Aircraft Stability & Control 11/8/05

MECH 594

Aircraft Performance: Stability and Control

MECH 594

Static Longitudinal Control

If we wish to trim the aircraft at a

higher or lower trim speed we have to
alter the equilibrium angle of attack, ! e .

The most practical manner is through

elevator deflection. But how does ! e
affect CMcg ?

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Aircraft Stability & Control 11/8/05

MECH 594

Elevator Deflection to Trim

The tail lift coefficient is a function of !C Lt

= rate of change of C L with respect
both ! and "
t e
!" t

to " t at constant # e
new tail zero !C L
lift line
t
= rate of change of C L with respect
!# e t

!it to # e at constant "

!C L !C L !C L
CL = t
"t + t
# e = at" t + t
#e
t
!" t !# e !# e

So we have for the pitching moment about

the center of gravity:
& !C L )
C Mcg = C M
acwb
+ CL
wb
(h cg
$ hac
wb
)$ % H ( at" t +
'
t
# +
!# e e *

MECH 594

Elevator Deflection to Trim

Taking the partial derivative of C Mcg wrt to ! e gives

"C Mcg "C L lt St
= #$ H t
where $ H = = tail volume ratio
"! e "! e c S
"C L
but we see by the figure that t
is constant and since $ H depends on
"! e
the aircraft type then, the increment in C Mcg due only to a given elevator
deflection ! e is
"C L
%C Mcg = #$ H t
!e
"! e

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Aircraft Stability & Control 11/8/05

MECH 594

Elevator Deflection to Trim

!C Mcg
C Mcg = C M 0 + " a + #C Mcg
!"
!C Mcg !C L
= CM 0 + " a $ %H t
&e
!" !& e

MECH 594

Elevator Deflection to Trim

What elevator deflection will give the aircraft a new equilibrium angle of attack ! n?
At a new trim C Mcg = 0 at ! a = ! n where " e = " trim so we can write

#C Mcg #C L #C Mcg #C L
C Mcg = C M 0 + ! a $ %H t
" e and 0 = C M 0 + ! n $ %H t
" trim
#! #" e #! #" e

#C Mcg
CM 0 + !n
So " trim = #!
#C L
%H t

#" e
This equation gives the elevator deflection necessary to trim the aircraft at a given
angle of attack ! n . % H is a known value from the aircraft design, and
C M 0 , #C Mcg / #! , and #C L / #" e are known values derived from wind-tunnel or
t

free-flight data.

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MECH 594

Stick-free Longitudinal Static Stability

Free elevator deflection generally reduces the static longitudinal stability.

MECH 594

Takeoff Static Stability

The CG affects our longitudinal control

requirements at takeoff.

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MECH 594

Directional and Lateral Stability and Control

Directional stability and control refers

to airplane behavior in yaw

Movement of longitudinal axis when

it’s rotated about its vertical axis.
Rotation caused by yawing moments.

In pure yawing case, there is no

pitching or rolling.

Dynamic directional stability is

coupled with dynamic roll stability.

MECH 594

Directional and Lateral Stability and Control

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MECH 594

Static Directional Stability

Sideslip angle β is angle between relative

wind and airplane’s longitudinal axis. When
relative wind to right, the sideslip is positive.

Airplane has positive static directional

stability if trimmed for non-sideslip
flight and reacts to perturbation by
turning into the new relative wind and
tends to reduce sideslip angle to zero.

Has negative static directional stability if

it tends to increase sideslip angle.

Has neutral static directional stability if it

doesn’t react to sideslip.

Figure (a) is negative, figure (b) is positive

MECH 594

The Yawing Moment Equation

Yawing moment about aircraft CG

N CG = C N (CG ) q! Sb
N CG
C N (CG ) =
q! Sb

where

N CG = yawing moment about

CG (ft-lb)
C N (CG ) = coefficient of yawing
moment about CG

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MECH 594

Graphic Representation of Static Directional Stability

Positive static directional stability

has slope which is exactly opposite
for static pitch stability.

• For positive slope, plane experiencing

right (+) sideslip develops nose-right
yaw coefficient and yaws into new
relative wind

• Trim point is where there is no

yawing moment. As with pitch
stability, degree of slope is indication
of degree of stability. Steeper slope
means increased stability.

MECH 594

Graphic Representation of Static Directional Stability

As with pitch, it is not unusual for airplane to be stable at small

sideslip angles and unstable at high sideslip angles.

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MECH 594

Contribution of Aircraft Components to Yaw Stability

Wing contribution to positive

static directional stability is small,
but increases with amount of
sweepback.

In the figure, the right wing

produces more drag, so plane
turns toward RW. The right
wing produces more lift,
and this is a roll factor.

MECH 594

Contribution of Aircraft Components to Yaw Stability

CP near quarter length of fuselage (subsonic),

which is ahead of CG
∴ the fuselage is destabilizing.

Effect of engine nacelles is comparable

to impact discussed for pitch stability.

• For propeller or engine inlet ahead of CG,

effect is destabilizing.

• For propeller or engine inlet behind CG,

effect is stabilizing.

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MECH 594

Contribution of Aircraft Components to Yaw Stability

• Vertical Tail (ie vertical stabilizer).

As name implies, strongly stabilizing.

• Dorsal tail better, because it does

not increase parasite drag as much.

MECH 594

Contribution of Aircraft Components to Yaw Stability

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Aircraft Stability & Control 11/8/05

MECH 594

Rudder Fixed versus Rudder Free Stability

• Fixing rudder in neutral position prevents

rudder float and increases vertical tail area.
This increases directional static stability.

• For aircraft with conventional,

reversible controls, there is increased
directional stability results if the pilot
keeps both feet on pedals and holds
the rudder in a neutral position.

MECH 594
Effect of High Angle of Attack

• If vertical tail engulfed in stalled air

from wings at high angles of attack,
it will not be effective in developing
sideward forces.

• Static directional stability will deteriorate.

• Stalled air will have a strong, negative

effect on ability to recover from spins
and unusual attitudes

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MECH 594

Directional Control
Five conditions of flight can be critical to
directional control exerted by rudder:

1. Spin Recovery
2. Adverse yaw
3. Slipstream rotation
· Rotates about fuselage as shown
· If strikes left side of stabilizer, will
cause nose-left yawing moment
· Yawing moment must be overcome
with rudder force to maintain
directional control
4. Crosswind takeoff and landing
5. Asymmetrical thrust
· Left engine assumed to have lost thrust,
resulting in nose-left yawing moment
· Opposite yawing moment must be
developed by rudder / vertical stabilizer

MECH 594
Lateral Stability and Control

Lateral stability refers to behavior of airplane in

roll

• Movement of lateral axis when rotated about

longitudinal axis. Results when rolling
moment (L´) acts on aircraft.

• Caused by either pilot activating ailerons or

sideslip angle

From stability standpoint, more interested in

sideslip angle impact

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MECH 594

Static Lateral Stability

Picture shows airplane sideslipping to right

• Rolling moment developed

Since yawing to right, left wing moves faster
than right wing, left wing develops more
lift, plane rolls to right

• For static lateral stability need wings

leveling rolling moment

Three possible tendencies:

(a) Left-wing-down rolling

moment (positive lateral static stability)
(b) No rolling moment developed
(neutral lateral static stability)
(c) Unstable airplane
(negative lateral static stability)

MECH 594

The Rolling Moment Equation

Rolling moment about aircraft CG

L'CG = C L' (CG ) qSb where

L'CG = rolling moment about CG

C L '(CG ) = coefficient rolling moment about CG

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MECH 594

Graphic Representation of Static Lateral Stability

• Same slope as for static longitudinal stability

• Trim point is where there is no rolling moment. Occurs

at zero sideslip angle

• Assume plane trimmed and has right (+) sideslip

Negative rolling moment coefficient (-CL) developed
Right wing raised
Degree of slope indication of degree of stability

MECH 594

Contributions of Aircraft Components to Roll Stability

Wing Dihedral:

Makes angle of γ with horizontal

Sideslip gives velocity of Vy
Roll gives velocity of Vz

Vn = Vz cos ! + Vy sin !
For ! small,
Vn = Vz + Vy!
Wing line
Vy% V&% Vx
! "# due to dihedral $ = = &%
V V
Vy γ
Dihedral increases α by βγ on right Vy
Vz V
wing and decreases it by same amount Vn z
on left, tending to bring wings level

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MECH 594

Contributions of Aircraft Components to Roll Stability

• Vertical wing position gives pendulum effect.

• High wing position places airplane CG below

wing CP. Results in positive effective dihedral. CG
• Low mounted wing with airplane. CG above wing Vβ
CP is unstable and has negative effective dihedral.
CG
• Low-wing airplanes/larger dihedral. Wing
sweepback stabilizing, because right wing has
more drag but also more lift.

MECH 594

Contributions of Aircraft Components to Roll Stability

Vertical tail:

Side forces stabilizing since

tail is above CG

Complete aircraft:

Total airplane must have positive

lateral stability

Some components may have negative stability.

Okay as long as this is overcome by other
components

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MECH 594

Lateral Control

• Accomplished by providing differential lift on wings with

ailerons or spoilers.

• Delta wing aircraft often combine ailerons and elevators into

single control unit called elevon or ailevator.

• Both left and right surfaces act together when elevator action is
needed. Left and right surfaces act in opposition when roll
motion is required.

• A combination of pitch and roll response is also possible. High

roll rates desirable.

MECH 594

Dynamic Directional and Lateral Coupled Effects

• From before, static stability depends on aircraft’s reaction to

imposed sideslip angle.

• Both yawing and rolling produce sideslip. Conversely, sideslip

produces yawing and rolling moments.

• Two moments interact and result in coupled effects that

determine dynamic stability in yaw and roll.

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MECH 594

Roll Due to Yawing

Rolling moments usually produced by use of ailerons.

However, as stated previously, yawing can produce roll.

Example: pilot applies right rudder and

• The aircraft yaws to right

• The left wing moves faster than right wing
• The left wing develops more lift, and aircraft
rolls to the right

MECH 594

Roll Due to Yawing

Roll Induced Spin

Characteristics

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MECH 594

Adverse Yaw

• Airplane normally yaws in same direction

as it is rolled.

• Possible for airplane to yaw in opposite

direction to roll can lead to loss of
control, and is called adverse yaw.

• Effective wind on up-going right wing

is resultant of freestream and downward
winds. Lift vector tilted backward.

• Lift vector on down-going wing

tilted forward.

• Lift vector on up-going wing and lift

vector on down-going wing both oppose
yaw in direction of turn.

Try to turn to right∴ adverse yaw

MECH 594

Types of Motion Resulting from Coupled Effects

(a) Spiral divergence

➣ Static directional stability great in comparison

to static lateral stability.
➣ Wing lowered, but dihedral effect is weak,
and wing will not raise to level position.

(b) Directional divergence

➣ Results from negative directional stability

➣ Airplane disturbed in either roll or yaw and
develops yawing moment that makes it yaw
even further

(c) Dutch roll

➣ Sideslips to right, yaws to right

➣ Right wing develops more lift , plane rolls to left
➣ If not controlled, right wing causes sideslip to left

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MECH 594

Types of Motion Resulting from Coupled Effects

Roll Coupling

MECH 594
Notes

Questions?

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Aircraft Stability & Control 11/8/05

MECH 594
Notes

See you next time.

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