Lecture 3

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Lecture 3
Driving Cycles
Guezennec
This video lecture is the property of The Ohio State
University, and may not be captured or copied without
written consent of Prof. Yann Guezennec,
Y. Guezennec, 2013
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Driving Cycles
To represent typical driving conditions, vehicles are tested over specific driving cycles
These driving cycles allow a quantitative assessment of fuel (or energy) consumption,
emissions, Green house gases, etc
These cycles are represented as traces of vehicle speed versus time (could also include
altitude, etc.)
In addition to an input for vehicle simulations, such driving cycles are also executed on a
chassis dynamometer where the load at the wheel is adjusted to match the vehicle
characteristics (mass, rolling resistance, drag coefficient, frontal area) is a manner similar to
what was described in Lecture 2
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Furthermore, these chassis dynamometer tests are carried out in a controlled thermal
environment (temperature, humidity) and following a strict procedure concerning the
vehicle thermal state (cold soak, hot soak, etc). When performed at the EPA labs (or
other certifying outfits), the results of these highly codified tests are used for governmental
ratings and certification processes
See http://www.epa.gov/fueleconomy/
From a practical standpoint on a chassis dynamometer, the driving cycle trace is displayed
on a drivers aid monitor while the load at the wheel (on the dynamometer rolls) is
dynamically adjusted to match what the vehicle would encounter under the same
conditions (speed, acceleration). The monitor also displays the measured vehicle speed
Driving Cycles
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A human driver (or possibly a driving robot) attempts to match the trace as closely as
possible (within some validation criteria prescribed in the protocol) by driving the vehicle
in a conventional fashion. Gear shifts (for manual transmission vehicles) are also
typically indicated on the drivers aid monitor
Many driving cycles exists depending on the type of vehicles the intent of such test and
the country and manufacturers often use their own cycle (more extensive)
However, from a regulatory stand point, every country requires one or a few standard
cycles for a uniform assessment of fuel consumption and emissions of all vehicles, e.g.,
FUDS, FTP-75,European cycles, J apanese 10-15 cycle, etc
Driving Cycles
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US Driving Cycles for Light-Duty Vehicles:
Driving Cycles Overview
FTP-72 A transient test cycle for cars and light duty trucks performed on a chassis dynamometer. Simulates a
urban route with frequent stops.
FTP-75 A transient test cycle for cars and light duty trucks derived from the FTP-72. Used for emission
certification testing of cars and light duty trucks in the USA.
US06 A supplemental FTP procedure to simulate aggressive highway driving.
SC03 A supplemental FTP procedure to simulate emissions associated with the use of air conditioning units.
NYCC EPA NYCC schedule simulating low speed city driving.
HWFET EPA dynamometer driving schedule for fuel economy determination.
European Union Driving Cycles:
NEDC A combined chassis dynamometer test used for emission testing and certification in Europe. It is
composed of four ECE Urban Driving Cycles, simulating city driving, and one Extra Urban Driving Cycle
(EUDC), simulating highway driving conditions. The cold-start version of the test, introduced in 2000, is
also referred to as the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC).
Japan Driving Cycles:
10-Mode Urban driving cycle used for emission testing from light-duty vehicles, later replaced by the 10-15 mode
cycle.
10-15 Mode Urban driving cycle for emission certification and fuel economy determination of light-duty vehicles.
JC08 New urban driving cycle for emission and fuel economy measurements of light-duty vehicles, which will
fully replace the 10-15 mode cycle by 2011.
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Driving Cycles
For more detail, refer to:
Handout Emission Data from a Delphi booklet (on Carmen)
EPA Website: http://www.epa.gov/OMS/sftp.htm
Dieselnet Website: http://www.dieselnet.com/standards/cycles
Will also be posted on Carmen as data files when doing homeworks and projects
Examples of standard driving cycles are given on the next slides
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FTP-72 (FUDS) Urban Driving Cycle
Driving Cycles: US
The cycle simulates a urban route of 7.5 mi (12.07 km) with frequent stops. The maximum
speed is 56.7 mi/h (91.2 km/h) and the average speed is 19.6 mi/h (31.5 km/h )
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Driving Cycles: US
FTP-75 Federal Test Procedure
The FTP-75 cycle is derived from the FTP-72 by adding a third phase of 505 sec.,
identical to the first phase but with a hot start. The third phase starts after the engine is
stopped for 10 minutes
Distance: 11.04 miles (17.77 km)
Duration: 1874s
Average speed: 21.2 mph (34.1 km/h)
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The FTP cycle represent approximately one and a half FUDS cycle. However, it is
performed according to a specific thermal schedule (see previous slide)
Prior to executing the FTP, the vehicle is kept in cold soak (i.e., a stabilized ambient
thermal state) overnight. Hence, at the beginning of the test, the engine is fired and
operated during the warm-up phase. At the end of the first FUDS cycle, the vehicle
is stopped for a rest period of 10 minutes (hot soak). Then the beginning of the
second FUDS cycle is executed
This overall procedure is designed to provide a representative sample of vehicle
during their warm-up phase and operating at nominal operating temperatures
Driving Cycles: US
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This is particularly important to assess the effective emission characteristics of the
vehicle (very significantly worse during the cold start, as the engine and catalysts are
warming up and the engine control strategy is typically open-loop and fuel-enriched).
This thermal ramp-up also affect fuel economy (primarily due to higher engine friction
and fuel-rich operation), although not as drastically as emissions at the room
temperature at which the cold soak is performed.
Driving Cycles: US
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Additional cycles are also defined and used to assess specific aspects of vehicles. Examples
of an air conditioning cycle (SC-03) and high speed/high load cycle (US-06) are given below:
Driving Cycles: US
SC-03 cycle: represents the engine load and
emissions associated with the use of air
conditioning units in vehicles certified over the
FTP-75 test cycle.
US-06 cycle: represents aggressive, high
speed and/or high acceleration driving
behavior, rapid speed fluctuations, and driving
behavior following startup.
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ECE Segment (city) EUDC Segment
Driving Cycles: Europe
The New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) is performed for emission certification of light duty
vehicles in Europe
The cycle includes four ECE segments, repeated without interruption, followed by one
EUDC segment. The engine starts at 0s (no idling period) and the emission sampling begins
at the same time
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Driving Cycles: J apan
The 10-15 mode cycle is currently used in J apan for emission certification and fuel economy
for light duty vehicles. It is derived from the 10-mode cycle by adding another 15-mode
segment of a maximum speed of 70 km/h
The entire cycle includes a sequence of a 15 minute warm-up at 60 km/h, idle test, 5 minute
warm-up at 60 km/h, three repetitions of 10-mode segments and one 15-mode segment
10-Mode 10-15 Mode
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Impact of Driving Cycles
The impact of prescribed driving cycles is two-fold:
For a given vehicle (M, C
d
, A
f
, C
r
), the cycle represents a certain energy demand at
the wheel
Given that energy demand at the wheel, the cycle assesses the ability of the given
powertrain (conventional or hybrid) to extract this energy from its primary source (s)
(fuel, batteries)
The importance of standard driving cycles cannot be underestimated as they serve as
regulatory assessment benchmark tests for vehicle certification
However, it is clear that it is difficult, if not impossible, to represent thousands of hours of
operations in a typical sample trace only 10-25' long!
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The first point allows to assess the influence of vehicle parameters regardless of
powertrain configuration and operating strategy
The second point allows to evaluate the effective energy efficiency (averaged over a
cycle) for the powertrain configuration and operating strategy (including, in some cycles,
the effect of the thermal powertrain transients (cold start hot running)
Regarding the first point, it can easily be examined by a simple road load analysis for a
given cycle without really executing or simulating actual cycle
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dt
dV
M M Mg C Mg V A C F
eq r
eff
f d a w
) ( sin cos
2
2
1
+ + + + = o o
Aerodynamic Rolling Grade Inertial
where:
a
Ambient air density (1.13 kg/m

3
at STP)
C
d
Aerodynamic drag coefficient (0.25-0.50)
A
f
Frontal projected area (1.5-2.5 m
2
typically for cars)
V
eff
Effective (relative) air /vehicle speed (=V if no wind)
C
r
Rolling resistance coefficient (0.008-0.02, typically)
M Vehicle mass (1500-2500 Kg typically)
Using the road load model, the force at the wheel is given by:
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The power to be provided at the wheel is given by:
V F P
w w
=
Slope of the road way (=0 , if no grade)
M
eq
Added mass, to account for added rotational inertias as seen at the
wheel (5 or 10% of M, typically)
V Vehicle speed (prescribed by driving cycle)
Vehicle acceleration (< +/- 2m/sec, typically for normal
driving conditions prescribed by driving cycle) dt
dV
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Assuming no grade (o = 0) and given M
eff
=M + M
eq
~ 1.1M and no wind, the power at
the wheel is given by:
dt
dV
V M V M C V A C P
eff g r f d a w
+ + =
3
2
1

The energy to be provided at the wheel over the cycle is then given by:
}
} } }
+
+ + = =
cycle
eff
cycle
r
cycle
f d a w
dt
dt
dV
V M
Vdt Mg C dt V A C Pdt E ...
2
1
3
or
(
(
+
(
(
+
(
(
=
} } }
cycle
i
cycle
r
cycle
a w
dt
dt
dV
V Vdt dt V E o o o
3
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f d a a
A C o
2
1
=
Aerodynamic drag (vehicle dependent only)
Rolling resistance (vehicle dependent only)
Inertia resistance (vehicle dependent only)
g M C
r r
= o
eq eff i
M M M + = = o
The 3 integrals:
(
(
=
(
(
(
(
} } } }
dt
V
dt
d
dt
dV
V Vdt dt V )
2
( , ,
2
3
are vehicle independent, but cycle dependent only.
where:
(
(
+
(
(
+
(
(
=
} } }
cycle
i
cycle
r
cycle
a w
dt
dt
dV
V Vdt dt V E o o o
3
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Note that the last term represent the integral of the kinetic energy (per unit mass) change, i.e., =0
for a strictly conservative (non-dissipative) system
potential for regeneration
In discrete form, the integrals can be approximated by:
(
+ + A ~

i
i
i i
i
i r
i
i a w
dt
dV
V dt V dt V t E ) (
* 3
o o o
At: time step( usually 1 sec for most cycles)
V
i
: velocity value at time step i, V
i
=V(t
i
) =V (i At)
:
*
summation when appropriate:

- for all times, i.e., 100% regeneration
- When , i.e., 0% regeneration,
(maximum summation as always absorbed by the brakes).
0 )
dt
dV
0 (
dt
dV
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Driving Cycles Energy Statistics
The examples below show basic energy analysis for NEDC, FUDS and FHDS driving
cycles.
The vehicle data used are for a typical family sedan vehicle:
M =1500 Kg,
M
eff
=1.1M,
C
d
=0.35,
C
r
=0.013,
A
f
=2 m
2
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NEDC - New European Driving Cycle
Cycle parameters
Duration =1180 sec
Distance =11.360 km
Average speed =9.63 m/sec
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) (
2
) 1 ( ) 1 (
1 . 1 ) ( cos ) ( ) (
3
2
1
i V
t
i V i V
M i V Mg C i V A C i P
r f d a w
A
+
+ + =
Example of NEDC driving cycle analysis
Aerodynamic Drag [kW] Rolling Resistance [kW] Inertia [kW]
Calculation of power consumption at the wheel:
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Statistics
Average (positive) acceleration = 0.50 m/sec
2
Average (negative) acceleration = -0.75 m/sec
2
Average Aerodynamic power = 1.47 kW
Average Rolling Resistance power = 2.26 kW
Average Positive Inertial power = 7.23 kW
Average Negative Inertial power = -11.06 kW
Average (positive) power =4.8 kW
Maximum positive power =42.5 kW
Maximum negative power =-26.6 kW
Total power at the wheel:
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Driving Cycles: US
FTP-75 Federal Test Procedure
The FTP-75 cycle is derived from the FTP-72 by adding a third phase of 505s, identical to the
first phase but with a hot start. The third phase starts after the engine is stopped for 10
minutes.
Distance: 11.04 miles (17.77 km)
Duration: 1874s
Average speed: 21.2 mph (34.1 km/h)
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Positive Energy Required to Move the Vehicle = 5.91 MJ
(
+ + A ~
i
i
i i
i
i r
i
i a w
dt
dV
V dt V dt V t E ) (
3
Calculation of Energy Requirements:
Total Energy Required = 4.56 MJ
0
,
>
=
dt
i
dV
w pos w
E E
Negative Energy Required to Brake the Vehicle = -1.35 MJ
0
,
<
=
dt
i
dV
w neg w
E E
On a conventional vehicle, this energy would be lost!
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Positive Energy = 5.91 MJ
Total Energy = 4.56 MJ
Negative Energy =-1.35 MJ
On a hybrid vehicle, part of the negative energy can be recovered through regenerative
braking
In an ideal case, if all of the negative energy could be recovered with 100% efficiency and
utilized to power the vehicle, then only 4.56MJ would be necessary to complete the driving
cycle
In other words, if all of the negative energy could be stored and utilized:
22.9% Potential energy efficiency
improvement!!!
pos w
neg w
stor
E
E
E
,
,
= A
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However:
Efficiency of the powertrain (<100%) prevents from ideal energy conversion
Hardware limitations (power/torque/current in EM, batteries) prevent from recovering
all of the negative power
Conventional vehicle
Increasing hybridization
Max. (ideal) recovery
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FUDS - Federal Urban Driving Schedule
Cycle parameters
Duration =1372 sec
Distance =12.368 km
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Computed Statistics:
Average positive acceleration = 0.497 m/sec
2
Average negative acceleration = -0.345 m/sec
2
Average aerodynamic power = 0.832 kW
Average aerodynamic energy = 1140.9 kJ
Average positive inertial power =6.430 kW
Average negative inertial power =-4.456 kW
Inertial energy expenditure =3610.8 kJ
Max inertial energy reg. potential =-3610.8 kJ
Vehicle Speed and Aerodynamic
Power for FUDS Cycle
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Vehicle Acceleration and Histogram
for FUDS Cycle
Vehicle Acceleration and Velocity
Trajectories for FUDS Cycle
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Vehicle Speed and Inertial Power
for FUDS Cycle
Vehicle Inertial Power and
Histogram for FUDS Cycle
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Vehicle Inertial Power and Velocity
Trajectories for FUDS Cycle
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FHDS - Federal Highway Driving Schedule
Cycle parameters
Duration =765 sec
Distance =17.027 km
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Statistics:
Average positive acceleration = 0.185 m/sec
2
Average negative acceleration = -0.167 m/sec
2
Average aerodynamic power = 4.839 kW
Average aerodynamic energy = 3702.2 kJ
Average positive inertial power = 5.584 kW
Average negative inertial power = -5.030 kW
Inertial energy expenditure = 2024.3 kJ
Max inertial energy reg. potential = -2024.3 kJ
Vehicle Velocity and
Aerodynamic
Power for FHDS Cycle
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Vehicle Acceleration and Histogram
FHDS Cycle
Vehicle Velocity and Acceleration
Trajectories for FHDS Cycle
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Vehicle Velocity and Inertial
Power for FHDS Cycle
Histogram for FHDS Cycle
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Velocity Trajectories for
FHDS Cycle
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Comparison of Energy Statistics Between
FUDS and FHDS
FUDS
Cycle parameters
Duration =1372 sec
Distance =12.368 km
Statistics
Average positive acceleration =0.497 m/sec
2
Average negative acceleration =-0.345 m/sec
2
Average aerodynamic power =0.832 kW
Average aerodynamic energy =1140.9 kJ
FHDS
Cycle parameters
Duration =765 sec
Distance =17.027 km
Statistics
Average positive acceleration =0.185 m/sec
2
Average negative acceleration =-0.167 m/sec
2
Average aerodynamic power =4.839 kW
Average aerodynamic energy =3702.2 kJ
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In this formulation, the 3 summation terms represent the chosen cycle once for all (for a
given regeneration).
Froma vehicle stand point, this information can be used to compute the sensitivity of
the energy requirements to vehicle parameters (M ,C
d
, C
r
)
(
+ + A ~

i
i
i i
i
i r
i
i a w
dt
dV
V dt V dt V t E ) (
* 3
o o o
Recall the expression of the energy consumption at the wheel:
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For example, the sensitivityto drag coefficient for a given cycle is:
d
w
C
E
c
c
or better
d
d
w
w
C
C
E
E
A
A
(relative change for dimensionless assessment).
Similarly, the aerodynamic drag coefficient and rolling resistance sensitivities are:
and
r
r
w
w
C
C
E
E
A
A
d
d
w
w
C
C
E
E
A
A
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These sensitivities can be easily calculated for given cycles and used for quick trade-off
cycles (without performing cycle simulations, i.e., local Taylor series around a known
condition):
w
r
r
r
r
w
w
d
d
d
d
w
w
w
w
E
C
C
C
C
E
E
C
C
C
C
E
E
M
M
M
M
E
E
(
(
(
A
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
A
A
+
A
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
A
A
+
A
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
A
A
~ A E
est w,
Generally, the sensitivity to C
r
(rolling resistance) is low regardless of the cycle chosen, while
the sensitivity to mass is high in urban/city driving cycle and sensitivity to drag coefficient is
higher in highway driving cycles.
In addition, much information can be gathered from actually performing the energy/power
analysis (at the wheel) in actual cycle simulations (or field data collection).
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Driving Cycles
Extension of Driving Cycle Concept and Analysis of Actual Driving Data
Standard driving cycles, like the FTP-75 and NEDC are very useful for the regulatory
assessment of vehicles, as they provide a well-established and uniform procedure for
assessing both fuel economy and emissions of vehicles in a given market. However, these
cycles are only a small representative sample of actual driving conditions.
For vehicle design and assessment purposes, it is critical to significantly broaden this scope.
While actual road fuel economy can easily be assessed in actual driving conditions,
emissions are very difficult to assess outside of a well-controlled laboratory environment, and
furthermore, either road tests or chassis dynamometer test requires a functioning vehicle.
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Driving Cycles
Extension of Driving Cycle Concept and Analysis of Actual Driving Data
Hence, it is critical to be able to construct driving cycles to be used either in simulation (design
and optimization phase not requiring an actual vehicle to be available), or in chassis
dynamometer tests (requiring an actual vehicle, but allowing emissions to be measured).
The key is to minimize the testing and/or simulation time, while ensuring that the driving cycles
are statistically representative of long-termvehicle usage.
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Methodology for Analysis of Real-
world Driving Cycle An Example
Divide driving trip data into kinematic sequences
Use principal component and cluster analysis to classify the sequences into distinct
clusters
Calculate the probabilities of each type of sequence occurring during a certain type
of driving trip
Driving cycle is constructed using the sequence probabilities to randomly select
sequences and build a cycle which meets the users criteria for cycle type,
minimum duration, and minimum distance
See SAE
2002-01-0069
paper posted
on Carmen for
details
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Driving Cycle Construction
User inputs cycle type, minimum duration, and minimum distance
Program randomly selects sequences depending on the probabilities of each
sequence occurring during a specific type of trip
Analysis is done to evaluate the statistical characteristics and accuracy of the new
cycle
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
Generated Driving Cycle
Time (seconds)
V
e
h
i
c
l
e

S
p
e
e
d

(
m
/
s
)
Example of Driving Cycle Construction
Urban cycle, minimum 750
sec., 3 km long
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Driving Cycle Construction
User inputs cycle type, duration, and distance, number of stops per mile, average
speed.
Program randomly selects real (measured) sequences depending on the
probabilities of each sequence occurring during a specific type of trip so as to match
overall trip statistics
Analysis is done to evaluate the statistical characteristics and accuracy of the new
cycle.
Examples:
Urban No Traffic Driving Segment Example
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Time [sec]
V
e
lo
c
it
y

[
m
p
h
]
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Time [sec]
V
e
lo
c
it
y

[
m
p
h
]
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Time [sec]
V
e
lo
c
it
y

[
m
p
h
]
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Time [sec]
V
e
lo
c
it
y

[
m
p
h
]
Highway No Traffic Driving Segment Example

Lecture 3

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Ambient air density (1.13 kg/m

summation when appropriate:

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