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3.

SLs

51

4.

LoTahWhLs

77

5.

WReLs

109

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lLs

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7.

dd AXeLs

155

8.

YhPuLs

171

9.

RdLs

203

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uW
EoYVu Xd
Eo AVu [V] Eo YVp, Eo NpLs
Utm E]eLp SPTm Y]Ls TtV i
BnYm. Eo GuT JLlTjRlThP \p SP
Tm TpXWdLQdL] YqYR Y Y\V
Es[PdVRm.
EoYVp Gu\ Np Rp 1903Bm Bi
_oUu Sh YVXOo Lop Tod (Carl Neuberg)
GuTYWp ALl TjRlThP. C E]eLu
Xdtu YVp TiLs, EVp AUlLu
Ut\eLs, Utm Bt\p Ut\eLu RPoPV LrL[
GjdYRm. G]Y Eo YVp GuT EVp
Y LrL[ [dm TVL LRlT\. CR
LWQjtLL Eo YVp [ E] YVp ApX
Y EVp G]m TVPlT\
S] Eo YVX] [dL Eo YVp, CVe
Eo YVp G] C [L[L dLlThs[u. [dL
Eo YVp YqY Np T ThLu Ti Utm
A[L[ [d\.

EoYVu UV] AY Tt\YoLs Eo

UjY AVu uYm dV WfN]L[ odL
CVm.
1.

EPp SXjR kLsRp Utm TLjRp

2.

SnL[l kLsRp Utm fN NnRp

EoYVu SdLm
EoYVu dV SdLUY Eo NpLu
XdLp SPTm GpX YVp LrL[
UVL kLsRp Bm. CkR SdLjR
\YtP EoYVX[oLs NpLs[ TpY
EVp XdL[ Rjl jm, AYtu
AUlL[ oUjm, AY GqY YX Nnu\]
Gu Bnm NnY\oLs.
EoYVp BnLs SnLu TpY
TUQeL[ YfNjt Li Y\. X SnL[
TtV BnY] V fN \L[ EYd\.
dLUL SdLeL[ uYU YNlTjRXm.
1.

CVe Eo YVX] Np T ThLp

SPTm ]Lu RuUVm, Y\L[m
[d\.

EVp XdL[j Rjl jRp, AYtu

AUl] YjRp, AYtu YX Nnm RjR
oQjRp.

2.

SnLu Y\L[d LiPRp

3.

Y[oR Ut\eLu \d \TL[ ARp

GuNUX ( SLs TtV AVp ) GuP

W]X ( aoUuL[ TtV UjY EoYVp
( Sn RPoPV A ) Xd EVoYVp ( EVp
XdLs Utm CYtu YXLs TtV AVp )
Tu\Y Eo YVk RuV X V
[L[m. CYtPu Y X dV [L[] YNV
Eo YVp, Ukl Ts EoYVp Tu\Y
Lm Rus[].

4.

tSn NpLu tSndL] uL[l Tt ARp

5.

EoYVdm Ut\ \L[] UWVp, EPp

NVVp, Rt Sn RPLlVp ( immunology )
Ukl TVp, Sfh Bn CVp Tu\Yttm
CPV Es[ RPoL[d LQp.

EoYVp GpX Eo AVPm RPoPV.

EoYVu AlTP A CpXUp EPp SXjRm,
SXYrYm T\ CVX.
ii

TPm - 1
Np
1.1. uW
NpLs ELu AUl Utm NVp AXL[L
LRlTm, A[p UT EPVYL[L CkRm, GpX
ELm NpL]p BdLlThs[]. J Np ELp,
NpX] ARu ElTL LRlT\. UmTPPkR
ELp NpLs Np Tlu Xm TdLUP\. JW
YLV], JWR YXV Nnu\ NpLu Rlt
dLs Utm ElLs Gu TVo. NpLu EYU]
ARu NVpThu ElLs AlTPm, A[Y] ARu
TUQjR Tjm AU\. CRu AlTPp
NpLu \lT] NVpTLs AUu\].
UR EPp GiQt\ \l Qm YnkR dLu
RlLs LQlTu\]. dLs TX Np RlL[p
B]Y. JqY Npm TX Eo Y]L[
UtLs[dV Yj RtNXVL LRlTu\].
1.1.1. NpLu YLLs
TYL NpLs CYLlTm
1. WLVhd NpLs
2. LVhd NpLs
1.1.1.1 WLVhd NpLs
TQUju AlTPp WLVh NpLs Ru
Rp RuV NpL[L LRlTu\]. CfNpLs
A[p Lm VYL[Lm, GV UmT APVR
Np AUlT LiPYL[Lm LQlTu\]. Um
CfNpLs J UpV Nq]p ZlThdm. CkR
UpV NqY tm J \lT] Np Yo
LQlT\.
1

dVv, Utm Np]p ZlThP Ut\ Np

ilL[V GiP[N YX, UhPLihV
Tu\YLs Cf NpLp LQlTP. LVhLs,
WLVhLs CYtt CPVs[ YTLs
rLm AhPYQp RWlThs[].

LVhLs
1. Nq]p ZlThP EhL
Ei
2. Nq]p ZlThP Np
ilL[V
UhPLihV,
GiP[N YX Utm
LpL ElLs LQl
Tu\].

WLVhLs
EhL CpX

4. UhPv Utm Vv
Tu\ Np TlLp Te
Tu\ TX WU NmLs
LQl Tu\].

JW J WUNm
LQlTm. CWhP s
.Gu.H Xd\p B].

vPpd
TNp
EPp

Vm

UhPLiV

Np Nq

V A[X] WT
NmLs LQlTu\]

6. gNLs, WhP
NY,
BpLdLs,
UmT APkR EVo
RYWeLs Utm Xe
]eLp
CqYL
NpLs LQlTu\].

Cf NpLs WLVhd NpLk RuV

YL[L LRlTu\]. Cf NpLs WLVhd
NpL[P A[p TVm, UmT APkR Np
AUlT Lis[RLm LQlTu\]. CYtp
RY] dVv Utm E\Vp ZlThP dVv
Np ilLm LQlTm. TX Y ]Lm
Y[ofR Ut\eLm SPTu\]. (TPm 1.2)

Np ilLs CpX

3. TV A[X] WT
NmLs LQlTu\].

5. T] TdL \p
C]l TdLUP\.

1.1.1.2. LVhd NpLs

WUNm

NuhVp
EhL Nq
EhL
EhL U

TX
C]lTdL
\p C]l TdL
UP\.
TdVeLs, Xl Tm
TLs, vTWh Utm
UdL[vUp
CqYLf NpLs LQl
Tu\].

EhL [
Ydp
LpL
El
NW
NWlT]
ER

YZYZlT]
ER
XN NmLs

T NmLs

TPm 1.2 LVhd Npu AUl

3

TNmLs
Np Nq
Np Yo
dVn
[_pX

pX
N Nm

TPm 1.1. WLVh Npu AUl

LVhd Np AUlp LQlTTY A) Np

Nq, dVv, UhPLihV, GiP [N YX,
WTNmLu, XNNmLs LpL ElLs Utm TX.
CjRLV \l AUl AXLs Np ilLs G]
AZdLlTu\]. RtT Eo YVp GuT NpLu
AUl Utm Npu ilLu AUl Tt
ALUL AdL\ Lis[.

1.2. Np ilLs
1.2.2. Np Nq
Np NqY] NpL[ rk Ap Es[
Ut\Ytk du\. TX T NdLW NeLs V
TlP NeL[p dL CQdLlTh Np NqY
EYd\. ARu YlTWl lT T NdLWL[p
ZlThs[. Np NqY], [vU Nq, Utm
[vUXmU Gum AZdLlTu\. TLs A]j
4

TdVeLm LQlTYpX. CY Np Yu
hL[m. Np Nqp Uo 45% lLs Utm 55%
WReLs LQlTu\]. CRu NWN TUu 75 Ao. Cp
LQlTu\ RuU lL[Y], TvT lLs,
vuLlLs Utm LXvhWp Bm CY W
Ydm ahW LoTu RL[m ( Pu
]VR ) W mm ( Pu ]m )
RL[m B]. o mm lLs u UVt\
RL[m (G.L. TvTh ApX A] RLs ),
u UVt\ RL[m ( G.L. ad^v ) B]. p
CkR NoUeLu o mm R Uhm Pu RPo
Lis[. B]p Ut\ NoUeLs Ju\L Nok
LQlTu\]. JqY Xdm Es[ o Ydm
NoUeLs JuPu Ju CQk LQlTu\]. CY
Ju\Pu YNl TjRlTh CWhP AdL[L
RtdLlTu\].
Np Nqp CYL WReLs LQlTu\].
A) \ AU WReLs
B) Es AU WReLs
\ AU WReLs Np Nqu UtTWlT Uhm rk
LQlTu\]. CY o mm NoUeLPu Uhm
] u\]. AR]p CY o LWNPu NodLlThPp
UhU RVL jRdL m.
Es AU WR XdLs UVLY ApX
TVLY CWhP l AdLp Gp Ju\
Vu dLRY Ri LQlTu\]. nU
VdL[ TVuTj]XV CkR CWhP AdL[
dL V. (TPm 1.3) lLm, WReLm Nqp oU
UNd AUlp AUks[].
5

\ AU WRm

Es AU WRm

l CWhP
Ad

TPm 1.3. Np Nqu AUl (oU UNd AUl)

Np Nqu TLs :
Np Nq TX dV YXL[d Nn\
1.

C NpX Re tu\.

2.

RokRj Alm \p Cf Nq o Utm

RYV] NjdL[m EXL AVL[m Esm
\m NpX AUd\.

3.

Ll ThL[ EtTj Nnu\].

4.

Sfl ThL[ YVtu\].

5.

CYLp Es[ YeLs Je Tjm ThL[

CQlTRu Xm TpY Y ]L[
oTju\] ( G.L. aoUuLs )

1.2.3. Np Yo
RYWeLs Utm TdVeLu NpLp LQlTu\
[vU NqY tm RjR Np Yo LQlTu\.
1.2.3.1. TdV Np Yo
TdVeLu NpX tm Np Yo LQlTu\.
C RYW Np Yk YTh LQlTu\. Np
6

YW] YY] TX T NdLW NeLs V TlP

NeL[p JuPu Ju dL CQdLlTh
LQlTu\. CRu YlTWl lT T NdLWL[p
ZlThs[. X TdVeLp LQlTPdV TLs
Np Yu hL[m. X YL TdVeLp Np YW
tm Llp Gu\ RjR E\ LQlT\. Llp
Utm Np Yo [vU Nqt Yl\jR TLlTL
Cdu\. Np Yo Utm Llp CpXUkRp TdV
NpLs YjP Ynls[.
1.2.3.2. RYW Np Yo
RYW NpLp [vU Nqt YV LQlTu\
E\, Np Yo Gu\ZdLlT\. C T NdLW
XdL]p B]. TX Np RYWeLp Np YW]
ALL Es[ NpLu [vU Nq] du\.
Um AjRjs[ NpL[ CQdm Adt
CPVd (middle lamella) Gu TVo. Np YW] Npt
TLl E\VLm, BRWULm NVpT\. NpYp
SPTm ThLu TUt\jR Je Tjm NVp
GqY SPT\ GuTR Cu]m SmUp NYW LdL
VpX, B]p TX A[L[X] TV Xd L[
LhTju\]. Xe NpL[l Tu\ RYW
NpLm ThLu TUt\eL[ Je TjY
Np Nqu YXVm.

Np Yu TLs
Np Yo, alTPd FPLjp TdV TU]P
VUp Rj TLdu\. C TX V [L[X].
BRXp TmTX] V XdL[ Rus NpX
AUdm. X TLs EsPt\. C T] CQu
T DNAY CP Ut\m Nnm TV Nn\.
7

1.2.4. dVv ( EhL )

NpLp LQlTu\ L]U] J TVL
dVv Es[. C ThLu okR GjWNh
( CWjR Yl ) NpL[ RW H]V A]j NpLm
LQlT\. TYL C 4 6 mm hPPV. C J
TdVv E\Vp ZlThdm. CkR E\p
X CPeLp YfNqm, Es Nqm CQYRp V
[Ls Ruu\]. Cj[L[] dVu
Es[ Es[ dV[Njtm Npu NhP
[NjtPV RPoT HtTju\. (GXdhWu
iQd) u]iQdp dVp Es[
ThLs LsL[LY ApX SZLs Tu\
AUlTLY LQlTu\] Utm dVu Es[
LQlTu\ RlThP AUlt dVXv Gu
TVo. Cp WT dd AXm ( RNA ) LQlT\.
(TPm 1.4) Um dVp LQlTu\ L dVU]
TV], CZLs Tu LQlTm UWl T[V
WUhu CZL[m. CqZLs dVv Ym
W LQlTm. CqZLs .Gu.H. XdL[p
B]Y. Np TlTPYRt Nt u]p WUhu
CZLs e, WUNmL[L Uu\]. WU
NmLs JqY Nn Npdm NUUL TePlTu\].

dVu TLs
1. Np Tlp TeLtu\].
2.

Cp LQlTm .Gu.H XdLs UW TiL[

LPjm LPjVL NVpTu\].

1.2.5. UhPLihV
UhPLuhViLs NhP[Njp LQlTu\
LlTV ilTm. C Npu EXo GPp Uo
15% Rp 20% YW Cdu\. CRu YYm TXYLl Tm.
( L[ YYm, CZ YYm Utm iQ YYm ) CRu
A[Y] ( 0.5 Rp 3 m [m Utm 0.1 Rp 0.6 m hPm
Bm. CRu GidLV] Npu A[Ym Ndu
RYdLtTm UTm. G.L. T\YLp C\dLLp Es[
RNLu NpLp UhPLihVu A[ EPu
Ut\ TLeL[P ALUL Es[.
u] ApX GXdhWu iQdp UhP
LihVY] CWi UpV Nq]p ZlTh
Y Nq

1. NhP Np
(Eh\m)
2. EhL

3. EhL E\

4. GiP
[vd
YXlu]p

Es Nq
UlLs

DNA

Uhdv

TPm 1.4.
EhLu AUl
8

vP

TPm 1.5. UhPLihVu AUl

9

LQlTm. Yf Nqtm, Es NqtPV Es[

CPY 50 Rp 100oA Bm. CkR CWi NqLm
Ap LQlTm lLu A[m SLu A[m
YTh Es[]. (TPm 1.5)
Es NqY] Es Sd Uk Ad Tu\ TX
A[X] AUlL[ EPVRL LQlTu\. CkR
Ad Tu\ AUlt vP Gu TVo. C
UhPLihVu Es[ LQlTm Uhdp ht
LQlT\.
Cp, AUlp YThP CWi CPYLs
RYL XlTu\]. ARY CPh vP (Intra
Cristae Space) CPY Utm Uhdv CPY Bm.
Uhdv CPYp SLs Wm LQlTu\].
EhNqp r Tu\ AUlLs LQlTu\]. AY
Eo Bd_]t\jp TeLtm WReLs Bm.

GiP[N YX CYLlTm.
1.

NWNWlT] GiP[N YX ( RER )

2.

YYlT] GiP[N YX ( SER )

NWNWlT] GiP[N YXp Uhm LsLs

Tu\ WTNmLs LQlTu\]. (TPm 1.6)
NWNWlT]
GiP[vd YXu]p
TNm
Ys
aU]`u
]p
XU

TLs
UhPLihVuLs Npu Bt\p UVeLs
Bm. Bd_u XdL]p LoTahWhLs,
lLs, A] AXeLs Bd_]t\m APk CO2
Utm H2O-Y YVtu\]. YPlThP Nd ATP
VL Nj YdLlTu\. Nd Ut\UPYRt
RYV] SLs UhPLQhVu EhNqp
LQlTu\].
1.2.6. GiP[N YX
GiP[N YXp RhPV] Jt\ Nq
YdsLs LQlTu\]. Cm [vU NqY
Tu\ l CWhP AdL[p B]. B]p [vU
NqY Pm UpV (Uo 7 nm).
10

TPm 1.6 GiP[vd

YXu]p AUl

NWNWlT]
GiP[vd YXu]p

11

TLs
NWNWlT] GiP[N YX WR EtTjp Te
Lsu\. YYlT] GiP[N YX lLs
Utm [L WR EtTjp Te Yd\. GiP[N
YXp Es[ vPo] (Cisternae) Nptm, Npt
YV Es[ Np WYjtPV ThLu
TUt\jt dV Te Yd\. CkR TUt\U]
]NhPv (Pinocytosis) Gu\ \p SPT\.
1.2.7. LpL ElLs
C J YZYZlT] Jt\ Nq]p ZlThP,
RhPV] Np ilTm. Cp Jt\ Nq]p
ZlThP TX YdsLs LQlTm. (TPm 1.7)
lThP Yds

1.2.8. WTNmLs
GiP[N YXu Yf Nqp iV LsLs
LQlTu\]. AY WTNmLs Gu AZdLl
Tu\]. CY NhP [Njp LQlTu\ Lf V
T ThL[m. CYLp ALUL WT dd
AXeLs LQlTu\]. JqY WTNm J TV
Utm J V Q AXL[p B]. AYtu TYm
Uu Ul \V 50 S Utm 30 S Bm. (Sedimentation
Constant)

JqY Q AXm Uo 65% RNA Utm 35%

WRj]m B].
30 S Q AX

UV lWhTWuv

hWuv ApX of
APkR X
vPo]

50 S Q AX

AlT

RXlT

[hTom
vPpd

TPm 1.8 TNmLu AUl

TLs
RL EYdLlThP WReLs Ce Ut\lTh
RtLLUL Nj YdLlTu\].
V YdsLs LpL Elu UtTWlk
rL[L YV Yu\]. AYtp X
YdYpL[L Ut\lTh WjRp ThLs APok
LQlTu\].

TLs
WTNmLs WR EtTj UVeL[L NVpTu\].
RNA CWi Q AXtm CPV Es[ Ts[jp
F AkR CWi Q AXL[m CQj
lhP A] AXeL[ lhP YNlTj
TTlP NeL[ Rtdu\. Nq]p
ZlThP WTNmLp EtTj NnVlTu\ WReLs
NhP[N Nqu XUL LPjRlTu\].
WjRu XUL TX YdYpLs [vU NqPu
CQk ThL[ Npt YV YVtu\.
CkR Lrf Gd^NhPv (Exocytosis) Gu
AZdLlTu\.

12

13

v EYdm
X

YdsLs v
XPu CQ

TPm 1.7 LpL Elu AUl

1.2.9. XNNmLs (Lysosomes)

XNNmLs NhP[Njp LQlTm, Jt\
Nq]p ZlThP iV YdsLs Bm.
UdWNm Utm UhPLihV CYLu A[t
CPlThP A[] EPVRL LQlT\. CY lT
WR E\Vp ZlThs[]. (TPm 1.9) CYtp
aWXhd Gum WtTl SL[V TvTPv
Utm WT dVv LQlTu\]. AR]p CY
XNNm Gu\ZdLlTu\]. XN Gu\p Tl
] Gu TsTm)

XNNm Nq
LsLs

TPm 1.9 XNNu AUl

TLs
CYtp LQlTm SLs TdVeLs Tu\ \
EL[ YUL Adu\]. Um CY NpLs
C\kR\ Ap Es[ Np ilL[ Nj
u\]. UdW TwLu Es[ CkR XNNmLs
YdYpLPu CQk AVp ThL[ e
TLXNNmL[ (Phagolysosomes) Rtdu\]. CkR
TLXNNmLds AVp ThLs NdLlThP
ApX AdLlThP \. i L[ eV
XNNmLs WhX GiP Vp AUlu Xm
AdLlTu\] CkR Lrf]pRu XNNmLs
RtLX TLs (Suicidal Bags) Gu AZdLlTu\].
14

2.10. ToWd^m (Peroxisomes)

CY i EPXeLs Gum AZdLlTu\]. CY
Jt\ Nq]p ZlThP YdsLs Tu\
AUlPV]. 0.5 m.m. hP A[PV]. CY LhPXv,
D-A] AX BdPv, Wh BdPv Utm TX
Bd_]t\ SL[ Lis[].

TLs
CkR i EPXeLs X FhP ThLu
Bd_]t\jp TeLtu\]. Bd_k
JdLlTh Tt\ Sf RuUYnkR ahW_u TWd^
Ce RYPk W EiPdu\.
1.2.11. NhP[Nm
Npu Es[ LQlTm
LWm Utm LWV ThL[
LiP Td NhP [Nm
Gu TVo. NPNp (Cytosol)
CRs Npu ilLs
LQlTu\]. C Np N
Gum AZdLlTu\. Cp,
o , WRm, lLs Utm
HW[U] TX LW ThLs
LQlTu\]. (TPm 1.10) C 1.10 NhP [Nju
AL TjRuU EPV.
AUl

TLs
CkR NhPNp SPTm L dVU] Y
]Ls [dLv, LV_v, A]
AXeL[ FdlT Utm Ll AXeLu
EtTj Bm.
15

RYW Np
RYW NpLp Np Yo LQlTu\. AY
NpXv Gum T]p B]. NhP[Njp
TV YdYpLs Utm TeLLeLs (Chloroplast)
LQlTu\]. (TPm 1.11)
[vU PvUP

[vU Nq
TV YdYp
Np Yo
EhL
dVNm
EhL U
WUhu

RER

UhP LiV

CPh Ts Wmdm. CkR Uhdv ApX

vhWUp TX Nq]p ZlThP XUpXdLs Ju\u
Ju\L AUkdu\]. CYtt RXdLnLs Gu
TVo. RXdLnLp TfNVm LQlTu\. J X
CPeLp RXdLnLs YhpLs Tu LQlTu\].
CkR YhP Nq YhpLs Ju\u Up Ju\L
AdYdLlThP SQVeLs Tp AUk W]dL[
(grana) EiPdu\]. W]dL[ CQdm XUpX
NqLd vWU XUpX (Stroma lamellae) Gu TVo.
(TPm 1.12)
Y\
Nq
vhWU
XUpX
Es\
Nq
EsW YhpLs
W]m
vhWU

TNmLs

TeLLm

TPm 1.11 RYW Npu AUl

RXdLn
YhpLs

TPm 1.12 TeLLju

AUl

1.2.11. TeLLeLs (Chloroplasts)

X RYWeLp V J, o Utm LoTuPBd^
BVYt\ TVuTj NodLW Tu\ EQ ThL[
EtTj NnYp TeLLm Tm Te Ydu\. CkR
Jf NodL Lr RYW NpLp LQlTm
TeLLeLp SPT\. TYL TeLLsLs
sL[ YYPVY. JqYum CWhP Nq]p
ZlThd\. CRu EhTp vhWU Gum

1.1.12. YdYpLs (Vacuoles)

YdYpLs RYW Utm Xe NpLp
LQlThPm, RYW NpLp AL A[p LQlTu\].
YdYpLs RYW Npu Tm TV BdWj
s[]. AR]p \ Np ilLs NhP[Nju
mp Rs[lThs[]. YdYpL[f tm J
UpV Nq ZlThs[. RYW Y[ofu T TX
V YdYpLs Ju\Pu CQk CkR

16

17

YdYpL[ Rtdu\. C NpLp Es[

NhP[Nm ojRp APVUp Np TdLUPYp
dV Te Ydu\. Um C W Ndm R[ULm
Np ThLs Utm Y ]Lu CPh
ThLu Nl R[ULm NVpTu\.

1.3. CWjRm Utm EPp ( WYeLs ) oUeLs

1.3.1. CWjRm
CWjRm GuT TX Np E]eLm LmPV
E]eLm V CWjRd ZnLp Zu\m
oUUm. CWjRjp YoUgNs \ WYU] [vU,
Yl \ AdLs ( GjWNh ) Ys[dLs
( dLNh ) [hXhLs (jWmTNh) BVY
APes[].
1.3.1.1. APes[ ThLs ( Composition ) or EhLs
CWjRjp 55% [vUm 45% Np ThLm Es[].
CWjRju GPp 80% o Es[. CWjRjp Es[ Np
ThL[Y] GjWNhLs ( 5 x 106 NpLs /l)
dLNhLs ( 4.5 - 11 x 103 NpLs /l) jWmTNh
Ls ( 3 x 105 NpLs /l ).
[vUp AL A[p LU Utm LUl ThLs
LWNXL Es[]. CkRl ThLs Wm RuUPV
uTLs, Y[oR Ut\juT EiPm Y[o R
ThLs, hPuLs Utm X aoUuL[L CdLXm.
[vUu WYR TlThLs Bpu,
Tl]_u, GuNmLs ( S ), lh ( Ll )
BV]Ym.

TLs
CWjRm uYm YXL[ Nn\
18

1.

CWjRm Bd_] WWp Ck dLdm,

LoTuPBd^P dLp Ck WWdm
Gjf Np\. CqY C YjRp TeLt\.

2.

EQk EgNlThP Njl ThL[ EQl

TRk GpX EPp dLdm Gjf Np\.

3.

Y[oR Ut\jp EiP] Ll ThL[,

WLm, WWp, Rp, Pp Tu\Ytt
EPk ALtYRtLL Gjf Np\.

4.

aoUuL[m, LUl ThL[m Gjf

Np\.

5.

EPu AXLW NUXVl TLd\.

6.

u NUXVl TLd\.

7.

EPp YlTjR TokRlTRu Xm EPp YlTjR

Wd\.

8.

CWjRjs[ Ys[dLm, Sn Go TsLm,

Rt SnLd GWL EPX TLdu\].

1.3.2. CWjRm EYRp : CWjRm EYRX

UPTVv (Haematopoiesis) Gu\m. C CWjR
NpLs[ XdLs RuRp, Y[oRp, oRp
GuTYL[ Es[PdV. (TPm 1.13)
CWjR NpLs TVYoLd Gm Uw_k
EiP\. Y[m Lp Gm Uw_ Y[ok YX
NnmYW UPTVv GdvhW UpX ( Extra
Medullary ) TLp SPT\.

19

CWjRm EYRp.
CWjRjp Es[ Np Ls EYRp Utm ofVPRp
WhdX
GiPVp Np

1.4.1. [ RiYP WYm ( CSF )

[ RiYP WYm (Cerebrospinal fluid) GuT [u
(Choroid Plexus) LWn [d^v Bp EiPdLlT\.

vPm
Np

C [vUk m iY oUm. C S YuLs,

RiYPm, NlAWd]n BVYtp \ks[. CRu
UjR L] A[ 100 150 ml.

UL LV [vh

]p NpLs
(Gm Uw_p)

UL
[vh

UX
[vh
U]
[vh

UL
LV
Nh

1.4. EPp oUeLs ( A ) EPp WYeLs (Body Fluids)

[ RiYP WYm, Qo BV] EPu dVU]
WYUL LRlTu\]. CYtp YlTdLs CpXRRp
\Ut LQlTu\].

hW
p

TNp

DN]
p

1.4.1.1. CSF-Cu TiLs

C RY], \Ut\, J FYdV oUm. CRu
APoj Gi 1.003 1.008. C LWjRuUPV. CRu PH
Ul CWjRju PH UlT TXY Es[ ( 7.35 7.40 ).

lWU Nh

1.4.1.2. APes[ ThLs :

of APkR
NpLs (Ztp)

Cp APes[ ThLs H\d\V rUeLs

CpXR [vUYl TXY Es[].
CWjR
RhdLs

U] Nh

CWjR
RhdLs
EYdLm

ofVPkR
mTNh
RBC EYdLm

WBC EYdLm

WRm

: 20 45

Lv

: 40 80

[W

: 700 750 mg / dl

WRm ApXR

V 20 40 mg / dl

ThLs

d AXm 1 7 mg / dl
NVm 300 350 mg / dl
ThPVm 11 15 mg / dl
LpVm 4 5 mg / dl

TPm 1.13 CWjRm EYRp

20

TvTWv 1 1.5 mg / dl
21

1.4.1.3. YXLs
C [Vm, RiYPjRm TLlTPu, SWm
AUlLd W] AjRjR RdL Yd\. UiP
Khs Es[ ThL[ WUdm RdVL NVp
T\. SWm UiPXju Nj ThL[ KW[
TUdLsm R[UL NVpTu\.
1.4.1.4 SnLp CSF
URp uYm SnLs HtTmT CSF Cu
EhLs UTu\].
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Uu_v (Meningitis)
W v (Neuro Syphilis)
v^]Ph vWv (Disseminated Sclerosis)
[ dLm (Encephalitis)
TV UXhv (Poliomyelitis)
RiYPm, [ Lh (Spinal and Brain turnor)
[p CWjRd L (Cerebral haemorrhage)

1.4.2. Qo (Lymph)
Qo GuT Qo S[eLp Es[ WYm
UhUpXUp, NpLm dLm LQlT\.
C Rkf YoLp ZVdV Tl ThLu
A[Lp [vUY Jjs[. B]p X u
TLu NLs UThs[].
J Sd 2 hPo Qo CWjR KhPjp No\.
Qo KhPm L UYL SPT\. Y[okR URu
UjR [vUp Es[ WRju A[ 210 Wm.
CkR WReLu A[p up J Te NpP
WYm XUL Q o WYjt Yk N\. A UTm
CWjRjp RiPdZn Xm Yk N\. RiPd
22

Zn Xm (Thorasicduct) RWd Q W
YVthPp [vU WRju APoj
\ku\. CR]p CWjRju L] A[ \k
\.

1.5. ReLp LWNp

ReLp LWNp GuT J Vm \kR AXm A
VdL LWjPu Nok Ldm Elm LXkR LXY
(G.L.) Ahd AXm, NVm APh LXkR LXY.
HAC + NaAc Na+ + H+ + 2AC
HAC = Ad AXm NaAc = NVm AhPh.

R[ AXm ApX LWm Nodm T ApX

ojRp Nnm T PH Ul [ H+ N ] U\Up Cdm
LWNp ReLp LWNp G]lTm NodLlThP H+ Utm OH
AVLs dLlTh pH U\Up Cdm NVp ReLp ]
G]lTm.
ERWQUL
UtNu] ReLp LWNp R[ LWm NojRp
_
CdLWjt NkRU] OH AVLs Ahd AX Xd
L[ S XVd NVm AhPhP
EYdu\]. CR]p LW H+ AVf Nm [ OH AV
Nm ] U\Up Cdu\].
RV] H+ AV ApX OH- AV PlTpX
[ Na+ +H+ + 2Ac- ] + NaOH 2NaAC+H2O

AXm NodLlTmT Nacl EY RV] H+

AVV, OH- AVV PdLUp T\.
HAC + Na Ac + HCI Nacl + 2 HAC

GkR ]m H+ N (ahW_u AV N)
23

U\Up ClTRp PH Ul UY RdLlT\.

1.5.1. ReLp LWNpLd ERWQm
1.

[u Utm HCl

2.

ThPVm P ahW_u TvTh Utm P

ThPVm ahW_u TvTh

3.

NVm T LoT]h, Utm Nm LoT]h

Tu\Ytu LXYLs.

1.5.2. ReLp LWNpLu TVuLs

1.

ReLp LWNpLs pH Ul U\Up Cdm hP

LWNpLs RVdL TVuTu\].

2.

SLu EfN NVp \dj RYV] H+ NY

TLdL TVuT\.

3.

ReLp LWNpLs EPp WYeLm EPp dLm

Es[ pH UlT U\Up YlTRu Xm EPu AX
LW NUXV JeTj\. Y[oR
Ut\eLuT Rum AXju H+ AVL[
ApX LWju OH- AVL[ EgN YpX.

1.5.3. CWjRju ReLp RuU

CWjRjs[ dVU] ReLp LWNpLs
1.

TLo]h ReLp LWNp

2.

TvTh ReLp LWNp

3.

WRj ReLp LWNp

4.

U[u ReLp LWNp

1.5.3.1. TLoT]h ReLp LWNp

C CWjR [vUs[ L dVU] ReLp
LWNp Bm. C TLoT]h [ H Co3- ] LoTd AXm
24

[ H2 Co3 ] BVYt\ Lis[. dLu Y[oR

Ut\ju T EiPm AXj]p CWjR [vUu
pH 7.4 Cp Ck U\Up TLd\.
( G.L ) TvTd AXm Xdd AXm, AP Ad
AXm, B - aWd hPd AXm CkR AXeLs
AYtu Go AVL[Lm, T LoT]h LoTd AXm
Gu\ Vm \kR AXULm Ut\lT\.
HCO3- + H+ ( AXeLk ) ----> H2CO3 ----> CO2
CO2 YjRuT WWp Xm YVt\lT\.

1.5.3.2. TvTh ReLp LWNp

TvTh ReLp LWNp GuT [ HPO4-2 ] C LWjY
TvThm, Jt\ LWjY TvThm [ H2PO4- ] LXkR
LXYVm CRu PKa Ul 6.8 C pH - 5.8 Rp 7.8 YW
\uTP NVpT\.
[vUp [ HPO4-2 ] : [ H2PO4 ] Rm 4
2-

@ pH = PKa + Log [ HPO4 ]

[ H2PO 4 ]

pH = 6.8 + log 4 = 7.4

( CWjRju pH Ul 7.4 )
1.5.3.3. WR ReLp LWNp
WR ReLp LWNpLs [vUm Nps
WYeLm Es[ L dVU] T[m. B]p CRu
N CSF, Qo, NpP WYeLp L \.
AY CWjR pH 7.4Cp GWVVL Ck [Pr -]
CQLWUL NVp T\ Utm H+ HtdLi [ HPr ]
CQ AXUL (HPr) U\ CWjs[ H2Co3I Rem
\] Tts[.
_

H2 Co3 + Pr HCO3 + HPr H2 Co3 Co2

25

1.5.3.4. aU[u ReLp LWLp

(G.L.)

CWjR YlTdLs[ CO2 Cs Rem ]p CY

DThs[].

HCl

aU[u ReLp NVp Nd ARu Bd_u

Htm Utm Bd_u em RuUV TjR.
GjWNhs ( CWjR YlTdLs ) CO2 Pu Nok
LoTd AuahWv Gu\ SVp H2CO3 B CWjR
_
pH 7.4Cp EP] H+ BLm HCO3 BLm LVP\.
G]Y C EP] ReLp NVp Ut\lTP Yim.

Ut\ GjdLhLs

Bd U[u [ Hbo 2 ] O2 I CZk Bd

aU[]L [ Hb- ] U\ C H2Co3 Ck H+I
Tt HHb B LVPVUp Es[.
_

CqY Hb , CWjR YlTdLs[ H2CO3 EPu

ReLp ]p DT\.
_

HbO 2 + Hb + O2
_

Hb + H2 CO3 HHb + HCO 3

1.6. AXeLm LWeLm

S]d LsLlT AXm GuT oLWNp H+
( WhPu ) AVV YZeLd V. LWm GuT Ut\
TPk J WhP] [ H+ ] HtLd V. CqY
WhPu Ut\lTm ]Ls s]VRXp
WhP] CZdm AXm LWULm, WhP] Htm
LWm AXULm U\. 1923 Bm Bi WuvPh
X[ GuTYoL[p CdLsL YPlThP.
u Ym TY] NUuTh] GRXm.
AXm

H+ + LWm

CqY RPo TjRlTm AXm LWm CQ

AXLWm (Conjugates) G]lT\.
26

H+ + Cl

HCl J AXm, HCl Cu CQ LWm Cl

_

H2 CO3

H+ + H CO3

H2 SO4

H+ + HSO4

m LVPk AL A[ H+ AVL[ RWYpX

AXeLs VdL AXeLs G]lTm.
WhP] Gp YZe]p A AL AXjRuU
Ttdm Ts G]lT\.
Gp H+ AVL[ Ht AL ShPjPu H+
AVL[ HtdLiPp AY Vm dL LWeLs
G]lTm LWeLu CkRl Ti LWjRuU G]lTm. (G.L.)
_
_
_
HSO4 , HCO3 , H2PO4 , RV].
ThLu AXj RuU pH Ulp lPlTm.
AL AXjRuU CkRp pH Ul \YL Cdm.
1.6.1. pH :-

YWV\ : C ahW_u AVf Nu Go

UPdLVm ( ApX ) ahW_u AV Nu [ H+ ]
UPdLu RXr RUm.
d1d
pH = - log [ H ] or pH = log [ H+ ]
+

AXj RuU 1 6.9, SX 7, LWj RuU 7.1 14

1.6.1.1. PHI oQjRp, aiPoNu - aNpTd NUuT
YjRp (Derivation)
C NU Xs[ Vm \kR AXju
LRjR TjR.
27

HA Gu\ Vm \kR AXm rLiPY

AV\.
HA

Ce pKa = log 1/Ka

Ka = AXju L U
[H+] + [Ac-]

HAC

H+ + A

[H+] [Ac-]

Ka = [ H+ ] [ A ]

Ka =

[ HA ]

[HAC]

Ka = [ H+ ] [ A ]

Ka = LU

[ HA ]

Ka x [ HA ]
@H =
[ A ]

@ H =
+

Ka x [HAC]
[Ac-]

C\m UPdL GdL

log H+ = log Ka + log

GdL

[ HA ] ( C\m UPdL
_
[A ]

CWjRjp [ BH CO3] : [ H2 CO3 ] R UlT UtNu]

NUuThuT LQdPXm. CWjju pH Ul 7.4 BL
CdL Yim. H2 CO3 Cu pKa Ul 6.1 Gu\p.
[BHCO3]

CTdLeLm hP Ut GR

7.4 = 6.1 + log

[ HA ]
- log H = - log Ka - log
_
[A ]

[H2CO3]

@ pH = pKa + log [ A ]
[ HA ]
@ pH = pKa + log

pH = - log H+

@ log

pKa = - log Ka

@ log

UX Es[ NUuT auPoNu aNpTpd NUuTPm.

C CWjRju pH UlT LQdP TVuTm.

[BHCO3]
= log 20
[H2CO3]

1.6.1.2. ReLp LWNpLu pHI oQjRp

[BHCO3]

ReLp LWNpLu pH I auPoNu aNpTd

NUuThu T LQdPXm.

28

= 1.3
[H2CO3]

[ El]
[ AXm ]

pH = pKa + log [El] / [AXm]

[BHCO3]

log
G]Y

= 20/1

[H2CO3]
[BHCO3] : [H2CO3] = 20:1
29

1.6.1.3. E]eLp pH Ul
RYWeLm, Xe]eLm Np Utm dLs[
WYeLu pH Ul SX pHd NUUL Cd\.
NpLd YV Es[ WYju pH Ul 7.35 Rp 7.5
YW UT\.
1.6.1.4. AX - LW NUX ( pHI JeTjRp )
UR EPp uYm Y\Ls AXLW NUXV
TLd\.

CqY NH4+ YVt\lTPUp CWjRjp AmUV

NokhPp AXLW NUX TdLlTm.
AXeLm, AmUVm CWjRjp ALlTVL
NokhPp \V APv (Acidosis), ApLXv
(Alkalosis) HtThm.

Tt

3. WLju Xm JeLUjRp (Renal regulation)

WLm AXeL[m, AmUVYm YVt
YRu Xm AXLW NUXV JelTj \.
Y[oR Ut\eLuT ALlTVL EiPm
AXeLs p YVt\lTu\]. AmUV Gu\
LWm hPk Xo GVp Npp
EiP\. hPu A] dLm u]o ahW_u
dLm NnVlTh 2 Xd AmUVYL Ut\lT\.
CqY EiP] AmUV Xo Pu Wd
LXk H+ AVPu Nok NH4+ AVVL Ut\lTh p
YVt\lT\.

I. NV] PV RokRj GL
a. Np NqLp lhLs rLiPY AUdLl
Ths[]
A) JWd
B) DWd
C) TWYX] Ad
D) Yd
b. UhP LuVdLs GuTY
A) RtLX TLs
B) Npu Bt\p UVeLs
C) UW TiL[ LPjm LPj
D) WR EtTju R[m
c. SWm UiPXjp W] AjRjR LhlTjm WYm
A) CWjRm
B) Q o
C) [ Ri YP WYm
D) UtV A]jm
d. J NodL ]p DTm il
A) TeLLm
B) UhPLihV
C) WTNm
D) dVv
e. CWjRju NWN pH
A) 6.0
B) 7.4
C) 8.0
D) 4.2
II. LhP CPeL[ WlL
1. URu______________E]jt GjdLh
2. Np ilL[]_____________LVh NpLp
LQlTm Utm_____________ WLVh NpLp
LQlTm.
3. CWjR [vUp Es[ L dVU] ReLp LWNp
______________

30

31

1. ReLp NVp (Buffer System)

U [u, TvTh, LoT]h TLoT]h ReLp
LWNpLs pHI JeLUlTp DTu\]. CY Y[oR
Ut\juT EiPm H+ Utm OH - AVL[
SXVdm YpXU LiPY.
2. YNju Xm JeLUjRp (Respiratory regulation)
pH WUjRp WWp Lf \kR ElTL [e\.
Npk Yf Np WYjt YVt\lTm. H+
_
AVLp TV[ HCO 3 AVPu Nok H2CO3
EiP\. C H2O Utm CO2 BL \. CqY EiP]
CO2 WWp Xm YVt\lT\, G]Y H+ AV
EPp NY RodLlT\.

4. CSF-u Rt Sn X______________
5. H+ AV Nu Go UPdL______________
III. NV, RY\ G]d L
1. LVhd ELs Lm TZU YnkRY
2. XNNmLs RtLX TLs Gu AZdLlTu\]
3. SWm UiPXjp J W] AjRjR CSF Lhl Tj\
4. dVXp DNA LQlTm
5. LVhd NpLp TLs LQlTm
6. RYW NpLp YdYpLs lPjRdL YLp
TVRL Cdm
IV. TjL
1. RY] YdYp RYW Np
2. T
aiPoNuaNpTd NUuT
3. pH
RtLX TLs
4. XN NmLs
WT NmLs
5. GiP [NYX
W LVhd NpLs
V. dLUL PV
1. WTNmLu dV TV ?
2. [vU Gu\p Gu]?
3. CWjRju NRW] pH Gu]?
4. aiPoNu aNpTpd NUuThP GRm
5. Es AU WReLs Gu\p Gu]?
VI. rLiP ]dLd PVdLm?
1. Np Nqu l CWhP Adu AUlT Y
2. LVhd Npu YWTPm YWL
3. CSF-p APes[ ThLs Utm ARu TL[ Y
4. UR EPp AX LW NUX GqY X jRlT\
5. aiPoNu aNpTd NUuThP Y ARu TVuL[
GRm.
32

TPm - 2
EVp XdLs
2.1. YWV\
UR EPp LoTu, ahW_u Bd_u Utm ShW_u
BV X RUeLs TXYLV] EoXdLs
Gum XdL[p B]Rm. Su TV dLX]
EVp XdL[Y] LoTahWhLs, WReLs,
lLs, Utm dd AXeL[m. CkR EVp
XdLu RuUL[m, YXL[m RkLsY
dVUm.
2.2. LoTahWhLs
2.2.1. dVjYm
LoTahWhLs GuT] TWYXL RYWeLs Utm
XeLu dLp TWdLdV EoXdLs
Bm. RYWeLs, fLs Utm XeLs BVYtu
YYUlp LoTahWh dV Te Yd\.
RYWeLs Utm XeLs BVYtp EQ ClTL
Nl ElLp LoTahWh Es[. Es[
YWLs A]jtm Y[oR Ut\jt RYV]
Bt\X LdLdV XlTs LoTahWh Bm.
2.2.2. YWV\
LoTahWhLs GuTY T ahWd,
BpaLs ApX hPuLs Bm. AY rLiPY
YLlTjRlTu\].
2.2.3. YLlTjRp
LoTahWhLs 4 Tm L[Ll dLl
Tu\].
33

1.
2.
3.
4.

Jt\ NdLWLs
CWhP NdLWLs
JL NdLWLs
T NdLWLs

2.2.3.1. Jt\ NdLWLs

WtTjRuT Um GV NdLWL[L TdL
VR LoTahWhLs Jt\ NdLWLs Bm.
CY GV NodLWLs Gum AZdLlTm. CRu T
YnT Cn(H2o)n. Um CY TtdLdV LoTu Ad
Lu GidLd HtT u LoTu EPV NdLW
( WVv ) Su LoTu EPV NdLW, ( PhWv )
Ik LoTu EPV NdLW ( TuPv ) Utm B LoTu
EPV NdLW ( ad^v ) G] dLlTu\]. Um
CY TtdLdV Bpa Utm hPu ]T
RLd HtT BpP ad^v, Utm hP
ad^v G] YLlTjRlTu\].

GV BpPv

^Wpa

GV hPv

PahWd AhPu

TY] BpPv

dLv

TY] hPv

@lWdPv

NVpTLs
1. D.N.A. Utm R.N.A. Tu\ dd AXeLu
YYUld dVl Ts Tv Bm Utm
CQ SLu AlTP YYUlTn C Es[.
2. dLv Bd]t\m APYRp HtTm Bt\p
TpY YLV] Y[oR Ut\ NVpLd ERm
Rjp Es[.
3. @lWdPv GuT LLs, Ru Tu\ ThLp
Es[. C dL^L Ut\lTh EPp
ETVLlTjRlT\.
4. LXdPv GuT Tp NodLW XdPv, [
LlLs Utm [L WReLp CdLd
VRm.
5. Uu]v GuT L WReLs Utm [L
WReLp Es[ dVU] Tl T[m. C
EPd Lm AYVU]Rm.

LoTu
AdLu
GidL

BpPvLs

hPvLs

3 (WVv)

^Wv (ApX)
NWpa

PaWd
AhPu

4 (PhWv)

GjWv

GjXv

2.2.3.2 CWhP NdLWLs

5 (TuPv)

Tv, ^Xv
AW]v

Xv
^Xv

Wt TluT JWUV] ApX TpY\] C

Jt\ NdLWL[d LlT CWhP NdLWLs Bm.

6 (adNv)

dLv LXdPv,
Uu]v

@lWdPv

7 (alPv)

dLalPv
LXdP alPv

( ^P ) T
alXv

34

T YnlT : Cn (H2o)n-1
(G.L.) XdPv, UpPv Utm dWv Bm. Jt\
NdLW AXLs [dLd CQu Xm
CQks[].
35

NVpTLs
1.

XdPv GuT Tp NodLW Gu AZdLlT

u\. C Tp Es[. dLv, LXdPv Gu\
Jt\ NdLWL[p BdLlThP XdPv Bm.
dLv + LXdPv

2.

3.

UpPv

dWv G]lTY Lmf NodLW ApX Ps

NodLW G] AZdLlTu\. CY NRWQ NodLW
G]lTYm, Jf NodL SPTm RYWeLp
TWYXL TW CdLd VUm. C UR EPp
ClT CpX. B]p Lmf NodLW, T]ls,
Cl E[ Utm Rp Es[. C dLv
Utm @lWdP^p B]Rm.
dWv

Lv + @lWdPv

2.2.3.3. JL NdLWLs
Wt TluT 2 Rp 10 Jt\ NdLWL[
RWYpX JL NdLWLs Bm. (G.L.) UpP
hWVv.
2.2.3.4. T NdLWLs
Wt TluT Tjtm UtThP Jt\
NdLWL[ RWYpX LoTaWhLs T NdLWLs
G] AZdLlTu\].
36

T
NdLWLs
P o ly s
a c c h a rid e s

XdPv

UpPv
GuT
Uf
NodLW
G]
AZdLlTu\. C [hP RVeLs Utm
Ul TsLp Es[. vPof AUXv
uXp EQlTRp WtTdLlTmT,
Pdm CPlThP T[L UpPv Es[. C
CWi Lv XdL[p EiPdLlT\.
dLv + dLv

AY Um JlTjR] T NdLWLs Utm

TXTjR] T NdLWLs G] YLlTjRlTu\].

J
TjR]
H om
opoly
Tsaccharides
NdLWLs
Ndm
S torage T
polysaccharides
NdLWLs

TX TjR] T NdLWLs
H eteropolysaccharides
(M ucopolysaccharides)
(L T NdLWLs)

S tructrual
YY
T
polysaccharides
NdLWLs

Xe
RYWm
P lant
A nim al
RYWm
P lant
( vPof
) ( [L_u
(Starch)
(G lycogen) ) ((C
ellulose) )
NpXv

aV
aTu
H eparin C hondroitin H yaluronic K eratan
AXm
sulphate
acid
sulphateWd
LuVu
LWhPu
NpTh
NpTh

A nim al
Xe
(chitin)
( Lu
)

J TjR] T NdLWLs
Wt TluT JW YLV] J TjR] Jt\
NdLWL[d LlTY CY.
( G.L. ) vPof, Cu, [L_u, Tdu, NpXv
Utm a NpXv
TX TjR] T NdLWLs
Wt TjRuT TXYLV] Jt\ NdLWLu
LXY Pdm. YNpUhdp Es[ TXTjR] T
NdLWLs L T NdLWLs G] AZdLl
Tu\].
( G.L. ) aVWd AXm, aTu, LWhPu
NpTh Utm LuVu NpTh.
aVWd AXm GuT dLWd AXm
Utm N - AhPp dLNu BV] NokR
hlT[m.
37

WtTl
aVWd AXm

dLWd AXm +
N - AhPp dLNu
aTu GuT dLNu Utm dLWd AXjRp
B].
WtTl
aTu

dLNu+ dLWd AXm

LuVu NpTh GuT dLWd AXm ( A Utm

C YL ) ApX CWd AXm ( B YL ) Utm 2-NAhPp A] LXdPv BVYt\p B].
LuVu
NpTh

WtTl
dLWd ( A ) CWd
AXm
2, N - AhPp A] LXdPv

LWhPu NpTh GuT N- AhPp LXdPNu, LXd

Pv Utm LkRL AXjRp B].
WtTl
N -AhPp LXdPNu
+ LXdPv + LkRL AXm

LWhPu NpTh

3.

NpXv GuT RYWeLp TWYXLl TW

CdLdV LoTahWh Bm. C Np YoLp
NpYoLd AUlT Ldm YLp Es[.
NpXv Rem dLp dV Tl T[Lm,
LnLLp ALULm LQlT\.

4.

Tdu Utm a NpXv G]lTm

LoTahWh, TX RYWeLu TZeLp Es[.
(Jellying agent) LVdm LW BL ER \.

5.

aVWd AXm ]Vp oUm, Rp Utm

dLp Es[. dLp, JhPYdm T[Lm,
EVl T[Lm C TVuT\. hVv
Up C Es[.

6.

aTu Uk TsLp TVuT\. C CWjRm

E\RX RdL TVuT\ (Anti coagulant).

7.

LWhPu NpTh GuT j RmLs Utm Liu

UpTPjp (Cornea) Es[ dVU] TlTs
Bm.

2.3. WReLs

NVpTLs
1. vPof GuT Lv XdLs TX RPok
CQkR Bm. Sm Eim EQp Es[ L dV
LoTaWh vPof Bm. Wt TjRuT
Lv Uhm LdLdV vPof LNu
G]lTm. C RVeLs, E[dZe ToYL Utm
TfN LnLLp Es[.
2. XeLp LQlTm [L_u G]lTm Xe
vPof, XeLu RNLm LpWm Nj
YdLlT\. C Um TfNVm CpXR RYWeLp
Uhm LQlT\. ( G.L. : gN, Dvh )

2.3.1. YWV\
WReLs GuT] AL Xd GPs[, A]
AXeLs TlP QlTp QdLlTt\ TXTf
NoUm Bm. WReLs GuT] GpX Eo NpLm CdLd
V ALlTV] TlThLs Bm. CY LoTu,
ahW_u, ShW_u Bd_u Utm LkRLm Tu\
RUeL[p B]Y.

38

39

2.3.2. WReLu YLLs

WReLs u Tm L[L dLlTu\].

1. GV WRm ( Simple Proteins )

CqYL WReLs WtTjRp ]d EhTmT
A] AXeL[ Uhm Ldm.
(G.L.) Bpu [u
2. CQ WReLs : ( Conjugated Protein )
CqYL WReLs GV WReLs, WRpX TVV
WvRd RPu (prosthetic group) NoYRp HtTu\].
1. dV WReLs : dd AXeLPu CQk
s[ WReLs. (G.L.) vPuLs, WhPuLs.
2. TvT WReLs : TvTd AXjRd Lis[
WReLs (G.L. Ts[ Lu)
3. [L WReLs : LoTahWhL[ WvRd
RVL Lis[ WReLs (G.L.) L]PWd
aoUu, Lv (mucous) [L WRm u
( Ero ), BvV Ln ( Gm )
4. WU WRm : CY ToTu Tu\ Tp]Y[Vf
NoUeL[ WvRd RVL Lis[]. (G.L.)
U [u, UV[u
5. lT WReLs : CY LlLPu CQks[
WReLs (G.L.) LXUdWu, Ld \kR
APojs[ lT WRm ( VLDL ), \kR APojs[
lT WRm ( LDL ), AL APojs[ lT WRm
( HDL ).

6.

EXL WReLs : CY X EXLeL[ WvRd

RVL LiPY (G.L.) PWu ( Fe ),
(Siderophilin) NX[vu ( Cu ). (Ceruloplasmin).

3. T\lThP WRm ( Derived Proteins ) :

WReL[ UVL ApX TV[ WtTdmT

Pdu\]. (G.L.) WhVvLs, TlPuLs, Utm
TlPLs.

2.3.3. WReLu NVpTLs

1. WReLs ELu Y[ofp dV TeLtu\].
2.

WReLs WhP[Nju AlTP Tl

T[m. CY Es[ NpLu AUltm
NpLp TpY ]Ls SPT\m ERu\].

3.

GuNmLs WReL[m, CY Eo V FdL[L

NVp Tu\].

4.

CY dLu Tl ThL[L NVpTh Gm

UiPXjR X ju\].

5.

dV WReLs UW TiL[ NkRLd

LPju\].

6.

C EoV FdL[L NVpTh TpY NoUeL[

LPjYRu Xm TpY NVpL[ JeQdu\.

7.

X aoUuLs WReL[m CY TpY EPp CVdL

NVpL[ Je Tju\].

8.

CWjR ZtuT (Homeostatic) ARu Ls[[Y

LhlTju\.

9.

Wmu, @T]_u Utm TX WR XdLs

XUL CWjRm E\Rp TeLtu\.

10. Go ThLu (Antibodies) XUL CY SnL[

GoLsm Gol NdV HtTju\.

CY AXm, LWm, ApX SLu NVXp, GV

Utm CQ WReLk T\lThPY Bm. CY

2.3.3.1. WReLu TpY NVpTLs

WReLs WhP [Nju dV AlTP Tl
ThL[m CY Es[ NpLu AUlLdm

40

41

NVpLdm dV TeLtu\] WReLs TpY

EoNVpLp DTu\].
1. ] Fd WReLs
SLs ] Fdm NdPV WReL[m NVtL
V FdL[ P CY AL NdPVY. CY
Eo Y ]L[ Fddm RuU Tt\Y
CY Eo Y ]Lu YLjR ALdu\].
(G.L.) AUXv, LoTd AuahWv.
2. dV WReLs
vPuLs AlTP WReL[m. CY dd
AXeLPu CQk LQlTm CY UW TiL[
NkRLd LPju\].
3. aoU]p WReLs
X aoUuLs WReL[p B]Y CY TpY
EPp CVdLf NVpL[ JeTju\] (G.L.)
Y[of aoUu, Cuu Utm dLLu.
4. Nl WReLs
CY Y[m Lt RYV] AlTP
LsLdLLm EQtLLm A] AXeL[
Rus Nj Ydu\].
(G.L.) TpWRUV Lu, hPu Ys[d L
Tp Es[ Bpu.
5. LPjm WReLs
X lhP XdL[ CWjRju XUL LPj
YRtm, CQlTRtm EV \]t\X Ttd
u\]. (G.L.) U[u Utm Bpu.
6. em WReLs
Gm RNLp Es[ X WReL[] Bdu
UVu Tu\Y CVdL AUltm em
RuUdm dV XdL[L NVpTu\].
42

7.

RtLl WReLs
X WReLs TLl NVpLp DTu\] CWjRjp
Es[ WReL[] Wmu, @Tl]_u Tu\Y
CWjRm E\Rp TeLtu\] GoTs ApX
Cm][uLs TLl WReL[m CY
AVp ThL[ EPu Es[ YWUp Rdu\].

8.

AUl WReLs
X WReL[] LpX_u, LWhu BVY AUl
T ThL[L NVp Tu\].

9.

Sf WReLs
LvPo up Es[ u, lV Sf Th]m
Sf BVY X YLlWReLs CY EPu TpY
NVpL[m, AUlL[m Tdu\].

2.4. lLs
2.4.1. YWV\
lLs YThP NoUeLu RlTm. CY
Ll AXeLPu SeV RPoPV]. YVp
\lT, CY BpLaPu CQks[ Ll
AXeLu GvPoLs Gu Y\VdLlTu\].
lLs p LWV. B]p DRo, [WTom, Tuu
Tu\ LWlTuLp LWm.
2.4.2. YLlTjRp
lLs rLiPY YLlTjRlThs[].
1. GV lLs
CY TX BpLapLPu CQks[ Ll
AXeLu GvPoLs Bm. CY Um r LiPY
YLlTjRlThs[].
43

A) Ll

Xu

Lu LWlTs

CY Ll AXeLu NWp GvPoLs

NWPu WY Xp Es[ Ll, GiQn
G]lT\. XeLp LQlTu\ GV lLd
LlLs Gum RYWeLp LQlTm GV
lLd GiQnLs Gum TVo.

N@Tu

GjR]Xu LWlTs

TvTPPp Wu

Wu LWl T[L NVpT\.

[vUX_uLs

LXu ApX GjR]Xu

LWlTs

(G.L.) hW ANp NWp

B) ULs

ii) TvT]PLs Cp C]hPp Gu\ adN

ahd BpLap NWPu CQks[. (G.L.)

TvTPPp C]hPp (lThPp)

CY Ll AXeLu GvPoLs AL Xd
GPV EPV Jt\ ahd BpLapLPu CQk
s[]. (G.L.) LXvhWp GvPo, Np TphPh
Utm hPp TphPh.

iii) TvT vuLN CkR TvT lLp

2. h lLs

CkR lLp LoTahWh A]

BpLaPu CQks[. CY Um rdLiPY
YLlTjRlTu\].

Ll AXeLs BpLaPu CQks[

GvPoLs UhUpXUp RXL Ut\ RLm Es[].
CY Um L[L dLlTu\].
A) TvT lLs ( TvTPLs )
CY Ll AXeLu NWp GvPoLs
GvPWdLm NnVlThP TvTd AXm ShW_u LWm
Lis[ CkR lLs AL A[p SWm , [,
LpWp, WLm, LQVm Utm CRVm BVYtp
LQlTu\]. TvTlLp LQlTm
BpLapLu YLVl Tj CY Um 3 L[L
dLlTu\].
i) [NW TvTPLs Cp NWp, BpLap

RVm. (G.L.)

44

vuLNu Gu\ BpLap Es[. (A] BpLap)

(G.L.) veLUu.
B) [dLlLs :

i) NlWNLs : CYtp LXdPv, AL

Xd GPPV Ll AXm Utm veLNu

Es[].
ii) L e V N L s
: CYtp NWU
( veLNu + Ll AXm ), dLv, LXdPv,
N AhPp LXdP^u Utm Vd AXm Es[.

C) lT WReLs : W ANp NWp Tu\

lLs, TvTlLs, LXvWp Utm
LXvWp GvPoLs, Ll AXeLs Tu\Y,
WRjPu lhP A[p CQk o mm lT
WR NoUjR EYd\. (G.L.) LXUdWuLs, Ld
\Y] APojPV lT WRm ( VLDL ), \Y]
APoj PV lT WRm ( LDL ) Utm AL
45

APojPV lT WRm ( HDL ), lT WRjp Es[

WRl T AlT WRm G]lT\.

3. T\lThP lLs ( Derived lipids )

CqYL lLs GV Utm h lLu
WtTlTp T\lTu\]. (G.L.) P ANp NWp,
Ll AXeLs Utm LXvhWp.
2.4.3. NVpTLs
1.
2.

LlLs AlTv dLp NdLlTh Bt\p

dL XeL[L NVpTu\].
LlLs NlPVv dLs Utm EslL[f
ts[ TLp YlTm LPjRT[L NVp
Tu\].

2.5.1. YWV\
dd AXeLs dVPLu TUoLs
Bm. J dVN, J TvTh RPu
CQk J dVP EYdu\. J u
ApX u ShW_u LWl Ts J TiPv
NodLWPu CQk J dVNP EYd
u\.
TiPv NodLW + u (A)
dVN
u LWl Ts
dVP

dVN + TvTh

dVP ( n )

dd AXeLs

2.5.2. YLlTjRp

3.

SWmj l LPjRd GPVL LlLs u

At LPjVL NVpTu\].

dd AXeLs TpY YLL[L YLlTjRl

Tdu\]. AYV]

4.

Np NqLp LXvhWp Utm TvTlLs

dV Tl ThL[L NVpTu\].

5.

lT WReLs Utm [dL WReLs NpLs

JuTRXm, AYtu FYp RuUVm
LhlTjRu\].

6.

Llp LWm YhPuLd dV XeL[L

LlLs NVpTu\].

1. BdWT dd AXm ( DNA )

CY WUNmLu dV Tl ThLs Bm.
CY CWhP s CZL[L LQlTu\]. Cp
LQlTu\ ShW_u LWlTsLs A]u,
Y]u, NhPNu Utm Ru Bm. Cp
LQlTm TuPv NodLW J BdWTv Bm.

7.

CWjR[hXhLs[ TvTPLs CWjRm

E\Rp ]p DTu\].

2.5. dd AXeLs

2. WTdd AXm ( RNA )

RNA GuT u Utm u WT
dVPLs 3, 5 TvT P GvPo CQlL[p
CQdLlThP J TX T Bm.

dd AXeLs T dVPL[m. CY
TpY U] dVPLu RlTm.

ShW_u LWl ThL[Y] : A]u, Y]u,

NhPNu, Utm Wp Bm. Utm TuPv NodLW
WTv Bm.

46

47

RNAdLu YLLs : CY u YLlTm. RNA

XdLs A]jl WLVhLm Utm
LVhLm LQlTu\]. AYVY] :
a. RNA ( mRNA )

b. J TjRu T NdLWt ERWQm

A) aVWd AXm

B) NpXv

C) Uu]v

D) vPof

c. LX UdWu Noks[ R

b. CPUt\ RNA ( tRNA )

c. WTNm RNA ( rNA )

2.5.3. DNA-u TLs

1. DNA NpLu UW ThL[L (template) NVpTu\].
2. DNA Nn NpLd UW TiL[ LPju\.
3. CY WR NodLd RYV] RLYpL[
Lis[].
4. CY WR Rlt RYV] RNAdL[
EtTj Nnu\].
2.5.4. RNA-u TLs

A) EXL WRm

B) WUWRm

C) lT WRm

D) dV WRm

d. AL Xd GPV Tts[ BpLap ClT

A) U

B) Ll

) GiQn

D) TvT lLs

e. DNA, RNA-Cp Es[ YTjRjRdL AlTP Ts

( ApX LWm )
A) A]u

B) Y]u

C) NPu

D) Wp

1.

CY WR NodLuTVL Npu NhP

[Njp NVpTu\].

2.

CY WR NodL SPTm R[jt DNA-Pm

Ck UW NeLR RLYpL[ Gj Npu\].

3.

CY WTNu dV T ThLs Bm.

4.

X RNA SjRp NVpL[ Lrju\].

c. dV WRjp Es[ WvRd R _____________

5.

CY X YWvL[] TMV-YWv Utm TV

YWvLp UWl ThL[L NVpTu\].

d. ______________ GuT LPjm WRm

Tt
I. NV] PV RokR
a. dLv GuT
A) U] NdLW

A) CWhP NdLW

C) JL NdLW

D) T NdLW
48

II. LhP CPjR WlL

a. CWhP NdLWu T YnT
b. ______________ Xe vPof G] AZdLl\

e. WR Rlt RYV] RLYpL[j Rm

__________________ I DNA EtTj Nn\.

III. NV, RY\ G]d

a. CWhP NdLW TpY YLlThP Jt\ NdLW
L[ Lis[
b. aTu GuT J TjR] T NdLW
49

c. [L WRm Yt LNp ( N Nq ) Es[

d. veL l GuT J TvT l Bm.
e. TMV ( LX UNd YWv ) Cp Es[ UWl Ts
RNA.

IV.

TjL

1. @lWdPv

CWhP NdLW

2. WTv

AUXv

3. vPof

dd AXm

4. aVWd AXm

hP NodLW

5. UpPv

TXTjR] T NdLW

V. J YojRLp PV
a. Xp APes[ ]NVp R G?
b. Tp NodLW G] AZdLlTY G?
c. GiQn, Utm LlT GqY Y Tj AYn?
d. ]d Wjt J ERWQm RL
e. dVNLs GuT] VY?

VI. uYY]Ytt PV
a. LoTahWhLu YLTjRX NuLPu

b. T NdLWLu NVpTL[ Y
c. CQ WRm Gu\p Gu]? ARu YXLs VY?
d. l Gu\ NoUeL[ YLlTjL. ARu YXL[

[dL.

e. DNA, RNA - CYtu NVpTL[ [d

50

TPm - 3

SLs
3.1. uW

F
J
O
. J AK
A A. P J
A C, K, ,
F , , Hv M
N Q P J
- F M , P
K F A. F
J J . 0o GJ
A, 100o GJ NA.
1878- ( Kuhne ) J AK
A L F . H
1950 ,
PH, AK A O
. FO F
JKJ PL
JKJ J A AA
A.
F O e A
(Substrate) M . FO M
K K . F
CP (Substrates) M e A.
M AO , F G
F. Y MJ M F
A. Fu M A M
W PH.
51

E + S ES
ES E + P

Coenzyme

E - F; S - M, ES - F, ]Ts hf

NoUm.
P - MM ES - F G
.
ERWQUL :
- v vC e
A. F - v F , v
]lTs (Substrate) v MM
.
- v + v
- v - v
E

ES

- v - v
ES

- v + v
E
P

F F J ] LL
KA. L
s Np F () F . C F
H L O VpA.
Lu OFO O
SLs () F .

3.2. SLu YlTiLs

F MFM P . C
F I I ,
I I
. F F ()
v F . l FJ Q F
LM. FO F F
. F AF
C F .
52

+ Apoenzyme

Holoenzyme

F + F

(.) Rv F.
ChPp dL
M MA. F I
v . Q M
.
I v +
TPP
(Hvj F)

()
Cv - TPP
( )ddd

AF F
F. AF
H Fs v F .
H Fs
F . J F K
.
3.2.1. [o UVm
FJ PH F MT
M . F [o UVm
. C FO CkR F I F .
PH C I I FJ ].
YV M . I A
() Fd I I . (.) ,
I v I A I
I . C
F. Uv A
I I . S ]TT[
A O FO
.
ve
a c toi

[
E

Vm
s iUt e

S
s

ES

53

E S hlTs
C o m plex
(AUl
Ut\m)
(altered
con form
ation )

v F M
Ml PV ij R \d (Induced fit hypothesis)
P CRuT SLu. M F
M I I .
Ml FO F
FA. H F ,
Ml F F H
A M A.

3.3. SLd TVRp

L, C, C Q A
F M F M
MFPu Hv Gu\ .
(G.L.)

FJ
v
v
LlTv
v
v

M
-

v
v
LHLs
WReLs
v (AUXm)

3.4. SLu YLLs

1961 IUB (International Union of Biochemistry)
F HK.

() (R) (Rm) ()
(E.m.) (i) C - Rv
(C1)

(a)

Fe +

Fe3+

(C1)

(a)

Fe 3 +

Fe2+

MJ, C - R
(C1) RF, (a)
RQF () A.
HK . HK FO
. F WP e A.
- CH - OH

(1.1)

-C=O

(1.2)

- C = CH

(1.3)

- CH - NH2

(1.4)

- CH - NH

(1.5)

2. Wuv @TWvLs (Transferases)

M - (Ax) L x - F B-
v F.
Ax + B

A + Bx

1. Bd_]t\ JdL SLs (oxidoreductases)

A, B M
R m JdL M M F
R Kv ApX Bd_]t\ JdL SLs
G]lTm.

(E.m.) WM v Iv
FV AM\. (ALT)

54

55

L - + - W WALT

(Ax)

(B)

+ h

(A)

+ (Bx)

 MJ Q IF W P A.

O H
O H
|| |
|| |
R - CH2 - C - N -CH2 - C - N - CH2 - CONH- R

F[, MJ PL P
Fl .
) Ko

(2.1)

) () hPu F

(2.2)

) F

(2.3)

(2.4)

A F

) v F

(2.7)

) LkRLjRl Tts[ RLs

(2.8)

3. ahWXv (Hydrolases)
cM M F v
Ls . F , H H
F A. F M
vLs, , A.
(E.m.) C F Jtl FJ. WRjR
Tdm . O
c F A.
m

Tlu

CP

56

I I.

OH- H+

(WRm)

H2O

O H
O
|| |
||
R - CH2 - C - N -CH2 - C +
|
(C-] TlP)
OH

H
|
N - CH2 - CO - NH - R
| (N-] TlP)
H

H () F, c
F HK[L dLlThs[].
vvLs - vQlL[ c
(3.1)
ACvL s - AC H
c (3.2)

vLs - H c
(3.4)

4. XVvLs (Lyases)
CY FO C . CY K M
PL CP c . Y e
M H MJ CP ,
M m M M
.
x

C = C
57

+ x-y

(E.m.) v
lWv - 1-6-v

(trans-retinene)
R C TvTh +
A 3 - v

CH2 - O P
C
HO

OH

OH

CH2O

v - h

v Wh

vv v A M
MA.
D - A

CH2 - O
Aldolase
BpPXv

(cis-retinene)

O
+

OH

CH2 - O P
HO
Glyceraldehyde
A
3-phosphate
3 - v

CH2 - OH

R
C
Dihydroxy
acetone
TvTh
phosphate

Fructose
1,6 biphosphate
@lWdPv
1, 6 P TvTh

HL[ RdYu AlTPp XVvL[

l.
C-C H

(4.1)

C-O H

(4.2)

C-N H

(4.3)

C-S H

(4.4)

C- H

(4.5)

5. _NUWvLs (Isomerases)
P M F
MA A. ARY O C ,
PL
.
(G.L.) v, v - h] v
Wh]L A.
58

R
C v

3 - v

v F QlL[L
dLlTu\].
Cv

(5.1)

Hv

(5.2)

-
(Cv - v) v

(5.3)

6. LvLs (Ligases)
Cv . F
V f F K TVu
Tu\]. v (ATP) v
H [dLlTYRp V Ql HtTYRt
RYV] Bt\p Pd\.
(E.m.) C CoA v QJ C
CoA, CoA- [T[L EY\.
ATP + AhPp CoA + CO2

ADP + Pi + UX]p CoA

[Tp EiP] QlL[ Tj

LvLs Um Q L[L YLlTjRl
Tu\].
59

5. WXv 5 - TvTh GUWv

C-O H

(6.1)

C-S H

(6.2)

HK - v (5)

C-N H

(6.3)

HK - Cv Hv (1)

C-C H

(6.4)

C FO HK, HK
1. BpLap aW]v ( ADH )
HK - RKv (1)
HK - CH-OH(1) e A.
HK - NAD () NADP F (1)
FJ - 1.1.1

2. adN L]v

HK - e (3)
F - 5.1.3

6. APp CoA LoTdXv

6. C CoA v
HK - Lv (6)
HK - C - C H (4)
HK - F (1)
F - 6.4.1

HK - v H e

3.5. Su NVpL[ Tdm LWLs

1. pH
2. G
3. Mu N
4. Q (FdlTu)
5. FJ N.
6. (intibitors)

HK - vK Jt\ ve (3)

1. pH

HK - vv (2)
HK - v F UtRp (7)
FJ - 2.7

3. ApLXu TvTPv
HK - v (3)

F - 3.1.3

4. @UWv
HK - v (4)
HK - CO v (2)

F L PH pH-
. pH FULY LY CkRp
F m PH pH- F F
F Y. pH- -pH .
(G.L.)

HK - e (1)

) C - 2.0

) Kv - 7.0

F - 4.2.1

) I c AUXv - 6.8

) BpLXu vv 9.9

60

61

 pH- , F
M s [ K I IO
Q ES- hlTs Gp EYL
ER\.

W TPm (3.2) G - FO \u
MA.
EfN NVp\u

W (3.1) pH- \u MA.

\u

\u

ELkR pH

Maximum activity

ELkR YlTX
Optimum
temperature

YlTX oC

TPm 3.2 YlTX - NVp\u RPo

pH

3.5.3. ]T Tu N

TPm 3.1 pH - NVp\u RPo

3.5.2. YlTX
G , PH G
FO YLm FKA. 45oC
, FO \u A.
F , L MJ
FJ M GMA. GJ
F F G
G . FO G
37oC .

62

FJ F , MJ L
M O P FA.
PH P UhU, M
O P F MJ
FKF.
F PH E A
P GJ
M G. FJ
G . FJ A
L ,
M, M F
. (TPm 3.3)
63

W TPm (3.3) MO P - F
MA.

VAL ThNm

RlSaturation
s
point

(V)
N YLm

]lTlTu N (S)

TPm 3.3 ]lTlTu N - NVp\u

RPo
1913- Lv, A P,
MO P FJ F
M P MA. J F
(E) M (S) EPu S
M (ES) hl T[ A.
H , M A. S
mTlT\lTh O e t
M F A.
E+S
ES

ES
E +P

Fe2+, Cu2+ Q C R Mp
DTm SLdm A. Mn2+, Zn2+
Co2+ v A.

H Q S
Q SLs S
A.
3.5.5. Su NYp HtTm [
SL[p Lm MJ , Su P
MA . Su P
, A A, F M
M A. M
s PH M A ] j
Ms XdLm TVuTjRlTh ] YLm
G .
W TPm (3.4) Su P - F
MA.

VAL ThNm

Rl s

(V)
N YLm
Su N (E)

3.5.4. FdLlTjL[p HtTm [

Mg2+, Cu2+, Mn2+, Zn2+, A F
Q, Na+, K+ A F Q
S O F I A.
Cl Q C Fm
Zn2+ Q Q v F,

3.5.6. RlTuLs ( Intibitors )

SO F F
uLs (Intibitors) . CP
Q Q .

64

65

TPm 3.4 Su N - NVp\u RPo

RR F A. C
A v K, C
L vR F A.

COOH

O SO F
GC S .

CH2

S RjRpLu YLLs
S RjRpLs TpY YLlTm. \V
1. Thj RuUs[ RjRp - (competitive inhibition)
2. Thj RuUVt\ RjRp - (uncompetitive inhibition)

COOH
Nd]h
succinate

CH2

dehydrogenase
ahW]v

COOH

CH
CH
COOH

Ndd
AXm
Succinic
acid

Ud
Fumaric acidAXm

CQ I, HK I MJ
C Tv M P
A.
W TPm (3.5) ThjRuUs[ RlTu
NVpTm RjR [d\.
]lTl Ts (S)
S (E)

3. Thj \]t\ RjRp - (noncompetitive inhibition)

4. ApXvd RjRp - (allosteric inhibition)
3.5.6.1. Thj RuUs[ RjRp
O , M O
GA. SO A
, M
JA. J ES EI
hPl Ts (Enzymen - Intibitor complex) A.
C hl hLu A[ ]lTs
Utm SO C
, F M , O P
A. u P F
J A M P PM
M Rm RP Nn\. (TPm 3.5)
E+S

ES

EI

P (EI = S hl Ts)
66

[lTs
ES hlTs

Thj RuUs[
RlTu

NVp\]t\ S

TPm 3.5 Thj RuUs[ RlTu NVpTm Rm

COOH
CH2
COOH
Malonic AXm
acid
UXd

M Q I
P A.
Q IF
CQ I .
UXd AXm C TR .

. MO P
67

F A. P e
.
PH -C M m UkRL
A.

]Tl Ts (S)
S (E)
[Ts
ES

3.5.6.2. Thj RuUVt\ RlTuLs ( Uncompetitive

hl
Ts

Intibitors )

GCJ, , S M hf F
- M - hf
A. MJ M[
F. . O
A M O ES
hlTs A. ,
ES h l T s J M
C A.
E+S

ES

E+P

ESI

CkR YLp ]TTu N ALUm

T RjRp Lrfm ALd\. ]T
Tu NY ALlTjYRp im
F.
3.5.6.3. Thj \]t\ RjRp (Non Competitive inhibition)
W TPm (3.6) ThjRuUVt\ RlTu
NVpTm RjR [d\.
68

Thj RuUVt\
RlTu

NVXt\ S

TPm 3.6 Thj RuUVt\ RlTu

NVpTm Rm
L, S
S M h
O AA.
Thj \]t\ (Non competitive inhibitors)
S O A [ , O
H F S] A.
F ES hf
F. ES
C M F. M O
P F e UVL Ut\l
TYpX.
69

W TPm (3.7) Thj\]t\ RlTu NVpTm

RjR [d\.
E+I

EI

+
S

ES + I

ESI

E+P
]Tl Ts (S)

3.5.6.4. ApXvd RlTu

M
A. SO
vK \ . vK
F Su A F
F, M
A. M S
M J
P MA.
W TPm (3.8) ApXvd RlTu NVpTm
RjR [d\.

S (E)
[Ts
hl
ES Ts

Thj
\]t\
RlTu

[o UVjPu
]lTl Ts
S
CQks[

ApXvd
RlTu

LVL Es[
ApXvd
UVm

NVXt\ SLs

(G.L.)
SH F SO
C M
C L vR
v K M.
P
A. CkR RjRp Lrf TV[
s]VLXm.
70

ApXvd RlTu
ApXvd UVjp
AUl Ut\m
CQks[
HtTYRp ]lTl
Ts SPu
CQYpX.

TPm 3.7 Thj \]t\ RlTu

(Non competitive inhibitor) NVpTm Rm

]lTl Ts
[o UVjp
CQYpX

TPm 3.8 ApXvd RlTu NVpTm Rm

MO A.
P J S
A.
a
A

b
B

c
C

d
D

E....

..... P

A- M, B, C, D, E A M
a, b, c, d A S, P

M, M O P F , C
71

MJ K ( a ) S
H A. M A M
S vK S .
(E.m.)
W
Threonine
FKQ
FKQ
L-Threonine
butyrate + NH3
H
Iv keto
(A)
deaminase (a)
(B)

Intermediates
(C,D,E)

C
Isoleucine

C F , Y\V
JeTjR FKQ IR vK
FJ H F, S d M
A. FJ C
G MA. H
A.
L J M
vK S A.

3.6. IN SLs (Iso enzymes)

C S O
A. B]p M F
, H, F
A.
FO A.
(E.m.)

AK Lv 3 S Y
A. BB, MM MB
AK, AK v
A. BB J,
MM O, MB F
A.

3.7. SLu dVjYm

1.

S MA JK M
Au\]. C O M
FAu\].

2.

F C SLs
P Au\].
FK F v IR
A.

3. X SLs UjY TVuLs EPV]

. QCLv - QL O

. vv - AI
. vv - K

Tt
I. uYm PLp NV]R RokR

Tv 5 S
A. LD1, LD2, LD3, LD4,
LD5. , Y
A. LD1 F LD5
, h AP F .
72

a. AUXv GRu Up NVpT\

A) vPof

B) XdPv

C) dWv

D) Lv
73

b. XNNu ]d R

3.

J S AL ThN NVp\] Lhm YlTX

______________G]lTm

4.

ApX vVd GuNm ______________UVjR

Tts[.

5.

NhP Wm BdPv GuNm______________

Gum Tm Y NokR

A) Pd AXm
B) AvTod AXm
C) Pd AXm AvTod AXm
D) vu
c.

UWv APes[ Tm

III. NV, RY\ G]d L

A) BdP PdPv ( Bd_]t\ JdL SLs )

B) WuvTWvLs

1.

aX SLs UV], NVp\u dL SLs

2.

SLu NVpTht [oUVeLs AYVm

3.

Thj Rl J s ]

4.

EXL AVLs SL[ Fddm

5.

UtVUlTu CQl UVeLs GpX SLm

Es[].

C) ahWXvLs
D) LvLs
d.

e.

Cl AV FdlT

A) AUXvLs

B) TlPvLs

C) L@PvLs

D) lTvLs

IV. TjL

JW Su TpYThP YY AUlLs

1. BpLXu TvTPv (alkaline) Su WRUpXR T

A) AT SLs

2. CQ SLs

ahWXv S
FdlTu

3. ApXvVd RlTu

UX]h

4. Zn2+

u]d
RlTu

B) IN SLs

C) CQ SLs

D) aX SLs

II. LhP CPeL[ WlL

1.

J aX S, AT S Utm______________I
Tts[.

5. Nd]h ahW_]v

2.

]T Ts, RlTu CYts[ EY JtU

______________RlT]j R\.

1.

CQ S Gu\p Gu]?

2.

LUlu ]d A] AXeLs VY?

74

V. dLUL PV

75

3.

ThjRlTuLs GqY RdLlTPXm?

4.

ij R LsLV YhPYo Vo?

5.

LNu NVpTLs VY?

VI. Y] PV
1.

SLu Tm L[ Y

2.

]d A] AXeLs Gu\p Gu]? ERWQm

L

3.

ApXvVd Rl \V ERWQjPu Y

4.

SLu NVpL[ Tdm LWL[lTt l

YWL

5.

Thj RuUs[, Thj RuUVt\, Utm, Thj

\]t\ RjRpL[ YTjL.

76

TPm - 4
LoTahWhLs
4.1. uW
JfNodLu XUL YUiPXjp Es[
LoTuPBd^ Utm Wd Li EYm
LoTahWhLs RYWeLp TWYXL TW Es[.
RYWeLs WReLs, lLs Utm TX LUf NoUeL[
RjRp LoTahWhL[ u]l T[L
(precusor) TVuTjRu\]. XeLs RYWeLk
AYLd RYV] LoTahWhL[ Tu\].

4.2. LoTahWhLu NVpTLs:

Xe Utm UR EPp TpY NVpL[
LoTahWh Nnu\.
1.

EPp TX UiPXeLs NVpTPm, YX NnV

YiV Bt\Xm C Ld\.

2.

LlLs Bd_u Ht\m APV C AYVm.

3.

WReLs NVpTP C Fd] \.

4.

AjVYVUt\ A] AXeLs RlTRt

YiV LoTu YYUlL[ CY Ldu\.

5.

TX dLu Tl TsLp
LoTahWhLs Cdu\].

6.

EQl TsLp Es[ vPof WR]

LoTahWh XUL Es[.

4.3. LoTahWhL[ YLlTjRp:

LoTahWhLs rdLiPY YLlTjRl
Tu\]. (TPm 4.1)
77

AY : 1. U] NdLWLs 2) CWhP NdLWLs

BpPv

3) JL NdLWLs Utm 4) T NdLWLs

1. BpP WVv
(G.L.) ^Wv

1. hP WVv
(G.L.) C aWd AhPu

2. BpP PhWv
(G.L.) GjWv

2. hP PhWv
(G.L.) GjXv

3. BpP TuPv
(G.L.) Tv

3. hP TuPv
((G.L.) Xv

4. BpP ad^v
(G.L.) dLv

4. hP ad^v
(G.L.) @lWdPv

LoTahWhLs
Carbohydrates

JL
U]Monosaccharides
NdLWLs Disaccharides
C NdLWLs
NdLWLs
Oligosaccharides
Polysaccharides
NdLWLs T
UpP
E.m.
eg. Malto
triose JTjR]
BpPv
hPv
Aldose
Ketose
Hetero
TXTjR]
hWVv Homo
G.L.
Reducing
NonJdm
G.L.
Fructose Jdm
G.L.
eg. Glucose eg.
G.L.
eg.
Starch,
vPof
G.L.
eg. Heparin
reducing
dLv @lWdPveg.
Lactose RuUVt\
alTu
NpXv
G.L.
Cellulose
XdPv
Maltose eg. Sucrose
UpPv dWv
Fig. LoTahWh
4.1 Classification of Carbohydrates
TPm 4.1.
YLlT

4.3.1. Jt\ NdLWLs

Jt\ NdLWLs rLiPY YLTjRlTu\].
Jt\ NdLW GuT Wt Tl ]d EhTh
Um GV NodLW XdL[L dL CVXR T
aWd Bpa ApX hPu Bm. (TPm 4.2)
Jt\ NdLWLs

BpPv
(CHO R)

hPv
(CO R)

TPm 4.2. Jt\ NdLWLu YLlT

Um AYtp Es[ LoTu AdLs GidLu
AlTPm Jt\ NdLWLs YLlTjRlTu\].
78

hPv

1.

BpPv GuT] Bpa Rs[ NodLWLs

(G.L.) dLv, LXdPv, Uu]v.

2.

hPv GuT], hP] ]T RVLd

LiP NodLWLs Bm. (G.L.) @lWdPv Utm
NoTv.

LoTahWhLs oUVt\ LoTu AdL[l

Tts[]. Su YqY AdLs ApX RLs
CQks[ LoTu, oUVt\ LoTu G]lTm.
CHO
HO

C*

CH2 - OH
C* - oUVt\ LoTu
n-dL] Yuha@l :
J Xds[ oUVt\ LoTu AdLu
GidLVl Tj, UtLu GidL AU\.
CkR uT, 2n GuT J NoUju NjVlTm
UtLu GidLd NUm. n-GuT oUVt\ LoTu
AdLu GidL.
79

4.3.1.1. ad^vLs
ad^vLs B LoTu Es[ Jt\
NdLWL[m. ad^u Xd YnT C6H12O6.
BpP ad^vLs 2, 3, 4 Utm 5 BV CPeLp
oUVt\ LoTu AdL[l Tts[. G]Y BpP
ad^v 16 UtL[l Tts[. ( 2n = 24 = 16 ).

CH2 OH

OH

HO

HO

OH

OH

OH

OH

CH 2 OH

CH2 OH

Glucose

hP ad^v, 3, 4, 5 BV CPeLp 3 oUVt\

LoTu AdL[l Tts[. G]Y C 8 UtL[l
Tts[. ( 2n = 23 = 8 )

dLv Utm @lWdPv YYUl :

D-dLv GuT GV NodLW Utm Jt\
NdLW Bm. CR] Um Wt TdL V.
dLv CWjRjp dV NodLWVL Es[.
WRdm LXjp, 100 .. UR CWjRjp 60 100
.. dLv Es[. Eo NpLm, dLm
SPT\dV Y[oR Ut\jt RYV] G T[L
dLv Es[. dLv Bd]t\m APYRp
Bt\p EP]VL NpLd Pd\. G]Y Bt\X
Eo NpLd LlTp dLv RuUp Es[.
( 1 ) dLv Utm @lWdPu GV YnT CH2O
Utm Xd YnlT C6H12O6 Bm. dLp
Bpa ]T R Es[. @lWdPp hP
R ]T RVL Es[.

dLv

4.3.1.2. Jt\ NdLWLu CVtVp TiLs :

1. \m Utm YYm
Jt\ NdLWLs \Ut\ TLYYf NoUeLs Bm.
2. LW\u
CYLs p Gp LWu\].
3. Y
Clf Y EPV
4. lTUQ UtVm :
oUVt\ LoTu AdLs Es[ NoUeLp UtVeLs
EiP\. JjR AUlm RLu CPm Um Es[
NoUeLd lTUQ UtLs Gu TVo. G.L.
dLv C AUlLp LQlT\.
O

H
HO
H
H

1C

2C

OH

OH

HO

OH

HO

3
4
5
6

1C

HO

D-Glucose

OH

4C

CH 2 OH

D - dLv
80

@lWdPv
Fructose

CH 2

OH

L-Glucose

L - dLv

81

D dLv Utm L dLv JudLu B

mTeL[L Es[].
D - RPo, L - RPo
H, OH RLu CP AUl D, L RPoL[

oQd\. C KQV BpLap LoTd

As[, LoTu APu CQks[ H, OH
RLu CPm D, L RPoL[ oQd\. G.L.
Lp C5- A RPW oQd\. CkRd LoTu
OH R YXl\UL CkRp C D - RPo, OH R
CPl\UL CkRp A L - RPo.
CHO
CHO
H

HO

OH

CH2 - OH

D- NWpa

SdLp
ThPLm
Nicol
Prism

R[Plane
]s[
J
polarised
JW
R[jp
light oscillations
AX\

in one plane of beam

directions

TPm 4.3. NRWQ JV R[

[s[ JVL UtRp
TXU Gu\ L Xm J Zt UtLu
VU Zt ( Specific Rotation ) A[kRVlT\.

CH2 - OH

L-NWpa

5. J Zt UtVm :
NRWQ JdLt\ GuTR JTWm Lht
NejRL GpX NLm Ao Lis[ uLkR
AXLs G]d LRXm. CkR Jd Lt\V SdLp
lThPLm YVL Njm T J R[jR RW H]V
R[js[ AoLs dLlTu\]. C R[]s[
J G]lT\. CkR R[]s[ JV J Zt
UtVd LWNp Njm T R[]s[ J
CPl\UL Zt\lThPp A CPgUt G]
AZdLlT\. R[]s[ JV YXl\UL
Zt]p A YXg Ut G] AZdLlT\.
oUVt\ LoTu AdL[ Lis[ NoUeL[p
CkLrf EiP\. CY J Zt UtVm G]lTm.
82

NRWQ J GpXj
Ordinary light
R[eLm
oscillations
in all
AX\

Ztd
R[ ]s[
]s[
Before u Plane R[
polarised
Plane polarised
JV
CPm
VL
JV YXm
rotation
light-rotated
light-rotated
ZtRp (levorotatory)
VL
clockwise
or ZtRp
anti clockwise
(dextrotatory)
dextrorotatory

or levorotatory

TPm 4.4. R[ ]s[ Ju Zt

J ZtV ( lm ) Gm \ :
CPl\UL JV Ztm TiT ( CPg Ut ) (l-)
hPm YXl\UL J Ztm TiT ( YXgUt )
( d+ ) hPm lPXm.
Un LXY : (Racemic Mixture)
YXg Utm CPg Utm NU A[p LXkkRp
Juu J Ztm Ti Ut\u\p D NnVlTYRp
J Ztm Ti \jR Unk Tn\. CkRd LXY
"Und LXY'' G] AZdLlT\.
83

jRjRp (Resolution)

Utm UtLs B]UoLs G]lTm. CRt

Un LXYk J Ztm Tis[ UtL[

jRjRp (NNu) G] AZdLlT\.

6. P Zt (Muta rotation)
BpP adNv p LWdLlTh AkRd LWNp
JlTRp YdLlTh R[]LiP J
NjRlThPp BWmTjp Es[ J Zt WL UTh,
lhP U\ Ul] T\. CqY Zt Um
Lrf "hP Zt' G]lT\.
H

HO

OH
C

OH

HO

OH

CH 2 OH

D - dLv
Glucose

+ 112.2

OH

HO

H
H

D dLu P Ztu Ul + 59.5o

(+112.2o) - (52.7o) = 59.5o

OH

HO

OH

OH

OH

dLv
D-Glucose

Ne
Chain
form
AUl

+52.7

RL RVdLlThP - D Lu od LWNu
VU Zt +112.2o. CkRd LWNX AlTV YdmT
Zt \k 52.7o-p U\Up Cd\. CqY VU
Ztp HtTm W] Ut\m P Zt ApX UTm
Zt Gu AZdLlT\.

H
C

CH 2 OH

LWQUL AUY B]Ud LoTu A Bm.

B]UoLs (Anomer) GuT] J lhP LoTu Au
YYjp HtTm YThp EYm UtL[m.

RL RVdLlThP D dLv LWNu Zt

Ul 18.7o Cm WL ALj u +52.7o Gu\ UlT
AP\.

CH 2 OH

D- dLv
Glucose

+ 18.7

dLp CWi JfZt UtLs ClTR

hP Ztd LWQUm. AY - D dLv, CRu
VU Zt Ul + 112.2o Utm - D dLv, CRu
VU Zt Ul + 18.7o Bm.

4.3.1.3. dLu YlTiLs :

dLp NVp\u dL RLs Es[].
CjRLs ARu Y]d LWQUu\]. u
YLV] NVp\u dL RL[Y] :
1. [dLd ( OH ) R.
2. BpLap ( OH ) R.
3. Bpa - C - H R.
O

84

85

1. dL^ EiPRp
HCl Yu uXp dLv Ujp
BpLaPu ]lTh Utm dL^P
R\. dLp Es[ [Ld - OH EPu
BpLap ]YRp dL^ EiP\.

OH

OCH 3

OH

OH

HO

HO

OH

OH

HCl Y
gas
CH 3 -OH
Ujp
Methyl
alcohol

BpLap

OH

HO

OH

HO

OH

OH

OH

OH

HOBr

CH2 OH

+ H2O

dLd
D-Gluconic
acidAXm

dLv
D-Glucose

Shd AXjPu dLv Bd_]t\m APk

NdLd AXUL U\.

- D Ujp
methyl glucoside

dLv
- D glucose

dL^

- D dLv, - D Ujp dL^Pj R\.

CRlTXY @lWd Pv @lWdP^Pj R\.

2. Bd_]t\m :
Lv Wu Pu ]k Ld
AXjR Ld\. Bpa R LoTdp
RVL Bd_]t\m AP\.
Br2 + H2O

CH2 OH

CH 2 OH

CH 2 OH

COOH

HOBr + HBr

COOH

CHO
H

OH

HO

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

HNO3

CH2 OH

COOH

dLv
D-Glucose

NdLd AXm
Saccharic
acid

Rp Wu, Pu ]k alT WUv

AXjR ( HOBr ) R\. C L^ Ld
AXUL Bd_]t\m APVf Nn\.

ahW_u TWd^ ( H2O2 ) Xm Bd_]t\m

APm T dLv, dLWd AXUL U\.

86

87

CHO

CHO
H

OH

HO

C
C

OH
H

HO

OH

OH

OH

OH

H2 O 2

CH 2 -OH

CH 2 -OH
C

OH

HO

HO

HO

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

Na - Hg

OH

OH

CH 2 OH

CH 2 OH

dLv
D-Glucose

dLWd
Glucuronic AXm
acid

CkR ]p KQV BpLap R Uhm

AXjRVL U\. Bpa R
Ut\UPYpX.

3. Bd_u JdLm :
Jt\ NdLWLs AL AjRjm, ]
YLUtu uXm NV WNdLXY ApX
ahW_]p JdLUP\. Bpa ApX hP
R ClTRp CY Bd_u JdLUPk
BpLapL[ Ru\].
CH2-OH

CHO
H

OH

HO

OH

@lWdPv
D-Fructose

COOH

CH 2 OH

Na - Hg

OH

HO

OH

HO

OH

OH

NohPp
Sorbitol

88

CHO

CH2 OH

CH2 OH
dLv
D-Glucose

CHO

OH

OH

CH 2 OH

UuhPp
Mannitol

4. APo LkRL AXjPu ] :

dLv APo H2SO4 ApX HCl EPu ]k
5, ahWd Ujp ToWX Ld\. C Um
TjRlTm T d AXm, Tod AXm
BVYt\ R\.

Sorbitol
NohPp

dLv, NVm TRWNd LXYVp JdLUPk

NohPX R\. Uu]v, UuhPXm,
@lWdPv NoPp, UuhPp LXkR LXYVm
Ru\]. CRtd LWQm @lWdPp C2 LoTp oUVt\
RuU EYRXm.

OH

CH 2 -OH

CH2

C
CH
Conc H2SO4
APo

OH

dLv
D-Glucose

O
CH
C
CH2

Levulinic
acidAXm
d
+ +
Formic
acidAXm
Tod
+
+
CO + CO2

OH

methylUjp
furfural
5,5-hydroxy
ahWd
ToWp

CkR ] NodLWdL] Ux NR]u

AlTP ]Vm. TuPvL[ LU AXjPu
Noj TjmT ToWp Pd\.
89

5. GvPo EiPRp :
OH, R ClTRp CY LoTdd AXeLPu
GvhPWj R\. dLv, Ik XdLs Ahd
Pu ]k TuP APh YlT[ R\.
C ANXt\ ] G]lTm. Cq] dLv
Xdp Ik - O H RLs Es[] GuTR
ElTj\.
CHO
CHO
H

HO C
H
H

C OH

CH3

H
OH

55(CH
(CH33CO)
CO)2O
O

C
O

C OH
CH2
CH2 OH
dLv
D-Glucose

CH3

CH3

O
O C

+5H2O

CH3
CH3

O
dLv
TiP
AhPh
D-Glucose
penta
acetate

6. JdLl Ti
Jt\ NdLWLs \kR Bd_u JdVL
NVpT\. Td NV], H2O2, ld AV Tu\
Bd_]tL[ CY EP]VL Bd_u JdLm
Nnu\]. Cq]Lp NodLWu LoT]p R
Bd_]t\m AP\. Bd_]t JdLm
APu\.
Bd_]tL[ JdLdV dLv Utm CRW
NodLWl ThLs Jdm NodLWLs G]
AZdLlTu\]. dLv, PXu ]l Ts, Te
LWNp, Tdh ]l Ts BVYt\ Jd\.
AR SWjp dLv dLd AXUL
Bd_]t\m AP\.
90

OH

HO

COOH
H

OH

HO

OH

OH

OH

OH

2Cu 2+ 2Cu +

CH 2 OH

CH 2 OH
dLv
D-Glucose

C O

dLd
D-Gluconic
acid AXm

ClTi, Ted ]u (AmUVp LWkR

ld NpTh) AlTP TiTm. C Jdm NodLWV
LiPV ERm TiT BnYm.
Cu2+ AV Cu+ AVVL JdLUP\. AR NUVjp
dLv, dLd AXUL Bd_]t\UP\.
CkR ]uT LWu X\m BWg Yl
\UL U\.
Tdh ]lTp Es[ ld AVL[
Jdm NodLW, lWv AVL[L JdYRp X\m,
BWg ApX Yl \UL U\. C Jdm NodLW
Es[ GuTRd Lh\.
Jdm NodLW AmUV LWNp LWkR Ag+
AVV ( PXu ]lTs ) YsVL Jd\.
EXL YsV] BndZu TdLeLp T\.
PXu ]lTu
D-dLv
- D-dLd AXm + Ys B

91

OH

HO

8. KNNu EiPRp :
Bpa ( A ) hPu Rs[ Jdm
NodLWu ( Jt\ NdLW, CWhP NdLW ) dV
]V] ]p ahW], ]p ahWN]L
Utm ]Vm.

COOH
H

OH

HO

OH

OH

OH

OH

2Ag + 2Ag

CH 2 OH

CH 2 OH

dLd
D-Gluconic
acid AXm

dLv
D-Glucose

7. AXPu ]
dLp Es[ Bpa R, AXu
A] RPu dLUPk @l LWjR R\.
@lWdP^m AXPu @l LWjR R\.
CH3

]p ahWPu Lm ]p CWi LoTu

AdLs DT\. AY, LoT]p Rp Es[
LoTu Am ARt TdLjs[ LoTu Am Bm.

]p ahWu ] SPTm TLs

1. J Xd dLv, J Xd ]p
ahWPu dL ]dhTh LWm dLv
]p ahWN]j R\.
CH

CH3

O + H2N

OH

COOH

OH

HO

AXu
Alanine

HO

OH

OH

OH

OH

CH2 OH

COOH

@lv LWm

NH

]p ahWu

OH

NH

C6H5

OH

(CHOH)3

H2O

CH2 OH

CH2 OH

D - dLv
]p
ahWNu
D-Glucose
phenyl
hydrazone

dLv
D-Glucose

2.

CH

C6H5

(CHOH)3

+ H2O

CH2 OH

dLv
D-Glucose

O + H2N

AL A[ ]p ahWu uXp Ut\

]p ahWu Xd, ]p DT\.

Schiff's base

Wh mTm, Tl \m RuYRtL] LWQm,

WReLp Es[ A] Rdm, LoTahWhp
Es[ Bpa Rdm CPV @lv LWm
RuYRp Ru G] SmTlT\.

HC
HC

NH

OH + H2N

C6H5
NH

HC
C6H5

(CHOH)3
CH2

OH

CH2

93

NH

C6H5

(CHOH)3

D-Glucose
phenyl
hydrazone
D
- dLv
]p
ahWNu

92

OH

NH2 + NH3
AmUV
Ammonia
C6H5
Au
Aniline

3.

u\Y ]p ahWu Xd, ]p DTh

]p dLNN]j R\. CY UgNs \l
TLeL[m. TLeLu YYm Utm KNNu EYm
SWm NodLWd, NodLW YT\.
N

HC
C

(CHOH)

C 6H 5

NH

H 2N

NH

C 6H 5

HC

NH

C 6H 5

NH

C 6H 5

(CHOH)

H 2O

(G.L.) dLv, Utm Uu]v C2p YTu\].

dLv Utm LXdPv C4-Cp YTu\]. J
GUo Ut\ GUWUL Ut\lTm ] GUWN`u
G]lTm. GUWv Gu\ S CkR ]d
RYlT\. Sm EPp LXdPv, dL^L
Ut\lTRm CkR \pRu.

OH

CH 2 OH
]p dLNu
Phenyl gucosazone

]p ahWu @lWdP^Pm CqY\

]\. Cm 3 XdLs ]p ahWu
]p DTu\]. @lWdPv @lWdPNN]j
R\. UpPv, XdPv BV C NdLWLm
KNN]j Ru\]. B]p dWv KNN]j
RYpX. LWQm Cp Bd_u JdLlTitL] CHO
ApX CO RLs CpX.
9. SjRp :
SjRp GuT TV dLX] XdL[, V
GV XdL[L SL[p LtpXR rXp
Ut\lTm ]Vm. BpLam, CO2Em Cq]p
Pdm [ TsL[m.
dLv

NUv

2C2H5OH + CO2
Gjp BpLap

10. GUWN`u (Epimerisation)

HRm J LoTu APu CQks[ RLu
AUl Ut\jRp C NodLW XdLs YTU]p
AY GUoLs G] AVlTu\].
94

HO

OH

HO

HO

OH

OH

3
4
5
6

CHO

CH 2

CHO

CHO

HO

OH

HO

OH

4
5

Uu]v
Mannose

OH

CH 2 OH

Glucose
dLv

OH

CH 2 OH

CH 2 OH

LXdPv
Galactose

43.1.4. aYoj YnT ( dLv Utm

@lWdPv )
aYoju YnlThuT dLv B
AdL[ LiP Y[VUlT Tts[. C TW]
AUl G]lT\. @lWdPv Ik AdL[d LiP
Y[V AUlT Tts[. C lW] AUl
G]lT\.
OH

1. dLv

OH

HO

OH

CH 2 OH

D - dLv
Glucose

95

HO

OH

HO

OH

CH 2 OH

D- dLv
Glucose

CH 2-OH
O

H
H
OH

H
OH

OH
TW]v
- dL
Glucopyranose

OH

OH

OH
H

OH

4.3.2. CWhP NdLWLs : (Disaccharides)

CH 2-OH
H

H
OH
TW]v
- dL
Glucopyranose

TPm 4.5 dLu TW]v AUl

2. @lWdPv
CH2
C
HO

OH

HO

HO

OH

CH2 OH

CH2
H

H2C

@lWdPv
D - Fructose

OH

HO

OH
CH2

OH

lW]v
D - @lWdP
Fructofuranose

CWhP NdLWLp [dLd CQl]p

Jt\ NdLWLs QdLlThs[]. CkR CQlu
RuUV TjR CWhP NdLWu TiLs
AUks[]. [dLd CQl EYRp \u
dL Bpa Rm hP Rm DThkRp
AkR CWhP NdLW Jdm TiTm, KNNu
EiPdm TiTm CZd\. (G.L.) dWv. B]p
CWhP NdLWLp Es[ Bpa ApX hPu
RLp HRm Ju Uhm [dLd CQl
EYRp DThkRp, AY JdL Utm KNNu
EYm ]Ld EhT\. CjRLV CWhP
NdLWLs Jdm CWhP NdLWLs G]lTu\].
(G.L.) XdPv, UpPv.
4.3.2.1. UpPv :

OH

OH

OH
OH

CH2

OH

OH

CH2 OH

@lWdPv
D - Fructose

HO

OH

CH2

OH
OH

C XdLs U] NdLWL[l Tts[Y

CWhP NdLWLs G]lTm. C XdLs Jt\
NdLWLs dL ]dhTh, J Xd W CZk
CWhP NdLWLs EYu\].

OH

@lWdP lW]v
D - Fructofuranose

CWi dLv XdLs - 1, 4 Ld

CQlu Xm QdLlTh ClT UpPv Bm.
C TYL Uph NodLW G] AZdLlT\. [jR
To Uph, UpPu dV Xl T[m. C
Clf Yt\ p Su\Ld LWVd V NodLWVm.

TPm 4.6. @lWdPu lW]v AUl

dLv 1p Es[ ] \u dL Bpa

R [dLd Qlp DThs[. B]p
dLv1 Cp Es[ Bpa R RVL ClTRp

96

97

LWRW Eld LWNX Jd\. CkR Rp dLp

Es[ RjR Bpa RV UpPu Jdm
Tit LWQUm.
OH
C

CQlp DTPpX. B]p LXdPu Bpa

R CQlp DThs[. dLv Xdu
Bpa R RjlTRp XdPv Te LW
NX Jd\. G]Y XdPv J Jdm NodLWVm.
H

HO

OH

OH

OH C

C
H

OH

HO

O
O

OH

HO

CH2 OH

OH

CH2 OH

D - dLv
Glucose (1)(1)

Glucose (2)(2)
D - dLv

( 1, 4 [dLd

CQ )

Y[oR Ut\m :
vPof, Ers[ AUXv Xm NdLlTh
CVL UpP^L U\. Pp LQV lTv
vPofN UpP^L Ut\. Pp UpPv CPX
T[L EiP\. Pp EgNlTYRt u UpPv
Gu\ SVp UpPv C XdLs dL^L
dLlT\.
4.3.2.2. XdPv :
C Tp NodLW G]lTm. ThLu Tp C
LQlT\. LolLs, Utm Thm RnUoLu
m C LQlT\. C p \kR A[Y LWm.
dW^P Clf Y \Y].

OH

OH

O
O

OH

H C

H C

CH2-OH

CH2-OH
dLv
D-glucose

LXdPv
D-galactose

( 1, (
4 [dLd
CQ )
1-4 glycosidic linkage)

Y[oR Ut\m :
XdPv Wt Tl ]d EhTm T ( AXm
ApX XdPv S uXp ) J Xd
dLv, J Xd LXdPv Pd\. Tp dm
Tf[eZkRLu Pp XdPv Gu\ S Es[.
A XdP^ dLv Utm LXdPv BL Ut\.
CkXp Ru, A Pp EgL[p EgNlTm.
ALlTVL EhLs[lTm XdPv NdLUp
ClTRp YtlTd, Yt Y HtTm. Dvh
XdP^ SdLf NnV.
4.3.2.3. dWv :

UpP^l TXY XdP^m RjR ]\u

dL Bpa RVl Tts[. C d
L^dm LXdP^dm CPp Es[ [dLd

C NRWQ NRW] NodLW (Table Sugar) Bm.

Lmk PdLl TYRp Lmf NodLW Gum
AZdLlT\. C TWYXL Lm, hh, Au]lTZm,
Ru, LWh Utm TjR TZeLp LQlT\.

98

99

H
C
H

OH

HO

OH

CH2-OH

C
O

HO

OH

CH2-OH

CH2-OH
dLv
D-glucose
( , 1 - 2

AZdLlT\. Rp AL A[ GoU NodLW

Es[, CRu ALlTV] Clf YdLWQm Cs[
@lWdPv Bm.

D-fructose
@lWdPv

[dLd
CQ )
(, 1-2 glycosidic linkage)

dWp J Xd dL^m, J Xd
@lWdP^m LQlT\. dLu Bpa
Rdm Utm lWdPu hP Rdm CPV
[dLd CQl EYs[. Bpa Utm
hP R CQlp DThlTRp. Jdm RLs
CpX. CjRLV RlThP AUlu LWQUL dWv
Jdm TiTt\ NodLWVL Es[. G]Y C ""PXu
Utm Te LWV'' JdL, KNN]d LdL.

Y[oR Ut\m :
ojR AXm ApX dWv ApX CuYoPv
Gu\ S uXp dWv WtTlTPk dLv
Utm @lWdP^ Ldu\. dWv ""GoU NodLW''
Gum AZdLlTm.

4.4 T NdLWLs :
CY [dLuLs Gum AZdLlTu\]. CY,
TX Jt\ NdLWLu Rl Bm. GV NodLW
ApX Jt\ NdLWLu TX XdLs d
]dhTh CY EYu\]. T NdLWLp
[dLd CQl Xm Jt\f NdLWLs
CQks[]. CY iP Ne ApX [L[ EPV
XdL[L Es[]. CY JW YLV] ApX TX
YLV] Jt\ NdLW AXL[l Tts[]. CRu
AlTPp T NdLWLs CWi YLL[Ll
dLlTu\]. AY J TjR] T NdLWLs Utm
TX TjR] T NdLWLs Bm.
J TjR] T NdLWLs WtTdmT JW
YLV] Jt\ NdLWL[d Ldm. ( Em ) vPof,
[dL_u, NpXv CYt\ WtTdmT
dLv Uhm Pd\.
TX TjR] T NdLWLs Jt\ NdLWLu
LXYVp B]. WtTdmT TpY YLV] Jt\
NdLWLu LXYL[d Ldm. ( Em ) aVWd
AXm, aTu, L T NdLWLs.

GoU\dLp ] : (Inversion)
dWv, YXg Ut ( +62.5o ) Bm. B]p CR
Wt TdmT Pdm [ThLs CPg Ut
Bm. H]p lWdPu CP\ Zt, dLu
YX\ ZtVP ALUL Es[. WtTlTp
EiPm [ThLs ZtV UtYRp, dWv
GoU NodLW Gum, CkLrf GoU\dLp Gum

4.4.1. vPof :
RYWeLp Nj YdLlTm LoTaWh
YLVf NokR vPof Bm. C RYWeLu Yo, Ri,
LnLLs, TZeLs Utm RVeLp AL A[ LQl
Tu\. A, LU RVeLp C ALUL Es[.
vPof RVeL[L Pdu\]. CY L[, s
YYeLp Es[]. iQdu XUL TodmT

100

101

vPof LsLs A[ Utm YYjp YT\. C

vPof Pdm XlT[ TjR.

Tts[]. ARY JqY dLv AXm u

CPeLp RLs Es[]. ( TPm 4.9 )
CH2OH

CH2-OH
O
H

H
H
OH

OH

CH 2 -OH

CH 2 -OH
H

H
OH

H
4 OH

OH

OH

OH

CQ
F ig . 4 .8 S t r( uc 1,
t u r4e [dLd
o f A m y lo s e ( 1 - 4 g ly
c o s id ic lin)k a g e )

TPm 4.8 AUXu AUl

AUXv 1, 4 [dLd CQlT Tts[.

J dLv AXu C1p Es[ [dLd OH R
Ut\ AXu SuLY LoTu APu CQks[.
( TPm 4.8 ).
Neu [l Ts[ JqY dLv
AXm, Tl ThL[ 1, 4 Utm 6Y LoTu AdLp
102

H 1

CH2
5

H
4 OH

3
H

2
OH

1
O

O
H

OH

( 4.9
1 -Structure
4 Utmof Amylopectin
1 - 6 [dLd
CQLs
)
Fig.
linkages)
( 1-4 and 1-6 glycosidic

TPm 4.9 AUX Tdu AUl

AVPu vPofu ] :
vPof LWNp AVPu ] k X \jRd
Ld\. CkR X \jt LWQm vPofp Es[
AUXv Bm.

AUXTdu

AUXv

OH

O 1-6 branch
point
[ls

4.1. AUXv, AUXTdu CPV Es[

YTLs :

O
H
4 OH

chain
RuUMain
Ne

OH

CH2-OH H

TPm 4.7 iQdp vPofu AUl

vPof AUlp YThP CWi J TjR] T
NdLW AXL[p B]. AY AUXv Utm
AUXTdu Am.
AUXp, dLv XdLs s Yp
AUks[.
AUXTdp dLv XdLs AL
[L[ EPVRL Es[.

H 1

O
OH

LU
Wheat

Rice

O
H
4 OH

E[dZe
Potato

1. C GV, [Ls CpXR C [ YY Ne

AUlTl Tts[.
AUlTl Tts[.
2. p LW\.

p LWV. B]p W
Eg YYjp TRm.

3. C 1 4 [dLd C , 1 4 Utm , 1 6
CQlT Tts[.
[dLd CQlT
Tts[.
103

4. ojR AVu LWNPu C AVu LWNPu

X \jRd Ld\. UgNs ApX BWg
\jRd Ld\.
5. Xd \ 10,000 Rp CRu Xd \ 50,000
Rp J pVu YW
50,000 BL Es[.
Es[.
4.4.1.1. vPof NjRp TX TLp SPT\ :
URu EhLsm EQp Es[ dV
LoTahWhPV vPofu NjRX] Yp
RPe\. Er p Es[ AUXv Gu\ S,
vPofp Es[ 14 [dLd QlT WtTl
APVf Nn\. B]p YlQlLm AR]VjR
[Ls[ QlLm WtTl APYpX.
CkR NUVjp Su\L UpXlThP EQl Ts Yt\
AP\. Aes[ AXj RuU, AUX^
NVZdLf Nn\. TpXWdLQdL] Nel
QlL[ EPV vPof B] Ce Gh dLv
RL[ EPVRL \dLlT\. Pp
vPofu NU]m LQV AUXv Xm RPo\.
CRu NVpTm Ero Wlp Wdm AUXv
SV Tu\Rm. CkR S vPofN UpPv Gu\
CWhP NdLWPLm, UpPWVv Gu\ u
NdLWPLm d\. CkR JL NdLWLs Wt
Tlu T ARu Tl ThL[V Jt\ NdLWLs
ARtV SL[p dLlT\. CkR SLs Pp
Es[ (Brush border membrane) YoLp LQlTu\
dLp LQlT\. CRu [YL Ruu\ Jt\
NdLWLs P]p EgNlTh CWjR KhPjp
LXd\.
104

4.4.2. [L_u :
[L_u GuT J TjR] T NdLW Bm.
H]p C Wt TdLlTmT dLv AXL[
Uhm Ld\. C XeLp Nj YdLlThs[
LoTahWh Bm. [L_u A]j GmjRN
NpLm LpWm LQlT\. C NhP[vd
LsL[L LQlT\. RYW C]eLp C ALUL
gNLm DvhLm LQlT\. [L_u
KQV AUl AUXTdu AUlPu Jjs[.
B]p [L_u GuT TX [ YY AUlT
Tts[. [L[] Gh Rp TuWi dLv
XdLdPV HtT\.
TjdmT, [dL_u Nljk
CPUt\m NnVlTh [dL_u TvTXv Gu\
SVp dL^L Ut\lT\. CqY EiP]
dLv Bd_]t\UPk Bt\Xj R\.
vPofN P [dL_p Es[ [Lu GidL
lPjRdL A[ ALUL Es[.
CH2OH

CH2-OH
O
H

H
(Main chain)
RuU
Ne O

H
OH

H
4 H
OH

H 1
CQ
1-6 linkage
O
([ls)
6
(Branch
point)
OH CH2

O
OH CH2-OH H

OH

H
H
4 OH

H 1

OH

O
H 1

O
H

OH

CQ
1-4 linkage

105

3
H

2
OH

dWv J
A) hPv NodLW
B) BpPv NodLW
C) CWhP NdLW
D) T NdLW
c. dLv, Shd AXjRp Bd_]t\UPk
LlT
A) NolhPp
B) NdLd AXm
C) ToWp
D) dLWd AXm
d. J Xd dLv KNNu EYLj RYlTm
]p ahWu XdLu GidL
A) 1
B) 2
C) 3
D) 4
e. AVu, CRPu X \jR R\
A) dLv
B) XdPv
C) vPof
D) alTu
f.
vPofN, UphPv Utm Pdvhu BL Utm
S
A) lTv
B) WhVv
C) AUXv
D) Gm CpX
II. LhP CPjR WlL
a. vPof, AUXv Utm ______________Bp B].
b. Xe vPof, ______________G] AZdLlT\.
c. dLv, NV WNd LXYVp JdLUPk
PlT ______________
d. Uu]v GuT______________u GUo Bm.
e. GUWdLp ]______________S Xm SPT\.
f.
Jf Zt Utu, ZtV]______________Xm
LiPVlT\
g. Un LXY jRdLlTm \d ______________
Gu TVo
III. NV, RY\ G]d L
a. Xv J TuPv Bm
b. J BpPad^v, 16 UtL[l Ttdm
b.

[lTLs

Braching
sites
Main
Chain
RuU
Ne

TPm 4.10 [dL_u AUl

dLk
[L_u
EYRp
[L_]dLm (Glycogenesis) G]lTm. [L_u
[YPk dL^L UYRt [L_u Tl
(Glycogenolysis) G]lTm.

Tt
I. NV] PV RokR
a. [dL_u J
A) Jt\ NdLW
B) CWhP NdLW
C) J TjR] T NdLW
D) TXTjR] T NdLW
106

107

c.
d.
e.
IV.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
V.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
VI.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

Un LXYp d - AUl CdL

XdPu AlTPV] Jt\ NdLW AXLs,
dLv Bm
[dL_u, WtTluT dL^ Uhm
R\
TjL
[dL_u
GoU NodLW
oUVt\ L A
vPof
AVu Bn
T NdLWLs
dWv
Xe vPof
NodLW ApXRY
UtVm
XdPv
UphPv
UphPv
Tp NodLW
dLUL PV
[dL_u, vPof CPVV] AUl YThP
G
[dL_u Tl Gu\p Gu]?
dWu AUlT G
GUWdLp Gu\p Gu]?
@lWdPv Utm NV WNdLXY CPX] ]V
G
Y] PV
LoTahWhLu YLlTjRX Y.
LoTahWhLu YXLs VY?
Jt\ NdLWLp Es[ lTUQ UtVjR
NuLPu Y
dLNNu EYm ]u TLs VY?
AUXv, AUXTdu CPVV] YTL[
GL
dLu hP ZtV Y
108

TPm - 5

WReLs
5.1. uW
WReLs GuT] Xe, RYW dLp LQlTm
ShW_u Es[ LUf NoUeL[m. WRm GuT WhV
Gu\ WdL Npp Ck T\lThP. WhV Gu\p
RuUV] Gu Ts.
WRm Eo NpLu dVU] TVm.
WhP[^ju 12% WRj]p EYdLlT\. CY
Npd YYUlTd LlTR UhUpXUp, Npu
TL[V YjRp, Gu^mLu ]YLUt\
]Ls, ThLs CPUt\m, Y[oR Ut\jR Jel
TjRp, AN Utm RtLl X ]Lm
DTu\]. EPp EY AUld CY Ru LWQm.

5.2. WRju Xm :
WReLs Xe, RYWeLk T\lTu\].
Xe WReLs Tp, hP, UNm, u, DWp
RVYtkm, RYW WReLs Tl YLLs,
RVeLkm T\lTu\].
5.3. A] AXeLs :
A] AXeLs WR Xdu GV AXL[
EPVRLm, WR AUlu LhU]jR EYdLd
VRLm Es[]. A] AXju TY] YnT.
H

H
R

C
NH

COOH
2

R=H

COOH

NH

[u
G lyc in e

109

A] AXm GuT A] LoTdd AXUm.

RGuT TdLj RPo, C -NH2, -COOH RL[j RW

Ut\ RL[d d\. C ahW_u A (H) ApX
jRp R ( -CH3 ) ApX ATd R ApX

AWUhd R ApX Tp] Y[Vj RVL

CdLXm.

D Utm L A] AXeLs
oUVt\ LoTp Es[ A] Ru CPjR
AlTPVLd Li A] AXeLs C YLL[L
Es[]. AY D Utm L A] AXeLs.
HOOC
COOH
H

NH2

H2N C
H3C

CH3
D

YYm
form

LiQ
Mirror

YYm
L-Form

YX TdLjp -NH2 R Es[ AXm D A]

AXm Gum, CP TdLjp -NH2 R Es[ AXm
L-A] AXm Gum YZeLlTm. CkR AXeLs B
mTeL[L JuPu Ju RPoPV. A] AXjp,
-COOH RV Ajs[ a -LoTu Ap -NH2
R CQklTRp A]jm a - A] AXeLs
Gu\ZdLlTu\].
[u RW Ut\ A]jm a - LoTp YThP
Su RL[l TtlTRp, AY oUVt\RLd
LQlT\. oUVt\ LoT]l TtlTRp, A]
AXeLs Jf Zt TiT Tts[. CYtp JV
YX\UL Zt\dV ( + ) ApX D A] AXm
Gum, JV CP\UL Zt\dV ( ) ApX
L A] AXm Gum AZdLlT\.
vd YYm, Utm Jf Zt RuUu AlTPp
AY D (+) ApX L (-) A] AXm G]d
lPlTu\].
110

TYL D-AUlTP, L- A] AXeLs

ALULm, CVtLVLm PlTRp L- A]
AXeLs CVtL A] AXeLs G] AZdLl
Tu\]. L-A] AXeLs TYLd PdLd
VY GuTRp 'L' Gu\ GjR h A] AXm
Gum lPXm.
A] AXeLs RYWeLm, XeLm TWkR
A[p TePlThs[].
5.3.1. A] AXeLu TiLs
5.3.1.1. CVtVp TiLs
A] AXeLs \Ut\Y, TL YYs[Y.
TYL o, AXm, LWm BVYtp LWVdVY.
B]p LU LWlTp KW[Y LWm.
5.3.1.2. YlTiLs
1. A] AXeLu AV AUl :
A] AXeLs \kR, AVm C YU
\kR AXj RL[m, J -COOH R Utm
NH 2 RVm Tts[. LWNp CkR C
RLp Ju u UVt\RLm Ut\u
uUVt\RLm NUXp LQlT\.
R-COOH

R-COO- + H+

R-NH3+

R-NH2 + H+

NUXp R-COOH Utm R-NH3+ WhPu Ht\

ApX AX TeL[L Es[]. R-COO Utm R-NH2 AkRkR
AXeLu CQ LWeL[m.
2. vhPo AV

CH3

+
NH3

CH
-

COO

AXPV vhPo AVu AUl

111

JW Xdp AX Utm LWjRV

TtlTRp, A] AXm, TmTm C]
AVVL (Zwitter ion) Es[. C AXULm, LWULm
NVpTPdV. C ] AVp LoTdd
AXjRp Es[ WhPu A] Rd
Ut\lT\, G]Y C] AV So Utm Go u
UVl Tts[.
+

NH3
R

CH COOH
(Cation)

So AV

H+

O
OH
+ NH2

CH

COO

(Zwitter ion)

C] AV

OH -

NH2
R

COOH

OH
R

NH3
R CH

\d hl T[ EYd\. C 570 nm AX
[s[ JV Eg\.

Ninhydrin

Amino acid

uahu

CH COO

A] AXm

(Anion)
OH

Go AV

AXd LWNp, A] AXm WhPu Ht\UPkR

YlT[L NVpT\, G]Y uXjRf
NjmT GouYV Sd SLo\. LWdLWNp
Go AV YlT[L NVpTYRp, uXjp So
uYV Sd SLo\.

RCHO +

NH3

+ CO 2

Bpa
AmUV
Aldehyde Ammonia

H
O
Hydrindantin

ahuPuu
O

3. IN GXdhd s

OH

OH

A] AXju LW uU ( So Utm Go
uUL[PV RLu hjRL ) LWNu
pH Ul ApX WhPu NYl TjR.
J lhP pH Ulp A] AXm uUV
CZk, uXjp SLof APYpX. CRt IN GXdhd
s ApX IN GXdhd pH Gu TVo.
4. uahPu ]

+ NH3

+
H

OH
O

Hydrindantin
ahuPuu

uahu
Ninhydrin
O

+ 3H2O
H

u ahu Bd_]t\ LoTdp dLm APk

CO 2, NH 3 Utm BpaPL U\. JdLlThP
uahu, YVt\lThP NH3 Pu ]k FR
112

Purple
complex
FR
\d
hlTs

TPm 5.1 A]AXm uahPu ]

113

Ammonia

5.3.2. A] AXeL[ YLlTjRp :

A] AXeLs, AYts[ R- RLu
RuUVl Tjm dVUL AYtu ]jRuU
ApX EVp pH-p Pu ] m RuUVl
Tjm YLlTjRlTu\]. R- RLu
]jRuU TWkR A[p YT\, tm
]jRuU At\Yk, AL ]jRuU
EPVRL U\.
5.3.2.1. ]jRuU At\ R - R
CkR YL A] AXeLp Es[ R-R ]j
RuUVt\ ApX o Ydm RVm. [u,
AXu, YXu, u, INu UjV]u
Tu\ B A] AXeLs CkR YLp AUu\].
H

COO -

CH

CH 3

CH 3

COO -

CH
NH 3

CH 3

Valine

YXu

RWp Es[ ahWdp R Ut\

NoUeLPu, ahW_u Qlp DT\, Utm C
SLp Es[ dVU] ] NVp RVm.
RWu Utm hlPTu, @]p AX]P AL
]jRuUs[RL CdLd LWQm \V Ap Es[
ahWdp Rm CuPp Y[Vjp Es[
ShW_m Bm.

CH2

CH COO-

HO

CH2

CH 2

CH

COO -

CH

COO

NH 3 +
N

NH 3 +

COO-

RWu
Tyrosine
CH 2

CH

CH
NH3+

Phenylalanine
@]p
AXu

AXu

CH 3

AWUhd TdLj RPWd LiP @]p

AXu, RWu Utm hlPTu H\d\V
]jRuUVt\Y.

NH3+

Alanine

[u
Glycine
CH

COO

NH 3 +

NH 3 +
CH 3

CH

5.3.2.2. AWUhd R RLs :

Leucine

hlPTu
Tryptophan

CH 3

5.3.2.3. ]ls[, uUVt\ R RLs :

CH 2

[u GV AUlTm, UjV]u TdLj RPp

]lTt\ RV DRo RVl Tt\RLm AUks[.

]jRuUVt\ A] AXeL[P CkR

A] AXeLp Es[ R-RLs p AL A[
LWVdVY ApX o mY], LWQm Ap Es[
] NVp RLs Pu ahW_u QlT
EYdu\]. u, jVu, vPu, Wu,
A v T o u U t m h P u CkR YLVf
NokRY.

114

115

CH
CH 3

CH

COO -

CH 2
S

NH 3+

CH 2
CH 3

CH COO
NH 3

Methionine
UjV]u

Isoleucine
INu

u, jWVu BVYtu ]jRuU, AYtp

Es[ ahWdp RVm, vp Np@lahWp
(-SH) RVm, AvTou Utm hPu
BVYtp AU RVm HtT\. Wu
YThP Y[V AUlTm KW[ ]j RuU
EPVRLm Es[. Wu C] RVl
Tts[. vPu WYL Bd_]t\UPk NLl
QlTp CQdLlThs[ A] AXm vu
CTVL Pd\, Cp CWi vPu XdLs
PNpT QlTp CQks[].
COO

CH

CH 2
OH

NH 3

CH 3

CH
OH

Serine
Wu

COO

CH
NH 3

CH 2

SH

CH
NH 3

COO

5.3.2.4. So uU Tt\ ( LW ) R-RLs :

TmTX] o mm R-RLs So uU
(-NH3+) ApX Go uU (-COO) Tt\RL Es[.
Xu, Ao]u Utm vu BV A]
AXeLp pH = 7 BL CdmT R - R
lPjRdL So uUVl T\.
CH 2 CH 2 CH 2
NH 3 +
H N

CH 2 CH 2 CH 2

NH 2

+
N
H2

COO

CH 2

CH

NH 3
Asparagine
AvTou

COO

NH3+

hPu
Glutamine

OOC

CH
NH3+

CH2

S S
Cystine
vu

116

CH2 CH COO
NH3+

COO -

NH 3 +

NH
+

5.3.2.5. Go uU Tt\ ( AX ) R-RLs :

pH = 7p, LW Go uU Tt\ R-RL[ EPV
C A] AXeLs AvToPh, hPUh
BV] Bm.

CH2 CH2 CH COO -

CH

Histidine
vu

Proline

HN

Wu

H2N

COO -

Ao]u
Arginine
CH 2

H2N

CH
NH 3+

C = NH 2

Cysteine
vPu

Threonine
jVu

NH 3 +

Xu
Lysine
CH 2

COO -

CH

CH 2

OOC CH 2

CH

COO -

OOC CH2 CH2 CH COO

+

NH 3+
Aspartic acid

NH3
Glutamic acid

AvToPh
hPUh
EQp NojdLs[lTm AlTPp A]
AXeLs AjVYVU]Y Utm AjVYVUt\Y
G] C L[L YLlTjRlTu\].
117

5.3.2.6. AjVYVU] A] AXeLs :

J X A] AXeLs E]eLk PlT
CpX. EPp BWdVm L CY EQp LhPVUL
NojdLs[lTu\]. G]Y CkR A] AXeLs
AjVYVU] A] AXeLs Gu\ZdLlTu\].
URd \kR 10 AjVYVU] A] AXeLs
RYlTu\].
AjVYVU] A]
rYU :
1. Ao]u
2. vu
3. IN u
4. u
5. Xu

H 2N

C C OH + H 2N C C OH

R O
R' O
Amino AXm
acid'
Amino acid
A]
AXm
A]

H 2N

6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

]p AXu
UjV]u
jWV]u
lPTu
YXu

5.3.2.8. WRUpXR A] AXeLs

X A] AXeLs WReLp LQlTYpX.
CY WRUpXR A] AXeLs G] AZdLlTu\].
E.m. Boju, AXu RV].
5.3.2.9. TlP QlLs :
WReLp Es[ A] AXeLs TlP
Qlu Xm JuPu Ju CQdLlThs[]. J

C C

R O

R'

OH

Peptide bond
TlP
Ql

AXeLu TVoLs

5.3.2.7. AjVYVUt\ A] AXeLs :

NpLp, AjVYVU] A] AXeLkR,
ApX Y NoUeLkR J X A] AXeLs
RdLlTu\]. G]Y CYL[ EQp NodLYiV
AYVpX. CkR A] AXeLs AjVYVUt\
A] AXeLs G] AZdLlTu\].

118

A] AXjp Es[ LoTdp R, Ut\ A]

AXjp Es[ a- A] RPu, TlP
Qlu Xm CQdLlThs[.

+H 2O

TlP Ql, AU Ql Gum

AZdLlT\. PTlP GuT C A]
AXeLdPV HtTYRm. GV d ]Vp
PTlP EY\.
TlP Ql Xm EYm [ Ts
TlP G] AZdLlT\. C A]
AXeLk T\lThP TlP, PTlP Gum,
u A] AXeLk T\lThPY hWTlP
Gu AZdLlTu\]. Tj A] AXeL[P
\Y]Ytk T\lThPY JL TlP Gum,
10 A] AXeL[P ALU]Y CQk
T\lThPY T TlP Gum AZdLlTu\].
H
C

H 2N

H
N
C

R
C
H

H
C

N
H

H
N
C

COOH

C
H

TPm 5.2 TTlPu AUl

WRm, Ju ApX Jud UtThP T TlP

NeVp B].
UV[u EhTP TX WReLs Jt\ T TlP
NeVl Tts[]. Ut\Y JW RU] ApX
119

YThP, CWi ApX TX NeL[ EPVRLd

LQlTu\], ( G.L. ) U[u, Su T TlP
NeVp EYs[. CYtp CWi NeLs JW
RULm Ut\ CWi NeLs Y RULm Es[].

Wju N Utm C ]Ls :

T TlPp Es[ A] AXm W (Residue)
G]lTm. T TlP, A] R, LoTdp R
BV C ]L[ EPV. A] RV CVLl
Tts[ T TlP Ne, A] ] ApX N] G]m, LoTdp RV CVLl Tts[
T TlP Ne, LoTdp ] ApX C-]
G]m AZdLlT\. A] RV ]p
Tts[ A] AXm N-] A] AXm Gum,
LoTdp RV ]p Tts[ A] AXm
C-] A] AXm Gum AZdLlT\.

2. LW\u
WReLu LW\u, pH Bp TdLlT\. IN
GXdhd sp LW\u \YLm, AXm ApX
LWjRf NodmT LW\u ALULm Es[.
3. J Ztj RuU
A]j WRdLWNpLm R[] LiP JV
CP\UL Zt\.
4. rUj RuU
A[ TVRL ClTRp, WReLs TX rUl
TiL[l Tts[]. AY
i. CYtu Fm YLm Lm \
ii. LWNp TU] A[ JfR\X EYd\.

UeLX] RuU EiP\. ( iPp [ )

5. WRm CVpZjRp :

R2

R1

R3

R4

NH2 CH C NH CH C NH CH C NH CH C OH
O

] amino
A acid
]
C-terminal

N-terminal
amino acid
] A]
AXm

AXm

R1, R2,R3 and R4 - Side chains

R1, R2, R3 Utm R4 TdLj RPoLs

WReLu DQV, QV, SuQV

AUlLdd LWQU] WReLp Es[ YU \kR
N RLodLlThPp, AY EVp NVp\] CZdu\].
CkR Lrd CVpZjRp Gu TVo. CVpZjRX],
T TlP Neu YY AUlT UtVUj ARu
KQV AUlT TdLUp Es[.

5.4. WReLu TiLs

8M urea
V

5.4.1. CVtVp TiLs

NVp
RuUVt\
S
Inactive
enzyme

enzyme
NVpActive
RuUs[
S

1. \m Utm Y

(denatured form)

(native form)

WReLs \m, Y At\Y. CY J TjR]Y

Utm TLjRuU Es[Y.
120

TPm 5.3 WRm NVZjRp (CVpZjRp)

TmTX] WReLu EVp NVp\u, YU

dL AXm ApX LWm, YlTm, V, AhPu,
121

BpLap Utm Nl AVL[p A\. CVpZkR

WRm TYL p \kR A[Y LWm.
5.4.2. YlTiLs
1. WtTl

PTlP RW A]j WReLm TWh

LWPu ]\. H]p CkR ]p \kR
CWi TlP CQlLs DTu\].

i. AX LWLs Xm
HCl - Tu\ APo LU AXeL[d Li
WtTdmT WReLs ahW[WL[d
LiP A] AXeL[j Ru\].
ii. WReL[f Rdm SLs Xm

RU] YlTXm, AXju uXm

WReL[f Rdm SL[V Tlu Utm hlu
WReL[ WtTl, APVf Nn\. hlPTu Tu\
A] AXeL[ jRdL WtTl TVuT\.
CkR WtTlp Es[ C \TLs.
a. RPok RU] YlTm CdL Yim.
b. WtTl tlT\Up CdLXm.

2. TWh LWPu \]
WRdLWNX, LWm LXkR CuSo 4 - Pu ]
TjmT, WRjs[ TlP Ql, RW
AVLPu ]k FR \s[ TWh AQf
NoUjR R\. \m APojVL UY TlP
Qlu GidLVl TjR.
O
C

HN

Cu
C

++

NH
N

TPm 5.4 FR \s[ AQf NoUju AUl

122

NH

H
C

NH

C
R

CkR ] WReL[f LiPm TiT BnYLm,

EVp ThLs[ WRju A[Y LiPm A[Y
BnYLm TVuT\.

5.5. WRju AUl

WRju AUl dLX]. B]p Su\L
AUdLlThs[. Xdu Es[ Cdu\ AUlu
AXL[l Tt NVLj RkLs[ J X AlTPd
LjdLs RYlTu\]. iPo vhWm Xe BV
AOoLs WReLu Su YLV] AUlL[l Ttd
s[]o. AY,
1.

KQV AUl

2.

DQV AUl

3.

QV AUl Utm

4.

SuQV AUlLs Bm.

5.5.1. KQV AUl :

WRju KQV AUl GuT T TlP
NeV EYdm iP RPW EPV A]
AXeL[l Tt\Rm. WRm, Ju ApX Jud
UtThP T TlP NeVp EYLXm. T TlP
Nep A] AXeLs lhP YNp
123

AUdLlThs[]. A] AX AXLs ( residue )

TlP Qlu Xm CQdLlThs[]. TlP
Ql J A] AXju LoTdp Rdm,
ARVjs[ Ut\ A] AXju A]
Rdm CPV EY\. X NUVeLp
AjRjs[ T TlP NeLs PNpT
QlLu Xm CQdLlThdm.
R1
H 2N

R2

CH

C
O

NH

CH

R4

R3
C

NH

CH

NH

CH

OH

AXm Peptide
N- ]
terminalA]
amino acid
TlP
bond
Ql

C- terminal
] amino
A acid
]

4.

A] AXeLs T TlP QlL[p

im, im CQdLlThs[].

5.

AjRjs[ T TlP NeLs PNpT

QlL[p CQdLlThs[].

6.

TmTX] WReLu AUl,

AUlTPV CZL[L Es[].

7.

KQV AUl, WRjp Es[ A] AXeLu

GidL Utm RfNWm Tt RLYpL[d \.

AL GidLs[ WReLu KQV AUl

oQdLlThs[. (G.L.)
i.

UR Cuu, 51 A] AXeL[l Tts[.

CY C TTlP NeLp TePlThs[].
A- Nep 31 A] AXeLs, B - Nep 20
A] AXeLs, Utm TTlPLs, P NpT
TXeLs Xm CQdLlThs[].

ii.

NhPWm - C, 104 A] AXeL[l Tts[.

AXm

J WRju KQV AUlT rdLiPY GRXm.

gly lys leu val ala glu COOH
1
2
3
4
5
6
GjRLV [jR EPVRL CkRm JqY T
TlP Nem, J ]p RjR A] RVl
Tts[ N-] A] AXjRm, Ut\ ]p
LoTdp RVl Tts[ C- ] A]
AXjRm Ttd\. T TlP Nep Es[
A] AXeLs N-]k GiQlTu\].
H2N

KQV AUl Tts[ dV AmNeLs :

1.

KQV AUl, A] AXLu ( residue ) iP

YNVd d\.

2.

WReLs iP Utm UlL[t\Y.

3.

WRm Ju ApX Jud UtThP T TlP

NeVp EYs[.
124

KQV

iii. UR Wm Apu 584 A] AXeL[l

Tts[.

WRju AlTP AUld ARu KQV

AUlT TlTm.

5.5.2. DQV AUl :

TlP NeV] s CZL[p, JeLt\ iP
ApX LXYV] UlL[PV ApX sL[X]
C TUQ, DQV AUlT EPVRLd LQlT\.
TlP NeVp ALL AUks[ A]
AXeLdPV Es[ vd (steric) RPou Xm
C EYd\. DQV AUl EYRp
DThs[ QlLs, ahW_u QlLm, PNpT
QlLm Bm.
125

i. ahW_u Ql :

ClQl YUVt\, \kR Bt\X EPV, NLl

QlTt\ Ju\m. C O Utm N Tu\ CWi Gou
RuUs[ AdL[p Jt\ ahW_u TePl TYu
Xm Ru\. DQV AUlT], YThP TlP
N
C Bd_dm,
QlLp,
Ru

C
N
O
O
H
H
Ru ShW_dm CPV
H- AdLs
TePlTYRp EY\.
C

O ........... H

YX Ll TdLULY ApX CP Ll TdLULY

AU\. CP Ll TdL a - s LoT]p Rdm,
TdLj RPdm CPV Es[ steric dhu LWQUL
\kR Xlj RuU EPVRL Cd\. WRju
AUlp YX Ll TdL a -[ LQlT\.

( ahW_u Ql )

DQV AUlp Es[ ahW_u QlLs

s ApX lhPh RL Tu\ AUlT EYd\.
TPm 5.5 s AUl

ii. PNpT Ql :

ClQlLs C vPu XdLdPV

EYu\]. CY YUV], dL Bt\X EPV
NLlQlL[m.
WReLs s Utm lhPh RL AUl
Gu\ CWi DQV AUlL[ EPV.
5.5.2.1. a - s :

T TlP Nep Es[ JeL] s

CZLd a - s Gu TVo. CkR sLs Rp
A] AXju LoT]p Rp Es[
Bd_dm, SuLY A] AXju AU
Rs[ ShW_dm CPV Es[ ahW_u
QlTp XlTjRlT\. G]Y a - p
Ned Es[V ahW_u Ql Es[. a - sLs
126

J p 3.6 A] AXeLs Es[]. J

p CWi NU]lsLdPV Es[ Wm 0.54
nm. C hf (pitch) G] AZdLlT\.
V ApX uUVt\ A] AXdL[V
AXu, u Utm ]p AXu BVY a - p
LQlTu\]. ]ls[ L[V Ao]u,
hPUh Utm u BVY a - [ XLf
NnYRLm, XljRuUV dLdVRLm Es[.
a - p Wu LQlTYpX.
a - s AUl , SLm, Rp LQlTm WRUV

LWhu BVYtp AL A[ LQlT\.

127

5.5.2.2. -lhPh RL AUl : (-pleated sheet structure)

CWi ApX ARt UtThP T TlP Nep
Es[ LoT]p Ru Bd_dm, AU
Ru ahW_dm CPV EY] ahW_u
Ql]p b - lhPh RL AUlT EPV EYm
Ru\. G]Y b - lhPh RL AUlp Es[
ahW_u QlT] NeLd CPp
RuYRm. CkR AUl Qld LQj]p,
NUR[Ut\RLm B]p lhPh AUl EPVRLm
Es[. b - lhPh RL AUlp Es[ AjRjR
NeLs CQVLY, ApX CQVt\RLY Es[].
C A] Rk LoT]p RPu
CQks[ TlP Ne JW Np Es[R ApX
Y Np Es[R GuTRl TjRRm.
NH2

NH2

H2N

COOH

R
R
C

O ....

....

HN

C
NH

O
....
....
....

NH ..............O

C
NH

O ....
...
...

NH

O ..............HN

HN

NH

C
HN

O
O

Parallel chains

CQV] NeLs

NH
NH.............. O

Anti parallel Chains

CQVt\ NeLs

TPm 5.6 lhPh RL AUl

CQV] Utm CQpX b - lhPh RL

AUlLp, TdLj RPoLs RLd Go Np Es[].
TYL [u, u, AXu BVY b - lhPh
128

QV AUl :
DQV AUlp LQlTm T TlP Ne,
Um UlL[PV, JuPu Ju dV YqY
A[L[PVRL Es[. CkR YY AUld
QV AUl Gu TVo. CkR JW J YY AUl
UhmRu EVp NVp \u EPV. G]Y CkR
WRjt CVtL WRm Gu TVo. QV AUlp
Es[ A] AXeLs Ju\ h Ju Wjp
CkRm vd RPou Xm UlLs LQlTYRp
AY Sed LQlTu\].
i. o Ydm NVpLs (Hydrophobic interactions)

HN

RL AUlT EYd\. Wp LQlTm b lhPh RLLs, QlT HtTjYRu XUL RLL[

Tdu\]. Thlp Es[ WRU] Th @TlWu
- lhPh RL AUlT ALULl Tts[.

C AXu, u, UjV]u, INu Utm

]p AXu BV A] AXeLu ]j
RuUVt\ TdLj RPoLdPV Ru\. CY
QV AUld RYV] XlTjm NVd
LlTRp J SpX lTUQ AUl EY\.
ii. ahW_u QlLs :

TYL CY A] AXeLu ]j
RuUs[ TdLj RPp EY\.
iii. AV ApX u XVp LYof :

CkR Lr GWo uUVl Tts[ ]ls[

]jRuUs[ TdLj RPoL[V LW Utm AX
A] AXeLd PV Lr\.
129

iv. YiPo Ypv N

]jRuUVt\
Ru\.

TdLjRPoLdPV

CWi U]UoL[PV WRm

( PUo ) G.L. Vhu TvT]v
Su U]UoL[PV WRm
( PhWUo ) G.L. U[u

v. PNpT QlLs :

RXp AUks[ vPu Ls[ (residue)

-SH RLdPV EYm S-S QlLs
Bm.

TPm 5.8 SuQV AUl (E.m. U[u)

TPm 5.7 QV AUl (G.L. UV[u)

5.5.4. SuQV AUl :

TX WReLs Jud UtThP T TlP NeVp
BdLlThs[]. Gm J WRm, CWi ApX CWid
UtThP TlP NeLs, NLlQlTt\ ApX
NLlQljRuUs[ dLl Ql EPVRL
CkRp A SuQV AUl G]lTm. CkR Rl
JLUo Gu AZdLlTm. JqY TlP Nem
U]Uo ApX Q AX G]lTm. KQV, DQV,
ApX QV AUlLp JLUp Es[
U]UoLs JuThP ApX YThP Es[].
( TPm 5.8 ) (G.L.)
130

5.6. EVp dVjYm YnkR WReLs

i.
hPRVu GuT hWTlP Bm. Cp
hPd AXm, vPu Utm [u BV]
Es[]. C GjW NhLs Utm TX dLm
Es[. C CQ SVL (co-enzyme) NVpT\.
U[u Bd_]t\UPVUp TLd\.
ii.

Cuu, dLLu Tu\ LQV aoUuLs

dLv Y[oR Ut\jR JeTjRp
DT\.

iii. BgVPuu Gu\ TlP Ah]p Wlp

Es[ X aoUuL[ YPj i\.

iv.

LX_u, J CQlj Bm. Wu Utm

ahWd Wu Tu\ A] AXeL[ AL
A[p Tts[.
131

5.6.1. [vU WReLs

[vUY] Bpu, [u Utm
Tl]_u Tu\ WReL[l Tts[. 100 ..
[vU Uo 6 8 WRjRd Lis[. [vUp
Es[ iUjRuUd ClWReL[ LWQUm. Bpu
p \kR A[ LWm RuU LiP NoUeL[]
LXvhWp, hWANp NWp Tu\YLPu CQk
p AL A[ LWm RuU Es[YL[L Ut\lTh
EPp WYeL[p GjfNpXlT\.

Tt
I. uYm PLp NV]R RokR
a. ]p AXu J

A) AWUhd A] AXm
B) AThd A] AXm
C) PTlP
D) [dL WRm
b. AjVYVU] A] AXeLs

A) EPp RdLlT\
B) EPp RdLl TYpX
C) WReLu EVp Rlp TVuTP
D) XVt\Y
c. WReLu KQV AUl CYtPu RPo

EPV

A) A] AXj RPo
B) lhPh RL AUl
C) YYUl
D) Q AXLu NmTkRThP CPm
132

d. WRm CVpZjRu p

A) KQV AUl U\
B) DQV AUl U\
C) QV AUl U\
D) DQV Utm QV AUl U\
e. WReLu QV AUld TlT]
QlLs
A) ahW_u QlLs
B) YiPoYpv N
C) PNpT QlLs
D) UtLiP A]jm
II. LhP CPeL[ WlL
a. GV A] AXm______________
b. A]j A] AXeLm______________ YYjp
Cdu\].
c. hlPTp Es[ ] NVp R______________
d. ______________A] AXjp Y] R
Es[
e. WReLu s AUlT] WReLu
______________AUlTl Ttd \.
f. [Ulp LQlTPR A] AXm
______________
III. NV, RY\ G]d L
a. WReLs RYWeLp LQlTYpX
b. BoRu J WRjp CpXR A] AXm
c. hPd AXm CWi LoTdp RL[l

Tts[.
d. UV[u ARu SuQV AUltLL Tl
Tn NnVm.
e. J PTlP, C TlP QlL[ EPV.
133

IV. TjL

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

KQV AUl GV A] AXeLs

[ u
Y] R
C ] AV
A] AXj RPo
Ao]u
SuQV AUl
U[u
QV AUl
UV[u
CVpZdLf Nnm LW
V
IN GXdhd s
V. dLUL PV
a. TlP Ql Gu\p Gu]?
b. [u D - AUlTRL
c. Vu AUlT GL
d. WReLs GqY CVpZdu\]?
e. WRju DQV AUlu Ti] [dL
f. EVd dVU] C WReL[ lh AYtu
YXL[m GL
VI. Y] PV
a. A] AXeLu YLlTjRX GL
b. AWUhd A] AXeLu AUlT GL
c. AjVYVU] A] AXeLs GuT] VY?
G.L. RL.
d. WReLu DQV Utm QV AUlL[ Y
e. WRju KQV AUlu Ti] [dL
f. uahP], A] AXju ]V GL
g. WReLPu, TWh LWu ] V?

134

TPm - 6

lLs
6.1. uW
lLs GuT] LUf NoUeL[m. AY Ym
ELp TWYXL LQlTu\]. YVp \lT
AY Ll AXeLu GvPoLs ApX GvPoL[
EYdm \PVY Bm. W ANp NWpLs
TvT lLs, vWpLs Utm Ll AXeLs
BV] dV lL[m.

6.2 I
I GuT] K
L I. CY
lLu GV AUlTm Utm p LWm RuU
EPV]. L I H
v ( AO) .
I LHOL Lv SVp
cH OA.

6.2.1
I HKA.
1. G I
2. G I

6.2.1.1 G I
CY H I.
P CnH2n +1 COOH (AhPYQ 6.1)
135

AhPYQ 6.1 CVtL LlLp TYL

LQlTm \t\ Ll AXeLs
AXm
C

YnT

LoTu GiL

CH3 COOH

C2H3 COOH

HK

C3H7 COOH

C5H11 COOH

C7 H15 COOH

C9 H19 COOH

10

C11H23 COOH

12

IKv

C13H27 COOH

14

C15H31 COOH

16

C17H35 COOH

18

C19H39 COOH

20

C21H43 COOH

22

LCK

C23H47 COOH

24

6.2.1.2 G I
CY H I
Bm. P CnH2n-1 COOH G
I HKA.
) G I.
H I .
(. .) L I
CH3 (CH2)7 CH = CH - (CH2)7 COOH
136

) L G I
H
I
(G . L . ) LLJ I,
AQ I.

LLQ I

dVjYm
1. I, K
A.
2.

Np M dV Tl A.

6.2.1.3 P I (EFA) Essential

Fatty Acids

I[ K .
M A.
P I ( EFA ) A.
FJ L G
I. ( PUFA ) LLJ I.
LLQ I AQ I L
.

AUl
CH3 (CH2)4 -CH = CH - CH2 - CH = CH (CH2)7 - COOH

( ]d AXm )
CH3 (CH2)4 CH = CH - CH2 - CH = CH - CH2 CH = CH (CH2)7 - COOH

( ]d AXm )
CH3 (CH2)4 CH = CH - CH2 - CH = CH - CH2 - CH = CH - CH2 - CH =
CH - (CH2)3 - COOH

( AWdPd AXm )
137

YXLs (Essential Fatty Acids)

1. EFA Np M H P O
A.
2. C TWUlTm F
F FC.
3. , L F,
h j RuU ALlTR
dVU]Rm.
4. vALs F Rp X T[L
NVpT\.
5. L, Tl]d
NVX KF A.

6.3. AOL
AO O LH .
P AO I
v M.
LHO F A.
v FO I A. F L
K I F NVpT\.
O

1 CH2 O C

(CH2)14 CH3

O
O

C
O

(CH2)14 CH3

2 CH2 O

(CH2)14 CH3

3 CH

C
O

CH

C
O

(CH2)16 CH3

(CH2)14 CH3

CH2

Tripalmitin (simple triacyl glycerol)

WTpu
( GV W ANp NWp )

(CH2)16 CH3

CH2

6.3.1.
6.3.1.1. H
1.

AO , c M
, cK . K
O .

2.

F c M
cK I .

3.

AOL G F
IO AL c,
G . AL
c G F
HO E F
G .

4.

G, , L G
.

5.

Ut\ LlL[
A.

6.3.1.2. FJ

Distearopalmitin (mixed
PvVWTpu
triacylglycerol)

( LXl W ANpNWp )

138

OH F
I v LH
O AO . OH F
I v
LH AO .

1. WtTl
200oC GJ c F
AO AO,
I c .
139

O
CH 2

2.

C
O

R1

CH 2

C
O

R1

CH

R2

CH 2

+H 2O

CH

C
O

R2

CH 2

R3

200C

hW
ANp NWp
Triacylglycrerol

R 3-COOH

Ll
Fatty
acid
AXm

P Diacylglycerol
ANp NWp

O G I
G I
AA. G A.
F A.
CH3 (CH2) CH = CH (CH2)7 COOH + H2 Pt, Pd (or) Ni

Jd AXm
O

CH3 (CH2)7 CH2 - CH2 (CH2)7 COOH

CH2

C
O

R1

CH

R2

CH2

] dVL

CH2

H
O

CH

+H2O
200C

CH2

P
ANp NWp
Diacylglycerol

vVd AXm
R2

R1-COOH
Ll

Fatty
acid
AXm
H

M A . Q
L G F F
A.
F F,
vF, L AP
FJ A.

U] ANp
NWp
Monoacylglycerol

3. QH ( M )
CH2
CH
CH2

O
O
O

H
O
C

R2

CH2

CH

CH2

+H2O
200C

U]
ANp NWp
Monoacylglycerol

H
H
H

+ R2-COOH
Ll
Fatty
acid
AXm

NWp
glycerol

M Lv Gu\ S QJ M
.

140

L LF
AO I
c. M QH .
CH2 - OOC C17H33

+ Na

OH

NlTRp
Saponification

CH - OOC C17H33

+ Na OH

CH2 - OOC C17H33

+ Na

Triolein
hWVu
(a fat)
(Ll)

OH

Sodium
NVm
hydroxide
ahWd^

141

CH2 - OH
CH - OH + 3C17H33. COONa
CH2 - OH
Glycerol
NWp

NVm
Sodium
oleate
KVh
(a soap)
(Nl)

 dA A n
M A. Q
OO H F Q
A. IQJ M Rp
RdLlTh ULs dLlT\.
4.
AOL G I
K, I, P
HH G
A.
CH3 (CH2)7 CH = CH (CH2)7 COOH + I2 C I / p
CH3 (CH2)7 CH = CH (CH2)7 COOH + I2

Jd AXm

BpLap

CH3 (CH2)7 CH - CH (CH2)7 COOH

|
|
I
I

9, 10 vK I

5. (R) (Rancidity)
I F G
I R cH
A. M Hp F
JK , Lv Su
H G A. GC
. G IF
HH GC A.
GC R E I
E, L I, hPXt\m NnVlThP ahWd
Pu CYL[p RPT\. RYW GiQnLp
142

Bd_]t\jR Rdm LWL[] YhPu E Utm

LWh]nLs ClTRp LhlTRp \YL
SPT\.

6.3.2. P
O C FJ PL
.

6.3.2.1. I Fd
A H I
G C
ILA E. I Fd
H IO P
A. I
I Fd P KA.

6.3.2.2. Fd
A C
ILA E.
FdOL H IO
K AL [m P P A.
Fd IO AL o [jPu F
MA . IO AL
Fd F
.

6.3.2.3. Fd
100 A H Q A E
Fd . Fd
H IO G J
P . Fd
IOu XdLp HO
E P F.
143

6.3.2.4. vA Fd (Polenske number)

2.

I G
0.1 N C IL L
E . Fd H OF
M IO P A.

6.4.1.1 AO vLH

6.3.2.5 K - I Fd (Reichert Meissl number)

5 A HL . ,
M I G
0.1 N C IL L
E. H AL
c IO P M
A.

6.3.2.6 C Fd (Acetyl number)

C 1 A H
M C I
G C
IL A E . Fd H
OH FO E P M A.

6.4 vLH (Phospholipids)

vLH LHO
. vK I, I,
.

6.4.1. YLlTjRp (Classification)

vLH A.

1.

AO vLH () v AO.
P AO .
144

vH vLH P vHR
.

JKJ O F LH
AO vLH . M
O A. F , ,
Cc, J dv P .
CF, L, v C, LH
Hv A AO
vLH.
O
O
R

CH2
O

CH

CH2 O

CH2

CH2

+
N (CH3)3

OH
Xu
Lecithin

XuLs NWp, Ll AXeLs, TvTd

AXm Utm LXu ( ShW_u LWm ) CYt\
Lis[. XuLs TYL \t\ Ll
AXeL[ , CPjm, \\ Ll AXeL[
CPjm Lis[.
O

1CH2 O C R

O
R

CH

CH2 O

OH
Cephalin
N@Tu

145

CH2CH2 NH3

N@Tu, NWp, Ll AXeLs, TvTd

AXm Utm ShW_u LWUL GjR]p A]m
Lis[.

NWUP EYd\. NWU TvTWp

LXPu CQdLlTh veL U] R\. C
veL TvT lLp dVU]Rm.

O
O
R

CH2
O

CH2 O

Sphingosine

CH

C
C
H
H H
H
C
C

OH
C

CH

CH 3

(CH 2) 12

CH

CH

CH 2 O

NH

CH
CH 2

Inositiol
C]hPp

O
OH

Ll
AXm
Fatty
acid

O-CH 2CH 2 N + (CH 3) 3

veL Uu

Sphingomyelin

LXu

Choline

6.4.2. AOvLHO
CH 2

CH 2

NH 3+

1.

AOv LH E
. O R
C G A.
O G
I.

2.

C M H H
O .

3.

c Egm c A,
G .

4.

L] G PF.
CA.

5.

I Gp
c P Tl A.

OH
Plasmalogen
[UoX_u

[UoX_uLs, LoTp GvPo Qlt

TXL DRo Ql Lis[. ApLp El \\
BpLaXm C [ Utm SWm dLp LQlTm.
6.4.2.1. veL TvT lLs
CY [vU NqLm, UVu E\Lm (myelin
sheath) LQlT\. CY ]jRuU LiP
RXlT Vm Utm ]j RuUVt\ Yp
TVm LiP lL[m. CY eLNu
G]lTm A] BpLaXd LiPs[]. CY AU
Qlu XUL Ll AXjPu CQdLlTh
146

CH

OH OH

CH

OH

TvTPPp C]hPp GuT B -OH

RPV C]hPX LiPRm.
CH 2

Ceramide

OH OH
H

TvTPPp
OH
C]hPp
Phosphatidyl inositol

NWU

eLu

147

6.

vLv SV c
Tl A.

6.

L A.

7.

VL J L
A.

8.

s NlPoLPu (receptors) CQm

]p DT\.

9.

hL E
A.

TvTlTv
Phospholipase A1

CH2 - O + CO - R1

O
R2

TvTlTvD
O Phospholipase

LWm
TvTlTv
Phospholipase A2 CH2 - O + P - O - N-base
(Choline)
(LXu)
O
TvTlTv
Phospholipase C
Phospholipase A2 produces lysolecithin which is a
potent hemolytic
which degrade red blood
cells.
vLv
A agent
CF
A

10. v F (reverse transport)

A.

C Rd\.

6.4.3 vH LHO
1.

E eL

2.

cK O Y A.

3.

CQ

4.

O G .

6.4.4. v LHO A
1.

M F F, M
F A.

2.

F A AA.

3.

FJL PF A.

4.

M A.

5.

H A A.
A A. LXvh WX
F A.
148

6.5. vWpLs
Y[V EhL] EPV NoUeL[m. Y[V
TuP] To ahW@]uku (CPPP) Gu\
EhLYm Ju\ ApX ARt UtThP -OH
RL[m LiPs[. F M
FO A.

6.5.1 v
MO I A
M v. C O A.
O L O A F
. URu CWjRjs[ LXvhWp A[Y
LhlTjY L dVUm.
6.5.1.1. AUl
LXvPWp C27 (C27 H46O) . Cp C3
Q R F C5 C6
H . L@
C17 . UjRm e
F vL . (TPm 6.1)
v EPVp A
RtT[L MA.
149

H o I, YhPu D, vWn aoUuLs

BVYtt u] T[L (precurser) [e\.
21

20

18
12
17
19

11

13

1
2
10

3
OH

9
6

14

22
23

27

24
25
16

6.5.1.3. vL L A
1.
2.
3.

26

4.
5.

15

TPm 6.1 LXvhWp AUl

6.5.1.2
1.

2.

3.

G ( 150 C )

4.

cK O
.

5.

CP I
I KF F A. [l
Tp LXvhWp ALUL Es[Rp SWm (nerve
impulse) ARtLPjVL Es[.

6.

v GJ R
OF R hPu
LXvhW] R\.

7.

vL R F vK I
I MM v
.

8.

H , ,
NodL M A.
150

6.

L A F.
L A.
CO qXCv ( RBC EPRp )
A.
O O A.
H c, H Ls 7 - v,
I D 3 , v ,
i, v v
A.
vLHd GWL NVpT\.

6.5.2 v
O A. M F
FO, O A. I
D J MA. O
GoLvWp I-DJ GoLLp
@TWp A.

OH

TPm 6.2 GoLvWp AUl

v
WO H .
1.

C7 - C8

A Ut\ H.
151

2.
3.

K H .
K CH 3 F
. ( TPm 6.2 )

c.

) 1
d.

6.5.3 vv
C7-I RW CRu AUl GoL vWX Jjs[.

(TPm 6.3) vv F
Rv L O
v. d dv
A .

AQ IF HO
E

e.

) 2

) 3

) 4

v
) MO

) O

) FO

) O

CnHn-1 COOH

) G I
) G I
) O LH
) vLH
II G

OH
TPm 6.3 vdUvWp AUl

JC
I. K M
a.

b.

L
) AO

) O AO

) I

) vLH

vK I
) G I
) G I
) P I
) OLH
152

a.

F I Fd ___________
A.

b.

___________

c.

KW ___________

___________P Ll I .
e. cK___________

d.

III NV, RY\ G]d L

a.

LHK O AO

b.

Fd LHO G
MA.

c.

vH LH AO .

d.

R E H
A.

e.

v I D .
153

IV TjL
1. LXvhWp

\\ Ll AXeLs

2. Jd AXm

CuVUVR
AXeLs

3. Xu

GV NW

4. WTpu

TvT l

5. AWdPd AXm

Xe vWp

Ll

V K J MO
1.

vHLHO F ?

2.

CF cH A
M[ .

3.

L A
M[ ?

4.

vL F ?

5.

vL F F ?

V WP MO
1.

AOR MK?

2.

vLHO P
P .

3.

vR M.

4.

v ? v
?

5.

Ll AXeL[ YLlTjRX Y.
CuVUVR Ll AXeLu YXL[m,
AUlTm [d.

154

TPm - 7

dd AXeLs
7.1. uW
dd AXeLs \Ut\, TL YYUt\
NoUeL[m. dd AXeLs u TL[
LiPs[. AYLs \V u Utm Wu
LWeLs, NodLW Utm TvTd AXm RV]
Bm. dd AXeLs DNA Utm RNA Gu\ CYLl
Tm. dd AXeLu AUlTm AYtu Tl
TsL[m Tt AY L dVU]Rm.

7.2. u LWeLs
7.2.1. HKI O
HKI HKIL
A.
C, I, C HKI
GOO . , S ,
R
AdL[ L . ( TPm 7.1 )

2
N

HN

O
N

NhPu
u Cytosine
(2-oxy 4-amino
2, pyrimidine)
Bd 4,
A] u

Pyrimidine

NH 2

N
H

Wp
(2,4, dioxy
2,4,Uracil
PBd
pyrimidine)
u

N
H

RVu

Thymine (2,4, dioxy 5methyl

2,4, pyrimidine)
PBd

5 Ujp u

TPm 7.1 u LWeLu AUl

155

CH3

HN

7.2.2 HKIQ

7.3.2 HK O

1.

HKI cK .

1.

HK cK CP .

2.

260nm

FJ UV O P. HKI
GO P P
A.

2.

UV O 260nm FJ PA. HK

3.

Ut\ HK H
.

3.

H .

4.

pH W - P K ( CVe
NUX UtVm ) Tts[].

4.

W - P K .

GO PF PL
A.

7.3. HK

7.4. GO I

7.3.1 HK O

O O GO
I . DNA - R GO
I RNA - GO I. DNA M
i KM A. RNA ,
H Pp A.

HK HKQ
A. HK L AUlTl .
HKI I HK
A. (TPm 7.2)
NH2

6
1
N

O
N

N
NH

8
9
N

Purine
u

N
H

A]u
Adenine
(6 amino purine)
(6-I
H)

NH2

H
Guanine Y]u
(2 amino 6 oxy purine)

(2 I 6
R Hu)

TPm 7.2 u LWeLu AUl

HK
Gd O IF . H HK
Bm.
GO L G
AA.
156

GO I, v , vK
I I
. RNA DNA L
GO. (Jt\) GO
O XTL[m.
GOd AXeLp, GO v P
Gv H H.
7.4.1 GO
GOLp HK HKI ,
v BVY ]. dVN
Lp CYLV] TuPv NodLWLs Es[]. AY
Tv Utm BdTv Bm. (TPm 7.3) HK
GO O HK F N-9
157

Q . HKI GOO
HKI F N-1 .
NodLW, LWjPu N-[dLd Qlu Xm
CQks[. (TPm 7.4)
O

CH 2 OH

H
H

H
OH

CH 2 OH

OH

GvPo Ql

H
H

OH

RKv
-D-deoxyribose

Kv
-D-Ribose

NH2

OH

OH

F . ,
v F. v, Kv
-RKv v HH
H. (TPm 7.5)

TPm 7.3 dd AXeLp Es[

NodLWLu AUl

Ester linkage

OH P O CH2
OH

Pyrimidine base - cytosine

HKIu
- Cu
N

CH2 OH
H

Ad
Glycosidic linkage H

H
H

H
OH

GO ()
A Nucleoside (cytidine)

TPm 7.4 dVNu AUl

7.4.2 GO
d V P L s G u T Y vK
GO. Kv
-RKR Ju ApX CWi R
F vK A. GO
158

H
H

OH
NH2

TPm 7.5 dVPu AUl

(Nhd AXm)
7.4.3 DNAM
7.4.3.1 KQV AUl
GO IF GO K
KQV . C L GO AL
RjRuUV \. LGO AL
Fl Ti . 5' ----> 3' Utm 3' ---->5 F
. L GO
. 5' v F, 3'
MK R F .
( TPm 7.6 )
1953, J.D. F.H.C. AK ULs,
X-F [m Y[ Bn, F
DNA M K FK AUlT A. FK
DNA s FK A. ( TPm 7.7 )
159

]
5 ' end
O

CH 2

O
O

2.

L GO Nem 4
GO . Q,
Q, RI Q L.

3.

L GO AL PH
F j RuU EPV. L
GO AL 5' vK
] V m 3'
.

4.

J v
PP .
A .

5.

s L m FF FJ t m
A. (Anti Parallel)

6.

sLm A.
s[ s[
. p
p I U U AUk A.
p p
C PP .

7.

F F s[ M A.
M H A.
I H
A. C a
H A.

8.

p Km VU] (Major
and Minor grooves) A.
A H
A. F
, DNA K CP
N DNA [ F A.

Y]u
Guanine

Thymine
RVu

CH 2

OH
H

O
O

H
O

NhPu
Cytosine

CH 2

OH
Phosp
ho diester
linkage
TvT
P GvPo

Ql

H
P

CH 2

A]u
Adenine

OH

TvT
P GvPo
Phosp ho diester
linkage
Ql

3 ' ]
end

H
O

CH 2

OH

TPm 7.6 DNA u KQV AUl

DNAM H ]
HKI I C . DNAM

u HKI H
\. v F
L A.
7.4.3.2. CWhPf s AUlu dV TiLs
1.

L GO AL
YX\ CWhP [
EYd\.
160

161

9.

NodL@l Lk, A]u LWeLu

GidL RVu LWeLu GidLd NUm
Utm Y]u LWeLu GidL NhPu
LWeLu GidLdf NUm. ARY A = T Utm
G = C. A + T = G + C Utm A + T / G + C Rm = 1.0d
NUm (H\d\V). u LWeLu UjR
GidL = u LWeLu UjR GidL.

7.4.3.3. DNAM

1.

DNA

2.

DNA

3.

DNA M

4.

5.

DNA

6.

JKJ O DNAM PL
Y[oR Ut\eL[X FF.

7.

1944Cp AY UdVh Utm UdLo (Avery Mac

leod and Mc Carly) Gu\ AVX[oLs DNA UWj RLYp
L[ Tts[, Gu Ru Rp RjR]o.
AYoLs DNA-I Utm LW (Transforming factor) Gu
AZjRo.

8.

DNA-p Es[ dVPLs Bd Ad

J O H .
Q A .

.
UH
J
A.
Lu G, ,
P, C PH
O
Y[oR
Ut\j\u,
F, nL

C
PH
K
F L .
K

DNA MA. J
WRjR EYdLj RY
V]
DNA -M F
A.
162

OL

A. H
JL
A.

AXm, Bd Yd AXm, Bd
Nhd AXm, Utm Bd Rd AXm.

7.4.4 RNA-M
K O K
H P RNA A.
RNA
H ,
O A. DNA L Q AA.
C RNA S , C S
A. vO H A.

TPm 7.7 DNA-u

CWhP s
AUl

RNA L GO. RNA J

HK HKI GO vP Gv
H H. F Kv
. F
(HK ). C C
(HKI ) RNAp Es[ dVPLs
Ad AXm, Yd AXm, Nhd AXm
Utm d AXm BV]Ym.
163

7.4.4.1 RNA-M

2. RNA (tRNA) (Transfer RNA)

K Kd Om
RNA A. 1) RNA
(mRNA) 2) RNA ( tRNA ) 3) K RNA ( rRNA )
, G P
A.

L RNA- M 10-15% tRNA .

RNA O I CP . 50 - 100
GO .
. LQlTPR
Fh , , C I,
C K L
. 6 - RNAm s[
HtTjR dVU]Rm. M
( Loops ) F
( arms ) tRNAM A. KQV H
F DQV A.
( TPm 7.8 )

7.3.4.2 RNA (mRNA) (Messenger RNA)

L A RNA O mRNA 15% A. KQV .
c . 1000-10,000
GO . Q
vK 3' 5'
. P C GIOL
A.
mRNA O 5' F
v . mRNA
dVv (Nuclease) Gu\ Su RdRk
A 3' J Q (Poly A)
A. mRNA dVv

A] AXm
]
]

A] AX s

L A.

s[V c
UlL[ EPVRL A.
C (Hairpin) DQV A.

YXLs
1) ML
HF mRNA A.
2)

WR K
.
164

GoLPu Ri
GodLPu Y[

Jls LWm
(Wobble base)

GoLPu

TPm 7.8 tRNA-u DQV AUl

tRNA- u

DQV AUl [Yo CX

Tus[. [Yo CX AUlu dVl TiLs.
165

1.

F (Acceptor arm)
CCA

2.

7.4.5. DNA RNA

K, C 3-OH .

God F
RkdA.

mRNA M

3.

T C

4.

D-F CX AL[

AhPYQ 7.1

RNA

DNA

F TYL LQlTPR C
jRd .
.

YXLs

1. R Kv
.

1. v

2. C

2. TYL I

1.

WRm RVdLlTm CPjt, I

I A.

3.
Bm CWim Go
NLp Np\.

3. Q Bm

2.

WRm K 20 I I
tRNA \Y A.

4. HK HKI
O

4. HK HKI
O CpX

3. K RNA (rRNA) (Ribsomal RNA)

G+C=A+T

G+C=A+T

O RNAO 80% K RNA

A. KO A.
KO rRNA A.
K GO A. rRNAM
c 100-600 GO. rRNA DQV
. CZds[V JjR LWeLd
PV HtTm CQ (Base Paring), CWhP s
ApX Y[ TV EYd\.

5. T
A

5.

APYpX

6. LW c H

6. LW c H

MM A.

YXLs
1.

NO F A.

2.

WRm K BWmdm MO A.
166

7. M
A

8. DNA, EhL Utm

UhPLuhVp
Es[.

7. C M F

8. RNA, dVXv Utm

NhP [Njp Es[.

167

7.4.6. dVNLs Utm dVPLdL]

GjdLhLs
AhPYQ 8.2
LWm

e. LWj]p TdLlTPR GO I
) DNA

) tRNA

) mRNA

) rRNA

dVN

dVP

A]u

A]Nu

Ad AXm

1. TC F _____________GO I.

Y]u

Y]Nu

Yd AXm

NhPu

Nhu

Nhd AXm

2. _____________GO I H

RVu

Ru

Rd AXm

Wp

d AXm

Tt

) mRNA

4. _____________RNA, DNAML A.
5. _____________.
1. HK F OV P 260 nm
FJ .

a. RV
) tRNA

3. _____________ GO.

III K ApX G]d

I. K M
) DNA

II G

) rRNA

b. I

2. C HKI .

) HK

) GO

3. GO GO
A.

) GO

) HKI

4. GOv RNA .

c. Go F
) DNA

) tRNA

) mRNA

) rRNA

d. I

5. DNA RNA FK .
IV. TjL

1. NhPu

u LWm

2. RVu

Wu LWm

3. tRNA

Ad AXm

) H

) H

4. dVP

ATP

) H

) I

5. dVN

A] AX ]dLm

168

169

V K J MO
1. GO ?
2. HK ?
3. v Gv H ?
4. DNA J F ?
5. Q W-] ?

VI. W M MO
1. HK HKI O MK?
2. DNAM KQV M?
3. DNA RNAO ?
4. AKA DNA FKJ A
?
5. tRNAM ?

170

TPm - 8

YhPuLs
8.1. uW
I MAO
J I CP M EPdj
K O RlTm. CY
Lp RVdLlTYpX. M XU
AO. I, M I CP
MXV A.
I FJ
H V, F. JKO
YhPm PH FV Tl
Tt, PH V Au\. TmTX]
YhPuLs EPu CQ SL[L NVpTu\].
TYL NR RYV]
Im TU] M OA.

8.2. YLlTjRp
I T Y L
L [ L
dLlTu\]. A) Llp LWm YhPuLs,
B) p LWm YhPuLs.
8.2.1. Llp LWm YhPuLs
ILs A, D, E Utm K CjRVf NokRY
CY p LWYpX. B]p LlTdLWdm,
LU LWlTuLp Gp LWu\]. EPp YhPu
Lu LPjRdm Y[oR Ut\jtm Ll
ClT AYVU\.
171

8.2.1.1. YhPu - A
I A Xe EQl TsLp UhU
LQlT\. C u YLLs, T\YLs Utm
ThLp LQlT\. RYWju UgNs \Ls,
, Utm LWhuLs Utm lP_kRu
BVY YhPu A- u u]Ls Bm.
LWh]n NoUeL[ Sm EPX] YhPu A
YL Utm \PV.
LWhu YVp AUl Bd_]t\
UPk CWi XdLs YhPu AY EYd
\. Ut\ W YhPuLs JW J Xd\
EYd\. LWhu, ApX LWhu ApX
lP_kR] P YhPu A YL Ut\m
APRp AL \u YnkRY.

YhPu A CYLlTm : YhPu A1 LPpYr

uLu LpWp LQlT\. YhPu A2 Suo
YruLu LpWp LQlT\. TdLjRPp
BpLap RV EPV YhPu A Wh]p
( Retinol ) (TPm 8.1) G]m, Bpa RV EPV
YhPu A Wh]p (Retinal) G]m AZdLl
T\.C YhPuLm YVp AUlp
R[Y YThPm EPVdLf NVpLp JW
UVL NVpTu\].
H3C

CH3

CH3

CH3

CH2OH

CH3

Wh]p
(Retinol)
Retinol
(Vitamin A
1)
YhPu A1
172

H3C

CH3

CH3

CH3

H3C

CH3

-Carotene

CH3

CH3

H3C

CH3

LWhu

TPm 8.1 YhPu A1 Utm

LWhu AUl

YXLs
A) YhPu A EPu A]j NpLu Y[oR
Ut\m Utm Y[ofd AYVm.
B) C Wh]p Utm WRjk EYm dLX]
hlT[] WPlu EYdLjt
AYVU\. Wh]p LQlTm WPlu
Gu\ \ \Y] YfNjp TodL ER\.
C) B W dV U] R p , l T L Lo V u
LZlTPXm Utm YNlTRu EhT
CYtt YhPu A AYVUm.

XeLs
A]j XeLu LpWp ALUL YhPu
A LQlT\. u GiQn dVU] XUm.
Tp, hPdL, TUV] CXL[ EPV LnLLs,
UgNs \ LnLLs Utm TZ YLLp LWhuLs
AL[p LQlT\. CY Ytd Pp YWp
YhPu A YL Ut\lT\.
RYLs
EPp CWjRju A[Y TWUlTR AlTPVL
Yj YhPu RYV] GjRdLs[lT\.
VoLs, TX YWeLs YhPu A CpXR EQY
173

GjRdLsmT AL Ut\eLs LQlTYpX.

EPp Nj YdLlThP YhPu A AYNW LXjtLL
AL A[p AdLlT\. TXRWlThP YV]d
TkWdLlThP YhPu A A[Ls Z
LdLlThs[.
Tf[m ZkRLs

1500 IU / Ss

- 2000 - 3000 IU /

TVYoLs

- 5000 IU /

LolHE Utm
Thm RnUoLs

- 6000 - 8000 IU /
(IU = International units)

EhWjRp Utm NjRp

YhPu A Utm LWhu Pp Xm
EhWdLlTh Qo KhPjt GjfNpXlT\.
EhLs[lThP \ u Rp Ik U SWjp
ALThN YhPu A EhWdLlT\. LWh]P
YhPu A EhWjRp L AL YLUL SPT\.
URu LpWp 95% YhPu A Nj YdLlT\.
\Y] A[ WWm, AlTv Utm
WLjm LQlT\.
\T
I A J PP
FdA. GJ G Op
F H OF F
A. G L YYd\.
ALlTV] ApX iPSs \T LoVp
i HtTP YYd\. CkX WlRpV ApX
LWhPUXV G] AZdLlT\.
174

8.2.1.2. YhPu D
I D .
1.

LpC (I D3) GuT EQp

CVtLV] AUlTm. ( TPm 8.2). CY
Rd Ap 7ahW LXvhWk V
Ju uXp ( \ FRd LoLs) EY\.

2.

pC ( I D2 ) I
d NVtL AUlTm.
SLk jRdLlTm GoLvWp Gu\
NoUjR \ FRd LVdLjt EhTjmT
EY\. YhPu CkR AUl TVuRWdV
TsL[] UodLWu Utm ZkR EQLp
NodLlT\.
CH 3
H
C
CH 3

CH 3
CH 2

CH 2

CH 2

CH
CH 3

CH 2

LXLp@TWp
( YhPu D3 )

OH

TPm 8.2 YhPu D AUl

YXLs
YhPu D EPp Y[ofdm, Gm Utm TtL[
TWUdLm AYVU\. LpVm Utm TvTWv
Pk EhWdLm Gm Utm TtLs, LpVm,
TvTW^ Gjd Ls[m YhPu D ER\.
XeLs
YhPu D CVtLp TWYXL LQlTYpX. u
GiQp dVUL LpWp GiQp ALUL Es[.
175

Tp, YiQn, hPu UgNsL BV EQ

YLLp Uhm YhPu D LQlT\.

RYLs
EPdj RYV] YhPu D u hP A[Y
YWVjd Rp L]m. V Ju ERVp EPp
RVdLlTm YhPu Du A[, URd URu
UT\. TYL TmTX] UdLs YhPu DV
V Jk Tu\]o. YhPu D ZkLs Utm
YoLd, EPp Y[of Utm Gm Y[ofdLL
TVYoL[ P ALm RYlT\.

8.2.1.3 YhPu E
YhPu E NVX] PL@TWpLs G]
AZdLlTm GiQt\ NoUeL[p SPT\.
PdL@TWp YhPu E G]lT\. YhPu E
AUlp P ahW TuNTWu EhL IN]n
TdLj RPPu CQdLlThs[. (TPm 8.3) CY UgNs
\ GiQn Tu\Y. Llp LWm CVpPV.
CH3
OH
CH3
H3C

O
CH3

CH3
CH3

CH3

CH3

Tf[m ZkRLs
Utm YoLs

400 IU/Ss

TVYoLs

200 IU/Ss--

TPm 8.3 YhPu E AUl

Lol Utm Thm RnUoLs

400 IU/Ss

YXLs
YhPu E u RuUlT Go Bd_]tVL
NVpTY Bm. YhPu A Bd_]t\m APYR
Rj, YhPu A EPp TVuTht PdU Nn\.
YhPu E , T \\ Ll AXeLu
Bd_]t\jRd \j Xm NRWQ Np NqLs
TWUlTp ER Nn\. UXt (Hemolysis)
GWL CWjR Yl NpL[ TLd\. YhPu E
XeLm URm C]lTdL NVpLp
RYlT\. NpLs ofm T dVU]
TLdm NVp DTu\].

EhWjRp Utm NjRp

YhPu D EhWdL Ll AjVYV Um.
YhPu D Qo YVL CWjR KhPjR APk LpWp
Utm WLjp AL[ Nj YdLlT\.
\T
ZkRLp YhPu D\Yp dLhv (Rickets)
Gu\ Sn EY\. LpVm Utm TvTWv Tt\d\
HtTh GmLp T\. Y[of APVR Tf[m
ZkRLs Y[of APkR Tf[m ZkNL[ P AL[
dLhv SVp TdLlTu\]o. TVYoLp
YhPu D Tt\d\Vp BvV UXV
(Osteomalacia) Gu\ Sn EY\. CkXp GmLs
YLm, YU um, Y ALm EPVRLm
LQlTm.
176

-Tocopherol
PdL@TWp

XeLs
LU R GiQn, UdLf N[ R GiQn
YhPu E ALs[ CVtL XeL[m. RYW GiQn
Utm LlLs \kR XeL[m. Tl YLLs Utm
Xe EQLs PdL@TWp ALPV XeL[m.
177

RYLs
YhPu E RYL[ j LhRp Ld
L]Um. CRu RY GjdLs[lTm T \\
Ll AXeLu A[Y TjR. EQp Es[ J
Wm T \\ Ll AXeLPu (PUFA) 0.4 .
PdL@TWp GjdLs[ Yim GuT TYL
(
HtdLs[lThs[. CkR A[p GkR Wf]m
ClTpX. H]p T \\ Ll AXeLs
Es[ A]j XeLm YhPu E ALPV
XeL[m.
AL[ YhPu E Gjd LsYRp, ILd
(Ischaemic) CRV Snd GW] TLl HtTYRL Gjd
LhLs \lThs[]. H]p AL[ YhPu E
[vU lTWhuLp Es[ T \\ Ll
AXeLu Bd_]t\jRj Rd\ Utm CkR
Bd_]t\m AWvWv (atherosclerosis)
(LW] Bds YoLp Ll TRp) BWmdLd
LWQU\. TVuRWdV A[Y] 17-- 40 .
PdL@TWp / Ss Bm. CkR A[ NRWQ EQk
Pdm A[Y P ALUm.
TVYoLs: 25--30 .. / Ss.

EhWjRp Utm NjRp

YhPu E Ut\ Llp LWm YhPuL[
TX YtdPp Tp LlPu Noj
EgNlT\. CY LpWp, NRlT Utm EPp Ll
CYtp Nj YdLlT\.
\T
YhPu E \T, XeLp rLiPYt\
HtTj\.
178

C]lTdL NpLs NYW CVeLU. (Reproductive failure)

ii) CWjR Yl NpLs EPRp ( Hemolysis )
iii) RN vhW@. ( Muscular dystrophy )
i)

8.2.1.4 YhPu K
YhPu K CWjR TdL Rdm (Anti hemorrhagic)
YhPu G]lT\.
u NoUeLs YhPu Ku EVp ]NVp
\PVY. AY.
a) TpX]u, (phylloquinone) NRWQU] EQ
XUm, TfN CXL[ EPV LnLLp
LQlT\.
b) U]]u, (menaquinone) YTm [eL[d
LiP TdLj RPPV, Yt Pp Ts[
Td VdL[p RVdLlTm NoUeL[m.
c) U]PVu, (menadione) C J NVtL NoUm,
Y[oR Ut\UPk TpX]]j R\.
O
CH3

U]PVu
Menadione
TPm 8.4 U]PVu AUl ( YhPu K )

YXLs
CWjR E\Rdj RYV] WjWmu Gu\
T[ EYdL YhPu K AYVU\. Yt Pp
TdV NRWQUL AL[ YhPu K I EtTj
Nn\. YhPu K EgNlTRp jRo uXp
179

GRdLlT\. R[ YhPu K, LpWp, CRVm,

Rp NRlT Utm WLeLp Nj YdLlT\.

XeLs
TfN CXL[ EPV LnLL[] vT]f, hPd
Lv, LX Tu\Y YhPu K LiP dV
XeL[m. L@[Yo, LU R RVm dV
XeL[m. LWh Utm E[dZe KW[ SpX XeLs
Tp, C\f Utm u RV] \YL YhPu K Il
Tt\ XeL[m.
RYLs
CqYhPu RYlTm A[Y] Ytd Pp
Tp Es[ YhPu K A[Y TjR. EhTp
Es[ YhPu K A[ ALUL CdmT EQu
YVL RYlTm A[ \Ym.
EhWjRp Utm NjRp
Llp LWm RuU EPVRp, YhPu K
EgNlTRp mTdv (lymphatics) YVL _]jp
RYV] A[ jRo ElL[p ALdLlT\. LpWp
TU] A[ YhPu KY Nj Yd\. CWjR
KhPjp lTPjRdL A[ Es[. GpXj dLm
\kR A[ YhPu KY Lis[.
\T
YhPu K \T WjWmu A[Y \lTRp
CWjRm E\m SWm ALU\. C CWjRlTdL
HtTj\. YhPu K \T RL \kR
ZkRLp CWjRlTdL HtTj\.
8.2.2 p LWm YhPuLs
YhPuLs B Lml[dv Utm YhPu C RV]
ClYf NokRY. CY Gp p LWm
CVpPVY.
180

8.2.2.1 B Lml[dv YhPuLs

i) RVu (B1) (Thiamine)

YhPu B1 AUl TPm 8.5p LdLlThs[.
N

H3C
N

CH3

NH2
CH2

CH2-CH2-OH
+

N
S

Thiamine
(Vitamin BB1))
RVu
(YhPu
1

TPm 8.5 YhPu B1 AUl.

YXLs
TX SLu AUlp RVu Q SVL Es[.
CY RuUVL dL^ EPj Bt\X Adm
]p DTu\].
RVu, Tv EYRp Q\. UWl
TiL[ Lis[ DNA Utm RNAdLp Es[ NodLW
Tv Bm. TU] A[ RV]l Tts[Rp
BWdVU] SWmL[m, SpX U]X EPV
Rt\jRm, NV] T, EQ NjRp Tu\ YXLs
NYW NnVlTu\].

XeLs
C\fLp dUL Tu C\f Utm LpWp
RVu NW NVL Gjd Ls[lTm A[p Sup J
T Es[. EXokR uv, LPXLs Utm hPLs
RV]m dV XeL[m.
NjkR RVeLs, WhLs, Utm, Tl
YLLs RVu J S[V RYp up J TeL
Adu\].
181

RYLs
Bt\p NXYRl Tj RVu RY
oQdLlT\.
Tf[m ZkRLs

0.3 -- 0.5 ./Ss

ZkRLs

0.7 - 1.2 ./Ss

TVYoLs

1.2 - 1.5 ./Ss

Lol Utm
Thm RnUoLs

ii) T@[u (B2) (Riboflavin)

YhPu B2 AUlp, Pp R Utm

TPlThP INApXd^u (Isoalloxazine)
Y[VjRm Lis[. (TPm 8.6)
OH OH OH
CH2-CH-CH-CH-CH2OH
H3C

H3C

1.3 - 1.5 ./Ss

EhWjRp Utm NjRp

RVL Es[ RVu Pp Tk Gp
EgNlT\. ALlTV] RVu dLp Nj
YdLlTYpX. ALlTV] RVu J T o
YVL YVt\lT\. UT RV]v Gu\
SVp AdLlT\.
\T
RVu \ThPp ALs RuTu\].
H]p NpLs dLk TU] A[
Bt\Xl T\ YpX. G]Y AYtu YXL[
NYW NnV YpX.
No, Al, U] E[fNp, Lp UWjl TRp
RVY RVu \lThPp HtTm BWmT
AL[m. TiTjRlThP (Refined rice) AV AL
A[ RuU EQYL EhLsTYoLPm TT Gu\
Sn HtT\. CY RVu \Yp HtTm W
SVm.
182

NH

Riboflavin

T@[u

TPm 8.6 YhPu B2 AUl

YXLs
@[YWReLs G]lTm SLp dVl
TlT[L T@[u LQlT\, RVPu
Nok CkR SLs dL^ EPj Bt\X EYd
Lj RYlTu\]. BWdVU] Rp WLNUL Jp
SpX ToYdm T@[u AYVm. RVs JYo
T@T[u Gjd Lsm A[ EPp RYV
P ALUL CkRp o YVt\m ALUL Cdm.
Gjd Lsm A[ \YL CdmT EPp, ARu
A[Y LY]UL TWUj, o YVt\jRj Rd\.
XeLs
TX Uhm AkYRp T T@[u J
S[Vj RY Yoj NnVlT\. kR Tu Up
Es[ RkR o Tp X YhPuLs CZdLlThPm
TXPdLh dV XUm.
183

RYLs
T@[u RYlTm A[, CWjR YlTp
Es[ hPjRVu PdPv Gu\ Su NVX
NRWQ Xd LiYYRt RYlTm A[Y
TjR. CkR Su NVp EQp Es[ T@[u
A[Yl TjR. C J [Y WRm Bm.

iii) Vu (B3) (Niacin)

Vu GuT u 3- LoTdd AXm Bm.

(TPm 8.7). C dLp dLh]UPL LQlT\.
CONH 2

COOH

Tf[m ZkRLs

0.4 - 0.6 ../ Ss

ZkRLs

0.8 - 1.2 ../ Ss

TVYoLs/ BiLs

1.5 - 1.8 ../ Ss

TPm 8.7 YhPu B3 AUl

TVYoLs/ TiLs

1.1 - 1.4 ../ Ss

Lol TiLs

1.4 -1.7 ../ Ss

Thm TiLs

1.6 - 1.9 ../ Ss

YXLs
dLv TlTVL EPdLlTh Bt\p Y
YRt Vu RYlT\. RpLp BWdVjtm,
YtdPp Tu NRWQ YXdm, SWm TLu
TWUltm Vu AjVYVUm.

EhWjRp Utm NjRp

dLd
AXm
Nicotinic acid

dL]U
Nicotinamide

CqYhPu Pp EgNlTmT TvTXt\m

NnVlT\. CY Pp Tp Ck Wp
EgNlTh dLd LPjRlTh EPp NdLlT\.
TmT o YVL YVt\lT\. T EPp
Y[oR Ut\jt EhT\.

XeLs
C\f EQ YLL[] L, Utm El C\f
Vu dV XeL[m. W YLLs, RVeLs,
Njs[ WhLs, Tl YLLs RV]m Vu
XeL[m.

\T

NUdmT RVu ApX AvLod AXm

( YhPu C ) CYt\ Lhm Vu AL Xlj
RuUPV.

T@[u \lThPp Xv (cheilosis)

ARY ERLu KWeLp YlLs HtTRp, L Utm
dp Np Tu\ AUl EYRp RV] HtT\.
Um LiLs YlTRp, GRp Utm AjRp, WLNU]
Jp ALU] EQo RV] HtT\.
184

RYLs
TkW NnVlThP Vu RY 6.6 / 1600 LX.
CY EQ XULY lP@Tu Gu\ dV A]
AXju (Vu u]) XULY YZeLlT\.
185

Tf[m ZkRLs

5 -- 8 ./Ss

ZkRLs

9 -- 16 ./Ss

TVYoLs

16 -- 20 ./Ss

Lol Ti

14-- -- 18 ./Ss

Thm RnUoLs

--

16 -- 20 ./Ss

EhWjRp Utm NjRp

dLhd AXm Utm dLh]U WLs
YVL Pp Tk EgNlTh Ztp
TeLt\. ALlTV] dLhd AXm EPp
NdLlTYpX.

\T
Vu ALlTVL \m T TpXdW Gu\
Sn HtT\. Rp V YfNjt EhTmT
PoUhv Gu\ Sm Yp lj RuU, Ytl
Td, U]Ut\m, U] E[fNp, ZlTm, \W NWUp
ClT, RV] Cd\Yp HtTm BWmTXVm.
CY LYdLlTPp C\dL Sm. (CkSn X
NUVeLp 4D- PoUv (Dermatitis), Ytl Td
(Diarrohea), TjVm (Dementia) Utm C\jRp (Death) G]
dLlT\).

H2-C-NH2
H-C = 0

CH2OH
HOCH2

OH

CH3

Pyridoxine
Pdu

HOCH2

HOCH2

OH

OH

CH3

Pyridoxal
Pd^p

CH3

Pyridoxamine

Pd^u

TPm 8.8 YhPu B6 AUl

YXLs
CVtLs[ YhPu B6 u u AUlLs
Pdu, Pd^p Utm Pd^u Bm. YhPu
B6u YXLs WR Y[oR Ut\m, A] AXeLs
RVl Utm EPjRp, lP@Tu] V]L UtRp,
Go EL[j RtjRp, U[s[ U
EYdRp, [u dV YXLd RYlTm
aoUuL[ EYdRp Bm.
XeLs
C\f dVUL ElLu C\fLs, (organ meats)
RVeLs, Tl YLLs, LPX, LU RLs
RV] dV XeL[m. Tp Utm TfN LnLLs
\kR A[Y YhPu B6 Ij Ru\].

Pdu GuT 3-ahWd 4,5 PahWd

2, Ujp u Bm. ( TPm 8.8 ) Y[oR Ut\ ]
NVp \PV Yhu B6u AUl Pd^p TvTh
Bm.

RYLs
EPp Es[ TmTX] YhPu B6 RNl
Ts[ [dL_u TvTX^Pu CQkk
Rm, YhPu B6 XV]m, TLdLlThs[m Bm.
Bt\p NXPlTRp, [dL_u Y[oR Ut\m
CYt\l Tj RYlTm YhPu B6u A[
AUYpX. B]p WRm GjdLs[l TYRl
Tj YhPu B6 RY Es[. NWN RY 13
U../. EQl WRUm.

186

187

IV. Pdu ( B6 ) (Pyriodoxine)

Tf[m ZkRLs

0.3 .. / Ss

ZkRLs

0.6 - 1.2 .. / Ss

TVYoLs

1.6 - 2 .. / Ss

Lol Utm
Thm TiLs

2.5 .. / Ss

YXLs
1. @Td AXm J LoTu AXLd LiP @ToUp,
Ujp Tu\ RL[d LPjm ]Lp CQ
SVL NVpT\.

EhWjRp Utm NjRp

Pdu Pp Tk Gp EgNl
T\. ALUL GjdLs[lThP YhPu B6 EPp
NdLlTPUp o YVL YVt\lT\.
\T
YhPu B6 \Sn ARL HtT\. SWm
TlL[] AjRp, dLuU, RNjR[of, No,
ZkRLd LUV] Yl Sn RV] HtT\.
Yl Sn Pd^p TvThPf NokR PUh
LoTdXv Gu\ Su NVp RuU \Yp
HtT\. PUh LoTdXvu [Ts GABA
( A] hd AXm ). C UjV SWm UiPXjp
(Neurotransmitter) JeL] SWm LPjRd ER\.
V. @Td AXm

@Td AXjp Pu (Pterdine) R TW

A] TuNd AXm Utm l Pd AXjPu
CQdLlThs[ ( TPm 8.9 ) p R[Y LWm.
TjmT XljRuU EPV.
N

H
N
N
OH

CH2-N

@Td
Folic AXm
acid

TPm 8.9 @Td AXju AUl

188

u, u Utm dd AXm Tu\Y

RVl RPoPV ]Lp TeLt\.

3.

CWjR Yl NpLu ofd AjVYVU\.

4.

vu Tu\ A] AXeLu Y[oR

Ut\jt @Td AXm RYlT\.

5.

YhPu B12Pu CQk @Td AXm Wuv

UjXt\ ]Lp ER\. (G.L.) Wp
RV]L Um ].

XeLs
@Td AXm W YLLs L@[Yo Utm EXokR
DvLp lTL LQlT\. hP, DWp Utm
WLeLs RV] dV Xe XeL[m.
RYLs
NRWQ URd YWVdLlThP A[ @Td
AXm RYlTYpX. U\L Lol Utm Thm
TiLd AL[ RYlT\.
Tf[m ZkRLs

50 U.. / Ss

ZkRLs

100 300 U.. / Ss

TVYoLs

400 U.. / Ss

(CH2)2

Lol TiLs

800 U.. / Ss

COOH

Thm TiLs

600 U.. / Ss

H2N

2.

COOH
CO - NH - CH

189

EhWjRp Utm NjRp

Pu [l Tm (Mucosa) @Td AXm
EgNlT\. LpWp (5.15 ./ .) A[ @Td AXm
Es[. @TXhLs GjWTv ( RBC EYdLm )
LrfuT GjWNhLp Ju\dLlTu\].
\T
YhPu B12 \T @Td AXju YXLu
\Tht YYd\.
1.

@Td AXju \T TV A[PV of

APVR CWjR Yl AdL[ Ztd
YYRp ULX [vd AV Gu\ Sn
HtT\.

2.

v Utm [vhv Utm YtdPp Tp

Tl Tu\ ALs RuTu\].

3.

UdWNd AV G]lTm LolTLXjp HtTm

Sn @Td AXjRd LlTRp dLlT\.

VI YhPu B12

YhPu B12 AUl

YhPu B12 AUlp Lu (corrin) EhL, 5, 6P
Ujp Tug CPNp (5,6 dimethyl benzimadazole) R,
J IN WlT]p AX, J Tv AX Utm TvTh
RPu CQdLlThs[. Lu Y[V AUlp
LTph (Co ) A Sp Es[. LTphu (CQ
\uLp Ju CN Bp WlTlThPp A (NV]
LTXu). ApX H2O ( AY LTXu ) ApX OH( ahWd^ LTXu ) ApX CH3 ( Ujp NV]
LTXu ) Gu AZdLlT\.
190

YXLs
GpX YhPuL[m P YhPu B12 TV hf
NoUUm. R[ LTph R CmXdu dV
TVL [e\. Gm Uw_p CWjR Yl
NpLu ofd YhPu B12 RYlT\. WRf
NodLm DT\.
XeLs
Tp, hP, TXPdLh, C\f, u RV]
AL[ YhPu B12Ij RWdV]. RYW EQLs B12I
YZeYpX. Um RYW EQY Uhm iP ShLd
EQYL EhLsmT \Th ALs EiP\.
RYLs
YhPu B12 RYlTm A[Y] SVLp RBC
of APVj RYV] A[Pu, Pp LW (Intrinsic
factor) \ WlTp HtTm ToVv AVYm
AlTPVL Yj A[PlThs[. YhPu B12u
GuhWaTd Zt lPjRdL A[ LQlT\.
C jRlTp WdLlTh Pp Tp im
EgNlT\. SVLp Pp LW \ WlTp
YhPu im EgNlTPUp iUd LLs YVL
YVt\lT\. CR]p SVLd, PpLW
\YL WlTRp YhPu B12 RY NRWQUL
ClTYoL[P ALm RYlT\.
NWN YhPu B12 RY
3 U.. / Ss Bm.
Tf[m ZkRLs

0.3 U.. / Ss
ZkRLs

1 2 U.. / Ss
TVYoLs

3 U.. / Ss
Lol Utm
Thm TiLs

4 U.. / Ss
191

EhWjRp Utm NjRp

YhPu B12I Pp Tk EgYRtLL
Ytl Tp J LW WdLlTY AYVU\.
C Pp LW G]lT\. ( Intrinsic factor - ( IF )).
YhPu B12 lPjRdL A[ LpWp Nj
YdLlT\.
\T
ToVv AV Gu\ Sn YhPu B12 \Yp
HtT\. C Pp LW CpXlTRp HtTm. J
UWVp SVm. G]Y EQs[ YhPu B12 CWjR
Yl NpLs ofd dVU]. BRXp Cd\T
EY[p TV (Macrocytic) CWjR Yl NpL[ EYdL
YYd\.
VII. TuP Rd AXm ( B5 )

TuP Rd AXju AUlp TlP

Qlp Es[ AX]u RPo, PahWd, PUjp
hd AXjPu CQdLlThs[. ( TPm 8 . 10 ).
TuP Rd AXm p Su LWm.
CH3
HO H2C

CH

NH

CH2 CH2 COOH

CH3 OH O
Pantothenic
acid
TuP
Rd AXm

TPm 8.10 TuP Rd AXju

( YhPu B5 ) AUl
YXLs
TuP Rd AXm RVLY ApX UodLlP GjXUu, A]u, Tv Utm TvTd
AXm CQkR hlT[LY Es[. A]u
Tv Utm TvTd AXm hlTs AUl CQ
S A ( CoA ) G]lT\.
192

Y[oR Ut\ YXLs CQ S TV]

CoAYp SPT\. C TXRWlThP Y[oR Ut\

]Lp TeLt\. CoA, AhPp CoA YL Ut\UPkR

\m dVUL LRlT\.
1. AhPp CoA LoTahWh, WRm, l
Tu\Ytu Y[oR Ut\ NVpLp dVl Te
Yd\.
2. AhPp CoA LXvhWu u]Vm. (Precursor)
LXvhWp RVl Utm vWn aoUuLs
RVlp dV XUL AhPp CoA [e\.
3. LXPu CQk AhPp LXu RVlp
Te T\.
4. X A] AXeLu NVp \d CoA
RYlT\.

XeLs
EXokR Dv LpWp, WVp _p (Royal jelly) RV]
TuPRd AXju dV XeL[m.
hPdL, C\f, u, Tp RVYm dV
XeL[m.
RYLs
TkW NnVlThP TuP Rd AXju Au\Pj
RY Z LdLlThs[.
Tf[m ZkRLs

1.5 2.5 .. / Ss

ZkRLs

5 8 .. / Ss

TVYoLs

5 12 .. / Ss

Lol Utm
Thm TiLs

10 15 .. / Ss
193

EhWjRp Utm NjRp

TuP Rd AXm Utm ARu EldLs Pp
Tk WLs YVL EgNlTh TY]
Ztd
PlT\.
RYd
ALUL
EhLs[lThPm EPp NdLlTYpX. B]p
o YVL YVt\lT\ ApX dL[p
Y[oR Ut\jt Es[\.
\T
UhPp, Yk, YtdPp TRp ETRLs,
TU] Y[of CuU, AV, LpWp Ll NoRp,
GP \ RV] CqYhPu \Yp HtT\.
VIII. TVu (Biotin)

TVu Tp] Y[V, LkRLjRd LiP

Jt\dLolTdd AXUm. ( TPm 8.11 ). okR p
R[Y LWm. P] p Su LWm.
O
C
H

CH (CH

H 2C

2 ) 4 -C

OOH

TPm 8.11 TVu AUl

YXLs
1. TVu X LoTd]t\ ]Lp Qd
LWQVLm, LoTuP Bd^P Gjf NpXm
RYV] Ju\m.
194

Co2 AhPp CoA

(G.L) AhPp CoA

LoldXv
UX]p CoA

2.

Rp Utm SWm UiPXjR SpX Xp CdLf

NnV ER\.

3.

AvTod AXm, Wu Utm V]u Tu\

A] AXeLp A] dLjp ER\.

4.

u RVlp ER\.

5.

V, RVlp Bo] h]L Ut\ TVu

RYlT\.

XeLs
TVu RYW Utm Xe EQLp TWYXLd
LQlT\. LU R, ThP, LPX, R RV]
dV XeLs Bm. Tl YLLs, XdmLs, C\f
Utm hP RV]m dV XeL[m.
RYLs
Pp Yr TdV Utm EQ YVL TU]
A[ TVu AdLlTYRp TVu \Th Sn
URoLp ARm.
Tf[m ZkRLs

10 15 U.. / Ss
ZkRLs

20 40 U.. / Ss
TVYoLs

50 60 U.. / Ss
EhWjRp Utm NjRp
TVu Pp Tk WL[p Gp
EgNlTh Ztd PlT\. RYd ALUL
EgNlTY EPp NdLlTPUp o YVL
YVt\lT\.
195

hP Ys[u LVm EiPdm LW

(Au) (Egg white injury factor). Avidin
hP Ys[s[ WRU] Au hP
Ys[p LVm EiPd\. Au TV] Pp
TRp CdLULl Qj TVu Pp Tk
EgNlTYR Rd\. NUdmT Au CVpT
CZk TV] Qdm NdV CZk \.
NUdLR hPp Au A[ \YL CkR Tm,
TVu \Th WfN]Ls TX YPeL[L AL[
P_u LQdp TfN hPV EQYL LsTYoLPm
ALUL Es[.
\T
TVu \T URoLp ARm.
8.2.2.2 YhPu C (AvLod AXm)
YhPu C AvLod AXm G]m AZdLlT\.
(TPm 8.12)
O

HO

HO

H
HO

C
C

CH 2 OH
L -L-ascorbic
AvLod
acidAXm

TPm 8.12 YhPu C AUl

YXLs
1. YhPu C EPp LhU] AUlT Ju\dLm
CQlj YL WRm, Np Utm dL[ CQj
196

AUl EYdLjp DT\. ClThLs PU]

dL[ EiPd\. PU] CWjR S[eLs, TtLs
AYtu Lp Su\Ll TkkRp, GmLs
Su\L CQdLlThjRp RV] CYtu
YXL[m.
2.

Go Bd^_]t\l TiTl Tts[. lTL

NqLp Es[ Bd_]t\m Tt\ YhPu E u
mT EYRp (regeneration) DT\.

3.

@TdCmT @ToWv CmTL JdL AvLod

AXm ER\. G]Y CmT EgN TVuT\.
Um WYL LVm BYp TeLt\.

XeLs
TfNd LnLLs YhPu CVd Lis[. J
X EQ YLLs Ut\ EQ YLL[ P AL[
YhPu C Vd Lis[. BWg, WhNlTZeLs,
GfN RV] ALUL YhPu CVd LiP
XeL[m.

RYLs
YqY YV]dl TkW NnVlThP YhPu
C A[Y] Z LdLlThs[.
Tf[m ZkRLs

--

35 . / Ss

ZkRLs

40 . / Ss

TVYo

--

45 . / Ss

Lol TiLs

60 . / Ss

Thm TiLs

80 . / Ss
197

EhWjRp Utm NjRp

Pp Tk Gp EgNlTh WLs YVL
Tf Ztd YhPu PlT\. LpWp, \ ElLs
Utm dLs \Y] A[ AvLod AXjRd
Lis[]. AL[ YhPu C EhLsY Cd\kR
A[Y EVojYpX.
\T
YhPu C u AL \ThPp vLo Gu\ Sn
EY\. CR]p GRL Tp Xdm T CWjRm LRp,
TtLs CZk TRp, DLp CWjRm YRp, GmL[
CQdm EV] NqLp Tlm HtT\.

3.

Y.
Gi

CQ Su
TVo

YhPu TVo

1.

RVu
TWTvTh(TPP)

RVu (B1)

Pd^p
TvTh

PhWahW
@TXh (FH4)

CQ S A

2.

@[u
A]u P
dVP
(FAD)

Su TVo
Utm DTm
]

TYh
LoTdXv
(Bpa
R
Ut\lT\)

dLh]U
A]u P
dVP
TvTh
(NADP)

8.2.3 YhPuLu CQ S YXLs

X B Lml[dv YhPuLs CQ SL[L TX
S ]Lp rdLiPY DTu\].
AhPYQ 8.1 YhPuLu CQ S YXLs

dLh]U
A]u P
dVP
(NAD)

Vu (B3)

Vu (B3)

dLv 6TvTh
ahW]v
(Tv@T GvPo
EYdLm)

YhPu
(B 6 )

AvToTh
A]
WuvTWv
(A] R
Ut\m)

@Td
AXm

S - A]p
Wuv
UjXv
(Ujp R
Ut\m)

TuPRd TYh
AXm (B5)
ahW]v
(ANp Ht\m)

Nd]h
T@[u
ahW]v
(B 2 )
(Bd_]t\m
Utm JdLm)

198

XdPh
ahW]v
(Bd_]t\m
Utm JdLm)

199

Tt
I. NV] PVj RokR
a. uYY]ts G EYL YhPu A AYVm.
i. WPlu

ii. Gm

iii. U[u

iv. aoUuLs

b. LXLp@TWp G]lTY
i YhPu D3

ii. YhPu B1

iii. TVhu

iv. YhPu A

c. CWjRlTdt GW] NVX EPV YhPu

i. YhPu K

ii. YhPu B6

iii. YhPu E

iv. YhPu C

d. TuPRd AXjp CQ S AUl

i. CQ S A

ii. PhWahW@TXh

iii. TVhu

iv. Pd^p TvTh

e. GR EhWjRp Au DT\?
i. TVu

ii. YhPu A

iii. YhPu C

iv. YhPu B12

II. LhP CPjR WlL

1. Gm EYdLjp AjVYNUL LRlTm
YhPu ________________
2. YhPu E NVp\] EPV NoUeLs
________________ G] AZdLlT\.
3. CWjRp E\Rd RYV] YhPu
________________
200

4. J LoTu NoUjR UtYp DTm dV CQ

S ________________
5. NRWQ LX_u EVp RVlp DTm
YhPu ________________
III. NV ApX RY\ G]d
1. X YhPuLs CQ SL[L NVpTu\].
2. YhPu D Llp LWm
3. YhPu B p LWm
4. FAD, YhPu B12 k T\lT\.
5. Pd^p TvTh A] R Ut\lTm

]Lp DT\.

IV. TjL
1. YhPu

- RVu TWTvTh

2. YhPu

B1

- ToVv AV

3. YhPu

B12

- LpVm EhWjRp

4. YhPu

5. YhPu

- LX_u RVl

6. YhPu

- Go Bd_]t

7. YhPu

- CWjRm E\RpPd

ToY

V. K YojRp PV
1. YhPuLu C YLV YTjL
2. YhPu A \Y] HtTm ALs VY?
3. YhPu C \Yp HtTm TlLs VY?
201

4. Pdu CQ Su ]Ls VY?

5. TuPRd AXju YXLs VY?
VI. rLiPYtt PV
1. B Lml[dv YhPuLu CQ S YXL[

[dL.

2. Llp LWm YhPuLs VY? AYtu

YXL[ GL.

3. YhPuLu YLThVX GL.

4. YhPu A Utm YhPu E u RYLs Utm ARu

\Th AL[l Tt Y.

5. YhPu C Utm YhPu B12 u RYLs Utm

ARu \Th AL[l Tt Y.

202

TPm 9

RdLs
9.1 uW
RdLs LU ThLs Bm. CY
FO FWO LQlTu\]. CY
M NodLlTu\]. G.L. NaCl Um RdL[],
LU XdLPm, ERWQUL CmT]
U[Pm, NpTo H\d\V A]j WReLm
CQkRs[. ,
RdLs RYpX, F
JK M YLjR ALd\.
KH YIl l
NF. CY cK Y.
L C u
T\.

9.2 YLlTjRp
dV [Ll HK
RUeLs Q.
Q F M Au ( >100 .. / Ss ).
L F . Q
M \, ( <100 .. / Ss ). L F
Utm FO CP M .
9.2.1 UdW RUeLs
C, vv, , K (),
mC A, X UdW RUeLs Bm.
203

9.2.1.1 LpVm

i.

L N ML C AA.

YXLs
1. L 99% C O
A. vv Q
EVj A.

ii.

F CF,
H .

2.

C I Tm F.
O .

C , TXPdLh, BVYtp ALm Es[.

J , v, dv L
AP AL A[p .

3.

C RYlT\.

4.

Q L, Qs L
Of JeTjR\.

ZkR C
A.

5.

SWm F
F e m RuUV Je
Tj\.

6.

C vPv, C
WCv FO A.

LpVju Te
L CF W W.
Y

9-11 I.A / 100 I.L

C.S.F

4.5 - 5 I.A. / 100 I.L.

70 I.A / 100 A

15 I.A / 100 A

CWjRjp LpVju A[
HvM CF 9 11 I.A / 100
.. CkR A[ TmTm PL . A
L, PL W K
A.
204

AL

Tf[e

0.36 - 0.54 I.A /

ZkRLs

0.8 - 1.2 A /

0.8 A. /

Lol Utm
Thm RnUoLs

1.5 / Ss

A[

AA N c
M C v, ,
]. CL F
N C F M AAA.
C C co, Hco Y N
N YVt\lT\.

C A F E
C E Tp pC AA
FAu\].
I D:
I - D C AA Fdd\.
205

LpVju NRm

M AL A[ CjR
EhWlTRt ER\.

C AA p Es[
C Q N cA. ICP
AA C Cc cA. C
KMA C M Cco
Q N N c CF
.

pH:

L Es[ I G,
AA .

v :
C AA F E
M v . L Es[ I
G Xdd AXju XUL F
C AAp Fd.
TvThLs
M Es[ F v C
AA A. M C vR
MA 1:1 .
Ll Utm Ll AXeLs
AAL L
I FA, CjPu p LWVR
LpVm ElT EYd\. C LYL YV\.
CR]p LpVm EhWjRp \\.
Bd^d AXm
C Lp Es[ L IU]
LpVjPu CQk p LWVR LpVm Bd^Xh
ElTL U LYL YVt\lT\. CR]p EhWjRp
\\.
206

\T
CF hP PP
F HT K. F
C . F
C

Au ] .
Kv
( ZkRLp ) d A I - D
Bm. F C vC
C . LpVm M
Q ( Tetany ) v C
( Osteomalacia ) ( TVYoLp ) .

9.2.1.2 TvTWv

O I A vv .
WLs I CuVUVRRL Es[.
1.

2.

vLlH. AA
YA.

3.

dd AXeL[V DNA RNA. eL[

EYdYm, Hp NVpTLm A
t\.

4.

ATP ADP Lu d HtT

IdLm OJP Nn\.

207

5.

F, ,
O C F RYlA.

6.

ReLp ( Buffer ) d. I - KMA

A.

CWjRjp TvTWv
, K F vR
2.5 - 4.0 I.A / 100 I.LhPo Utm C 4 - 5 I.A. / 100
I.L .
XeLs
T v T W v M E Q L p
LQlT\. , , h, Cc, u C\f
Tu\Y Xe EQYm.

\TLs
vv Kv SVm.
F vR
FA.

9.2.1.3. NVm

1.

Y FFp NVm dV Sou AVVm.

L, FI Q ,
, v
A.

2.

NVm AVV], [W Utm TLoT]h

LPu Nok AXLW NU XV Wd\.
L FeLu
F F O
A.

3.

, CLp v F
A A.

O , dv, W J
A. L C l
vW^ .
RYLs
Tf[e

- 0.24 - 0.4 I.A /

ZkRLs

- 0.8 - 1.2 A /

4.

QV] W] j TWUd\.

- 0.8 A. /

5.

HE Utm
Thm RnUoLs

SWm O , O Lm
(permeability) NVXm TWUd\.

- 1.5 A /

F F
F F 310 - 340 I.A./100 I.L
. CWjRf C dLp QLs .

AA N c
Y A I vv
AAd . F C
vv AA A. vv C
cm Q Nm c A.
208

( NRWQ El ) A .
, TXP QOp AL A[m
L, L RYV] A[m Es[.
209

4.

A.

F K F 5
- 10 A .

5.

AX F L]u EfN
C .

AA N c

, L
Ytd FJp
AAA. 95% L Cc
O L I O AA
A.

K HJL
K v F C
F YA. K v
A CWjRjp N cm
ALdLlTRp NVju A[ \\.
F F M
Rp HtTm X KI (Hyponatremia)
. F F M
Rp HtTm X KI . (Hypernatremia)

9.2.1.4 C
w NmTL
C l . L I A
.

1.

L , C I
P.

2.

Hc F LWj RuUV TWUd\.

3.

L I - G YF C
K A.
210

O C . MO
C, , , eQ,
, PO , F
O, dv O (legumes)
C A.

, M CVju A[
4 A / .
AA N c
Ytd FJ ThPVm
AAA. L Cc
Q N cA.

C ,
Fp Y . F,
YtlTd, TuU c EiQUp CjRp
A CF d.
FC Utm WL NVZlu Tm ThPVju
\T . , O L,
O NVpTLs C
PP.
211

9.2.1.5 K

9.2.1.6. UdVm

1.

QV] , I-
G P.

2.

AV, o NUX Utm NqTWYp

Wd\.

3.

, JP Es[ NU] o, K
- I F NnV \.

L, 70% mC H C
v^ . e
F FO A. FO
A I Q. TvTh RL[
Ut\m Nnm SLu NVpTL[j iPm,
Bd]t\ TvTX`u NVd QdLW
VLm NVpT\.

4.

v Fu ThP Fdd\.

[u C , .

G, M
Al A.
MOL , M F
l . [Wu
RYV] A[ 5 10 / Ss, NaCl TXY.
AA N c
K Ytd FJp
AAA. Cco Utm VoYu
XUL M OA.

YtlTd M C ( S[pX )
WlLu CPolTLu T NVm CZl ALUL
Cdm. CkXp [W \T HtTm.
212

F mC
F mCF 1.3 I.A / 100 I.L
.

, , L, v,
AP mC A.

Tf[eLs -

100 - 150 I.A /

150 - 200 I.A /

200 - 300 I.A. /

AA N c
C mC p
K. F mC
AATYpX. mCm
AA FA. , v
C BV] F EQp mCF
AA A.
mC Q N, N
cA. R[ Ccp Ot\lT\.
213

, , m, I, L,
LQ A .

mC , CJ,
A A.

9.2.2.1

9.2.1.7 NpTo

KO L H 3 - 5
A . F qHQ .
qH q
H A q
H CL, F
A. qH fLL R
F A. O
R M GA. dOL Co 2 I
, K, qH
A.

, Cv Cv Tu\ A]
AXeLp LkRLm Es[. O .
lj F, , , O F
. I TV Tu\
I - B O .

A] AXeL[] Cv
Tu\Ytp Es[Rp WRju Xm
Pd\. EQp Es[ Ut\
A.

A.
AA N c
Q (So42- ) LL C C
PA. CcK OA.

Q EPp \ThPp M
RL AVlTPpX.
9.2.2. UdW RUeLs
L
UdW Q - , , I, K,
214

j
FM,
qH A .
Bt\Xl T\ ERm dLv Utm Ll
AXeL[ Bd_]t\m Nnm SLp Cm J
Tl T[L Es[.

I F MA EQLs
C, h, , Cc, a, u
, G AYm. , FL
A , P, , ,
, F Tu\Y RYW EQYm.

M A H
A. Q, ,
d P P , , C, e
P M A.
215

l Q d, C
M F M
A.

3.

I, BL I A
P FA (AA)

H 10 MA L
PC A.

4.

YI C P FA.

5.

PYRt
NRLUL Es[.

C Ls

- 10 - 15 I.A. /

- 15 I.A /

- 18 I.A. /

HE Utm

- 40 I.A /

AA N c
Gp I CP JP,
F PA, CO
O KM F i
ML PNA. O
M .
O, M
P F .
L I F A. I
CP Cc, , M AP
OA.
P F E
1.

J ApX PlH
C c OO P
\YL Es[.

2.

v F Y] CmPu Nok p
K vP EiPdYRp
Pp A.
216

M , F
(anemia) A. O,
HE O A.
, MA ,
M f , A
.

9.2.2.2. I
qH L IF A
( Hart & Co-workers ) Ms 1928
BWnkR]o. H CO IF
P.

1.

qH EYRd I CuVUVR.

2.

, Q, vLH BVYtu
lt I A.

3.

FO F I .

4.

Id WReL[] KK,
KK, K A ,
RBC, h AP A.

O I I CP
M A. (G.L.) hp, WLm, K e (Shell
217

fish) C IF s Utm

RWm K 2 IA, O
0.5 - 0.85 I.A A.
AA N c

F I Ps[ C
P A. 30 iA I ML
F PA. 10 - 60 U.A. I
O (24 E F) C cK
OA.

1. RWm Q CWjR NL
A.
2. lPjRdL Gm AU Ut\eLs RWm
\ThPp EiP\.
3. Um CRu \T GXvu EYRp Td\.

9.2.2.3

L HJ,
O M A.
R ( T4 ) hWAVP RWdu ( T3 )
uLu F . .
1. C A
2. v KH,
I A YXm TeLtu\].

. F E
F A[
. , e, CH
M .

K 0.10
0.15 I.A. C 0.05
0.10 I.A A.
c H M
Y c N OA. c
cK F
V F A.
O A.
K

100 - 150 U.. /

HEl TiLs

200 U.. /

AA N c

CL Es[ Pp PC AVu
P F LXd\. HJ
90 i K ,
L, LAp O I
A.
Q Cc, h, , f,
OA. CJ K
u 10 i F N OA.

O ,
E

R K \.
U C
A. F K
CJ H M KA. G O

218

219

 u Ljd LZX (endemic goiter) A.

F OFJ
H CP . G c,
C HE ,
JP F
. M F
FA.
c
O H , LnPo ( uLjdLZX )
A. F Y[oR Ut\
\ThPl TtlToLs.
GJ V O
M .

L O
K . cp 1 - 2 ppm (ILQ F)
A TlT
F. O cK 1 - 2 ppm K
Rp KQ G A.
AA N c

C N AA
KF A. Cc, M,
H N OA
O P F C
N OA.

9.2.2.4 K

K , A.

SfjRuU

K L A.
1.

O C
CP A.

2.

K A
A. A
A.

3.

4.

YnlT Kp Es[ SO C
P, F
dVU] IO K A.
vC I D
A.

K , KQ A .
220

F ( >5 ppm ) K O
E A. K
QM, G H
A.
9.2.2.5 ed
L 2 3 A ed A.
em AAA.

1.

C L FC M KA.

2.

SO F FOL
f M A.

3.

, L K M KA.
221

4.

KH A.

9.2.2.6

5.

M A.

M O
ed A. C, , h,
, , , Q
A .
ed .

eu
.

FO h CP . h
CcO F M
I B12- A. C O
FC RY.

F M M A.

3 - 5 I.A./

10-15 I.A./

15 I.A./

20 - 25 I.A./

HE

AA N c
M O ed A
]FL CL PA.
O IF
f CP PA. ed F, F
N OA.

ed s[jRuU
LC A ed P
(C)
(vI) A.
222

Q
F

F. V] A[ LTph M Es[.
Q I - B 12 Q L
F.
AA N c
O CLL AAA.
65% m, e iUd LYLm
OA.

Q F K.

9.2.2.7 m

1.

m, , l
F AP P.

2.

m, C Tv ( isocitrate
dehydrogenase ) vv v
(Phasphotransferases) Tu\ SLu ThP
Fdd\.
223

3.

4.

5.

v (Pyruvate carbaxylase)
vIv (Super oxide dismutase) AP
I m A.

9.2.2.8 I

UeL, [dLp WuvTW^v Gu\

SLu NVpThP Fdd\. C
H I Ls (muco polysaccharides)
EYRp Te T\ A
(Glycoproteins) FJ .

K CJ ( Urea Cycle ) BTv

(Arginase) F Q Q
A.

I Q MO FO CP
A.
I , LlH
AP CF A.
v YR M LQu L
RlTj\.
I F M K M A.

m QO F
A. L
A\.

F mC 2.5 - 9 I.A. Bm.

AA N c

K KM. K
IF F A.
AA N c
C L I O AAA.
^ EhLsmT, WVm dLk
YV\. I Ccm, CP Hc
iUdLYLm OA.

C L m O AA. ,
ML 3 - 4% m AAA.
m iUdLYL OA. ICP m
C OA.

9.2.2.9 Ul]m

m C , ANRWQU]
(Skeletal abnormalities) .

Q M FO Ll CP
A.

224

225

I CJ \Tm,
v, LlH O C F
CPolTLm .


_kRu RR ( Xanthine Oxidase ) A
FlTs L. F
Kv Gu\ Sm ( Nitrate reductase )
JK GF
TR ( Nitrogenase ) A. M
FO _ RvR Y
CP L A.
XeLs : NRWQ EQp AL A[ Pd\.

K M L A.
P KM.
AA N c
50 - 70% LiP L O CL
AAA. P F C c N
cA.

UR C]jp Ul]m \T Lm \.

Lu F F A.
F, HJ (Upiquinone) F
i ( Mitochondiral) ATP J FJ
( Biosynthesis ) A. LQVm, I E
C . X SnL[
QlTjRp NVm YhPu E- Pu Nok
TVuTjRlT\.

LQ FM O .
, Ep Es[ LQF
.

ML
LQ A.

Q L LQF K.
F Np C\jRp (Necrosis)
vH (dystrophy) .

JC

9.2.2.10 LQ
LQm F E FL
M A.

LQm, C, C]lTdLm MO
A.
LQ Rv ( Glutathione
Peroxidase GPx ) Gu\ FJ A.
L (Selenoprotein) . F,
W (H2O2) K TWd^
226

I. NV] PVj RokR

a. RdLs
i.

ii.

FO i FK

iii. cK
iv. K
227

b. C C FJ

4. RR
Q __________________

A. R v

5. MI__________________

B. CTv

c.

d.

e.

C. Lv

III. NV ApX RY\ G]d

D.

1. A,

Lv

I- GJ R

2. C Q.

A. vv

B. C

3. LQ Q.

C. LQ

D.

4. Q C AA A.

5. M NjR .

A.

B. C

C. mC

D. m

A. Q (tetany)
B. KI (Hypernatremia)
C. (goitre)
D.

II. LhP CPjR WlL

1. __________________
2. C
AA
__________________

3. __________________ FJ H

IV. TjL
1. LpVm

U[u EYdLm

2. Cm

NRWQ El

3. NaCl

Gm EYdLm

4. lu

hPRVuTo BdPv

5. NVm

LnPo

6. AVu

YhPu B12

7. LTph

TpNjR

V. K YojRLp PV
1. v C (Asteo Malacia) ?
2. F CF YF RPoPV

s VY?

228

229

3. mCF L[ MK.
4. H CF ?
5. vv

VI. rLiPYtt PV
1. vR JK ?
2. L C AA F E .
3. QO MK.
4. L H A ?
5. L J K

A A?

230

TPm 10
EoYVp Bn hTeLs
10.1. uW
YiQlL \, u]dLYof, (Electrophoresis)
UV Xd \Ls (Centrifugation) Utm \UX JVp
(Spectrophotometry) Tu\Y EVp XdL[ TiT
Utm A[Y \Lp Bn NnV TVuTm dV
hTeL[m.
10.2. YiQl L \
EoYVXu dV YXV] EVp
ULp (Biological Sample) Es[ LXYu Ju ApX
ARt UtThP Tl ThL[ LiPk, j,
nUlTjYRm. CRtL] J YNV] dV\
YiQlL \ (A) \lL \.
YiQl L Gu\ Np 1906Bm Bi X
\L[ ( _kRp, [Wp ) ARu LXYk
jRdm \d CWxV RYWVX[o UdLp
vYh (Micheal Tswett) GuTYWp ALlTjRlThP.

A]j YiQlL \Lu AlTPj

RjYU] JuPu Ju LXYR C XULd
CPV J NoUm TePlTm RjR AlTPVLd
LiPRm. J NoUm JuPu Ju LXYR NUL]
A[s[ A Utm B Gu\ LWlTuLd CPV TePl
TmT ARu Teh Ul ( Distribution co-efficient )
lhP YlTXp J UVm. (TPm 10.1) Um
CR rLiPY lPXm.
231

A LWlTp N
= Kd
B LWlTp N
Kd = Teh QLm.

A]j YiQlL \Lm AlTPp CWi

XUL[ LiP Bm.
1.

J XUV] SLWVR iUm ApX WYm

ApX iUm WYm LXkR LXYVm. (SLW
XU)

2.

SLm XUV], SLWR XUP NpXdV

oUULY ApX YYLY CdLXm.

dLlTP YiV LXYp Es[ J NoUm, YLUL

SLm Ut\ NoUjRP SLW XUp AL A[p
DodLlTmT jRjRp BWmTU\. G]Y YiQl
L \u AlTP RjYU] J LXYu T
ThLs, LWVR Tu \TWlp LYWlTh \
JqYu\L RokRdLlThP LWlTuL[p Yd
LQWlTYRm.
STAGE
X

A
B

32

16

16

16

12

12

12

C
D
E

TPm
F ig . 110.1
0 .1 Teh
P rin cip le QLju
o f d istrib u tio nRjYm
c o e ffic ie n t
232

LW Teh \u (effective distribution co-efficient) GuT

J XUp Es[ Tu Ndm, Ut\
XUp Es[ AlTu UjR Ndm Es[
Rm G] YWVdLlT\, G]Y A] ( SLW
XU ) hP]p ( SLm XU ) CYttPV J
Tu Teh \u 0.25 Gu\p hP]p AkRl
Tu N, A]p Es[RlTp 4 UPe ALm
Gu AkLs[Xm. SLm XU, SLW XU
CYt\ RokRdmT dL YiV Tu
Tehj \u YTh CdmT TojdLs[Yim.
NVp\p ThL[ dL TpYThP
YiQlL \Ls TVuTjRlTu\].

10.2.1 YiQlL \u
YLLs
a. Zn \lTl \
CkR \p SLW XU
LiQ
ApX
EXLd
ZnLp ( ALu\ Zn ApX
iPo ) Tk YdLlT\.
dLlTPYiV LXYu
lhP Ns[ LWNp
RVdLlTh Zu Up Tp
Ft\lT\. NUX Tl
APkR \ Tl ThLs
lhP SLm XULs Xm
JqYu\L (Ju\uu Ju\L)
YdLQWlT\. dLlThP
TlThL[ YdLi
Ym LWlTu GVuh ( Eluant )
G]lT\.
233

LWlTu
LXu

GVuh
LiQ
Zn
Zn
T
LiQ
So
YYm
WYm

TPm 10.2 Zn
\lL ETLWQm

b. UpV TPX \lL \

Cm\p SLW XU LiQ ApX [vd
RLhp UpV fNL GjdLs[lT\.
dLlTPYiV LXY SLW XUu J KWjp
YdLlTh, SLm XU Es[ LiQd iQjp
(Petridish) NejRL YdLlT\. SLm XU SLok
Ut\ KWjR APkR\, RLh] LiQd
iQjk GjP Yim. dLlThP NoUeLs
lhP \m Ldm ]lTuL[p LiPVl
Tu\].
c. YRs \lL \
CkR \p SLW XU YRs[ NpXv
CZL[p ReLlT\. SLm XU, SLW XU
YVL NpmT L Lr\.
CkR u YL \lL \Lm AYttV
\lL[m, TVuL[m Tts[].
10.2.1.1 Zn \lL \
dV \lL \Ls YZdLUL Zn \lL
\p (TPm 10.3) LrjRlT\. CRu TpY
YLL[Y].
1.

TWld LYof \lL (Adsorption Chromatography)

2.

Teh \lL (Partition Chromatography)

3.

Y WY \lL (Gas - Liquid Chromography)

4.

AV TUt\ \lL (Ion Exchange Chromatography)

5.

Rol \lL (Exclusion Chromatography)

6.

ShP \lL (Affinity Chromatography)

234

1. TWld LYof
\lL \
RjYm : TWld LYo
Ts
G]lTY
XdL[ TWlp
LYm CVpPVm,
i[PVm, Su
s NnVlThP Xm
Es[ iUm Bm.
LXYs[ J Ts
Uhm RokRdLlTh
LYWlTPXm.
Tl
ThLu
L
RUY TWl LYof
T[p LYWlTm CVp
Utm LWlTp LWm
\u CYttPV Es[
YThP Tj
AU\.

Slurry

LiQ
Glass rod f

LWlTp
Es[ ojR
ReLp
Zn

Packed column

TdLlThP
material
Zn Ts
LiQ
Glass woolSo
\lTu
Tap for elution

TPm 10.3 \lL Zn

RVjRp

CkR TWld LYof \lLV Zn \lL

\m, UpVl TPX L \m LrjRXm.

2. Teh \lL \
RjYm : Cm\ WY SLW XU, WY SLm
XU CYttPV ThLs TePlTm A[Y
AlTPVLd LiP. WY SLW XU RsTu\
HRY iUj Rep GjdLs[lTPXm. C WY
WY \L \ G] AVlT\.
235

3. Y - WY \lL \
RjYm : CkR hTm WY SLW XU, Y SLm
XU CYttPV ThLs TePlTm RjR
AlTPVLd LiP. C L AL A[p NoUeLu
TiT Utm A[Y TlTnLp TVuTjRlT\.
ALU] NoUeLd (G.L. Ll AXm) CkR \
TVuTjRlTY H]p Cm\ pVU], U
BdLm NnVdV (Reproducibility) Utm YLU].
dLu v Tu\ WYm, Ls Utm UkRj RuUs[
iUjp SLWR XUVL ReLlT\. CkRl Ts
V 13 [m, 24 .. Es hPs[ LiQf s
ApX G@ Zp Gjd Ls[lT\. CkRd Zu
YV UkR RuU LiP YdL[] ( SLm XU ) N2,
He ApX BoLu Tu\Y NjRlTu\]. CkRd
Zp YlT Alu (Oven) EVokR YlTXp
YdLlTh dLlTPYiV ThLs BVdLl
Tu\].
CkR Y WY \lL \p ThL[
lTRtL] RjYU] BVdLlThP NoUeLs Zp
YVL NjRlTmT WYY XULd CPV
TePlTm Rju YThP AlTPVLd LiP.
NoUeLs CqY NjRlTh Zk YYmT
LiPUp (Detector) Nu ARPu CQdLlThs[
T Up (Recorder) T NnVlT\. TUp
YWVlTm YWlTPjp Rum EflTu TWlT[
Y] jRdLlTP Tu Nd HtT AUm.

4. AV TUt\ \lL \
RjYm
Cm\p AVLs TtdLdV uULd
HtT DojRXp L HtT\. TX EVp ULp
236

A] AXm, WRm Tu\ hlTsLs AVm

RuU EPV ARY GouU ApX SouU
EPV RL[l TtlTRp Cm\u Xm
CqYL LXYL[ L\fNn jRLdLXm.
NoUeLp CdLdV uU GuT LWNu pH Utm
ARu L RjRl TjR.
AV TUt\ \lL \ TYL AVlTUt
Tks[ Zp SPT\.. AVl TUt\ (Ion
exchanger) Uhdv Xd TUt\ RL[ (exchangeable
groups) ARu \lTWlp Tts[.
C YLV] AV TUtLs Es[]. AY Sou
AV TUt (Cation exchanger) Utm Gou AV TUt
(Anion exchanger) Bm.
Sou AV TUt Gou U Tt\ RL[
Lis[. CY Sou U Tt\ AVL[ LYo\,
Gou AV TUt Sou UTt\ RL[
Lis[. G]Y Gou U Tt\ AVL[
LYo\. AVl TUt\ L Y\ Su TL[d
LiP.
A. AVLs TUt\ WuL[p RokRjR TWld LYoRp
Xm XdL[l jRjRp.
B. Uhdk (Matrix) TUt\lTPYiV R
YlTRp.
C. EgNlThP XdLs lhP YdLQm
WYjRd (Eluant) Li YVt\lTRp.
D.

EV TUt\j RV Li Uhdv [l
T\lTRp (Regeneration).
237

Sou AV TUt
(TWl LYof)
RSO3----------- Na+ + X +, X, Y======> RSO3 -----X+ + Na+
(NoUeLu LXY)
(Yd LQoRp)
RSO3 -----X+ + H+ ======> RSO3------- H+ + X+
([lTRp)
+

RSO3 ------- H + NaCl ======> RSO3------- Na+ + HCl

5. Rol \lL \ (Exclusion Chromatography)

Cm\ L F (GBL permeation) L \

Gum AZdLl Tu\.

RjYm
Cm\ XdL[l lTp AYtu A[ Utm
YYeLu AlTPp AUkR Bm. Um Zp
Gjd Ls[lThs[ SLW XUVL NVpTm
Tp Es[ iLsLu NpXPl TiT (Sieve
Properties) TjR.

Gou AV TUt

Uhdv

M a trix
L aTV
rg e ( eLWlTs
x c lu d e d ) s o lu te
mXdLs
o le c u le s
S V
m a ll sLWlTs
o lu te m o le c u le s

(TWl LYof)
R NH3+ ---------- OH- + X -, X, Y======> RNH3 -----X- + OH-

XdLs

(NoUeLu LXY)
(YdLQoRp)
RNH3+ -----X- + Cl -

======> RNH3 -----Cl - + X -

([lTRp)
RNH -----Cl + OH ======> RNH3 -----OH - + Cl +
3

UtlhP \p AV TUt\l ThL[L

TVuTjRlTPdVYLs.
A. BmToXh IRC 50
B. E Wdv (Bio-Rex)
C. PYd^ (Dowex)
D.

NTPdv (Sephadex) RV].

238

F ig . 1 0 .4 D ia g ra m m a tic
re p r e s e n ta tio n o f s e p a ra tio n b y
TPm
10.4 Rol \lL \p
e x c lu s iv e c h ro m a to g ra p h y

jRjRp

J Zp LjLsLs (Gel particles) ApX i[

LiQj LsLs (Glass granules) ARtV J LWlTp
LWm YLp Es[ XdL[l Tt\ LXYLPu
NUXp Es[Y NlThs[]. CR]p YYeLp
UThP XdL[ EPV LXYLs CdZu YV
NjRlTmT TV XdLs CPY YV
F Zu AlTdf Npm. V XdLs
LjLu Es[m YVm Es[ LWlTp
TePlTh Zu YV \kR YLjp
239

YlTu\]. AR]p TV XdLs Rp

YYm. V XdLs CWiPYRL YYm. (TPm
10.4) CkR hTjp TYL TVuTjRlTm LlThLs
dl Ql Es[ PdvhWu, ALWv, TvPu,
TAdWXU RV].
6. ShP YiQlL \ (Affinity Chromatography)
RjYm
dLlTP YiV NoUeLs, SLW XUPu
CQdLlThs[ DLPu J lhP EVp
RPoT TtjRX AlTPVL ShP YiQlL
\ Lis[. CkR hTjp p LWVR Uhd^Pu
CQdLlThs[ DLPu, dLlTP YiV NoUeLs
s ]u Xm CQlT HtTjRp Yim.
M

ML

TV
D
hlTs
Xd (Uhdv EPu CQkR).
Uhd^Pu DLs CQdLlThs[]. C J
Zp Gjd Ls[lT\. jRdLlTP YiV
Ts Es[ LXY Zu UtTp NodLlT\.
lhP Ts UhU DLPu CQY HtTjm.
Ut\Y Zk YVt\lT\. \ lhP
YdLQm WYjRd (Eluant) Zp NolTRu Xm
DLPu CQYd Lis[ dLlThP Ts
ClTVof NnVlTh YVt\lT\. (TPm 10.5p,)
Cm\Vl TVuTj SL[ nUVdm \
LhPlThs[. W], L[ YYs[ EV]
TvPu, NpXv, [s[ LiQ, L Tu\
ThLs Uhd^L CkR \p TVuTjRlT\.
240

Enzyme
S

Bound enzyme
CQkR
S

Uhdv vTNo
Matrix

Spacer Affinity
ShP
arm YdLQoRp
elution
(EPu
)

Dialysis nUVdLl
PVXv
Purified enzyme
ThP S
TPm 10.5 ShP YiQlL \p
SL[ nU NnRp

10.2.1.2 UpV TPX \lL \ (Thin Layer

Chromatography)
RjYm
Teh \lL, TWldLYoRp Utm Rol YiQl
L \Ls UpV TPXjp SPT\d V Ju\m.
CkR \p SLW XU GuT UpV TPXUL
LiQjRLhu Up L Xp NlTh LQlTm.
RLhu FdjR (Activation) u]o L APVf NnV
YiV LXYV RLh] J ]p YdL Yim.
UtLiP RLhPu V AUlT] RV] \lTL
ARtLu YYUdLlThP A\p ( TLC Chamber ) YdLl
ThP u]o, dLlTPYiV Tm,SLm XUm
SLW XUp Rk ]u Xm EVojRlT\.
Ut lhP A]j Nn\Lm rLiP TLp
NVpTu\].
241

A. UpVlTPXm RVjRp

10.2.1.3 LR YiQlL \

SLW XUu Z (Slurry) TYL J LiQ,

[vd ApX RLhu J ]k Ut\
]YW WL UpVTPXUL NlT\. TWldLYm
Ts, LiQj RLhu JhYRt LpVm TvTh
ZPu NodLlT\. TWld LYm T[ FddL
LiQjRL YlT Alp (oven) 100 oC YW
YlTlTjRlT\.

RjRYm
YiQlLj Rp (Chromato graphy paper) Es[
NpXv CZL[] SLW XUd Rem Uhd^L
NVpT\. SLW XU GuT o, ]lTt\
T[] oU TWu ApX [ EPV PXp
EgVL NVpTPdV L[L CdLXm. Tl
TsLs WY SLW XUdm, WY SLm XUdm
CPV dLlT\. Cm\ rLiP TL[l
Tts[.

B. UV NojRp (Sample Application)

dLlTP YiV T[] (U) UdW
lTh ApX Wgf (Syringe) ERVp sL[LY
ApX ThPL[LY SLW XUu (Rh)
YdLlT\.
C. Rh EYdLm (Plate Development)
J LiQj Rhp jRp SPT\ AjRh
p 1.5 N.d EYdm LWlTu (Developing Solvent)
Es[. Rh, Rhp YdLlTh LWlTu BVp
RUdLlTP Yi J U SWm YdLlT\.
D. TlTsL[d LiPRp
dLlThP TlTsLs u, rdLiPY
LiPVlTu\.
A) RLhu 50% LkRL AXm ApX GjR]p LXkR
25% LkRL AXm RdLlTh YlTlTjRp.
B) \ FRdLoLs Xm RLh] NjRp
C) lhP \s[ YVp LWL[ RLhu
RjRp. (G.L.) A] AXm, Up CkRp
ARt uahu LWVf RLhu RdLXm.
242

1. LR EYdLm (Paper Development)

Ht\m (ascending) Utm C\dLm (descending) BV C
\Lp LR EYdLm LZXm. CWi \Lm
Rhu AlTp LWlTu Gjd Ls[lT\.
LRju AlTp, LWlTu UhPjt Up Ul
T[] YdLlT\. CR Rhp Yj
LWlT]p RUdLTPYi RhV] PlTu\.
LWlTu LRjp NejRL Rk NVpXm UXm
T jRp SPT\.
2. Tl TsLs LiPRp (Componenet detection)
jRdLlThP Tl TsLs rdLiP \p
LiPVlTu\].
A. LRjR \FRdLoLs Xm NjRp
B. A] AXeLs Tu\ TsLd lhP
\jR LdLdV uau Tu\ Yl
ThL[ RjRp Utm GV NodLWLd LkRL
AXjR RjRp.
LdLlThP ThL[ LiPRp GuT ARu Rf
Gu\ RjRp LWu (Retardation Factor) UlT TjR
Bm. AlTs SLokR Wjtm LWlTu SLokR
Wjtm CPV Es[ Rm Rf Bm.
243

LWTs BWmTlsk SLm Wm

LWlTu BWmTlsk SLm Wm

Rf =

ShP YiQlL \ TXR SLu

jRLltm Cm] [u ( Gol Rm WRm )
Gu\ WRf jLltm TVuT\.

10.3. u]d LYof

S o lv e n t f r o n t
LWlTu
SLokR Wm

LWTs
SLokR
S o lu
te f r o n t
Wm

x
Rf =
y

BWmTl s
O r ig in

F ig . 1 0 .5 T h e m e t h o d o f d e te r m in a tio n o f R f
v a lu e in p a p e r c h r o m a to g r a p h y

TPm 10.6 LR YiQlL \p Rf UlT

oQdm \

Rdm LW ApX Rf, hP XLp lhP

NoUjt UVm. C AdlhP NoUju Tehj
\u UlT WTdu\.

10.2.2 YiQlL \u TVuLs

a.

e.

ApLXnLs, TvTlLs, Utm lLs,

jRjRp UpVl TPX YiQlL \
TVuTu\.

b.

Y -- WY YiQlL \ Ll AXeLs
Utm lLXYL[l jRdL TVuTu\.

c.

WReL[ WtTdmT PdLlTm A]

AUXeL[d LiPk AYt\ jRdL AV
TUt\ YiQlL \ TVuT\. V TlTp
(Auto analyzer) C RjYUL TVuT\.

d.

Rol YiQlL \ Xm jRdLlThP

XdLu, Xd GPVd LQXm.
244

10.3.1 TY] RjYm

I I, , GO
GO I A JK
Q F ].
L I So
AVL[LY ApX Go AVL[LY LQlTu\].
ClTl O u YV I
AVO I
A.
10.3.2. u]d LYofu YLLs
1) I L I C
2)

F I I C

3)

(Gel) O I C - L K

4)

K R (isoelectric focussing)

5)

Cv (isotachophoresis).

O I C
(SDS) L K O I C

10.3.2.1 L u]d LYof (Gel electrophoresis)

F I C L u
]d LYof . J Lv L
dK G A.
A O G
I Cd .
s[ O AA. K
245

LV] WReL[l jRdL TVuTjRlT\. L

CLiQj A dLlT\. CWi
LiQj RhLdPV [vdLp B] CPY
EiPdL[ (Spacer) KWeLp Yj L
EYdLlT\. OJ A[ 12 .e. x 14 .e. Es[
RUu 0.5 I.e. 1.0 I.e . Hv
Y (Comb) OL YdLlT\. TX TVdLp
] YPkR \ (L EiP] \) l dLlT\.
CR]p Lp lTLs (Wells) EiPdLlTu\].
Cdp NR]l T[] Gjd Ls[lT\.
W I C Rhp
O p O
U .
A O GJ, O
Hv e O
. O IYn p
.
(Wick) . I (Power Pack) So
N I I C Q I
NA. I C
p A.
K F O G Q
KA. pH p I
HK QO
A ( 10.7)

ALWv LLs (Agarose Gels)

sYY (linear) L . F
v 3,6
Tv F
. J YL LPp RYWjk
246

dLlTu\]. v O 1-3% N
KA. O
coU p L , H F
O
KA. F P
G O F O m.
GO IO I C Lv
O jRlTu\].

T AdXU LLs (Poly Acrylamide Gels)

K OJp Lm I C x
(PAGE) A. L K O I
C (Poly Acrylamide Gel Electropheresis) x
MK. L K O,
K, CP N, N - Fh Hv
K p L
KA. M Q
N, N, N, N - F e (TEMED)
HA. MV] Q
L[p Lm ]Vm. L
K O I C J
P M F .
LiLdL A A. SDS
F uUPV A . SDS - PAGE
jRdLlTPYiV UlT[] L SDS I Lis[ U
L NodLlTh 5 GI F A.
, HL[ Jd.
jR d\. I
C O m
A
247

QS u pFPLm
p o rtin g m e d iu m
C o ver

CQlTu
W ic k
So
E le c trou
de +
ve
]
E le c tro d e - ]
Gou

la tin g
u LPjRInp las teuRh

ve

C o m p a rtm e n ts o f b u ffe r re s e rv o ir

ReLp LWNp LXu

(Compartments of buffer reservoir)

10.7. PUhP u] LYof

Lt\ Tl TsL[ LiPRp

) mUq WLNU] Xm (R-250) (CBB) Gu\
NVdLWNXl TVuTj WReLs LiPVlTu\].

0.1% CBB-p UjR]p, Ahd AXm, o :

5:1:5 MAF \UtRp
(Staining) A. WRl ThPLs cGF
KAu\].
) ToAVd I - S (PAS)
A PAu\]. P
ThPLs C GF m.
) GO I F Jm
(Fluorescent) PA. P
ThPLs HEJ G Au\].

.
P O G
PHPjRdL FF .
MAJ K H Ut\m, M
. LsLu APoj, YYm, A[
UTYRp CYtu Tm Rm UTh UVXdl
Xjp CY dLlTu\]. Om i
O M .
Tm Rm rpm (revolutions per minute) ApX g(gravitational
force) Gu dLlT\
TYRu AlTPjRjYm (Basic Principle of
Sedimentation)
m i O M F
. M (G) WhPu
F F (w) CL
O (Radial distance) (r) G = w2r
bQA. O m i
F (v) M F m
u . Ru G - Fu. (Sedimentation
Co-efficient) s Bm.
v = sw2r

10.4.2 UV Xd \Lu YLLs:

TYL A UV Xd \Ls
(NuL`u) TVuThp Es[].
) K M :

10.4.1. RjYm
M M HK
O F,

Ls, v , ,
, GO I, L WRm, v, Es
ElLs A HK,
A. F M Q HK (Bulk Isolation)
F .

248

249

10.4. UV XdRp \Ls (Centrifugation Techniques)

) M :
K ApX
AP Pl A. J
CP M Tu\].
M M Q C
E C P (Rotors) Utm
P (Detectors) A.
10.4.2.1 UV Xd \Lm AYtu TVuLm
F M
F A. A 4 F
A. AYVY]
A. CP M F
B. O F [ M F.
C. F M F.
D. AYL UV M F
i) K
ii)
A) V Tgf UV Xd CVkWm (Small bench
centrifuges)
I O, M
YlTdL[ FL HK, A[
M M RL Es[ HK G
A. V M M FO F
4000-6000 rpm ( GIF C) g/
GIPm PHA.
B) hPlThP AL Ls[[ UV Xd
CVkWm (large capacity refrigerated centrifuges)

JK N Q HK
A. GjWNh, F i, v ,
, HvLs M
HKAu\].
C) AYL hPlThP UV Xd CVkWm (High
Speed Refrigerated Centrifuges)
F 25,000 rpm/GI. EJK,
N, K , ir
A K Au\].
D) i) AYL UV Xd CVkWm (Preparative Ultra
Centrifuges)
F 80,000 rpm/GI
. F WhPu F
WhPo O , , P.
L HK, I I
M FO cF A.
ii) TlTn AYL UV Xd CVkWm
(Analytical Ultra Centrifuges)
M 70,000 rpm/GI
F. WhPo PP, odLlThP
A\p . ML
F TYm [ E AYtu
TWYX oUdLm OJ
. , F,
, YWvLs M OL
Es Q HK A.

u F 6000 rpm/G, HK
I F M .
O F . JK h

10.4.3 YLh UV Xd\

K M .
F O Tm YL
.

250

251

Njm UV Xd NV TlTVL EVojYRu

Xm dLlTP YiV Tp Ck (aU]h)
TlTs TL[L dLlT\. J lhP
T[ TYdL RYlTm SWm Utm UV Xd
NV] Vu RY \p (Trial and error)
oQdLlT\. Us[ o TYLR ThL[
Lis[.
J CJ Tm
F HK T A.
L, M J
A. ML
P MAF TYL W
A A. M FK
F P H C C
TL[L M A.
, f M J h
FO Es (, K,
, ) HKA.
Wr .
) h aU]h K - 0.25 v
10%
) 10 GI 1000 gp ML
) Pdm T . A jRdLlT\.
)

Cp Up F (Supernatant) 10
GI 3300 gp M .

) TYLl HK K HK.
) - p p F 20 GI 16300
gp M .
)

TYLl HK . A jRdLl
T\.
252

J Up F 60 GI 1,05,000

gp M
) TYLl HK . A jRdLl
T\.
) C J A Up F Np
CpXR NhPNp Bm.

V M F J
FJ C O. Es
LpWp
Liver
homogenate
aU]h
Centrifuge
tube

UV Xd Zn
XNNm

Lysosomes
EhL
Nuclei

UhP
Mitochondria
LihV

UdW
Nm
Microsomes

NhPNp

1000 g

3300g

10 min.

10 min.

16300g

1,05,000g

C
Final

60 min.

Supern
atent

20 min.

cytosol

EhL
Nuclei

UhP
Mitochondria
LihV

XNNm
Lysosomes

UdW Nm
Microsomes

NhPNp
Cytosol

10.8 YLh UV XdRp \p

Np EslLs TRp
HKA. aU]hk TlTVL
jRdm Mm (10.8)
.

AYL UV Xd TlTn \u TVuLs

GO I FJL F
.
OAu\].
253

) JK O oQjRp
) UdW O M
) UdW O P.

10.5 \UX JVp

UjY YVXu RtTRV SdLm VRp
CWjRm Utm EPu oUl TsLu A]j BdLd
L[m TlTn NnV ERm iV Utm A
iV \VX (micro and Ultr micro methodology)
UmTjRp Bm. EPu LRWm Utm SnLs NokR
NVpTL[ AV CWjRm Utm EPu oUl TsLs
BVYLu BdLdLu TlTn L AYVU\.
EoYVp A[ No \Vp, \m Utm J
A[Lu AlTPp AUYRp, RPoPV
CVtVp TiLs Utm LNo NVp \Ld
(instrumental procedure) dVjYm AdLlTP YiV
AYVU\. CWjRm, , o Utm \ EVp
ThLu TX A[No TlTn \Ls AVlTP
YiV ThL[l dLm Utm AYL[ Lof
Bt\X EhLYm Yf NoUeL[L Ut\m TVuT\
(LWNp Es[) ] [ Ts, \UXu
LhX]m Tp AUkR JV EhLYokRp AdLWNp
\s[RLj Rum.
CjRLV LWNp Es[ LWTu N AdLWNp
APm Ju N ApX A[Yl Tj AUm.
CdLWNpLu \eLu A[No RPoPV UlLs
\Vp TlTn (colorimetric analysis) G]lTm.

N] AV L AL A[p TVuTjRlTm \
\Vp TlTn Bm (colorimetry). \PV LWNp
YVL Ys[ J NpmT, Ut\YL[P X
AX [eLs EhLYWlTu\] Gm Ti \Vp
TVuT\. TmTX] NoUeLs \Ut\Rm, Bm
RkR ]dL[l TVuTj AYL[ LhX]m
Tp AUkR JV EhLYm RuUPVRL
Ut\Xm. CjRLV ]Ls lhP X TsLp
Uhm LZd VRLm Um TmTuUV] ]Ls
pVjRuU EPVRLm AUm G]Y p UXo
A[ ThL[m A[ NnVXm.
LhX]m \UXu lhP T ApX AX
[eLs EhLYWlTYR \eLs Ru\d LWQm GuTR]
Ju CVtVp CVp TtV Aj \k Sm
AYm. GjdLhPL X \dLWNp YV Ys[
JVf Nj]p A X \lTp AUkR \eL[
\Y] A[m Ut\ \eL[ AL A[m EhLYm.
CeM]m LWNs m Ys[ J \Y] NPu
YVm. Bm Cp X \ AXlT TPu
Rum. G]Y LWNp X \ULj Rum. EhLYWlTm
Ju YqY AX [eLu A[ J EhLYm
Tu NYf Nok AUm YPlTm Ut\
\eLu Nm, J EhLYm Tu NYf NokR
AUm.

TmTX] EoYVp BnLp Ko AUlp

Es[ NoUeLs ApX NoUeLu Rl] A[m
\Ls TVuTu\]. Eo YVp NoUeLu

\UXp X lhP AX [eLs ApX TLs

EhLYoRX SWVL A[m \L[ AlTPVLd
LiP TlTn \Ls JVp \Ls (photometric
procedure) G]lTm. Cm\Lp TVuTjRlTm LLs
JULs (photometers) ApX \UX J ULs
(spectrophotometers) G]lTm. rdLm Ut\ X \Lm
LV[lTu\].

254

255

A) LWNp Es[ LWVR LsLs JVf R\XPVf

Nnm. ClTiu AlTPp AUkR TlTn \
LXeLp CVp\ (turbidimetric methods) G]lTm.
B) LWNp Es[ J X LsLs lhP
TkR]Lp JV Em. ClTiu AlTPp
AUkR TlTn \ J Er CVp \Ls (Flourimetric
method) G]lTm.
10.5.1. RjYm
\UX JVp dL \ J EhLYWlTRu
AlTP L[ AlTPVLd LiPRm. WL J
EhLYm FPLm Juu YV LPdm Ju A[
Ym RuU (Transmittance) T G]lTm. Um
T = I Bm.

10.5.1.1 o - XmToh ( Beer - Lambert law )

Io RPdLf N LiP Ko Jt\ AX [m LiP
JV, Fm LsLXp Es[ LWNu YV
NjmT J EhLYWlTYRp Fm ApX
LPdm Jf N (I) TLu NY (Io)-dLhm
\YLY AUm. LWNp Es[ LsL]p Jf
R\p APYRm Um R[eLp HtTm
GWlTm JfNp CZl HtTm. Gm N
CZl dVUL LWNpL[p J EhLYWlTYRp HtTm.
I Utm Io CYLdPlThP RPo, J EhLYo
FPLju [m ( l ) Utm AdLWNu N (c)
BVYL[f Nok AUm. o XmToh p
CdLWLs RPo TjRlTu\]. (TPm 10.9)
N C Es[ JV
Egm LWNp

Io

Ce Io GuT Tm Lofu N Utm I GuT

Ym Lofu N Bm. EhLYm Lofu
A[ TYL EhLYo\u (Absorbance) (A) ApX U\\u
(E) (extinction) G]lTm. C ( E ApX A ) ApX Ym
RuUu (T) RXdu UPdLdf NUm Bm. ARY
A=E= log 1 = log I0 / I
T

X JdLt\

T JdLt\
Jt\
AX[s[
N I0
J

N I

l
J Npm TRu [m

TPm 10.9 LWNXp J EgNlTRp

XmToh : (Lamberts law)

Ko J EhLYo FPLju YV Npm Jt\ \
Ju N AqPLju [jRf Nok Add
No \p \m.

256

257

Ym RuU TYL 0 Rp 100% YWX]

A[p dLlTm. Um C LXeLu (turbidity) A[Y
A[dL ERm J YL A[hp TVuT\. EhLYo\u
(absorbance) ApX U\\u, Rp (o to )
YWV] UlL[l Tm.

I = I0 e-k1l

I = Io e - k2 c

Um l GuT Nu hPp AlTu TR [Um

J EhLYm FPLm Ju o XmToh d EhTm l
Xp UVL CdmT AlTu U\\u
N YWTPm BWmTls YV Npm SoLPm.
(TPm 10.10).

oXmToh p Cq Lm JeQdLl
Tu\].

Y RuU (Transmittance)
Lo Utm TLo BVYLu NLu LU
Y RuU (T) Bm. Um C NRRUL dLlTm.
NRRm T = I/I0 100 = e - k3 cl
U\\u (Extinction)
NUuThp Rjt TXL UPdLV WhPp

1.0

50

Ym
RuU

I0 e - k3 cl

% Transmittance, T=(1/Io)x 100)

I =

100

U\
\u
E xtinctio
n, E = lo g 10 I 0 /I

o : (Beers law)
Ko J EhLYo FPLju YV Npm Jt\ AX
[m LiP Ju N AqPLl Tu NYf
Nok Addh No \p \m.

Concentration
N

0.5

Concentration

TPm 10.10 J EgRp Utm JV Egm LWNu

N BVYtt CPV Es[ RPo

log e Io/ I = k3cl

U\\u (E) = log10 Io/I

log10 Io/I= k3cl / 2.303

log10 Io/I= kcl
log10 Io/I Gm LY U\\u (E) ApX EhLYo
\u (A) G]lTm. U\\u X Y[Lp Ju APoj
G]m AZdLlT\.
G]Y A (ApX) E = k cl
Ce k GuT, AX [m LiP AXdL] J
EhLYo Tu UXo U\\u QLm Bm. c GuT
J EhLYo Tu UXo N (molar concentration) Bm.
258

X \ A[Vp ULm \UX JVp ULm

CYLV] A[h \L[d LiP. AYLs
Ju NRR Ym RuUu SoLhf Nou
AlTPm Ut\u U\\u UPdLf Nou
AlTPXm AUm. U\\u A[h\ LWNu
NPu SoLhj RPoPV. Um CqY[h\
hP YW Y[ (standard curve) AUlTp TVuT\.
CjRLV YW Y[L[l TVuTj LdLlThP
LWNp Juu UXo U\\u Ulk AdLWNu
N]d LQXm.
259

Linear
s cale ofRuUu
% transm ittance
Ym
%u

100

80

0.1

60

40

0.2

Log
scale of extinc
tion
U\\u
UPdL

Ko Ju \Uu AlTP AUl TPm 10.12p

LdLlThs[.

SoLh A[Lp

0.3

0.4

20

0.6

0.8 1.0

A[Lp

TPm 10.11 NRR YRuU Utm U\

\uLdPlThP RPo

UXo U\\u QLm (Molar extinction co-efficient)

l = 1 cm Utm c = 1 Up / hPo Gp UXo U\\u
QLm (k) ARu EhLYo \df (A) ApX U\\d
(E) NUm Bm. Um UXo U\\u QLm Ko NoUju
dV TiTm.
CeM]m U\\u QLm GuT 1 Up / hPo N
LiP LWNu 1 N.. JlTR Adm U\\df
NUUm. A[PlTPYiV XdL[p HtTm
U\\] A[P \UX JVp ULs (spectrophoto
meter) Utm Ju \ULs (photo - electric colorimeters)
TVuTu\].
10.5.2. Ju \U (Photo electric calorimeter)
[

Egm
LXu

LpY] hPo

J u LXm

J PevPu [dk Pdm Ys[ J Ko

[u YVLf NjRlTh Ko dm Xu YV
Np\. Xu]p CQVdLlThP JdLt\ Egm
LXp (Absorption cell) Es[ BndV LWNu
NjRlT\. CkR LXu YoLs LiQVp B]Rm.
Um CfYoLs T Lt\V Sdm JudLu
CQVLm AUm. TmTX] \ ULp
CqY\Lu YoLs 1 N.2 A[s[RLm 5 .. LWNp
Ls[[m LiPRLm AUm.
CkR LXt AlTp Ko YlTu AUVlTts[.
C EgNlThP JV ALlThNUL Y\.
YlTu \U] Bn NnV YiV LWNu
\jt Ht\T Es[. X NR]eLp EgRp LXt
uT YlT]] AUdLlThs[.
AhPY] 10.1 \Vp TlTnp BndV LWNu
\jtm YlT] RokRjRdm Es[ RPo
LWNu \m

YlTu

(Colour of solution)

(Filter)

Yl BWg
Xm
TfN
Yl LXkR Xm (purple)
UgNs

Xm XlTfN
Yl
Yl
TfN
FR

10.12 Ju \Uu AUl

u CqY J uLXju m. Tm Ju
Nd HtT JuLXm u]hPjR Rtdm.
CeM]m PdLlTm uNL (electrical signal) Ko

260

261

PevPu dm
[d Xuv

YlTu

Td

TdVp TdLlTh UPdL A[h \ A[Lp

LiP LpY] hPo ApX TUu (digital readout)
YV Nj U\\] SPVL A[PXm. Rp
BndV T[d LiWR LWNXl (blank
solution) TVuTj U\\dL] A[ VL
WUdLlT\. u CR]j RPok BndLWNXl
(test solution) TVuTj U\\u Ul SPVLd
dLlT\.
JdLt\V C L[Ll j Ju
BndLWNp YVLm, Ut\u BnlT[d
LiWR LWNp (blank solution) YVLm NjRlTh,
C tdLm XdLjtf NUu NnVlTY \kR
\Vm. LdLlThP t] NUu Nnm
u]jRU A[hk U\\u LQlT\.
10.5.2.1. JVp TlTn (Photometric Analysis)
JVp TlTn] UtLsYp Su TY]
XLs Es[].
A) dLX] LXYk (complex mixture) TlTnl
T[l jRjRp.
(G.L.) CWjRjp Es[ dL^ Ul NnYp
l Utm WReL[ WRf R LWL[d
Lim rTYd dLYim. CpXVu CY
dLu \ ]Pu dm,
B) \m ApX J EhLYo T[L A[ No Ut\m
(Quantitative Conversion) GjdLhPL UX \lThP
dLv Ulh \p, WRf Rdlu Up
LWNp (supernatant) BojRPu (Ortho toluidine )
LWPu (reagent) ]k TfN LXkR X
\lT[j Rm.
262

C) J EhLYoRp A[ : (G.L.) UX \lThP Tu

\f N Yl YlT] TVuTj A[PlT\.
D)

N]d LQdRp : (G.L.) LdLlThP Tu

U\\], RkR NPV AR Tu hPd
LWNu U\\] JlPp.

LQdP YiV
LQdP
absorbance
of unknown
( AVR ) EhLYo\u
Concentration
YiV =
hP ( AkR )ofN
x Concentration
known
of unknown
( AVR
) N hP
absorbance
of known
( AkR ) EhLYo\u
(standard)

10.5.2.2 uv EhLYo JVpU : (uv Absorption

Spectrometry)
C Ko S] \UVm.NRWQ \Up Jt\
AX[m LiP JVjRW YlTu TVuTjRlTY
Tp Cp t\ (grating) ApX lThPLm
TVuTjRlT\. YlTk YYm JdLu
ThP, ALXm ALUL ClTRp L SeV EhLYo\u
LiP C NoUeL[ \ULi YTjY Ld
L]Um. \ FRl TV AL A[p EhLYm X
NoUeLu NYdLQ \UVl TVuTjY Tp
190 nm dd r NVpTm \UX JVpUVl
TVuTjRXm. (G.L.)
(i) NADI CQ SVLd LiP SLu NVX
oQdL m. TjRU] ]T T[ NolTRu
Xm EYm NADHu A[YdLQdYRu Xm
oQdLXm. EYm NADH \Ut\. C 340 nm
AX[jp JV AL[ Eg\. JV Egm
\u Su Nd So Rjp Es[.
(ii) d AXjPu ALlTV] dLv (uricase)
SVf NolTRt um um 293 nm AX[jp

U\\u A[PlTh ARu NY Ul NnVXm.

263

pH 9.0 p, 293 nm AX[jp EhLYm d AXm,

dL^p ApXuPu BL Bd_]t\m AP\.
ApXuPu CqYX[jp EhLYoRX TtlTpX.
G]Y 293 nm-p EhLYo\p HtTm \ d
AXju A[Yd d\.

GV \UX JVp Uu dV TLs Z

LdLlThs[]. (TPm 10.13)

slit [

Light
J
source
Xm

slit [

U
J
LXu
Sample
Photo-cell
Amplifier
Td
A[[
JVt Fig. 10.10 The main components of a

Jt\
Monochromator

TU
Direct read out
or recorder

simple spectrophotometer

TPm 10.13 GV \UX JVp Uu dV TLs

10.5.2.3. EhLYo \UX (Absorption Spectra)

X NoUeLs \ FRlTm LhX]m Tm
Rt\l EhLYo \UXVd Lidm Tiu
AlTPp, Ko LXYs[ CjRLV ThL[
APV[m LQXm.
WReLs
WReLs AYtp APes[ A] AXeL[V
RWu (tyrosine) Utm hlPTu (tryptophan)
BVYLu A[L[f Nok 280 nm AX[jp
ALUL EhLYm. Um, C Bnl Ts Rdh
TPR iV \Vm.
dd AXm
dd AXeLs Utm AYtu ShW_u LWd
Ls 260 nm AX[lTp TU EhLYo \]l
264

Ttdm. ALThN EhLYo \u dd AXeLu

(Integrity) JeQlT A[\. H]p TV[
Rt\ AXeLs ARu BWmTl (native) ThL[d
Lhm AL EhLYo\]l Ttdm.

UWReLs (Haem Proteins)

CqYL CQ WReLp U R (heam
group) ClTRp CY \UXu LhXu T Utm \
FRl Tp JV EhLYm. Bd_]t\UPkR Utm
Bd_u JdLUPkR NhPWm C YYeLu
LhXu \UXLs TU] A[ YThlTRp, Ko
LXYp Es[ UX lhP YYeLu \UX
\eL[f NokR A[L[d LQdPXm.
]t Ls[ YiY
Ko lhP Lu NnXTh [dLj], EV
NVp\d lThPl Tj Rk Ls[ Yim.
\ULs, Utm \UXVp JULs BVYt\
LVm Utm TLdm \L[Y].
1. BndLX] (cuvette) nUVdLp
BndLXu 50 NRR v/v Shd AXjp F\ Yj
nUVd u YX YWp LYlT\.
2. BndLX] TVuTjRp
Rp BndLXu YX YWp WlTlTh
JqYuu JVp TiLdPV YTLs
CpXRY N Nn Ls[ Yim. BndLXu
YfYoL[ UuUV] jRs (tissue paper) Li
Pj, u ARtV Rep YdL Yim.. A]j
A[Lm GdLlThP u YX YWp L RXZL
Lrj Yj EXWf NnV Yim.
265

7. hP YW YWRp (Construction of Standard Curve)

A]j BndLXuLm JV EhLYm.

lPjRdL EhLYoRd EhTm AX[m BndLXu
NnVlTVuTjRlThP Tu RuUVf Nok AUm.
dL]p AUdLlThP BndLXu AL A[ uv
LoL[ FY AUdm. B]p XVokR Ju\m.
LiQ BndLXu Lu BndLX] P UY].
G]Y RYlTmT CqYL BndLXu
TVuTjRlT\. Um CY GlTm LhX]m
\UXl Tp TVuTjRlTu\].

YqY NLp Ko hPd LWNp, YqY

Bnd ZnLp Gjd Ls[lT\. CY YqY
\lThL[ ]p EhTjRlT\. Ko
BndZp o Gjd Ls[lT\. lhP
AX[eLdL] EhLYo\u A[dLlTh, hPd
LWNu N - EhLYo\u YWTPm YWVlT\.

EhLYo
\u
absorbance

3) Bnd LX]p LofLs EhLYWlTRp

4. JXm (Light Source)

PevPu [d 360 nm AX[m YWs[ AL
f]d LiP Lof Bt\X EYd\.
\UXu \ FRl TVl T\ hVm [d],
XULl TVuTjRXm.

hPConcentration
LWNu
N
of standard

5. dLWNp (Blanks)

TPm 10.11 hP A[h YW

Ko LWNu U\\]d LQ, ]lTs

LWNp (reagent blank) TVuTjRlT\. CkR dLWNp,
A[P YiV NoUjRj RW Ut\ A]j
]lThL[m Lidm. ]lT[
Rp TVuTj Lu U\\u A[hd N
NnVlT\. u LdLlThP LWNu U\\u
LQlT\. U\L YX YWl TVuTjm
U\\] A[dLXm. Cm\p BndV LWNu
U\\u A[k U\\u A[ LdLlT\.
6. LWNpLu C WLs (Duplicates)
dLWNp, hPdLWNp Utm LdLlThP AVR
( unknown) LWNp BVY C WLp RVo NnVlTh
pVU] hP YW T\lT\.
266

10.5.3 \UX JVu TVuLs

\Vp Utm \UX JVp, EVp ALl
TVuT Lis[. CkhTeLs Z LdLl
Ths[YL[ AVl TVuTu\].
1.

dLv, WReLs, lLs, dd AXeLs

RV].

2.

LWNpLu LXeLp RjR (TdVu Np \)

3.

NoUju EhLYo \UX

4.

UXo U\\u QLjR AYRu Xm Ko NoUju

nUj RuUV AVXm. Um V NoUjt
CdQLm TUUm.
267

Tt

2. lhP Rjp _______ Utm AdWp AUP

I. NV] PV RokRj GL.

a. YiQl L \ CkR RjYjR AlTPVL
Lis[

3. Rol YiQl L \p ___________ A[

A) LPjj\u

B) Teh QLm

C) uULu NUX

D) UV Xd N

b. ALWv CRPV TUWL Es[

c.

A) LXdPv

B) ALWTVv

C) T AdWXU

D) v AdWXU

TlTn AYL Xd \p Es[ ALlThN

YLm
A) 70, 000 rpm

B) 7000 rpm

C) 4500 rpm

D) 1000 rpm

d. Jt\ \ULs LQlTY

A) Xd \Lp

B) u]jRULp

C) J \UXULp

D) PuPULp

e . CkR LWV Li A] AXeL[ LiPVXm

A) uahu

B) LkRL AXm

C) GjVm WU

D) mUq WLNU] Xm

II. LhP CPjR WlL

1. Np EhL[ ____________ hTjR TVuTj Np
ReLk jRdL m.
268

LXlTRu Xm T AdWp AULs EYdLlT\.

LsLs Rp YY\.

4. o uT J LWNp Ck YYm Ju
NY] AdLWNu __________ I Tj

AU\.

5. _____________ YiQlL \u Xm WReLu

Xd \ LiPVlT\.

III. NV RY\ G]d

1. uv JVp \UXUp PevPu [d uv
EgRX oQdL TVuT\.
2. Ym

RuU (Transmittance) U\\d

GoRjp Cdm.

3. YlTuL[ P Jt\ \ULs YqY AX

[eLp \kR jRm \] Tts[].

4. dd AXeLs Utm ARu LW EhLs 260 nm p

ALlThN EgRX Lhu\].

5. YRs YiQlL \p, SLW XUVL oUm

Es[.

IV. TjL
1. ShP YiQlL \
2. Y WY YiQlL \
3. J \UXU
4. YLh UVXdRp \
5. PAGE

--

Ll AXeLs TlTn
DLs
WReL[ jRp
o - XmToh

- Np EhL[
jRjRp.
269

V. K YojRLp PV
1.

YiQl L \p DTm C XULs VY?

2.

UpV TPX YiQl L \p Z (slurry)

RVdL TVuTm C ThL[ .

3.

ALWv Gu\p Gu]?

4.

GkR YL UV XdRp \ J NoUju Xd

GP oQdL TVuTjRlT\?

5. Ym RuUm, U\\m GqY RPo

Lis[?

VI. rLiPYLd PV
1.

ShP YiQl L \u RjYjR [dL.

2.

LpWp aU]hp Es[ Np EhL[ GqY

jRlTn?

3.

PAGE u]d LYofl Tt l YWL

4.

rLiP A[L[ TVuTj 100 ml RVR LWNp

Es[ dLu A[Y LQdL.
U\\u
A[
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.05

4 .-. Es[ hPd

LWNu N (UdW Wp)
20
40
60
80
100
X ( RVR )
UjR L] A[ 4 ..

U\\]d LQdP TVuTjRlThP RVR LWNu

TUu = 0.5 ..
5.

Ju \Uu TPm YWk RjYjR Y.

270

Nn\
uW
EVp YVp TlTn, CWi YLlTm
A) TiT TlTn
NoUeLu LXYp Es[ ThL[d LiPV
NnVlTY.
B) A[Y TlTn
J LWNp ApX LXYp Es[ lhP
Tu A[Yd LiPV NnVlTY. CWjRm Utm
EPs[ WYeL[l Ttd LiPVm, A[kRVm CkR
CWi TlTnLm Eo YVp BnYLjp
NnVlTu\].
TYL TiT BnLs \eLs EYRX Gp
LiPm YLp, LiQVp B] BndZp
NnVlTu\]. A[Y TlTntj RYV] LiQ
LXuLs mdY, hPdY, lTh Utm Wh
BV]Ym.

LoTahWhLdL] TiT Bn
LoTahWhLdL] TiT BnLs
AlTPp, rdLiP RL[Ll dLlThs[].
1.

LoTahWhLdL] TY] BnLs

2.

LoTahWhu Bd_u JdLlTitL]

BnLs

3.

] NVp RLdL] BnLs ( Bpa /

hPu )

4.

Jt\ NdLW, CWhP NdLWdL] BnLs Utm

5.

TuPvLdL] BnLs.
271

dLv, @lWdPv, LXdPv, AW]v, Tv,

XdPv, dWv, UpPv Utm vPof BVYtu 1%
LWNXj RVj JqY Bnm lhs[T
\VL NnVlT\.
LoTahWhLdL] TY] BnLs.
1. U^v Bn ( Molischs Test )

BukjWu Bn ( Anthrones Test )

RjYm
LoTahWhLs APo LkRL AXjPu
@ToWX EYd\, CRPu BukjW]
NodmT Xm LXkR TfN \jR EYd\.

RjYm

]lThLs
1. APo LkRL AXjp LWks[ 0.2% BukjWu

ahW[d AXm, LkRL AXm BVYtu

uXp NodLWLs o dL ]d EhTh
@ToWp ApX ahWd jRp ToWp Gu\
T[j R\. CkR NoUeLs AWUhd AuL[V
- SlRp ApX ]Pu ]k \s[
NoUeL[j R\. CkR ] NodLWVd LiPm
TY] TiT BnYm.

Bn : 2 .. ]lT[ BndZp
GjdLi ARPu CLs Bndd
LdLlThs[ LWNXf NodL Yim. u Su\L
LXdL Yim GkRR \Ut\m CpXVp, Yko
Rhp Yj 10 PeLs LdLYdL Yim. TfN
\m EYRp LoTahWh Es[ GuTR E
Nn\.

]lThLs
1. GjR]p LWks[ 5% - SlRp
2. APo LkRL AXm
Bn
LdLlThs[ 2 .. LWNPu, 2 Ls GjR]p
LWks[ SlRp LWNXf NodLYim, u 1
APo LkRL AXjR BndZu TdLeLp Yk
NpU PYim. CWi oUeLm NkdPjp
Xm LXkR FR \ Y[Vm RuRp ApX LWNp
FR \UL URp, LoTahWh Es[ G]
ENn\.

272

LoTahWhLu JdLlTitL] BnLs

@Te Bn ( Fehlings Test )
RjYm
LoTahWhLs JdLlTiT EPV RVl
TtdU]p, @Te LWNp Es[ ld AVLs,
lWv AVL[LY, ApX RWULY JdLlTh,
Tl \s[ ApX Yl \ rTYj R\.
]lTs
@Te LWNp
@TeLWNp RVl
7 Wm RW NpTh 100 p LWj LWNp
RVdLlT\. Ut\ LXp 24 Wm ThPVm
ahWd^, 34.6 Wm NVm ThPVm PohPWh
273

BV] 100 p LWdLlTh LWNp RVdLlT\.

Bnd TVuTju CWi LWNpL[m LXk
Ls[Yim.
Bn : 2 @TeLWNPu X Ls BndL]
LWNXf Noj LdLYdL Yim. Yl \ ApX
Tl \ rT EYRp, JdLlTis[ NodLW Es[
GuTR E Nn\.
Tdh Bn ( Benedicts Test )
RjYm : Tdh LWNp GuT LWm LXkR ld
NpTh LWNp Bm. CRPu JdL NodLWVf Nojd
LdL YdmT, X \ ld NpTh UYL
JdLUPk LWVR lWv Bd^PL U\. C
LWNp Es[ NodLWu Nd Ht\T TfN, UgNs,
BWg ApX Yl \UL U\.
]lTs
Tdh TiT Bn ]lTs :
17.3 Wm NVm hWhm, 10 Wm NVm LoT]hm,
75 p LWdLlTh RYV]p YLhPlT\.
Ut\ LXp 1.73 Wm LlTo NpTh 20 p
LWdLlT\. u CdLWNp, UYL LWm LXkR hWh
LWNPu NodLlTh Su\L LXdLlTh, LWNu TUu
100 BL Ut\lT\.

Jt\ NdLWdL] Bn
A) ToTVh Bn (Barfoeds Test)
RjYm
ToTVh ]lTs GuT Ahd AXjp
LWks[ ld AhPh Bm. CkR Bn U]
NdLWL[, PNdLWLk YTjRl
TVuTjRlT\. U]NdLWLPu ToTVh
]lT[f Noj TjmT EP]VL ( 1 2
PeLp ) Yl \ rTYV lWv Bd^
Pd\.
]lTs:
ToTVh ]l Ts RVjRp:
13.3 Wm LlTo AhPh, 200 p LWdLlTh,
u 1.8 [Vp Ahd AXm Noj C
RVdLlT\.
Bn
1 Bnd LWNX 2 ]lTPu Noj
NVL J Pm LdL YdL Yim. Yl LXkR
BWg \ rT EYRp U] NdLW Es[
GuTRd Lh\. ALUL LdL YjRp P.
H]p AL SWm LdL YdmT
PNdLWLm Yl \jRd Ld\.
hPu RdL] Bn
NY]@l Bn (Seliwanoff Test)

Bn : 3 4 Ls Bnd LWNPu 2
]lTs Noj LdLYdLlT\. Yl \
rT EYRp JdLl Tis[ NodLW Es[ GuTR
E Nn\.

RjYm
@lWdPv Tu\ hP ad^vLs, ahW
[d AXjPu ahWd jRp @ToWp
TL[j R\. NY]@l ]lTp Es[
WNo]Pu No Yl \ NoUjRj R\.

274

275

]lTs :
NY]@l ]lTs
CkR ]lTs 50 .Wm WNo]p 100
ojR ahW [d AXjp LWj RVdLlT\.
Bn
LdLlThs[ Bnd LWNu X LPu
HtL]Y TjRlThs[ 5 ]lT[f Noj
LdL YdL Yim. 3 PeLp No Yl \m
EYRp, hP NodLW Es[ GuTR E Nn\.
TuhP^dL] Bn
Vp Bn (Bials Test)
RjYm
TuhPv NodLW, ahW [d AXjPu
@ToWp TVj R\. u Bo]Pu ]k
TfN \s[ [T[j R\.

2. d AX Bn
1 Bnd LWNPu 0.5 ojR Shd AXm
Noj, LWNX Ykoj Rhp Yj 90 PeLd
LdL Yj, u CW Ym YdLlT\. TL
Xp Es[ YiU \ rT EYRp, LXdPv
Es[ GuTR E Nn\.

T NdLWLdL] Bn
AVu Bn
RjYm
vPof Utm [dL_u Tu\ T NdLWLp
Es[ 1, 4 [dLd CQlLPu, AVu Nok
X \s[ NoUjRd Ld\.
]lTs

]lTs
150 .. Bo]p 50 APo ahW [d
AXjp LWdLlTh Vp ]lTs
RVdLlT\.

3 Wm AVu, 100 3% ThPVm AVP

LWNp LWdLlTh ]lTs RVdLlT\.

Bn
5 ]lTs, 2 Bnd LWNPu LXk
Ykoj Rhp Yj TjRlT\. 10
PeLds TfN \m EYU]p TuhPv
Es[ G] AVlT\.

LdLlThs[ Bnd LWNu X LPu, 2

Ls 0.1N ahW [d AXm, 2 Ls AVu
]lTm NodLlTu\]. X \m EYRp vPof
Es[ GuTRm, Tl \m EYRp [dL_u
Es[ GuTRm E Nn\.

LXdP^dL] BnLs:

LdLlThs[ LoTahWh LWNp Jdm

TiTt\ LoTaWhP TtdU]p WtTld
EhTj Jdm U] NdLWL[L Ut\ Yim. u
Cs[ Tl ThL[d LiPV A]j
NR]L[m NnV Yim.

1. PXu l[W ]p Bn
1 Bnd LWNPu, 0.5 l[W]p
LWNp NodLlT\. Yl \m EYRp, LXdPv
Es[R E Nn\.
276

Bn

277

Jdm TiTt\ NodLWLu WtTjRp:

2.5 LdLlThs[ LWNX 5 Ls APo LkRL
AXjPu LXk, 5 PeLd LdL YdL Yim.
u WYj TVm ahWd^u Rd LWNX
Noj SXVdLlT\. Pdm TVm NpTh
rTY YLh dh, Pdm YWd Li
A]j NR]Lm NnV Yim.

AhPY] - 1
KNNu Rum SWm Utm YYm
LoTahWh

KNNu EYm SWm

(PeLp)

EP], YlTlTjYRt
uT LWVR U]
NNu ahWNu
EY\. YlTjm
T EPkR
LiQjiL[l
Tu\ JNNu LsLs
Pdu\].

U]v

15

@lWdPv

23

UgNs \ F YYl
TLeLs

dLv

57

UgNs \ FYYl
TLeLs

LXdPv

15 20

EPkR LiQj
iL[l Tu\
TLeLs

XdPv

45 50

P] p LWVdV
ThuhPu TkRl Tu\
YYPV TLeLs,

UphPv

35 45

ShNjW YYPV
TLeLs

AW]v

8 10

iQmjs YYPV
TLeLs

NXv

67

UXoL[l Tu\
YYPV TLeLs

dWv

37

WtTltl u F
YYlTLeLs
EYu\].

LoTahWhLdL] E NR]
@]p ahWu Bn
RjYm
C Jdm NodLWLdL] ( U] NdLW, P
NdLW ) dVU] ], NodLWp Es[ Bpa
ApX hPu R, ]pahWPu ]k
UgNs \ TL YY KNN]j R\. YYm, Utm
KNNu EYm SWjRd Li GkR YLV]
LoTahWh Es[ GuT E NnVlT\.
]lTs
2 Te ]p ahWu ahW [Wm 3 Te
NVm AhPhm EWp Ch Su\L LXdLlTh
]lTs RVdLlT\.
Bn
2 LdLlThs[ LWNPu R[
]lTs Noj Ykoj Rhp Yj LdL
YdLlT\. UgNs \l TLeLs Rum SWjRd
jdLs[ Yim. NR]d ZVd oj
YLh, iQdu Xm TLeLu AUlT Et
SdL Yim. NR]d ZV Su olTRu Xm
\kR TLeL[l T\Xm.
278

KNNu
TLeLu YYm

279

LoT ahWhLdL] ( dLv )

A[Y TlTn

B) NVm LoT]h ( Wt\ )

SdLm
LdLlThs[ BndLWNp Es[ dLu
A[Y Tdh A[Y \ Xm LiPRp.

200 .Wm dL^ pVUL GPh 100 .

m Yh u 20 .. Wf Noj LWdL
Yim. A p Su\Ld LWkRm, ARu L] A[Y
hPd Yp TPlThs[ APV[m YW
CdmTVL Um W NodL Yim. hP LWNp
dLu N 1 .hPd 2 .WUL Es[.

Tdh \
Eo YVp BndPeLp Cm\Vl
TVuTj CWjRm Utm p Es[ dLu A[
LiPVlT\.
RjYm
Tdh A[Y ]lTp Es[ ld AVLs,
dLp Es[ Bpa RVp JdLlTh,
P] Xp YiU \ rT EY\. Tdh
]lTu TUu U\dmT, TVuTjRlThP
dLv LWNu TUm, ARu Nm So Rl
TjRPV. X \m U\YR RWm TojRu
XVm.
]lThLs
A) Tdh A[Y LWNp

C) hP dLv LWNp

\
T - 1 : 100 .. hPd Yp hP dLv
LWNX UX VT RVdL Yim.
T - 2 : J hP Yp \]VR dLv
LWNX Gj AR Yp dLlThs[ A[
YWp Um YX YW Ft WlT Yim.
T - 3 : 10 .. Td A[Y Bn ]lT[
Lf NVL A[k 100 .. m Yp GdL Yim.
ARPu Uo 1 Wm NVm LoT]hI LXdL Yim.
CkR LXYV LdL P Yim. J Whp hP
NodLW LWNX Gj, UtV Ldu\ LXYp
UYL P Yim. Rp APo YiU \ rTYV
lWvRV NV] EYm. CkR Xp NodLWd
LWNX RL X \m tm U\m YW NodL
Yim. NodLW LWNp GqY[ RYlTu\R AR
j Ls[ Yim. JjR A[Ls PdmYW RWm
TojRX im im NnV Yim.

200 Wm NVm hWh, 75 Wm Wt\ NVm LoT]h

Utm 125 Wm ThPVm RVNV]h BVYt\ Uo
600 p LXk RUL TjR Yim u]o AYt\
YLh, WYj Ap 100 p 18 Wm LlTo
NpTh LWdLlThP LWNX NodL Yim. CWiPm
Su\L CPPUp LXdL Yim. u]o Ap 5 5%
ThPVm TW NV] LWNp Noj Ap UTm
YX Y Wd Li J hPWL BdL Yim. LWNp
RYL CpXUkRp YLhP Yim.

T - 4 : Whk hP NodLW NWNX Ut\

Yim. WhP YX Y ]p L, LdLl
Ths[ NodLW LWNXp AXNm (Bn LWNp) T
up VT RWm TojRX NnV Yim. Td
A[Y ]l T[ TVuTj RWm TojRX JjR
A[ PlTYW NnV Yim.

280

281

T - 5 : \]VR LWNp Es[ NodLWu A[Y

hP Bnd LWNu RWm TojRp A[L[
RkLsYRu Xm LQdPXm.

RWm TojRp - 1

LQd
AhPYQp \lThs[T RWm TojRp A[L[ U
LQdRd GjdLs[ Yim.
l

10 .. Tdh ]lT[ JdL RYlThP

hPdLv LWNu L] A[ = 8.5 . (RWm
TojRp 1) hP LWNp Es[ dLu N = 2
.Wm / . BLY 8.5 . hP dLv LWNp
Es[ dLu A[ = 8.5 X 2 = 17.0 . dLv

10 .. Tdh ]lT[ YUL JdL 17

.Wm dLv RYlT\.

10 .. Tdh ]lT[ JdL RYV]

\]VR dLv LWNu L] A[ = 10 ..
BLY 8.5 .. hP dLv LWNX] 10 ..
\]V dLv LWNd NUm.

BLY 10.0 . \]VR NodLW LWNp 17.0 .Wm

dLv Es[.

G]Y LdLlThP 100 .. \u RVR NodLW

LWNp Es[ dLu GP = 10 X 17 = 170 ..

hP NodLWd LWNX Td A[Y ]

Td GWL Es[ RWm TojRp
AhPYQ - 1
Tdh
]lTu
L] A[ (..)
10.0

Wh
A[Ls (..)
BWmTm C

NodLWd LWNu
L] A[ (..)

8.5
X1 (8.5)

10.0

8.5

17.0

RWm TojRp - 2
\]V NodLWd LWNX Tdh ]l
Td GWL RWm TojRp

: LdLlThP LWNp Es[ dLu

AhPYQ - 2
Tdh
]lTu
L] A[ (..)
10.0

Wh
A[Ls (..)

GP = 170 .Wm.
NodLW LWNu
L] A[ (..)

BWmTm C

10.0
X2 (10.0)

10.0

10.0

20.0
282

A] AXeLdL] TiT Bn
A] AXeL[d LiPYRt TXYL TiT
NR]Ls LQlTu\]. CkR BnLs Ap LQlTm
R RL[l Tj AUYRp, RjRuUVl
Tts[. rLiP NR]Ls TX A] AXeLPu
NnVlTu\]. ARt 2% A] AXd LWNpLs
RVdLlTu\].
283

1. A] AXeLdL] TY] Bn

]lThLs
i. APo Shd AXm ApX APo LkRL AXm

uahu Bn:
RjYm
J A] AXd LWNX uahPu LdL
YdmT As[ A] AXj R dLlTh
auPuu BL U\. UTm AL A[
uahhu ]k J X \ NoUjR
Rtd\.
]lTs
200 .Wm u ah] 100 .. GjR]p LWdL
Yim.
Bn
1 .. LdLlThP LWNX 2 .. uaPu ]l
TPu LXk, AR L p 10 PeLs YdL
Yim. Xm LXkR FR \ Rt\m A] AXeLs
Es[Rd Lh\. ahWd Wu Utm Wu
Tu\ A] AXeLs BWg \jR Rtd\.

2. RWdL] Bn :
CkR BnLs A] AXjp Es[ ]d
ahWdp RVl Tj AU\.
A) _kR Whd Bn ( Xanthoproteic Test )
RjYm
RWp ( tyrosine ) Es[ ]d ahWdp
RV] APo aW [d AXm ApX APo
LkRL AXjPu ] \ Um ARPu NVm
aWd^P NodmT YlLXkR BWg \m
Ru\.
284

ii. NVm ahWd^

Bn
LdLlThs[ A] AX LWNp 1 .. Gj
Ap X Ls APo Shd AXjR NodL Yim.
EP] X Ls ojR NVm aWd^ LWNXf
NodL Yim. BWg \m EYRp RWu A]
AXm Es[Rd Lh\.
B) pXu Bn ( Millons Test )
]lThLs
i. 15% LkRL AXjp RVdLlThP 15% Uod NpTh.
ii. 1% NVm ShWh LWNp

Bn
LdLlThs[ NR]d LWNp 1 .. Gj Ap
X Ls Uod NpTh ]l T[ NodL Yim.
u]o AR 10 PeLs 100oC-d PdL Yim.
oj u]o, X Ls NVm ShWh LWNX
NodL Yim. Yl \m RuRp RWu ClTR
Lh\.
C. Uo]u Bn ( Morners Test )
]lThLs
Uo]o ]l Ts : 1 .. ToUu, 45 ..
YX Yo Utm 55 .. APo LkRL AXm BVYtu
LXYV Uo]u ]lTs Bm.
285

Bn :
LdLlThs[ NR]d LWNp 0.5 .. Gj
Ap 3.0 .. Uo]o ]lT[ Noj RUL
LdLYdL Yim. TfN \m RuRp RWu
ClTR Lh\.

3. lPTdL] BnLs
CkR BnY] lPTp Es[ CPNp
RV AlTPVL Li AUks[.

A) aluv Lp Bn (Hopkins Cole Test)

]l ThLs

Bn
LdLlThs[ Bnd LWNp 1 .. GdL
Yim. Ap 1 .. Gof ] T[ NodL Yim.
Yl \m RuRp lPTu ClTRd Lh\.

4. Ao]dL] Bn
A) NLf Bn ( Sakaguchi Test ) CkR BnY] Ao]p Es[ Yu
RdL] Bn.
]lThLs :
1. 40% NVm aWd^

i. [VdNd AXm

2. 1% SlRp ( BpLap LWdLlThP )

ii. APo LkRL AXm

3. ojR Wu o

Bn
LdLlThs[ LWNp 2 .. Gj Ap 2 ..
[ Bd^d AXjR Noj Su\L LXdL Yim.
u]o 2 .. APo LkRL AXjR LY]UL Bn Zu
TdLeLu YVL PYim. Nklp FR \ Y[Vm
RuY lPTu ClTRd Lh\.

B) Gof Bn : (Ehrlichs Test)

Bn
NR]d LWNp 3 .. Gj Ap 1 .. 40%
NVm ahWd^ LWNXf NodL Yim. u
CWi Ls SlRp LWNX NodL Yim. u]o
X Ls Wu W UYL NodL Yim. Yl
\m RuRp Ao]u ClTRd Lh\.

CkR BnY] lPTp Es[ AWUhd

Bpa Utm CPNp Rd CPV SPTm
]V AlTPVL LiP.

5. NpTWl Tts[ A] AXeLdL]

Bn

]lTs

A. NpYu Bn ( Sulluvans Test ) :

10% ahW[d AXjp 10% TWPjRp

A] TuNpaP LXkR ( Ehrlichs Reagent)

CkR BnY] vPp LQlTm Np@lahp

( Sulfhydryl ) RV (-SH) AlTPVLd LiP.

286

I. vPdL] Bn

287

]lThLs
1. NVm NpTh ]Ts 15% LWNp 0.5 N
NVm ahWd^.

C. NVm ShWN Bn

2.

NVmTNpTh ]Ts 2% LWNp 0.5 N

NVm ahWd^.

2. 5% NVm ahWd^

3.

5 N NVm ahWd^

4.

NVm NV] LWNp 1% LWNp 0.8 N NVm

ahWd^.

Bn
BndL] LWNp 5 .. Gj, Ap 1 .. NVm
NV] ]lT[ NodL Yim. u]o 5 ..
NVm NpTh ]lT[ NodL Yim. CYL[
Ju\Ld LXkRu]o, Uo 30 PeLd AlTV YdL
Yim. Yl LXkR Tl \m Rum. u]o Cp 1
.. NVm T NpTh ]lT[ NodL Yim.
Tl \m, APo Yl \UL Ut\UPm. C, vPu
ClTRd Lhu\.
B) Xh NpT Bn ( Lead Sulphide Test )
]lThLs :
1) Xh AhPh 10% o LWNp 2) 40% NVm
ahWd^ ApX ThPVm ahWd^.
Bn
X Ls XhAhPh LWNPu 1 ..
BndLWNp NodLlT\. u 2 .. NaOH ApX
KOH NodLlT\ CkR LWNX X PeLs LdL
YdLYim. LWNp Tl \UL UVPu, Ll \
Xh NpT rT Rum. C vPu ClTRd
Lh\.
288

]lThLs :
1. 1% NVm ShW N LWNp.
Bn
NR]d LWNp 1 .. Gj Ap 1 .. NVm
ShW N ]lTs LWNX NodL Yim.
u]o 2 Ls NVm ahWd^P NodL Yim.
APoL FR \m Ru\. X PeLdl \
Ue\. C vPu ClTRd Lh\.
D) Td [W Bn
]lThLs
1. 1% Td [W LWNp
2. 1% RW NpTh LWNp
Bn
1 .. Bnd LWNp 0.5 .. Td [W
]lT[ NodLYim. CuL X \m Ru
EP]VL U\km. u]o 0.5 .. RW NpTh LWNX
NodL Yim. C[m FR \m Rum. C vPu
ClTRd Lh\.
II. vdL] Bn

Bn
5 .. Bnd LWNPu 1 .. RL RVo NnR 5%
NVm NV] o LWNX Noj Su\L LXdL Yim.
u]o AR 10 PeLd AlTV YdLYim.
u]o Ap 1 .. VRL RVo NnVlThP 0.5% 1, 2
SlR ]u, 4 NVm NpT]h Utm NVm
289

NpTh BVYL[ NodL Yim. APo Yl \m

RuRp vu ClTRd Lh\.
III. jV]dL] Bn

NVm ShW N Bn
] ThLs
1. NVm ahWd^ 5% o LWNp
2.

[u 1.5% o LWNp

3.

NVm ShWN 10% o LWNp ( VRL

RVdLlTPYim)

4.

6N ahW[d AXm

Bn
0.5. .. Bnd LWNPu Z \lThs[ ]
ThL[ YNVL Ju\uu Ju\L NodL Yim.
1.5 .. 5N NVm ahWd^, 1.5 .. [u, Utm
0.30 .. NVm ShW N. u Bn ZnL[
37 - 45 oC YlTXp Es[ Yko Rhp 15
PeLd Yj, u]o 3.0 . ahW[d
AXjRf Noj, 1 P SWm BndZV dL
Yim. Yl LXkR FR \m RuRp, jV]u
ClTRd Lh\.
A[Y \
[] A[Pp ( Sorensons Method )
NWuNu \V] RWm TojRp \lT [u
A[Y UlPXm.
SdLm :
LdLlThP Bn LWNp Ys[ [ u
GPV A[Pp.
290

RjYm
[] ToUp aPu NodmT [u
A] R BpaPu ]k PjXp
NoUjR Rtd\. ClT [p Es[
LoTdp R ]p DTPUp RjR Xp
Es[. CR NVm ahWdNPu RWm TodLXm. RWm
TojRp RYlTm NaOH-u L] A[Y] LdLl
Ths[ Bnd LWNp Es[ [u Nd So
Rjp Es[. [p Es[ A] R
ToUpa]p TLdLlTPpXVu\p A RWm
TojRuT Xp NVm ahWd^Pu
CP NnYRp NV] XVd LQV.
]l Ts
1.

hP Bd^d AXd LWNp : 100 .. A[

dLlThP J hP Yp 630 .Wm Bd^d
AXjR Lf NVL GP Ak GdL Yim.
AR 20 .. YX Y p LWdL Yim, Ts
Su\L LWkRm, ARu L] A[ Yp
dLlThs[ A[ YmYW Wp WlT Yim.
CkR LXYu \u 0.1 N.

2.

0.1 N NVm ahWd^

3.

ToUpa tT]dV

4.

]p@lRu 0.1% LWNp ( X Lh )

Nn\
T - 1 : hP Yp Es[ [u Bnd LWNX
Ad Yp dLlThs[ A[YWm WlT
Yim.
T - 2 : NVm ahWd^u \u ARp
291

WhP NVm ahWd^]p LV u, AR

LWNXp WlT Yim. 10 .. hP Bd^d AXd
LWNX ( 0.1 N ) lThp Gj J jRU] m
Yp GjdLs[ Yim. Ap J X
Lh NodL Yim. Bd^d AXjR NVm
ahWd^Pu RWmTodL Yim. XV] C[m Yl
\m RuRp RWm TojRu C XVm.
Whp Es[ NVm ahWd^u L] A[Y
j Ls[ Yim JjR A[ YmYW RWm TojRX
NnV Yim.
T - 3 : TVuTjRlThP \]kR NVm
ahWd^ LWNX [d (BndLWNp)
GWL RWm TojRp.
WhP \]kR NVm ahWd^]p WlT
Yim. J md Yp 10 .. BntL] [u
LWNX GdL Yim. ARPu 10 .. ToUpaP
LXdL Yim. Y ] SPT\ CkRd LXYV Su\L
dL Yim. \ J XLh LWNX NodL
Yim. CkR LXYV Whp Es[ NVm
ahWd^Pu RWm TodL Yim. Xp,
YV C[m Yl \m Rum. Whp Es[ NVm
ahWd^ GqY[ TVuTjRlThs[ GuTR
jdLs[ Yim. CkR RWm TojRX JjR A[
YY YW NnV Yim. 10 .. o Utm 10 ..
ToUpa CYL[ NVm ahWd^Pu RWm
Toj, ( Blank ) BWmT RWm TojRp UlhP LidL
Yim. Bnd LWNp Es[ [] SXVdL
TVuTjRlThP NaOH-u L] A[Y]. Bn Utm
RWm TojRp Ult CPV Es[ YTht NUU].
NVm ahWd^u \u RYRu Xm Bn
[u LWNu \] LQdPXm. Ck
LdLlThs[ NR] LWNp Es[ [u A[Y
292

LQdPXm.
RWm TojRp - 1
hP Bd^d AXjR NVm ahWd^d
GWL RWm TojRp
RWm TojRdLL TVuTjRlThP
Bd^d AXju L] A[
hP Bd^d
AX LWNu
L] A[ (..)
V1

Wh
A[Ls (..)
BWmTm C

10.0

V1 = 10 ..

NVm
ahWd
^
LWNu
L] A[
(..) V2

10.2
X1 (10.2)

10.0

10.2

Xd
Lh
]p@l
Ru

20.4

Bd^d AXju \u

N1 = 0.1 N

RWm TojRuT TVuTjRlThP

NVm ahWd^u L] A[

V2 = 10.2 ..

NVm ahWd^ LWNu \u N2 = X

( U LQdRd, TVuTjRlThP NVm
ahWd^u L] A[Y 10.2 .. G] LsL )
TU] TlTn uT
V1 x N1

V2 x N2
293

RWm TojRp - 3

10 x 0.1N

10.2 x X

@X

V1 x N1 / V2

10 x 0.1N / 10.2

0.098N

N2

hP NVm aWd^P d ( Blank ) LWNd

( o + ToUpa ) GWL
RWm TojRp

RWm TojRuT TVuTjRlThP NVm

aWd^u \u = 0.098 N

d
LWNu
L] A[
(..)

RWm TojRp - 2

10.0

hP NVm aWd^P (0.098N ) [d

( BndLWNp ) GWL RWm TojRp

10.0

LQd :
Bn [u LWNX SXVdL RYV]
NVm ahWd^u L] A[ =

Wh
A[Ls (..)
BWmTm C

hP NVm
aWd^
LWNu L]
A[ (..)

1.3
X3 (1.3)

1.3

2.6

Xd
Lh

]p@l
Ru

Bn RWm TojRp Ul RWm TojRp Ul

UX lhP Bnp ETVLlTjlThP
NVm ahWd^u L] A[ V1 = 12 - 1.3 = 10.7 ..

Wh
[u
LWNu A[Ls (..)
L] A[
(..)
BWmTm C
10.0

hP NVm
aWd^
LWNu L]
A[ (..)

12.0
X2 (12.0)

10.0

12.0

24.0

294

NVm ahWdau \u
Xd
Lh

]p@l
Ru

N1 = 0.098 N

RWm TojRdLL TVuTjRlThP

[u L] A[
[u \u

= V2 = 10 ..

= N2 = x

V1 N1

= V2 N2

10.7 x 0.098

= 10 x X

295

= 10.7 x 0.098 / 10
= 0.1048

@ [u \u = 0.1048N
BnlTu GP Utm \] RPo Tjm NUuT
=
NU] \ X \u.
GP/hPo
[u NU]\
=
75
BLY LdLlThs[ 1 hPo LWNp Es[
[u GP
=
0.1048 x 75
=
7.864 Wm.
BLY LdLlThs[ 100 . LWNp [u GP
= 7.864 / 10 = 0.786 Wm ApX 786 .Wm.
(U LQdLdLL A[Ls APld ds
LdLlThs[.)
: LdLlThs[ LWNp Ym Es[ [u
GP = 0.786 Wm.
1.
2.

3.
4.

YN Gi

NR]

LiTY

1.
2.

LdLlThP RVR LWNpClTRLd

LiPVlT\.
LdLlThs[ UjRd LWNp Es[ [u /
dLu GP = ( Wp ).

Tt
A[Y Utm TiTTlTntL] BnLu
L[ jdLs[ Et SdLp HL[
TWUdL Yim.
LoTahWh Utm A] AXeLu TiT
BnYlTt AV Et SdLp Hhp u
LhPeL[ YWVYim.
Cp NR], LiTY Utm ATY GR Yim.
Ef NR]V G Ym GR Yim.
TiT NR]p, AhPYQp rLm YWeLs
CdL Yim.
A[Y NR]p LhPeLs YWk Ap RWm TojRp
A[L[ dL Yim u]o LQdRp Yim.

296

ATY

297