing and connecting the electrical installation Detecting and replacement of faulty electrical installations Identification, connecting, and stating-up electrical motors Connecting mechatronic systems within computer networks Remote access by Internet PLC as a WEB server
Pneumatics
Sensors
PLC
Electrical engineering
Internet technologies
3.2 Simulation of a real system Testing and diagnosis of real systems are a basis for adopting knowledge and skills in the fields of system control and mechatronics. Some students show fear and antagonism because of real electrical and pneumatic systems. Today advanced computers have huge processor power so 3D simulation of real systems motivates students to adopt the fundamental working principles of real systems. This simulation enables virtual simulation of dynamics of mechatronic systems. This software can test and diagnose real complex mechatronic systems in the virtual environment. Festo's software for 3D simulation of real systems controlled by PLC is COSIMIR PLC. This software is a PC software intended for 3D simulation, testing and diagnosis of MPS series Festo systems. 3D model of the sorting station is shown in Figure 6. The programmes for simulation of the operation of real mechatronic systems can be defined by this program, and current examples delivered along with MPS systems
Figure 6: Cosimir PLC - the software for 3D simulation
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Figure 7: State of input and output of the sorting station
can be used. The values of input and output variables in real time can be monitored during system simulation (Figure 7) and during the programme being realised. The line of programme code being realized is marked, which provides visual monitoring the effect of each command. A very important feature of this software is its possibility to simulate real error (dump, sensor or actuator failure) in the virtual environment. Error simulation is done by graphical checking of wanted signal. When an error is set, the system tests the conditions for operation start-up and does not allow 3D simulation of the system. All system errors are archived in Fault log file. The errors eliminated are marked in green while the errors which are not eliminated are marked in red. When the cause of the error is eliminated the system simulation may start.
Figure 8: Simulation of the operation and state of variables of the sorting station By activating the command Manual operation (Figure 8), the system tests each module while the state of input sensors and output actuators is being monitored. The active module is marked by a red diode, whereas the active input and output variables are marked in green. Cosimir PLC can be widely applied but the new version of the programme, named CIROS, has additional functions and models.
4. CONCLUSION
The didactic mechatronic system presented in the paper provides application of theoretical knowledge by 3D simulation of real complex systems and practical training with industrial components. Festo MPS didactic systems make preconditions for acquiring applicable knowledge and skills in the filed of PLC programming, connecting, testing, detecting and servicing the failures in the field of pneumatics, electronics and electrical engineering. Thanks to the combination of traditional teaching, electronic studying, programmes for modeling and simulation, internet technologies and modern didactic mechatronic systems, new knowledge can be adopted in an interesting way in all scientific fields. Advanced didactic systems are rather expensive so not every school or college can afford them. Owing to fast internet, connection of didactic systems into computer networks, remote access to real laboratories and distance training, didactic systems can be used from any place on earth when the above described system is available.
REFERENCES
[1] Festo Manual Sorting station, CD 665871, www.festo-didactic.de/services>MPS [2] Festo software tools, Automating with FST, 682300, en0402HN [3] Yeung, K.;Chow.S.: The modular production system (MPS):an alternate approach for control technology in design and technology. In: IDATER 98 Loughborough University, Hong Kong SAR, Peoples Republic of China [4] Rai, M.;Jovanovi, J.: Comparative analysis of mechanical and mechatronic design. In: Proceedings of 9th International Conference Research and Development in Mechanical Industy - RaDMI 2009, Vrnjaka Banja, Serbia, 16-19. September 2009. Edited by Predrag Dai.
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RaDMI 2010
COMPUTER USAGE IN CALCULATEING THE EXPENDITURE OF REINFORCEMENT

University College of Applied Sciences of Slavonski Brod, Slavonski Brod, CROATIA, e-mail: sinisa.bilic@sb.t-com.hr 2 College Primus, Gradika, BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA, e-mail: markomis@yahoo.com 3 University of Mostar, Faculty of Philosophy, Mostar, BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA, e-mail: hrvojebilic@net.hr 4 Municipality Novi Grad, Novi Grad, BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA, e-mail: vusb.marketing@net.hr
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S. Bili1, D. Misiraa2, H. Bili3, S. Rajili4
Summary: Always popular topic, reducing time spent and thus operating costs, increase accuracy of calculation, avoiding mistakes and permanent control and monitoring of achievement by introducing the latest products has just been made available by modern information and communication technologies. By using MS Office Excel to calculate consumption of reinforcement is achieved not only less time calculating and greater accuracy, but also fast alterations in the calculation of any change in the project documentation, compatibility with other types of files and technical drawing programs, which allows them immediate enter into the necessary documents. Described and elaborated calculation of armature model has practical applications due to speed, simplicity and accuracy of output data when creating technical documentation and documentation accompanying drawings delivered to investors. Keywords: reinforced meshes, the calculation of reinforcement consumption , ribbed reinforcement, Excel.
1. INTRODUCTION
In realization of construction investment, ie. construction of an object, along with obtaining the necessary permits, location permit, construction permit, as well as final approvals it is necessary to make design and documentation for the preliminary and final design. Documentation is an investor's source of information for procurement of necessary materials, and to contractor for construction works. Performance documentation includes the elaboration of draft documents necessary for construction works. Drawings are divided into three main groups: the elaboration of steel structure; plans of concrete structural elements and wooden structures. Based on the request from project office in preparing the works for parts of project documentation related to the consumption of material parts of the reinforced concrete constructions, appeared the need for solving the problem of computer design steel specification , without the use of external services, primarily due to reducage of time needed for preparation and modification of project documentation. In order to achieve savings in time and reduce the possibility of errors with potential serious consequences for investors and for the project office as well, this elaborate has developed a model to calculate the consumption of reinforcement. Model for the calculation of expenditure can serve to interested customers as a practical solution of their demands for fast and accurate calculations. The model is implemented in Excel. In development of the model for the calculation of reinforcement the construction standards of the profession were used.
2. CREATING OF DETAIL PROJECT DOCUMENTATION

Project documentation is prior to any activity in the construction of buildings. According to the purpose and level of development projects are divided into: preliminary design, main design and construction design. Preliminary design is a set of mutually adjusted plans and documents which give basic formally functional and
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technical solutions of construction and a description of construction in environment. The main project is a set of coordinated projects that provide technical solutions for the construction, display of the construction in environment, and proves the fulfillment of important requirements for construction. After obtaining the necessary permits, depending on the gross area, it is necessary to develop a design at the level of the main project where all the details of the structure are visible. In addition to performing documentation it is necessary to create draft of all the installations necessary for the functioning of the construction. 2.1 Use of ICT in the development of project documentation The inevitable tool of any engineer and technician is AutoCAD program. The program provides technical drawing, automatic entry of pre-prepared data, drawings, details or content of various tables. Some of the tools are an integral part of AutoCAD and others are if necessary user-prepared. Typically, this is the establishment of relations between AutoCAD and the data bases or tables created in Excel. It is desirable that the data is online available to other users. 2.2 The calculation of material consumption Calculation of the consumption of certain materials is an integral part of project documentation. A particular problem is the calculation of the expenditure of reinforcement and is regarded as a separate area. Calculation of the consumption of reinforcement involves the calculation of ribbed reinforcement and development of reinforcement nets. For this purpose, relational tables are used and data obtained from them are entered into preprepared forms.
Figure 1: The usual procedure of calculating the consumption of reinforcement The procedure is performed for each structure separately and manually, using the approximate parameters that can vary a lot from really necessary quantities of armature. Calculation is approximate and requires a large expenditure of time. In practice, it is common to use prior calculations on expenditure of reinforcement on similar projects. Creating a rich digital archive brings savings in time, but does not solve the problem of accuracy of calculation and determination of accuracy of material cost of construction.
Figure 2: Computer procedure of calculating the consumption of reinforcement The problem should include the specifics of reinforced concrete structures and to those requirements develop a spreadsheet that can accurately and quickly, with the inclusion of individual parameters, show the necessary quantities of materials for each project.
3. MODEL FOR CALCULATION OF REINFORCEMENT MATERIALS

Model for calculation of reinforcement material was developed by using of MS Excel spreadsheets. The model takes into account the needs of rationality in monitoring the overall operation and usefulness of individual tasks. Practical application of appropriate model can be shown in the example of project task when preparing design documents for the production hall with a crane, ranges about 14 meters. Drafts relating to concrete construction are: foundation plan, section AA, reinforcement of foundations, reinforcement of plates AB and recap. For foundation reinforcement ribbed reinforcement is used, and for reinforcement of reinforced concrete plates and
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meshes, the structural analysis obtained by a registered engineer or project manager. Depending on the complexity of the building, different positions appear, in which usage of material varies from several hundred kilograms up to several tens of tons, for the construction on several thousand square meters. Representation of steel in reinforced concrete structures, per standard is 2-5% of the total volume.
4. CREATION OF WORKSHEETS
The first five worksheets contain the original data, and with data entry into worksheets number 6 and 7 we get the desired output data and screening, the summary worksheet, table-worksheet number 8. Table Standards of ribbed reinforcement presents data for the standard circular profile. Based on these data results will generate in the following worksheets. Table 1: Ribbed reinforcement standards [2][3][4]
In the column Q are weighted rods weight that are commonly used, for every from column A. The distance between the bars is the ratio of 100 (100 cm = 1 m) and number of pieces of rods (up to 15) that the manufacturer can put in a reinforced net per unit of length and width. Table 2: Standard meshes type R [5][6][7]
Table 3: Standard meshes type Q [6][7][8]
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Table 4: Standard meshes type RX [8]
Worksheet expenditure of meshes is used for generating worksheets 6 - Bars calculation and 7 Net calculation. The table gives the basic data for calculation of consumption of reinforcement meshes. It contains each standard type of Q, R and Rx net with given specific weight. Table 5: Consumption meshes
Specific weights are "drawn" from the original worksheet's tables 2 - Net type R, 3 - Net type Q and 4 - Meshes type Rx as follows: ='Mreze-tip-Q'!J16 ='Mreze-tip-R'!J23 ='Mreze-tip-Rx'!J9 When calculating the ribbed reinforcement ( round) the total length of the rod enters to the table regardless of the shape of the position which will be making of it. Table 6: Standard ribbed reinforcement consumption
The input data are entered in columns A, B, C and D: A - ordinal number of positions in the component design, B - diameter of the material expressed in mm,
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C - required number of pieces for each position and D - length of the material required for the position expressed in m. The data in row 65 (cell E65 - M65) are the specific weights for each . Worksheets data represent the summary table of reinforced meshes expenditure for the specific construction. Based on the past experience, the table is designed for entry up to thirty positions. Table 7:. Consumption of reinforcement meshes
In column A, B, C, D and G the following input data are entered: A - ordinal number of positions in the component; B-width of the net expressed in meters; C-net length expressed in meters; D - type of meshes (default: Q, R and Rx) and G - the amount expressed in units. Columns E, F and H are the output columns, ie. their result is the output data. For the column E - specific weight for a given type of meshes is drawn from the worksheet 5 - Net as follows: =IF(D3="";"";VLOOKUP(D3;'Mreze '!$A$2:$B$28;2;TRUE)) For the column F - 1 unit size for the position is the product of columns B and C expressed in m2: =IF(B3="";"";B3*C3) For the column H - total weight for each position as the product of columns E, F and G is expressed in kilograms: =IF(D3="";"";E3*F3*G3). The result in cell H33 is the total weight of anticipated reinforcement meshes required for the facility, expressed in kilograms. The following table is a worksheet for the total weight of reinforcement material, which is total weight of estimated expenditure of reinforcement steel bars and meshes expressed in kilograms and is a particular output data aimed to the investor on the basis of which one can make the purchase of material and provides it on the time, so that construction works could start as scheduled. Table 8: Consumption of reinforcement meshes
The table is the result of output data of worksheets 6 - Calculation of rods and 7 - Calculation of meshes.
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5. CONCLUSION
Drafting up of the models for calculating the consumption of reinforcement at the first glance is very simple task, that by the practical implementation achieves significant effects, from the time saving calculations to the minimize of errors that sometimes can be quite significant. In order to control the costs, very important matter for the investor is to order sufficient quantities of materials. In solving such problem there is a tool developed to calculate the consumption of reinforcement in performance of construction documents. Using excel spreadsheet provides not only the rationalization of time and prevent errors in the calculation, but also ensures compatibility with other file types (eg Word document) and programs for technical drawing (AutoCAD), which allows their direct introduction into the necessary documents. This model for calculating reinforcement, tested in practice, due to speed, simplicity and accuracy of output data, is the ideal practical solution for creating technical, detail documentation and documentation accompanying drawings delivered to investors.
REFERENCES
[1] Lamza-Maroni, M., Segetlija, Z.: Distribucijski sustav trgovinskog poduzea distribucija, logistika informatika, Ekonomski fakultet, Osijek, 2000., pp. 143. ISBN 953-6073-53-6. [2] Tomii, I.: Betonske konstrukcije, DHGK, Zagreb, 1996., str. 787. ISBN 953-6175-05-3. [3] Schneider, K., J.: Bautabellen fr Ingenieure mit Berechungshinweisen und Beispielen, Werner Verlag, Kln, 2008., str. 5.171. ISBN 3-8041-4190-0. [4] Radi, J.: Betonske konstrukcije rijeeni primjeri, Andris, Zagreb, 2006., str. 902. ISBN 953-169-142-8. [5] Tomii, I.: Betonske konstrukcije, DHGK, Zagreb, 1996., str. 788. ISBN 953-6175-05-3. [6] Schneider, K., J.: Bautabellen fr Ingenieure mit Berechungshinweisen und Beispielen, Werner Verlag, Kln, 2008., str. 5.173. ISBN 3-8041-4190-0. [7] Radi, J.: Betonske konstrukcije rijeeni primjeri, Andris, Zagreb, 2006., str. 904. ISBN 953-169-142-8. [8] Tomii, I.: Betonske konstrukcije, DHGK, Zagreb, 1996., str. 789. ISBN 953-6175-05-3.
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RaDMI 2010
TRADE MANAGEMENT AND NEW INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES

Radoje Cveji
MEGATREND and High Professional School for Entrepreneurship, Belgrade, SERBIA, e-mail: drradojecvejic@gmail.com Comprehensive processes of trade transformation are reflected not only in the domain of organization and management, but in the domain of techniques and technology as well. Trade is transformed from a passive and simple mediator between the producer and consumer into an active participant of the entire reproduction process, and the main driver of modernizing the entire reproduction process today. At this moment, it does not function any more only by performing traditional mediator functions on the basis of short-term buying and selling. Instead, the trade actively and directly takes a growing market risk with executing key marketing functions. Basic drivers of the whole business, organization, technological transformation of trade enterprises should be looked for in intensive integration and concentration processes in the entire sphere of operations. The mentioned flows mark the functioning of developed market economies in the first decade of this century. Simultaneously, the content of the creative managerial, marketing and technological function of trade is expanding. Contemporary stage of development and implementation of scientific and technical progress in the last 20 years is characterized by the use of informatics and electronics in trade. There are innovations in the domain of the dialogue between business partners (EDI Electronic Data Interchange) where the computers, electronic data exchange and business documentations constitute the basis of that dialogue, then through the development and mass use of mobile technology and mobile devices, which has resulted in emergence of MSA The Mobile Shopping Assistant technology that helps the customers when buying via mobile devices and the emergence of industrial PDA Personal Digital Assistant, until the emergence, development and use of RFID Radio Frequency Identification which will be a huge step in further development of trade and satisfaction of customers, to the smart scales, information kiosks and self-service cash registers. The list of new technologies that are or will be conditioned by the development of trade in the direction of better business operations, smaller costs, greater awareness and satisfaction of customers is huge and it increases every day with the development of informatics and electronics, and thus we will, in this paper, talk only about one part of new technologic innovations that are important for trade, trade management and satisfaction of customers, which is, in the end, the foundation of introducing all the innovations and development of trade. In contemporary conditions, the trade is in the affirmation process of numerous innovations. The most frequently used classification of these innovations in trade is their division into functional and institutional. By functional innovations, the improvements are introduced in daily business operations of each trade organization, which improves the efficiency of their functioning. Actually, it is about the mechanization and automatization of particular business processes in trade, most frequently in the domain of physical distribution, logistics, warehousing. In contrast to them, institutional innovations imply the introduction of a new trade institution (changes in the way of trading). Series of institutional innovations that have occurred in the sphere of operations constitute the so-called forms of new business format, such as supermarkets, cash and carry and lately the electronic forms of trading. How many buyers in Serbia are turning to the large retail formats is shown in this years ShopperTrands 2009 survey of the Nielsen agency [7]. The survey was conducted on a sample of 750 customers who have bought in modern trade formats (hypermarkets, supermarkets or cash & carry) in Belgrade, Ni, Novi Sad and aak. The project was conducted in the beginning of 2009 and has brought new insights into the evolution of Serbian commercial sector.
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Results from Serbia follow the tendency from the region (Slovenia, Croatia and Bulgaria), which shows an increased significance of modern formats of trade and a light fall of the stores of small and medium format. Number of hypermarkets and supermarkets in Serbia is higher for 15% than the previous year. Those numbers largely explain a significant jump in the value share of modern trade formats, from 17% in the end of 2007 to 27% in the end of 2008. As the supermarkets and hypermarkets have become easily available to customers in major regional centers of Serbia, their traffic is increasing: 57% of modern customers visited a hypermarket in the course of seven days in 2009, which represents a growth of more than 100% since the last year. In addition, the number of customers who report that they spend the most money in the hypermarkets has increased: from 40% in 2008 to 56% in 2009. On the other hand, the number of consumers that goes to small shops is significantly reduced, which represents a continuation of the tendency from 2008. In this year, the decline of interest for buying in small shops is also expressed through the decline of the total amount that is spent in that trade format: in the last year, 32% of customers have spent the most money in such shops, and this year 18%. When you look at the major factors that influence the selection of a trade chain, you can clearly see that the availability has stopped playing the important role (location has dropped from the first place in 2008 to the last in 2009, according to the significance) and left the primacy to the factors such as the comforts of purchase, size of the shop and width of product range, which shows that the customers in Serbia have replaced the convenience of proximity with the satisfaction in the purchase itself, so that the tendency in large formats will be to increase the comfort and satisfaction in the purchase with the help of the new technologies. The fact is that Serbian trade cannot be developed without introducing new and improving the existing trade forms. These activities should be a permanent process based on marketing instrumentalization of electronic forms of trading. They will enable a successful implementation of the trade enterprises in the commodity trade and division of labor, not only in domestic, but in the world market as well. Despite difficult economic conditions, which have appeared due to the global economic crisis, more than a half of retails (51%) in the world expect to maintain their budget information technologies (hereinafter referred to as IT), as the percentage of sales, at the same level in the next year, while 26% believes that their IT budget will increase in accordance with already initiated projects, and all this is shown by the results of the first annual global survey conducted among the chief information officers (CIO) in the retail, which was organized by IBM and Aldata Solution, the leading supplier of software solutions for wholesale and retail trade [7]. Enquiry of IT managers and IT directors of the companies that deal with retail in Europe and USA was conducted by the company Martec International, specialized for the surveys in retail industry, in the fourth quarter of 2008. The survey reveals that most retailers intend to use the investments in IT for achieving a greater return on the resources they already own, such as stocks and space. Investing in IT is planned with the systems that contribute to improving stock management and availability, increase of sale through the new channels and improving the efficiency of promotion. The survey has also shown that there is a much greater possibility that the retailers will invest in the fields that ensure the return on investment. The survey has also shown that 87% of retailers either have or it plans to introduce the applications for automatic filling in the following three years. The results are especially significant in the region of Europe, Middle East and Africa, where 97% of examinees have confirmed that intention, of whom nearly a half either upgrades the systems or plans new ones. 30% of retailers consider automatic filling a most important way of optimizing the filling and stocks management, and it is followed by the prognosis of demand (27%). In the field of application in logistics and distribution, the application for warehouse management in real time was particularly distinguished in this survey. In the USA, 84% of examinees is already using such a system, and another 11% is planning to upgrade. Mobile applications are also quite present. The data show that the retailers in the USA have advanced more than the retailers in EMEA region. While in that region, 62% of the retailers examined have already introduced mobile applications, and another 29% is planning to upgrade or introduce new systems, 100% of the retailers examined in the USA are already using mobile applications in logistics and distribution, and 16% is planning to upgrade the system in the following three years. Enterprise Master Data Management-MDM has proved to be the most important application in this field, according the 36% of examinees. That is the only example in the survey, that the application, which is not characterized by the highest prevalence only 28% of examinees has already applied the MDM has the highest priority for most retailers, which is illustrated by the fact that 48% of examinees is planning to upgrade or apply MDM in the following three years. For the needs of the above-mentioned survey, in the period from September 2008 to January 2009, the senior IT executors from North America, Europe, Middle East and Africa were examined. The examined retails had sales exceeding 100 million dollars in the category of non-food products and 250 million dollars in the category of food products. The total number of stores of all the retails examined is larger than 40,000. The survey was conducted in the end of 2008, when the retailers already felt the full effect of recession, which makes these results encouraging. The results have confirmed that the executives of information and technology sectors do not
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lose their nerves and that the retailers do not believe any more that investments in IT are luxury but that they are the means for cost reduction and improvement of performances in a relatively short period. Reaching the innovations in the field of the dialogue between business partners, acceleration of business processes in the trade and better logistics and stock management, the main foundation constitutes of the computer and new system of communication known as EDI (Electronic-Data-Interchange). In that sense, we are speaking today about electronic trading and non-paper communication. A great role in its functioning have the computer, EAN system, bar code scanning and electronic payment at the spot, so-called EPOS system, based on the standards of business documentation EDIFACT. Using these international communication systems in combination with the development of telecommunications and radio frequency devices opens the possibilities for the internationalization of the quality system and freedom of movement of goods and services without physical-language-technical barriers, as well as the possibility of greater expansion and development of trade and trade chains. With establishing the foundation, which was already discussed in the paper, they further develop their own business towards the control of the flow of goods and services, faster and better processing of data because of the better negotiations with suppliers and reduction of communication costs, they increase the level of satisfaction of the customers due to the speed of service and introduction of new services and in the end, they start to control the flow of goods from supplier to the final consumer, with the help of RFID technology (Radio Frequency Identification) by which they increase their service in the whole range of sale and speed up the process of controlling the business operations and supplies. While, on the other hand, all of that enables the trade chains to control and improve their business and, also, to have a better overview of the market and the customers, by which they make their position in business even stronger.
1. EAN European Article Numbering Association

The prerequisite of successful business of trade enterprises in terms of a turbulent environment is also the ability to communicate, among all the other things. That efficiency is achieved by using the standard numbers, codes and symbols from the family of bar code system. It is universal system of labeling consumer goods, which was derived from the various labeling systems used by particular countries as their national labeling systems. [8]. It is a system of numerical coding and symbolic representation of codes. It enables the automatic identification of products, regardless of their origin and purpose, and on that basis, it also enables the free circulation of products on domestic and foreign market. At the time of the narrow product range, mechanical processing of data and undeveloped information systems, the identification of the products was going on without any problems. With the expansion of the product range, the trade becomes rather complex, as well as the relations with consumers and producers. It comes to the affirmation of the marketing concept in trade, and within that concept, it comes to the affirmation of a marketing information system supported by the computer. In that sense, the unique product labeling and scanning its labels (codes) obtains an irreplaceable role. Magnetic code (bar code), which has proved to be the most reliable, becomes the most acceptable language of computer technique and it enables an automatic identification of products and free circulation of goods in domestic and international traffic. In order to provide the functioning of the system, a label based on a unique coding is necessary. This label is an integral part of the packaging. It has a machine-readable graphic product code on it, it is of a rectangular shape which consists of a dark bars (lines) and light interspaces. Below this label, there is a readable code in the form of a number. By its optical reading (light beam passes over the bars), which is based on the difference and reflection of the light, bright and dark symbol zones; the computer automatically identifies the product wherever it appear in the trade chain. The requirement is only that the trade has electronic cash registers that have the option for reading the codes optically, using the lasers, mini-computers, electronic scales with code printers and other auxiliary equipment. The unique EAN system of numbering, symbolization and identification of the articles (European Article Numbering Association) was established in 1997, by the 12 developed European countries, as a European system with headquarters in Brussels. When Japan, Australia and other countries joined, in 1981, the EAN was transformed into an international system. Yugoslavia joined this association in 1982, under the label JANA (Yugoslavian Association for Numbering the Articles). On the 7th of May 1982, in Chicago, the General Assembly of the EAN Association accepted JANA as the 18th member and assigned it the number 860 as its own label. The most widely used structures of EAN numbers are known as the abbreviation EAN-13. The first two numbers represent the country, the following five numbers identify the producer, the third set of five numbers refers to the particular product and the last number is the control number. In that way, for example, the characteristic numbers for particular member countries look like this: 00-USA, 40-43 Germany, 50-England, 70-Norway, 76Switzerland etc.
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The benefits of EAN system are numerous and significant, and their application enables the following: Unique numbering, symbolization and identification of the articles, Removal of the obstacles in the realization of goods, both in domestic and in world market. Unique language of business communication and the development of a unique information system, Wider and stronger connection of the producers, trade and consumers, their mutual informing and better cooperation, The flow of goods from producer to consumer is accelerating, Timely response of the trade to the requirements of the market, Reduction of stocks and faster turnover of capital, Protection of consumers.
2. ELECTRONIC POINT OF SALE

EPOS-Electronic-Point of Sale the system which is linked to bar code system is a system of charging for the goods on the basis of bar code scanning. The system is based on electronic cash register with a scanner that reads the bar code on the products. This problem is solved in the following way: the light beam goes from the input device, passes through light-dark bars and opens a particular on-off combination of reflected light something like optical Morse code. Input device is connected to the reader, an electronic device, which is programmed to interpret this on-off combination of reflected light and transform it into a series of digital signals, which a computer understands as well. The reader sends a message to the computer, directly via cable, modem or radio link, or indirectly via a floppy disc. The main characteristics of this technology and its application in trade are the following: High speed and reliability of information, Rapid charging of the goods sold, Reducing the possibility of deliberate or accidental error when charging, Increasing the productivity of workers when charging for the goods, Reducing the number of cashiers when charging, in which case they are able to serve a large number of consumers, Increasing the satisfaction of the customers, due to the shorter waiting time spent in lines in front of cash registers, Disappearance of the need to put price on the product itself. Specificity of the EPOS system is the possibility to single out the information, which management needs for decision-making, formulation of the strategy and its realization, from the database. It is about the information about the average purchase value, sale-supply relation, implementation of the payment and such. EPOS also has particular specificities for the customer, which are reflected in accelerating the payment, then the possibility of purchase by credit card, payment terms.
3. ELECTRONIC FUNDS TRANSFER AT POINT OF SALE

Electronic Funds Transfer at Point of Sale (EFTPOS system) enables the electronic transfer of funds from the current account of the customer to the current account of the seller at the time of the purchase and at the cash register of the shop. That payment at the register is performed by the electronic card that contains all the information about the owner, identification number, bank account information and credit potential. EFTPOS systems provide the following benefits: Reduced volume of cash transactions, Faster charging, Reduced volume of the work with papers, Less risk of fraud, Consumers carry less cash with them, Disappears the need for check cards.
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4. CONCLUSION
The introduction of new technologies in companies in the world and in our country is a way to keep up with the time and lifestyle of todays civilization. The world crisis that hit the entire global economy is one more reason for the companies to pay attention to their costs, rationalization, better organization and modernization of their business. One of the best ways to do that is to modernize their business through new forms of technological processes and products. The introduction of new technologies enables the trade chains to manage the knowledge, i.e. the collection, mining and re-use of companys knowledge and their availability to the employees. Without the use of new technologies, the process of collecting and processing the information would be hard, long and expensive, but in this way, it is a process that is not expensive and it provides new information and knowledges, which are of unestimable importance to the trade chains and their future survival in the cruel global market, because knowledge and the right information are crucial for competitive advantage. On the basis of everything mentioned in the previous part of this paper, we can conclude that the new technologies that are introduced in trade chains contribute to the following: improving of service providing, reduction of the time necessary for the release of the product/service to the market, bigger satisafaction of the customers when purchasing, improving the quality of the product/service, better communication in the company, better communication between companies, faster flow of information and knowledge, more successful business on the global level and the reduction of business costs, which is the most important at the time of global economic crisis. New technologies might also have many shortcomings such as over-reliance on them in business, the violation of human relations in the company, reduced security of the business system, but those simply are the things we have to live with and to accept that the technical revolution has become a part of our life at the time when at each second there is a new product of high technology released to the market. Regardless of the large number of shortcomings, the new technologies are the reality that surrounds us and that we need to accept both in the aspect of facilitation of our business and life and in the aspect of all its shortcomings and problems.
REFERENCES
[1] George, J. M., Jones, G. R. Contemporary Management, New York: Creating value in Organizations, 4th ed., NY, McGraw-Hill/Irwin, 2006. [2] Griffin, R. W. Mangement, 8th ed., Boston: MA, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2005. [3] Kastratovi,E. Uvod u menadment, Beograd:Fakultet za menadment u sportu Univerzitet Braa Kari,2006. [4] Kroenke, D. M., Using MIS, Upper Saddle River, NJ, Perarson Education, Inc. 2007. [5] Sellitto, C., Burgess,S., Hawking, P. Information qualiti attributes associated with RFID-derived benefits in the retail supply chain, 2007. [6] Spesijalizovani asopis o robi iroke potronje i trinim kretanjima, Market, s.i., broj 47 maj/jun 2009., str.47 [7] Marinkovic, V. Upravljanje robama i uslugama, Beograd: Visoka Strukovna kola za preduzetnitvo, 2007, str.28
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RaDMI 2010
PROVIDING INFORMATION SECURITY IN BUSINESS SYSTEMS AND ELECTRONIC BUSINESS

1
Radoje Cveji1, Vuk Pavlovi2, Gordana oki3

Megatrend University, Belgrade, Beograd, SERBIA, e-mail: drradojecvejic@gmail.com 2 Faculty of Technical Science, Novi Sad, SERBIA, e-mail: vuk@vukvuk.com 3 Faculty of Technical Science, Novi Sad, SERBIA, e-mail: profesoricagoca@gmail.com
Summary: In order for the information business system to function with minimal risk of malicious attacks and unallowed use of information, it is necessary to provide all the necessary protection measures. In orderfor the sysytem to include the appropriate protection measures, it is necessary to consider the term of securityy, turn to the goals of security and perform a detailed security analisys on regular basis. Each system includes adequate security methods and also performs the security assessment by applying the appropriate security services. From the aspect of business systems security, the adequate security policy is being defined, as well as the system protection plan. For business organization, it is especially important to coordinate its work with the security standards for business system. Therefore,each business system should, before the implementation of appropriate security mechanisms, focus especially on providing the high level of security of the data which it operates with. Key words: information security, information system security, business system security, information system protection.
1. INTRODUCTION
Information and communication technologies are becoming an integral part of modern life. Business operations of state and business entities become dependent on the integration with information and communication technologies ICT. ICT imply a direct contact with large amounts of information. Information systems become exposed to numerous threats through ICT and thus it is necessary to protect them with adequate protection measures. Information security does not refer only to technical protection measures (user names, passwords, enscryption, access rights and the like), but it also implies administrative measures (security policy, regulations, procedures) as well as the physical measures (surveillance, protection of facilities, physical control of the access etc). All the mentioned measures need to be previously well-planned, implemented, and also a continuous monitoring of the applied protection measure is necessary. [1] As managerial information security has become the current issue of today, there are numerous standards developed rapidly, which refer to establishing the security of information. ISO/IEC (International Organization for Standardiation/ International Electrotechnical Commission) from the series 27000 is becoming more and more acceptable at the international level. Standard refers to the recommendations for successful implementation of efficient management system, provides flexibility, defines managerial framework, and at the same time it does not impinge upon the specific technical implementation, due to which, it is easily applicable in various business environments. Norm ISO/IEC 17799 contains a list of security controls and represents a general and wide code of procedures for the information security management.
2. INFORMATION SYSTEMS SECURITY

Computer technologies enable storage and manipulation of the large amounts of information. In order for the information to remain protected, it is necessary to implement efficient and automatized information protection
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mechanisms stored on the computers. If it comes to computer networks where the information are shared and a big number of users has access allowed, then the information protection is of a special significance. Wider use of computer networks, distribution of the systems and information communication also indicates the necessity for information protection. Security in the field of computer technologies represents a generic name for a set of tools, procedures, policies and solutions that are designed with the aim to defend the computer system from the attacks through the computer network security. [1][18]. Information systems security is of vital importance for electronic business, which represents a complex process based on different information systems. General principles of information systems security and electronic business include the following statements: 1. Security must be referred to as a complex dynamic process that is constantly being improved in order to have an adequate response to the attacks on information system. The aim of implementing security measures is elimination or reduction of damages. Committed damage can refer to the loss of clients, loss of competitive advantage, loss of resources and the like. 2. Absolute security is an illusion. It is almost impossible to foresee the structure of each potential attack. The attackers of the system often use complex combinations, the unknown variations of attacks. Therefore, the defence is often very difficult and sometimes impossible. 3. You should always stand in attention. Potential attackers always exist. Motives for attacking one business system can range from professional challenge to illegal material profit. Danger for the information system is always real. In order to protect ourselves from malicious attacks, it is necessary to constantly improve the implemented methods of information protection. 4. Human factor with all its weaknesses is a very important factor that needs to be considered besides various protection methods. We should have in mid that it is possible to attack the business information system from the outside, inside or both. Efficiency of the attack depends on the cooperation of the people who are involved in the attack, therefore, the attack is more efficient, if it involves the participation of employees, which implys the human factor (revealing the confidential passwords, facilitating or enabling the accesses that are otherwise forbidden etc). 2.1 Principles of information systems security: The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development OECD has established nine principles of information systems security: Introduction of awareness of information security it is important to pay attention to the need for information systems security and protective security measures. Introduction of responsibility we should have in mind that all the members of organization are responsible for information systems security. Need for a response it implies that all the members of organization should timely and cooperatively participate in prevention, detection and solving of security incidents. Implementation of ethics all the members of organization should refer respectively to the legitimate interests of others. Implementation of democracy rules of a democratic society also define the information systems security. Risk assessment implementation of the risk assessment on regular basis is essential. Creating the design and security measures implementation regular security controls should be an integral part of information systems. Security management the organization itself should set a clear approach to security management. Indicating the need for changes a regular monitoring of the information security system by the organization is necessary, as well as the modification of security policies, measures, procedure and the like. In e-business, by the security in a broader sense we imply external security in Internet environment and security of the entire internal computing infrasturucture of the enterprise. In a narrower sense, the internal computer security of the enterprise implies that the security is provided, which includes the application of appropriate methods of protection on the system, network and application level.
3. SECURITY ANALYSIS
The success of a company greatly depends on business data. If the data are not protected, besides the fact that they can be lost, they can be abused. The data of information system can be attacked externally or internally, anyway, it is important to note and identify the possible shortcomings of the system. It is necessary to perform a
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detailed system analysis from the aspect of security, and that analysys includes the following: technical analysis, analysis of the external vulnerability of the system and analysis of internal vulnerability of the system. [3] Technical analysis of the system it consists of the set of tasks whose goal is to check the risk of attack inside the network and to protect the data. Risks mostly occur because of technical deficiencies, inadequate and unprotected equipment, security vulnerabilities and configuration problems. Analysis of the external vulnerability of the system refers to determination and assessment of systems abilities to defend users data (and thus the users and their rights) from external attacks that mostly refer to the attacks from the Internet. Analysis of internal vulnerability of the system it primarily indicates the fact that a large number of attacks on one information system is done by disatisfied workers. Therefore, a secure information system must have a stable and secure internal structure that includes the workers. Internal vulnerability need to be eliminated before everything else. [6] After the analysis of information system, the obtained data indicate which measures are necessary. Vulnerability of the system also indicates the deficiencies of the existing protection measures. If the vulnerability degree and the identified gaps pose a threat to the system, it is necessary to implement the appropriate software and hardware changes of information system.
4. SECURITY GOALS
Information securityis based on accomplishing three fundamental principles of security: 1. Integrity represents a service that provides that the data cannot be altered by an unauthorized person or process. At the same time, it represents the guarantee that the data are sent, received or stored in an unchanged form. 2. Confidentiality represents a principle that provides the protection of data against interception and contact with unauthorized persons. Confidentiality is based on identification and authentication of users. Identification secures the efficiency of the policy of users who have the right to access particular data. [5] 3. Availability represents the criterion that the system needs to satisfy to be considered secure. Availability includes the necessity for the system to be available to those who need it, when they need it and where they need it, regardless of the potential unexpected and unpredicted events. The choice of providers and implementation of high-quality hardware and software solutions is important for electronic business.
5. SECURITY METHODS
Information system can be defended in many ways; methods that are used vary from the needs of informnation system. Security methods that are used in practice can be divided into four groups: Cryptographic methods represent mathematical transformations by which the data are modified so that only the users with appropriate key i.e. access right can recognize and access them. Cryptographic method is often an integral part of security protocols that are used within systemic communication protection. Programming methods include the application of security methods even on the application level. Using various software methods implemented in the application, it is possible to increase and improve the overall level of protection. Organizational methods using these methods, critical applications are separated and isolated on the dedicated hosts. Dedicated hosts have a satisfactory security level, which is previously provided. The host can be regarded as main computer system or the computer system in the network of distributed processing in which the programs that will be executed at some of the low level computer systems are prepared. Since the host is a computer in the network, through which the connections are established and which manages the network functions, it is necessary to define certain rules of functioning. In accordance with adopted security policy, rules and authorizations for accessing particular data and applications are defined for these types of systems. Physical methods security architectures are planned through physical methods. The methods include the use of appropriate computer resources, through which the satisfactory security of the system is achieved. Group of physical security methods also includes the security of computer systems against unauthorized approach.
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6. SECURITY AND SECURITY SERVICE ASSESSMENT

Security service can imply the service that increases the security of the system for processing and transfer of data. Security services imply authentication of users and data, data integrity, data confidentiality, authorization, review, availability and the inability of denying the requested data. [4] In order for the business transactions to be secure, it is necessary to include the following security data: User authentication user authentication represents the verification of user. Authentication provides the systemic evidence that the user is really the one that claims he is. The most frequent form of authentication in private and public computer networks (including the Internet) is the verification of identity through user name and password. This form of security is considered the lowest degree of protection in computer networks. Authentication can be done in other ways, such as through physical devices that will guarantee the integrity of user. Some of the devices that are used for authentication are smart cards and tokens. Data authentication it is possible to include two subservices for data authentication: data integrity and data origin authentication. Data integrity implies that the one who receives the data can be sure that the data were not altered during the transit. Data origin authentication confirms to the data recipient that submitted data actually come from the specified sender. Data confidentiality while the data are transferred from one place to another, it is necessary to provide the protection against the disclosiure of any data, because of which the data enscryption is most frequently used. Data enscryption implies the use of adequate algorithms to ensure data confidentiality. Therefore, it can be said that security in electronic business depends on unbroken algorithms of confidentiality protection. Authorization represents the procedure of determining whether the entity has a right to perform some action (it occurs if the response is positive). Authorization confirms the reliability of the system that enables the transactions and services for e-business. Data review implies the historical review of actions that can be used for determining possible shortcomings, errors etc. In addition, the review also implies the time when the error has occurred and the cause of it. It also serves to find the last recorded correct state of information. Availability of the system ir order for the system to be considered secure, this is the criterion that must be satisfied. Availability refers to the requirement and obligation that the system needs to be available to those who need it, when and where they need it, regardless of the possible unexpected and unforeseeable events. Availability is obtained by implementation of high-quality software and hardware solutions. Inability of denial represents the evidence that the user actually requested and initiated the particular transaction, which means that the denial of transaction is imposible. Non-repudiation often includes the users request for digital signature. Digital signatures used for this purpose are unique for the users and they confirm that the user was actually included in some particular transaction. In order for the digital signature to be strong enough to provide non-repudiation of users actions, the process of merging user name and the key for signature (creation of a digital certificate) is performed in order to establish the the matching with previous data, with legal requirements.
7. ASPECTS OF SECURITY IN BUSINESS SYSTEM

Policy of information security of a business system is based on the following concepts: 1. Information entities, such as information subsystems, databases, data files, devices and transmission routes represent computing resources. All the computing resources must have the owner, i.e. the persons who are in charge of them. 2. Each owner of the computing resource should divide the data in classes. Data are classified as public, internal, confidential and secret. Public data represent the ones that are not confidential and available without negative consequences to business system. Internal data are those that include the selective approach. Confidential data need to be protected from external approach, because free approach to these data can cause financial loss for the system or it can harm the system in any way. Because of that, the data integrity is important. In addition, it is also important that the person who accesses the data has administrative authorizations and represents the confidential part of the company, i.e. the employee with the highest level of confidence. Security policy of the company needs to include the risk assessment, development of the clear policy of access and protection of the information, definition of the permits for accessimg the data, in order to fulfill the expectations. In addition, it is important to pay attention to human factor, because the people are usually the most sensitive spot of each security scheme. [5]
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Protection plan includes the determination of critical factors of success, and the realization of overall security of information system depends on successfully implemented plan. One of the main factors of success is the necessity that the activities linked for the entire security process are actively implemented and based on business requirements. In addition, the understanding of security risks to potential threats and vulnerability of the system. All the managers, employees and members of the enterprise have to be familiar with the basic concepts of system protection as well as its importance for the success of the company. Therefore, the guidelines for implementation of security policy and standards issued by the company or institution are given to all employees. All of that contributes to the comprehensiveness of the implementation of security policy. [9] Mechanisms of protection i.e. security mechanisms can provide the protection at multiple levels: at application level, at the level of operating system, level of network infrastructure and through the forms of procedural and operational protection. Besides from being efficient, the mechanism of protection should be as simple for use, and it should be applied in the same way in the entire system and at all levels. Security of the business system is contributed by the following precautions: Thoroughly testing of the software before the installation Sensitive data files need to be kept in databases with limited contact with external networks Block FTP and Telnet in order to disable the access to the system by unauthorized users Use passwords to access the system Regularly update the versions of software that are used, because the older versions are more susceptible to attacks.
8. SECURITY STANDARDS OF THE BUSINESS SYSTEMS (STANDARDS FOR SECURITY MANAGEMENT)

Business information systems are threathened by malicious attacks, because the flow of large amounts of information between information systems enables the attackers to penetrate the systems, causing big damage. The threats are also the computers of employees connected to the Internet, which facilitates the malicious approach to business data. By the development of information technologies, the threats to systems vulnerability are additionally increasing. In order to raise the business system security to a higher level, the implementation and documentation of the system of managing information security, i.e. the security management system is introduced. Information security management system represents a security measure whose aimis the reduction of attackers potential, and it refers to external and internal measures. This system is also and instrument through which the management of organization monitors and supervises the security of their information systems, in order to reduce the risk to minimum and ensures that security requirements fulfill corporation and legal obligations. [7] Modern technical solutions offered by information technologies are usually not sufficient to completely respond to malicious attacks on business information system. Therefore, the concept of security methods standardization becomes increasingly popular. One of the first countries that have accepted the concept of security methods standardization was the Great Britain (through the national body for standardization BSI) and very soon the other countries have joined it for the sake of developing the appropriate standards that cover this field. In that way, the first standards BS 7799-1 i BS 7799-2 (British Standard - BS) have appeared in the middle of the 1990s. Starting with the year 2000, the development of these standards was taken over by ISO with IEC, through Joint Technical Committee JTC. Concept of information security and standards ISO/IEC 17799 i 27001 have enabled an adequate approach to development, implementation and maintenance of Information Security Management System ISMS).[8] ISO/IEC 27000 represents a new standard series by ISO. ISMS family of standards includes: ISO/IEC 27000 ISMS there are the bases and vocabulary ISO/IEC 27001 ISMS sets the requirements ISO/IEC 27002 (ISO/IEC 17799 from 2007) represents the code of procedures, i.e. the practice for managing the information security ISO/IEC 27003 - ISMS provides instruction for implementation ISO/IEC 27004 represents the measurements in information security management ISO/IEC 27005 - standard for the information security risk management Some of the standards of this series are: ISO/IEC 27001:2005 and ISO/IEC 17799:2005. Standard ISO/IEC 17799:2005 prescribes which business practice is good practice in the field of information security. This standard is based on eleven security categories linked to the aspects of information security. Security categories: security policy, organization for information security, resource management, human resources security, physical security, communication and operations management, access control, supply,
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development and maintenance of information systems, security incidents management, business processes continuity management and compliance with legal and other regulations. [8] Security categories prescribe security objectives and controls for the successful realization of objectives. The controls represent a new way of managing the risks that refer to policy, procedures, instructions and organizational structures. Standard ISO/IEC 27001 establishes the requirements that the security management system needs to meet. Afterwards, the certification of ISMS is done according to this standard, if it is required. Requirements are based on the objectives and controls that are defined in the standard ISO/IEC 17799. ISO/IEC 27001 and ISO/IEC 17799 represent the principle of information security based on the concept of risk management. They define the risk assessment as the assessment of information threats, their influence to vulnerability of information system and determination of the probability of their occurrence. Standard ISO/IEC 27001 represents a process of ISMS implementation, which enables a systematic access to sensitive information management. This process includes the realization of all three security principles: confidentiality, integrity and availability. The relevant organizational resources, policy, procedures and information systems are included in the realization of security principles. ISO/IEC 27001:2005 represents an international standard that provides a model for establishing, implementation, execution, monitoring, reviewing, maintaining and improving the information security management system (ISMS). One of the strategic decisions of a business organization should most certainly be the adoption of ISMS. How will ISMS be integrated and implemented depends on the need and objectives of the enterprise, security requirements, implemented processes and organization structure. Such support systems are changing over the time. Very often, this standard is used to assess the compliance between internal and external interest parties. Process approach is an international standard by which the process approach for establishing, implementation, execution, monitoring, reviewing, maintenance and improvement of ISMS organization is adopted. In business system, any activity that uses resources and enables the transformation of inputs to outputs can be considered as a process. Practical examples demonstrate that very often the output from one process forms the entrance to another process. Plan-Do-Check-Act PDCA model is applied to the structure of all ISMS processes. PDCA model has the impact on the principles such as set of OECS instructions (2002) for the regulation of the security of information systems and networks. Norm ISO/IEC 17799 defines the guidelines for security control implementation, thus covering security policies, legal, physical and human components of information systems. Norm ISO/IEC 27001 refers to the specification with the procedures of use and implementation of the information security management system. This norm defines the instruction for establishing the acceptable level of information security.
9. CONCLUSION
Security in the field of information systems largely involves the security of computer technologies that are a set of tools for protection from malicious attacks. In addition, the security also refers to the data management security that includes the policy and security standards of business organization. For that reason, it is important to integrate security from the aspect of computer technologies with the aspect of managerial requirements. Today, modern purely technical solutions by information technologies are not enough to completely respond to the needs of security, and because of that, the concept of security methods standardization is becoming increasingly popular, and this concept pays special attention to non-technical aspects as well. E-business is a complex process based on various information systems, thus it is very important to pay attention to companys security policy, policy of access and protection of data, risk assessment and definition of permits for accessing the information. For business organization, the factor of success mostly depends on the level of possibilities for the activities linked to entire security process to be actively implemented and based on business requirements. It is especially important to focus on security risks that refer to potential threats and vulnerability of the system. All the members of the enterprise are informed aware of basic protection concepts, through the instructions for implementation of security policy and standards. Paying the attention to all the facts linked to security will most certainly contribute the comprehensiveness of the implementation of business system security policy. REFERENCES [1] Patricia A.H. Williams, In a trusting environment, everyone is responsible for information security, information security technical report 13 (2008) 207 215
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[2] Debi Ashenden, Information Security management: A human challenge?, information security technical report 13 (2008 ) 195 201 [3] Finn Olav Sveen i ostali, Blind information security strategy, INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CRITICAL INFRASTRUCTURE PROTECTION 2 (2009) 95 109 [4] Abdoul Karim Ganame i ostali, A global security architecture for intrusion detection on computer networks, computers & security 27 (2008) 30 47 [5] Sara Kraemer i ostali, Human and organizational factors in computer and information security: Pathways to vulnerabilities, computers & security 28 (2009) 509 520 [6] Colwill C, Human factors in information security: The insider threat e Who can you trust these days?, Inform. Secur. Tech. Rep. (2010), doi:10.1016/j.istr.2010.04.004 [7] J.F. Van Niekerk, R. Von Solms, Information security culture: A management perspective, computers & security 29 ( 2010 ) 476 486 [8] Mikko Siponen, Robert Willison, Information security management standards: Problems and solutions, Information & Management 46 (2009) 267270 [9] Eminagaoglu M i ostali, The positive outcomes of information security awareness training in companies A case study, Inform. Secur. Tech. Rep. (2010), doi:10.1016/j.istr.2010.05.002 [10] Lazarevic, A. i ostali (2005). Managing Cyber Threats: Issues, Approaches and Challenges, Chapter: A survey of Intrusion Detection techniques. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, doi: 10.1007/b104908 [11] Lazarevic, A. i ostali (2002). Cyber Threat Analysis A Key Enabling Technology for the Objective Force (A Case Study in Network Intrusion Detection), Proceeding of the IT/C4ISR, 23rd Army Science Conference, Orlando. Dostupno na: http://www.cs.umn.edu/research /MINDS/ papers/asc2002.pdf [6. februar 2010.] [12] Liepins, G., Vaccaro, H. (1989). Anomaly Detection Purpose and Framework, Proceedings of the 12th National Computer Security Conference, Baltimore, pp. 495-504 [13] Lucas, J. M., Saccucci, M. S. (1990). Exponentially Weighted Moving Average Control Schemes: Properties and Enhancements, Technometrics Vol.32, No. 1, pp.1-29. http://www.jstor.org/ pss/1269835 [14] Mahoney, M., Chan, P. (2002). Learning Nonstationary Models of Normal Network Traffic for Detecting Novel Attacks, Proceeding of the Eight ACM International Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining, Edmonton, ISBN:1-58113-567-X, pp. 376 - 385 [15] Manganaris i ostali (2000). A Data Mining Analysis of RTID Alarms, Computer Networks, vol. 34, No.4, pp. 571-577 [16] Montgomery, D. (2005). Introduction to StatisticalQuality Control, 5th Edition, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN: 978-0-471-65631-9. Dostupno na: http://bcs.wiley.com/he-bcs/ [17] Park, Y. (2005). A Statistical Process Control Approach for Network Intrusion Detection, PhD thesis, Georgia Institute of Technology. [18] http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.117.6775&rep=rep1&type=pdf [19] Pleskonji D. i ostali (2006). Sigurnost raunarskih mrea. Beograd: Via elektrotehnika kola [20] Reynolds i ostali (2001). EWMA Control Charts with Variable Sample Sizes and Variable Sampling Intervals. IIE Transactions 33, pp.511-530.
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RaDMI 2010
PWM CONTROL OF THE PNEUMATIC ACTUATOR BY PLC CONTROLLER

Stanimir ajetinac1, Dragan elija2, Slobodan Aleksandrov3, Milica Todorovi4
Engineering College, Trstenik, SERBIA, e-mail: caja.dublje@gmail.com Faculty of Technical Sciences, Novi Sad, SERBIA, e-mail: seslija@uns.ac.rs 3 Tehnika kola Trstenik, Trstenik, SERBIA, e-mail: aleksandrovs@yahoo.com 4 Engineering College, Trstenik, SERBIA, e-mail: mtodorovic_vtms@yahoo.com
2 1
Summary: The paper presents a new realization of the positional servo system based on the pneumatic actuator which is controlled by Programmable Logical Controller (PLC). The control is done by Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) and PID regulator is also applied as an integrated function of PLC. The algorithm is implemented at the experimental system which consists of the pneumatic cylinder with double action and two fast electromagnetic valves. The quality of tracking the reference curve in the shape of sine and pulse change has been tested in the experiments. Keywords: pneumatic servo control, PWM, PLC .
1. INTRODUCTION
Many research have been done in order to realize positional systems with pneumatic actuator because of numerous advantages of pneumatics over hydraulic and electrical servo systems. In most of these researches rather expensive proportional valve with direct control has been used. The proportional valve functions as follows: the armature takes some position between entirely open and closed position depending on the electrical signal. Thus the change of flow resistance is achieved. Instead of proportional valves and servovalves, on/off electromagnetic valves (2/2 or 3/2) are being investigated in order to develop cheap pneumatic servosystems. On/off electromagnetic valves take either entirely open or entirely closed position according to electric command. Pneumatic actuator with on/off electromagnetic valves can be controlled by Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) [1], [2]. In the case of PWM control, the valve is either entirely open or entirely closed and the control is done by the amount of holding time of the valve in its final positions. Therefore, the valve delivers discrete quantities of fluid mass whose amount depends on the command. If the frequency of valve opening and closing is much bigger than the limit frequency of the system, the system reacts to the mean value of discrete flow, which is also the case when continual flow is in question [3]. To realize PWM control, it is necessary to measure the monitoring error in real time, to estimate the duty cycle of the pulse based on the regulator applied, and to form the command. So far, these tasks have been mostly done by PCs with modules for acquisition or special devices based on microprocessors. Owing to reliability, favourable price, good computer and control abilities and easy maintenance, the programmable logical controllers have a big role in the process control and process automation. In this paper is shown the new way how Programmable Logical Controller (PLC) can be used to realize the PWM control of the pneumatic actuator.
2. SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
In order to test whether PLC could be used for PWM control of the pneumatic actuator, the experimental positional system has been formed as shown in Fig. 1. The system consists of pneumatic cylinder, electromagnetic valves a linear potentiometer and a PLC with a module for acquisition.
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3 4 2 1
7 5 6
Figure 1: Pneumatic scheme and system description: 1- electromagnetic valves, 2 - pneumatic cylinder, 3 guides and weights, 4 - linear potentiometer, 5 - PLC CP1L, 6 - acquisition module CP1W-MAD11, 7supply module 24V Two electromagnetic 3/2 valves have been used in the experiments, while the experiments done for the cases of one 5/3 valve and four 2/2 valves are stated in the references. In these experiments, the normally closed valves have been used, and it enables both chambers to be connected to atmospheric pressure; if the constant signal is applied to electromagnets, the chambers are connected to working pressure. In the case of positional error, the pulse series is applied to electromagnets, and their duty cycle is proportional to the error. The double action cylinder, 37x240, with a guide and weights for mass change, has been used. The pneumatic cylinder of unknown characteristics has been used on purpose in order to test whether randomly chosen actuator could be well controlled. Electromagnetic valve Festo MHE2 is used to transform the electrical signal into air flow. The characteristics of this valve are small dimensions, compact and easy structure, and very short opening time. The opening time can be either 2 ms for the option when electronics is built-in or 7 ms when there is no electronics [4]. In our case, the electronics is built-in, and it provides shorter response time and decreases the power of electric circuits needed for valve activation. The programmable logical controller is an industrial computer, and its complexity depends on its function so it can be simple or rather complex. Hardware and software are adjusted to the operation under industrial conditions, so they can be easily programmed and built into existing industrial systems. The PLC with two installed PWM outputs Omron CP1L is used in this research. Programmable PWM outputs set the frequency from zero to 6kHz with resolution 0,1 Hz, or from zero to 32 kHz with resolution 1 Hz. The duty cycle of the pulse is also programmable and can be set from zero to 100%, with resolution 0,1% and 1% in the first and second case, respectively. To measure the position, pressure and other quantities within monitoring process, input/output module CP1W-MAD11 is used with two analog inputs and one analog output and with resolution of 1/6000 of input range.
3. CONTROL
If T denotes the period of PWM signal, and Td denotes the time when the electromagnetic valve is turned on, the following quantity:
Td , T
(1)
is called the duty cycle and it is expressed in percents. If u denotes the control command for electromagnetic valve, then the signal can be expressed as follows
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24V za t dT , u = 0 za t > dT
where the duty cycle is d [0%, 100%] .
(2)
The point of PWM control is that the duty cycle d is calculated based on the error which represents the difference between the given and obtained values, in this case that is the piston position. The value obtained is measured at the potentiometer and transformed by A/D convertor, and that value is forwarded to the control unit as a feed back signals. The control unit compares the measured value with the given value and generates the error signal. Different algorithms can be used to calculate the duty cycle representing the control value. PID regulator is widely used so most of PLC manufacturers have built this regulator as a part of program environment. To realize PID regulator at CP1L within software package CX-PROGRAMER, the user himself sets the regulator parameters and uses PIDAT by setting the parameters automatically (PID auto tuning). PID algorithm is derived based on the following formula [5] (Fig. 2):
u( t ) =
1 d K p , e (t ) + T e (t )dt Td dt y (t ) i
(3)
In Fig. 2, as well as in the formula, is shown that differential action in this option of PID regulator does not apply to the error, but it is applied to the control value. Thus big changes of control value are avoided during sudden changes of the error. Low frequent filtration is applied to the reference signal to avoid large and sudden changes of control value due to disturbance or sudden changes of the reference signal. For automatic setting of the parameters, the limit cycle method is used [5]. The program forcibly changes the control value from its minimum to maximum value, and at the same time it monitors the output. PID constants are calculated on the basis of observed characteristics and after that they are used to estimate the control signal. In the program developed here, the function block PIDAT is called in each scanning cycle (1,2 ms) while the auto tuning of parameters is done only at the beginning of control sequence. filtration of the reference signal proportional and integral action
1 + (1 )Ti / 1 + Ti /
+ -
Kp +
Kp Ti /
+ -
K p Td / 1 + Td /
differential action
Figure 2: PID regulator realized by PIDAT function: r - reference signal, y - output, e - error, u - control signal, Kp proportional constant, Ti - integral constant, Td - differential constant, - sampling time
The program for PLC has been developed for described experimental model by using development environment CX PROGRAMER. Furthermore, the tracking of the reference signal in the form of rectangular pulse series (Fig. 3) and sine reference signal has been tested (Fig. 4). In Fig. 3 is shown the tracking error and calculated duty cycle of PWM signal. The PWM signal frequency of 25 Hz has been chosen due to response time of pneumatic valve and delay in pneumatic lines [6].
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200 180 160 140 120 40 20 0 -20 -40
360
greska error ( % punog hoda) (% full-scale)
320 280 240 200 160 120
100
pomeraj klipa position ( % punog hoda)
(% full-scale)
0 100
100 80 60 40 20 0 0,0 3,3 6,6 9,9 13,2 16,5 19,8 23,1 26,4 29,7 33,0 36,3 39,6 42,9 46,2 49,5 52,8 56,1 Samopodeavanje PID Autotuning PID
pomeraj klipa position (% punog hoda) (% full-scale)
0 80 40 0
praenje actual referentni signal reference greka error
actual komanda rarzvodnika 2 reference komanda razvodnika 1 referentni signal duty cycle 1 praenje duty cycle 2
0,0 3,4 6,8 10,2 13,6 17,0 20,4 23,8 27,2 30,6 34,0 37,4 40,8 44,2 47,6 51,0 54,4 57,8
Time (s)
vreme (s)
vreme (s) Time (s)
Figure 3: Tracking the reference pulse signal with the layout of error and duty cycles
1
For data acquisition and data display PLC is also used as well as the function Time chart monitoring within the program package CX PROGRAMER. The data are in the file which is later called in from EXCEL for graphical presentation. Extremely good tracking of the given position has been achieved (Fig. 3) which is the result of well chosen components and proper application of the regulator. In previous experiments in which P regulator was used, the error of 1% to 2% was obtained in the stationary state. The error in the stationary state has been eliminated when PID regulator with automatic parameter setting is applied. Tracking of sine reference signal of various frequencies has been also tested (Fig. 4). There is almost no amplitude weakening of the frequency of the reference signal of 0,5 Hz, but delay effects are noticeable as well as deformation of the sinusoid due to nonlinear effects. With the increase in frequency of the reference signal, the amplitude weakening occurs, so it is about 4% for the frequency of 1 Hz.
80 80
pomeraj (% (% punog hoda) position full-scale)
position full-scale) pomeraj (% (% punog hoda)
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
0,00 0,92 1,84 2,76 3,68 4,60 5,52 6,44 7,36 8,28 9,20 10,12 11,04 11,96 12,88 13,80 14,72 15,64 16,56 17,48 18,40 19,32
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0,00 1,08 2,16 3,24 4,32 5,40 6,48 7,56 8,64 9,72 10,80 11,88 12,96 14,04 15,12 16,20 17,28 18,36 19,44
actual referentni signal reference pracenje
actual referentni signal pracenje reference
0,5Hz
1Hz
vreme (s) Time (s)
vreme(s) (s) Time
Figure 4: Tracking the sine reference signal In Fig. 5 is shown the influence of load on the tracking quality.
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faktor faktor duty duty ispune (%) ispune (%) cycle (%) cycle (%) komanda 1 komanda 2 Outlet 1 Outlet 2
90
pomeraj (% hoda) position (%punog full-scale)
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0,0 3,1 6,2 9,3 12,4 15,5 18,6 21,7 24,8 27,9 31,0 34,1 37,2 40,3 43,4 46,5 49,6 52,7 55,8 praenje actual
reference signal
referentni
Autotuning PID Samopodeavanje PID
no mass added
vreme(s) (s) Time
58,9
pracenje actual
90 80
pomeraj (% (% punog hoda) position full-scale)
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0,0 3,0 6,0 9,0 12,0 15,0 18,0 21,0 24,0 27,0 30,0 33,0 36,0 39,0 42,0 45,0 48,0 51,0 54,0 57,0 Samopodeavanje PID Autotuning PID
reference signal
referentni
mass 2kg
vreme(s) Time (s)

90 80
pomeraj (% punog hoda) position (% full-scale)
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0,0 2,9 5,8 8,7 11,6 14,5 17,4 20,3 23,2 26,1 29,0 31,9 34,8 37,7 40,6 43,5 46,4 49,3 52,2 55,1 Samopodeavanje PID Autotuning PID praenje actual
reference signal
referentni
mass 4kg
58,0
vreme(s) (s) Time
Figure 5: Tracking the reference pulse signal with different masses at the piston rod The support is built in the piston rod of the experimental model and the weights can be mounted on it. The following cases have been tested: no additional mass at the piston rod, 2 kg at the piston rod, and 4 kg at the piston rod. The pressure in the pneumatic system in all cases is 5 bars. The tracking remains good if the mass increases when the error in the stationary state is in question, but the transient quality gets worse. The transient becomes more and more oscillatory with the increase of mass. Whether PID algorithm is enough in real application or whether a complex one should be applied, it depends on the requirements of the concrete actuator.
5. CONCLUSION
The paper shows the results of the newly developed servo position control obtained with cheap, standard, on/off valves and commercially available PLC. The control by fast electromagnetic valves has been applied by pulse width modulation (PWM). Standard PLC has been used for position measurement, error calculation and PWM signal generation. As the control algorithm, PID regulator, which has been realized at applied PLC, has been used with auto tuning. The results obtained show that PWM principle of control gives a good quality of the signal tracking at the considerably lower costs and that PLC with standard program support can be used for its realization. In further research it will be necessary to test the control quality at other types of actuators and application of more complex types of regulators.
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REFERENCES
[1] Barth, E.J.; Zhang, J. & Goldfarb, M.: Control Design for Relative Stability in a PWM-Controlled Pneumatic System, ASME Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measurement, and Control, Vol. 125, (2003) [2] Shen, X.; Zhang, J. and Barth, E.J.: Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) Sliding Mode Control of Pneumatic Servo Systems, ASME Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measurement, and Control, Vol. 6, (2004) [3] Shen, X.; Zhang, J.; Barth, E.J. and Goldfarb, M.: Nonlinear Averaging Applied to the Control of Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) Pneumatic Systems, Proceeding of the 2004 American Control Conference, Boston, Massachusetts, June 30 - July 2, (2004) [4] Festo website, Fast switching valve MHE2, Available on Web site: http://www.festo.com, [5] OMRON 2005, CP1H/CP1L CPU Unit, PROGRAMMING MANUAL, Cat. No. W451-E1-03 [6] itum, .; ili, T. and Essert, M.: High Speed Solenoid Valves in Pneumatic Servo Applications, Proceedings of the Mediterranean Conference on Control &Automation, Athens, Greece, July 27-29, (2007).
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RaDMI 2010
ICT AND THERMOGRAPHY IN MINING INDUSTRY

Zvonko Damnjanovi, Dejan Petrovi, Vitomir Mili, Radoje Pantovi
Technical Faculty in Bor, University of Belgrade, V.J. 12, 19210 Bor, SERBIA, e-mail: dpetrovic@tf.bor.ac.rs
Summary: Maintenance of large systems is cost, which increases the business and where it is very difficult to determine priorities. If we add that most systems are not properly maintained for years, our word is the disrepair, it still exist dilemma which way to go. Thermal imaginig analysis can be quickly and precisely find the critical parts of the system that can produce failure of the same. We can located the areas where the temperature are higher on constructions because of dynamic tension during operation of the system. Adequately and timely action on those parts of the system to prevent unnecessary delays in production. Also, reduce the cost of system maintenance. Key words: thermography, thermal camera, temperature, tension, mining.
1. INTRODUCTION
We live in a world where new technologies on the market every day brings news, new devices, applications and interesting. The development of most products, which are still in common use derives from military areas (radar, GPS, jet engines ...). The same situation is with Thermography, which was developed for the military at the beginning of last century.
2. PRINCIPLES OF THERMAL IMAGINING ANALYSIS

It is fact that every body emit some quantity of heat if it is has temperature higher than absolute temperature. Every part of electromagnetic spectrum gives some information about object or process where it is generated, Figure 1. While visible part of spectrum gives information about morphology characteristic of object and very specific information of colors, thermal properties of process or object manifest in infrared part of electromagnetic radiation. Infrared thermography is traditional method for temperature mapping of objects. This methodology is special applicable for visualization distribution of temperature on electronic devices like as PC boards, hybrid modules, printed boards, as well as detection of overheating places of every system in which are manifesting dissipation temperature. Thermography is the recording of heat things. It is known that all objects emit a certain amount of heat (even ice). Monitoring of heat emissions has found wide application in the monitoring of different advents in different parts of industry. Measurements of thermal cameras belong to the group who testing without destroying materials and provide continuously, accurately and quickly determine the temperature distribution system is analyzed in real terms. Therefore, it allows to be carried out without contact temperature measuring facility. IR camera in the construction is similar to a digital video camera. Certain infrared cameras have a built-in software that allows the user to focus on specific areas of OMS and the calculated temperature. Other systems use a computer or data system with specialized software that allows the temperature analysis. Analysis of thermo vision information give us possibility to make poly semantic comparative comparing thermograms and allowing a comprehensive analysis of problems and preventive action. Thermal cameras, which are sometimes referred to as infrared cameras, are able to register the minimal differences in temperature and convert them into a clear thermal image, which can spot the smallest details. Unlike other technologies who require a small amount of light to give an image, thermal technology can see in total darkness. Her light is not needed.
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Thermal cameras record images in infrared area of 7.5-13m with a spectral resolution objects is performed on of 1.3mrad. The infrared spectrum in this area give us information about distribution of temperature on the surface of the observed object or process.
Visible part of spectrum 400-700 nm UV radiation gamma ray x ray Microwave IR radiation Radiowave
Figure 1: Electromagnetic spectrum of radiation
he results of analysis IR image are visual information with intensity, measured IR radiation which are represented by color. Provided thermal imaging pictures are pseudo-images obtained using appropriate LUT tables or program linking temperature for color. In this way the user get immediate information on the distribution of temperature on the observed object in the form of visual information. Termography has found a great application in all spheres of society: mechanical and electrical industry, construction, mining, processing industry, wood processing industry, car industry, medicine, police, rescue and fire services . . .
3. PLANCK`S LAW
Black body is defined as an object that absorbs all active radiation at all wavelengths. Max Planck (1858-1947) was able to describe the distribution of spectrum with black-body radiation using the formula: (1) where are: Wb c h k T Black body radiation at wavelenght Velocity of light 3 x 108 m/s Planck`s const 6.6 x 10-34 J/s Boltzmann const1.4 x 10-23 J/K Absolute temperature of black body Wavelenght
* Factor 10-6 is taken because the black body radiation is expresed in W/m2m. If the factor not used, the unit is W/m2m. When the graphic display Planck's formula for different temperatures, gives the related curve. Following the Planck curve for a temperature range of emissions is equal to zero for = 0, then quickly grows to a maximum at
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max, and then decreases to zero at high wavelength. The higher the temperature, the lower the wavelength at which achieves maximum (max) for each curve.
Spectral radiation
Wavelength
Figure 2: Planck's law introduced in the scheme log - coordinate system. Dashed line represents the locus of maximum temperature to Wien`s law When Planck`s formula is integrate for the values of = 0 to = , we get a total black body radiation: (2) This is the Stefan-Boltzmann formula, which shows that the total emissivity of the black body is proportional to the fourth degree of temperature. Graphically, the Wb is the area under the Planck curve for each temperature.
4. THERMOGRAPHY IN MINING
Possibility for using thermo vision camera in mining industry is very large, for the simple reason that the process of the exploitation and processing ore are very complex with use complex machinery and equipment. Therefore production is accompanied by numerous delays because of failures on equipment and machinery. That is real place of action and implementation thermal cameras in mining process, the monitoring and early detection of critical elements of the system and produce possibility for preventive action. Tracking changes of temperature by thermal camera to the equipment and facilities, as consequence of the tension, is applicable in nearly all phases of underground and surface exploitation, such as: - detecting and monitoring changes tension on the parts of excavators( arrows, bucket carrier, bucket and device for movement); - control temperature of some parts of electric engine; - temperature monitoring device for braking on trucks; - measuring the temperature of electric motors, couplings, bearings, axles and construction, drive and recurrent station of belt conveyors; - measure and check tension on construction console spreader of belt conveyors; - measuring the temperature bearings of electrical motors and mills for grinding ore, pumps, crushing plants; - determining the thickness of sheath mills and tension in the same; - determination location of the underground truck chassis where the biggest tension occur; - measuring the temperature of engine parts, device for cooling and exhaust system of underground trucks; - analysis posture of a underground truck`s tires; - in electrical substation for detection overweight loaded fuses, electrical transformers, electrical cables, switchers . . .
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On the next figure we can see one of lots example using thermal camera for detecting temperature on working device of continous excavator.
Figure 3: Thermal camera image and common picture of SCHRS 800 continous excavator
Figure 4: Thermal camera image and common picture of Komatsu PC 4000 excavator
Figure 5: Thermal camera image and common picture of device for moving Komatsu PC 4000 excavator
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Figure 6: Thermal camera image and common picture of hydraulic system Komatsu PC 4000 excavator Thermal camera can also be used for: detection and monitoring cracks in the sides open mine pits; - detection of cracks in buildings that are close to open pit ( crushing plant stands, workshops, stands belt conveyors); - disclosure parts of underground mines in which oxidative processes are progress like direct indicator of mine fires; - controlling oxidative processes on landfills of coal and detect occurrence of fire in the same; - monitoring of tensions in security pillars around underground chambers and pillars in rooms for excavation . . .
Figure 7: Thermal camera image and common picture of flotation mill
Figure 8: Bollard of frame recorded during higher speed of continous excavator
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Figure 9: Above part of frame recorded during higher speed of continous excavator
4. CONCLUSION
Use the themography in industry allows monitoring the system without stops operation of machinery and equipments, in very short time period reveals location in the system where damages may occur. Application thermal systems for the analysis of industrial structure has shown that the system is an effective tool to identify the distribution of tension in dynamically loaded structures. The system is useful for preliminary quantification of the level of tension, with additional analysis can be applied to analyze the development of fatigue load. Using thermography recording and monitoring in industrial maintenance we can reduce direct maintenance costs, reduce losses due to delays and interruption of production and allows the development effective preventive maintenance plan.
REFERENCES
[1] Z. Stevi, Z.Damnjanovi, V.Nikoli, M. Raji-Vujasinovi Termovizija u elektro energetskim i industrijskim postrojenjima, CD SEFIC 2005. Dubrovnik [2] www.infratec.de/thermographie [3] HelpTopics: SnapViewPro 2.1. [6] www.infraredmechanical.com [7] Prof Dr Vidosav D. Majstorovi, Upravljanje kvalitetom proizvoda, Mainski fakultet, Beograd, 2000. [8] www.flirthermography.com/about [9] www.infraredsolutions.com [10] www.InfraTec.co.uk
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RaDMI 2010
ADVANCES ON COMPUTATIONAL DYNAMICS OF WHEEL LOADER BUCKET CHARGING

Carmen Debelac, Silviu Nstac, Silviu MCUT
University Dunrea de Jos , Galai, ROMANIA, e-mail: Silviu.Macuta@ugal.ro
Summary: This paper deal with a study of working techniques influences of human factor in digging process development with a wheel loader and presents some concluding remarks about comparative analysis of usual operating cases. The entire simulation and analysis activities was developed supposing the simple penetration process of the working tool (e.g. loader bucket) into the bags of material. The evaluation of the penetration process efficiency was studied, from the technological viewpoint, relative for two different working cases. A special computer program performed by software MATLAB/SimulinkR7 has been developed for this simulation of earthmoving machine dynamic behaviour. Keywords : computational dynamics, wheel loader, bucket loading process, simulation.
1. INTRODUCTION
The operation of an earthmoving machine involves the correlation between many factors, such as: the productivity (material loaded per time), fuel efficiency (fuel consumed per loaded unit), and operability. During the charging process of the loader, each phase of the working cycle is influenced by the different parameters (because of the internal and/or external actions), which increase overall performances by generated dynamical actions into the equipment structure and the hydraulic drive-system [1], [6]. The author presents in this paper a comparative study of two of the most usual possibilities for bucket loading with a wheel loader through the penetration operation.
2. THEORETICAL SUPPOSITIONS
Let's starting this analysis with a few theoretical suppositions about dynamic equations of motion. The drive system on most of earthmoving vehicles is a hydraulic transmission using wheel-mounted hydraulic motors. A simple mass representing the loader mass is used in conjunction with the tire model, such as it can be seen in Figure 1. The dynamic equation for the machine translation motion is [2], [3]
& = Ft Fr Ftool m& x
(1)
where m is the mass of machine, x is the machine displacement, Fr is the rolling resistance force, and Ftool is the tool resistance force in loading process. The driving mechanism of the hydraulic loader was simulated as a real system consisting of a Diesel engine, elastic couplings and hydraulic motors for each wheel. Figure 2 represents its equivalent elastic-kinetic model with two revolving masses and one elastic constraint.
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(a) (b) Figure 1: Vehicle dynamics model (a) and loader wheel model (b). Supposing the scheme represented in Figure 1, the mathematical model of reduced dynamic model presented in Figure 2 is [8]
&&1 + k (1 2 ) + M fr 1 sgn( &1 ) = M 1 J 1 && & & J 2 2 k (1 2 ) + M fr 2 sgn( 2 ) + M r sgn( 2 ) = M 2 = Ft r
(2)
Figure2: Reduced dynamic model of driving mechanism of the wheel loader. where J1 denote the Diesel engine moment of inertia; J2 is the hydraulic engine moment of inertia; 1 denote the angular deformation of the Diesel engine-hydraulic engine coupling; 2 denote the angular deformation of the hydraulic engine-wheel coupling; M1 is driving torque of the hydraulic engine; M2 is driving torque applied to the wheel; Mr is rolling resistance moment; Mfr denote the friction resistance torque; Ft denote the traction force; k is the coupling stiffness; r denote the wheel rolling radius; sgn denote the signum function. The drive load consists of the inertial torque associated with the tire, wheel, and motor as well as the torque generated by the longitudinal and frictional forces presents between the tire and the ground. The rolling resistance is simulated as a constant and is dependent on machine weight and a slip factor based on the operating surface of the vehicle. In order to reproduce very well the effect of traction and friction forces was developed different models [14], [15], but in this paper was adopted the Oproescu model [8], [10].
3. MODELLING OF LOADING MATERIAL

Actually, the bucket loading process suppose that the loader mass is variable with the operating time. In the proposed simulation was considered this fact and it was formulated a specific law of its variation as a function of material mass that was loaded from the prism in the technological process. In Figure 3 is depicted the schematic diagram for evaluation of this law starting from the hypothesis that the bucket volume must be equal with the loaded material volume. Based on the scheme depicted in Figure 3 it was established the next expressions
mm (x ) = ku b A(x ) g
(3)
A(x ) =
tg tg x2 2(tg + tg )
(4)
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mm (x ) = ku
b tg tg 2 x 2 g tg + tg
(5)
where b denote the bucket width, A(x) denote the side area of bucket, material, and ku denote the loosening coefficient of supposed material.
denote the specific weight of loaded
denote the embankment angle of the bags of material; denote the swoop angle of the bucket;
x denote the bucket displacement into the material. Finally, results the variation law of the loader mass during the main working phase of penetration into the bags of material
Figure 3: The bucket movement into the loading process [9].
m(x ) = m + mm ( x )
(6)
where m is the proper mass of the loader equipment without serviceable charge (with empty bucket). For the effective simulation it was supposed the next values of the equipment and the handled material: m = 5000 kg; b=2 m; =500; =600; =21500 N/m3; ku =1.3. Hereby, the expression (6) become
m(x ) = 5000 + 2000 x 2
(7)
A model for the resistance force at the bucket, during the digging process, has been developed in previous researches [4], [5], [6]. These forces include payload weight, penetration resistance, compaction force under the bucket, force from bucket internal material pressure, and the frictional force between the bucket and the material. These can be resolved into the generalized horizontal and vertical digging forces. The equation (8) describes the horizontal force expression for the entire penetration process
3 2 A1 x + A2 x + A3 x , x L Ftool = 2 3 2 A1 x + A2 x + A3 x + A4 (x L ) , x > L
(8)
where A1A4 are the influence coefficients and L denote the bucket width. The analitical expressions for A1...A4 coefficients, based on which it can be evaluate any other simulation cases than the presented, are
A1 = 4 1 3 tg + tg 2 2 2 0 tg tg 1 + sin tg 45 2
(9)
A2 =
k1 k 2 tg tg + 0.5 b tg 1 + sin 2 tg + tg
(10)
A3 = k1 k 2 b + 0.5ku b tg 1 + sin 2
)
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(11)
(12) A4 = b tg 2 tg 2 45 2 (x L )2 2 here k1 is the horizontal cutting resistance; k2 denote the coefficient depending on bucket edge conditions; b is the bucket width ; 1,2 denotes the friction coefficients (metal-to-soil, and respectively soil-to-soil). The others parameters have the same meaning from the equations (3...5). For the proposed analysis cases, supposing the numerical values of main parameters of the equipment, the influence coefficients A1...A4 have the next values:
A1=1220 N/m3;A2=18516 N/m2;A3=15600 N/m; A4=1886 N/m2.
4. SIMULATION RESULTS
For the beginning, the author describes the basic hypothesis needed for simulation the penetration bucket operation with a loader. Hereby - the machine are going from starting point with the bucket in the low position; - the engine speed is developing by the operators without handling shocks; - the equipment have displacements in the alignment; - the bucket penetrates into the material prism and is loaded until the equipment start skating; at this moment the computations stops. The first simulation case supposes that the equipment uses the entire available power for movement (24kW), and the bucket is complete loaded at the moment of skating emergence and stopping the analysis. The second case, when the equipment uses only the 75% from the available power for movement (18kW), the velocity in digging process have a small increment from v=1m/s to v=1.25m/s, and is being on impossibility to growing up to the upper limit speed. After this phase, the velocity decrease and the equipment start skating. In this case, the bucket is loaded only 72% of its capacity. A special computer application performed by software MATLAB/Simulink-R7 has been developed for simulation and analysis of this earthmoving behaviour [13], [16]. Figures 4 - 9 show the comparative simulation results for the load dynamics of a typical 4WD wheel loader. The parameters that were used to obtain these results are presented in Table 1.
Parameter m J1 J2 Mr Mf1=Mf2 Fr
Table 1: Drive load parameters values Value Parameter Value 5000 kg r 0.5 m 2 0.17 kgm k 20000 N/m 1 kgm2 L 1m & 1.2...3.2 rad/s 2000 N 1
4N 3500 N
& max x
max mm
1.6 m/s 1250 kg
Figure 4: The power vs. time functions diagram; continuous line denote bucket penetration with v<1.6m/s and dashed line denote bucket penetration with v=1.6m/s.
Figure 5:The engine speed vs. time diagram; continuous line denote bucket penetration with v<1.6m/s and dashed line denote bucket penetration with v=1.6m/s.
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Figure 6: The bucket speed vs. time diagram; continuous line denote bucket penetration with v<1.6m/s and dashed line denote bucket penetration with v=1.6m/s.
Figure 7:The total mass vs. time diagram; continuous line denote bucket penetration with v<1.6m/s and dashed line denote bucket penetration with v=1.6m/s.
Figure 8: The driving torque vs. time diagram; continuous line denote bucket penetration with v<1.6m/s and dashed line denote bucket penetration with v=1.6m/s.
Figure 9: The bucket displacement vs. time diagram; continuous line denote bucket penetration with v<1.6m/s and dashed line denote bucket penetration with v=1.6m/s.
5. CONCLUDING REMARKS
Real-time simulation of loading bucket process with a wheel loader has been presented in this paper. The results of simulation illustrate the interaction between the powertrain system and medium (characteristics of the material that will be loading). In these particular cases (only penetration phase), the loading on the powertrain system are caused by the inertial effects due to the transmission, payload mass and the forces encountered during the penetration bucket into the bags of material. As such a time evolution of these penetration processes it had to be mentioned that after 1.3 seconds from pile penetration, the resistant force of the soil increase and the slip phenomenon appears. At this moment, the machine velocity decreases from maximal value (1.6 m/s), and the simulation is stopped. Figures 49 show a stable behaviour of throughout for the simulation of the main analysed parameters (driving torque, traction force, wheel velocity, engine speed). The simulation was developed for a loader in this technological working phase, because the most engine power is required during bucket filling. The human operator plays an active role in keeping of the stable behaviour of powertrain drive parameters described above in order to perform the assigned working task. Future works will study the presence of oscillations in the power supply like a reflection of the operators bucket filling technique and the place conditions.
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ACKNOWLEDMENTS
The development of these simulations has been performed at the Modeling Department of the Research Center for Mechanics of the Machines and Technological Equipments at the University "Dunarea de Jos" of Galati, Engineering Faculty in Braila, Romania.
REFERENCES
[1] Axinti, G., The analysis of structural, dynamic and energetic performances for the frontal loader with bucket, Impuls Publishing House, Bucharest, Romania, 1998. [2] Axinti, G., Compendiu de mecanica (Mechanics Digest), UTM Publishing House , Chisinau, 2008. [3] Bratu, P., Mecanica teoretica (Theoretical Mechanics), Impuls Publishing House, Bucharest, Romania, 2006. [4] Debeleac, C., The analysis of dynamic stage of speedy frontal loader with a view to establish the qualities performances (Analiza regimului dinamic la incarcatoarele frontale rapide in vederea stabilirii performantelor de calitate), Doctoral Thesis, University "Dunarea de Jos" of Galati, 2006. [5] Debeleac., C., Nastac, S., The influence of the non-linear dynamic rezistance behaviour from the frontal loader bucket in a loading process (Influenta comportarii dinamice neliniare a rezistentei la cupa unui incarcator frontal la saparea simpla), U.T.C.B., Bucharest, Romania, pp. 49-52, 2001. [6] Debeleac, C., Vibratory Diagnosis of the Earthmoving Machines for the Additional Necessary Power Level Evaluation, ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY for ACOUSTICS & MUSIC, Bucharest, Romania, June 24-26, 2008, p. 83-88. [7] Silviu Mcu, A. Gabriel, I. Casian, N. Chifan, Metode numerice cu aplicaii n inginerie, Didactic and Pedagogical Publishing House, Bucharest, Romania, 2005, ISBN 973-30-1882-1. [8] Oproescu, Gh., Cautes, Gh., The modelling a drive system with friction coupling, The Proceedings of the XXVIIth Conference on Bodies Mechanics, Pitesti, Romania, pp. 75-80, 2003. [9] Takahashi, H., Simulation of the resistive forces acting on the bucket of wheel loader by use of DEM, Proceedings of 5th Conference ISTVS, Seoul Korea, pp.37-44, 1998. [10] Tomulescu, L., Oproescu, Gh., Aspects of Coulombian and Uncoulombian dry Friction, 1st International Conference of PhD Students, University of Miskolc, Hungay, pp. 283-286, 1997. [11] Nastac, S., Rheological model for stress and strain analysis of the soils subjected to the compaction technological process, The Proceedings of the 3rd Interdisciplinary Technical National Symposium, Engineering Faculty in Braila, october 1997. (181-184). [12] Debeleac, C., Nastac, S., On analysis of mathematical models intended to the forces that appears at soil digging with bucket working tool, The Proceedings of the VIIIth National Symposium of Construction Equipments, Bucharest, december 12-13, 2002, ISBN 973-8165-73-3, (165-168). [13] Wilson, H.B., Turcotte, L.H., Halpern, D., Advanced Mathematics and Mechanics Applications Using Matlab, Third Edition, Chapman&Hall / CRC Press, 2003. [14] F. P. Bowden, D. Tabor. The friction and lubrication of solids. Oxford University Press. See Part II, Chapter IV, 1964. [15] *** Union International de Chemin de Fer, code UIC 541-4, Tom V - Materiel de transport. Frein. Semells de frein en materiaux composites pour le trafic international, 1972. [16] *** Simulink: Users Guide, Dynamic System Simulation Software. The MathWork Inc., 1997.
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RaDMI 2010
METHOD FINITE ELEMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND SIMULATION TECHNOLOGY PROCESS IN THE CONTEXT CONCURRENT ENGINEERING
Dragan M. Eri
Company Sloboda, Ratka Mitrovi b.b., 32000 aak, SERBIA, e-mail: ericmdragan@yahoo.com
Summary: This work contains application symulation technology in the concept concurrent engineering. This organisation includes software simulation in technology process. Essential component for this technology is application Finite Element Method. Simulation method is include in CAD/CAM/CAE technology and this is very important element Virtual engineering process.There is a lot of benefits about implementation this newconcept in modern manufacturing systems. Key words: Concurrent engineering, Virtual engineering, Simulation technology, Finite element Method, CAD/CAM/CAE technology.
1. INTRODUCTION
Manufacturing firms are forced to devise in new information systems and more intensive methods for both product design and processes development. Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) system is more attractive and useful for survival of a manufacturing company in quickly changing marketplaces. The use of CIM systems requires a large number of advanced computer tools and high information and and manufacturing technologies to assist the design of products and processes.
2. CONCEPT APLICATION ANALYSIS AND SIMULATION TECHNOLOGY

Advanced CAD/CAM/CAE (figure 1) is platform for Engineering Analysis and Simulation in development technology systems. The big advantage, today, for implementing Analysis and Simulation is the extensive development of computer aided engineering. By using computer aided engineering all facets of the product development process can access a same design and can innovate and improve the design from the different disciplines by using a common computer aided engineering database. In the concept concurrent engineering segment simulation and analysis is very important part. This segment have direct conection with two significants activity (CAD-Computer Aided Design and CAM-Computer Aided Manufacturing). At present day for simulation technology process very a lot of using is Finite Elements Method and software for simulation. Nonlinear analysis based on the finite element method (FEM) is one essential component of computer-aided design (CAD/CAE). Manufacturing and testing of prototypes is increasingly being replaced by the use of nonlinear FE simulations because it provides a more rapid and less expensive way to evaluate manufacturing and design concepts. However, the use of nonlinear finite element technique requires an understanding of the fundamental concepts for finite element analysis. FEM is a numerical technique for finding approximate solutions of partial differential equations as well as of integral equations. The solution approach is based either on eliminating the differential equation completely (steady state problems), or rendering the PDE into an approximating system of ordinary differential equations, which are then numerically intgreted using standard techniques such as Euler's method, Runge-Kutta, etc (Wikipedia). For illustrate the finite element method using two sample problems from which the general method can be extrapolated. It is assumed that the reader is familiar with calculus and linear algebra.
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Figure 1: Working environment CAD/CAM/CAE systems P1 is one-dimensional problem:
where f is gaven and u is an unknown function of x, and u" is the second derivate of u with respect to x. The two-dimensional sample problem is the Dirichlet problem:
Where is a connected open region in the (x,y) plane whose boundary is nice, and Uxx and Uyy denote the second derivatives with respect to x and y, respectively. The problem P1 can be solved directly by computing antiderivatives. However, this method of solving the boundary value problem works only when there is only one spatial dimension and does not generalize to higherdimensional problems or to problems like u + u = f. For this reason, we will develop the finite element method for P1 and outline its generalization to P2. Our explanation will proceed in two steps, which mirror two essential steps one must take to solve a boundary value problem (BVP) using the FEM. - In the first step, one rephrases the original BVP in its weak, or variational form. Little to no computation is usually required for this step. The transformation is done by hand on paper. - The second step is the discretization, where the weak form is discretized in a finite dimensional space. After this second step, we have concrete formulae for a large but finite dimensional linear problem whose solution will approximately solve the original BVP. This finite dimensional problem is then implemented on a computer. 2.1. Analysis and simulation in concurrent engineering Concurrent engineering (CE) is a systematic approach to the integrated and concurrent design of products and related processes, including aspects as diverse as manufacture and support. In small and medium-sized companies implementation some elements concurrent engineering has next flowchart (figure 2). In first time accent is at next programs: - Introduction modern CAD/CAM/CAE Systems,
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- Paralel work teams for projekt products and project technology and - Introduction methods simulation (simulation engineering). This is new concept in Development Manufacturing System and there is big difference in relation to old concept known as sequential engineering (SE). In simulation process with Finite Elements Method there is very fast possibility for definition stress-condition. Input data for simulation (FEM) are: - parametar process, - parametar material, - technical drawing. Data output from simulation yes stress analysse. Finite Element (FE) simulations are used extensively in e.g. the sheet metal stamping industry where the technology has contributed to a better understanding of chosen sheet metal forming processes and where the prediction capabilities has significantly reduced the time consuming, inexact and costly die tryouts. However, reliability of the numerical simulations depends not only on the models and methods used but also on the accuracu and applicability of the input data. The material model and related property data must be consistent with the conditions of the material in the process of interest. In addition, creating as little deviance as possible between the FE model and experimental setup is a prerequisite for the correlation between predicted and measured values. Naturally, difficulties regarding e.g. modelling and estimations of friction arise, among others.
IDEA
Form teams
- Marketing, - Ofice for research - Information
Development office
Technology office
Technological good
Construction bureau CAD/CAM software CAD-modul
Technological bureau CAD/CAM software CAM-modul
Finite elem.
method
Simulation engineering CAD/CAM/CAE, RP/RT/RE, VR technology, Finite Elements Method
Result simulation good
a
Documentation
Figure 2; Concept Concurrent Engineering
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CAD - modul
CAM - modul
CAE-PROCESS
Input data
- Simulation software - RP/RT technology, - RE technology, - VR technology - Finite Element Analysys
Simul-software
Output data
d
Figure 3: Concept Simulations process
3. CONCLUSION
A successful implementation of concurent engineering involves rethinking how processes were executed in the past, and movingtoward employee empowerment and open communication between all organizations. All these changes require a modification in the organization's culture that can only be achieved with the support and commitment of senior mangement.
4. REFERENCES
[1] Eri M.D., Markovi LJ.S. Application some aspects concurrent engineering in computer development products and manufacturing process, 9th International Conference Research and Development in Mechanical Industry RaDMI 2009, 16-19 September 2009, Vrnjaka Banja, Serbia. [2] Eri M.D., Markovi S., Application Effects of Concurrent Engineering in Computer Designing of Processes, Conference INFORMS Annual Meeting, San Diego U.S.A., October 11-14, 2009. [3] Imlementing Concurrent Engineering in Small Companies, Marcel Dekker Inc., New York 2002. [4] Mandi V., Stefanovi M., Forging Preform Design Using FEM Simulation, Conf. Manufacturing and Management in 21st Century, Ohrid 2004, Proceed. Pp. 290-298. [5] Eva Lis Odenberger, Concept for Hot Sheet Metal Forming of Titanium Alloys, Doctoral Thesis, Lulea University of Technology, 2009. [6] Andrel, R. : Skriptum zur Vorlesung Produktdatentechnologie A: CAD-Systeme und CAx- Prozessketten. Technische Universitt Darmstadt, 2005. [7] Butts, K., Cook, J., Davey, C., et al, Automotive Powertrain controller development using CACSD // Perspectives in control engineering / T. Samad (ed.), IEEE press, 2001, pp. 370-392 [8] Decker, M.; Knox, C. CAD/CAM systems: Planning and implementation. Mechanism and Machine Theory. Volume 22, 1987. [9] Grbel, G., Computer-automated control system design // Perspectives in control engineering / T. Samad (ed.), IEEE Press, 2001, pp. 42-70. [10] Huang-Haodong, Chen-Zongji, Virtual prototyping and virtual prototype in control system // Journal of Beijing university of aeronautics and astronautics, June 1999, Vol. 25, No. 3, pp. 284-287. [11] Krassi, B.A., Tuominen, J.O., Virtual prototyping for automated generation of mathematical models // IASTED international conference on modelling and simulation, Marina del Rey, CA, USA, May 13-15, 2002, pp. 287-291. [12] Krassi, B.A., Tuominen, J.O., Virtual prototyping for integration of the control system design chain // IASTED international conference on modelling and simulation, Palm Springs, CA, USA, February 24-26, 2003, pp. 99-105. [13] Lee, K. : Principles of CAD/CAM/CAE systems. 1. Aufl. Addison Wesley Longman, 1999 13.
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[14] Mischok, P. ; Albers, S ; Robb, D. : CAD im Flugzeugbau und Transportwesen. In: VDI-Berichte Nr. 993.2: Datenverarbeitung in der Konstruktion. Dsseldorf: VDI-Verlag, 1992. [15] Otto, K. ; Wood, K. : Product Design - Techniques in Reverse Engineering and New Product Development. Upper Saddle River (NJ) : Prentice Hall, 2001. [16] Pahl, G.; Beitz, W. Engineering Design A Systematic Approach. Springer-Verlag (Second Edition) 1996. [17] Rimvall, C. M., Jobling, C. P., Computer-aided control system design // The control handbook / W. Levine (Ed.), CRC Press, 1996, pp. 429-442. [18] Spur, G.; Krause, F.-L. : Das virtuelle Produkt. Management in der CAD-Technik. Mnchen, Wien : Carl Hanser Verlag, 1997. [19] Weck, O.; Wallace, P.; Young, P.; Yong Kim. A Rewarding CAD / CAE / CAM Experience for Undergraduates. Teaching and Education Enhancement Program. Engineering Design and Rapid Prototyping. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. [20] Zuo, X., Wei, Y., Chen, J., Zeng, L., Ruan X., 3D FEM Simulation of Multi-stage Forging Process Using Solid Modeling of Forging Tools, Journal Materials Processing Technology, vol. 91, pp. 191-195, 1999.
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RaDMI 2010
WORKING OUT A SYSTEM FOR ECOLOGICAL MONITORING AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRIAL ZONES AND OUTOF -TOWN TERRITORIES IN BULGARIA, BASED IN INFORMATIONAL INTERNET ENVIRONMENT
Rajcho Ilarionov1, Stefan Kartunov2
1
Technical University, Gabrovo, BULGARIA, e-mail: ilar@tugab.bg, 2 e-mail: skartunov@abv.bg
Summary: The purpose of the project is to work out a system for monitoring and sustainable development of the industrial zones and out-of-town territories in Republic of Bulgaria in informational Internet environment, and to present to the management of the industrial enterprises and municipal structures, well motivated in quality and quantity solutions of the problems, connected with environment protection and sustainable development of the regions. Keywords: Ecologically sensitive zones, methods for evaluation of the pollution, automated system for monitoring and sustainable development.
1. INTRODUCTION
The purpose of the project is to work out a system for monitoring and sustainable development of the industrial zones and out-of-town territories in Republic of Bulgaria in informational Internet environment, and to present to the management of the industrial enterprises and municipal structures, well motivated in quality and quantity solutions of the problems, connected with environment protection and sustainable development of the regions. The project shall lead to prevention and minimization of the harmful effect of the activities to the environment in the industrial enterprises and municipalities as well as improving of the ecological, social and economical conditions not only applying for Bulgaria but also with EU range. The informational system shall be developed on the basis of the principles of coordinated optimization, standards, directives and requirements for monitoring of the environment in EU. The system shall ensure timely, reliable and actual information for the condition and components of the environment and based on it shall be prepared analyses evaluations, short and long term forecasts for grounding and optimization of the industrial activities. Type patterns for the possible pollution of the environment shall be prepared upon components and factors of the environment and on the basis of the existing European and national legal framework and inquiry researches and analyses of the results in the different regions industrial, sea, mountain, agriculture etc. Ecological quantity indicators shall be used in these patterns for the pollution and harmful emissions, also parameters and criteria for granting the management of the processes for sustainable development. The technical and software supply and database shall be done and tested in Internet environment with real data. It is expected some concrete users to adopt it experimentally and the specialist of the users to be trained. Presentations and seminars are foreseen to happen in different regions of the country and abroad aiming higher market use.
Tasks. The purpose of the project shall be solved by the following tasks: 1. Research of the fuel installations in the territory of the region Gabrovo Lovech and its power considered the border of 50MW. Defining the type and quality of the emissions of the fuel installations.
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2. Imitation modeling of the emission pollution in the region and the central part of Stara Planina through software. 3. Defining the type and quality of the pollution in the community sector through heating with smoke gases non organized emissions. 4. Defining the pollution from line and point sources of the road transport and creating an alternative for decreasing of these emissions through a pattern. The development of the system shall be done in the following three stages: stage: Review and analyses of the legal framework of the industrial zones for sustainable development and out- of - town territories, inquiry (quality and quantity) concerning the conditions and necessity from the adoption of the developed product, analyses of the results of the inquiry. stage: Working out programs and database for the informational system for monitoring and sustainable development of the industrial zones and out-of-town territories for usage in Internet environment. stage:Experimental adoption of the worked out informational system to specific users. The main problem, which the project aims to solve, is the lack of right methods and suitable software and informational database in the planning and sustainable development of the industrial zones and out-of-town territories in Bulgaria. The developed product as informational technology and system for sustainable development is aimed to be adopted in any industrial enterprise and municipal structure in the country. The informational system is an alternative of the traditional consulting service in the area of environment protection and sustainable development. For the moment there is no other model of informational system for ecological monitoring and sustainable development implemented in Bulgaria through Internet. The expected practical result is creation of a new ready for adoption product. That is why the potential users of the informational system for monitoring and sustainable development are the big industrial corporation, SME, municipal and district structures in the country, Universities. The achieved results shall be reported from the participants in the project in different scientific forums in the country and abroad. A study is expected to be published with the results of the research as well as attaining an academic rank from 2 members of the team and defense of doctors degree from other 2-3 team members. Publications shall be done in media of TU - Gabrovo, in students science sessions and as well as there shall be developed an electronic version for reporting the activities of the project. Separate themes shall be developed as graduation work of the students participating in the project. The participating in the project students after graduating the bachelor degree shall be invited to continue education in master degree. The main tactics for transfer of knowledge between the working groups of TU Gabrovo - communication through Internet was mentioned several times. There is an agreement for adoption of the results in practices in the regional innovation center, Regional inspection of environment Veliko Tarnovo, Varna and others. The scientific researches on the project shall be in the domain area of Sciences for the Earth and preserving the environment and 02.21.06 Systems for automation of the engineer labor 02.21.07 Graphical periphery, which are the two science specialties of the attainment of academic rank of the team leaders (table 1). Table 1: Work programme of stage Content of the stage and planned activities Continuity of the stage and concrete activities (months) One year after the start of the project 1 Preparing a linear schedule for three months periods; Expected results
Stage :
Inquiry research (quality and quantity) concerning the conditions and adopting of the developed product, work up and analyses of the results of the inquiry after a follow up analyses of the legislative framework of prevention of the environment; Task 1: formation of the working team on the project, distribution of the tasks and duties between the members of the team, fixing of the terms for implementation of the tasks and expected results;
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I. 2
II. Task 2 : research and analyses of the world, EU and national legislative framework for sustainable development of the industrial zones and out-of town territories;
III. 2
IV. Continue Table 1 Review and analyses of the national legislative framework for sustainable development of the industrial zones; Review and analyses of the national legislative framework for sustainable development of the outof-town territories Questionnaires for inquiry in the relevant zones and territories; Filled in inquiry cards concerning the conditions and need for adoption of the developed product;
Stage :
Task 3: inquiry research concerning the conditions (possibilities and obstacles) and the needs of adopting of the developed product in the relevant market areas industrial enterprises and municipal administration; working up the data of the inquiry and analyses of the results; Task 4: gathering and working up the necessary information for the formation of the data base, on the basis of which shall be created the informational pattern for sustainable growth; choice and order of the equipment. Task 5: Holding consultations with experts and specialists working in the area of environmental protection, sustainable growth and modeling, aiming to coordinate and specify the parameters, the inconstant parameters and the criteria for optimality of the future informational model. Developing an informational consulting system for monitoring and sustainable development of the industrial zones and out-of-town territories. Task 1: buying an equipment; working out a scheme of compendious informational model for the system of monitoring and sustainable growth; leading algorithm for the functioning of the system; equipment of laboratory.
Two years after the start of the project 3 Developed scheme of compendious informational model and algorithm for the system of monitoring and sustainable growth; Collected basis information and defined input-output informational data for the system; Created data base necessary for the adaptation of compendious informational model to the conditions of the different types industrial enterprises and municipalities; Developed type informational models for each possible objects of application;
Task 2: Definition of the input-output informational data and the stations for observation of concrete parameters for each of the possible kinds of objects for application of the informational system, algorithm of the work of the separate modules of the system Task 3: Developing data bases, necessary for the adaptation of compendious informational model to the conditions of the different types industrial enterprises and municipalities in depend of the type of the region where they are situated [3];
Task 4: developing of type informational models for each possible objects of application; software for visualization in Internet;
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I. Stage : 1
II. Experimental adoption of informational system in specific users.
the
developed
Task 1: test of the types of informational models with real data from the inquiry research; coordination of the modules in the system; Task 2: creating a software of the developed informational system by giving tasks for implementation to software specialists; simulations of the researches; Task 3: experimental adoption of the system in chosen types of users; working out the methods for work; Task 4: correction of the system in case of possible discrepancy between the experimental data and the initial data from the model; Task 5: working out instructions for adoption and methods for operational work with the types of informational models in the relevant objects of application; Tasks 6: statistical processing of the data, preparing of materials for education of the people future operators of the system; Task 7: anlyses of the results from the realization of the project and evaluation of the effect from the developed innovation product over the ecological, economic and social conditions in the country; offer for development of the project, multiplying the results in the other faculties of TU and companies for know-how in Bulgaria and abroad.
III. 3 years after the start of the project 1
IV. Continue Table 1
4 5
1 2
Performed tests of the types of informational models with real data from the inquiry research; Developed software for the informational system for sustainable growth; Performed experimental adoption of the system in chosen types of users; Final version of the system for work in Internet; Working out instructions for adoption for operational work with Paper materials for education of the officers for operational work with the system; Report for the results from the realization of the project, press conference; issuing a study with the results from innovation in education and research.
Preliminary budget to be submitted under the seventh framework program or the cost programme with a description of the required contribution for the bulgarian partner is 386417,50 lw: I. Etape - 48982,50 lw.; II. Etape 288002,50 lw.; III. Etape - 49432,50 lw.
3. CONCLUSION
The group seeks international partners to implement the program COST!
Figure 1. System for ecological monitoring and sustainable development of industrial zones and out- of -town territories in Bulgaria
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REFERENCES
[1] Simeonov S.; Zwetanov G.; Nencheva M.: - , Gabrovo, TUGabrovo, 2009. [2] Grnfeld, Katrin, 2005, Integrating spatio-temporal information in environmental monitoring data a visualization approach applied to moss data, Science of The Total Environment, Vol. 347, Issues 1-3: 1-20. [3] Lorrae, van Kerkhoff, 2005, Integrated research: concepts of connection in environmental science and policy, Environmental Science & Policy, Vol. 8, Issue 5: 452-463. [4] Fadeev V V, M Kompitsas & R Reuter, 1999. System (complex) for optical monitoring of coastal marine water areas: concept and methods. In: SPIE, 3821: 358-368. [5] Fadeev V V, 1992. Laser diagnostics of water ecosystems: conception and methods. SPIE, 1922: 410-420.
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RaDMI 2010
THERMAL ANALISIS OF SCHRS 800 CONTINUOUS EXCAVATOR CONSTRUCTION FRAME ON OPEN PIT DRMNO
1
Predrag Jovani 1, Zvonko Damnjanovi 2, Dejan Petrovi 2

University of Belgrade, Institute for Multidisciplinary research, Belgrade, SERBIA, e-mail: predrag.jovanic@cms.bg.ac.rs 2 University of Belgrade, Technical Faculty in Bor, Bor SERBIA, e-mail: zdamnjanovic@tf.bor.ac.rs e-mail: dpetrovic@tf.bor.ac.rs
Summary: In this paper are given description of application thermography in the industry as an efficient way of monitoring system condition. Thermal imaginig analysis can be quickly and precisely find the critical parts of the system that can produce failure of the same. We can located the areas where the temperature are higher on continous excavator construction because of dynamic tension during operation of the system. The parts of the construction where the highest tension occur are determined by the thermal analysis. It is predicted installing of devices for measure size of the strain suffered by excavator construction. Combining thermal imaging techniques with measurements using a measuring tape tension can lead to great benefit in maintaining these structures. Thermal imaging analysis gives a general picture of the distribution of tension examined the structure on which the measuring tape to measure the intensity and possible direction of tension action. Key words: thermography, thermal camera, temperature, tension, continous excavator.
1. INTRODUCTION
Thermal camera measuring belong to the non destructive group of analysis that make possible determine the temperature distribution of system continously, precisely and quickly which are analyzed in real terms. The analysis of thermo vision information enables multiple comparatives analysis of thermograms and the other measurements. Thermography allows you to find the critical points in the system quickly and easily which can cause damage. Adequately and timely action on those parts of the system to prevent unnecessary delays in production. Also, reduce the cost of system maintenance.
2. PRINCIPLES OF THERMAL IMAGINING ANALYSIS

It is fact that every body emit some quantity of heat if it is has temperature higher than absolute temperature. Every part of electromagnetic spectrum gives some information about object or process where it is generated, Figure 1. While visible part of spectrum gives information about morphology characteristic of object and very specific information of colors, thermal properties of process or object manifest in infrared part of electromagnetic radiation. Infrared thermography is traditional method for temperature mapping of objects. This methodology is special applicable for visualization distribution of temperature on electronic devices like as PC boards, hybrid modules, printed boards, as well as detection of overheating places of every system in which are manifesting dissipation temperature.
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Figure 1: Electromagnetic spectrum of radiation Thermal cameras record images in infrared area of 7.5-13m, with a spectral resolution of objects is performed on of 1.3mrad. In this infrared spectrum area give us information about distribution of temperature on the surface of the observed object or process. A results of analysis IR image are visual information with intensity, measured IR radiation which are represented by color. Provided thermal imaging pictures are pseudo-images obtained using appropriate LUT tables or program linking temperature for color. In this way the user get immediate information on the distribution of temperature on the observed object in the form of visual information, figure 2.
Figure 2: Thermal image of continous excavator Tooday`s thermograpfy systems use third generation semiconductor sensors, which don`t need refrigeration, which represents a significant improvement in use in various applications. The new detectors allows recording on higher wavelengths, which allows better image, higher measurement accuracy and the elimination of the influence of solar reflectivity. The resolution of obtained images are 640x480 pixels, which corresponds to a modern imaginig systems. It is possible to measure without contact in temperature areas since 40o to 2000o C, with an average accuracy of measurement of 2o C. The emissivity of object can be defined by separate measuring or it can automatic select form the list of commonly testing materials.
3. ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
The electromagnetic spectrum is a freely segmented to a large number of parts, depending on the wavelength. They are called bars and they differ in the methods used to induce and detect radiation. It is no big difference between intensity of radiation in any strip of spectrum. All of them respect same rules and only difference is wavelength.
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UV X ray
IR part of spec V part of the spec Microwawe
Wawelenght
Visible part of the spectrum
Infrared part of spectrum
Figure 3: Electromagnetic spectrum with IR part of spectrum which are used from thermography Thermography uses infrared part of spectrum. In shorter wavelength IR part of spectrum the end of spectrum is on visible part, and at higher wavelengths near IR spectrum range is bordered by microwave part of the spectrum. For practical reason IR part of spectrum is parted on four smaller areas. This infrared parts of spectrum contained: - close IR area (0.75 do 3 m), - middle IR area (3 do 6 m), - alien IR area (6 do 15 m) and - final extreme IR area (15 do 100 m).
4. PLANCK`S LAW
Black body is defined as an object that absorbs all active radiation at all wavelengths. Max Planck (1858-1947) was able to describe the distribution of spectrum with black-body radiation using the formula: (1) where are: Wb c h k T Black body radiation at wavelenght Velocity of light 3 x 108 m/s Planck`s const 6.6 x 10-34 J/s Boltzmann const1.4 x 10-23 J/K Absolute temperature of black body Wavelenght
* Factor 10-6 is taken because the black body radiation is expresed in W/m2m. If the factor not used, the unit is W/m2m. When the graphic display Planck's formula for different temperatures, gives the related curve. Following the Planck curve for a temperature range of emissions is equal to zero for = 0, then quickly grows to a maximum at max, and then decreases to zero at high wavelength. The higher the temperature, the lower the wavelength at which achieves maximum (max) for each curve. When Planck`s formula is integrate for the values of = 0 to = , we get a total black body radiation: (2) This is the Stefan-Boltzmann formula, which shows that the total emissivity of the black body is proportional to the fourth degree of temperature. Graphically, the Wb is the area under the Planck curve for each temperature.
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Spectral radiation
Wavelength
Figure 4: Planck's law introduced in the scheme log - coordinate system. Dashed line represents the locus of maximum temperature to Wien`s law
5. ANALISIS CONSTRUCTION OF SCHRS 800 CONTINUOUS EXCAVATOR

Continous excavator is product of O&K firm from Germanys. It belongs to a group of compact excavators (the German classification of group A). Excavator is installed during 1994. and 1995., when it has started to work. Excavator is designed for coal exploitation and is currently working on second BTU system. The next figure represent schema construction of excavator.
Figure 5: Schema of SchRs 800 continous excavator
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Technical data for the excavator are: - The theoretical capacity - The total high of excavators - The total lenth of excavators - Working mass of excavator - Digging heigh - Digging depth - Radius of excavation - Radius of dump - Max dump heigh - Minimum dump heigh - Max rotation engle
3024 m3/h 16.36 m 40.7 m 585459 kg 15m 1.25 m 15.7 m 25.0 m 13.0 m 4.7 m 105
During the work are recorded numerous deficiencies and problems in the work that are otherwise typical for this type of excavator, and are related primarily to the large installed power (power mining) in relation to construction, the introduction of excessive force through the hydraulic cylinder in the zone of the rotating bearing, bad diagonal layout and too much tension in the construction. The subject for research of tension was frame and foremast shown in figure 6. Recording tension in this research was done by thermal imaging camera, a screening analysis for determining the place of strengthening and setting up sensors to control. The back of the frame was recorded, presented in figure 6. This frame was reconstructed in 2002.
Figure 6: Frame and foremast For recording and analysis of SCHRS 800 continous excavators construction to a open pit "Drmno" was used infrared camera Therma CAM TM E2, FLIR producer, owner of JP Serbian Railways (Department of ETP). The basic characteristics are: Measuring range of temperature sensitivity
from -20C to 250C 2C
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Figure 7: Used IR camera
Figure 8: dimension of FLIR E2 camera used in this research Table 1: Properties of used IR camera
25x19 /0.3 m 0.12C at 25C 50/60 Hz non-interlaced Manual type Focal Plane Array (FPA), uncooled microbolometer 160 x 120 pixels 7.5 to 13m IMAGE PRESENTATION PAL or NTSC, standard RCA composite video 2.5 colour LCD, 16K colors MEASUREMENT -20C to +250C, (-4F to +482F) up to +900C optional 2C, 2% Movable spot, area max, area min, area average, color alarm above or below Palettes (iron,rainbow, B&W, B&W invers), auto-adjust (continuous/manual) Date/time, temperature units C/F, language, scale, info field, LCD intensity (high/normal/low) Emissivity variable from 0.1 to 1.0, reflected ambient IMAGE STORAGE Built-in FLASH memory (50 images Standard JPEG LASER LOCATIRTM Class 2 Semiconductor AlGaInP Diode Laser: 1mW/635 nm red BATTERY SYSTEM Li-Ion, rechargeable, field replaceable 2 hours continuous operation. Display shows battery status
Field of view/min focus distance Thermal sensitivity Image frequency Focus Detector type Spectral range Video output External display Temperature range Accuracy Measurement mode Menu controls Set-up controls Measurement corrections Type File formats Classification Type Type Operating time Charging system AC operation Voltage Operating temperature range Storage temperature range Humidity USB RS-232 cable (optional)
in camera, AC adapter or 12 V from car (with optional Std. cable.) 2 bay intelligent charger, 12 V AC adapter 90-260 V AC, 50/60 Hz, 12 V DC out 11-16 V DC ENVIRONMENTAL SPECIFICATION -15C to +45C (5F to 113F) -40C to +70C (-40F to 158F) Operating and storage 20% to 80%, non-condensing INTERFACES Image transfer to PC Image transfer to PC
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As seen from the table the camera is not designed for continuous recording. Connections with computer are not provided as a two-way, or not allowed outside independent control the camera during the work. Limited memory, up to 50 shots, is not served to the required tests, so that it was necessary to define a system for continuous recording of the phenomenon and designing special holder for the camera, for protect the camera during shooting.
a)
b) Figure 9: The right part of the frame, base: a) the unloaded, b) loaded, right position
Figure 10: Rig recorded at different speeds of work
Figure 11: Bollard of frame recorded during higher speed of excavator
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Figure 12: Above part of frame recorded during higher speed of excavator It is made processing of the results to got recorded voltage distribution facility with screening technique. Processing is made in software package Image Pro Plus v6, a tension extrapolation is made using a mathematical model who is described. Corrections are done for the surface emissivity and reflection, as well as air extinction. The results are shown in figure 13. Tensions are divided into three groups, low (green), intermediate (blue) and high (red). Thermal imaging techniques can not to define bulkiness of tension in this case, but it has been used for accurate determination of loaded areas and their sharing of tension. By measuring the tension of the selected points by other techniques, allows you to define the values of the measurements by thermography.
Figure 13: Tension distribution modeled based on the recorded thermograms
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Bearing in mind this tension during operation, the arrangement of measuring tape (rosettes) in order to obtain relevant data on the size of the tension and monitoring of behavior during the exploitation of the frame is shown in Figure 14.
Figure 1: Positions of rosettes for recording value of tension
6. CONCLUSION
Application thermal systems for the analysis of industrial structure has shown that the system is an effective tool to identify the distribution of tension in dynamically loaded structures. The system is useful for preliminary quantification of the level of tension, with additional analysis can be applied to analyze the development of fatigue load. The results obtained this analysis showed the areas of increased loads structures in a very short time, so that the system can be used with increasing confidence in the maintenance and regular checkups of industrial systems. Combining thermal imaging techniques with measurements using a measuring tape tension can lead to great benefit in maintaining these structures. Thermal imaging analysis gives a general picture of the distribution of tension examined the structure on which the measuring tape to measure the intensity and possible direction of tension action.
REFERENCES
[1] Mackenzie AK. :Effects of surface coatings on infra-red measurements of thermoelastic responses. in Stress and Vibration. Recent Development in Industrial Measurement and Analysis. 1989.London, England: SPIE. [2] Siegel R. and lR. Howell: Thermal radiation heat transfer. Second ed. Series in thermal and fluids engineering, ed. lP. Hartnett. 1992, Washington: Hemisphere Publishing Corporation. 1061. [3] Jamieson lA. et AL.: Infrared physics and engineering. First ed. Inter-university electronic series, ed. F.E. Terman. 1963, New York: McGraw-Hili book company. 635.
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[4] Kittel C. and H. Kroemer: Thermal physics. First ed. 1980, New York: W.ll. Freeman and Company. 465. [5] Stensaas L.I.: VentilasJonsteknikk, Second ed. 1990,Oslo: Universitetsforlaget. 483. 0., Enk i bygninger, handbok for planlegging, gjennomfring og oppflging. Sjoevold, First ed. 1992,Oslo: Universitetsforlaget. 424. [6] AB, Agema Infrared systems, User manual for installation and operation of Thermovision900. 1993, Stockholm. [7] Klocek P., Handbook of infrared optical materials. First ed. Optical engineering, ed. BJ. Thompson. Vol. 30.1991, New York: Marcel Dekker Inc. 611. [8] Maldague, x.P.v., Nondestructive evaluation of materials by infrared thermo-graphy. 1992, London: Springer-Verlag. 207. [9] Kaplan ll.:Commercial applications for thermal imaging instruments, an update. In Infrared detectors andfocal plane array III. 1994.Orlando, Florida: SPIE. [10] Wong AK., lG. Sparrow and S.A. Dunn: On the revised theory of the thermoelastic effect. Journal of physics and chemistry of solids.,1987.49 (4): p. 395-400. [11] Swalin. RA.: Thermodynamics of solids. Second ed. Wiley series on the SCIence and technology of materials. 1961,New York: John Wiley & sons. 387. [12] Hibbitt, K&.S., Inc,ABAQUS. 1994,Hibbitt, Karlsson & Soerensen, Inc: USA International, A, Metals Handbook. Metal Handbook, ed. All. Committee. Vol. 1. 1990, USA: ASM International. 1063. [13] Carslaw ll.S. and LE. Jaeger: Conduction of heat in solids. Second ed. 1959, Oxford: Oxford University Press 1959. 505. [14] Darken L.S., RW. Curry and M.B. Bever: Physical chemistry of metals. First ed. Metallurgy and Metallurgical Engineering Series, ed. RF. Mehl and M.B. Bever. 1953, New York: McGraw-Hili Book Company Inc. 525. [15] Rocca R. and M.B. Bever: The thermoelastic effect in iron and nickel as a function of temperature. Transactions AIME, 1950. 188 :p. 327-333. [16] Krapez J.C., G. Gardette and D. Balageas: Lock-in IR thermography: advantages and problems of some approaches. in 3rd International Workshop on Advanced Infrared Technologies and Applications. 1995. Capri, Italy: ONERA. [17] Busse G., D. Wu and W. Karpen: Thermal wave imaging with phase sensitive modulated thermography. Journal of Applied Physics, 1992.71 (8): p. 3962-3965. [18] Zickel: Review of Progress inQuantitative Nondestructive Evaluation, 1994.13: p. 1849-1855. [19] AB: Agema Infrared systems, Infrared Observer Number 36 . 1997. [20] Wonnacott R.J. and T.H. Wonnacott: Introductory Statistics. Fourth ed. Wiley senes ill probability and mathematical statistics. 1985,New York: John wiley & sons. 649. [21] Bhattacharyya G.K. and R.A. Johnson: Statistical concepts and methods. First ed. Wiley series inprobability and mathematical statistics. 1977,New York: John Wiley & sons. 639. [22] Stanley P. and W.K. Chan: Assessment and development of the thermoelastic technique for engineering applications: four years of progress. in Stress Analysis by Thermoelastic Techniques. 1987. London: SPIE. [23] Dulieu-Smith: Alternative calibration for quantitative thermoelastic stress analysis. Journal of strain measurements, 1995 (February): p. 9-16. [24] http://www.flir.com/thermography/eurasia/en/
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RaDMI 2010
CLASSIFICATION OF TECHNOLOGICAL ERRORS ON BASIS OF MANUFACTURING PROCESS INFORMATION MODEL

1
Stefan Kartunov 1, Petar Rachev2

Technical University, Gabrovo, BULGARIA, e-mail: skartunov@abv.bg 2 e-mail: rachev@tugab.bg
Summary: Paper deals with classification of technological errors on basis of manufacturing process information model. As classification indications causes which arose errors have been used. Keywords: classification, errors, manufacturing process.
1. INTRODUCTION
Manufacturing process (MP) in case of parts machining is accomplished on technological system including the following sub-systems: machine-tool, adjusting gear for cutter positioning, cutter, adjusting gear for workable part, workable part. Each of sub-systems can be a source of errors which influence on precision. Furthermore when connecting subsystems for each other signals arise which are sources of similar errors too. The totality of these errors leads to inaccuracy in the form and dimensions of the workable part.
2. STATEMENT
The errors are classified by different indications in the technological literature. For example, in [3, 4, 5, 6] it is assumed that errors of technological pattern arise by reason of: geometrical and kinematic inaccuracy of the machine; inaccuracy in blanks production; sharpen and positioning of tool; positioning of blank; inaccuracy in adjustment of the technological system. After survey and analysis on kinds of errors got at parts processing carried out a conclusion has been drawn that study of errors passes from geometrical standpoint only. Often there is mutually covering of errors which are considered in different classifications. For example, there is a reiteration of recurrent pattern errors and tangential errors. Essentially they are one and the same kind of errors but they are considered in different classification by particular authors. The same is valid for radial errors and errors coming from positioning of blank and tool, also. Once these errors are considered in section for errors from positioning of blank and tool and on the other hand in section for errors in dependence from part and tool site. The error from instability of machine components considered in section for machine errors can be with recurrent pattern because of periodical change of cutting force. However it is not included when consider periodical errors classification. From the above given analysis it can be conclude that there is a lack of harmonious system by means of which to carry out part processing errors classification without reiteration in particular sections. In order to make such a classification of errors manufacturing process information model will be used [1, 2]. Classification indications of this model are reasons which cause errors. In this model manufacturing process is considered as converter of information (Figure 1). In equilibrium state on converter input signal is R coming describing blank state (workable part in particular). This signal is converted by the object with parameters Qi , i = 1...n . As a result
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of this conversion on the object output signal particular).
r R
is generated describing workable part state (product in
Blank
Manufacturing process
Product
r R
Object Q1, i= 1n
r R
r R r R
Figure 1: Manufacturing process information model. For ideal object without constructive and manufacturing deflections dependence between signals specified by ideal function for information conversion F0 : and is
r r r R 0 = F0 ( R , Qi ) , (i = 1...n) .
(1)
For real object the constructive parameters possess definite deflections Qi , the signal R possess deflection signals is obtained to be:
r R . Conversion function F differ from ideal one F0 . For real object relationship between input and output
r r r r r R = F ( R + R , Qi + Qi ) , (i = 1...n) .
(2)
The function (2) can be expand into Taylor series besides we can proceed with null-order and first-order derivatives only with adequate accuracy:
n r r r F r F r R = F R , Qi + r R + r Qi R 1 Qi
(3)
The difference R between output signal signal:
r R
for real and
r R 0
for ideal object defines the error R of this
n r r r r r r r F r F r R = R R 0 = F R , Qi F0 R , Qi + r R + r Qi R 1 Qi
[(
)]
(4)
The first addend in (4) defines the extent of structural (methodological) error arisen as a result of use in construction not ideal rather approximate dependence between The second addend defines influence of the error
r R
and
r R .
Such errors arising when use
approximate laws of motion in technological systems, in case of machining with inaccurately shaped tools, etc.
r R
on input signal
r R .
This error is taken into
consideration just in case of object treatment as a system of objects component. It have to be given into account when investigate product quality forming in progress of whole MP.
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The third addend defines the extent of error arisen as a result of object constructive parameters deflection Qi from nominal values. The reasons for these deflections are manufacturing errors, ageing and wearing out, alteration of operational conditions (temperature, humidity, etc.)
Errors
1.Methodological
2. From input signal variation
3. From technological system parameters variation
3.4. Physical-chemical features of system part material
2.1. Geometrical form and dimensions of the blank
2.2. Physical-chemical features of blank material
3.1. Geometrical and kinematic accuracy
3.2. Steadiness and vibration-stability
3.5. Adjustment and sub-adjustment
2.3. Temperature of the blank
1.3. Positioning of the blank
Figure 2: Classification of different errors. From the manufacturing process information model considered can be seen that in case of part producing and products fitting three types of errors are displayed: methodological depend on: - law of motion; - tool profile; - positioning of the blank. errors from input signal variation (parameters of the blank): - geometrical form and dimensions of the blank; - physical-chemical features of blank material; - temperature of the blank. errors from technological system parameters variation: - geometrical and kinematic accuracy; - steadiness and vibration-stability; - temperature; - physical-chemical features of system part material; - adjustment and sub-adjustment; - worker participation. Classification of these errors is presented on Figure 2. Random errors are:
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- 3.3. Temperature
3.6. Worker participation
1.1. Law of motion
1.2. Tool profile
1. 2. 3.
All errors caused by input signal, i.e. errors belong to workable part. All errors caused by worker (or control system). All errors coming from power and thermal elastic deformations.
3. CONCLUSION
From the above given analysis it can be conclude that there is a lack of harmonious system by means of which to carry out part processing errors classification without reiteration in particular sections. Because of that a error classification is proposed using manufacturing process information model. Classification indications of this model are reasons which cause errors.
REFERENCES
[1] Dikov, .: Technology of Machine Building general course, Sofia, Softrade, 2006 (in Bulgarian). [2] Dikov, .: Technology of Machine Building, Sofia, Softrade, 2006 (in Bulgarian). [3] Iliev, I. K.; Rachev, P. T.: Analysis of technological errors in manufacturing of low-module gear-wheels, Gabrovo, Technical University-Gabrovo, International Scientific Conference, vol. II, 1995. (in Bulgarian). [4] Nencheva, . D.; Rachev P. T.: Classification of errors in machining of cylindrical gear-wheels, Gabrovo, International Scientific Conference UNITECH 05, 2005 (in Bulgarian). [5] Rachev, P. T.; Kartunov, S.: Technological factors influentially on accuracy of low-module gear-wheels, machining by means of travelling over method, D. Mitropolia, Scientific Session 50th Anniversary of AirForce Higher School, 1995 (in Bulgarian). [6] Tayz, B. . Accuracy and control of gear-wheels, Mashinostroenie, Moscow, 1975 (in Russian).
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RaDMI 2010
INFORMATION SYSTEM FOR INNOVATION MANAGEMENT

1
Zoran Marjanovi1, Radomir Brzakovi2

Zastava automobili, Kragujevac, SERBIA, e-mail: z.marjanovic74@yahoo.com 2 Fiat automobili Srbija, Kragujevac, SERBIA, e-mail: brzijax@yahoo.com
Summary: Ideas, as well as some guidelines for their implementation, which are exhibited here were made during the design IS and development of application software for the management of innovation. Innovations have a significant role in the social and financial growth and development of the economic activity of each country. Innovation management is characterized by innovative strategies as the mile stone of competitiveness of firms and the economy Information system for innovation management is realized through CASE tools BPwin and ERwin. Suggested method use CASE tools include users of application software witch will point to some insipience and theirs needs for information. This paper is an attempt to point out the advantages and benefits of the implementation information system in management innovation, and therefore in all areas that are directly or indirectly associated with this process. Keywords: information system, innovation, management, economic, development.
1. INTRODUCTION
The study of innovation has produced a vast amount of research covering such topics as the impact on innovation of managerial careers, organisational size, slack resources, industry sector, functional differentiation, and culture not to mention power and politics [1][2]. Without doubt however, some topics have become central to our understanding of organisations and innovation. One such topic, and a major focus for innovation research, has been the organizational contexts that support or work against innovation [3]. Burns and Stalker [4] established the importance of organisational context to innovation with their seminal study, a theme reinforced by later studies [5][6]. Considering the following facts :changes in the character and nature of modern technological and production systems, globalization, shortening of product and process life cycle, frequent innovation cycles, changes in management philosophy, innovation systems and networks, alliances and partnerships need to find a way for effective management of innovation. In the twenty-first century competitive advantages are increasingly based on technology, because the company if they want to pleading in the competition to go up with the rapid technical development. Technology has the knowledge, skills, and ways to use factors of production in order to create products and services, for which there is economic demand. The technology is known to make things by which society meets its needs. It is a symbol of economic growth and creation of work, as the basis for a better quality of life. Technology must be viewed as part of business strategy for achieving competitive advantage, ie, on the basis it can be held - to improve strategic position of the company. Technology is a driver of economic growth and it contributes to growth by increasing productivity. New technology is the basis of technological progress and technological progress is the most important basis for sustainable economic development. New technology determines the direction, speed and frequency of technological progress, resulting in innovation processes. Innovation in a strategic sense as a strategic way of achieving competitive advantage is the overall level of introducing not only new technologies but also new products - services, new processes, approach to marketing, new ways of training and organization. Assumptions - new features - the high-tech economies of scale, high accumulation, segmentation (niche) markets, unpredictable short product life cycle, flexibility, and the like., And implementation of high technology has resulted in the following effects: higher yield companies prone to changes, higher quality, system performance, high added value in products, reducing costs and others. So, for the economic growth of the company, innovative information technology-are extremely significant, because they allow the creation of new products and services and thus achieve speed, flexibility and relationship with customers.
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Early seventies of last century, "guru" of management P. Drucker's warning that, however seemed stable, the company that is unable to drive out innovation when required by circumstances - is doomed to extinction, and his leadership immature his task. Although since the last three decades of rapid market change, in which the introduction of new products and services has become a key parameter of competitiveness, research has shown that even in the most developed countries a large number of companies make decisions about innovation "ad hoc", in reliance on the chance to make right thing at the right time. According to the results of which have come to British experts, led by C. M. Crawford, according to the industry, the failure rate of new products in the global market ranges from 30 to 80 percent! Further analysis shows that within a manufacturing industry in a period of time, clearly shaping "losers and winners," which suggests that the reported differences depend on much more than the company, but from external circumstances. [7]. It is believed that one of the main factors increasing the competitiveness of companies continuously increase their intellectual capital. But this time the intellectual capital and innovation capability can not be one without the other. Increasing intellectual capital will enable you to easily come up with new ideas, but will only increase innovation capability to enable the new profitable ideas into practice. What do you know if it's worth does not apply? [8]. The role of information technology to provide organizations a strategic advantage, facilitating solving problems, increasing productivity and quality, improving service user improving communication and cooperation and so enabling to reorganize the business process. IT can be provided not only with the help of the Department information systems, but also with end-users. Managing information resources new technologies and communication networks becomes a critical factor for success in operations many organizations and will be the key to survival business in the digital economy.
2. INNOVATION
Innovation is a change in the thought process for doing something, or the useful application of new inventions or discoveries. It may refer to an incremental emergent or radical and revolutionary changes in thinking, products, processes, or organizations. Following Schumpeter (1934), contributors to the scholarly literature on innovation typically distinguish between invention, an idea made manifest, and innovation, ideas applied successfully in practice. In many fields, such as the arts, economics and government policy, something new must be substantially different to be innovative. In economics the change must increase value, customer value, or producer value. The goal of innovation is positive change, to make someone or something better. Innovation leading to increased productivity is the fundamental source of increasing wealth in an economy. Innovation is an important topic in the study of economics, business, entrepreneurship, design, technology, sociology, and engineering. Colloquially, the word "innovation" is often synonymous with the output of the process. However, economists tend to focus on the process itself, from the origination of an idea to its transformation into something useful, to its implementation; and on the system within which the process of innovation unfolds. Since innovation is also considered a major driver of the economy, especially when it leads to new product categories or increasing productivity, the factors that lead to innovation are also considered to be critical to policy makers. In particular, followers of innovation economics stress using public policy to spur innovation and growth. Those who are directly responsible for application of the innovation are often called pioneers in their field, whether they are individuals or organizations.[9] In the west innovation management is becoming one of the most important areas of quality management, and much more. We all know that marketing, positioning and branding is not just a method of improving sales and profits, but special state of mind of all employees. So is innovation to be a buzz word in corporate mission and vision statements, but required state of mind of each individual in the organization. What does it mean? Surely not that every employee must be an innovator on the level of Leonardo Da Vinci and Nikola Tesla. However, each employee must at all times be aware of how much innovation is important for the success of his organization, and that her help in that wholeheartedly. In fact, innovation is not only the road to better business, but also better social relations, the company richer and richer society. If we remember that innovation is the introduction of cost-effective paper, applied to Serbia, it means a better life for every individual. When we talk about innovation management (Eng. Innovation Management), usually have in business organizations. However proper management of innovation is necessary for every organization that wants to be the best. This applies to government institutions, non-profit organizations, and even the police. There is a famous (case study) the New York Police (NYPD). In just two years (1994-1996) Police Commissioner William Bratton succeeded, with the help of top business consultants in the field of innovation, implementation of comprehensive newspaper-change, significantly improve policing and reduce crime rate. The application of scientific methods in the field of innovation is to allow these changes-Gazette carried out at the lowest possible cost and maximum effect improvements. The result was much better and more peaceful life of the citizens of New York.
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Table 1: Strategic advantages of innovation (Tidd, Bessant, Pavitt)
A key challenge in the current environment is that the level at which management is carried out innovation significantly expanded. At the beginning of the twentieth century, technological development was included only a few states (nations), while today the situation changed significantly and reached the point where world-class technology generated and used globally, and where the main challenge will be a global player. This is a topic which previously dealt with multinational companies, but today in this game included a small business. Neither the local businesses are no longer excluded from the process. All frequent large firms tend to supplement their parts, perform administrative tasks and manage the distribution on a global scale. The key element that allowed this distribution are the Information and Communications Technology (ICT), radically changing the approach to all types of work based on the information. Table 2. Comparison between the KAM (the knowledge assessment methodology) and SII (the Summary Innovation Index) 2005( source World Bank)
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Figure1. Industry innovation process [11] Authors illustrate the meaning of innovation savings that result from its application : to 70 % - stage of programming and defining development to 13 % - stage of preparation work to 6 % - the material to 6 % - production process to 45 % - introduction of technical - technological and other innovations to 30 % - better organization of work to 25 % - rational use of existing capacity
3. INFORMATION SYSTEM
Modern business is characterized by rapid changes in the environment and increasing pressure of competition. Changes in the environment are related to the changes: business conditions, technology, methods, standards and information systems. Business management system must continually find answers to all the turbulence in the business environment. Managers may have different methods in solving the problem [12]. One answer is the development of its own strategy in the field: business, automation, integration, information and utilization of resources. In all the changes at the entrance to the business system is evident the influence of elements of information systems, and especially in the areas of technology, methods, standards and information systems in the narrow sense. Pressure of competition is also reflected in the adoption of IT solutions. All of this requires that the business system to develop the appropriate strategy, which is one component of development strategy and information systems (IS), based on the information strategy, integration and automation. The role of IS are structured by hierarchical levels. Primary, and at the beginning of the development of the dominant role is to support the IS business operations (mass data processing). Higher level in the development of IS is to support the operational decision-making managers and middle level, or MIS (Management Information Systems or IS for management support), and the highest level of support in the implementation of IS strategic advantages of companies. This role is achieved when the IS include as an element of strategy, either in the primary or support activities [13]. Each of the participants in the chain of value creation of products uses certain IT developments, and the IS. Information systems are one of the conditio sine qua non of success and survival of companies in the highly unstable business environment. The task of information management systems is to support companies in making business decisions to ensure effective and efficient operations. Here the degree of effectiveness of means to achieve objectives (doing the "right" thing), a measure of the efficiency of use of input resources in the achievement of outputs (doing the "thing" right). The influence of information systems on management and indirect, because the implementation of information systems creates a positive climate and culture, increase the transparency of business processes, create the prerequisites for rapid and positive organizational change and business re-engineering, increase the general level of knowledge of employees and the need for integration with the environment. Namely, the impact of information systems in management is very important, positive and efficient.
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Figure2. Information management and decision making in Management Information Systems (MIS), [14, 15]
Figure 3: - Diagram of context of information support process The primary task or mission of information system (IS) is providing information to all levels of management and governance in the company or external customers. Therefore, he should meet the following criteria: IS should be defined from the perspective of the highest levels of management, to give information that will enable the adoption of the most important decisions. IS should support the basic objective of the business system as a whole, as well as partial goals of its parts. IS should be designed according to the key business processes of the system. Thus is achieved that isindependent of organizational structure, because it is subject to change, and development of IS is a long-term and expensive job. To IS could provide information to various users in the company, data should be treated as the means of the whole enterprise, as a property of its individual parts or applications. One of the conditions, which is imposed modern technology, hardware and software, which will give full support to the development of information support system for the QMS, the relational database. The existence of relation database allows you to enter information in one module, can be from any process, but can be and generalize the suggestions and requirements management. This should define the appropriate documentation, for the development and implementation of applications, according to standard ISO 9000, which regulates the beginning of design, and projecting of information system and which is practically Set project task. Similar applies to the output, which are in various ways related to all of the Company and the processes, however, the ultimate goal of automated processing of data are surveys, reports, analysis and diagrams (drawings), which move in the Company, and the external users . Control of this process is the development plan and the work of information systems, and mechanisms are informatics personnel, methodologies for designing databases, hardware and software.
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4. INFORMATION SYSTEM FOR INNOVATION MANAGEMENT

In the previous chapter made review of innovation and is, and their role modern business. In this chapter we will show realized IS for innovation management. In the figures from 4 to 6 are shown tables from the database.
PRPRESZPRIJAVA PREDLOGA STVARALATVA-ZAGLAVLJE UPRINO ifra kol. Brpreds Nazpred sifroi Nacnin datprij sifpred Datpri Funres indresp datres Klasin indnap iznosPZ Datprim Funprim Parust Sifnemp datarh naziv kolone broj predmeta stvaralatva Naziv predloga stvaralatva ifra radne organizacije stvaraoca Nain nastanka stvaralatva * Datum podnoenja prijave predloga stvar. ifra predloga stvaralatva * Datum reenosti stvaralatva Funkcija reenosti stvaralatva Indikator reenosti predmeta * Datum reenja stvaralatva Klasifikacija inovacije Indikator naplate * Ukupan Iznos u PZ po predmetu Datum ispostavljenja naloga za primenu st. Funkcija za primenu stvaralatva Parametri za visinu utede * ifra nematerijalnog priznanja Datum arhiviranja tip text text num Num date text date Num text Date Text Text Num date Text Num text Date du. 7 30 4 1 8 2 8 4 1 8 1 1 (5,2) 8 6 6 1 8 key index
Figure 4: - SQL Table - Application Proposal Creativity-Main Table

PRPRESPPRIJAVA PREDLOGA STVARALATVA-POZICIJE ifra kol. Brpreds matbrst Drustvo Ispizpz Ispizd Naziv kolone Broj predmeta stvaralatva Matini broj stvaraoca Drutvo gde je inovacija nastala Isplaen iznos u PZ po autoru Isplaen iznos u dinarima po autoru tip text text Text Num Num du. 7 6 15 (5,2) (8,2) UPRINO Key index
Figure 5: - SQL Table - Application Proposal Creativity- Table for Position

PREKSP PRIJAVA PREDLOGA ZA EKSPERTIZU ifra kol. Brpreds Funzah datzah Datreal naziv kolone broj predmeta stvaralatva Funkcija kojoj je ispostavljen zahtev za ekspertizu Datum ispostavljanja zahteva za ekspertizu Datum realizacije zahteva za ekspertizu tip text Text date date UPRINO du. 7 4 8 8 key index
Figure 6: - SQL Table - Application Proposals for Expertise Method of forming creativity can be: 1 - the competition or the public announcement;2 - issued by the business mission;3 - employee's own initiative;4 - Random invention Code creation can be proposed: constructive change and improvement works; technological changes and improvements;car bodies tools; Pneumatics (tools, installations, cylinders); improving the quality of development works, processes; organizational improvements; to improve marketing; improvement of cutting tools; unification of parts and materials; use of supplies (parts, materials) and salary waste; Improvement of collecting funds; energy savings; improving equipment; improving working conditions and environmental protection; development of new equipment. Classification of innovation can be: invention; technical improvement; new forms, pictures and drawings; organizational improvement; useful solution; useful ideas. In the database are also tables: Card of Creator, Implementation Status of Accepted Creativity, Case in Lawsuit and Realization Of Judicial Proceedings.
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Implemented application software has 5 segments using by different organizational units. In the following pictures we will show some forms of user interfaces for data entry, as well as for reviewing and reports.
Figure 7: Maintenance of data on Cases of Creativity
Figure 8: Registration Information of Application Proposal Creativity-overview
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In this form we can choose to add new case, delete or modify existing case. In Figure 9 shows the form in which some data is changed. On same form we can add an innovator or change some of the data for the creator who reported the innovation. In Figure 11 shows one of the report .
Figure 9: Change data of Application Proposal Creativity
Figure 10: Addition data about Creator
Figure 11: Overview of Reported Creativity by area of proposal - code
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On the following image shows the entry forms for the other 4 segments.
Figure 12: Maintenance of data on Creators
Figure 13: Maintenance of data on Case in Lawsuit
Figure 14: Overview about Creativity
Figure 15: Overview about Prize(Award)
5. CONCLUSION
Orientation to innovation and innovation is critical for the management of technology and innovation in general, both strategic and operational level. Innovative resources, expertise and competitive management innovation are basically all forms of cooperation, networks and alliances in which organizations take a global, worldwide. Innovation systems point to the need for comprehensive management of innovation that depends on the
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innovation infrastructure are defined at different levels of industry, economy, sectors, countries and regions or the global world space. Serbia should pay special attention to information and communication technologies (ICT) in all their development strategies are similar to business organizations understand and process the role of ICT in their business strategies, as ICT offers great opportunities and have a general impact on the national economy and global competitiveness. It is a great challenge to achieve profits, reduce risk and realize the impact of ICT when given the complexity and uncertainty of mutual relations of ICT, economic growth and poverty reduction. [16]. If you look at all the previously set forth, we can conclude that the ICT (IS) significantly contributed to the improvement of innovative activity and management innovation. Authors of this paper are convinced that almost all the world's problems were solved by introducing something they called a global innovation community. Every one could present ideas through unique IS, and depending on the capacity of the idea it would be immediately implemented, changed and customized or possibly remained in the base to wait for your moment.At the end I invite you to read story Inovativno razmiljanje ili THINK DIFFERENT STORY at address http://sandrajakovljevic.com/blog/category/innovation/. This story for me was very inspiring and significantly contributed to the writing of this paper.
6. REFERENCES
[1] S. Clegg, Globalizing the intelligent organization.Management Learning 1999, 30, 3, Pp259-280. [2] H. Mintzberg, The Structuring of Organisations: A synthesis of Research Engelwood Cliffs NJ Prentice Hall, 1979. [3] R. Drazin & C. Schoonhoven, Community, population and organization effects on innovation: a multi-level perspective.The Academy of Management Journal, 39, 5, October 1996, Pp1065-1083. [4] T. Burns & G. Stalker, The management of Innovation.London: Tavistock. 1961. [5] P. Lawrence & J. Lorsch, Organization and Environment.Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 1967. [6] R. Miles & C. Snow, Organization Strategy, Structure and Process.New York: Macgraw Hill. 1978. [7] http://www.ekonomist.co.yu/magazin/ebit/22/pra/pra1.htm [8] http://www.emagazin.co.yu [9] www.wikipedia.org [10] Joe Tidd, John Bessant and Keith Pavitt.,Managing Innovation - Integrating Technological, Market and Organisational Change .Antony Rowe Ltd,GB,2001, [11] Mandal, i Cari, M., Upravljanje istraivanjem, razvojem i transferom tehnologije, Studentski informativno izdavaki centar, Novi Sad, 2004. [12]Radosavljevi ivota Dr i Tomi Radovan Dr, Menadment u modernom biznisu, Beograd, 2006. [13]Krsmanovi Stevica Dr, Informacioni sistemi , Beograd, 2001. [14] Dai, P.; Jemenica, R. & erifi, V.: One classification example of decision support systems. Petrosani (Romania): University of Petrosani, Annals of the University of Petrosani, Electrical Engineering, Vol. 9 (XXXVI) (2007), pp. 385-391. [15] Dai, P.; erifi, V. & Jemenica, R.: Metodologija izgradnje EDSS sistema. asopis IMK-14 Istraivanje i razvoj, God. XIV (2008), br. (28-29) 1-2/2008, s. 107-118. [16] Republika Srbija - Ministarstvo nauke i zatite ivotne sredine, Nacionalna strategija za informaciono drutvo u Srbiji, Nacrt 1,Beograd, septembar 2005 [17] ZASTAVA AUTOMOBILI ad - PJ Informacioni sistemi, GLAVNI PROJEKAT INFORMACIONOG SISTEMAUPRAVLJANJE INOVACIJAMA, Kragujevac, 2004
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RaDMI 2010
INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY AS A TOOL FOR ESTABLISHING E-HEALTH

Sead Maovi 1, Muzafer Saraevi 2, Boris Milovi3 , Hamza Kamberovi4
Faculty of Organizational Sciences, University of Belgrade, SERBIA, E-mail: sekinp@gmail.com Faculty of Science and Mathematics, University of Ni, SERBIA, E-mail: muzafers@gmail.com 3 University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Economics in Subotica, SERBIA, E-mail: boris.milovic@gmail.com 4 University of Novi Pazar, Department of Technical Science, SERBIA, E-mail: hamzanp@gmail.com
2 1
Summary: With all the other benefits that modern biomedical disciplines provide to scientists, experts and ordinary practitioners in the organization and performance of medical practices today, undoubtedly, the greatest benefit, is achieved through the ability of using modern information technologies. The Internet and the global health network, whose leaders are mostly experts from America and the Far East, where at the same time the world's largest computer and software companies are located, have the greatest practical application. In these areas technologically-software movements were developed such as electronic health, telehealth, telematics, telemedicine, tele-education, etc... Different countries have different approaches to developing e-health. Keywords: Information Technologies, Internet, Telehealth, Telemedicine, e-Health.
1. INTRODUCTION
Through the development of e-health in Serbia, the health care institutions get the opportunity to introduce advanced electronic management systems in order to improve the quality of services they provide. Business processes in health care institutions are extremely complex and involve application of modern electronic health information systems. Compliance with established procedures and standards used in developed health systems guarantee high rationalization of human and technological resources, faster response to new challenges in the prevention and treatment, implementation of new scientific achievements in the field and overall institutions quality increase.
2. BASIC CONCEPTS OF E-HEALTH

Medicine of today is characterized by wide application of new information and communication technologies (ICT) - mobile phones, teletext, fax and electronic mail (e-mail). The basis for the development and spread of ICT is the technology of electronic computers, which strongly marked the last years of the twentieth century and experience its expansion in the twenty-first century. The total amount of data, information and knowledge in health care is extremely large and exponentially grows, causing information crisis. With the advancement of medicine, new medical procedures are introduced and generation of increased amounts of data, as on the other hand, social development affects the scope of health care and health standards and requires supervision of the health system for the purpose of its financing. ICT participates in the resolution of the data processing and thus contribute to avoiding or at least alleviating information crisis. There are applications in the health sector that provide an extremely wide range of services, from simple administrative tasks to complex clinical applications. Part of these services can be provided through local area networks and the Internet. In this way it is possible to use e-mail as an e-health service. On the other hand, ehealth shows the ability of managing over network and the ability to work at distance: education of health workers, data collection, archiving of health information and use of smart cards for transfer or connection to
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various health information systems, tele-consulting, etc E-health is more than that - this notion represents networked and health care users oriented health care. All this defines the concept of e-health: E-health - a global approach to health care reform with the main aim of promoting the use of Internet by the health care institutions and health care workers in their daily work, E-health - is a set of services that enable physicians, nurses, patients, pharmacists and other health workers to collaborate using ICT at any place any time. One of the major new ICTs is the Internet, the global computer network that connects millions of computers and ensures the use of network system called the World Wide Web. The importance of the Internet expansion can be compared with Gutenbergs invention of printing technology. While the printed word contributed to faster transfer of information that was previously performed through hand-written texts, the Internet has greatly accelerated the transmission of information by applying modern electronic technologies. In this way it is possible to enable unpredictably broad access to information that is created anywhere in the world, in various areas of human activity, which also affects the development of medical science. Expansion and use of the Internet in medicine is bigger and wider day by day. The global computer network in medicine enabled access to a large number of the bibliographic databases, epidemiological, visual and other information. Systems for evaluating health status, for the diagnosis of disease and clinical work support systems have become available over the Internet. Learning has never been easier and more accessible - access to electronic books, results of clinical studies, development of new graphical methods for displaying data, are just some of the ways to quickly and easily accept and embrace new knowledge in medicine. Internet enabled experts from different parts of the world to connect, but it enabled connection between doctors and patients as well. Communication between a doctor and patient creates an area that is outside the area of medical informatics and sets in medical ethics. We should not forget that the Internet deepened and emphasized one of the main problems of modern medicine a wealth of data and the inability to assimilate such large amounts of information. Internet also emphasizes the role and influence of public opinion in making decisions about health. Demands for better health protection and desire to prolong the life of man are inevitable consequence of developments in medical science and technology. E-health development can respond to these demands and on the other hand provide help to work with limited resources, enabling faster access, development of new techniques, etc... The challenges set before medical care can be represented as follows:
Figure 1: Supply and demand in modern systems of health care. Source: E-health solutions at ten European sites healthcare European Communities, 2006, p.25.
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Internet allows patients and clients to have available health care facilities and medical services, and if you use the Internet in business, it certainly does not mean that they exploit all the advantages that comprehensive use of information technology can provide. Today's healthcare institutions, particularly hospitals, face dramatic structural changes in the field of health. As a result, there are a number of requirements as well as new opportunities for the successful management of hospitals in the future. Some of these requirements are: Competition between hospitals and the burden of transferring financial risk from insurance companies to providers of health services lead to the need for better internal inspection of hospital processes. Constant changes of legal requirements in relation to costs in the shortest possible time for their proper implementation. Increased integration of hospital and ambulance treatment (such as receiving treatment before and after discharge, surgery of ambulance patients) and clinical and administrative tasks in hospitals. Outdated technology infrastructure that leads to an increased need for maintenance, scalability and slow changes in the information infrastructure. With the help of Internet, health information is no longer in sole possession of medical practitioners. They have become available to the public. The growth of Internet usage and ICT has had rapid increase in both the amount of information and in the number of people who start using them, provided that Internet access had proportionally more patients than doctors. Practice has shown that health information on the Internet bring significant benefits to patients. It all represents a challenge for both users and creators of information, and this opened many questions such as, for example, quality of information, privacy, rights of privacy and the like. All these influences can change the traditional way of interaction between patients and doctors, because patients have gained access to decision-making in their treatment and they can participate in active partnership with many groups of decision makers (doctors, politicians and researchers). It became necessary to use Internet in health, too, and in one of the professional medical journals a message to doctors was published Get online -or get left behind . This illustrates the following graph the best that shows how Americans get information related to health which is assumed to be the case with other developed countries:
Chart 1: Sources of information on health, according to iCrossing, Haw America Searches Health and Wellness, January 2008.
Health care is also an economic category. The introduction of e-business prevents unjustified rise in prices of care, maintaining the quality of medical services and preventing reduction of patient's rights. With the new model, all parties in the chain can work more efficiently, reduce transaction costs and provide the right information in real time. The use of ICT and Internet technology in health care includes: Access to health care system using mobile devices. Functions designed for the management of patients, diagnosis and therapy using the Internet.
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Automation of the health system and management system, delivery of health services based on the application of information and communication technologies. Widely accepted adaptation of networking technologies and transfer of health systems in the Internet environment. Application of electronic ways of conducting business processes in healthcare institutions in order to increase efficiency and reduce costs for customers. Application of ICT for the promotion of new, active participation of health care clients in health care institutions and their processes in order to build proactive health care. With increased practical use of information and communication technologies greater participation of citizens in the everyday functioning of health institutions can be achieved, which will thus encourage the faster development of e-health. Today in preventive health care it is possible to perform remote monitoring of patient vital functions, such as heart rate, pressure or temperature using wireless communication technologies (Bluetooth and GPRS in the GSM mobile networks). There are several significant advantages of remote monitoring of patients: a doctor can have 24-hour access to a patient in a manner accessible for the patient, and this is also a way of testing which is much cheaper than testing in hospitals. The introduction of information and communication technologies is always expensive, especially in systems which are complex. Since health care belongs to that group, there must be good reasons for the introduction of these technologies and those reasons are usually directly related to finance or rationalization and cost reduction. In the health sector even the richest countries face limited resources that can be used for public health services. The reasons for that are aging of populations, the introduction of new expensive drugs and great progress in the development of techniques, preventive treatment and healing.
3. THE SITUATION IN EUROPE AND IN OUR COUNTRY

Reason for health care informatization lies in the fundamental provisions of the European Union which in the name of economic development wants to create a large market of free goods, services, capital and people movement. Free movement of people inevitably requires an easy access to health services and information about their own health. The European Commission has developed a plan of action for the introduction of the Union to the information society. The plan covers areas of health, education, public administration and e-business. The condition for the development of any electronic business form in healthcare, in addition to good legal framework, is a secure and reliable broadband information infrastructure. It is also necessary to provide standards that will enable the connection despite the organizational and geographic differences. Health care workers and patients must understand the entire system, and education of people, especially medical practitioners, is an important factor for the introduction of e-health. The action plan was made in a manner that would provide positive effects on reducing health care costs while increasing their quality. The main components of the E-health Action Plan are introducing health smart cards, linking hospitals, laboratories and households through a secure IT network and provision of health services on-line. Use of electronic resources in health care of the most developed countries of the European Union was given in the following table [view Appendix 1]. The European Commission adopted a plan for introducing e-Health services in 2004, according to which member states must develop a national strategy and the Commission in 2006, together with member states, developed a method of identifying patients as well as standards that will enable interoperability of health messages and electronic health information within the member countries of the Union. Computerization of health care in the member states of the European Union is carried out in various ways, but they all have a common goal of reducing costs, improving and accelerating the provision of health care services. Approach to the introduction of e-health services in Europe, as pointed out, is different among countries. For example, the United Kingdom adopted a national plan for information technology, and their government is working on introducing information technology into everyday life. A department called e-Transformation that takes care of the further development and implementation of new technologies was established in the Cabinet Office. The purpose is informatization of the whole health system is to connect it to a whole in order to provide better information for health care. The existence of medical records, which will be available to all in need, enables the provision of fast, convenient and safe health care. In addition, it is important that patients have access to information and are involved in the treatment process. Remote monitoring allows treatment of patients while staying at home. In order to achieve the above objectives, the United Kingdom is working on a computer network that will connect all general medicine clinics, hospitals and pharmacies. The network should become operational during 2010 and the investment amount is over 6 billion. All these institutions will be able to access medical records of patients, of course, only if they are allowed. Network security will be at the highest level because the personal data stored in the system is extremely confidential. The British start implementation of e-services in the state or public sphere from a point of need for multi-channel access to services. This will be the e-health route of development in order to support access to the Internet, digital television, telephone, call
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centers, web sites and mobile devices. The purpose of trends in e-health is equal to that in the case of the United Kingdom: desire to connect the entire health care system in a way to share health information in order to achieve the just in time effect. This means that data would be available when and where needed and at the same time, the mobility of people would improve. Awareness to protect personal data is strongly present in Germany. The term protection of personal data is not talking about data protection and its safety, but about the protection of individuals with regard to large amounts of data that is now collected and processed and freely circulating through information networks. Therefore the idea was to implement the informatization of health system by introducing health smart cards which hold health information related to card holders. The holder of the card, or a person referred to in the medical data on the card would have total control over his health data set. At the same time, it would not be necessary to record all data, but only the information that the card holder wants. Their opinion is that you first need to build IT infrastructure that will integrate all institutions in the health system and only then introduce health smart card. Problems may arise due to incomplete data on the card because the patient himself decides which data is written onto it. At the same time there is a possibility of losing the card and data stored on it. Because all of this, Germany started establishing a strategy of electronic communication between the health partners and the subsequent introduction of smart cards for its citizens. The card will include electronic prescriptions, disease history and emergency information. In addition, history of taking drugs will be recorded. The complete program of merging health partners is anticipated with confidence of fulfillment by the end of 2010. In Italy, the final goal is to solve the problem of a nationally-accessible database of health data for all regions. For this purpose, the framework agreement on the development of a new national information system that will support local autonomy, and yet connect all participants in health care and help health care systems work together openly and through a secure transfer of information. The problem that will have to be solved is the integration of various IT region systems and local agencies. With this creation of integrated health information, the overall system should be at the same time user/citizen oriented and certainly should pay attention to the different needs of people with acute and chronic diseases. The national database will include the following information: raw data that would allow assessment of treatment, the average time one spends on the waiting list, the price for the level of care provided, medication history, initial status and condition of the patient after treatment so that the success of treatment can be assessed. These elements offer an opportunity for assessment of balance between price and services provided, which in turn allows assessment in economic and qualitative terms. Informatization of the French health system at the national level is conducted through the Ministry of solidarity, health and family. ICT is used in three areas: smart cards for health care providers and patients enable electronic exchange of information, national health intranet that is used for transfer of electronic information between service providers and insurance companies, and then the transfer of health information between hospitals, laboratories and the use of ICT by a general practitioner. Health informatization in France didnt start from the state towards the local environment; it has evolved from informatization of hospital systems. A new information system covering administrative and clinical processes is being introduced. The system consists of three main parts: real-time production focused on the patient, processing of all data related to the patient and an electronic bulletin board for managers, doctors, nurses and secretaries. Fast delivery of results of laboratory examination and the availability of patient medical records, even when the archives are closed, is particularly well accepted. The ability to manage and supervise data reduced the length of stay of patients in hospitals. General practitioners also needed data about patients or had had to pass it on to health care workers in the hospital. This is how it developed into a regional project. Sweden found reasons for the introduction of telemedicine to the health care system in its desire to have welldeveloped IT sector and that people have skills in using ICT. At the same time, the availability of health care in low populated areas in Sweden where there are many, is hindered and telemedicine can significantly affect health care. The beginnings of such an approach can be found even in 1960. More than 75% of hospitals in Sweden used or tested an application of this type. The most common application of telemedicine was delivery of X-ray images to another doctor in order to get an opinion. Other applications are support for primary health care doctors by specialists in hospitals, national health portal that allows citizens to ask questions and get answers from the doctors and which supports treatment at home. Given the current interest and needs, strategies for the preparation of the technical conditions for the application of telemedicine are prepared, and then a strategy for the introduction of telemedicine to hospitals and primary health care. An important part represents support of patients/persons who receive treatment. These changes are running at a slower pace in our country but we are still forced to adapt. All health cards in Serbia were replaced with new ones up to December 31, 2007. The prescribed health card form, certificate, as an element of protection has: hologram, special colors, microtext, security curve and anti copy elements. All this gives a reliable protection against counterfeiting. As before, the obligation of periodic certification of health booklet is enacted, but a significant innovation is that insured persons will get their documents at the parent branch, using available data from the registry records, and the evidence of paid contributions. Information development system for basic health care and pharmaceutical services - electronic medical record (EMR) has
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been being introduced in Serbia since 2008 and funded by the Ministry of Health of Serbia and the European Agency for Reconstruction. Electronic medical record (EMR) should be the foundation of good information because it allows obtaining information on time, from the right place, with verified accuracy and verification trace of who is responsible for the data (the right time, place, responsibility and traceability). Through this system, health information collected in electronic form in the separate health facilities receive additional value: the standards and common rules, encourage integration and interoperability, and enable the exchange, consolidation, dissemination and comparison of standardized health information in a wider range. On the other hand, one of the fundamental roles of EMR is to improve the basic processes of health care at all levels, i.e. insight into the health of a patient, all of his identified health problems, the basic applied procedures of diagnostics, treatment and medication therapy. In this way, through the connection to EMR system, the doctor is able to, at the time of his contact with the patient, have access to all previously diagnosed health problems, making it easier to determine if it has come to a new health problem or already existing one. Serbia should form four centers for data collection and the fifth one which would merge all of them (Institute of Public Health: Dr M. Jovanovic - Batut). Belgrade should be one of the centers. There is also a need to create Central information service financed by the Ministry of Health of Serbia and the World Bank - CIS is composed of a number of program modules that are related to the resource database: organizational structure, personnel, medical equipment, statistics and codes. Each institution is to be connected via the Internet to the central database and perform daily updates of its data and retrieve information needed for everyday work.
4. FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS IN E-HEALTH

Development and global expansion of ICT has caused the emergence of new areas for which two names started to be used: telemedicine and cyber-medicine. Telemedicine is an older term and since the seventies most of the authors understood it as a medical procedure that is performed at a distance. Since such a definition does not specify the exact basis of telemedicine technology because the communication methods may be conventional (without use of computers), since the beginning of the application of the term it is clearly stated that the procedure of telemedicine is one that relies on ICT. The telemedicine procedures use, of course, the Internet, in such cases where its application is intended for a medical procedure with the patient. Information Age has changed the ability to collect, store and work with data at our disposal, all because of technological advances and our ability to practice the new technologies in new and innovative ways. The time before us gives us a chance and opportunity to form a new dimension of health services. Cyber-medicine is a newer term that firstly appeared in the nineties of the last century with the meaning of medicine in cyber space (apparent, imaginary or unreal space on the web). Cyber-medicine would be simply practiced medicine on the Internet, and implemented by the cyber doctors, who with their customers (patients) communicate mainly via e-mail. Over time, the definition expanded, and cyber-medicine can be characterized as the science of applying Internet and global networking technologies in medicine and public health, evaluating the impact of the Internet and its opportunities and challenges for health care. Cyber-medicine is engaged in, among other things, studying and using the Internet to educate consumers of health services (health consumers) with patient self support, evaluation of the quality of medical information on the Internet, influence of the Internet on the patient-physician relationship and the quality of health care and global networking applications in medicine based on facts (Evidence-based Medicine). Problems through studying cyber-medicine may arise. The most important are related to the quality of information, but also to the rules in their structuring and communication and their availability. The problems are especially emphasized in terms of doctor-patient relationship. This relationship inevitably changes as necessary since the patients and other health care consumers are increasingly interested in information that may give answers to their questions about diagnosis and treatment and the possible alternatives as well as the preventive measures recommended to them by their doctor, and those they may take on their own. Cyber-medicine opens a number of legal questions, since it became clear with time that the Internet, besides advantages, has drawbacks. There were prescriptions on the Internet that were not medically supervised and negligent medical procedures appeared. Problems of jurisdiction and accreditation of cyber doctors by health care institutions also emerged. It is clear that cyber-medicine is becoming a very challenging area that is likely to dramatically change medical practice. The quality of medical information and procedures in cyberspace is a sensitive question of cybermedicine and medical applications of the Internet in general. It is obvious that the quality of information is changeable in a wide range from the latest directory of leading clinical bodies to outdated and incorrect recommendations. As a result, organizations that are concerned about the reliability and accuracy of medical and health information were established, the most famous non-profit organization is HON (Health on the Net Foundation).
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5. CONCLUSION
As in other areas of human activities, ICT found wide medical application. The development and introduction of new communication technologies that enable global networking give medicine of today the epithet of informatics medicine. With the undoubted contribution to preventive and healing medicine, ICT is becoming more and more supportive in the systematic approach for solving health problems, which is based on connection of somatic with social, ecological, cultural and other factors. Integrated health informatization with the aim of providing better health services for the person/patient in the European Union has started, achieving the mobility of people and providing possibilities of control and analysis of the entire health system in the economic and qualitative terms, which ultimately results in the possibility of managing large health care systems. This brief review makes it evident that there is no common or unique approach in this area. Each country, depending on its socio-economic opportunities, is looking for the best way for management and monitoring problems solving of the health system and e-health represents a networked, citizens oriented, health care. E-health is of great importance for the development of a country. It improves and raises the quality and effectiveness of the offered services. According to all European regulations, health care data are among the very sensitive data and their processing may be of large impact on a life of individual. If we add to it the high cost and the issue of political approach, it is easy to see that the implementation of e-health opens up a set of social, financial, political, clinical and technical issues. Advantages that the informatization and the use of the Internet in the health care system may bring, cannot be based only on web pages some health institutions created and use of e-mail as a means of communication. Only when the business processes of the health system are fully defined in relation to this new paradigm of work, the benefits will increase. Direct benefits of an integrated health care-information system informatization and construction of health care on the principles of e-health can be viewed as follows: History of disease is followed for each patient during his/her life and is in electronic form. Health care workers can access the history of the disease anywhere, anytime, in accordance with high standards of data protection. Integration of all segments of the health system (primary, secondary, tertiary health care) is expressed through access to information systems in health institutions. Quick and easy access for all information users through online services and tele-medicine (passive and active approach). Efficient use of health information systems for management, planning, calculating, reporting and calculating statistics. Proper disposal of information enables the preparation of accurate reports on the use of hospital capacity and the number of occupied beds. At the same time, it is easy to follow treatment and study the exchange of information. Using the ITC will make a change in the health care system, in order to improve public health, health care of system users, reduce costs, save money and time and provide information for accounting and management use. The Internet is just one small step in building an electronic health on e-health principles. Some of the major steps are certainly: integrated administrative, hospital and clinical processes; integration of new management model; integrated business processes of hospitals and state institutions, providers and patients.
REFERENCES
[1] Ammenwerth E, Shaw NT. Bad health informatics can kill is evaluation the answer? Methods of Information in Medicine 2005; 1:1-3. [2] Assessing the opportunities and the pertinence of eHealth in developing countries, Unit ICT for Health, February, 2009 [3] eHealth in Action Good Practice in European Countries, Good eHealth Report January 2009. and European Commission Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities 2009. [4] eHealth solutions at ten European sites, ealthcare European Communities, 2006.dscape [5] ICT for Health and i2010, European Commission Information Society and Media European Communities, 2006..scape [6] http://www.ehealth-indicators.eu/index2.php?page=ICT_ehealth_use/scoreboard/18.02.2010/ [7] http://www.e-health-insider.com [8] http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/
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APPENDIX 1 Table 1: Comparison of the use of eHealth-in EU15 2002-2007

Indicator 2002. ICT infrastructure
The use of computers (desktop or notebook) in practice A computer connected to the Internet or dedicated network of general practitioners 81% 90% The use of computers
Result 2002 (EU15)
Trend 20022007
Result 2007 (EU15)
Indicator 2007.
63%
73%
Internet connection
Purposes of Internet / usage of the network of general practitioners

Access to information for their own education Search for information on prescribing 45% 82% Doctors of general practitioners using the Internet or computers for continuous education Using electronic networks to search for information on prescribing, information on new drugs or contra-indicators
35%
62%
Electronic transfer of patient data

Sending / receiving identification data about the patient Receiving results from laboratories or other diagnostic procedures The transfer of medical data with other providers of medical services 17% 11% 63% 54% Using electronic networks for transfer of patient data Using electronic networks to receive electronic reports from laboratories Using electronic networks to exchange medical data with other providers of health services and professionals The use of electronic networks as well as for routine communication with patients via e-mail about the health and administrative problems Using the security features: electronic signature
8%
28%
Exchange e-mail address with the patient The use of electronic signatures in the transfer of patient medical data over the Internet or a network of general practitioners
6%
27%
2%
18%
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RaDMI 2010
CAM SYNTHESIS FOR A TIMING MECHANISM WITH MECHANICAL VARIABLE VALVE LIFT
2
University of Piteti, Piteti, ROMANIA, e-mail: stelian_mihalcea_07@yahoo.com University of Piteti, Piteti, ROMANIA, e-mail: s_doru@yahoo.com, doru.stanescu@upit.ro
Stelian Mihalcea1, NicolaeDoru Stnescu2
Summary: An innovating solution for throttle-free load control for spark-ignition engines is Variable Valve Timing system (VVT System, or VVA - Variable Valve Actuation System). In this paper is presented an analytic method for cam synthesis of the valve timing mechanism with three elements, which mainly includes the camshaft, the roller rocker finger and an intermediate rocker arm. This type of mechanism ensures a continuous valve lift (VVL System) between two extreme valve heights. It is also presented the numerical example for the variable valve lift mechanisms cam synthesis. The mechanisms system of equations solving principle is based on the Newton-Raphson numerical method. Keywords: Variable Valve Lift, Timing mechanism, Cam synthesis, Analytic method.
1. INTRODUCTION
For the traditional spark-ignition engines the timing configuration does not allow the best engine performance to be achieved for all regime and load. Infinitely variable inlet valve lift and timing is used to control engine load, reducing throttling losses and fuel consumption [8]. It also improves low-end torque and transient response. Variable valve timing technology allows better engine performance by reducing fuel consumption and therefore low emissions [5], higher efficiency, highly precise responsiveness of the powertrain [7]. The key parameter for petrol engine combustion, and therefore efficiency, emissions and fuel consumption is the quantity and characteristics of the fresh air charge in the cylinders. In conventional petrol engines, the throttlebased air control wastes about 10% of the input energy in pumping the air [9]. VVT systems with continuous valve lift variation, usually combined with cam phasers, are designed to eliminate the classical throttle and its inconvenient. The valve motion must be highly and precisely controlled by the cam profile and the architecture of the timing mechanism elements. In a cam synthesis problem the elements dimensions are chosen respecting the constructive and functionality constrains, and after that a cam synthesis proceeds, using a particularly valve lift law, s = s ( ) . The final mechanisms (including the cam) design and dimensions will be established after the mechanisms optimization.
2. THE PROPOSED MECHANISM

The mechanism (figure 1) is a mechanical, continuously VVL system, used for the first time on the sparkignition engines by the German car manufacturer BMW. The main difference that sets this mechanism apart from a regular one is the presence of an additionally rocker arm between the camshaft and the standard roller cam follower. The motion is transmitted by the camshaft (1) to the roller rocker finger (3) via the rocker arm (2) which is equipped with a working curve. The rocker arm is in a direct and permanent support with the camshaft, the eccentric control shaft (4) and the roller rocker finger with the working curve. For each angle of the control shaft, there is a maximum and fixed intake valve (5) lift. Variation of the valve lift is achieved by modifying the eccentric shaft position.
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rA rB
C3
O4
C2
r4
y2
R2
y1
X
x2
*
* O0 O1
C1
O2
x1 r1 2 r
H
C4
' 2
E O5
Valve tip
P
C
E
3
*
OH
O3
Figure 1: Design and functionality of the Figure 2: Mechanisms kinematic schema and VVL mechanism computing nomenclature
3. MECHANISM KINEMATIC ANALYSIS AND CAM SYNTHESIS

3.1. The rocker arm working curve For the proposed mechanism, the kinematic schema is showed in figure 2; accordingly with the notations there are 4 sliding contact between the elements C1 , C2 , C3 , C4 . Also the camshaft and the roller rocker finger are articulated with the base (cylinder head) in O1 and O4 . Therefore, the mechanisms mobility is unique, as it results from [3]: M 3 = 3 n 2 c5 c4 = 3 3 2 2 4 = 1 . (1) The eccentric control shaft has no influence on the mechanisms mobility because its position is stationary. The general coordinate system is O0 XY , the camshaft (1) local coordinate system is O1 x1 y1 where O1 is identically positioned with O0 , the rocker arm (2) local coordinate system is O2 x2 y2 where point A is placed on the O2 y2 axis, the roller rocker finger (3) local coordinate system is O3 x3 y3 where point E is placed on the O3 x3 axis. When the eccentric shaft is turning (measured with the angle [ min ; max ] ), the rocker arm (2) is turning around the point O2 , the contact C4 with the roller rocker (3) describes a contact curve (working curve) C ,
' which is actually the DH circle arch by R2 radius; the point D matches the min angle and point H to the max .
y2
y2
y2
rB
r2 R2
x2
C3 O4
B
O4
3 3 C3
rA
x2
O2
2
R* 2
2
C2
rB
x3
E
C4 4
2
x2
y3
O2
O2
O3
Figure 3: The C2 contact point
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arch HK , and so results the contact curve (working curve) (figure 2). Let us call: l1 = O2 A, l2 = O4 B, l3 = O3 E , l4 = O3O5 , l5 = O3 P;
To ensure the permanent contact between elements (2) and (3) is necessary to extend the C curve with a circle
' r1 , r2 , R2 , R2 , r4 , rA , rB , rE , rD , rH , for the circles radius in figure 2;
, , , on the mechanisms reference position ( = = 0), between O0O2 , O2 x2 , O3 E , axis and O0 X axis; also are used some secondary angles 2 , 3 , 4 to define the contact equations for C2 , C3 and
C4 points (figure 3, 4, 5); O3 ( X 3 , Y3 ) and O4 ( X 4 , Y4 ) point coordinates in the main coordinates system O0 XY .
Considering that the angle is set on the extreme values min , max , for the angle results the extreme
values min , max , and using the following notations X 3 cos + Y3 X 2
' R2 + rE
0 = arccos
(2)
= + 0 , min = min + 0 , max = max + 0 , (3) the parametrically equations in O2 x2 y2 coordinates system for C curve ( DH circle arch) are obtained:
' ' xC = R2 cos ; yC = R2 sin ,
(4)
where min max . If curve is obtained by connecting in point H a circle arch with rH radius and if (xH , y H ) are the xC ,
yC coordinates values for the extreme angles min , max , the parametrically representation of the curve in
the local coordinates system O2 x2 y2 is obtained

' if min max R cos , x = 2 x H + rH [cos max cos(2 max )], if > max
' if min max R sin , y = 2 y H rH [sin max sin (2 max )], if > max
(5)
where: xH = rH cos max ; y H = rH sin max .
(6)
3.2. Contact and tangency equations Considering that the cam parametric equations in the O1 x1 y1 coordinates system are x1 = x1 ( ) ; y1 = y1 ( ) , (7) and the cam rotation angle with initial position is , then using the O2 center circle parametric equations in O2 x2 y 2 and r2 radius x2 = r2 cos 1 ; y2 = r2 sin 1 , (8) the tangency and contact equations in point C1 are obtained (figure 6): f1 = x1 p cos( + 1 ) y1 p sin ( + 1 ) = 0 , (9) f 2 = x1 cos( ) y1 sin ( ) + r2 cos(1 ) X 2 = 0 , (10) ( ) ( ) ( ) f 3 = x1 sin + y1 cos r2 sin 1 Y2 = 0 , (11) where x1 p and y1 p are the x1 and y1 derivates with cam rotation angle , is the angle which defines the
cam position in its coordinates system, X 2 and Y2 are the O2 point coordinates in the general system O0 XY . Knowing the 2 angle between O2O4 and O0Y axis, for the tangency contact point C2 the following equations are obtained: f 4 = X 2 + (R2 + r4 )sin 2 X 4 = 0 , (12) f 5 = Y2 + (R2 + r4 ) cos 2 Y4 = 0 . (13) In the same way, knowing the 3 angle between AB segment and O0 X axis, for the contact and tangency point C3 the following equations are obtained:
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f 7 = Y2 + l1 cos (rA + rB )sin 3 Y4 l2 sin = 0 .
f 6 = X 2 l1 sin + (rA + rB ) cos 3 X 4 l2 cos = 0 ,
(14) (15)
Y y1
y2 X x1 x2 O0 O1 r1 Y2

r2 X2 O2
C1
Figure 6: The C1 contact point on the base cam circle
For the contact and tangency in C4 point, using the 4 angle between EC4 segment and O0Y axis and knowing the (5) equations, results: f8 = X 2 + x cos y sin l3 cos + rE sin 4 X 3 = 0 , (16) f 9 = Y2 + x sin + y cos l3 sin rE cos 4 Y3 = 0 , (17) f10 = xp sin ( 4 ) yp cos( 4 ) = 0 . (18) where xp = R2 sin ; yp = R2 cos , if min max (19) xp = rH sin (2 max ) ; yp = rH cos(2 max ) , if > max Equations f i = 0, i = 1, 2, ..., 10, form a system from where , 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , X 2 , Y2 , , , , parameters are determined for = 1 360. The equations system is easily solved using the numerical
computing method Newton-Raphson, in which the initial value are , 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , X2 , Y2 , , , , from the reference position.
3.3. Intake valve lift law. Cam synthesis

D s
O3
Figure 7: The roller rocker finger movement schema
results the following functions: X 2 ( ) , Y2 ( ) , ( ) , 2 ( ) , 3 ( ) , 4 ( ) , ( ) . From (10), (11) results the circles family equations which depends by and 1 :
x = X 2 cos + Y2 sin r2 cos + 1
Solving the cam synthesis requires a valve lift law, s = s ( ) . The roller rocker finger (figure 7) movement law results from: l sin s ( ) ( ) = arcsin 5 + (20) l5 l where = arccos 5 . Solving the (12), ..., (18) equations system, using Newton-Raphson numerical method, l4
y = X 2 sin + Y2 cos + r2 sin + 1 The (21) equations complies the following condition:
(21)
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x y
x 1 =0 y 1
(22)
equivalent with
1 = + arctg
Y2 + X 2 p Y2 p X 2
(23)
where X 2 p , Y2 p , are the X 2 , Y2 , derivate with . The synthesis cam equations are defined by (21) and (23).
4. APPLICATION
Let us consider the approximate dimensions used to validate the computational model, as follows: = 0 360 , = 150 , = 0 , r1 = 12 mm , O3 X O3 ; YO3 = ( 10; 43) mm , O1 X O1 ; YO1 = (0; 0 ) mm ,
l1 = 48 mm , l2 = 4 mm , l3 = 35 mm , l4 = 55 mm , l5 = 54,929 mm , rD = 10 mm , rH = 15 mm , < (EO3O5 ) = 15 .
' = 28 mm , O4 X O4 ; YO4 = (25; 40) mm , r4 = 10 mm , rB = 14 mm , rA = 5 mm , r2 = 7 mm , R2 = 31 mm , R2
It is also known the valve lift law (figure 8), s = s ( ) .

10 9 8 7 s [mm] 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 45 90 135 180 [] 225 270 315 360
Figure 8: Intake valve lift law
Proceeding to the cam synthesis, the following profile was obtained (figure 9, figure 10):
[mm]
15
10
0 15 10 5 0 -5 -5 -10 -15
[mm]
-20
-10
-15
Figure 9: The synthesis cam profile
By decreasing the eccentric shaft position angle from 150 to 0 results the valve lift family of laws (figure 10)
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10 9 8 7 s() [mm] 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 45 90 135 180 [] 225 270 315 360 = 150 = 140 = 130 = 115 = 100 = 80 = 60 = 0
Figure 10: The lift range for the intake valve lift
5. CONCLUSION
After this study on the variable valve lift mechanism with continuous valve lift the following conclusions were reached: - The valves position must remain unchanged during the eccentric shaft rotation. This condition must be respected by all the VVL mechanism, no matter the type of the valve lift mechanism or the way the lift is set. - The kinematic analysis shows that the mechanism offer a continuous variation of the valve lift, with valve displacement starting from around 1 mm lift to a maximum lift around 9 mm, without changing the valve opening and closing points. The future work will be concentrated on the mechanisms optimization. The first authors contribution to this paper is based on the European Program Dezvoltarea colilor doctorale prin acordarea de burse tinerilor doctoranzi cu frecven POSDRU/88/1.5/S/52826.
REFERENCES
[1] Artobolevski, I. Les mcanismes dans la technique moderne. Tome 1-5, Ed. MIR, Moskow, 1978. [2] Artobolevski, I. Thorie des mcanismes et des machines. Ed. MIR, Moskow, 1977. [3] Pandrea, N., Popa, D. Mecanisme. Teorie i aplicaii CAD. Ed. Tehnic, Bucureti 2000. [4] Popa, D., Pandrea, N., Pandrea, M., Popa C.M., Synthesis of the complex mechanisms with mobile cam, ID: 594, 12th IFToMM World Congress, Besanon (France), June 18-21, 2007. [5] Ronald J. Pierik, James F. Burkhard, Design and Development of a Mechanical Variable Valve Actuation System, SAE Technical Paper Series, 2000-01-1221. [6] Rudolf Flierl, Daniel Gollasch, Andreas Knecht, Wilhelm Hannibal, Improvements to a Four Cylinder Gasoline Engine Through the Fully Variable Valve Lift and Timing System UniValve, SAE International, 2006-06P-579. [7] ***** ATZ autotechnology, No. 5, Oct. 2009. [8] ***** ATZ autotechnology, No. 6, Dec. 2009. [9] ***** Automotive engineer, Apr. 2010.
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RaDMI 2010
ANALYSIS OF SOME ALGORITHMS FOR POSITION CONTROL OF TWO-COORDINATE DRIVING SYSTEMS

Mikho R. Mikhov, Georgi D. Mitrinski
Technical University of Sofia, Sofia, BULGARIA, e-mail: mikhov@tu-sofia.bg
Summary: The performance of a multifunctional two-coordinate drive system with hybrid stepping motors is analized in this paper.Using the MATLAB/SIMULINK software package some computer simulation models have been developed to investigate the applied algorithms for positioning control. Detailed study has been carried out for the respective transient and steady-state regimes. Simulation results are presented which show that the described control algorithms provide for good performance. The research carried out as well as the results obtained could be used in the design of such types of driving systems. Keywords: two-coordinate drive, stepping motor drive system, micro-stepping control, computer simulation.
1. INTRODUCTION
A number of technical applications in the mechanical industry require two-coordinate driving systems with high position accuracy. Such performance can be ensured by stepping motors because they have several advantages, such as: good position resolution; wide speed range; simple and robust construction; ability to operate in openloop drive systems; compatibility with microprocessor controllers [1], [2]. Hybrid motors combine the best characteristics of both permanent magnet and variable reluctance motors. They are preferred in applications requiring small step length and high torque within restricted working space. The microstepping control can provide for some additional improvements including: higher position accuracy and resolution; vibrations and noise reduction; elimination or simplification of the gearboxes. The control algorithms of two-coordinate driving systems have influence on the drive performance, namely cycle time, accuracy and power consumption [3]. For the stepping drives the positioning accuracy and rapidity improvement are of greatest importance. The performance of a multifunctional two-coordinate drive system with hybrid stepping motors [4] is analyzed in this paper. Several algorithms for positioning control in full step mode and micro-stepping are applied. Using the MATLAB/SIMULINK software package a number of computer simulation models have been developed to investigate the presented control algorithms. Detailed study has been carried out for the respective dynamic and static regimes at various work conditions. Some simulation results are presented and discussed.
2. FEATURES OF THE DRIVE SYSTEM UNDER CONSIDERATION

The simplified block diagram of the developed two-coordinate drive system is shown in Fig. 1, where the notations are as follows: PC personal computer; MC microprocessor controller; C1, C2 power converters; M1, M2 hybrid stepping motors; E1, E2 position encoders; L1, L2 loads applied to the respective motor shafts; 1 , 2 rotor positions; S1 , S 2 linear movements. The hybrid stepping motors used consist of slotted stators with two phases and permanent magnet rotors. Each rotor comprises a pair of laminated toothed cylinders which are axially magnetized to produce the respective pole pairs. Both phases can be excited with positive and negative currents. When the windings are unexcited the magnet flux produces a small detent torque, which retains the rotor at the step position. In order to obtain a suitable simulation model some assumptions have been made, such as: the magnetic coupling between the phases is neglected, as it is slight in hybrid step motors; the variation of inductance in accordance
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with position is not taken into account because it is negligible for permanent magnet step motors; the effect of saturation at high currents is ignored. The influence of saturation gets reduced in high-speed regions where currents are limited because of the back electromotive force voltage.
Figure 1: Block diagram of the two-coordinate driving system under consideration. The state-space model of the hybrid stepping drive as required for computer simulation, is as follows:
Kt R 0 sin ( p ) L J &a i K R &b 0 t cos( p ) i L J &= K t Kt C sin ( p ) cos( p ) & J J J 0 0 1
1 0 ia L 0 ib 0 + 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 v a 1 0 0 v b , L T 1 0 0 0 L 0 0 0
(1)
where: v a and vb are phase voltages; ia and ib phase currents; rotor angular position; = d dt motor velocity; T motor torque; K t torque constant; R stator winding resistance; L stator winding inductance; p number of the rotor teeth; J total inertia referred to the motor shaft; C coefficient of viscous friction. The above-mentioned assumptions are standard for control system simulations but even with them the statespace model is nonlinear. In particular, each term associated with the torque constant K t is a product of a state variable with sin ( p ) or cos ( p ) . The two-coordinate drive system under consideration is multifunctional. It can operate in both positioning and scanning control modes with full steps and micro steps, in open and close loop variants.
3. CONTROL ALGORITHMS
Fig. 2 shows the current waveforms in full stepping operation mode when both stator phases are excited together as follows: + A + B A + B A B + A B + A + B ... . Full stepping is simple for realization, but it has poor resolution. To improve the position accuracy microstepping control has been applied. In this operation mode one full step is divided electronically into small increments of rotor motion. Subdivision of the basic motor step is possible by proportioning the phase currents in the two stator windings.
Figure 2: Phase current waveforms in full stepping operation mode.
Current magnitudes vary and the number of current levels depends on the desired micro-step size. Air gap flux is proportional to the vector sum of the currents in the resultant vector direction. To achieve a required rotating flux, the phase currents magnitudes are calculated as follows:
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ia N j = I rat cos ja ; ib N j = I rat sin ja ,
( )
( ) ( )
( )
(2)
where: I rat is the rated current value; N j the number of current levels; j = 0, 1, 2, ..., 4n 1 ; the angular displacement of each micro step. The resultant stator current represents the phase currents vector sum, namely:
I=
[I rat cos (i )]2 + [I rat sin (i )]2 = I rat = const
(3)
Eq. (3) shows that the resultant current remains constant and equal to the rated value. Therefore, by correct combination of phase current levels it is possible to obtain constant resultant current and smooth movement of the stepping motor shaft. The micro-step positions are critically dependent on current levels in the phase windings, so there is a need for closed-loop current control to ensure the calculated values. The respective current waveforms in micro-stepping operation mode are given in Fig. 3.
Figure 3: Phase current waveforms in micro-stepping operation mode.
Fig. 4 presents the trajectories illustrating the analyzed control algorithms. The notations are as follows: S1i , S 2i ) coordinates of the initial position; B S1r , S 2 r ) coordinates of the respective reference position.
The linear movements along the two coordinate axes are as follows:
S1 = 1 K g ; S 2 = 2 K g ,
(4)
where K g is the respective gear coefficient.
a)
b) c) Figure 4: Trajectories for the respective positioning control algorithms.
d)
The estimation function applied for the control algorithm with linear interpolation between two positions (Fig. 4d) is described by the equation:
Fi j = 1r 2 j 1i 2r
(5)
where: 1r and 2r are reference coordinates; 1i position after i steps along the first axes; 2 j position after j steps along the second axes. The algorithm of this control method can be described as follows [5]: a) The function of Fi j is calculated; b) The function value is analyzed: - if Fi j 0 , then a command for one step along the first axis is issued, - if Fi j < 0 , then a command for one step along the second axis is issued;
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c) At each step the respective coordinate value is reduced by one unit. After one step along the first axis, the new coordinate values will be: 1(i +1) = 1i + 1; 2 j , and taking into account Eq. 5, for the estimation function the next is obtained: F(i +1) j = 1r 2 j (1i + 1) 2r = 1r 2 j 1i 2 r 2 r = Fi j 2 r
(6) (7)
It follows from Eq. (7) that the new function value is calculated from the preceding one, subtracting the 2r coordinate. If one step is made along the second axis, the coordinate values will be: (8) 1i ; 2( j +1) = 2 j + 1 , and when Eq. (5) is taken into consideration, the following expression is obtained: Fi ( j +1) = 1r 2 j + 1 1i 2r = 1r 2 j 1i 2r + 1r = Fi j + 1r
(9)
In accordance with Eq. (9), the new function value after one step along the second axis is calculated from the preceding one, adding coordinate 1r . Every specific working regime of the two-coordinate drives requires an appropriate control algorithm. For this reason, using the MATLAB/SIMULINK software package a number of computer simulation models have been developed to analyze the driving system under consideration. Based on them, several algorithms for trajectory formation have been investigated. A simplified diagram of such a simulation model is presented in Fig. 5.
4. SIMULATION RESULTS AND PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS

The research has been carried out for two-phase hybrid stepping motors with basic parameters as follows: rated voltage Vrat = 5 V ; rated phase current I rat = 1 A ; number of the rotor teeth p = 50 ; full motor step = 1.8 .
Figure 5: model for computer simulation of two-coordinate drive system.
Fig. 6a shows the position response obtained in full step operation mode when the two phases are excited simultaneously ( = 1.8 0.0314 rad ). The applied microstepping control is illustrated by time diagrams shown in Fig. 6b Fig. 6d, where one full motor step is divided into four, eight and sixteen micro-steps, respectively. Evidently, as a result of smaller step
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angles, the micro-stepping control improves the drive system performance, ensuring smoother rotation and higher positioning accuracy.
a)
b) c) Figure 6. Rotor position responses obtained in the respective control modes.
d)
time diagram obtained for position control with full steps is represented in Fig. 7. The position cycle in this case consist of movement to a reference point 1r and return to initial position 1i = 0 . At the moment t rev a command for motor reversion is applied, which changes the phase sequences.
Figure 7: Position control with reversing.
Fig. 8 shows a motion trajectory for one coordinate axis at position control with smooth acceleration and deceleration. The reference angular position is indicated with 1r .
Figure 8: Trajectory with smooth acceleration and deceleration.
At consecutive movement along the two coordinate axes the total positioning time is as follows:
t = t1 + t 2 ,
(10)
where t1 and t 2 are the positioning times along the respective coordinate axes. A simultaneous motion is illustrated in Fig. 9, when the two motor speeds are equal. The cycle time for this control algorithm is:
t = t1 = t 2
(11)
The linear interpolation according to Eq. 5 is illustrated in Fig. 10, which visualizes the described control algorithm.
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Figure 9: Trajectory of simultaneous movement.
Figure 10: Position control with linear interpolation.
Higher positioning accuracy of the analyzed control algorithms can be insured applying micro-stepping control mode. The appropriate micro-step is calculated in accordance with the desired linear position resolution:
S r K g ,
where S r is the reference positioning accuracy.
(12)
5. CONCLUSION
The performance analysis of a multifunctional two-coordinate drive system with hybrid stepping motors has been presented in this paper. Using the MATLAB/SIMULINK software package a number of computer simulation models have been developed to investigate the applied control algorithms. The behavior analysis shows that the presented control algorithms provide for good performance, which makes them suitable for a variety of practical applications. The research carried out as well as the simulation models can be used in the optimization of such types of stepping motor drive systems. They could also be applied in the teaching process.
REFERENCES
[1] Acarnley, P.: Stepping Motors: a Guide to Theory and Practice, London, IEE, 2002, ISBN 0852960298. [2] Kenjo, T. & Sugawara A.: Stepping Motors and Their Microprocessor Controls, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1995, ISBN 0198593864. [3] Blaziunas, G. & Geleeviius, V.: Accuracy Investigations of Multifunctional Two-coordinate Drive System, Electronics and Electrical Engineering, Vol. 51, No. 2 (2004), pp. 8-14, ISSN 1392-1215. [4] Mikhov, M. R., P. S., Mitrinski, G. D. & Stoev, M. S.: A Multifunctional Two-Coordinate Drive System with Hybrid Stepping Motors, Proceedings of the International Conference on Interdisciplinarity in Engineering, Targu-Mures, Romania, 12-13 November 2009. Edited by Mircea Dulu, University of Targu-Mures, 2009, pp. 71-76, ISSN 1843-780X. [5] Mikhov, M. R.: Electric Drive Systems, Sofia, Technical University, 2006, ISBN 978-954-438-596-5 (in Bulgarian).
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RaDMI 2010
SOLVING INVERSE KINEMATICS WITHOUT APPLYING THE MATRIX ROTATION

1
Danilo T. Miki1, Aleksandar N. Aonja2
Tehnical school 3 Vuka Karadjia street, Gornji Milanovac, SERBIA e-mail: vtsm@nadlanu.com 2 NS-Termomontaa 18 Stevana Mokranjca street, Novi Sad, SERBIA e-mail: aleksandar.asonja@gmail.com
Summary: The problem of inverse kinematics is the basic problem of robotic systems and represents a successful method of settlement. The paper presented to the computational method of solving this problem. Dispute is about the transformation from a right Cartesian coordinate system wrist joint space. Where this show takes place in feedback loop and as a result of new feedback link is the inverse kinematics. This transformation acts as a filter and does not require matrix manipulation procedure Although the computational implementation greatly reduced, efficiency is comparable to the provided by the law of least resistance to the square. The new algorithm is able to avoid the kinematic equality and in this regard beyond the apparent-inverse (inverse)-based formulation. Keywords: inverse kinematics, damped least squares, control moment gyros, singular, joint, manipulator. end-effector, robot
1. INTRODUCTION
Inverse kinematics is the basic element in any controlled robotics system and has significant research went into the last few decades to identify robust and common solutions to this problem. Inverse kinematics can be linked to other areas, such as spacecraft control, using control moment gyros, animation, stacking (execution) of proteins. In general, the control loop with the spacecraft mass center of gravity is Jakobian design on the components of torque in ring gimbal [1]. In robotics Jakobians matrix connects the end speed of action as defined in Cartesian space with hinged speeds. Closed-formic solution for inverse kinematics, inverse kinematics is limited only to certain types of manipulators [2], and most of the proposed technique abide by the numerical method. Inverse law of damping least squares, developed by Nakamura and Hanafuse in [3] and Vampler in [4], is proposed as an effective and singular solution to the problem of robot inverse kinematics. This is a pseudoinverse method which is based near the singularity closer solutions for the value of an error in the path to final action. Algorithm depends on a damping variable that defines the trade off between solvability and accuracy. This variable is calculated on each sample and tends to zero when it is far from unity for the conversion of damping least squares method (also known as the singular complex method) in the Moore-Penrose pseudoinversion. It independently presented by Volovich at. al. in [5] and Balestrino et al in [6] that the inverse kinematics problem can be solved calculating Jacobian transformation matrix instead of its inverse matrix. This method, although numerically efficient, does not submit an incomplete solution to rangovski Jakobian matrix. Other methods for solving the problem of inverse kinematics to resort to various forms of optimization, for example [7] and [8]. Recent research on the avoidance of losing a degree of freedom for the mass center of gravity has led to the development of new methods for solving the problem of inverse kinematics [9, 10]. Return the inverse kinematics method shown in this paper uses feedback control to reduce the difference between actual and required Cartesian speed. Within Petya feedback, sought common parameters are derived through the supervisory function of sensitivity. Algorithm acts as a filter and does not require matrix manipulations. Loss of some degree of freedom to manage without the need for some dampinf factor and makes
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it computationally more efficient than the pseudo-inverse based methods. Regardless of differences, fixed inverse kinematics law is closely comparable in structure with the law damping least squares inverse kinematics law and it will be shown later in this paper. The manipulator dynamic constraints and trajectories are systematically linked to the development of laws and inverse kinematics and its parameters. She has also shown that for a particular class of inverse solutions law singularity kinematics inverse kinematics-law surpass the performance delivered by the method of least squares attenuation law.
2. INVERSE PROBLEM OF KINEMATIKS

For the manipulator shown in figure 1, the position of the final action end effect catcher x Rm refers to the vector of joint variables q Rn through the nonlinear vector-valued functions, ie the required link in the internal coordinates q ( t ) and developments in the external coordinates x ( t ) the calculation q x can always form algorithm f :
x = f (q)
(1).
Figure 1: Three-plane manipulator, q1 - q3 are the joint variables

) defined in Cartesian space by manipulating the joint Control of manipulators trajectory tracking requires ( x variable vector of generalized coordinates of q . This requires solving the inverse equation 1 to obtain q for a . On the practical point of view, much more practical approach is to use the joint velocity q & and final given x & . This requires the calculation of linearizations equation 1 Jakobian matrix action Cartesians speed x f q f ( q ) ( ) . Matrix J(q) R dimension m n Jakobian call, a matrix J ( q ) = dimension J ( q ) Rm n , J ( q ) = q q n 1 called the associated matrix. The total sum of the kinematic internal speed:
& & =J(q) q x (2). Equation 2 is used for our calculation speed and acceleration. In general, that the robot could successfully perform a task it is necessary and sufficient to be n m . Usually, n = m , in the case of a n > m , means we are talking about redundancy manipulators to the set task. Thus, redundancy implies, the ,,excess"degrees of freedom grab n compared to the minimum number required for the task m. Solving equation 2 for a particular set & ) requires solving the generalized velocity: of required variables Cartesian ( x
& & = J (q) x q (3), where J (q) the inverse matrix Jakobian. For example, the m > n , pseudo-inverse method can be used to obtain J (q) [for better visibility, q has been omitted from J(q)]: J (q) = JT (JJT) 1 4).
Since Jakobian dependent nonlinear matrix of joint angles, there is a combination of q where the matrix becomes Jakobian poorly due to r = rank (J(q)), r < m . For these combinations of losing a degree of freedom, pseudoinverse algorithm in Equation 4 has not managed to deliver the solution and leads to excessive speed articulated
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near equality. Law damping least-squares-inverse solution approaches the law about losing a degree of freedom by allowing some errors in the position of the final action. J (q) = JT (JJT + I )-1 (5). The solution depends on factors damping which expresses the inter-accuracy solutions concessions ( 0) and feasibility of solutions ( >> 0). Because the solution and the stability equation 5 depends on , There was a significant effort undertaken in the research, in order to determine different methods for adjusting [3, 8, 11].
3. RECURRENT THE INVERSE KINEMATICS

& R m , following For the kinematic representation in equation 2, and given the desired Cartesian velocity x m variables vector errors e R is: & J( q ) q & e=x (6). The equation is a discrepancy between current and desired speed of Descartes'. Let us JT(q) is the transposed matrix Jakobian, then the result of this work can be formally established.
4. SETTING THE PROBLEM

With a view to reducing errors in the equation 6, a negative feedback loop is built as in figure 2. If K(s) R n m a full-function notebook matrix acts as a control law, then there is a flexible form of K(s) that reduces this error to arbitrarily small values, leading to the next solution to the problem of inverse kinematics: & & =K(s)(JK(s)+I )1 x q (7). Optimal K(s) has the following flexible form: (8), K(s)=JT(q)P(sIAK)1BK m m m m , P > 0 increasing symmetric matrix, AK R , AK < 0 is a diagonal matrix and BK where: P R R m m , BK > 0 is a diagonal matrix. The specific numerical values P, A and BK are related to limitations in the manipulator and the desired path.
Figure 2: Inverse kinematics based on the feedback coupled
5. PROBLEM SOLUTION
Equation 7 follows directly from the definition of the feedback loop of figure 2; joint rates are related to the desired Cartesian velocity through the control-sensitive function in the equation of 7. To obtain the control law in equation 8, the proposed two-step approach. 1. In the first phase, in Jakobian matrix is assumed constant, time-invariant, transported matrix velocity joint plans to of Cartesian speeds, for example. J(q) = Jo = const. Optimal H control law is then designed to solve the following problem of sensitivity reduction:
min ( )
K s
( s ) ( J K ( s ) + I ) 1 0 1 1 2 ( J 0 K ( s ) + I )
(9),
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1 ( s ) R m m , bandwidth determines the law of inverse kinematics equation 7 and is derived from the
x. 2 R nn sets limits on drivers in terms of limitations of dynamic manipulators and the reference trajectory & . Solving equation 9 for K(s) it is a trivial task and requires the use of a standard H upper limit speed q optimal algorithm, for example [12]. 2. For the adaptation of K(s), the controller is first carried out over represented in the equation space:
K (s) : & = AK z + BK e z & = CK z q
(10).
Where: z R m1 the state controller, AK R m m , AK < 0 is a diagonal matrix, BK R m m , BK is a diagonal matrix and e the error in the 6 equation. From the solution to the problem of H in Equation 9, one can see that, in the -normative sense, to get feedback. T 2 T CK = J 0 P = J0 bP (11), where: P > 0, P = PT , Riccati solution of the equation associated with the construction of state feedback K(s) & . Equation 11 imposes that K(s) can be [12], b the loop bandwidth in Figure 2, wis the upper limit of joint velocity q adjusted by taking the current values for q, calculation JT(q) and adjusting accordingly CK, for example. CK = J(q)T P (12). Combining equation 12 with equation 10 enables adaptive control law K(s) in Equation 8, which solves the problem of inverse matrix. The notebook-funkcionoj equation, K(s) is given in Equation 8. This is complete proof.
6. REMARKS ERROR-OCCURRENCE OF PROBLEMS

6.1 Comparison with the apparent-reverse method
Setting equation: Q = P (sIAK)1BK (13), rewriting method allows feedback inverse kinematics of law in equation 7 in its compact form [below was q omitted from J(q)], & & =JTQ(JJTQ+I)1 q x (14). The solution of equation 14 has a similar structure to the law damping least squares in equation.5. It can also be compared with Jakobians method of reverse transposition [5] and [6] assuming that Q(JJTQ+I) 1 simplified constant and diagonal matrix. Despite similarities, important differences should be recognized. Thanks to the use of feedback loops in figure 2, joint velocity is related to the required speed of Descartes in the control sensitivity function JTQ(JJTQ+I) 1 and since the calculations performed in the feedback loop, do not require matrix inversion. For feedback inverse kinematics law 1 and in fact the damping factor is not used, while the new dynamic mapping Q R m m (in Equation 13) was introduced. In relation to the transposed Jacobians methods transpose, a new methods of feedback provides the inverse kinematics and singularity view of the robustness and due to the nondiagonal and dynamic form of Q (s).
6.2 The stability of inverse kinematics
From the control point of view, the internal stability of the loop in Figure 2 is guaranteed as long as: (15), det (JJTQ+I) 0 or otherwise: (JJTQ) 0 (16), for all combinations of q. Since the Q = QT 0 the task, always satisfies this condition and does not depend on the parameters in the matrix of Jacobians q. On the loss of some degrees of freedom, (JJTQ) = 0.
6.3 Strength of the singularity
It is important to prove that the singularity or the loss of some degree of freedom, power, K(s) designed to have a complete structure. When J(q) lose their rank, the error in Equation 6 is growing in one particular direction. Avoiding joint speeds are performed using the distance element in the diagonal basis K(s). This is done to infinity, in terms of reducing errors as well as the construction of K(h). This is quite contrary to what is selected in the law to reduce the damping least squares in equation 5 and thus the need for .
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6.4 Limit the construction of the manipulator
If all the m - directions at the end of the end effect should also strive, 1 ( s ) - was chosen as a diagonal matrix transpose-functional. In almost all types of applications it will be enough to set up the equation: b 1 ( s ) = Imm (17), s + where: b - determines the border width of bandwidth in figure 2 , and - sensitivity function shows an increase in steady-state. With equation 1 ( s ) , AK - is transformed into form: AK = I m m (18), 1 ( s ) - allows the determination and monitoring the accuracy and dynamics associated with the desired path. In contrast to classical apparent (pseudo) - based reverse kinematic solution, it can be determined for each mnavigate independently adjusting b and differently for each direction. This can be used to set up operations priorities. From the shape of equation 17, BK can be taken as the identity transformation matrix CK = bI m m . The control limits in terms of top speed limit joint
& q
) can be given in . This is done for each degree of

2
where: - determines the maximum ratio (in m/s or rad/s). In contrast to the methods of damping least
squares method, the feedback inverse (reverse) kinematics allows the calculation of each degree of freedom (n) independently 2 . The solution method performance feedback inverse (reverse) kinematics: The feedback in figure 2, the error can be calculated for the sensitivity function: & e =(JJTQ+I)1 x (20). The relationship in equation 20 indicates that the error is proportional to the size of Q (equation 13). In addition, taking into account only the state of rest, from equation 11 it follows that the error is proportional to the square of the maximum relations - joint servo motor-drivers.
6.5 Application
freedom (n). For manipulators with similar characteristics in servo motor (starter) would be enough to set: 1 2 = I n n (19),
As previously stated, the method of feedback inverse (reverse) kinematics acts as a filter and requires only a multiplication of orders. For the application, the equation 10 is the conversion - the transformation of their particular interval the corresponding samples : z ( k + 1) = z ( k ) + BK e (21), T & q = J ( q ) Pz ( k )
where: = exp ( ). The first equation determines the law of inverse feedback (reverse) kinematics and assumes the form of the AK equation 18. Error e is calculated from equation 6. The second equation used Jakobian matrix for the situation and shape of the calculated joint velocities. If BK is different from the unit matrix, we multiply P with BK and above all improve the efficiency of Computation. Assuming the form of extensive-form for Jakobian matrix, the total number of operations is shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Computing method request feedback inverse kinematics
Independently adjustment and DOF (m+n) (6+n)
Supplements 2mn+m2 12n+36
Multiplication 2mn-n+m2 11n+36
In total 4mn-n+2m2 23n+72
For 6 degrees of freedom manipulator can be only 210 multiplications/additions to calculate the inverse kinematics, the division is not necessary and singular strength is built into the algorithm. The number of failures can be further reduced if the control is taken to avoid the multiplication of ones and zeros. In comparison with the resistance to the implementation of least squares algorithm, together with the adjustment factors priguenosti, the results are shown in [3, 13, 14] for example, the method of feedback inverse (reverse) kinematics algorithm significantly reduces the need for calculation (by a factor of at least five ). For use in preparing more effective
648
over the end parts or for an extended matrix with Jakobian ankle joint area of work is a spatial model, a decrease in orders for Computing application may be feasible. As a template method backlinks inverse (reverse) kinematics can also be run in parallel with a zero - the beginning of the coordinate system for constructing multiprocessing.
6.6 Zero motion
For redundant manipulators can be used (n-m) zero-dimensional space J to generate joint velocity vectors that & . Redundant manipulators implies ,,the surplus of "degrees of freedom compared produce zero-speed end effect x to the catcher in the minimum number required for the execution of task where. This is normal when added almost unique in the apparent inverse matrix, for example: & + I J +J q & = J+x &0 q (22),
&0 as n -dimensional random vector of joint velocity. Similarly, feedback, inverse kinematics solutions where: q
based on feedback kinematics solutions in Figure 2 can be extended by the operations of projection (I-J +J) by using the form in the shape of the Figure 3.
Figure 3: The method of inverse kinematics expanded with homogeneous condition
7. CONCLUSION
This study presents a new way of solving the problem of inverse kinematics. For the solution of this problem has been accessed from views of control and results of inverse kinematics of law based on the feedback coupled. This approach does not require manipulation of matrices and calculate the damping factor. Although the performance is closely comparable to the well-organized pseudo-inverse based algorithm such as the damping least squares, the proposed algorithm outperforms the damping least squares in terms of handling singularities. Since the calculation does not resort to matrix manipulations, feedback inverse kinematics is computationally more efficient than any pseudoinverzno based law. In this paper, the algorithm was successfully applied in plane manipulator with 3 degrees of freedom, for the singular and redundant configurations with a high number of degrees of freedom and multiple end-starters (endeffector).
8. REFERENCES
[1] M. Vukobratovi, M. Stoki, Control of Manipulation Robots, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1982. [2] Y. Nakamura and H. Hanafusa. Inverse kinematics solutions with singularity robustness for robot manipulator control. Trans. ASME J. of Dynamic System, Measures and Control , 108:163171, 1986. [3] D. L. Pieper. The kinematics of manipulators under computer control. PhD Thesis, Stanford University, 1968.
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[4] A. S. Deo and I. D. Walker. Adaptive non-linear least squares for inverse kinematics. IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, pages 186193, 1993. [5] A. A. Maciejewski and J. M. Reagin. A parallel algorithm and architecture for the control of kinematically redundant manipulators. IEEE Transaction on Robotics and Automation, 10(4):405414, August 1994. [6] W. A. Wolovich and H. Elliott. A computational technique for inverse kinematics. The 23rd IEEE Conference on Decision and Control , 23:13591363, 1984. [7] K. S. Fu, R.C.Gonsales, C. S. G. Lee, Robotics -Control, Sensing,Vision, and Intelligence, Mc Graw Hill Book Company, New York, Hamburg, London, Paris, Tokyo, et. al., 1989. [8] J. Angeles, Fundamentals of Robotic Mechanical Systems: Theory, Methods, and Algorithms,
Springer-Verlag, New York, 1997.

[9] H. Choset, K.M. Lynch, S. Hutchinson, G. Kantor, W. Burgard, L.E Kavraki, S. Thrun,Principles of Robot Motion: Theory, Algorithms, and Implementations, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 2005. [10] M.T. Mason, Mechanics of Robotic Manipulation, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 2001. [11] Alexandre N. Pechev, Inverse kinematics without matrix inversion, IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation Pasadena, CA, USA, May 19-23, 2008. [12] D. Golubovi, D. Miki, I. Milievi, Kinematika robota sa korienjem matrica rotacionih transformacija, Nauno struni skup IRMES 04, Istraivanje i razvoj mainskih elemenata i sistema Mainski fakultet, Kragujevac, 2004., Zbornik radova stir. 147-152. [13] D. Miki, Strukturna analiza mehanizma robota, IMK-14 Istraivanje i razvoj , asopis instituta IMK ,,14. Oktobar Kruevac, Godina XI, Broj (22-23) 3-4 / 2005 , Srbija i Crna Gora, UDK/UDC: 621.01.007.52, novembar 2005, str. 83-92.
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RaDMI 2010
ELECTRONIC OPTIMETER
1 2 Pravdolyub Robertov , Dimcho Pulov , Denica Deneva
Technical University of Gabrovo, Gabrovo, BULGARIA, 1 e-mail: pulov@mail.bg, 2 e-mail: denica.den@abv.bg

Summary: In the work is proposed improvement of the classical scheme of optimeter. The sensitivity of the measurements was increased by adding a secondary mirror. The visual measurements are replaced by the use of linear CCD array. Are used two raster gratings, one fixed and the other moving. When they move against each other on the linear CCD array is obtained moir pattern , in resulting accuracy increases. Keywords: Optical measurements, autocollimation principle, visual optimeter, lectronic optimeter, linear CCD array.
1. INTRODUCTION
Incredibly rapid growth of computing and automation in recent years has stimulated enormous progress in some service engineering. Severe competition in developed countries has called for multi-billion investments in optics, electronics and optoelectronics and they have made a qualitative leap in the technological aspect, especially as regards the miniaturization. In this situation, it seems that engineers from the conventional sciences, with their inherent one-sidedness and narrow specialization, have significantly been behind in their scientific fields. At least technical exhibitions and newly registered patents in advanced countries have presented such a conclusion. It may not apply to aerospace and military industry, which are absolutely inaccessible for us. The newly created situation holds out opportunities to engineers from countries with poor economies to find their scientific and technical, and market niche. Skillfully using their not too small scientific potential, with more ingenuity and creativity they can achieve significant results with moderate resources. The purpose of this working out is to demonstrate that using the element base with average performance and very affordable price, it is possible to create instruments, unyielding on technical, operational and accuracy features to the widely advertised measuring equipment with its very high price.
2. EXPOSITION
2.1. Classic optimeter For example, we take the well-known optimeter - tool for precise relative measurements of the linear dimensions which assigns to the prize instrument making. ptimeters are optical instruments for the measurement of length by the optical principle. An optical lever consists of a light beam incident on a mirror and received on a screen after reflection. A tilt to the mirror introduces a 2 tilt in the reflected beam, which results in its linear movement on the screen. Large linear movement can be obtained corresponding to small angular tilt if the screen is placed at a large distance from the mirror. The range of these instruments is very small ( 0 ,1mm ) , and they are generally used for accurate comparative measurements [4,6]. It is the autocollimation principle, set on the basis of the measuring circuit, which actually represents the inertiafree optical rod gear with a gear ratio as twice as much, compared with its mechanical analogue (fig.1).
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Parallel rays are deflected from the semitransparent mirror 3 to the mirror 4, which should serve as an arm of a tangent mechanism with an arm b. Shift of S of the measuring tip is the linear size of the piece. Changing of S leads to turning of mirror 4 at an angle , resulting as the reflected beam is rotated at an angle 2 . When = 0 , lens objective 5 forms the image 1' of the index in the focus f 5 of 5. Turning the mirror 4 at an angle makes the image 1' move at a distance of l . Value of l is recorded by a scale 6. The gear ratio i [4] of the instrument is:
i= f .tg 2. f 5 l = 5 = S b.tg b(1 tg 2 )
(1)
where f 5 is the focal length of lens 5.
Figure 1: Scheme of classic optimeter
2.3. Electronic optimeter As we can see from (1) increasing the ratio
f5 can get very large ratios. But this is only possible in a small b
range of the scale measurements. As we will see later, the tangent mechanism submits a significant error to the range edges. In order to repeatedly improve the technical capabilities, we improve the scheme by introducing a number of new elements and principles (fig.2). We insert a new numbering of the constituent units. Monochromatic light source 1 through condenser 2 lights the raster grating 3 and the slit diaphragm 4. The components 3 and 4 are glued to the prism 5 and are placed in the focal plane of the lens objective 6. Parallel beams fall onto the travelling mirror 7 of the tangent mechanism, then they are reflected by the fixed mirror 8, a new reflection of mirror 7 follows and they fall through the lens objective 9, which creates images 3' and 4' on the raster grating 10. Photodetectors of the linear CCD array are in the same plane. It is in the fig.3 shown mutual location of the raster gratings and linear CCD array. The components 3' and 10 form a moir pattern with a vernier superimposition [1,3]. Slit diaphragm image 4 is projected onto the linear CCD array and its width is equal to one CCD element. Optical system gear ratio i is derived by analogy with the formula (1), taking into account the double reflection of mirror 7:
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i=
l fq.tg 4 4 fq (ctg tg ) = = S b.tg b.tg .[(ctg tg ) 2 4 ]
(2)
Figure 2: Scheme of Electronic optimeter
Figure 3: Mutual location of the raster gratings and linear CCD array At small angles we have:
tg = [rad ]
(3)
Then we get the estimated gear ratio:
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ip =
4. f 9 b
(4)
Photodetector pitch is constant and it`s consistent with i p . Thus, when deviating the tip at Smax, slit diaphragm image 4' will be in a position l act = S max .i , while our calculations will be l p = S max .i p . The resulting error is:
l = l g l p
(5)
This leads to an error S in the measured length:

S = l S max .i S max .i p = i i
(6)
Relative error is determined from the formula (6):

S i p = 1 S max i
(7)
When replacing i of formula (2) in (7) and i p of formula (4) we get:

tg 4 max S =4 S max tg max
(8)
Smax defines the half of the range R of the measurement. From the formula (1) we obtain:
S max = tg max b
(9)
i.e. relative error depends on b. Reducing b lowers i at the same time, so we should therefore seek for a reasonable compromise between the two mutually discrepant adverse trends [2,5]. We start with i:
i= l c
(10)
l is an analogous value to the range a of the division in visual equipment; c is the value of the division. l is the size of one element of the linear CCD array in the focal plane of lens 9. We will scan only illuminated elements in this array (they can be two contiguous ones or just one). The signal will provide the number of intervals of the division (broad scale report). 5 For technological reasons, we choose l = 5 m . Matrix density is l = 200 pcs mm . Then c = [m] . We i choose i = 10 . For larger values the error increases. S Decision of (8) gives = 0 ,01% only if b > 80 mm . Then max comes around 20' . According to the formula S max
(4), we obtain f 9 = 200 mm (larger f 9 increases dimensions of the equipment). We read parts of the division using raster vernier [1,3]. It is properly for us to choose t = 5 m for the difference t in pitches of 3' and 10. We choose 45 m for the pitch t of 3' . In this case the period T of the moir pattern will be:
T= (t + t ).t = 450 m t
(11)
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Then the amplification factor k of the superimposition will be:

k=
(t + t ) = 10 t
(12)
The signal from raster 3 is processed by an electronic circuit for which the unlit areas are information-carrying ones. We have a division value according to the vernier scale:
C H = c.R = 0,05 m
(13)
The range of measurement according to the formula (9) is:

R = 2. rad .b = 0,093 mm
(14)
It is possible for the rasters 3 and 10 to have the same pitch. It is enough to choose a transverse magnification m of the optical scheme in order to have t between 3' and 10:
m= f6 = 0.9 x f9
(15)
3. CONCLUSION
It can be concluded that the proposed measurement scheme has the following advantages compared with classic optimeter: Increased accuracy - 4 times (up to 2 times at the range end) Measuring range is increased from 8 to 10 times Overall dimensions are reduced by about 30% Device can operate in automatic mode and enables digital processing of the results. These features could be achieved in the environment, that conforms with standards for accurate metrology laboratories. Another important merit of this working out is the low price of the used precast elements and assembly units.
REFERENCES
[1] Handbook of optical metrology : principles and applications / Toru Yoshizawa, editor. CRC Press LLC, New York, 2009. [2] Huard A.; Imbert C.: Stabilisateur en direction et pointeur de faisceaux optiques de grande sensibilite, Optics Communications, Vol. 17, Issue 3 (1976), pp 357-360. [3] Opto-mechatronic systems handbook : techniques and applications / edited by Hyungsuck Cho. CRC Press LLC, New York, 2003. [4] Sirohi, Rajpal S.: Optical components, measurement techniques, and systems. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, 1991. [5] , . . . , 1984. [6] , .., .., ..: -3, , 1 (1965), . 14-16.
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RaDMI 2010
APPLICATION OF OBJECT-ORIENTED ANALYSIS AND DESIGN IN NAVIGATION SYSTEMS AND TRANSPORT NETWORKS
1 2
Muzafer Saraevi1 , Sead Maovi2, Esad Meedovi3
Faculty of Science and Mathematics, University of Ni, SERBIA, E-mail: muzafers@gmail.com Faculty of Organizational Sciences, University of Belgrade, SERBIA, E-mail: sekinp@gmail.com 3 Faculty of Science and Mathematics, University of Ni, SERBIA, E-mail: esad@dr.com
Summary: This paper describes the process of UML modeling for solving the traveling salesman problem using one of the metaheuristic-genetic algorithms. This problem is applicable to navigation systems and transportation networks. Static and dynamic diagrams implemented in developing tools for modeling, as well as a description of specific applications and testing are mentioned. With this approach we describe modeling tool that can be used in the development of specific solutions and a way of establishing explicit links between concepts and execution code. Keywords: Transportation problem, Genetic algorithms, Optimization, TSP, UML modeling.
1. INTRODUCTION
In this paper, we described the traveling salesman problem (TSP), which belongs to the NP class - difficult problems [1] which does not recognize a polynomial algorithm [2.11]. We talked about modeling in the UML (Unified Modeling Language). Heuristics used to solve this problem are genetic algorithms which belong to the modern meta-heuristics. In the end we specified a particular application that illustrates how these algorithms work. The application is capable of setting the necessary parameters and visual display of the optimal solution with the diagram for the calculation of solutions improvement. The main motivation of this paper is to present a way of solving problems through so-called visual planning and programming using object-oriented concepts. The analysis and problem solving in this way has many advantages just because it provides a clear definition of requirements and specific plan that we will later use to create specific applications. This is a good way to resolve because the UML describes the source code, models help to visualize the system as it is or what it should be and allow you to determine the structure and behavior of the system. Models document the decisions that we were making and provide samples to guide us during the construction of the system. Traveling salesman problem is a known problem in the theory and practice. We can find attempts for solving this problem in the distribution, collection or other ground handling of the transport network [17]. While trying to solve the problem we are striving to find the shortest route that starts at a certain point, goes through all the other points and ends at the initial one. The things that we optimize may not only be the distance. Those can be travel expenses, travel duration or some other variable. In the traveling salesman problem there might be a stricter requirement to pass through each point exactly once. It is then we are talking about the classic traveling salesman problem. In order to solve the above problem, there are other methods that give good results. In works [3,4,9] a method of ant colony optimization (ACO) is described. ACO is an algorithm which, by its mode, falls into the category of evolutionary algorithms. Mode of ant finding food, as a part of a large colony, is trying to be imitated in the appropriate algorithm. In paper [5], heuristics such as genetic algorithms and simulated tempering are listed. Simulated tempering uses stochastic approach of leading the search. This method allows the search to continue in the direction of neighboring solutions, although the objective function in this way gives worse results. The paper [6] refers to the so-called tabu search. Tabu Search (TS-Tabu Search) is a method of local search in combinatorial optimization, which shows very good results in solving vehicle routing problem (VRP). The paper
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[7] gives parallel genetic algorithms for solving some NP-complete problems, while the paper [8] gives a concrete implementation in the Java language for the TSP that is to be solved using genetic algorithms.
2. DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM AND THE BASIC PROPERTIES OF GRAPHS

First, we will mention some of the main features of graphs. Graph G = (T, L) is an arranged pair (T, L) where T is the set of vertices (nodes) and L system of arcs (links) of the graph [20]. Route is a series of vertices connected by arches. If the route has all the arcs different it is called a chain, and if all the vertices are different then it is a simple chain. Simple closed chain is called a cycle. Graph is connected if for every two vertices there is a simple chain from one to another vertex. Graph connected components are sets of nodes, where every two nodes in a given component are connected. Graph is connected if every two nodes in a graph are connected by a route (or, if the graph has exactly one component of connection). Strongly connected component of a graph is a set of nodes, each of which is linked by two in both directions. Oriented graph is strongly connected, if for each of the two nodes x and y there is a path from x to y and a path from y to x, or if it contains exactly one component of a strong connection. We will look at the traveling salesman problem, by solving a concrete example, through a fully non-oriented graph. This means that we chose the stricter requirement, to pass through each node exactly once. Graph in which it is possible to construct a cycle that goes through each node is called a Hamiltonian graph. So, for the given set of cities and the travel cost between each pair of the cities, the solution of traveling salesman problem has to find the cheapest route to visit all cities exactly once and in the end return to the starting city. The problem can be extended by adding different limitations [21]. This is how time-dependent traveling salesman problem was created, which with a minimum length of route, takes into account the time needed to perform the travel and any periods of time during which one part of the job has to be done [13]. Along to this definition, there is also an asymmetric traveling salesman problem in which the time between city A and city B is not the same as the time between city B and city A [10].
3. APPLICATION OF GENETIC ALGORITHMS AND MODELING

For solving the traveling salesman problem in recent times a number of heuristic algorithms has been developed [12]. The first group consists of algorithms for the construction route. Using this algorithm and based on the known distances between each node, a route of a salesman is constructed. The second group of heuristic algorithms is made of those that serve to improve the existing route. With their application we are improving the initial route [19]. Heuristic algorithms for the construction of the route of a salesman which are most commonly used are algorithms of the nearest neighbor, nearest insertion, random insertion, and Christofides's heuristic algorithm and so on [14]. The most important methods that we can specify to improve the solutions are the genetic algorithms, tabu search, simulated tempering, k-optimal heuristics (2-OPT, 3-OPT, k-OPT). The first three methods are listed in contemporary metaheuristics. 3.1. Genetic algorithms and traveling salesman problem Practical application of genetic algorithms get another plus, because in practice it is not necessary to find an optimal path, but it's good enough to find a decent route and one that is around optimum [16]. With all this it is possible to combine genetic algorithms with methods of local optimum search in order to convert a particular individual to its optimum which is potentially global as well [18]. Such algorithms are called hybrid. An example of hybridity achieved here is use of 2opt method for an operator of mutation [15]. There are many possible ways to show this, for example (0,1,3,5,4,6,2,7). In this case, there are 8 cities to visit and the sequence of visit is given in the order of numbers. Another way to show this is a matrix display. The matrix is a type of n*n and it is actually the adjacency matrix in the graph that is obtained by connecting all cities. If there is a way out of town A to town B then there is 1 in the place of M[A,B], instead of number 0. In the present modeling and the application we have provided the following combination of operators: the natural selection (elimination), 2opt methods (mutation) and Greedy Subtour crossover (crossing). Operators of selection In this particular application we used the so-called natural selection. From the initial population we eliminate R=MxPe/100 individuals. Individuals are eliminated so as to preserve the diversity of the population or eliminate similar individuals. At the beginning, the entire population is sorted out according to the fitness function. After
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that we compare the similarity of fitness values of neighboring individuals and if their difference is less than predefined small positive real number , we eliminate one of the n - th. This is repeated until the number of eliminated individuals is less than R. If after this procedure the number of individuals that we eliminated is still less than R, then we eliminate individuals with worse fitness value function. The way selection operator works is realized through the UML activity diagrams [Figure 4]. The operators of mutation We used the so-called 2opt method for the operator of mutation. This method is one of the most popular methods of local search in algorithms which solve the traveling salesman problem. The algorithm is described as follows: Imagine the way from city A to city B and from city C to city D. Then we check whether AB+CD>AC+BD. If it is, then it comes to the replacement as shown in Figure 1. This is repeated as long as it possible to shorten the tour.
Figure 1: 2opt metoda The way this operator works is realized through the UML activity diagram [Figure 7]. Operators of crossing We used the GSX (greedy subtour crossover) for the intersection operator which tries to take the longest subset of the cities from both parents. In this way the genetic material of the parents is best preserved. It actually means the following, if there are two chromosomes so that both contain the subsets the optimal tour, with this crossing we can very quickly get to the junction of those parts which of course leads to faster convergence of the problem. In particular, this method is to take two randomly selected points, and replace their places, but provided only if the mutation route is less longer than the one before the mutation. The way this operator works is realized through the UML activity diagrams [Figure 6] and sequence [Figure 5]. 3.2. The process of finding solutions and improving the initial solution using the GA If, for example, we form 26 points (mark them with A,B,C,...,Z), also mention x and y coordinates. First,we determine the starting point (point A, for example), which is the focus of points. Then we calculate all the distances from the starting point to other points. In this way, were forming the so-called distance matrix. Then there is a minimum for each line separately, or at least were looking for the least remote point from point A, then the least remote point from point B and so on. The exception is if the point C is at least distant point from point A and again the least distant point from the point F. In this case were seeking for the second minimum, therefore, we omit the used point (specifically in this example we omit the point C, because there is already a relation A to C, and in order to respect the condition that each city is visited only once, except of course the starting point from which all starts and ends). Then we form the route. The length of route at the departure point is 0, and then we add to it to the distance from point A and the point at least distant from it. Then, from that point (which is closest to the first), we look for at least distant point to the second point, and we of course leave out the used point A. And so on. So we look for the points that are free and never return to the previous one. And so on until the end which means to the last point that is of course connected to the first one. Sum all these distances is the initial solution. For improving the initial solution, we used genetic algorithms. The steps for the application of genetic algorithms are as follows. At each step (iteration - t) we create a population of individuals that represent potential solutions P(t). Each individual represents a potential solution to the problem and for each one we calculate the benefit (fitness function that determines whether one solution is better than others, it is calculated for each individual and depends on the problem that is solved) and select the best individuals for the next generation and the bad ones disappear. For some individuals genetic operators of crossing and mutation may apply (the procedure described in 3.1 in this work). Crossing combines the genetic material of two parents in order to obtain superior successor (we also choose a random number r and if it is smaller than the crossing probability (Pc) than the crossing is performed. Mutation
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is done on a small fraction of the population to avoid instability of the procedure (we choose a random number r and if it is smaller than the probability of mutation (Pm) we change the genes. 3.3. The process modeling in UML UML standard that is applied to the object-oriented approach provides appropriate views of the system, so that are in all terms system can be described from a static (structural) and dynamic aspect. It is used to design software which needs a plan, offers the possibility of visualization in multiple dimensions and levels of detail and is suitable for upgrading old systems. It is quite certain, that such action will simplify the process of obtaining a solution. This paper presents modeling first through the static and then dynamic diagrams. This is a good way to resolve because the UML describes the source code, models help to visualize the system as it is or what it should be and allow you to determine the structure and behavior of the system. Models document the decisions that we were making and provide solutions to guide us during the construction of the system and specific applications. The already mentioned diagram [Figure 2] of cases of usage is to represent the functional requirements that the system needs to fulfill. It is composed of a single actor and the cases of usage arising from the description of genetic algorithms (initialization, evaluation, selection, crossing and mutation). All cases of use in the appropriate context, and there is interaction between them.
Figure 2: Use case diagram Activity diagram [Figure 3] is actions that are performed, namely, this diagram gives a general view of the activities that are further decomposed.
Figure 3: Activity diagram Then the following diagrams represent the decomposition of the activities mentioned to sub-activities containing concrete actions . Diagram [Figure 4] we stated how the use of the obtained values from previous activity and selection procedure of members is based on their probability. The sequence diagram [Figure 5] presents the so-called GSX intersection operator and the way it works. This diagram presents mutual interaction among objects (parent, child, methods GSX) and which generally represents a series of exchanges of messages between classes, with the sequence and time course of sending and receiving messages clearly marked. Diagrams [Figure 6] represent the actions that are carried out within the activity of crossing and describe GSX operator from another aspect. In the previous sequence diagram, the order and the interaction between objects that participate in these activities are clearly indicated, and these diagrams show that the emphasis is on the actions and their implementation and the conditions that exist.
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Figure 4: Activity diagram - Generic selection procedure
Figure 5: Sequence diagram - Greedy Subtour Crossover (GSX)
Figure 6: Activity diagram Greedy Subtour Crossover (GSX) Diagram [Figure 7] is decomposition of mutations activities and represents the actions performed within this operator. It is so-called 2opt method described in [3.1].
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Figure 7: Mutation by 2-opt
4. DESCRIPTION OF THE APPLICATION, TESTING AND RESULTS

The application we have provided is designed in the DELPHI software package, and is based on previously described UML diagrams. The design of this application is mentioned in [Figure 8] for the traveling salesman problem, which contains the relevant sections (panels). The largest part of the application contains a panel where the nodes are displayed.
Figure 8: Application TSP In the upper part of the application, there is a part of the required parameters input [Figure 9] where there following options are given: input of number of points, number of population, the percentage of selection, mutation, crossing, number of generations during the execution, and individual performance review and button for the total number of generations. We have also mentioned a diagram of a graphical representation of relations between the initial lengths of the route and obtained optimum length of the route since the last generation. At the bottom of the application there is a status bar displaying the current number of generation executed.
Figure 9: Panel In the left part of the application [Figure 14] there is a panel that displays the times for each route (path length).
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Figure 10: Scroll population The picture [Figure 11], shows how the application works, i.e. while being tested in a few generations, we can see how we get the optimal solution. We input the following parameters: number of points = 40, number of population = 50, number of generations = 50, parameters that are specified for GA operators 50, 50, 20 and we can see in the picture shown below the initial solution, solution during the performance and in the end the optimal solution.
Figure 11: The process of finding the optimal solution of TSP application In the second picture [Figure 12], we specified the comparison between the initial and optimal solution and we can see that the length of time decreased to 73.04% (from 234.69 to 53.05).
Figure 12: The results of this testing Here are the results table for additional testing:
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5. CONCLUSION
The application of genetic algorithms is very wide, they are actually only a principle, idea or policy to solve a problem in a different way than traditional methods, because it's all up to the user to decide on whether to develop his own algorithm, or will he try to adapt his problem to some existing algorithm that solves a similar class of problems. Also, we see that genetic algorithms are useful for those classes of problems that cannot be solved in classical ways. Although the speed is not at the top, by the size of the area they search through they are far better than any other method. It is very well seen in the example of the traveling salesman problem. We have listed UML modeling as specific for these problems, and the main aim is to present detailed procedure and the functioning of genetic algorithms and a way of solving problems by applying them. Finally, practical work of this application has shown that one of the most important things for successful work of this algorithm is choosing the correct genetic operators and parameters that will determine the behavior of these operators. If they are correctly set, the algorithm gives fantastic results, but if the choice of these operators is not advised, algorithm will end up working in a local optimum, closer or further from the true optimum, depending on the parameters.
REFERENCES
[1] Michael R. Garey and David S. Johnson: Computers and Intractability: A Guide to the Theory of NPCompleteness. W.H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-1045-5. [2] T. H. Cormen, C. E. Leiserson, R. L. Rivest, and C. Stein: Introduction to Algorithms, MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, second edition, 2001. [3] M. L. Pilat, T. White: Using genetic algorithms to optimize ACS-TSP, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol. 2463, pp. 282-287, 2002 [4] Jean-Luc Ngassa, Jakob Kierkegaard, ACO and TSP, Roskilde University, Bachelor of Computer Sciences, 2nd module, 2007 [5] I.Salajic, J.Nikolic, M. oljom: TSP Problem trgovackog punika na potpunom grafu, primjenom genetskog algoritma (GA) i algoritma simuliranog kaljenja (SA) [6] R.Thamilselvan, P. Balasubramanie: A Genetic Algorithm with a Tabu Search for Travelling Salesman Problem. Int. Journal of R.T. in Engineering, I. 1, Vol. 1, pp. 607-610, 2009. [7] Jozef J. Kratica: Paralelizacija genetskih algoritama za reavanje nekih np - kompletnih problema, Doktorska disertacija, Beograd, 2000. [8] Duan Saiko: Traveling Salesman Problem , Java Genetic Algorithm Solution, 2005 [9] B. Baran, O.Gomez: Omicron ACO. A New Ant Colony Optimization Algorithm. CLEI Electron. J.8 (1): (2005) [10] Gregory Gutin, Abraham P. Punnen: The traveling salesman problem and its variations [11] Stefan Eberle: A Polynomial Algorithm for a NP-hard to Solve Optimization Problem, Dissertation der Fakultt fr Physik der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitt Mnchen, 2008 [12] C. Nilsson: Heuristics for the traveling salesman problem. Tech. Report, Linkping University, Sweden, 2003. [13] M.Held and Richard M. Karp: The Traveling Salesman Problem and Minimum Spanning Trees, Operations Research 18, 1970 [14] Little, J.D.C., Murty, K.G., Sweeney, D.W., Karel, C.: An algorithm for the traveling salesman problem. Operations research, 11(6), 972-989,1963. [15] Christopher M. White, Gary G. Yen: A Hybrid Evolutionary Algorithm for Traveling Salesman Problem, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, ok 74078, USA. [16] P. Borovska : Solving the Travelling Salesman Problem in Parallel by Genetic Algorithm on Multicomputer Cluster, International Conference on Computer Systems, 2006. [17] Applegate, D., Bixby, R., Chvatal, V., and Cook, W.: On the solution of travelling salesman problems, Documenta mathematica, 3, 645-656.1998. [18] Johnson, D.S., McGeoch, L.A.: The traveling salesman problem: a case study in local optimization, Operations research 1995. [19] Lin, S., Kernighan, B.W.: An effective heuristic algorithm for the traveling-salesman problem. Operations research, 21(2), 498-516. 1973. [20] Graph Theory, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_theory [21] Traveling salesman problem. http://www.tsp.gatech.edu/index.html
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RaDMI 2010
COMPUTER SYSTEM FOR IDENTIFICATION OF WATER-ETHANOL BINARY MIXTURES

Nicolay Shopov1, Raycho Ilarionov 2, Ivan Simeonov 2, Hristo Kilifarev2, Hristo Ibrishimov2
1
University of Food Technologies, Plovdiv, BULGARIA, e-mail: nikshop@abv.bg 2 e-mail: ilar@tugab.bg
Summary: In the current paper is proposed a method for reading of the concentration of alcohol solutions, based on the echolocation method for obtaining of initial information and the spectral methods for image recognition. A classical classifier is used with the rule of k-nearest neighbors with wavelet forming of symptoms space. The base advantage of the proposed method is that it is non-contact, fast and with easy technical realization. Keywords: Ultrasonic, Wavelets, Patern recognition, Ethanol-water mixtures.
1. INTRODUCTION
The quality and harmless of the foods is a problem with constant increasing importance for the European foods market. This determines the necessity from the developing of contemporary technical means for analysis of the foods in their production. The analysis is essential part from the quality control. The control protects the user from the consumption of a product with lower quality or a product which is hazardous for the health; protects the manufacturer from issues and expenses for confiscation of the product from the market network; helps for finding of the changes in the quality and influences in the manufacturing process. In many cases in the food industry is necessary to be made analysis of the content of different liquids. In this field are known from long ago the potentiality of the ultrasonic waves for determining of the content of different liquids. The ethanol (ethyl alcohol - C2H5OH) is known in the practice as usual or vinegar alcohol (spirit of wine). It is liquid without color with specific smell and hot taste with relative density 0.79, boiling temperature 78.3C and freezing temperature -117C. Its lower boiling temperature according to this of the water is used at the processes distillation and rectification for its separation. In nature occurs as a product of fermentation processes of carbohydrates in fruits and cereals saccharified by the action of yeast. In the industry the ethanol can be produced also by catalytic hydratation of ethylene. The ethanol is produced mainly by two methods. Ethanol by fermentation have wide use in the food industry, perfumery, pharmacy, medicine. The produced by synthetic method ethanol is widely used the industry as resolvent and for producing of many other products. The synthetic ethanol is used for technical purposes because it contains undesired admixtures. Different methods for identification of alcohol solutions are known aerometric, ebulliometry, spectroscopy in the near infrared field and etc. In [7] is proposed a method for obtaining of the concentration of ethanol in sugar into water solutions with appliance at the process of fermentation. At applied ultrasonic methods is used the purpose of the ultrasonic waves at their spreading along the continuous liquid system to interact with it and as result to change their parameters amplitude and phase. The change of these parameters of the ultrasound depends from the properties of the medium [1, 2], i.e. carry information for the properties of the system (researched medium). In [2] are presented results from experiments showing dependence of the speed and the attenuation of the ultrasonic pulses from the concentration of ethanol in water solutions. The results shows dependence on the two parameters from the ethanol concentration, but the speed gives higher sensitivity at low concentrations.
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The authors researches, based on the above results, are directed to the opportunity for determining of the content of liquid foods on the base of analysis of the shape of the reflected ultrasonic signal. The analysis of the shape is made with the help of the contemporary direction in spectral analysis the wavelet transforms.
The ultrasonic diagnostics of food products have many advantages over traditional analytical methods - they are fast, nondestructive, accurate, enabling the automation and others. One of the methods for testing of substances is based on the relationship between parameters of ultrasonic wave and the composition of a given product in its spreading along or its reflection from it. The main feature of ultrasonic waves is their high frequency, allowing to be broadcast in the form of a narrow beam of radiation. The nature of distribution and absorption of ultrasonic waves in gases, liquids and solids can be obtained valuable information about their properties and structure. There are two main functional schemes for the construction of an ultrasonic sensor system for non-contact measurement: - Sensors for transmission and reception of acoustic waves are on the same side of the medium for recognition echolocation method; - Sensors are mounted at a certain distance, pointing at each other and the medium for recognition is on the middle between them. The echolocation ultrasound method is based on the transmission of high frequency package of pulses from the transmitter, which is spread along the medium to the material for identification, reflects from it and returns as an echo to the second sensor - receiver. Fluctuations of pulse are scattered into the material and the resulting reflected signal is measured, transformed and analyzed. The spectrum of the reflected signal depends on the density and homogeneity of the material. This is due to factors as scattering, absorption, reflection, refraction and ray divergence. The absorption of ultrasonic energy from the medium (the tested product) in which the ultrasound is spread depends on the characteristics of that medium (density and elasticity) and also from the frequency of the used ultrasound. Consequently, the ultrasonic signal is modified and carries information about the characteristics of the medium between the transmitter and receiver - Figure 1. This gives an opportunity for identification of the composition of substances in qualitative aspect. The computer system for processing of the information from the sensors has to extract and analyze the useful information for the identification purposes. Programmable controller Amplifier of the received signal Pulse former Receiver Transmitter CP1 PC USB Solution OWON HDS2062M CP2
PIC16F84A
Figure 1: Scheme of the experimental setup The experiments to obtain information were made with ultrasonic sensors type UST40T/UST40R with 40kHz frequency from Nippon Ceramic company. in Figure 1. It consists from the following Hardware: PC configuration with Microsoft Windows XP; microcontroller PIC16F84A - to form the ultrasonic pulses; oscilloscope OWON HDS2062M - used for recording and entering information into the PC; and Software: program for generating a pulse modulated signal (40 kHz) - loaded into PIC16F84A for initiating of the transmitter UST40T;
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OWON Wave analyzing software Version 6.6.03 - software to transfer measurement data from the oscilloscope to the PC; Developed software modules for processing of the results in the programming environment Matlab R2007b. The first stage of transformation of input information is the process of analogue-digital conversion of information from the receiver. In the researches this stage is realized by using the built-in ADC into the digital oscilloscope OWON HDS2062M. In the same time are realized also functions for recording of the information and conversion according the standard USB for entering of the information into the computer system. These transformations are necessary but insufficient to extract potentially useful information for identifying the product. This requires the implementation of transformation related to change in the description area of the image. The choice of the symptoms space suitable for the concrete task is driven mostly by the technical device, which is a consumer of the information - the classifier. The wavelet transform is one of the most promising and emerging methods for analyzing of signals. It appears to be intermediate between the full spectral and temporal presentation. The wavelets [5] are functions with soliton like form located on the axis of the independent variable (t or n), with an option to moving along it and zooming (compression/expansion) and having a shape of short wave packets with zero mean of the wavelet function ( n) , i.e.: (1) ( n )dn = 0
The bases of the wavelet transformation are two continuous and integrable functions on the axis of the independent variable: - ( n) - wavelet function giving the details of the signal and forming the detailizing coefficients; - ( n) - scaling function obtaining the approximation of the signal and forming the approximating coefficients. -functions are the domain of the orthogonal wavelets - of Haar, Daubechies, Coiflet and others. [3, 5, 6]. The basis function 0 ( n ) have to satisfy (1) and the implementation of the operations: - moving along the axis of the independent variable: (2) 0( n b ) , where b is real number ( b R ) defining the location of the wavelet packet. - scaling: (3) n a 1 / 2 0 , a where R , a > 0 - defining the thickness of the wavelet packet. With respect to the requirements (2) and (3): (4) nb ( n ) = a 1 / 2 0 . a At discrete values: a = 2 m and b = k 2 m , where k and m integer numbers, dependence (5) adopt the form: (5) m ,k ( n ) = 2 m / 2 0 (2 m n k ) . In general form the output signal on a level m is represented by the expression:
U(n) =
k =-
m,k
m,k (n) + D j,k k (n) .

j =1 k = -
(6)
At present are known great number of orthogonal basis wavelet functions (Figure 2) - the Haar, Daubechies, Coiflet, Symlet, etc., which has the ability to fast transformation [5]. It is realized on the base of an iterative algorithm according to the scheme shown in figure 3. ,
Figure 2: Wavelet () and scaling () basis functions of the wavelet Daubechies 8
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The initial signal passes through two filters - high frequency filter G and low frequency filter H. It was found that every second discrete value can be eliminated without loss of information. The operation is called reduction of discrete values (binary decimation). There are obtained two discrete sequences - the coefficients of approximation at m=1 a1,k from the filter G and detailizing coefficients d1,k from the filter H. - Figure 3. With decomposition at a higher level the approximating coefficients at level m=1 (a1,k) are subjected to similar operations according the scheme of Figure 3. The detailizing coefficients d1,k reflect mainly the high frequency noise, while the approximation coefficients a1,k reflect the characteristics of the original signal. The process of decomposition can be performed sequentially (pyramidal algorithm of Mallat [3, 6]), where the signal is decomposed of many low frequency and high frequency components. The obtained as a result wavelet coefficients are applied and researched as a symptoms for recognition. Used is one of the most frequently used parametric classifiers - kNN [4].
H U(n) G
2 2
d1,k a7,k a1,k H G 2 2 d8,k a8,k kNN Classifier Di
Figure 3: Block diagram of a kNN classifier with wavelet forming of symptoms space Researched are clean water-alcoholic solutions containing ethanol, respectively 20%, 40%, 60% and 80% with total of 436 measurements with the distance between the transmitter and the medium for research - 25cm at ambient temperature of 20C. After discretization of the reflected ultrasonic wave are obtained 2500 discrete values for the amplitude. From the discrete data obtained for the researched alcoholic solutions are formed learning and control excerpts. Training sample size is 250 numbers and is formed by the method of self-random excerpts with re-selection through random selection. This sample was used for synthesis of classifiers. Efficiency of the classifiers was tested using an independent control sample (246 numbers) which includes all conversions outside the learning sample. The workflow is by the structural diagram shown in Figure 4.
Learning excerpt Spectral transform Receiving of discrete data for the selected object Forming of excerpts Choice of symptoms Classification
Evaluation of the error
Spectral transform Control excerpt
Selected symptoms
Classification
Figure 4: General structure of the process "synthesis of a classifier" with application of spectral methods With the help of the software Matlab are obtained the wavelet approximating and detailizing coefficients of the all samples on the levels from m=1 to m=8 with the application of DWT with the orthogonal wavelets of Haar, Daubechies, Coiflet and Symlet. The wavelet spectrums of the approximating and detailizing coefficients obtained by applying of the DWT with wavelet of Haar are presented respectively in Figures 5 and 6. Besides transformation of the image in Discrete Wavelet transformation takes place and reduction of the volume of input information, while retaining its value for identification purposes. For example, after reaching the level of
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m=8 as a result is obtained symptoms space of 10 approximating and 10 detailizing coefficients (Figures 5 and 6). The obtained in this way wavelet coefficients are used as symptoms for synthesis of automatic classifiers for classification of the researched solutions.
a 8,k
k
Figure 5: Spectrum from approximating coefficients obtained with wavelet of Haar at level m=8
d 8,k
k
Figure 6: Spectrum from detailizing coefficients obtained with wavelet of Haar at level m=8 Selected are automatic classifiers with crucial functions by the method of "k-nearest neighbor" (kNN), taking into account the Euclidean distance to the three nearest neighbors. With the selected classifiers is performed further reduction using the method of consequent rejection where initially are selected all k symptoms and then removed one by one, while with the left multitude is performed classification. At each step is eliminated the symptom which leads to higher overall error from classification E0. The condition for the end of the procedure is reaching of the lowest value of E0 (min E0). In the Figures 7 and 8 are shown the clusters of the four solutions into symptoms spaces of three from the obtained five "the best" symptoms with wavelet of Haar at level m=8. The evaluation of the accuracy of the synthesized automatic classifiers is made after the classification of the control excerpt with the formed symptoms, as the lowest total error is obtained with Haar wavelet at level m=8. The results are summarized in Table 1. The errors in classification have the following meaning: Highway (major) error ei shows the relative share of objects from class i, referred incorrectly by the classifier
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into other classes. The marginal (actual) error gi indicates the relative share of the objects from other classes incorrectly referred by the classifier into a given class i: - The general error E0 - shows incorrectly classified objects relative to all objects from the excerpt.
Figure 7: Clusters from approximating coefficients, obtained after DWT with wavelet of Haar at level m=8
Figure 8: Clusters from detailizing coefficients, obtained after DWT with wavelet of Haar at level m=8
Table 1: Results from classification of the control excerpt (246 numbers) with kNN classifier and symptoms a8,k, = 4, 5, 7, 8, and 10, obtained after DWT with wavelet of Haar at level m=8 Classified by the classifier, numbers Errors Material 20% 40% 60% 80% Total Marginal Highway C2H5OH C2H5OH C2H5OH C2H5OH Real mik mi1 mi2 mi3 mi4 numbers ei,% gi,% 20% C2H5OH m1k 53 2 0 0 55 1,85 3,64 40% C2H5OH m2k 1 57 2 0 60 3,39 5,00 60% C2H5OH m3k 0 0 69 3 72 8,00 4,17 80% C2H5OH m4k 0 0 4 55 59 5,17 6,78 54 59 75 58 246 Total numbers General error E0=4,88%
3. CONCLUSION
Proposed is a non-contact ultrasonic method for identification of four water-alcoholic solutions. From the results summarized in Table 1 can be seen that with the used method to identifying of water-alcoholic solutions is obtained an error 4.88%. This error is relatively small and allows for the practical use of the method. To reduce this error it is necessary to make new measurements of a large number of water-alcoholic solutions which are with less difference in the percentage concentration from 20. The applied wavelet approach for obtaining of symptoms for classification is with strictly defined mathematical procedure, avoiding the subjective factor in the formation of heuristic symptoms. Thus it is possible to automate this whole process of measurement, mathematical data processing and classification by selected criteria, without the subjective human intervention.
REFERENCES
[1] Dukhin, A.S., Goetz, P.J., Ultrasound for characterizing colloids. Particle sizing, Zeta potential, Rheology. Elsevier, 2002 [2] Dukhin, A.S., P.J. Goetz, B.Travers, Ultrasound for characterizing liquid based food products. 1. Acoustic Spectroscopy., Dispersion Technology Inc., USA, 2003
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[3] Mallat S., Multiresolution approximations and wavelet orthogonormal bases of L2(R), Trans. Amer, Math. Soc., 315:69--87, 1989 [4] Marques de Sa J.P. Pattern recognition. Concepts, methods, and applications., Springer, 2001 [5] Smolencev N. N., Base wavelet theory. Wavelets in MATLAB, DMK Press, Moscow, 2005 [6] Vetterli M., Wavelets, Approximation, and Compression, IEEE Signal Processing Magazine, September 2001, 59-73 [7] Schck T., T. Becker, Sensor array for the combined analysis of watersugarethanol mixtures in yeast fermentations by ultrasound, Elsevier, Food Control 21 (2010) 362369
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RaDMI 2010
MANAGEMENT AND MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMS

2
Technical Faculty, aak, SERBIA, e-mail: serifiveis@yahoo.com MEGATREND and High Professional School for Entrepreneurship, Belgrade, SERBIA, e-mail: drradojecvejic@gmail.com
erifi Veis1, Radoje Cveji2
Summary: The basic starting points in the presentation of management are conscious reflective activity of the people in various forms and types of organizations and institutions at national and international (global) level and importance. The changes (physical, social and economic) in continuity also condition the changes of appropriate activity and organizing of people, organizations, social communities and systems in order to meet their needs (living standards) in the best way. Keywords: management IS, information system (IS), management information system (MIS).
1. INTRODUCTION
Information System IS is a set of activities for information processing, altogether with associated organizational resources, such as human, technical and financial, which provide and distribute information. The links between the objects and links between the system and environment, in case of information system, are realized through information exchange. Each information system consists of a database and set of programs, which provide various classes of users with the data from that database so that they could perform their daily tasks. Based on this, information system can be defined as a set of techniques and technologies, methods and procedures for proper planned collection, preparation, transmission, warehousing and processing of the data, based on the use of computers, as well as for distribution and presentation of information to use and for making the decisions. Intensive development of information systems starts with the introduction of computers and other equipment in processing of so-called business information, which were performed by the people until then. Development of information systems as a whole has its basis, its borders and motives, and as a basis of preliminary concepts of information systems development, today we have theory of the system and informatics. Information systems that use computers and information technology (IT) in this field are called Computer-Based Information Systems (CBIS). The task of information system is to process the input information and thus obtain the output information, useful for making certain decisions (Figure 1). Feedback has the task to control whether the output size is a real value, and if we do not obtain the real expected value in the output, it is necessary to check and correct the input data (it is checked whether there is an error in input information as well as in the processing. There is always a possibility of error in input information as well as in the processing). Since it is clear that within the work of information system exists a constant risk of error, for example, the results of processing are wrong or unusable, we can find ourselves in front of a very unpleasant dilemma: should be trust the data obtained from the computer or not, and who made the mistake, was it computer of a man. The experience shows that the cause of wrong results is usually in the mistakes made by the man, regardless whether the wrong information were entered or the program was wrong. The errors that usually occur when entering the data are simply the consequence of superficiality, inattention or fatigue, and they can easily be eliminated. The other type of errors, i.e. errors in the program have much deeper causes: mostly it is the programs complexity that can be very large, so that the programmer practically cannot control the program anymore. Even when it is obvious that there is an error somewhere in the program, it is very difficult to determine where it is precisely, and if we find and correct it,
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there is a high probability that the corrected error will be fatal for some other part of the program. The way out from the difficulties that come from programs complexity lies in the fact that programs structure needs to be clear, such that a programmer can easily understand it (the application of structural programming when drafting the program) and the program should consist of modules that are relatively independent of each other, so that they can be processed separately, independently from the whole (the application of modular programming when drafting a program) [1, 3, 8, 10, 19-21, 23-25].
Figure 1: Architecture of Information System (IS)
2. MANAGEMENT
2.1 About management Basic starting points in presenting the management are conscious reflective activities of people in most different forms and types of national and international (global) level and importance. Therefore, the starting points in management presentation are always linked to social structure that is characterized by an appropriate model or management system. It, as a general synonym of management and leadership represents, in continuity, the theme of scientific and practical research that will never be and still is not finished. This is also because all social communities and organizational and institutional structures are subject to constant changes. The changes condition new developmental phases with specific (new) goals and communications (environments) i.e. organizational and institutional systems. Within those, the demanding (appropriate) new models and concepts, i.e. management or leadership should be realized. The changes (physical, social and economic) in continuity also condition the changes of a more appropriate action and organization of people, organizations, social communities and systems in order to meet their needs (living standards) in the best way. Basic concepts of management can be [12]: 1) Management represents a process of foreseeing, organizing, commanding, coordination and control, 2) Management is a process or function that is the most significant for each enterprise and it involves the jobs of enterprise management. Management appears in three aspects: 1) Process of managing certain affairs, project or systems, 2) A special group of people whose job is to manage the execution of tasks performed by other people, 3) Scientific discipline concerned with investigating the problems of managing certain activities, projects and social systems. Management can be seen as: 1) Economic resource (as production factor land, labor and capital), 2) System of government (authorizations of a group of people in implementation of activities), 3) Elite system (class and status symbol). Axioms that can often be heard [12]: - Nothing is simple anymore. Nothing is stable. The business environment is changing before our eyes: rapidly, radically, dramatically, astonishingly,
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- Now, whatever we do is not enough. The age of incrementalism has past. Now, not only do we need to adapt and manage, but we also need to create changes big changes and rapidly. - Everything is in doubt. The old way of management, organizational structure, traditional planning and control, simply do not function. Stari - Everyone needs to change. Not only what the managers do, but they themselves need to change. In some languages such as, for example Swedish, French and Serbian, there is no single concept that would completely match the meaning of English word manage. In these languages, there is a meaning administrate, operate or dispose of something. There is no universal generally accepted state of management as a discipline. Management can refer to many things, such as [10]: - Management (managing the company), - Management in non-economic sectors (health, education, etc), - Management in small enterprises, - Management in the activities that are not considered enterprises, such as small restaurants, bars and the like, - Management in government institutions, - Time management, - Management of the household, etc. There are numerous definitions of management: 1. Ability (skill) to get the job done through people (Mary Parker Follet); 2. Management means to plan, organize, command, coordinate and control (Fayol); 3. The process through which a selected group of people directs all the employees of the company toward the jointly set goal (Massie, Douglas); 4. Coordination of the various resources in the process of planning, organizing, directing and control directed towards the set joint goals (Koontz O Donnell); 5. Activity by which certain functions are performed with the goal to provide, arrange and use human efforts in the most efficient way, in order to accomplish a goal (Wren, Voich); 6. Process of making and implementing decisions (Isak Adizes); 7. Management is a new technology (rather than any kind of science or discovery) (Peter F. Drucker); 8. Management represents providing the knowledge in order to discover how the existing knowledge can be applied in the best way in order to obtain the results (Peter F. Drucker); 9. Management is the knowledge that is applied in the process of planning, organization, management and control, with the aim to accomplish the effectiveness and efficiency of organization (B. Mai). Management was developed through a large number of schools, among which the following stand out: 1) Classical theory 2) Behavioral 3) systems 4) contingency 2.2 About the process of management The basic management processes: 1) planning (it defines the goals of enterprise and determines the actions for achieving these goals and predicts the future states and events), 2) organization (provides the realization of planned goals), 3) human resources (finding, selecting and bringing the staff; training), 4) management (to use the human resources in the most efficient way), 5) control. Management is a process that one or more persons take in order to harmonize the activities of others and achieve results that one person could not accomplish by itself. [11]. Figure 2 shows the algorithm of management, the implementation of decisions is performed by decision-making, and the problems are solved by changes.
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Figure 2: Management algorithm [10] In literature on management, there are three approaches to management that are mutually supporting: - traditional approach, the task of managing the work and organizations - behavioral, task of managing the people and - science of management, the task of managing the production and operations. 2.3 About managing The modern age of management started at the beginning of 20th century when the traditional theorists, economists and industrial engineers offered classical approach for increasing the productivity of individuals and organizations. Three basic tasks constitute the managing job: 1) managing the work and organization 2) managing the production and operations 3) managing the people Process of business system management, the processes of management, has the following characteristics: 1) management is a process that has characteristics of a business and social system, 2) management is a process that is imminent in every business system, 3) managing is a dynamic process that takes place continuously, 4) management is a complex process that includes many interrelated activities, 5) management is studied by system approach, which considers business system a very complex system, 6) management should be comprehensive and include all business functions, 7) when solving the problems, there is a large number of scientific methods used, 8) management is not possible without a computer and information systems. Bases of managing the people have developed from the approaches based on interpersonal relations and science of behavior, which has encouraged the most famous research of management, known as Hawthorne researches. Those researches, which were conducted by industrial psychologists at Harvard in four phases, had a significant effect on practice, development and research of the management. In the scientific approach to management, the managers have found numerous means and techniques of quantitative nature for performing their skills. Today, the models and techniques of allocation, networks and supplies are used in organizations of all sizes throughout the world. Each of the three well-based approaches has its value. However, the managers have discovered that it is also important to be system and situation focused (more elastic, open and have more tendencies to research) in todays organizations. 2.4 About the knowledge The heart of any expert system is knowledge accumulated in the process of developing that particular system. Knowledge of the expert system consists of facts and heuristics (experience and feeling for selection of solution) [26]. The facts are the main part of the data on the nature of the system, its activities and goals that the system accomplishes through those activities. Particular phenomena and manifestations of regular and irregular state in
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the system have their causes and consequences and they are also described by data sets. All those data can mostly be available, documented and verified in the domain of expert system. Heuristics consists of personal rules of reasoning and skills in selecting and making the decisions that affect the changes in the system. Generally, it is poorly documented and it is the property of top specialists for the field that is covered by the given expert system. In general, we distinguish two types of knowledge: - explicit knowledge (universal knowledge) and - implicit knowledge (heuristic knowledge). 2.5 Organizational changes for the sake of learning 2.5.1 Initiation of changes Initiation of changes is the first step in the process of organizational changes management [27]. Organizational changes appear when it comes to some changes in the environment or the enterprise itself (Figure 3) and they represent the way for the enterprise to avoid or eliminate already existing imbalance. In order to initiate the changes, the management of the enterprise should: - identify the causes of changes; - develop their own awareness of the need to interrupt the inertia of organization and the necessity of changes; - identify and hire a change agent, define his task and develop productive relations with him. 2.5.2 Causes of changes The causes of changes are all those factors that force the enterprise to change its organization [27]. - By their nature, the causes usually represent the changes that can be market, technological, sociological, political, changes in the number of employees, changing the leader of organization. The changes lead to disruption of balance in organization between: - organization and environment (external imbalance), - within the organization itself (internal imbalance). External causes of changes are: - development of information technology; - globalization of world economy; - demographic changes; - increase of the intensity of competition. Internal causes of changes are: - changes in the age and size of enterprise (enterprises life cycle); - changing the leader of organization; - changes in ownership structure, mergers and takeovers; - changes in developmental and business strategy; - elimination of internal imbalances in the structure.
Figure 3: Overview of traditional and new (variable) organization
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Mental model (Figure 4) represents a set of knowledge, experiences, skills and behaviors, that cannot be uniquely formalized, and they represent the ability of each individual and organization to find the answers to unknown changes. There are personal and mental organization model. Mental model is a view of the world, including its explicit and implicit understanding [9]. Learning is a process of acquiring and understanding the information that can lead to improvements, innovations or changes. The examples of the learning activities of an organization include benchmarking, internal and external evaluation or verification, as well as the analysis of the best practice in the activity class. The examples of individual learning activities include the training and professional qualifications that contribute to the change of mental model [9]. Knowledge is a part of hierarchy that consists of the data, information and the knowledge itself (Figure 5). The data are raw facts. The information is the data with context (explanations and comments) and perspective (the bases for corrective and preventive measures). The knowledge is information with instructions for action.
Figure 4: Simple learning model with mental model added [9]
Figure 5: Products and services based on information as strategic advantage in ERP organizations [2] Figure 6 shows the value network based on knowledge. Creativity represents the generation of ideas for new and improved processes or products [9]. Innovation is practical conversion of ideas into new product, service, system and social interaction [9]. The words innovation and management can be in contradiction, because the innovation, on one hand, is usually the result of a free and unlimited thinking, while on the other hand, it requires management and control.
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Innovation process includes a set of activities and events, within and out of the organization, that start with an idea and end when it is adapted and realized in practice. As such, all the innovations include the changes in organization, but not all the changes are innovations. Innovative capacity of an organization is the largest source of maintaining its competitive advantages, so that this represents an interest of the entire organization [9]. Continuous learning, innovations and improvements organizational performances are maximized when they are based on management and dissemination of knowledge within the culture of continuous learning, innovations and improvements [9].
Figure 6: Value network based on knowledge [2]
3. MIS (MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM)

3.1 Classification of information systems Information systems are, according to automation degree (the period which they characterize), divided into [3, 4, 5-7, 8, 10, 14, 18-19, 22-23]: Transaction Processing System - TPS, Management Information System - MIS, Office Automation System - OAS, On-Line Transaction Processing - OLTP, Expert System - ES, Decision Support System - DDS, Executive Information System - EIS or Executive Support System - ESS, On-Line Analytical Processing - OLAP, Knowledge-Based DSS KB-DDS or Intelligent DSS IDSS, Information Expert System IES and Web-Based DSS WB-DDS [15-17]. MIS (Management Information System) is a system that is designed to present business information of maximum value with the lowest costs, i.e. whose primary goal is to provide the administrative body (management of the company) with necessary information (Figure 7) in order to make a decision. They help executives and managers (at the operational, tactical and strategic level) and other employees to make better decisions when solving different tasks, and especially in those cases when we know the facts on which the decisions depends and that directly influence whether the decision will be good or bad. Thus, the efficiency, effectiveness, flexibility and productivity in functional areas and enterprise as a whole are increased. MIS system, most frequently, consists of mutually independent applications (subsystems), which are divided into specialized modules and segments, which form a single unit. The subsystems are linked to the vital functions of real system and represent logically and technologically rounded units, which can, while designing and later in work, be treated separately and share data and information with other units. Subsystems of MIS system are mutually connected by a common database from which we take the data that are processed with the requirement of the user, common computer equipment, information flows, unique labeling system and unique concept of development. MIS systems are oriented on the processing of transactions, reporting and deciding in situations that are repeated on daily basis.
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They were developed in 1960s and they were used for balance-account of customers-suppliers, which link the invoices and payments and thus they report on the daily account balance and total monthly, quarterly and annually claims, for the analysis of sale by regions or for cost analysis in residential areas etc. Later, the socalled IMIS (Intelligent Management Information System) system was developed, which finds the necessary information in database and responds to the questions in natural language. In our literature, the term MIS system is rarely used, because the terms such as BIS (Business Information System) have become generally accepted, although this term is not an adequate replacement.
Figure 7: Information management in MIS systems
4. CONCLUSION
Knowledge management is a complex discipline, and it is very important that the expectations are set properly. Changes cannot be achieved quickly, because they include human factor and their beliefs; expecting sudden changes is unrealistic. Knowledge management also represents a risky investment because it involves a series of other disciplines and requires a completely new approach and way of thinking. At the same time, in competitive terms, costs of underinvestment in the system of knowledge management can be significantly higher than the investment itself. Knowledge management is not a term that defines the learning process only, but also the increasing strategic use of knowledge with the aim of achieving the customers satisfaction and better market position. Long-term effect is that every individual in an organization constantly learns, enjoys in his work and every day becomes more valuable to his organization.
REFERENCES
[1] Avison, D.E. and Fitzgerald, G.: Information Systems Development: Methodologies, Techniques and Tools. 3rd Edition. New York (New York USA): McGraw Hill, 2002. 608 pp. ISBN 978-0-07-709626-7. [2] Beli, I.; Ukar, M.: Managing Knowledge for Strategic Knowledge in the Virtual Organisation. [3] Dai, P.: Osnove PC raunara. Skripta. Trstenik: Via tehnika mainska kola, 2004. 200 s. [4] Dai, P.; Jemenica, R. and erifi, V.: One classification example of decision support systems. Annals of the University of Petrosani, Electrical Engineering, Vol. 9 (XXXVI) (2007), pp. 385-391. ISSN 14548518. [5] Dai, P.; Nedeff, V.; Stanojevi, M. and erifi, V.: Methodology for building and some examples of environmental decision support systems (EDSS). International Journal of Software Systems and Tools (IJSST):, Vol. 1, Issue 1 (2010), s. 5-20. [6] Dai, P.; erifi, V. and Jemenica, R.: Metodologija izgradnje EDSS sistema. asopis IMK-14 Istraivanje i razvoj, God. XIV, br. (28-29) 1-2/2008 (2008), s. 107-118. ISSN 0354-6829.
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[7] Dai, P.; Nedeff, V.; Stanojevi, M. and erifi, V.: Pregled razvijenih sistema za podrku odluivanju za ivotnu sredinu (EDSS).. Journal of Research and development in Mechanical Industry (JRaDMI):, Vol. 1, no. 2 (2009), s. 128-140. ISSN 1821-3103. [8] Hani, H. and Krsmanovi, S.: Upravljaki informacioni sistemi. Beograd: Ekonomski fakultet, 2001. 621 s. [9] Heleta, M.: Znanje kao generator promena primenom koncepta TQM. Educta TQM &ISO 9000 Konsalting. [10] Laudon, K. C. and Laudon, J. P.: Information Systems: A Problem Solving Approach. 3rd Edition. The Dryden Press Inc., 1995 653 pp. ISBN 978-0-03-002068-1. [11] Mai , B.: Predmet Menadment - Osnove menadmenta, ppt. Crna Rupa, Valjevo 2006/2007. www.crnarupa.singidunum.ac.yu/.../osnove%20menadzmenta.ppt [12] Menadment pojam - Managament_1_4.pdf. www.pbf.hr/hr/content/download/1673/13599/version/1/file/MANAGEMENT_1_4.pdf [13] Menadment - skripta 1. Uvod u teoriju menadmenta Menadment www.fonforum.org/download/prva/menadzment-18str.doc [14] Mici, .: Informacione tehnologije. aak: Tehniki fakultet, 2001. 451 s. ISBN 86-901809-4-X. [15] Power, D. J.: Web-based decision support systems. The On-Line Executive Journal for Data-Intensive Decision Support, Vol. 2 (1998.), No. 33-34. Avaliable on Web site: http://dssresources.com/papers/webdss/. [16] Power, D. J.: Web-based and model-driven decision support systems: Concepts and issues. In: Proceedings of Americas Conference on Information Systems. Long Beach, California, 2000. [17] Power, D. J. and Kapauthi S.: Building Web-based decision support systems. Studies in Informatics and Control, Vol. 11 (2002.), No. 4, pp. 291-302. Avaliable on Web site: http://www.ici.ro/ici/revista/sic2002_4/art1.pdf. [18] Rautenstrauch, C. and Patig, S.: Environmental information systems in industry and public administration. Hershey (Pennsylvania USA): Idea Group Publishing, 2001. 436 pp. ISBN 978-1-930708-02-0. [19] Robson, W.: Strategic Management and Information Systems: An Integrated Approach. Pitman Publishing and FT Prentice Hall, 1994. 368 pp. ISBN 0-273-60042-7. [20] Stair, R.: Principles of Information Systems: A Managerial Approach. 2nd Edition. Boyd & Fraser Publishing Company, 1995. 720 pp. ISBN 978-0-87709-825-6. [21] Stair, R. and Reynolds, G.: Fundamentals of Information Systems. 2nd Edition. Course Technology, 2003. 432 pp. ISBN 0-61906491-9. [22] Third European report on science & technology indicators, Towards a knowledge based economy. Luxemburg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2003. 451 pp. ISBN 92-8941795-1. [23] Turban, E.; McLean, E. and Wetherbe, J.: Information technology for management: Transforming business in the digital economy. 3rd edition. New York (NY USA): John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2001. 832 pp. ISBN 0-471-21533-3. [24] Turban, E.; McLean, E. and Wetherbe, J.: Information technology for strategic advantage. 2nd edition. New York, Chichester, Weinheim, Brisbane, Singapore, Toronto: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2001. [25] Turban, E.; Rainer R. K.; Potter, E. R. and Rainer, R. K.: Introduction to information technology. New York (NY USA): John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2004. 592 pp. ISBN 0-471-34780-9. [26] Veljovi, A., Menadment informacioni sistemi- u praksi, aak: Kompjuter biblioteka, 2002. (aak,:Svetlost). XII, 265 str. :24 cm, ISBN 86-7310-239-1. Menadment informacioni sistemi COBISS-ID 10274828. [27] Remikovi, M.: Iniciranje promjena, razvoj organizacije-Ekonomski fakultet Podgorica, 16.04.2007.
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RaDMI 2010
AUTOMATED SYSTEM FOR CONTROL OF PROCESSES OF EXPERIMENTAL ANAEROBIC BIOREACTOR

Stanimir Yordanov1, Stefan Ivanov2, Toshko Nenov3
1
Technical University of Gabrovo, Hadji Dimitar 4, Gabrovo 5300, Bulgaria, e-mail:sjjordanov@mail.bg, 2 e-mail:st_ivanov@abv.bg, 3e-mail: tnrnov@tugab.bg
Summary: Obtaining energy from renewable energy sources is a dynamically evolving area of modern industry. In the current paper is presented a system for control of experimental bioreactor and how the processes can be monitored and controlled. Keywords: bioreactor, control system, intelligent system, PLC control.
1. INTRODUCTION
The waste from agriculture and food processing industry are serious problem for modern society. This waste can be used for production of methane which can be found in the biogas generated during the fermentation process. The biogas is an alternative ecologic fuel which is produced via anaerobic decomposition of organic materials. These materials can be vegetable and animal waste, waste from human activities, sediments and others. The energy equivalent of the biogas is 22 600 KJ/m3 or 5 400 ccal/m3 . From 1 kg biomass can be achieved production of 200 to 1200 litres of biogas (depending on the substances of the biomass and the fermentation conditions). The process of fermentation depends of so called methane bacteria. These micro organisms are anaerobic so the fermentation process takes place in environment without oxygen. The temperature range for operation of these micro organisms is between 0 and 70 degrees Celsius. The temperature determines the speed of fermentation process and the quantity of received biogas. The biogas can be used for warming of the waste substrate or as fuel for engines or it can be utilized as raw material in chemical manufacturing. Current paper presents the control of experimental bioreactor which was built with according Project DO 02-190/16.12.2008 Optimization of the production of biogas in anaerobic bioreactors, funded by Bulgarian National Science Fund. The installation with experimental bioreactor was built in the territory of the Institute of microbiology, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences. The objectives of the project are to be monitored the processes in the bioreactor and to be determined the optimal mode of operation and control of such installation. The results of the project will be implemented in real industrial bioreactors.
2. DESCRIPTION OF THE BIOGAS INSTALLATION

The principal diagram of the installation (Figure 1) can be seen on Figure 2. The biogas installation includes bioreactor, where the fermentation process passes; gasholder which is used for storage of the produced biogas; tank for the bio slime product of fermentation process. Other part of the installation is a tank for the substrate which will be placed in the bioreactor. The pump 9 (Figure 2) driven by motor 10 transfer the substrate in the bioreactor. The slime material after fermentation is driven by pump 7 in the tank for bio slime. Motor 16 is used to mix the material in the bioreactor. The homogenization takes part 24 times in the day with duration depending on the characteristics of the substrate. The control system monitors such parameters of the bioreactor as temperature, pressure, rate of mixing and others.
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Figure.1. Experimental installation
1- bioreactor, 2- gasholder, 3- tank for bio slime, 4- tank for substrate, 5- PLC controller, 6- personal computer (PC), 7,9 motors, 8,10 pumps, 11,12valves, 14 temperature sensor, 15- level sensor, 16- motor
Figure 2. Control scheme of the bioreactor
Production of biogas depends from many factors concerning the characteristics of the biomass like: - quantity of the dry substrate; - dimensions of the particles; - the ratio between animal waste against other organic wastes; - ability for biological digestion of the substrate. The process of production strongly depends on the following factors: - time for stay of substrate in the bioreactor; - temperature - pH - presence of toxic ingredients; - etc. According an US patent [1], a system for production of biogas has to include in its structure control system. In the system will be implemented a data base for better monitoring and control of processes in the system. The data base is used for statistical evaluation of the activity of bioreactor from incoming raw materials.
3. ORGANIZATION OF THE CONTROL SYSTEM OF ANAEROBIC BIOREACTOR

The algorithm which controls the work of the system is based of the current state of the system and it depends on the experience acquired from the work of similar bioreactors. The controller stores the different modes of operation of the bioreactor. When there is an event (like feeding the bioreactor with new substrate or transferring the materials from bioreactor to slime tank and etc.) there is a generation of control influence like activation of an actuator motor, valve or pump. The volume of the bioreactor is limited so in this way the modes of operation depend on that. Some of the actions which controller does are auxiliary. They can be a control of preheating of the substrate or any other activities concerning the preparation of the substrate for the bioreactor. The control of the bioreactor in some aspects is sophisticated so it is very important what platform for monitoring and control will be chosen. In our case the system for control is realized on three levels. 3.1.First level of control The first level of control is based on the PLC modules of the firm BECKHOFF. As main controller is used CX1030 and as input/output modules are used KL3202, KL2408, KL1408. KL3022, KL4022 and others bus terminals (Figure 3).
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The controller monitors the state of the system via several sensors. These sensors monitor the temperature, pH, the speed of stirring, the quantity of produced biogas and the states of actuators in the system. One of controlled parameters is the duration of stay of the substrate in the bioreactor. This time is defined by the volume of the bioreactor and the consumption of substrate per day. The duration of stay of the substrate is key parameter because it defines the time during which the substrate has contact with the bacteria in the bioreactor. The control system enables the substrate to be brought in and out 24 times in the day.
Figure 4. Monitoring and control of the temperature in the bioreactor
Figure 3. PLC based control unit of the bioreactor Other key parameter is the temperature. Biological production of methane is observed at temperatures ranging from 2C to 100C. For methane genesis are mainly used following temperatures 15 - 25C (room temperature), 30-40C and 50-60. Statistically every 10C increase in the temperature the speed of production of methane is doubled until the temperature becomes greater than 60C then the activities of the micro organisms fall significantly. Any fluctuations in the temperature have influence over the process of anaerobic digestion. The allowed temperature changes can vary from +/- 0.5 to +/-2 C/h depending on value of the temperature of digestion. The experimental installation has its own system for heating. The controller monitors the temperature every second with accuracy of 0.1C. The temperature control is realized via power width modulation (PWM). A PID regulator, with auto-tuning, guaranties that the temperature in the bioreactor will be equal to the desired one. Other controlled parameter is the pH. The bacteria producers of methane are sensitive to the value of pH. Optimal value of pH is 7.0-7.2. Good results can be achieved in wider range 6.6 to 7.6. The values of pH under 6.5 and especially fewer than 5.0 reduce the activities of the bacteria. When the quality of the substrate is well balanced it is not necessary to correct the value of pH, because it is relatively stable. When the change of pH is significant the control system stops the flow of new material in the bioreactor until the value of pH becomes normalised.
Figure 5. Monitoring of the measured quantities
Figure 6. Adjustment of beginning and duration of mixing
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The control of mixing of substrate is very important for optimal digestion of the substrate. The mixing improve the contact between the substrate and bacteria, it destroys the surface layer of the substrate, make the temperature equal in the entire substrate and helps for the uniform distribution of the micro organisms. The control system controls two parameters of mixing process speed and duration of mixing. These parameters are filled in the controller by the operator (Figure 6) and control the revolution and time for work of the motor for mixing. The main algorithm of the PLC control program is presented on Figure 7, part of the code is presented on Figure 8.
Figure 8 Part of control source code
Figure 7 Main algorithm of the PLC program for control of the experimental bioreactor 3.2. Second level of control The second level of control of the system is PC based. There are two software module BioreactorControl and BioreactorView. BioreactorControl (Figure 9) is a real time application and has the following characteristics: - it realizes a connection with the PLC controller; - reads the values of monitored parameters in real time; - writes the acquired values in data base; - writes new values of parameters in the PLC controller. These parameters are set temperature, alarm levels for pH, initial time and duration for mixing (Figure 10), calibration coefficients for the sensors and etc. The software application BioreactorView (Figure 11) is subsidiary module. It allows the acquired data to be examined and to be exported in format suitable for processing in Matlab
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3.3. Third level of control The third level of control is Internet based. This level is used only for monitoring and visualization of the processes because of considerations concerning the safety of system. The data for visualization is retrieved from the data base from level two. The internet visualization is coupled with video signal from IP video camera that monitors the room where the bioreactor is situated. The video signal from camera can be recorded in two cases: - the user explicitly defined that in the software; - the PLC generates control signal to start recording. The camera can be started automatically in following situations - during the loading of new substrate in bioreactor; start of mixing; when any of sensors detects alarm condition (like increased concentration of methane in the room).
Figure 9. BioreactorControl application. Adjustment of temperature regulator
Figure 10. BioreactorControl application. Adjustment of initial time and duration of mixing process
Figure 11 BioreactorView application
4. CONCLUSION
The presented system for monitoring and control of anaerobic bioreactor has full functionality and can be used in industrial bioreactors for digestion of organic waste. Concerning the future work over the developed system there will be included possibilities for connection of a cascade of bioreactors. Specialized software for optimisation of the processes will be developed enabling the increase of the production rate of biogas. The current work was realized with the financial aid of project DO 02-190/16.12.2008 Optimization of the production of biogas in anaerobic bioreactors budgeted by the Bulgarian National Science Fund.
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5. REFERENCES
[1] Breckenridge, Anaerobic digester system, US6296766, 2001 [2] Biogas Digest (Volume I-IV), GTZ-GATE, Eschborn, Germany, 1999 [3] Chynoweth D.P., A.C. Wilkie, J.M. Owens. Anaerobic Processing of Piggery Wastes: a Review, ASAE Annual International Meeting, 1998 [4] Uri Marchaim, Biogas processes for sustainable development, FAO, 1992 [5] http://www.eae-engineering.com/biogas.html [6] Yordanov S., B. Kalchev, I. Simeonov, System for monitoring and control of a cascade of two bioreactors, Engineering review, vol.4, 2008, pp. 24-34 (in Bulgarian)
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RaDMI 2010
INTELLIGENT ULTRASONIC SENSOR

Stanimir Y. Yordanov1, Ivan S. Simeonov2, Raycho T. Ilarionov3, Hristo S. Kilifarev4, Hristo I. Ibrishimov5, Nikolay D. Madjarov6
Technical University of Gabrovo, BULGARIA, e-mail: sjjordanov@mail.bg e-mail: isim@tugab.bg, 3 e-mail: ilar@tugab.bg, 4 e-mail: hri_100@abv.bg, 5 e-mail: hristo_ibrishimov@abv.bg, 6 e-mail: madjarov@tugab.bg
1 2
Summary: In the present paper the design and the realization of intelligent ultrasonic sensor, destined for non-contact invesigation of materials, have been described. A scheme solution of this device is presented as well as during its development some basic opportunities for operation are prognosticated with the purpose larger universality Keywords: Ultrasonic, Ultrasonic sensors, Non-contact method, Intelligent system.
1. INTRODUCTION
The optimal running of technological processes in the industry is determined to a not inconsiderable extent by the correct measurement of their parameters. The reliable and exact mesurement of process characteristics is of significance for investigations and optimal control of technological processes as well for safety service of equipments and aggregates. In the practice transmitters from new generation have already been imposed, so called smart and intelligent models. They support calculating possibilities and functions, which expand and improve the obtained information depending on the specificity of different applications. The target of consideration in this paper is constructive and metrological characteristics of intelligent ultrasonic sensor module, destined for non-contact investigation of objects and material media. The development is a part of mobile unit for non-contact ultrasonic investigation of materials. The basic stages in this development are as follows: Synthesizing of a principal scheme of intelligent sensor for non-contact ultrasonic investigation of materials; Realizing of an intelligent sensor for non-contact ultrasonic investigation of materials; Developing of an algorithm for operation and software of the intelligent sensor; Designing of a controller for analyzing and classifying the signals received by intelligent ultrasonic sensor; Designing and developing of algorithms about spectral analysis which are suitable for embedding in the mobile device; Analyzing of the results from made measurements with different ultrasonic sensors, etc.
2. CONSTRUCTION OF INTELLIGENT ULTRASONIC SENSOR

Functionally and constructively, the intelligent ultrasonic sensor (IUS) consists of three basic modules (Figure 1) sensor module, where piezoceramic sensitive elements are found, microprocessor (computing) module for measurement and interface module for communication according to the corresponding protocol with control system, controller, PC and portable communicator. In Figure 1 the functional scheme of IUS is shown.
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Figure 1: Functional scheme of IUS
3. SENSITIVE ELEMENTS OF SENSOR MODULE

The basic requirements towards sensitive elements are high sensitivity, prolonged stability of operation, repetition of results and small temperature dependence. In the role of sensitive element, ultrasonic piezoceramic sensors from a type of UST40 and UST40R or 125SR250B are used. The sensors UST40 and UST40R function at 40 kHz, but 125SR250B - at 125 kHz. The signal for excitation of ultrasonic emitter is a package from rectagular impulses with its resonant frequency. According to the recommendation of firm-manufacturer of ultrasonic emitters, about the full hesitation of piezoelements, it is necessary a package from exciting impulses with indicated parameters to be fed (Figure 2).
Figure 2: Scheme showing the operation principle of blocks: receiver and transmitter The transmitter in sensor emits an acoustic wave in the form of impulses with frequency 40 or 125 kHz, which reach to the object, reflect and return back up to the receiver. The reflected wave is accepted by acoustic transducer and is amplified by measurable amplifier. The output of sensor is analogue and it is fed to the microprocessor about transformation in digital type. The output of amplifier is led to plug and socket as well as it can be measured by external devices, but the signal level is a non-linear function of the type, the density and the thickness of object. For proper action of sensors, the reflecting surface of object must be perpendicular towards the emission direction. The basic advantage of sensor is comparatively large distance about measurement, the independence on optical properties of object and the linear connection between the output signal and the object space. From disadvantages can be mentioned the necessity for suitable surface of object and its arrangement
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toward the sensor, comparatively large time of reaction (100 ms), the availability of minimal object space as well the dependence of indications on the air state (temperature, humidity, pressure). The influence of environment temperature on the indications of ultrasonic sensors is compensated by embedded automatic temperature compensation operating in the range from -40 up to +100. For measuring the temperature and the humidity, sensor from a type of HIH-4602c of HONEYWELL firm is used. The sensor consists of integrated sensitive elements in one casing about measurement of temperature and humidity. The output analogue voltage signal is proportional to the humidity, but the resistance to the temperature. The signals are fed directly towards the microcontroller. The power supply of sensor is unipolar DC 5V. The range of measured humidity is from 0 up to 100%. On the basis of measured values about temperature and humidity in the microcontroller, correction of measured signal by the ultrasonic sensor is made. It must not be forgotten, that the heated objects change the configuration of reflected wave, which leads to an error at measurement of the distance and the object state. By means of inclusion of microcontroller in the processing module, additional improvements at the measurement accuracy are realized. The typical values of linearity are below 1%, the repetition is some tenth parts from the percent, but the reaction time is around 0,1 s.
4. COMMUNICATION OPPORTUNITIES
The developed IUS is worked out in three varieties regarding the communication interface (USB, Ethernet and RS485). At RS485 the connection with the interface of control system is based on a two-conducted line as each IUS is connected in parallel and is addressed individually. On one bus it can be connected up to several units in branchy structure. About fast or critical processes, included in loops for controlling, peer-to-peer communication with the interface of control system or PLC is recommended. For realizing of USB or Ethernet communication, IUS is fed along the corresponding interface cables.
5. FUNCTIONALITY OF MICROPROCESSOR MODULE

In Figure 3 the block diagram of an algorithm for module control is shown. In Initialise block, the primary initialization of module is performed. The values of process variables are taken by the EEPROM-th of microcontroller. These parameters can be changed at any time after supplying a command through the interface USB module. The acceptance of commands is fulfilled according to interruption, but their processing become in Parser block. The measurement process begins after supplying a command from the master unit. IUS responds with a command about readiness for measurement. Then, the measurement process starts. The measurement process includes the following stages: - Measurement of humidity (HumidityMeasurement module); - Measurement of temperature (TemperatureMeasurement module); - Measurement of distance up to the object and determination of the time for record origin (DistanceMeasurement module); - Sending a sequence of impulses with operating frequency 40/125 kHz (SentPulse module); - Starting of measurement on a definite period t and recording of measured data in a buffer (Value[i] = GetADC() module). The duration of measurement is determined by the type of substance, its phase and it varies in the range from 2 up to 10 ms; - Rectification of measured values (Rectification module); - Sending of measured data on master unit (SentValues() module). It is prognosticated 1ms time for preventing the error from acceptance of emitted signal by the transmitter before its return from the reflected surface. Two basic operation modes of IUS exist. The first way is Periodic Sampling, which is made through a definite interval of time set preliminarily along the interface channel. The intervals can be within too wide boundaries and even be changed in the process of operation. The second way is Single Sampling, which is made according to a request from the guiding controller. At a definite interval of time the microprocessor also fulfills self-diagnostic functions, keeps up with the state of sensors and output signal as well as at availability of errors through the interface it generates a message for failure or other status.
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begin
Initialise
No PowerOn Yes FlMeasure No
Yes
End Humidity Measurement
Temperature Measurement
Distance Measurement
SendPulse
i=0
Yes i<MeasureCount
No
Value[i] = GetADC()
Rectification()
i = i+1
SendValues()
No FParser
Yes
Parser
Figure 3: Algorithm of operation about receiver-transmitter module
6. CONCLUSION
The developed intelligent ultrasonic sensor affords an opportunity for performing of non-contact non-destructive analysis of materials. It is a part of mobile device with a possibility for embedding in automated manufacturing systems, at which it is required fast and exact determination of the type and the state of substances, compositions of mixtures, material mediums and their production phases. Testing measurements of liquid and solid substances
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have been made as well as one part of them is shown in Figure 4 and they prove the serviceability of this development.
Figure 4: Experimental data from measurements made by meas of IUS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was carried out in the framework of the DRNF 02/9 project titled "Design and development of a device for non-contact ultrasonic investigation of materials aimed at embedding into automated manufacturing systems", financed by the National Science Fund of the Bulgarian Ministry of Education, Youth and Science. This paper is financed by project: Creative Development Support of Doctoral Students, Post-Doctoral and Young Researches in the Field of Computer Science, BG 051PO001-3.3.04/13, EUROPEAN SOCIAL FUND 2007 2013. OPERATIONAL PROGRAMME HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT
REFERENCES
[1] Baltes, H., W. Gpel, J. Hesse: Sensors Update. Volume 3. Sensor Technology-Applications-Markets. Weinheim-Berlin-New York-Chichester- Brisbane-Singapore-Toronto, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH, 1998. [2] GM Electronic spol. s r.o. 1990-2008, UST40T, http://www.gme.cz/cz/index.php?page=product&detail=641019, 2008. [3] PIC32MX5XX/6XX/7XX Family Data Sheet High-Performance, USB, CAN and Ethernet 32-bit Flash Microcontrollers, Microchip Technology Inc, 2010
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RaDMI 2010
ACCELERATED LIFE TEST MODEL FOR LIFE PREDICTION OF A INDUSTRIAL PRODUSCT USING MONTE CARLO SIMULATION
1
S.M. Zaharia1, I. Martinescu2

Transilvania University of Brasov, Brasov, ROMANIA, e-mail: zaharia_sebastian@unitbv.ro, 2 e-mail: ionel_martinescu@unitbv.ro
Summary: Accelerated Life Testing (ALT) is an effective method of demonstrating and improving product reliability. ALT accelerates a given failure mode by testing at amplified stress level(s) in excess of operational limits. Statistical Analysis is then performed on the data, based on acceleration model to make life predictions at use level. The acceleration model thus forms the basis of accelerated life testing methodology. Well established models such as the Arrhenius model and the Inverse Power model. This paper explains the technical and mathematical methodology for acceleration life test models using engineering rationale, and a mathematical approach in the test design and data analysis. Keywords: reliability, models, ALT, plans, industrial product.
1. INTRODUCTION
The current reliability levels attained by many electro-mechanical materials and items make it infeasible to assess their times to failure under normal or designed operating conditions; instead, the practitioner may choose to simulate the usual ageing process of items at a faster rate. The method of exposing items to one or more external stressessuch as temperature, current or humidityabove and beyond designed operating conditions to stimulate early failures are known as accelerated life testing. In general, shorter lifetimes are observed at higher levels of the stress factor; however, long lifetimes are possible even under acceleration and censoring of some observations is also possible. The technique of accelerated life testing enjoys both intuitive appeal and objective support from the physics of failure, and can be implemented in various ways; experimental aims are, however, usually phrased in statistical terms. For instance, the practitioner may wish to estimate a specified percentile of life or the probability of failure within a given warranty period of an item operating under design stress. We thus seek accurate estimates of these quantities, and this requires assessing the mean square errors of estimators of parameters in models for experimental data; see Nelson and Meeker and Escobar for surveys of this topic. With todays highly reliable components, we are often unable to obtain a reasonable amount of test data under normal use condition. For this reason, accelerated life test (ALT) is the reasonable procedure to be applied. ALT is used to determine the reliability of a product in a short period of time by accelerating the use environment. Application of ALT can save cost that we used to pay for overcoming the dilemma of not being able to estimate failure rates by testing directly at use conditions. ALT is applied in materials, products and degradation mechanisms such as insulation life, conductive particle-filled adhesives that have been widely used for flex-torigid board interconnections in calculators, multi-layer ceramic capacitors and power capacitors. Accelerated life tests are component life tests with components operated at high stresses and failure data observed. While high stress testing can be performed for the sole purpose of seeing where and how failures occur and using that information to improve component designs or make better component selections, we will focus in this section on accelerated life testing for the following two purposes: a. To study how failure is accelerated by stress and fit an acceleration model to data from multiple stress cells b. To obtain enough failure data at high stress to accurately project (extrapolate) what the CDF at use will be. A variety of methods that serve different purposes have been termed accelerated life testing. As we use the term in this paper, accelerated life testing involves acceleration of failures with the single purpose of quantification of the life characteristics of the product at normal use conditions. More specifically, accelerated
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life testing can be divided into two areas: qualitative accelerated testing and quantitative accelerated life testing. In qualitative accelerated testing, the engineer is mostly interested in identifying failures and failure modes without attempting to make any predictions as to the products life under normal use conditions. In quantitative accelerated life testing, the engineer is interested in predicting the life of the product (or, more specifically, life characteristics such as MTTF, B(10) life, etc.) at normal use conditions, from data obtained in an accelerated life test [1]. Each type of test that has been called an accelerated test provides different information about the product and its failure mechanisms. These tests can be divided into two types (figure 1): qualitative tests (HALT, HAST, torture tests, shake and bake tests, etc.) and quantitative accelerated life tests [2].
Figure 1: Classification of accelerated test Qualitative Accelerated Life Testing is tests that yield failure information (or failure modes) only. They have been referred to by many names including: elephant tests, torture tests, HALT tests, shake and bake tests. Qualitative tests are performed on small samples with the specimens subjected to a single severe level of stress, to a number of stresses or to a time-varying stress (i.e. stress cycling, cold to hot, etc.). If the specimen survives, it passes the test. Otherwise, appropriate actions will be taken to improve the product's design in order to eliminate the cause(s) of failure. Qualitative tests are used primarily to reveal probable failure modes. However, if not designed properly, they may cause the product to fail due to modes that would have never been encountered in real life. A good qualitative test is one that quickly reveals those failure modes that will occur during the life of the product under normal use conditions. In general, qualitative tests are not designed to yield life data that can be used in subsequent quantitative accelerated life data analysis. In general, qualitative tests do not quantify the life (or reliability) characteristics of the product under normal use conditions; however, they provide valuable information as to the types and level of stresses one may wish to employ during a subsequent quantitative test. Quantitative accelerated life testing (QALT) unlike the qualitative testing methods described previously, consists of tests designed to quantify the life characteristics of the product, component or system under normal use conditions and thereby provide reliability information [3]. Reliability information can include the determination of the probability of failure of the product under use conditions, mean life under use conditions and projected returns and warranty costs. It can also be used to assist in the performance of risk assessments, design comparisons, etc. Constructing an accurate quantitative accelerated test requires the following steps [4]: 1. Define the anticipated failure mechanisms in terms of the materials used in the product to be tested. Remembering, of course, that the majority of "electrical failures" are basically mechanical or chemical in nature. 2. Determine the environmental stresses to which the product will be exposed when operating and when not operating or stored. 3. Based on the failure mechanisms that are anticipated to limit the life of the product; choose a test, or combination of tests, that will accelerate that failure mechanism(s). 4. Relevant acceleration models that should be considered include: Arrhenius Temperature Acceleration for temperature and chemical aging effects; Inverse Power Law for any given stress; Miners Rule for linear accumulated fatigue damage; Coffin-Manson non-linear mechanical fatigue damage; Pecks Model for temperature and humidity combined effects; Eyring/Black/Kenney models for temperature and voltage acceleration. One practical procedure consists in recording load profiles during a test run under realistic operation conditions. Out of these profiles time or distance proportions are determined or operation or use frequencies (histograms) are
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developed. Finally, by extrapolating these histograms, the lifetime can be verified. Reproducing the load on test rigs with increased loads (using a physical model) results in a time-acceleration factor corresponding to the underlying model. With the increased load, greater damage occurs during the trials than would occur under real operational conditions. This in turn leads to lower lifetimes. The relationship between the lifetime under normal operation conditions and the lifetime in an accelerated test is described by the time-acceleration factor AF: L AF = use (1) Lacc In Equation (1) it is assumed that the failure probability for both lifetimes is the same.
2. STATISTICAL MODELS FOR ACCELERATION

The primary purpose of a quantitative ALT is to estimate the life distribution at a use condition. This can be accomplished by extrapolating the life data obtained at elevated stress levels. To do this, we need a model that relates life to accelerating stress, such as temperature, humidity, and voltage. Such models, usually called acceleration models, can be classified into the following three types [5]: 1. Physical models. In a few situations we understand well how a material or component responds to applied stresses at the micro level, and how a failure process develops over time under stress. Equipped with the knowledge, we use established models that relate life to the applied stresses. The models are usually complicated, because many factors contribute simultaneously to the initiation and development of failure mechanisms. Justifiable simplification of models is acceptable, and often essential. Proper physical models provide a high level of accuracy in extrapolation. Of course, the elevated stresses must be selected appropriately so that the failure mechanisms at higher stress levels are the same as those at the use conditions. Because such a model is suitable for a specific failure mechanism, it is usually invalid for other failure mechanisms, even in the same product. 2. Quasi-physical models. This type of model is not based directly on specific failure mechanisms that govern the failure process of concern. However, such a model either has roots in known physical or chemical theories, or is grounded on macro-level failure mechanisms. Most commonly used acceleration models, such as the Arrhenius relationship (discussed later), belong to this type. Because the models are not derived from specific failure mechanisms, they have more applications than do physical models. Generally, these models provide better extrapolation accuracy than that of empirical models. 3. Empirical models. In many situations we have little knowledge of the physical or chemical reactions taking place in a material or component under the applied stresses. Without understanding the failure mechanisms, it is impossible to develop a physical model. Instead, we fit empirical models to experimental data by using linear or nonlinear regression methods. A typical example is the polynomial model. Such models may be adequate in fitting the existing data, but extrapolation to use conditions is risky. The most important statistical models used in accelerated tests are shown in Figure 2.
ARRHENIUS
EYRING
STATISTICAL MODELS FOR ACCELERATION
INVERSE POWER LAW
TEMPERATURE - HUMIDITY
BAZOVSKY
Figure 2: Statistical models for acceleration The failure rate of electronic components lies typically between 10-l0 and 10-7 h-1, and that of assemblies in the range of 10-7 to 10-5 h-l. With such figures, cost and scheduling considerations demand the use of accelerated testing for estimation and demonstration, in particular if reliable field data are not available. An accelerated test
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is a test in which the applied stress is chosen to exceed that encountered in field operation, but still below the technological limits [6]. This in order to shorten the time to failure of the item considered by avoiding an alteration of the involved failure mechanism (genuine acceleration). In accelerated tests, failure mechanisms are assumed to be activated selectively by increased stress. The quantitative relationship between degree of activation and extent of stress, i.e. the acceleration factor FA, is determined via specific tests. Generally it is assumed that the stress will not change the type of the failure-free time distribution function of the item under test, but only modify the parameters. Many electronic component failure mechanisms are activated through an increase in temperature. Calculating the acceleration factor FA, the Arrhenius model can often be applied over a reasonably large temperature range (for instance 0 to 150C for ICs). The Arrhenius model is based on the Arrhenius rate law, which states that the rate of a simple (first-order) chemical reaction depends on temperature T as:
= A0 e
EA kT
(2)
where is the chemical reaction rate in moles per second, EA the activation energy in electron-volts (eV), k is Boltzmanns constant (k = 8.6171 105 eV/C), T the absolute temperature (the Celsius temperature plus 273.15 degrees), and C is a constant related to material characteristics. The rate of chemical reaction is the amount of a reactant reacted per unit time. Assume that a failure occurs when a critical amount (in moles) of reactant reacted is reached. Then the time to reach the critical amount is the time to failure. Since the time to failure is proportional to the reciprocal of the reaction rate, can be written as:
EA L(V) = C e kT
(3)
where L is the life and C is a constant that depends on material properties, failure criteria, product design, and other factors. Equation (3) is called the Arrhenius life relationship. Life here is the nominal life, and may represent a life percentile. For example, it can be the median life of the lognormal and normal distributions, the characteristic life of the Weibull distribution, and the mean life of the exponential distribution. For the sake of data analysis, (3) is linearized. Then
ln(L) = a +
b T
(4)
where a = ln(C) and b = EA/k. Equation (4) indicates that the natural logarithm of nominal life is a linear function of the reciprocal temperature. Activation energy is an important concept associated with the Arrhenius relationship. We understand that a chemical reaction is the result of the collisions between the reactant molecules. The collisions take place very frequently, but only a small fraction of the collisions convert reactants into products of the reaction. The necessary condition for the collision to cause a reaction is that the molecules must carry a minimum amount of energy to break bonds and form products. For the Arrhenius model the acceleration factor is:
B Vu Ce B Va Ce B Vu e B Va e B B Vu Va
AF =
=e
(5)
3. CASE STUDY
Twelve electronic devices were put into a continuous accelerated life test. The accelerated stress was temperature, with use level conditions of 50C. The data set is obtained with Monte Carlo simulation is shown in table 1. Two samples of 6 devices each are subjected to stress level of 60 and 70 C. Using the Arrhenius model determine the parameters of the Arrhenius Exponential model and the reliability indicators (reliability function, unreliability function, failure rate, acceleration factor). The Monte Carlo simulation data is presented in Figure 3.
694
Figure 3: Monte Carlo simulation The data were entered into ALTA 7 (table 1), and the following estimates were obtained for the parameters of the Arrhenius - exponential model: B= 331.15; C= 8.81 ReliaSoft's ALTA 7 software is still the only commercially available software tool designed expressly for quantitative accelerated life testing data analysis using rigorous scientific analysis methods. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 345 975 1182 1217 1600 4295 48 68 94 602 1080 1279 Table 1: Accelerated life test data Time Failed [hrs] 60 60 60 60 60 60 70 70 70 70 70 70 Stress [C]
Determination of reliability indicators (Table 2) for Exponential Arrhenius model will be achieved using known relationships for this repartition and with the assumption of mean life:
m = L( V ) =
No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
B V Ce
(6) Table 2: Reliability 0.82270 0.57626 0.51257 0.50250 0.40458 0.08815 0.97330 0.96232 0.94807 0.71142 0.54284 0.48514 Reliability indicators Unreliability Failure rate 0.17729 0.42373 0.48742 0.49749 0.59541 0.91184 3.09E-05 0.02669 0.03767 0.05192 0.28857 0.45715 0.51485
Time Failed 345 975 1182 1217 1600 4295 48 68 94 602 1080 1279
Acceleration factor
1.67618
2.42409
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Using the QCP, the mean life for a 10% probability of failure at 50 C is estimated to be 7567 hours as shown in figure 4.
Figure 4: Determination the mean life of the electronic device at 50 C
3. CONCLUSION
As we are aware, the main objective of accelerated life testing models is to force components to fail by testing then at much higher than intended application conditions. The price we have to pay to go from failure rate obtained at high stress to what a product or service is likely to experience at much less stress, under use (normal) conditions, is the need for additional modeling. In this study, we developed the main accelerated life-testing model (Arrhenius) and we determined the reliability indicators of the electronic devices.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This paper is supported by the Sectoral Operational Programme Human Resources Development (SOP HRD), financed from the European Social Fund and by the Rumanian Government under the project number POSDRU /89/1.5/S/59323.
REFERENCES
[1] Bertsche, B.: Reliability in Automotive and Mechanical Engineering. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2008. - pp. 281. ISBN 978-3-540-33969-4. [2] Nelson, W.: Accelerated Testing; Statistical Methods, Test Plans, and Data Analyses. Wiley, 2004. pp. 75. ISBN 0-471-69736-2. [3] Yang, G.: Life cycle Reliability Engineering. John Wiley & Sons, 2007. pp. 237. ISBN-10:0471715298. [4] Pham, H.: Recent Advances in Reliability and Quality in Design. Springer, 2008. pp. 201. ISBN 978-184800-112-1. [5] Zaharia, S.M. & Martinescu, I.: Optimizing the life cycle of aerospace products using accelerated life testing. Plenary and invitation paper. In: Proc. of the 19th International DAAAM Symposium on Intelligent Manufacturing and Automation DAAAM 2008, Slovakia, 2225. October 2008. Edited by Branko Katalinic. 2005, pp. 15391540. ISSN 1726 - 9679. [6] Zaharia, S.M. & Martinescu, I.: Theoretical and experimental researches using accelerated life testing in aerospace industry. Pollack Periodica - An International Journal for Engineering and Information Sciences, Vol. 4, No. 2 (2009), pp. 117-122, ISSN 1788-1994.
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In Memoriam
Prof. dr Georgios Petropoulos (1959-2010)
Georgios Petropoulos was born in Athens in 1959 and suddenly passed away in July 2010. He graduated from the Department of Physics, School of Applied Sciences at the Aristotles University of Thessaloniki, Greece, in 1983. He attended PhD studies at the School of Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Aristotles University of Thessaloniki, Greece. He defended his PhD entitled "Simulation of the Evolution of self-excited Vibrations in Turning and Milling to determine dynamically stable Cutting Conditions" at the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Aristotles University of Thessaloniki (in Greek) and thus he obtained a PhD degree in July 1991. Professional and Teaching Experience In the period 1984-1991 he worked as a Research Assistant in the Laboratory for Machine Tools and Machine Dynamics, (EE), Department of Mechanical Engineering, Aristotles University of Thessaloniki. He assisted in teaching of the following undergraduate courses: Vibrations and Machine Dynamics (1984-1991), Special Tasks of Vibration Analysis (1989-1991), Introduction to Manufacturing Processes-Metrology (1990-1991). He also organized laboratory exercises and supervised diploma project reports of research character. In the period 1991-1992 he was employed as a Research Fellow in the same laboratory ( ).
Dord Petropoulos je roen u Atini 1959.godine i iznenada preminuo u julu 2010.godine. Diplomirao je na Katedri za fiziku na Fakultetu primenjenih nauka na univerzitetu Aristotles u Solunu, Grka, 1983.godine. Pohaao je doktorske studije na Fakultetu tehnikih nauka, Katedra za mainstvo univerziteta Aristotles u Solunu, Grka. Odbranio je svoj doktorat pod nazivom Simulacija evolucije samouzbudnih vibracija u struganju i glodanju radi utvrivanja dinamiki stabilnih uslova seenja na Katedri za mainstvo Aristotles univerziteta u Solunu (na grkom jeziku) i tako je dobio titulu doktora nauka u julu 1991.godine. Profesionalno i nastavno iskustvo U periodu od 1984-1991, radio je kao istraivasaradnik u Laboratoriji za alatne maine i dinamiku maina, (EE), na Katedri za mainstvo Aristotles univerziteta u Solunu. Bio je asistent na sledeim osnovnim kursevima: Vibracije i dinamika maina (1984-1991), Specijalni zadaci analize vibracija (19891991), Uvod u proizvodne procese-metrologija (19901991). Takoe, organizovao je i laboratorijske vebe i nadgledao izvetaje diplomskih projekata istraivakog karaktera. U periodu od 1991-1992, radio je kao nauni saradnik u istoj laboratoriji ( ).
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In the period 1992-1995 he worked as an Associate Professor of Tribology in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Technological Education Institute of Piraeus (third level of education). And in the period from 1995-2010 he was employed as a Lecturer in Manufacturing Processes, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Thessaly. He taught undergraduate level courses in Introduction to Manufacturing, Theory of Manufacturing Processes, Technology of Manufacturing Processes, Vibrations and Machine Dynamics, Introduction to Tribology, and a Postraduate level course in Physical and Economical Models of Manufacturing Processes- Metrology. He had set up and directed the Laboratory of Manufacturing Processes of the Department. Research interests and activities The research interests and activities of G. Petropoulos involved Theory and Technology of Machining Processes, Tribology, Metrology, Machine Vibrations. He was a member of the following professional bodies: Union of Greek Physicists, EEEE (Hellenic Operational Society, a member of IFORS), Balkan Tribological Association, ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers), Greek Metallurgical Society. He participated in National Development and Educational Projects and was a reviewer in the Journal of Industrial Lubrication and Tribology and Journal of the Balkan Tribological Association. G. Petropoulos stood out for his gentleness, integrity, and many interests beyond science. He will always be remembered for the kind of person he was, and his contribution to science. He was a member of the Scientific Committee of RaDMI from the very beginning, until the current conference (2010). He has significantly contributed to RaDMI Conference by his scientific work, which is related to manufacturing processes and tribology. In most cases, he was also the reviewer of the Proceedings from RaDMI Conference, of which he was present at eight conferences on which he had invitation papers. In addition, he was an associate editor of the journal JRaDMI.
U periodu 1992-1995, radio je kao vanredni profesor tribologije na Katedri za mainstvo Instituta za tehnoloko obrazovanje u Piraeusu (trei nivo obrazovanja). I u periodu 1995-2010, radio je kao predava proizvodnih procesa na Katedri za mainstvo i industrijski ininjering univerziteta u Tesaliji. Predavao je na osnovnim studijama Uvod u proizvodnju, Teoriju proizvodnih procesa, Tehnologiju proizvodnih procesa, Vibracije i dinamiku maina, Uvod u tribologiju, i na postdimplomskim studijama je predavao Fiziki i ekonomski modeli proizvodnog procesa metrologija. On je na katedri uspostavio i vodio laboratoriju za proizvodne procese.
Istraivaki interesi i aktivnosti Istraivaki interesi i aktivnosti D. Petropoulosa su unkljuivali Teoriju i tehnologiju obrade, Tribologiju, Metrologiju, Vibracije maina. Bio je lan sledeih strunih organizacija: Savez fiziara Grke, EEEE (Helensko operativno drutvo, lan IFORS-a), Balkansko triboloko udruenje, ASME (Ameriko drutvo mainskih ininjera), Grko metalurko drutvo. Uestvovao je u Nacionalnom razvoju i Obrazovnim projektima a bio je i recezent asopisa Journal of Industrial Lubrication and Tribology, kao i asopisa Journal of the Balkan Tribological Association. D. Petropoulos se izdvajao po svojoj blagosti, integritetu i mnogim interesovanjima izvan nauke. Zauvek e biti pamen kao ovek kakav je bio i po njegovom doprinosu nauci. Bio je lan Naunog odbora RaDMI konferencije od samog poetka, sve do ovogodinje (2010). Znaajno je doprineo RaDMI konferenciji svojim naunim radom, koji je vezan za proizvodne procese i tribologiju. U veini sluajeva, bio je i recezent Zbornika RaDMI konferencije, na osam konferencija je bio prisutan i imao rad po pozivu. Takoe, bio je i zamenik urednika asopisa JRaDMI.
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Vrnjaka Banja, Serbia

10th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT IN MECHANICAL INDUSTRY

RaDMI 2010 PROCEEDINGS Vol. 1

Technical processing and design: Predrag Dai Jovan Dai

Vrnjaka Banja, Serbia http://www.satcip.com/

Donji Milanovac, September 2010.

CHAIRMAN OF ORGANIZING COMMITTEE Predrag Dai, prof.

P-10. P-11. P-12.

P-15. Jevti D., Zaki D., Savi A. ( Belgrade Serbia)

128 140 150 157

A-3. A-4. A-5. A-6.

A-13. A-14. A-15.

181 189 199 205 210 214 225

234 238 244 250 256 259

A-16. Golubovi D. (aak Serbia), Mijatovi M. (Trstenik Serbia) A-17. A-18.

A-22. A-23. A-24.

A-27. A-28. A-29.

A-36. A-37. A-38.

A-40. Roganov M., Roganov L., Korotenko Y. (Kramatorsk Ukraine)

408 411 416 421 431 438 442

454 460 466

SESSION B TRANSPORT SYSTEMS AND LOGISTICS

498 505 513

B-5. B-6. B-7. B-8. B-9.

519 526 530 537 543

SESSION C APPLICATION OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

C-5. C-6. C-7.

549 554 560 565

572 578 584 590 595

600 610 614 624

C-15. Mikhov M.R., Mitrinski G.D. (Sofia Bulgaria)

638 644 651 656 664

C-16. C-17. C-18.

671 680 686 691

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821 826 833 839 846 850 857 862 867

D-30. Radovi D. (Kruevac Serbia) , Anii J. (Belgrade Serbia) , Sajfert Z. (Zrenjanin

D-33. D-34. D-35.

D-40. D-41. D-42. D-43.

D-45. D-46. D-47.

SESSION E APPLICATION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING IN OTHER INDUSTRIAL FIELDS

E-16. E-17. E-18.

E-21. Lekic M., Cvejic S. (Kosovska Mitrovica Serbia)

1120 1126 1132 1138 1142 1148

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1189 1195 1203 1212 1218 1224 1229

E-41. Stnescu N.D., Mihalcea S. (Piteti Romania) E-42. E-43.

1235 1241 1247 1251 1256 1262 1268 1274 1281

E-47. E-48. E-49.

10th International Conference Research and Development in Mechanical Industry

Plenary and Invitation Paper

RESEARCH OF PROCESSED SURFACE ROUGHNESS IN FIELD OF METALWORKING

Georgios Petropoulos 1, Predrag Dai2, Nikolaos Vaxevanidis3

2. DEPENDENCE OF PROCESSED SURFACE ROUGHNESS PARAMETERS AND CONCENTRATED TOOLS WEARING

3. INTERACTIVE DEPENDENCE OF PROCESSED SURFACE ROUGHNESS PARAMETERS

4. DEPENDENCE OF PROCESSED SURFACE ROUGHNESS PARAMETERS AND ELEMENTS OF CUTTING REGIME

[23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28]

[29] [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] [35]

10th International Conference Research and Development in Mechanical Industry

Plenary and Invitation Paper

N. M. Vaxevanidis1, N. Galanis1, P. Dai2, N. Fountas1

2. MANAGEMENT AND MINIMIZATION OF CUTTING FLUIDS

Figure 1: Typical end-user manufacturing costs