(

INgEBIil NEFONf

FOE A SIIDT OF II{COUE TSFTiIERJIIIIOII

AIII} ItrS EEEECTS

AI,l0IIC lf0lfig$rs CROIIPS

It{ mlrtts coAsilrPRovrl{cE

Hartin l{aLsh

subnitteal to l{orlcl Rlucation Inc.1

Bostonl Massaohusettsr U.SoA. 1
Jrrne 1986.
 r.

-CONT$ITS

PfgfaCg.... . . . .. . ... .. o. . . . .. . .. ... . . . . . . . o . . . . o- . . . i l

(

ovERvlE1t............................. . . . . . . . o .. . . . . . 1

WOMEI!$CROI]P,DIANI LoCjUIION........ o.....14

AGI{IRATE
(
WO!{mItS' GROIIPT JISANL LOCA$f0N... ....... .....{!
AI'KSssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssss

I{OMEUISGROUPTPol{GlilHIDrlfit LOC,!$rON.. ......77

3Ol,lAIfI lJOl'lBIrS G?OIIP, I'IACARINI LOC,![IIO]I.. .. . . . . .. . .109

AND fTS EEFECIS.......

IilCOljIE 6f,]$IER.0SION .... .. ... ..lJZ
 11

Preface

This report presentE tb€ prelioinarTr fincti.nge of an otFgping

proggarrno of r€search (1983- ) teing condusted on uome1ls grounts in

Kenyars Coast Provincs b6r lforlct ftlucation fnc. (Boston, Mass.) in

collaboratioa w'ith Tototo Eone Industrdes (Uorntasa). The flnclings

presented here are based prina,rily upon flelclwor{c rrnd.ertaken between

Augrr.st 1985 ana FebnurSr 1986 lcith 4 lototo-spoaeored gtoupso A

second perioct of fielclworltc is now undenragr. llhe results of eanlier

pbases of th,e reEeacch proglatme are aLso taken into account: lts

ftrll coaclrrslons shoulcl be ava.ilab}e soneti"ne in 1987; I:a wr{.ting

anrd researching this interim report the author ba.s enjoyed. the firll

support of aad. tenefited oonsiderably frorn clisctrssion rrl,th both tbe

Direstor and. sta,ff of tototo anil his colleagues (and. employe$) in -

tiorld. Bluca,tibno- So then arid tb.e viJ.lagers who received' liim so weLL1

special. thanks a.re d.us.

leartin ttalsh

Mombasa

June 1!86
 o'lriRwll

lfomenrs groupE do. not operate in a soci.l v&ollllno Any analysis of iheir

roLe antl inpaet rmrst be situatecl in a,n.arlequate d'escription' of their wicler

1 sdcial a,ad ecoaonio envLronment. Soth pl'anners and researchers have failecl to

take srrffioient acaount of political economy a,t the looal level and, the

constraints lt inposee upoir the operation of tro.ments grorlpsr The foI1ow5-rrg

reportl based. upon a. studly of sbnenrs groups a.nc[their incoc're-generating

projeo'be ia K;WatE Coast Provincee renedies this situation"

In i-bs initial d.esi€rr. tlre study ran into sirdlar diffi@lties by. focusing

upon the. inpast of trogenrs gloup nembership arxclinoome generation upon fertility

rel,ater1 variables. Sunregr d.ata; hor'reverl demonstrated. a negS-i$ibLe relation.

Ehis fjnding oaly becomes intelligible in temi of tbe interpretative

fra,meworkwhichthecompIetecLstudy9ana1ysingind.e.bai1theoperaiionof

r.lonents itxcome-generating projects, provicles. This fra;rer'rork is surnmarised'

''be3.or.r1
arnplifiedl. aucl lllustrated. in ihe for:r case s'budies tririch foLlowe and-

related. systenatically to specific tqoios (incluiting attitrxles to fertility) in

the conclnd.ing section of the reporto This provicles a sor:nder basis than has
'trith
hithe:rto been avallable for the forrnuLation of pol.icy recornnendati.ons

regard to tromenrs groups a,nd.their incorne ganeration projects"

Ca,pi-Falism vs. household- economy.

The lcey to unrierstand.ing tire operation of liomell s gfo'Llps a,nd success or

othertrise of their income-generating projects is to be fouird. in the relation

between J.ocaL (indigenous) sociaL formations a,nil the foroes of .capital-ist

penetration r*rich are r.lorking to,tra,nsform therno lhe essential point is tirat
 this transfornatj.on is far-fl:* conplete. Indigenous for"mations have been

rnod.ifiecl tnrt rarely oaptruecl outrigbt btrr capital. In marqr respects they

renain, strongly r4sistartt to capitalist penetrationo This is particuld,rLy

eviclent algnS the KAnyan,coast, of.Idombasars hinterlancl

where the
.people
have.long been brancLecltbacli:r.rarclr for their apparent relucte,nce eitirer to

engage in (nig3ant) wage labour on any scale or to arlopt motierrr nethod.s of

farmiag a.rrtl procluce for the narket. l{hile capita} prel-Is in one clirection,

the .stt:uotrrre*. of indigenous econony provid.e via.,bLe.alVem,atives for tbe

investncent of Labour and. cash and. continue to pu]l in another.

lleither of tb.ese forbes is monolithic. Differentl sometiroes com;etingl

fraotions or' interests of capital can b.e identifiedL - inter:ra,'biona11 .national

.
' and. incligenous (iocaL); along r.ritb their varior:s agents - foreign conpanies
'
and. lI.GOel. the stater ancl LooaL entrepren€'utrsr Indigenous social forrnationsl

alreacly no&ified in differing clegrees'by th,esa interests, vary coilsiclerably

1
from one location to anotber.' They share in comnon the fac-l that procluction

i" precl.oninantly organised. at the jbevoL of inctividr:.al household.s uhich retdin

,
a largg ilegree of control over the prinoipal means of production: 1an4 e.nd'

tbe'laborrr of their menbers or not,

nemberso l'Iomen, vhether are first
-#oop
and foremost members of bousehold.s and as such are subject to tbe d.ecisions
t\ I

taken rcithin then. tlomenrs g?oupsr tbeir income-generating proiects icl-ealIy

frrncti6ning l.!ke small capitalist'enterprises; ' stancl ai; the critical- ju:roture

of these oppo"ing forcesl oapitalist ancl household economyi and' rnay be

captur.ed. or e,t Least severe3.y constraineiL by one or. the other.

A d-evelornontal schena.

llhe operation of tb.ese cons-braints varj.es aocording to the stage of a,

(

grouprs (or projeotts) tlevelopment. [hree main stages ca.n be idsntifiecl.

. \
t 1gbefirst Ftager axperi,eqcerl in all casdsr is oharaoterisecl by lack of ma,jor \

tbe-search for these.

fiucls ancl clomiaated..'-Uy llhe second.r pivotalrftog",

. wUicU maqr g?oups have yet to reachl .sees the acbpevenent of tbis goal tbrouSlr

( the injection of oa.pita,l from the outsid.el allowing tire establishnent of a

najor project. Depend.ing upon the nature of the pro'ject a group rna4rthen

eitb,er revert io tne initial stage (tfris is particurlarl-y the case r,iith r'relfare

t proJeots) orr in cleveloping an income-generating project or enterprise, nove

on to tbe third, rrith all its aitenclant clifficuLties.

( Stage one. Fron their inoeptidn'groups a,re strongly irrfluenced ir\ their

organisation a,nd.goals by state cLefinecl H.eveloprnent obje.ctives a.nd-are fornal-I'y

tierl. to these W regiqtering with the I'Iinistry of 6\rLture and. Social Services.

t Ae it relates to the womenrs group prog?amne state. clefined d'evelopnent has a

doubLe aspect. First ln its emphasis upgn a basj.c needs approach a.nd-the

provision of soclal and uelfare services (includ.ing schoolsl nr:rserXr a.nd'

I adult ed.rlcation classes, roedi.caL facil-ities agd. adequate trater supplieS); -

.serrrices shioh arE not only conceivecl as being of general benefit but. are also

recogr1{serl as having a ctireat effect upon the quality of womenrs Lives.

.
( . Seooritlllyl . ip the prornrirtion of incone-generating opportunities for tromenl

oppor-tunities seen to be most effectiveLy reeil,i,zed-theoug'h the agency of rlonents

groups, although e:actly hon-thi-s rill tatce pl-acd and. uith nhat effects is

( rarely spelt outo ,Itre major prcjects r'rhich ttornellrs.groups p?opose and. for

vhiih they receive offioial support and recognition invariabLy fall into one or

tbe other, sornetlnes bothl of thcse categories'(a water project inayl for

( insta.nce, provicte incone for a group theough the sale of uater to villagers)-.
 4

,/

. Almost all- groups are committed.r on paper or othertlise, to r.lelfare

projectsr lrhether or not -bhese constiiute their primary objectives.. I,ioreoverl

as registered self-help groupsr they are nobilised. at every possible opnortunitl'

by local officials to contribute labour a^nd funds to other commrmity developmenb

projects. llomenrs.greoups are ilus utilised. io the fuLI in rrhat may be vier;ed

as a:r r:nofficial- fo"T of taxation, its goal being to provid." urra maintain social

pervioes in the nra-1 areas. As the first of the case studies presented bel-olr
'th-is
illustrates, may constitute a significant drain upon group resources e^nd

banper tireir further d.evelopment. It is, hor.rever, a'situation r.rhich groups are

prepared to tolerate. Firstl because-g'rol:ps d.eri-ve._their legiiination from.the

state and are prourl of the recognition uhich follows fron their contribution to

the comrnunity. Second, because ihey arel competing r,dth other g?oups for funds

dispensed W the state and- its personnel. And accessj to capital- fron these e.nci
\
other sources is the only nears, short of clissol-utione by vhich groups ca:r

escape from th.e tlemand.svhich thc state irnpoies upon therno

Tbe second. set of constraints operating upon groups at this as ue}l..as at

later stagEs stems'from.the configuration of household. economy. Groups

typicalLy enga.ge in a r,licle range of aciivitids over and above those direcied
'tor.rardp the major projects. But no:re of these is capable
achievement of thelf

of provid.ing the large inputs of capital l'rhioh both major r,relfare and inoome

g"n"toiion projects ""q.ri"".. I.{onetary contributions in ihe form of subsoriptions

or shares from gFoup memberg prove d.ifficuLt to s.ustain and. are generally Li'i;tle

rnore than'sufficient to cover basic expensesr including the costs of .cornmwrity

participation and tfr" eqpense of en-bertaining visitors rvlro arJ couried'as

potehtial allies in the quest for outsid.e fi:nd.so Collective agricultural

enterprises, while profiting from the advice of government ertension staffl

 suffer from lacl< of purchased. technical inputs a"nd.the high opportunity costs

.of labour. Contributions of cash aria laboui to groups are conditioned. icy the

more pressing clernand.sof the housdhold.s. to ubich'their mernbers belong ancl tend

to be measured a6ainst the possibility of ir.rnecliate as opposecl to long-terrn

returnso From tbis point of vier.l it is significant that more substantial

oontributions a.re often made togards aciivities\ rilr!ch promise a nore tan6'ibLe

benefit to metrbersr household.s ancl only incid.entally (in cases lrhere a cess is

imposed.) ad.d-to Jfuncls: hanclioraft production ancl various forns of

,group
ind-ividual saving including rotating cred-it associations fall into this category.

Stpge trro. The only uay a group can escape (and. even so only partially) from

these constraints to develop a major r.relfare or income-generating project is

by Securi[g access to capitalr material and other forms of support from outdide.

The main sources of such support are 'bhe statel 1'IGOs, gtate and liGO personneL

acting in b private capacityr' and to a l-esser ertent privabe companies. llot

surprisingly groups inve.st considerable resources and enerfJ in the firq'b stage

in rnaking alLies of theseo In margr cases necessary alliance r'riti:. the state and

its agents acts as. a springboard. to obta.ining the support of I{GOs, r';hose

' are often at a greaber remove fron the experience of

networkg of operation

womenrs group members. The l{Gose both.Kenyen and internationall provide by

7

t1t the 1argest fortion of the capital and. befck-up serrices. trhich Stoups obtain.

Asid.e from aLl the gork-lrhich gnes in'bo securing.such aicl1 the mos'b iuiportant

contribgtion r.;hich groups melce to,..;ards the estc.blishnent of projeots is often

.in providing a:rd. organising necessary rrnsl:iIlecl and- semi-s!:j.11ec1 labour.

Oncc a.pioject has been established a group may readily find, itseLf back ai

sgua:.e one. 1'lis is particularly the case trith r'relfare-oriented- projects with
 . a minimaL potential for,generating inoome. Their maintenance costs and

recurrent expenses are typical-ly highl reguiring continued support froni

I
ggvernment staff gnd.r/or fi.urd.s from ,interested llGOs to keep them in operatioi:..

position fwrction as localised. IIGOs supported. by larger ones

, , Groups in this

r..rorking together as ertensioni of the sta,ters eduiational or welfare serrrices.

: Ittco""---g"tterating projeots frequently require a sirnila.r continuity of

. :
.- inputs, d.ependin€ upon the nature of the projectr althouglr only pla.ns for

, e:cpa^nsion arrd. diversification into othci pro'jects, or alternativeLy the threat

I

.of fail-ure; rnay riecessitate f\rther injections of e:rtezna.l capital. The

.
possibility of faih:re a^nd.reversal is never remote as a consideration of the

Droblems inherent in thelr further deveLopment und.erlines.

( -

Stage. three. I.Ielfare pro jec'b's are relatively easy to d.efinel if not ah.rays

easy to maxrage. Their go?Is are unequivocal andr trhile the oonstraints

operating upon tlrenn may !e inperfeotly unclerstood (farrily planning protrammes,

discussed'1rt"t in this report 2 a;re a good. example of this), tbe forma.l

.. sector and voLrarta.ry agencies conce.rrred uith their execution have access to. the

means .and. a d.eterminate iclea of the strategies reqt:-ired. for their attainnent.
r
Income generation is a very diff"""\"t kettle of fish. Its.goals.- in this
'contert
the creation of income-generating opportunlties for l{omen.as a means of

iroproving their cornparative status - rest ttno: t set of rxrtestecl assunp'bionst

and scant oonsideratiot..is 6iven of the optinal stra-beg'ies vilrich might be

purr,recl to attaln tlrese, the oons'bralnts r*hich opera,te upon tbernl ' a.ncl-uhat

not realized is 'bln'b the ir:'cone-

their possibl-e consequenoes trigh'b be. l'Brat is

generating projeots estabLished. t6r uoments Sroups riith erberral assistanoe

, .,
fqnotionl or shorgrl fwrc'bion if they are to be suocessfull as.smaIl capita,list

enterprises...
;esr The
1he 6ovenl
tovernment agenoies cha,rgecl.trith assisting l'.'omenls grolrps a]'c
 7

( -

\
i1-I equipped- to d-ed,I rrittr this situe.tion a^nclthe IIGos, uhile more fLexible
better praced. to take appropria.te actione '
have been slo'to
,
. realise all of its implicationso

once incone-genera.tinS projecis are seen in this lig-ht i-t is not clifficr{-t
to id-entify the constra.ints uirich operate upon 'ohem. As embryonic capi,.;e,Iist
enternrises they are first a,nd.foremost constrained by the localised. s-bruo-bgres
qlLLes wJ uM

' -in
of household. econoegr uirich they a:.e embect-cled. l,Iha.t r.;omen pu.b in-to their
.enterprises,horrtheyorgan.ise,uhen,and-tdratthuyni-1.hte:qlect.[o6et.ou.tof

tb'em are conclitioned -e;-qpec-ta,tions

W their rolesl obLigations and- as nernbers i
of houseirolclso Resources investecl in a group a,re frequ-eirtly-resorlrces r,,'ithclra.r:r'
i
from a houscholclo :
Pa,rticularlf rihgre surPlus la'bour
.anc1cash are no-b ree,clily i
availa.ble and- the gains from group inves'btrent i
are not ir:uoed-iately apparent,
' househofd- ob)-igations
are invariabl-y g"iven priori'Jy and col] ective en.berprise
I
suffers accord.ingly" This point has already been touchecl upon. above. Groups,
' their membership recruited on a volun'bary basis, typically lack the meags of
enforcing their d-ecisions (although naily e{perirnent, unsuccessf\r1lye gith

measure6 cl-irectecl tonards. this end.: for e:<arnBleby irrrposing fines fo3 non--

rf sepa.:.ation of -i;heir

members from.the household.s to trhich 'r;hey lelonA" Household-s, fr:src-bioning as

semi-a,utononous uni1;s of procluction, continue to provid-e inclividuaL rnernbers ..

ilith iireir princinal means of livelihood. a^nd.ihe La-bter reraa.in sirbject to the
'decisions (
takcn ,rrithin themo .

The organise,i;ion of householcl-s ancr-lrouseholcl cnterprises a.lso ha,ve'a,n

' irDor'ua:r:i;, oi'i;en neg'a-i;ivep e1'fcct upou 'bire oi.ganica'bion of 6Toup en'berprises.
i
. Tiris stents parbly from tire fact ihr,-b for most group merrbers, .'uhernejosit.,
of
i
. a
r'ihon az'e uircclu.ce;bec1,these cotrs'bitui;e "cheir primary moclel of econonic anct

ray .be nroclellecL

close}yuponpl.evailingpracticesinlrortselrol.deconor.ryr.Trrethird.oftlre
. l
case stu.liqs presen-bbd- belou, lfiere a;r eilbe-.,..prisewas orga;rised uith

reference -bo trair-itioiral- normS of the cr'irri.s:-onof l.a,bour a,ud procl-uctt

illustra-beg lro',;ldisasi;rous tlre ooilse(lu-ences of tliis ca.n be" I'lore genera,lly

though it is 1e.ci< of e>qrerience, for of collcci;ive ,leoisj-on-nel:ing

.e::a::r::le
processesl uhich Co;uilu:rity Developnent Officers jlrovide ,
.cree.-bes,probl-ens.
groups uiih a ninj-na1 orga.nisa-i;iona1 s'b:uc'buie a;rd. help in opciring ba.n'k

aocouritsl 1irile iIGOs, iirere availe,bler n?;l assis'b 'tiien -';i'bh irr-r'oher ac1-'rice
'bi:!s is srtfficien'b
e,::d -bra,in!ng1 for e::r,;:r';ie r,r lrool:-1:eepiir3" liorever, rarel-;r

-i;o co;rpensa;'r;e 'ior ";1:.eine:12oiiei:ce of gro.up iicnbers r;ho a,re iL1 prepa,racl 'bo

me,nagetheir en-'cercrises. The poor sta'be of r,rost Sroup accot':t'bs ancl the

management and corrrrpiion vhich -i;iris fos'bers is one of 'bJre irlore obvj-ous effccts

of thiso this does not ,nean ihai aIL qroups arrcl tireil en'be::lriscs are 'bo'i;e,1-1-1r

ai; sea. A nun'i:er n',rrlc[e their ua.y tlrrougir arr.clone of the most in'beres-bing

outcomes of the crises and,soirisras r.rhich'periodically affect i-eveloped- groups

is a tendency touards increa.sing rationalisation of their enterprises along

capiia,list lines.

'bo lr'or]c free of the constraints of

[o the e:ctent tha'i; groups a]te abLe
ia confli,ct '.iith
. housebold. econoq,r they are 1ii:e1y. to find. tbenselves

restricted by state in
con'tro1s .a.ncl- oonpeti'bion
s-bronger capitalisro'in'Lerests,

n:ri oo,pitalist enterprises in'bire private seotor'

riih othere more efficiently

The seriollsness of this problern clegencis u1:on the"by-?e of i;ror'-p'en'berpriseo

fr,::ns l';hich are replice'tec1 j'n the

fte.Leri:rises sr1ch c.s bil:er.ies rntl chic!:cir/e3i;

face stiff coi;rpetition ancl e'.re fur'bher b;'

lrc'r:r':er::c1-
prj.vate sec.bor fre.}ren-bly

state regula*ed prioing of thair ma.jor in2uts a.nd the proclucts r'rhi'ch they

Eiterprises of this kind uhich l-ie outsid.e of l-ocal e:qrerience are

p'ovideo
also rnore Aifficult to na.intaLn and require con''r;inued at'ben'bion fron

,Jrorkers or i{Go fieLd. staff r'iho may ther.rselves lack the

governnrent e-rbension

requisite e:perienceo From this poin't 6f vj-etr a'nd' in the Long;-term tlr'e

ao1l. successful enterprises run by groups are those r:hicir

safest and arSuablr

riithin locaL e:clerience a,nd'ta.p e:d.s-bing processes of incligenous

falt.r.;e11

Eirese ba,ve proven vi.",bi1i'by1 a,re easier for group

oapital acour,lula-tion.

members to n:n i;ithout exte:rral supportr a4cl 6ive tirem a Srea'ber measr'-re of

and- oonpetition. i'ioreoverbhey lend"

indepenclence fr.om outsid.e intcrference
the local conclitions - ahe stra":rg'1eho1d
g3ou?s arr active rol-e in transfornring

- $hioil 'i;hreaten to cap'i;ure tiien in 'bu:n' Iihabever forra

of JroursehoLd econow
'bake, clesira}le 'b9 keep ihe
their e[terprises developbcl- Sroups may fin{ it

a,ruious to avoic'l- the burden of obligations. rihi ch lreig'hs

state ab arnr s length,

fornativ: sta'geo It is for this reason that

hea',rily upon groups in iheir
2
rleregistrabiono' G=oopu are less'l-ikelyt
groups elser.rhere in Kerqra have'sought

thoug.ir, -uo uant 'bo sever ties gith iiGOsl their rna'in source of continuing

supportlaltlrougirrel.ationsea,silybecornestrainedlrhenthissuppor.bfails

or othenrise faLls short of ezpeotations'

-blris background of constraints it is not surprising tha't -re1a'tiveLy

Against

a.nd naintaining profitable enterprises' of

felr groups suoceed ill developing

or otherrrise provicle
those tha't clo only a sr,ra,Il proporLion clivid'e profits
'regular
incone on a, be,sis. Their te:rd.enc-urto a,cct':'tulate
their members.nitir
-bire bani< can be rela'i;cd. to a- -:rru.tber
-----a^-- ^..
of a6^J-^n< one i!s
O-no 'a ine:;2eriencu
i 1^c1-1aF,i
enoe
noney in .fac'l;ors.
uhile the equitable clj'vision of pro:iits
ne.ne.ging 3-a.rge su-ns of monge
.in
requiresacomple:':ocrlcr;i-atioirofrnenl..rerstcontributionsincashtl-abouror
'bo gerfor'r or fi':rc]- it cl-i:lficir-r'L io
tirne *rrich groups are ei{irer s-trc.boirerr

sorne oases the accurnula'bion of capiial for fugbher

reaoh consensus llpollo In
 10

the redisiribuiion
investnent e,nd.expa^nsionis rleribera;te1y preferrecl over
1
llealthy barrk balanoes nra'y aLso
.of funcLs to 1a.rge nr:nbers of grortp members.J

as synnbol-s of gfoup s'batus, conferring pres';ige u.Don a Srotrp and

frrnction
-i;ire atiention <if po-bential doirorso
hopefu-3-Iy at.bre.c.bin3
'
. l

I.lost itrcorne ubicil itoilen z'eceive tlrrougil their menber,ship of g:roups comes

not frorn -bhe clivisioir of profits but derives fron the proclncts of indivich:;-'1

uhj-ch a gloup provides' D:ampJ-es of this are

labour lsing the resonroes

(ritrere tire pr-ocl-uc'i;is na.::lceied blirougir the 6loup) and'

handicraf.b prod-uotion

incliviil-ua.l beJling (',rit"ro mc;rbers uiilize a 3?oup baxerXr to procluce loaves

-i;o 'bhis incone depenc]-s
l:hich tirey se1L for incliviclual pfofit) " fira.t ha.opens

of the houseirolcls to uhich l'ronen belong anci the c'ecision-

upon the s'bructure

nraking processes uitirin tlrese. s:cept r:here householc"s are heaced by group
. /.
members-i;hemseLvesr'clteusestor;irich'i;heirinconeisputarecr'e'Lerrnined'by
. \ :
coljrrno'i;ion lri'bh thJir husbands or other ma'le i"Sn1 primarily with
r. or in
they rne,nagetoge'i;her r'rith otl""o
referenoe to ilre needs of ihe' househol.cis r';hich

to w vigbue of ties of kinship or'resiclence"

r.rhich tbey have obliga,tions

clecid.e or are heads of their ot'nr..hottseholds are- no less

llomen uho are freerbo
Female-hcaded llousehol-ds are
oonsirained. by householcl needs ancl obl.ige,tions.
vecSr season: their inability to
underrepresented in ,.;oncnls g?oups for tlris
-bypica'1Ly '
tlie level of contribuiions r'ilrich initial rnembership
sustain

requires. iJomenlg iircohe is irousehoLd incone a:ld as suoil d-oes not necessarily

,inoreasettreirbar6ainin-g-polierorstatr.rsuithintirelr'ousehold-'suchfreedon

ismoreLil<e1f,'bobefound.r"'hereoverallhouseholdinconreisalrcc'dyil!'3trlfor
ta enrp).oyment close to homeo In general
ei:amp1e :.iher.ej irusba',i:C.hae :'eg:;Lar

from group enc]' ot-lrel. sorl3ccs a'6

.lwremployeilr vorrren Cirarac'i;erj.se';irei-r'lncone

sma1l but he1-pfu1 contributions to 'bheir 1reusst1eJcl.sl par-bicularly importa'ni

 11

sSoul-d.other income (for exa.rnpJ-etheir husba.::dst) t" in short supply. These

con,oributions help to insulate households fron the demands placed upon them,

including thoser like'the recluirenients of eclucation, which impinge f,rom'

the outside, a^nd have the overall effect of strengthening household econor'\y.
l

And not only are inclividua,l group members.d.eeply ennbshed in the horr-sehold

econory but also their g?oups and enterprises are constantly threatened. t6r

capture. The organisation s groups arortnd Eroups of closely

of r.ronnenr related

kin ind affines - Honen related. through their husbands ancl household hearls -

ancl.qre likeiihood that cleoeased. group members r';i11 be roplaced by other

mernbers of thej-r househol-cls\ chosen by tlrese nlen are evidence of this fact.

Thc four case studies.

. points raised in this overrriev are illustrated in greater d-etaiL in

, . fr"
the four case studies r'ihich follotr. Each of these' covers groups at different'
/
stages of tlevelopnont. - The firstl Agrriiaye, shows a group sith a r1ater

project struggling to meet the demands placed. upon it by the state in a

'econonry effects
situation r.rhere. househoLd is rapicll-y being transformed- by the

oapitalist peuetration from the outside. The seconcl, Arirlreni; shor'rs'a

of

group uhich has received massive support from a donor agensy and- has used

a wel-fare pro ject and.an enterprise r'thich ini;erl-ocks uith

this to establisir

existing processe6: of incligenous capiteJ accu,nulation'o The -bhirdl ltrcuirol

uas moclelled'.upon simiLar enterprises in

shogs a group rrhose main enterprise

run int6 clifficltl-ties requiring furttrer

household- econoqy anil has conseqllent]y

from exterrral donors. The'fourth ancl final s'ftt'tiy', Bonti*rie

interverbions

gropp rrith a bakery r.ilrich illus-brates clearlyr'i;hc

describes a lon6-established

pressures acting upon colleotive capitalist enterprises and the

different
 T2

captlure by bousehold econony of the income r'rhich they provide.

Al-l-,four groups reoeive assis'banqe from Totoio Home Ind'ustriest a'

Idombasa-based ltrGoe which has vrorked. ui'bh {} r.romenrs groups in Coast Prorrince.

In this respect they are unrepresentative, ha,ving sudcessfully found an

'erternal
al1y' although this is not always reflected' in the succesE oT

othenlise of iheir enterprises- and. does not'free'then frorn the constra.ints

(outl-ined above) uhich operate upon all groups. The four gnoups ltere

seLected for intensive study on the basis of their different stages of

developmente different types of enterprise a^nd (in ttrree cases) hi6lh income

gineration potentiall r.rith a vier'r to supplenen-bing ancl furthering the

surqey of .13 To'boto-afifiliated' gFoups

analysis of ctata d.erived froro a baseline

conducted in L!83. tno of the four SToups, Bomani a^nd'itr<rri-ro1 vtere

this surveye the results of trhioh are incorporated' in the

represenled. in

a.nalysis of the ooncLuding section of this reporbo Selec-bion of the four was

rdf"runce to their location in very different bui interrelated

aLso made.with

social a,:cdeconomic.zones in the hinterland of ldombasa' Each of thq. groups

for exanplel a clifferent ethnic connposiiion. I'he stuclies illustrate

hasl

considerab]_e 1ocal v'ariation instrr.rctu.re of horr-sehold- econor.ry and its

the
:
ancl at th.e sane time provicle a souncl compara'tive basis for
transforrnations
'the as these impinge upon'the
anaLysis of its clominant characteristios

operation of r*omenls grouPso

iIo'i; c s .

of such pre-- ^r -^-l ,^-L: -

L. Theorists a.re clisagreed as to the precise charactel'isa-bion

ionnations anci +"heir transfortiti,'bioi'.;. The nost'ages;!'b1e
or non-capitalist
;;;;:-;;;;;"4 rJ c. Hyden in tse:,iond- in ri.*:ltra.i,u+r1?rsles-elg-
Ilje.rnae.
. man4 on .,lndnnl:rrl.ecl (f,olitont
noa.sa.rrttry' (Lonc itei:tetnarur, 19eO) and in ilis.iio
ment onil
and an unce.ptur,e-q-pla.Es:rllt
unce.oturccl -goeE!:{fl[ (il6-nc1on:
5
:::--::-::- .-;" --ffiim r bousehold econoirly-r ]-n
Heinemartnr 1983). This report
 13

preference to llyclenrs tpeasant mod.eof produotionr. \

2. Personal comrnu:rication (L985) from Dr l{ariara- I'lbuguao

3. A sinj-Iar phenor:enonl ari'sing frorn the potential conflict betr'reen

con-binrrin.g profitability a.nd benefit to membegsr. has been observed for
colleotive village enterprlses in Te'nzenia' see D' Hassettl rThe
Devel-opmeat of VilJ-age Co-operative Drterprise... t i4,R.G. Abra,hams (ed)
Tanzania. (Cambridge: Afrioan
.Vi]-lagJrs, Vill-aael frrd ihe State in rnocle.rn
S'budies Cenirel 19ti5)'
 I4

. \

AGI{rMYE l,IOl,tAI{'ScliotiP DIAIII LOCATION

Agwiraye vromenrs group is located 31 krn south tf l,Iombasa, just north

of the bustling oentre of Ukr:nda on the rnain highvray to Ta.nzania. Ad.min-

istratively it is in the village of Irlwamambiin Gombato sub-Ioca'bion, Diani

-district.
locationl part of the southern (I,lsambueni) d.ivision of Kwa1e

The 1ocal population is predominantly l{us1im Digor swe}1ed. in recent years

I
by an influx of up-country immigrants attracted by ertensive tourist

tlevelopment along Diani Beach, 3 km to the easto Settlement is comparatively

d.ense: +he 1979 census records a figure of 418 people per sq.km for Gombato

sub-Iocatione r.rith a total population of 111355 divid.ed amongst 11941

,
householdso On paper there ate 22 lroinents groups in the location, Agr,,liraye

being among the most developed" Fieldr.rork there r.ras conctucted in August and

September 1985.

TIIE ROLD OF THE STATE

The state provicles uomerlrs groups r.ri'bh their primlry source of

Iegitimation. To exis'b they must submit.to its influence and acquiesce in

furthering its community development objectives. To survive ancl be

successful they rmrst malceeffective-use of'the connections which this',

involvement supplies. The experience of Aguiraye d.emonstrates how d.emand.ing

tg"olrp
a process this can be for " in its formative stage.

Beg'innings
I
Agwiraye grer.l out o'f aAuft education and- nurse4r classes b,qgun blr a Loca1

man in 1982. These r^rere attended. by Digo r.romenancl their children in the

neighbourhood of their founclert s homesteadl each pupil paying a lOsh

subscription per month for his teaching. After finding alternative

 r5

,employment the following year, he called a meeting to revive the classes

in his absence. A committee'was formed and a nelr teacher, a young wrmarried

womall, r.ras chosen to continue his vlorl:. This was in early 1984. Shortly
,
aftervlartfs the chai:rvoman of the classes? committee took the initia.'bive to

form a womenrs group. A localIy-born r.rornalrr she rvas uelI qualified. for this

role. She had starbed attending adult ed.ucation classes in 1958 in Samburil

\rllear l,Iombasa, uhere her husband ,worked. Tlrenty years later she had joinecl a

new vloments group in Mvraroni (its project lras to build a nursery school) and.

subsequently serveil on its comrnittee. Her husband had. retired. to I,Iuaronil

I
nert'door to lrh.ramambil the year before. In late 1983 she ended. their rurhappy

marriage by n:.nningrurry to settle plone on her deceased fatherrs Iarld. in

llwamambi. Her fatherl who had arranged the marriage, had. prevented" such a,

separation while he was alive t6r threatening to d-isinherit her. She,

meanwhiler had bidetL her tim) r:ntil her ! sons 1{ere sufficiently inclepend-ent

before making the decisive break. Freecl at last from close family obligations

she was in a goocl^ if financially insecurer position to d.irect her enerry

amd experience towards the forrnation of a ttoments group. She Jecame the

chainroman ancl was joined by 5 other members of lfuamambirs aclu1t

To*pts
education cIass, all close neighbours and. related by rnamiage. O'bher l,Iomen

hr€re sceptical of a groupts wiability and pood-poohed. the irLea.

Pgogressing in a cirol-q

ttre group bega^n, thenl as an indirect consequence of government policy

towar"d.s ed.ucation a,nd r.loments groups: un'bil, the ll80s most of the ttomen of

Idr,lamambii_rarl enjoyed neither, in the fonner case because of the same paternal

dominanoe vrhich hatl fired the chairr.romants independ-enceo The subsequent

policies
history of the group was very much a direct Ronsequence of iocat
designed. both to help and make fuIl use of vromenr" 6goop="
 L6

At first the group was litt1e more than an iclea: the women were at a
Ioss as to how they could raise money and r.rhat they cor::Ld.d.o r.rith it if and.
when they got it. A rotating ored.it association ofganiseil, tryr the Community
Development Assistarrt (CDA) for r.romenrFgtoups in the looation provicled. part
of the ansller. originally this vras to involve ! rvoments groupsl bub 2 d.id.
not last the course. Each grorip vras to contribute 22osh a month (zosrr to b'e
set asid.e in a fund. for official expenses), topped up by voh:'tary
rfrienrlshipt paymentsl the sum .being presented.during a harambee or
commwrity fund-raising event for the benefit of the group r.rhose .turn j-t wBSo
To signal their intention of joining in the l,lya.mambir.romensent an gosh
t friend'shipt payment to the first of these in April r9B4 ana in d.ue course
beoame the eighth and- last group- to benefit from the round.r in Febmary L985.
rn the processr d.ifficuLt as it turned out to be, Agniraye became an
establisheil woments group.
. t
Raising this moneSruith so fevr members lras not easy. 0n1y 3 r.romencould
afford- to contributl on the first occasion, leaving a d.ebt to be paid. on the
second. The second time ror,md they raised. parb of the cash by serling

ma'lcut!1 roofing pieces mide from d.ried. coconut palm frond.s and an important

seasonal source of income for women. One r'loil&n1 the divorced. mother of their

adult ed'ucati-on teacher, for:nd herself in .such financial straits she rvas
that
unable to contribute further and subsecluently aropped. out of the group.r

l'leanr*hile the husba.nds of tuo members offererl to help ruith their or,rn monetary
contributions ancl r^rere -bhus accepted. into the Sroupr bringing its active
membership up to J. One of them climbed palms to knock down froncls for lr.is
vrife and. defied. the 1ocal norms of gender*specifio labour by plaiting makuti
himself at night inside their house. ny this time the long rains vrere
rrnd-err'ray and the makuti-producing season drar..'i-ng to a close. For the third
 u

,l
harambee 2 of llae l.romenvrere reduced to selling the printed. pattern cloths ;

that they wore to raise the money in time.

The third rogncl rvas followed by the month of nrnuntafr".n, ,rn"lt norr"ehold

resorlnces are traditionally diverted tovrards buying new clothes for the

family and food for the nigtrts anc] the feast of ldd-el-Fitr r'rhich brings it
'
to an end.. l,{wamambiwomenrs groupr as it r.las then knortn, failed to give

anything at all in the next 2 rounils, leaving them rsith an even greater debt

and facing the possibility of having to drop out. Dismayecl by this prospect

the chaigwoman paid. a secret visit to the CDA anrL clidcussed. ways in which the

group could be enlarged, a move which her fellor.r membels were unenthusiastic \

about. The result was a neighbourhood meeting held by the CDA at which am

enlarged membership of 2J, not more than ) of nhom should be,men, was

proposeil. OnIy thus could the group pay its d.ebts ancl be in a position to

obtain fu-ll government recognition and support. The requisite number joined
)
on the spotl including a third man, the husband. of another new member.

':
. This proved. a decisive turn in the for*r,ures of the SrouPr t'lhich was

cornpletel" "uorJgrised.. 2 experienoed and qualified sisters of the CDA joined,

one of them livi,ng on the plot r.lhich r.ras the groupr s meeting-pIace. The CDAr.s

young sister-in-1avr, a seconclary school leaver, replaced the first group

secretarXre a 30 year-olcL r.rith only 3 years of primary schooling who became

vioe-seoretary. i, ,r"" but uneclucated treasurer - the old.est trom€ulin the

group - was also chosen, along r.rith a vice-treasurer a,ncl oommittee oi 6,

2 of them original group members. A seventh, husband of one and' secret

I speaker masterr r a title -
makuti-proclucerl co-opted himself as self-declared

which none of the other members claims to understa.,nd.. Following this

enlargement and. reorganisation the group tras eventually registered vith the
\
Irlinistry of Culture and Social Services, in January 1985.
 1B

The groupr s fina^nces were nolt on a sowrcler footing. In recognition of

the various contributions rvhich the J earlier mernbers had alread.y made, it

was agreed. that the new members shoulcl pay off the tvro d.ebts as r.rell as the

next round in the.location association groups.

for tr-romenrs All of the

members vrould pay for the seventh round, before it nas their or'm turn to

benefit. Table l below shows Agr.rirayets total contributions to the ? other

'
womenr: groups in the association.
,

TABLE 1 -

BEI{EFITING GROUP TOTAI AI'IOM.IT COLLEOTM

J. I'lbuwani 3OOsh
2. Magaoni 280 .^ including 60sh
spent on
3. Bongwe 230
transport
4. Kinond.o ?n
J. l,lvindeni 2n
6. shamu 232
l. Mwaroni 240

L 1JB2sh

In all_ the group contributed lrl82sh tor.rards the locationts rotabing cred-it

association for uomenrs groups. At their or.ntha.rambeel hel-d in February L985t

the group received 4r677sln. 1r085sh of this came from its ovrn members ancl a.n

estimated lr4oOsh from other womenrs groups. On paper the group had made a;

profit of 2r895str, or llBtOstr if its self-contribution is discounted, from

its earlier investmen'b in the association. The exeroise hadr howeverl proved

near fatal. Some of the other groups involved had even greater ctiffioulties

than Aguiraye. Of the 2 vrhich dropped 6ut one lras all but dead in 1985.

had yet to \
Another 2 groups gere left or'dn6 money to Aguiraye: oner Shamul
 1 q

repay its 232sh by September 1!8J. l'lhen the association was first conceived.
it was hopecl that it wouLcl become a permanent firbure. .Hardly surprisinglyl
it has noto

Payment for the location rorxrd. had continuing repercussions rrdthin the
group. Follorving Agrvirayets harambee the vice-secretary complained. that
individual members had. still contributed. rrneclually. The J original members
had. contributed. much more: they had paid. for the first 3 round.s of the
association whil-e payment for the nert 3 had. been shared. arnong the larger

nurnber of, new members. Although this ha.d.been done to even up their

contributions the result vras clearly still rurfairo lleanwhile ind.ivid.uals nere
falling behincL in their payment of a 2sh weekly subscription r.rhich had been

instituted. the'g"otrpts enLargement and reorganisation. sor with

.follorving
the CDA|s hel-pe the total monetary contribution of each member to date r.ras

oalcrrlated. 3 original, members, the vice-secretary, her husband., and. the

uice-ohairttomanr had. g'iven close on 3OOsh. The rest had given rather 1ess,
some oomparatively littleo As a resul-t a 3oosh share *,"= ""t'. I,Iembers rvho
/
had reachect this figure were henceforth exempted. from paying subscriptionsl

rvaiting for the rest to catch up. Subscriptions uere raised from 2sh to !sh,

but members were no longer obliged. to pay every l{eek. This r*as in Apri1 ;1g}11,.

By september most members r.rere stilL far from paying up their shares.

The price of suonont

. rThe group is subject to other, more direct, demands from the state, most

of tthich are oha.nneLed through the locaI chief I s office. Agr,riraye and other

groups in the location are mobilised at every possible opportunity, being

asked to contribute to harambeesl attentl meetings and. entertain at a variety

of official frrnctions. Often they have no choice and. must subject firemselves

to the whims of administrators trho are apt to keep them ilL-informed and. d.emand.
 20

action at painfully short notice.' llhero are consid.erable <l-emand.s

upon
time, labor:r and oash. rn August 1!B! Agrdraye and. other groups in the

Iocation had to break off from the festivities of.Id.d.-e1-Haj to procure

and start preparing local dishes for a visit by the l,linister of Cul.bure
a^rld Social Senrices, rrnexp€ctedly brouglrt fortrard a clay. During the visit
and speeches.the assembled women r^rere kept busy cooking the food r.ilrich they

then had. to serve up to the hwrg:y rnisitors ancl the loca1 men r.rho had. had. a

more leisureS-y time of it, f-istening ancl'r,ratching the entertainments

provid"ed. by school choirs and r,roments d.ance g?oups. This labour was unpaid,

arrd. Agr.riraw nanrdifficulty in squeezing patrrment'for thE- food. they had.

bought from the fi:ncl which they had. helped to establish vlith their

contributions to the rotating credit association for !.romenrs groups. Andr

hauing missecl the Ministerrs speech, they had to return another d.ay to hear

a.n elaboration of his message by the Diani chief. This r.ras not an isolated.

caseo The attitude of locaL officialdom is sumrned.

up in tvro acts by the

c}l.|ef the following month.. One day he d.ecreed.that henceforth all the

vromenrs da^nce groups in the location should fotm into proper lromenrs group6:

th-ey were alreadlr subject to calLs to perforrn free at official meeti-ngs; this

d-eoree put them eyen more firmly und.er the control o{ the state a^nd promised. to

double the number of woments. groups in the l-ocation overnight. On another day

the chief announoed that al-I the groups in the location r,rere to give him lOosh

each to take to a harambee in ltlal-indi vrhere he had been invited as the guest

of honour, a demand.not quite in keeping with the voluntary ethos of haram\ee.

As registerecL agents of the state they hacl no choice. From the point of rrier.r

of the state and its locaI. represen-ba.tives r.lomenrs groups are aJl important

instrtrment in implementing ancl disseminating its developmen'b objeotives. For

the womenrs groups thenselves r:udh pa.rticipation is both a source of pride and.
 2T

the necessary price of obtaining much-neec1eclsupport.

Examination of ind.ivid.ual monetary contributions to the group over the

18 months from April r9B4 to september 1!B! shorrs that over harf of ilre total
r.lere for )rarambees, inclucting the locationr s rotating creclit association for
llomenrs groups. Table 2 is based. upon existing recorcls of ilrese contributions.
TA3DT_2
a
I'IB.BDR and. H+RAtrBEpnrTER- GBOUP GROUP SAIJ:IN'GS. mis6. IOTAL
posi'bion TAI}II}IG SUBS;
:
ROTATI}IG CLUB
\i:tSITORS CREDIT
. ASSOC.

1 secretary 130 40
2 rrice-sec.*
42 @ 7o 20 362
255 15 2B 6
3 ' 100 359
36 6t 70 66 3 39
-- 4 vice-chair.lc 225 2,2 24
treasurer ,
fri ' 6 331
J L24 30 53 &
6 4 6 319
120 31 57 7o 6 , 1 4 298
7conlnittee * zLO 22 10
'8 vice-tr€asr
N 4 286
! conrmittee
135
115
2g
23
64 n 277
49 50 40 277
10 (mare) x 130 n 10 L0 100 27o
LL r32 1B 28
t2 90 268
.LIo 30 72 52 264
1"3 comrnittee L25 30' 25 '70
L4 committee 2fr
l.20 36 33 30 T6 24t
Ll committee * 135 25 t5 6
L5 chainyoman * 235
r-30 33 LL 50 10 234
L7 committee 133 33 23 20
18
10 2Lg
Ll_o 2L l_3 10 L2 t66
t9 55 23 28 n
20 CDA t56
5 7 ?o 66 148
21 m.speaker * L I5 B I
22 (nate) r_31_
85 19 13 10 t27
23 105 8 l_o
24 L23
75 B 25 10 118
25
.26 {joined. }9S5)
n L2 n TLz
t5 6 30 105
2J (joined 1985) 5 27 B
28 (left 1984) * 30
10 n
2! (left 1984) r5 3o
3 4 22.
others 30 7 37

3r109 629 ' 732 1'r100 528 56 6tt54

3r738 Lr62.8

* inclicates one of the orlginal- members

 a/-

The first. ancl second. columns in this table can be lumped. 'boge'bher as

representing investment vriththe ultimate aim of securing erbernal support,

finanoial or otherwise. l,lonetary contribution" ai"octly to the group are

reLatively smaIl. The fourth a^nd fifth columns, d.iscussed. in greater d"etail

belowe represent forms of individual saving through the group rather than

for its benefitr hence the CDAIs contribution. If these are rliscounted as

being inoidental to the corporate frrnctioning of the groupl then externaL

investnent oan be seen to comprise over b/" of member3r record.ed. contributions.

TOTOTOIIOIT]I II.IDUSTruES AI'ID THE TIATERPROJECT.

Through its close links with the Cllt, Agr.rirayets investment was

beginning to pay offl and. it harl found an external aI1y. l'lhen the group was

enlarged. she had intimated. that this might increase their chanoes of being
: - \
aclopted. by Tototol with vrhom she -'was in contact throu6$r her vror[,. The

pred.iotion was fuLfilled.r ma,king Aguiraye the enr4y of surrounding groupsl

all oompeting for similar attention. Agr'rirayers taunting nigo nane, uhich

loosely translates as IIIold onto your orm!'r1 reflects this competition (an

earlier name, implying rtl.lhat are you staring at?tt, r.ras reiec-becl by Tototo.

One of. Aguirayers competitors is similarly called Lolarakor rrl,ook after your

orrn! " ) o

. Tototo staff first visited- the group in 0ctober 1984 and in the lferv Tear

they ohose their educated secretary as 'bhe Tototo co-or^r.1ina,tor. In Febnrary

and litarch she rtent on a 3-l,reek training/course r.rith other new Tototo reonrits.

Among her new d.uties, for lrhich she r.ras paid 3OOsh a monthr l'Iere to open

group meetings with the nonfonnal erluca-bj-ontechniques promoted. by Tototo (and

ad.apted. from l;orld. ftLucabion) and to complete a r,reekly log of group meetings
 23

and- activities. These logs were submit'bed.to'one of Tototors 4 assistant

field superrisors, who thereafter paid. regular visits to the group.
I

In the absence of a literate 'breasurer responsibility for filling in

the book o, ""to.*ts provid.ed. by Tototo also fell upon fho secretaryfco-

( ordinator. These were begun in April 1985 wittr l86sh in the petty cash ancl
nere onLy skefchilf completecl. ,In l,lay, ldth the onset of Ramaclhan, only

one entry r,tas mad.e anil in Jr:ne and July none at a$. In August they shoued

t| a balance'of Z)Js]n,
'- ' with lr48Osh in the banlc. The bank account had. been

opened in April uith a cleposit of llIBOsh from the CDA r.rho had. earlier been
given 2y3OOsh from Aguirayers harambee for safekeeping. t'Ihat happened to

bhe other half of the money from tha ha:rarnbeeis not recorded, ancl in
I

September the CDA still- '/OOsh

oue<l them of the half entnrsted. to her.

Ib April Tototo also introducecl a savings club for ind.ivid.ual group

( members. This is part of a scheme.'both 'bo encourage lromen t; save antl to :

enable them to d.o so: inctivid.uals are harrl pressed. to raise the JOOsh d.eposit

which is recluired. to open and maintain a bank savin55s account. A chair\'roman /

. (the groupts vice-secretary), treasurer and secretary rvere chosen to rrrn

this club. By September 13 group membe.rs plus the CDA had joinerl and.

d.epositect l28sh betw6en themo \ l

r The r.rater project

Under Tototots guidance the group chose its main project - the provision

ard. sale of pipecL water. Group members buy their r.rater,at 1O-1! cents a

I buckct from taps along the main pipeline uhich serrres Diani. This is S,cross | .,

the main road some {OO metrestfro* Agr'rirayets meeting-place ancl is something

of a^n inconvenience. For some r.romen'it is a r.lalk of over 1 km, thcre are

I long queues before the supply shuts dovnnin the early afternoon and. it

involves crossing the busy highr-rayl a cla"ngerons uhdertaking for gjrls given
 24

the chore. Thus the group decid.ecl to 1ay i'bs omr.extension to the mainline,

bringing this to their meeting-place from vrhere thcy l.rou1d.sell l.rate4 at

10 cents a bucket.
l

Plans,for this project r.rere dbar'm up uith rototors help, r"rorking riith

the group co-orclinator" It was estirnated that materials and labour for the

project r,rould cost some 30lOOOsh. In the first ferv months r,rork'progressed.

slowly but surely and. the r.romenbegan diggr4g a srnall trench in uhich to lay

the pipes. But by September nork on this ha.d.ground. to a hal-t. Il.rmours

vrere circulating that the government r..rasabout to clriIl a series of boreholes

throughout the area as part of a project funcled. by SIDAT . thp Sl"red.ish

International nevelopment Agencyo If this lras t:rre it uould. render Aglvirayets

project red.undant: no one r.rould pay for r'rater uhich the;r could. get free

from a l'relI. A general d-isillusionment set inl exacerbated. by the inability

of the chiefrs office to give the group an unecluivocal response to their

questions. Some members pronounced. Agl'drayets r.la'ber p::ojec'b to be rursound.

arLy'valt't g'iven the irregularity of supply fron the mainline. Uncertainty

d.ragged. on -bhrough to early 1!86 r,rhen the r.rater project r.ras finally aba.ndonecl.

I{a^lcing mongrr r4sirlir frurcls

Another problem vrith the r^rater project had been in raising the necessar5r

fimds. A plan for gloup members to make money t6r ueauing table-mats out of

coconut fibre and. then selling'bhem to Tototors ha.nclicrafts shop in l,tombasa

.oambto nothingl partly because the r.romenr.rere unable to copy the samples

brought by Tototo staff. I'tore cons'bructive uas the help given @ Tototo in

organising Agr.rirayets second.harambeel helc1 in Oitober 1985.. This raised

11r632sh. The major d.onors are shor.m in Table 3. Over 3If'" of the totaL

raised oame from vromeurs gl'oups, (f?73 from Agrriraye itseLfl L4'/, fron other

groups) and- zJf, from ltrGos. In effect over half of the money came from the
 tr
t
I

t.

lr
I!

- I
}:
i

f1
t
rl volwrtary sector. I
This still left Aguiraye a 1on6 vray shorb of its project i
t

- estimate, but members remained hopeful that it lrould be follor"red by a grant

f - _ ,
or loa^n from Tototo and r.lou-Ldalso enable the group to seek funding from

iittrer sources such as their 1ocaI I,Ip and the beach hotelso

TABLE }-- :

CATEq.ORY DONORS COUTBIBUTIQ.N

'l.tot{E[II
s Agr.liraye members c.2rOOOsh
GROUPS ra r 6 6 0
other vromenrs groups tr66

/
NG0s Tototo and staff - l ro7o
Y.W.C.A.r Coast Branch x rL r v e) ) < r 2t925
( '

STATE Chiefs 345

/ sEcToR
KAi'IU officials
\-
200
Councillor 6oo r'44D
I'linistry of Finance and. Plaruring 300
rl

PRIVATE The Agrarian Suilding Society . 500 500'

SECTOR

Br5z5stt
* The Crr""t of Honour, chosen by Tototoe w?S the General
Secretary of this bramch.

' l l

COI'ISTRATIITSOF HOUSH{OLDECONOI'ff.

The loca1 econongr'

To rrnderstand the constraints imposed. by looal household econorqf upon the

grouprs op.eration i!-.iS*nec-essary to beg{n-r.ri-th. q,.rerri_ewgf .r9ge4t developments

O

(
 26

in Diani location.
i
;
I

I,lwamambiis surroundetl by alienated land. To the north and vrest are

ttrousanas of acres of farrnland. first alienated Uo"rrr* the colonial period".

One of these plantations, a few hundred metres inland of Agr.rirayers meeting-

place and known by the name of its present Inclian ot,rner, I(as1ak1 was the

scene of violent clashes in the early lito" vrhen a group of Kikr4ru land.

specrrJ-ators tried- to enforce the ="rorri. of loca1 Digo squatting and farming

ilLegal-Iy on La:rd which they still- clairir as theirs. But the most d.isnrptive
I
alienation in recent years, altering the entire character of the 1ocal

econor{f; took place rrnder President Kenyatta in l)'12. This comprised. the

decision to oonvert the whole of the area betr,reen the main highway and the

beach into a tourist the name of the Diani Complex. The

..paradise-under
Complexr stretching some 1O km from Kongb to Kinondo, r^rassubd-ivid-ed.into

4 strips or tbeachest. Beach 11 a 1 km lrid.e strip along the shore, has

become the site of more than 10 major hotels. Beach 2, f, km wide, comprises
an aocess road and. the services along this. Beaches 3 and. { cover the rest

of the ,La.ndinland to the main road. From here locals were to be resettled'

along'the road ancl to the uest on land designated as a Rese:lre, where most

of Aglvirayets members live and the group meets, Houever, d.evelopment on

beaches 3 and. 4 was stopped in 19?B by the neu President and Digo continue

to live and farm there. But the damage tras done. Localsalost land on

beaches 1 and 2, some selling and. some receiving compensation. Othenvise

considerable uncertainty remains over land rights in the area, and only some

Landol'rners have been issued. vrith title d.eec[s.

Before this d.evelopment the local Digo grew most of their grain crops

(especiall-y maize) ,g!igi,r or1 the rocl',y land. just inland of the sea, aued.

tended. coconut palms interspersed with other crops (including cassava a^ncl

rice) tjSgt on the Land rising up from the main roacl. Young men sought
r
 27

wage labour in lrlombasa and elsevrhere, eventnally settling dovrn to look

after their la^nd and d"erive some income from the sale of copral dried.

coconut kernelo This pa'btern has norv Seen tfrorougtity transformed. The .

beach hotels have brougi-tt an influx of. migrant r.rorkers from up-country,

Kikuyur Luos Lulya and Kambar spavrning the rapid grouth of se-btlement

a.nd. services along the main highwayr especially in lJkunda. ,DiSo have also
found. work in these hotels a.nd the sector r^rhich has grorrn up around. them.

ldanye a]1eadf suffering from land pressure, have sold their lancl to
-
imnigrant entrepreneurs, rvhile othersr morg canqlrl have built accomodation

to rent out t6 immigra^nt !,rorkers. The r-esrrlt is an incipient class

d.iwisione partiallyl but not en'bire1yr . along ethnic Iines.

I

lhis has }naf- a furthere d.etrimentall effeot upon 1ocal ag:ricultureo

Beoause maqy menr yolrrg and old; are noll in paicl emplotrrment they have l-ittLe

time to d.evote to their fields. Consequently a fLt of land. between palms

whioh used to be uncler cultivation has rever*ed to bush: the women alone

cannot clear a.ntL cultivat" "ff of it. This r:ncultivatecl la.nd, including

large areas of alienated 1antl1 harbours wi}rl animals r.rhich are d.amaging to-

orops: 'monkeys, warthogs and l'.riId boaro \ It also encourage" tt. few looal

stock olm.ersr lrho would have once graded. theii a.nimals far inlande to

leave them to roarn in between the lromesteadso I'leanwhiJ-e men are. no longer

free to guard ttre cips at nightl while the culling of wild animals is

discouraged. by the government and prohibited. rvithout a l-icenoeo llomenl

,especia.lly those rtith smaLl shiLdrenl are urable to guard 'bhe crops 2
themselves. As a result a very high proportion of vromenrs agricultural

enterprises faill inoluding those right nerb to their homes, the crops

being eaten or trampled by a.nimals before thcy are rea.dy for harve"t)-ng.

Agviraye members were seriously afflictecl uith this problem. As TabLe

 28

( .

{ showse most had. husba^nd.sl'rho were employed or otherr^rise absent, and. a

number d.itL not have husbancls at all.

rABr+r
4 _

]'IO.HUSBAND
- ' ' . ' t
HUSBA},IDH,IPLOYM HUSBANDUI{N,TPLOYtrD
" ' -
| - . .
dxvorced/ . .
dead in at Diani self_ retired. cultivating
separated. Iilombasa beach employed..

3 2 5l
\

. t' '
-enterprises
Their agricultuial suffered. acdorilingly.' ,IabIe shov;ing
!1'
35.fieIds belonging to or othemise uorked, sometimes jointly, by l-? grou{
members d.emonstrates this. Over half of ttre field.s rrere not cultivated in
l-985t in mar5r cases because of the threat from r.rild amima.lls. I,Iost of the
successfirl crops llere grol.tn by those fortrrnate enough to have fielcls chinj, 1
'below
the main roacll where cultivation is more intensive (ttrere being few
palms) and. r.riId. animals """"tlpenetrateo

I fhe reiu1ti i" " vicious circle. Because such a high proportion of
r l

agricuLtural" enterprises fail. households are becoming increasingly

d.ependent for t-treir subsistence upon food staples pr:rchased from the local

( shopso Thus hou-sehold- members, partibularly men, are uncler increasing

pressure to find.ca.nd. remain in vrage ernploSnnent, one of the major causeb of

1o"4 agriculturaL deoline in the first placeo This has d somevrhat
.
I cLifferent effect upon gencler relations than the well- known scenario in which

.: women uith labour migrant husbands find. themselves bearing a much heavier

agricultural burden in order to stay aliveo In l.hramambi most of the r.rorking

men continue to live at home and do the shopping themselves -bo feecl their
I
/
 29

TABLE 5

LOCATION CULTIVATM I.I.AII{ CROP cuOP COl,ll.llIN'IS

of fieltl rN 1gB5? HARVESTD)?

jlg/trome. no
juu/home no
@ttom" no
chini yes cassava yes
.iuu/Kaslakt s
.'luu/nome yes co'hr-peas no trarnpled by goats.
iuu/Kaslakr s yes maize yes guarclecL.
Jffi/Kastakr s yes rice eaten by lrild. boar.
j3g/home no last crop spoiled.
chini no
j31/Kas1akr s yes maize guard.ed. but eaten t6r
r.rild boar and. warthogs.
1g/trome yes rice guard-ed-bub eaten t6r
r,rild anirnals.
Kibara.ni no
- yes rice gua,rcled. but eaten by
114/trome
birds ancl wild. animals"
irlr, no
: d.iscouraged t6r amimals.
iuu/Kaslakr s no
j*?u/fastat<t s yes maize yes
!

Idwakido no
.'luu no
;i_911/home no discouraged. by animals.
chini yes maize yes
chini yes cassava yes
@ome no soil exhausted.
Vukani no
jg/Kas}akr s - yes lr"" eaten by r'riId. boar and
vrarthogs.
ohini yes cassara yes
d.iscor-rraged. logr an:imals.
iiss
juu
no
discouraged t5r arrimals.
no
juu/home no d.iscouraged W animals.
-t-
Jllg/nome yes maize eaten by cattle anil boar.
jsr no
chini yes cassava yes dow-peas tra^rnPled t6r
cat-ble in short rains.
Idsambweni no
no d.iscou-raged- by animals.
;1gg/ttom" '
chini yes io.ir" yes cow-peas d-rieil uP.

1 q 20
 rh 30

households. The burden of agricultural la,bour upon their r.rives is recluced,

and in l-9B5 a few group members had abandoned cultivation altogethero But

r'Iomenrrithout working husbands are not so fortr.rnat!: a fact reflected, i"

we shaI1 see, in the d.ifficulty they experience in susta.ining membership of

the vlomenls groupo.

tloTgn. household.s and income

I'lembers and their households. _ Ln september rl8l there.were 2d r,romenin

Agwirayer 3 of anhom were more or less inactive in the grbup. Tlhey r,rere agecl

between 23 (trre secretary/co-ordinator) and 53 (tire treasurer), vrith a.ri

''
average age of 38.

TASLE 6

.., AGE..I}I YuARs

20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55_5g 60_64

1 1
-n-'-

:AI--of th"ese were Digo, Jt rot onu r"o* ti" co*st"f belt'betueen Dia^ni and

ldombasawhere a single sub-d.ial-ect of ttre Digo language is spoken. B. rvere

born in Mwamambiitself, J elsewhere in Diani location arrd.6 calne from Tiwi.

On1y ! women hacl.reoeiivecl some primary eduoation and 2 gone on to second.ary

school. Most of them first married a^ndwent to live vrith their husbancls when

they were in their mid. to Late teens. Over half of them have been d.ivorced"

and. married. again: Digo marriage is notoriousLy r:nstablerl while the social

a^nd.economic pressures acting upon divorcees are such that remarriage wi-bhin

a year or two is the normo fne cfritd.ren of a broken marria.ge often remain
vtith or are later claimed. by their father. The sample in Table 7 Jhous a1

average of { surviving child.rbnl rather fer.rer (a mean of 2.'l) remaining

 31

TABLN 7

AGE IDUCATION
-':- St i'I cl n.Hlnzn3rrtrP
T9B5
signerl-up but did not
20 std..B D 1 I 1 1 continue as member
23 Form 4 l r l 2 2 2 secretary
25 none lil 2 L+2 2 2
29 Form 4 M 2 2+3 L 4 2 t r
30 Stcl" 4 t d 2 l+2 2 2 vice-secretary
30 none 11 2 y2 2 2
31 none l { 2 2+l 2 t .,1
35 std..2 D 1 l+1+1+l-+1+1 2 3 2 L inactive and status in
group rurc_ertairi'
37 std.B D 1 I+1+2 3 l 2
37 none I { 1 10 2 7 32 2
39 none M 2 O+3 L 2 t I vice-chairwoman
40 none l d l B 7 t 1 3 2 l
44 none D 1 5 2 chairr.:oman
47 none M 2 10+O I 4 2 1 1 I vice-treasurer
4B none l { 2 2+O 1 1 1.,

Explanation of symboLs: St = marital status; II = nr:rnber of marriagesi C =

. number of children by different partners (not all- marriecl) i C- = number of
these childrep non dead; H = number of these clilcLren stiLI in her .1
householdt H; = of theser stilI pre-schoolq H- = at nursery school t H" =
at schooL1 ]lT = post-school , unmarried, H/ = [a,!ried or separatedi &n =
total number of adult children in fuIl-time emplotrrment (ie potential- sources
-of remittances).
D = divorced. or separatecl; I = married.

Irlean number of marriages =1-o5; mean nr:rnber of chidren born = 4.?i mean number
still alive = z!; mortality yate = 1{lbi meam number of dependent chiLdren
-(torn W the woman herself) = 2.7 i .me.anmrmber of ..child1en in fr:lL-time
employmente ie able.to provide'support = O.2.
I

within their mothersr household.s. On the other hand. r.romenare liabIe to find.
themselves looking after children by their husbandst former vrives. pol-ygr\y

is practisetl, though mar\y r{omen are resista.nt to this and it is one of the
causes of divorce artd so of seriar polygamSr.. 5 group members are in\
I

32

polyrynous unions: 2 sets of co-resid.ent co-r.rives (one of uhom r.ras in the

process of leaving her husbancJ.)and one lrhose husband., a1 so a group memberl

' '
Al.eo haal a r*ifq in a^nother location.

I,larriage. is virilo9al_ and most wom,enLive and oultivate on 1and, ovmed. by

their-husbands- and husband.sr kin" Land is inherited. patrilineally:'.'sons are

e-rpected. to rernain on their fatherts la^nd r,rhile d.augh-bersmarry out, thus

forf"iting *n"r" right to inheri* ,* "*""n, *rdu" special circumsteunces, for

example lrhere there are no male heirs and a d.augh'ber is on lrand- to press n ,
,
cIaim. This is what the grouprs chairuoman had doner moving onto her

cleoeased fatherrs land after leaving her husba.nd." Other l.Iomenr particularly
,
divorceese &re f-ikeLy to return to live with their parents or brothers for

period.s. 3 group members, 2 divorcedr had returned to lancl managed.by their

' .:
brothers, a,ncl one had moved ar.ray from her retired. husband- 'bo farm on her
. :l
fathgrrs lando One group member rtas living with her husband. (who hatl ]-and.

and. another ldfe elsenhere) on land or'rned by her motherr s brotherr by viriue

of a right of access to land and properby novr severely weakened by Islamic

t -

rul-es of inhetitance and. the effects of land registrationo

HousehoLds and the larger residential rrnitdof r''rhich they Jre frecluently
'Table
. a part are'.ott""porrd.ing1y complex in their composition. 8 gives a'

sufinary indication of this. Two thirds of group members live in extendecl

writs or comporrnclsupon la,nd or.rned-and managecl jointly by groups of brothersl

, men through rvhom most of the lromen in the group are relatecl. 0f the

remaining, isolated. householdsr over ha1f, are similarly linked onLy

resid.entially dispersed; refieoi;ing fission of their original clonestic

(sibJ-ing) groapso Through their membership of such g?oupsr household

members are enmeshed.in'a web of obligations. Thc consequellces of this for

the group a.nd i'd's members are sufirnarisecl belolr.

 33

I
TABLE B

/
RESIDBTTIAI ltro. OF' I{o. OF ADUTTF CHILDRITI TOTAL
ur'rrTs/ GITOUP HOUSE- No. OF
NXTDI'IDM IilEl'IBIIRS }IOLDS X I,IEilIBtrIlS
HOUS]HOLDS male f enal-e

. B (geographically I l _ 3 L2
dispersed.) I
1 1 I 1

1 1 5

D , 3 5 5 6 16

F 4 13

-IL
4 24

H;

Ii (geographically 1 1 t I 4 6
dispersed.)
L 5 5 B 11 24

J (geographically 1 1 1 2 4
'
dispersed.) (
L 1 L 6 8

K 10 L6

TOTALS 25 lo 90 4T 79 r49

x excluding accomod.ation rented out

 34

Labour'. The organisation of labour in and. between households praces

,
considerable d.emandsupon r,romeno They are responsible
, for a long rist of
d.aillr horlsehold- chores, chilcl care, and. 'most
_ o, *nu agricultural work
to be doneo Tlris includes clearinge plzurtingl r.reeding andi har,resting
d'uring both cuLtivating seasonsr the long and short rainso l,Ihile they can
ercpect to dravr upon the rabour of other members
of ilreir immediate and_
extend'ed' househotd.s as well as that of other
kin, most of this assistn'ce
\
is provid'ed' by other women. Tabre
! d.etails the assistance received by 11
group members on their fierci.s d.uring the long rains of L!BJ.

TASLE O

I'IINiIBER FIELD SOURC]IOF ASSISTAI{CE

hire$'Iebour men rromen
I no assistance
P some from mostly alone

entir.ely alone
alone, stopped. blr
_ _- iriness
r L + t d '

Sr_her sistepin-lar.r
l.ieedecl uith
labourers
- paid. 796sh by husband.
-r-"r-"[af - -
7 raFor:r6-r--
paicl JOsh and tractor
hired for 16Osh by
husband
help from 2 cultivated. -
r"rith her labour input
brotherfs sons V, brotherfs restricted by

bro-bherrs 2 U, husbemd.ts
sons sister
qultivated. r.rith co-
r.iife ancl ad.ult
<11
to he1 sont s h'ife
11 - I Labourer
Tz-
- cross-cortsin

Tr_ _ _ cross_cousin - - -uEe[eE

rJ cuftivatea-anal a-f6-n6
guarded- by hrtsba^ncl
(a group member)
 35

-
)uring the short rains of 1984 group members experimentecl by uortin/

colleotively upon one a^notherr s fiel.cls. 16 uomen to,ok parLo Tlr.e rest r.rere

ill or othe::vrise occupied, it being d-ifficult to co-ordinate collective

cultivation vrithr the agricultural time'bables of households all demanding

labour.at the same time. This r'ias a ctegree of co-operation r.rithoub precedent,

and. following the generally poor results of this season only 2 r,romen(R and S

in Table 9) who rni6;ht otherwise not have d.one'so continued to help one a^nother

d-uring the nerb season. A sirpilar fate befell the grouprs first collective

enterprise: the planting of a I$ acre field (lent by the rspeaker maste?ts

father) uith corr-peasr also in the short rains of lpBz!. Group members

worked- on this fieltl at vreekends. Those, inclucling 2 employed. male members'

who d.id. not participate nere asked. to pay lsh in lieu oi their labour (ttrere

is no record. of horq many did.). But after lreeding in September the crop

shrivelled. in the sun and there vras nothing left to harvest. The enterprise

was not,repeatetl in L!8Je members preferring to concentrate on their

inclividuaL fields.

Coll-ective labour is not easy to enforce, cornpeting as it rloes vrith

household. clemanclso.l^lork on the grotrpts pipeline tre]ich-uas not r.re1l at'bend.ed.

'
and. one of the reason g-iven for not fining absentees rvas that this lrould. be

too d.ifficult given the large number of goocl reasons, such as the illness of

a ohiltL or other householcl member, uhich might prevent a l.rgmall from taking

part. Attend.ance at group neetings, recorded in the rveekly logsr was

similarly affectcdr rarely exceedihg half of the membership. Sometimes the

logs give a^n explanation for cancellation or poor attendance: funerals,

oocasions mobilising the uidest netr.;ork of household-related.

.obligations,
figure prominently. Among the persistent absentees, 2 r.rere in nrourning for

olose kinl 2 r.rere in the process of leauing their husbanrls, 1 r.ras afflicted.

tiI
 36

by spi;it possession, and 3 l{ere usually avray at vrork.

Sources of income. only 3 women in the group had paid. employment (see below).

For the rest their main sources of spcncling money vrere from nal<uti procluction,

the sale of cooked. fooct arrd., g.iven the seaso nari,tyf ,r.*oil, .b'ese,

cash given to them t6r their /

husband.so

The main season of malcuti prod"uction is before the long rains, October
through tiIl I'larchi, The clry palm frond.s from rvhich these roofing pieces are
made canr be gathered. at wili_1 though occasionally r.romenbuy them for.5o cents
each from the ovmers of large plantations. One frond malces up to t$ rinisrrea
pieces, t'rhich in l"!B! were so1d. for Ish each. I.{ost bqyers are Loca}: makuti
roofs need replacing everTr 3-4 years. Al-most all Digo l,Iornenin the area make,

makutil usually in the afternoons uhile they chat liith neighbours and. friends.
I0-2O pieces ca^nbe made in a single day. The rnost energetic prod_ucers are
said- to be able to make 2rOOOsh in a sea;on (year)., Rut most v,omenaverage
/ r
much lessr a.]rd group members reported., making an average df eOO malcubi each in

the L9B4-BJ seasonr ma^r\yof these d.estined. for their olrn roofs. others were
d-estined- for the groupr which turned to ma.rke'bing makuti betr.reen Jarruary and.

Idarch 1985. I,lembers were asl:ed. to bring 10 rnalcuti a r.reek to the r speaker

masterr vrho soLd -bhemfrom his home at the normal priceo For every l_ot sold

Jsh vlas taken by the group and. the rest returned to the producero l,lon-members
vrerb also invited. to sell their makuti through the group r.rhioh in this case
took a LO/" cttL from the proceeds. Records r.lere not kept of this enterprise,

but on all accounts it lras reasonably successful, making some loosh.

A large number of vtomenafso had experience of cooking ancl selting

d.ifferent kind.s of breacl and ca,l',es mede frorn rdreat and rice flour" These are
sold in and. outsid.e Jhe shops by the main roadl r'ihere regular traders fornn
their .or'rnrotating orcd.it associations, the set contributions varying

il
 37

aocord.ing to the profitability of the trad.e .bheir members pursue.

In the
case of small bread- and \
cakes claily profits are usuarly in the range of 3_Bshr
90-248sir a month. The vrorlc is erLremely arduous and entails getting up
before d'awn to slave over a hot and smolqy hearth
every morning. As a result
few women ca' sustain production for more than a fer.r ,orr.*no
at a time. of the
group members
.intenrier.recl only 3 r.rere currently engaged in this trad.e and on1Jf
one belonged to a roadside
"ot.t:.ng crecLit associati.ono Others had. given up
for the time being because
of exhaustionl illness and the need. to 1ook after
smaII children' other forrns of smarr trading includ.e the sale of fresh
fr'it
and., in indiv:iclual cases, herrna d.ye, kerosene and. dried. shark
meat, .bhe
last two brought frcm lrlombasao AI1 of these
lr""u .""oo, *rU conclucted from
the home'without licenoes. rn september '!BJ one group mgnlberg praruring
to
-- set herself up as a traditionaL d'octor, r*as mortified by the heavy ricencing
fees which she had. to pay (450sh
plus 2Jsh per month)

I{omen aiinost invariably

descr:ibe income from these
different souroes as
d'oing ng more trran ,rrerping'at
homere a d.escription r.ilrich
they aLso apply to
the results of their agricultural
labour: in no case, crid" the harvest
of
staple crops meet the subsistenoe
requirements of the household
fo4.more tlpn
a few monthso rn the main
they.are d-ependent upon their
husbanrrs for the
provision of cash and
food. through much of the year.
Liker,rise they are
largely d'ependent upon them for their
contributions to the r^romenr s groupo
Those group members with empl0yed. husband.s, almost tr.ro-third.sr, are in
a r'elatively fortunate position. IIen lvorking at the beach hotels,
for examplel
clraw wages $hich far exceed. anything their rrnemployecl wives might earns
c.lrOOO
-lt8oosh a month d'epencling upon the
type of r.rork. Tlds inconle can
be further
supplementecl by sales of .pa,lms
copra frorn the r.rhich men o]m anrclmanage,
an
enterprise- which recluires
only period.ic labour inputs (no
more 'ran 3_4 times
 3B I
I
l
j
1 1
I
j
;r
;i
'i
I
il
l
.l
a year). At the other end of the scale those r.ritlrout husbands at all are Ii

in a somer.rhattLifficult position, particularly if they d-o not have gtown

children rvho are able to support them ( see Table J). In such cases it is

not easy to sustain group mernbership. Of 3 inactive members one, with 3

young children, had just separated from her husband; amother, al-so wj.th

3 chilclren to look after, nas divorced; ancl the thinl r{as a wid.or,rerwith

little means of support beyond her membership of a dance group vrith its own

rottbing cred.it association. Of 'f r.romenwho had left the group sjrortly after

joining it 4 r.rere divorcees with child.ren to supporb" ",phus the most

disa.d.van'bagedcategory of women is effectively excluded from the g?oup.

Uses of income. The investments uhich households are prepared to make in the

. womenrs group are conditioned by the sum of d.emands upon housebold incomeo /

A rotati-ng cred-it association vrhich group members set up in April 1!Bl

provides a clear ill-ustration of 'this. Contributions t,rere set at lOsh per

week and. ind.ividual bene-faotorsr ohosen on the basis of their requests for

assistancee' received all of the money contributed. Table LO shows the

-
arnounts they received and the uses to nhich they put this money;

TAsLE 10

DATE A]'TOUI'IT BINEtr'ACTORAIID USE

1?April 2oosh
?::;:.*:;r:itT:3:"ffi:lffiil:":;"":::"1":"*li:":H*
come to 2lOOOsh plus). ,
2rApnil lposh
ffi;:l::":T?:; n::':1."fl:*""Lx"l:ir"1,xi:H:u'ilf""
-
rest spent on foocl.
9 Yl.aS l?Osh The vice-treasurer. Her son hacl been sent home from
school for failing to bring a 2OOsh rbuildingl
contribution. The money vrent tovlards this.
16 I'Iay l4Osh To a vroman ulrose husbancl r'ras seriously ill ancl had not
responcled to hospital treatment. Spent on talcing him
round. to traclitional d.octors (ire aiea shortly after).

ii
il
 39

TAstE 10 (cont)

23 lilay iroun The rrice-secretary. spent on banclages ancl med.icine

for ber sma,lI son lrho ryas in hospital j_n l,Iombasa
after breaking a leg.
5rwre llosh ':Tjri:
:ffi*:f.:";"rf":ililiil;, LHI*o:t'""'
special school in l.lombasa.
1 loosh The secretary" Spen'b on treatment for her motherr s
.August
in Likoni
ulrli"lSl;":l:",535ufl1"""
iilHi:":;

- By the seventh rowrd, sepairated from the sirLh by a gap of g ueeks, "";

11 women were still contributing. Thus the associa,tiol l.ras wound. up a^nd

, members set a,bbut calcrrlating what they or.red.one anothero Given the d.ifficulty
t
whioh they,were'having in paying their or''dinary grgup subscriptions it is

hardLy surprising that this should have turned into a rotating d.ebit

association. In effeot it failed. because of the problem it was d.esigned. to

l
alleviate: the consid.erable pressure placed upon household. inoome.

Some houseir6ttl expenseg are recurrent, others irregular and. unpredicta6le.'

. Some derive from the structure of households ancl the obligations between them,
I
others from .the d.emand.simposecl directly arrd inclirectly upon household-s by the

state. The constraints placed. upon food procluction have already been outlingd.

A significant proportion of the household budget has to be d.iverted. touarcls

l - ) e

securing lasib subsistence. A vroma.nliving alone estimated that she needed J-lsh

\- a dayr.450sh a, month, to-spend on food; adding a further 3O-45sh a mon'bhfor

'
vrater. For a couple the montlrly food. bill ca^n rise to ?50sh a month, 9OO-
l
le2oOsh if they have small chil-dren. These figures can be compared with the

wage levels citecl aboveo

l'lon-recurrent expenses are manifold. A number of these appear in f'able 10.

A 4-roomed house built largely of local materials can cost llOOOsh to build;
 40

a ooral and. cement house uprrards of lOrOOOsh. Illness is not only a drain

upon labor:r but also upon the financial resources of a householdl especially

when (government) hospitals require patients to buy their,or^rn medicines anrtl

other materials. Spirit posseSsion constitutes a special case. This can

partly be rrnd.erstootl as a mechanism through nhich attention anil cash are

transfenecl from intlifferent husband.s to their long-suffering vrives. 4 group

members hacl been ttrus afflicted, 2 in l)BJ (one of rvhomhad a co-r.rife vrho had

opted. to quit her husband instea,cl). Burial ancl .funerals can cost arorrnd.

lsOOOsh; the ceremony r'rhich conolud.es the long peniod of mourning 1O-2O1OOOsh,

coll-eoted from a rvide range of kin. Bridevealth paSrments are in the range of

2-{rOOOsh and a wed&ing/dowry carr cost relatives arq;thing between lrJOOsh for

a plain do and Z5rOOOsfr for a.n el'.borate event (only one group member, the

sedretaryr 'had
been treated. thus).

. Bridewealth palrnents tend to correlate with the Ievel of a briders

eduoationr in reoognition of her parentsr investment i.n her sohooling

Secondary school fees average 2lOOOsh per &nJlurno fnimlry ed.ucation is in

tlreory free. In practice parents are asked to make frequegt contributions

tor,rards the maintenance of school bui}dings and the purchase of educational

materials on threat of having their children bamecl from the olassroon.

These dema"ndsvary from schooL to schooL and. parents may find,themselves

paying JOOsh a year for each of their childrep at primary schooL. This pLaces

a oonsiderable burden upon most householdsr' and one r.rhich is particrrlarly

wrwelcome because it appears as a forrn of taxBtion. Group menrbers suffer

acconlingly. Only a sma,lI proportionl those lrith ltorking child.ren (mainl1r,-

ri
sons) who can send them remittances, are in a position to benefit from the :ii
it
l

entl results-of the educational process (see Tab)-e J a.bove).

 4T

GM'IDtrR. DI}"FARNITIATIOI.T AI'ID COIITITOLOF lTItr CIIOUP

Not all group members faI1 into' the pa,ttern described. ibove. Some are

employed and some orrrn their own lemd. in I'lrvamambie playing a corresponclingly

importa^nt role in 'blre conbrol of the groupo

The 3 men in the group are less pbr.rerful than migh'b be ertrrected. The 2

nho are employetlr one a rvaiter and. the other a tailor, are largely inactive
for this very readdh: neither has the time to invest in the group. The self-

declared t speaker mastert a farmer and agitator for local, 1a.nd.riglrts

e in

the 1ocal branch of KAIW, is rather more active in group affairs. Although

he tend.s to be very vocal when present in group meetingr an:l is clrdck 'bo act

as its spokesman in front of visitors he is easily shouted dor'm or ou'b-voted

when oocasion requires. IIe lives vrith 3 other group members: ltis rrife, his

fatherts sisterrs daughter (tne vice-secretary) and her husbando All rvere

early memberg of the group and nhile the l-atter ma.ll d.id. suspiciouslq welL out

of the shift from subsoriptions to shares (engineered W his rdfe) their role

as an impor*ant faction in the group d.iminished. upon its enlargement a3d

reorganisation. Othenrise the group has not suffered d.irectly from male

interferenceo The vilIag. oio*"hairmanl trusia,nrl of one of the members,

dispenses usefirL advioe. In private he is patronising ancl scepticaL of

woments ability to organise enterprises alone2r a:r attitude shared. by the

I speaker masterr: but in praotice he continuesr l-ike other husbands, to
'
supporb his r,rifets involvement in the group.

lrlore pouerfrrl is a smalL core of relatecl r.romenr.rho have succeed.ed in.

esoaping the domina^nt pattern of gencler relatj.ons" AII but o'ne, Agtrirayers

chainromanl &re members of the CDA!s farnilyr her 2 yotrnger sis'ters a^nclher

younger brotherrs r,rife, the group seore'bary. The CDA ancl her junior

siblings jointly own and. manage 5 plots of la:rrl inherited from their father.
 42

/
As vrel-L as living'and. cultivating on this land. they sell coconuts from the

palms whioh grow there and nou! 2 houses rented out by the room for a to.bal-

of some 115OOsh per monthr an income they planned to increase by build.ing

*:=:. A11 3 sj-sters r.rere educated through their fatlrerrs foresight, and ,

although they moved.away from home 'bheir overlapping histories of employment

'the
and ind.elend.ence this has brought have enabled them. to returrr to Ir1r^ramarnbi

and. their f,atherrs lando AJ-l 3 worked successively as adult ecluoation

teachers at ldsambrven:i. The CDA returned. to l,luamambi after taking up her

present job: her husba^nd, now dead, r{as a Tanza.nian a^nd so absent for. much
.
of the yearr The seconcl sister was teach:ing in l,Isambr+eniuhen her class

beoarne one of the first experimental r.romenrs groups in Kenya, ulder the Special

Rura1 Development Programmu'irr 197I.3 She left to become a nu?se (she sti11

is) a^nd.met her current partner, a clinical officer and. Giriama vrho lives

eLsewhere. Tlie thirdr half-sister steppecl into her teaching post, before

transferring_to.$himoni a^ndlaterbo Mwaroni r.rhere-she is now a fuLl--time aduJ-t

education teacrr-er ear:ring c.leoOosh a month. She is also secre*ary of aLl the

lromenrs groups in the logation, a^nd.secretary of Agwirayets sawings clubo

Her second. husband. vrorks and rents accomodation in l,tombasa and. manages a farm

in l{sarnbwenie his home" The brother a^ndhusbanrl of Agr,rirayers secretary also

r'rorks in Mombasa. His r.rife is paicl 30osh a month as the To'boto co-ordinator

and in September 1985 began receiving l5osh a month as Agrrirayers part-time

adrot ed.uoation teacher. The role of the CDA in the groupts d.evelopment has

aLready been dooumented: in sum her family exercises considerable influence

within the groupl &n influenoe r'rhich rui1l probably grow overLimeo

The chainromar, also a relative of the CDAr- accluired control of her

fatherrs 2 fields by taking advantage of the l-a.nd reg'istration r:l:,ich began in

Ivlwarnambiin L9'lB-79" fhere rrere no male heir: "rrd she iook the opportunity to

lod.ge a claim by herself a.nclher elcler sister (norr rlead) in'Utre absence of her
a
I

i
I
 43

./

hal-f-sisters who had. a1L married outside the areao This lrmcl provicles her

vrith a small income from sales of frrrit, casher.mubs a^nd coconuts (less than

J-lOOOsha year) which is macleup by remittances from her 2 vrorking sorlsl who

send the money (a tota"1 of 3OOsh plus per mon'bh) uithou'b their fatherts

lcrol&edgeo She cloes not pleur to remarrTr, currl in September IIBJ lras building

a house with 4 rooms to rentl malcing the most of her ner.fly inrlepenclent
'status. this is a route to capital- acoumuLation vhich the group itself has
_ 1

now decided. to follow: after the failure of its water project Agr,rira.ye set

about acquiring a roadside p3-ot to build rlpon, at the same time opening a

smalL kiosk (shop) near aits meeting-pIace.

-

In a double sense, tine6, the group is witness to an emergent procqss of

d.ifferentiation. First, in, its internal compositiorr- a^ndleadershipl

favouring a potential class of accu.rrntators: though argr conflict this rnight

engend.er has yet to come out into the openo Secondr in its virbua.l- exclusion
l l
i of. the most vuLnerable househoLds, those hea.decLt6r women,w"ith/yor:ng children.

\
Notes

I. See Roger Gonunr rHarlots and Bachelors: marital instability arnong the
ooastal Digo of Kergrar , I,IAI[, VT't (t972).
\
2. rrWomenare muoh stronger than u) men'rl he once d.eclared, trbut they have
notsense.tr Lhis statement legitimises r.romenrsrole in performing the
grbater burd.en of househoLd. l-abour ancl menr s in making the most importa^rrt
d.ecisionsr'
'
3. See A.O.Pa3-a1 ld.H,Wal-Lits a^ndJ.E.ReJrnoIds: rThe uoments groups prog?amne
in the Special RuraLTevelopment Progranune (SRDP) t, in A.O.Pa1al T.Awori
ancl A.Krysta11 (ed.s) The Parlicipation of llomen in I(en"va Socie'by (Uairobi:
Kenya Litera'bure Bureaul 197t3) "
 AA

N'KTXII. WOI,In.IIS,CROUP.JIBA]'IA LOCATIOI.I

Arkeni uomenrs g?oup meets by Chilulu primary school in rolling palm-

coverecl countryside 3 km north of Kalo]eni. This is in Chi1ulu-Tsagr,ra sub-,

locationl Jibana (nombo) location, parL of the Kaloleni clivision of Kilifi

district' I,lombasa, to the south, is 5O km away by netallecl ancl rrnnretalled

roado Ln 1979 the total popr:lation of the. sub-locatiort r.ras 5fl41, r;i-bh a

d-ensity of 312 people per sq.km liwing in B4B households scatterecl throu;hout

- the ?r€&o Jiba^na predominate !:-tfrough many tromen are Chorgri follotring a

pattern of intermarriage betr.reen these two neiglrbouring and verl' closely

related ethnic group6. A third related Sroupr Giriama, is steaclil-rr

encroaching upon lancl on the sou'bher:r border of Chilulu, a stonets thror.r

an'rayfrom the primary schoolo Arnlceni, 'rAwaken!", was the first uomenrs

group to be formed in the location. It had been joined W 1{ others by

Octoben-l{ovember L9B5t uhgn research was oonrtuctecl in ChiluJ-u.

TTIE CIIII]ULU AI.KU{I PROJECT

( r
Amkenitis distingu:ished. by having early found a verXr committe{ a1ly -

I{orld Vision International - allowing it to pursue a d"azzli.,ng amay of

. successfr8 enterprises under {he thrrrsting }eadership of its d.ynanric and

(
, por.rerfi:l chairrroma:ro Its first year, honeverr was not u:rtypical for a group

in its formative .Flage, with littJ-e prospect of assistance except that

provided. by the stateo

(
The group r.ras formed on 2 Ja.nuary 1981. This'followed a public meeting

held the previous month by the area CDA after consrrltation rdth the chief and

the groupr s future clrairwomanr then chain^roman of Chilttlur s small Anglican

'l
(
congregation and a member of the Looa.l school obmmittce. 29 lromen paid 5oslr
 45

each'co join the gloup, r^rhich uas registered vrith the I'linistry of Cul"ture

a.trclSocial Seruices later that month" They r.lere cluick to choose a vrater

pro ject, reaironing that clomestic hygiene (ttrus health) and. otber projects

:;uch as rearing stoci; first required a good supply of-natero Before they

cor.tcl be consiclerecl for a grant the Social Serrrices advised them to continue
l . - \

coll-ecting subscriptions, set by the group at 2sh per r'reek r+ith a yearly

p;yment of losh -bo rener.r:nembershipo In l-981 members al-so tried to raise

rnoney by cookint and selling chapatie and ctttivated a.borror^led. fielcl--with

rita.ize, neither uith any great successo

Chilulu Arnkeni Proiect and ita ogga.nisation

The big break came in l-982, engineered through the initiative of Amkenits

chainroman. Her elclest daughter r,ras then r+orking for tlorld Vision in Nairobi

as ilreir: project co-ordinator for South ltryaxrza. pitfr her encouragement the

chir.in;orcan rrrote to the I'Ipirobi office requesting assistance. The Coast region

co-orrlinator visited. Chilulu and discussed local- problems uith the l'romenrs

f,'Toupe As a result of his report the Chilu1u Amkeni Project was botnr one of

a 1a.rge nurnber of Kenyan projeots run by llorl-d Vision in conjr:action uith the

C,P.Ii., Chur'ch of -bhe Province of Kenyao

The Project uas clesignerl to help the local commwtityr lrorking primariJ-y

uith Chilu}u sotrool- and. Amlceni r.romenrs groupo A committee l.tas set up, chairett

by an Anglican pastor (tiving ln ldombasa) a,nd inclucting B AmXeni members, their

rnail job being to revien the Project and its accor:nts and report to llairobi.

evet1r nonth. A yorurg man from the area nas appointed. Project manager anct the

groupt s chainroman ta.lcen on as its social r'rorker. In Late 1!82 they were

joi-ned by a Project r.rorker, a recently marriecl Jibana man from Chilulu. In

J;r.nna.r7l9B4 a Chonyi secondary school leaver r+as ta.lcen on as the Projectrs

i'-grj-cultrrril extension r.iorlcer and. the team r,ias completed in Jrrne of that year
 46
:

with a book-keeperr also Chorllri a]Id unmarried' In 1a'te

the appointment
1f
I9B4 the Projeot manager had to qr:-it after making one of the Projectrs

the d.aughter of a gToup member, pregnant t

sponsoretl schoolchildren,

behaviour inconsistent rrith llorlcl Vision and C.P.K. e-bhics (l1ortcl Visiou

people Irith the Compassion of Cllrist")' The

elvelopes are hea.ded.tr$aring for

book-keeper took over his duties. In October 1985 they uere being pa'id the

salaries: book-keeperfmanager IlOgOsh; Project rrorl:er

follordng monthly

sooia] r.rorker BtOstr; agricrrltural extension uorker 6lOsh; attd r';ere

lOOsh;
Their office is a' corrugatecl-iron sled
shorbly due to receive fl/o taj.ses.
The Project itself has a-
rented from the husba.nd of oile of Arnkenirs members'

large yearly budget: 36orlzosh in 1!B{, 33or26osh in }!8!'

Pro j ect. contslrnitlr. group

Oneoftheprojecttsstatedaimsis'boseethatr'SrOOOpeopleare:
bible t
nurtured by organising evanSelism canpaigrsr
evaneelised arrd spiritualLy
equipping them
study gpoups a3d training 10 mothers a^nnua'I1y on evangelism,

facilities for sprea'ding the Gospel'"1 To

rritlr Christia.n literature and other

d-ateorrJ.yBh$'mnbookslaprayerbookarrdabiblehavebeenboughtandthe

instea.d upon more vlorldly gpals' This' as l'te shall

Project has conoentrated

s€er, has been much to the benefit of the t^romenrsgroup and not alvrays in line

with llorld Visionr s explicit wishes'

funding comes from overseas sponsorships of

Iduch of World Visionts

Tn'chilrrlu the r'rork this entairs is handrecl by the

individuar. schoorchildren.
'bhe-responsibility
projeotrs g?and.ioseLy titled sponsor Relations Departmentr

of its Projeot Horkero children from the most needy homes are selectedt

upon every year. 686 local- child'renr most of

photog:raphed., arrd reportecl
are sponso::ccl, ma'inly
them at Chil*Iu primary school (lrhictr has,-ar8lo pupils),

byfami}iesintheU.S.lAustraliaarrd]Ier.lZeala"rrcl.153attenclot}rerschoo}s
 47

in Jiba.na, Chonyi and. Kaloleni Locationsl r^rhi1e Ir having graduated from

ChiLr:J-u primary schooll attend various secondary and technical schools. For

the latter sponsorship rneans that their fees are paid; for the rest it rneans

receiving the occasional Letter and. sma1l gift a^nd-, more importan'bly1 beiug

provicled. with schoo]- uniforms. In l-984 the Project paid 2rBSOsh to an Inclian

firm in l,Iombasa to have r:niforms made. Follovring this Amkeni clecitled -bo get

in upon the same act. In December the Project paid. 6rBOOsh for 2 Singer

serring machines, duly installed in the chairuomanrrs house. In l'lovember I)BJ

the group held a hararnbee a^nd raised. Tr5O8sh to pa,y a young ldomarl to teacl:

members to ser^r. By April 1!86 Anrtceni was reported to be cloing a roaring tr;v-l.e
I
in ser.ling school uniforrnso

The Projeotrs agricultural extension worker is detailed to help 5-n'uroduce

mod.erzr farnring techn-iques into the commr.rnitye explai1ing efficient nethods of

cultivation a,nd storagel the use of fertilizer and pesticiclesr ancl encourag'ing

the plantation of sma-11vegetable g::,rdens. To this end he visi'bs local farmerst

mainly group members, amcl works vlith LocaL vromenrs g?oupsr Amlceni in

particuJ-ar, on their col.lective fieldsr d.5-spensing advice, vegeiable seed,

sprayiing lrith p""ticia"6 a,nd grving fertilizer to those ruho cau affor.d to bll]'

it. As a result most Amkeni members have suitched from trarlitio:ra1 prac'Lice

and- begqn bta^nting in linesr, gpd most have vegetable gardens. iloreovcr in

1984. ana 1985 indiviCual group members r,rere allocated substantial surns from

Project funds to pay casual labourers to cultivate and rreed their fielcls. I:r

llBJ alone.bire bill for this came to 2L1lOOsh, to be divic'l-erl arnong 4l tnembers"

3y llovember L9B5 the agricultural ertension worker harl visited- 4 other

rioment s gToups in the area and ltas planning to worlc r'tith a fifth. Bui Anl'leni

received the most clirect benefit. Table 11 shons sales of crops [tror.al on i bs

coll-ective fields betr,reen 1982 and late 1!Blo The Projcct has brou.glrt a
 /,t)

TASLE }1

CROP t9 8 2 1 gB3 rgB4 L9B5

bea.ns 1r391
maize 1,7oo 2r620 r,ols
vegptables 548 500

1r3gr 1r?oo 3r158 5r 538sh

x J!'fsh spent lry the group on seed a.nd tractor ldre

demonstrable improvement, d.efraying e:penses, eq"rartding the acreage r':ncler

crrltivation (see later) a^nd impioving yield.s through the use of modern techniques

inputs.2 The harvested orops are stored. at the chainromanrs home,

a.nd cheraical

ghere storage r,ras built for the frurpose, and a small portion of each harvest is

redistributed.ajnonggroupmembers.IrrNovember.].g85eaclrmemberreceiveclasmall

from the latest harwestr in recognition of the-

measune of bea^ns (r:nd.er 1kg)

l-abour they had contributed"

grade dairy caitle, but has ha'rl

The project a1"J ho" plarrs to introduce

acquiring a suitable plot: zer:o-grazirLg, the preferrecl methoclt

difficul-ty in

1and. in an area r*here watcr is read-ily available a'ncl-

requi ees Z acres of

rn Laie 1985 tire chilulu sub-chief offered- io sell-

consta't supe:rrision at hand..

pregna.nt gra.de cor^rto the woments group for IOlOQOsh proviclin3 theSr coulC'
his

iending them his shed a"nd. la,ird u'til thel' ssultl build
ernploy a herrlsma' ad

their orm (at a cost of some lrOOOsh). The offer remained to be put i:ei'ore

l'lorld Vision.

a scheme to build small hou,ges. for reccntly

The pro ject has also initiated-

r.rid.or.rs1 arguing that they are often unable to maintain tJre 1e'r3er
bereaved

husbaldso The work is done by loca^l builclers and so

d.r.rellings left b,y their
'
far 3 people, 2 of them Amkeni membersl have benefited '
 49

The water pro,'isct

ChiLulu Arnkeni Projectts most ambitious venture has bcen in organising

t-
a.nd financing the groupts water project. This has 3 pha.ses. The firsil uhich

was completecl in August l994t rvas to bring piped vrater from the mainline b;r

the Kaloleni-Kilifi road to the area around. Chilulu school t 2-3 krn a.r'ray. Tho

second phase, stil1 awaiting the appcararce of llater Department surv'eyorst

entails taking this water west to Swere; a.ncl the third phase rri11 take it east

from Ghilrrlu to llurima l,Ikulu. Project accounts record a:r erpense of sqme

2!2rOOOsh on the rvater project between I'Iay L9B3 a.ncl September 1!811 over half

of its cost to d.ate. lluch of the rest has been made up by the governmeirt.

$re sources of fr:nding and other aid are shor'nr in firll in Table 1?.

TASLE 12

SOIIRCE A1,l0UI'IT cor,[,InrTS

t982 Idinistry of Gulture sh

10 eOOO g'iven to Am]:cni ttomenr s group in
and Social Senrices October; cleposited and kept in
\
the grouprs bank account. -

l-gB3- I,linistry of l.later 273rooostt alLocated. in the form of ma.'bcrials;

B4 Development (183,2?4) B9r726ih r.ras not usecl ancl tal:en
baclc by the I'linistry (balance
given in bracke-bs).
\
1984 U. S. Dnbassy
"r
{2,000sh much of -bhis money appears to ha.ve
been embezzle& by one of I Peace
.Corps volunteers rvho he1pecl otr the
pro ject. The Dnbassy also prorriclecl
a soLar punping machine and PVC
pipes in Jr:ne 193/,.

f9B5 ldinistry of liealth 10 ;OOOsh provided., in Ju1yl in the forn of

BO 1#' PVC pipes. Anlcenits chair=
lloman co-pplqins that the gra"nt lras
for the purchase of metal pipes;
the pLastic ones they got ob''riousl-y
cost rntrch less.
 50

TABLEL2 (cont)

1gB3- llorlcl Vision 2!2r000sh ( see above) I exclucling Project

8, InternationaL sal-aries and o t h e r c o s t s .

TOTAL 62'frO00sh the 'total in bracicets ca:r h o

$x rzl.q) further correc'bed to tal<e accorrnt
of unused allocations.

Amkeni members alcl others in the conrnun5.ty contributecl labor:r for the fj-rst

phase of the project, d.igging the main pipeline trench between l{ovcmJler L)82

and Febnrary the follorring f,€&ro 0n1y one of three successive Peace Corps

'bo have made a positive contributiot-".. I'luch

volunteers r.rho he1-ped. i,s considered

of the work has been overseen by the Project vrorker, an experienced plumber.'
-b]re
When the first phase was comptretedl he turned to the worlc of maintenancer

lafing of individual ertensions and fittingsl and the cons-Lruction of r'rater

kio.sks and storage jai.s, al-L for the benefit of Amkeni a.ncl its memberso 4

kiosks vrere bui]-t asrd.fitted. for the sal-e of vater in August-September 1985.

Tbe sales of water from these are to go to the rvoments gtcoupr and in late 1!8!

they r.lere r,raiting foybhe installation of meters and a licence before beginning

their tra.de. I'Iork on individual ertensions begari the year before: by Oc-bobcr

lg15 L7 group members living near Chilulu primary schooL had s'ba.ndpipes ou'bside

their homes. They l{erer ,no""orrJ., d.rawing 'ater free of charge in the

uithout access to 'biris lra'Lcr continuerl

absence of a'y meterso ,Oilrer residents

coll-ect gater from the Local springs, l- }3n or so from tlre school" tlor'l: tra"s
to

group members uith concrete storage jars, each r;itb

also in progress to provide

a capacity of c.36O litres, to collect and. hoJ-d:-a{nuater from-bheir roofs

as a precaution against failure of the piped. supply. The'first of -bhese riere

built in october L9B5 by a mason from Kaloleni.

 a l

SATIS}TING T}IE STATE I'lAl'lI PULATII{G I'lG0s

Rrblic image

A:'lheni is no less subject than other groups to dema^ndsfrom the staJe.

In July llBJ group members uorked on repairing the dirt road vhich serves

Chilulu at the request of the loca1 sub-chief. In October they cool:ed. bananas

and. took them to KaloLeni for a meeting celebratj-ng World Food Dal'. 4 cla.ys

later they treldced to the diwisional headcluarters to sing beforc the guests at

wr all-day assembly marking Kerlyatta Day, Over the past year the group had.

spent 314?0sh on matching dresses and headscarwes to.vlear on such occasions.

Earlier in the month they ha.d been held. behind at a village meeting by iireir

sub-chief to be toltl how to present food for visitors and hoir to courbsey a.:rcl

sing before themo At th-is meetlng z)ls.n frad teln t'aised. for the Ker,yatta Day

celebrationso On the day itself they queued for food r.rhile honoured officials

gOrged. themselves and sr,rilfetl their free beer: failing to get any the lrornen

returned t_o Chilulu hulgzTr,

One of the speakers at this assembly was Amlcenirs chain'Ioman. She r'ras

later calLed upon by the area I'lP to tour all of its sub-locations in the first

half of 1!85 to press for the forrnation of more lromenrs g1'oups. This is some

measure of the ertent t,o whigh 4mkenir bolstered by llorld Visionr ha.s

succeeded in l.lorking liithin the framer.rork of state obli8ations" The r'rater

project is directly in- Iine lrith state development objectives, a fact reflecLecl

in the considerable government funding it has received. Amlceni ha.s also

proposetl a variety of other community projec'bs: the building of a nulserX'

schooJl a d-ispensary, and prorrision of a market for women. In llebruary ).!8!

the chairwoman wrote to a bus company in I'lombasar asking that its serrrice be

ertended to ChiluLu. The first bus came the follor.ring month. The bus come:i

every ni$tt its conductor is accornodated in a house olrned W the chair',roma'nrs

 52

husbancl and it leaves for l,lombasa at d.ar'rnr t[e chairrtomam is nolr pressing

i'or a mor.e regular senrj-ce. The Projeot itsel-f has paid. for the building of

a roof for Chilulu pri-rnary school-rs ne\,I Standard B classroom, while its

agricul-r,ura1 prograrnrne is matched. trith the message most frecluently

,perfectly
relayecl at rallies and meelings in Kalo1enio

In August l9B5 the Projectts committee was changetl to reflect thi-s role

a:rd "bring d.evelopment to the vi]Iage" rrith greater haste. 3 Amkeni members

r.iere clropped. and ! state employees taken on: the sub-chidfl the CDA, the

loca1 agricultural technical assistantl the headmaster of a looa.l Oti*oO

sclr.oole and the headnnaster of ChiLulu prirnary schooll aJ-so a church eldero

The goverrgnen'b agriarl-tural- assistant novr works closeJ'y with the Projecbrs

ag:ricr:-Itural ertension r.rorker, uho has begun attending fortnigttly seminars for

agriculturaJ- officers in l(alo1eni" In Septembdr he vras introduced by h:is

goverrunent colleague to Umoja r.roments group in llurima I'ikulu and sprayed- their

seseuTleand cor,;-pea crops vlitlr pesticide. In October they visited. the sesame

fielcl of l\inani lrornenf s g?oup in neart6r Tsakarolornr and he was asked to do the

sa1ne: :lesar1e seed. has been prorricled free by the governrnent to encourage its

pro<luction ancl on llorld Food Day-Amani wls presented with a certifioate

corrnetlding its efforts in this d-irection.- Uleanwhile the Rrojectrs agricultr:ral

r:oricer has been a.dvised- to rnalcemore use of fertilizers: there is no shorbage

of (i.lortd Vision) funds r'rith r,rhich to br5r them. In this and other respects

1he project has been appropriated. by the state as an ertension of its ovm

cleveJ-oprnelt ef'fortsl vrhile through its commwtity progfamme a.nd schooL

sponsorships it helps insulate local- households ftpm the clemand-swhich the

sta'be ir;poses upon themo )

furiceni, rneanr:hi-1e, is rel-ievua of the greater burclen of state d.emands

i:lrrough the support and- fr.inding it receives from I'lor1d Vision. Other t'romenrE

groups in'Lhe location are not so fortunate. At Amkenits harambeer held on

/
 53

TASLE13

DOITORS COI'ITRISUTION
CATOCCIIY

Anheni members 21000

tioiiluirs
GITOUPS 3 , L3 1
11 other ltomenils Sroups 11131

ilGOs Toto'bo arrd staff 600

1,OO0
tlorld. ftLucation visitors 400

STAT]' agricultural officer 31

S]'CTOR councillor 100
22L
CDA
chief n
, i /
OTIIIIR guest of honour 11000

ex-Chilu1u PuPil 500 ,,r10

collection macle W the'
husba:rd of a.n Amlceni rnember 200

ri lreaclmistress of a secondary school 6ro52sn

in lialoleni

(26'1" fron
2 ltovenbey :19}5t l.romenrs gToups'nrovid-ed-r 4ir% of the J1508sh raised

groups). Adding the contribution from IIGOS,

a,rnlieni itself , 15i; from other

came from voluntary orga.nisations. State personnell who did'

54,,.of the total

contribut ed- a mere J/0. The GDA complained that some

nost of the ta3-hj-ng,

so that they ca"n get grants3: instea'd they must

lro*ent s rJroups are formed

Notidthstanding this, marly of the groups which sang

help thcmselves first.

ilre guests sang about their problems and presented- thinly-

and da:rced before

In contrast vrith Amkeni the state is their only aIly'

veiled requests for aid.

l.ial:inn the most of friencls

As Table 13 inclicates, Amkeni has securetl another ally besides World

 54

Vi,sion: Toto'bo llome Industries. Hot^reverl much to Tototors a^nnoyance,

they have had to operate in the shadolr of their international cousin. Amkeni

r.ras taken on by Tototo, then unar.Iare of Uorld Visionrs involvement, in

early 1983. The Chilu1u Amlceni Project marager vras chosen by the group as

its Tototo co-ordinator. But frorn the start *Yry did not go well. I,ecL ty

their chainroman the group hatl hoped. that Tototo yrould. gr-ve them money and

not interested in the training given to their co-ordinator. Frustrated-

,l.Iere
in irX,'1ng -bo explain Tototors purpose, the co-ordinator gave up to concentrate

on his more l-ucrative Project job. In 1984 a young grcup member was chosen to

succeed him: initial-Iy the chairr^roman had wa^nted the position for herself.

\Her st/Ie of leadership is anathema to Tototor md on occasion theSr have

:
consiclered uithclrarring from Arnkeni al-together. The chai::r'romarr mea^nvrhil-e1

coltinues to l-oolc upon Tototo as a possible source of funds. 1n August 1985

Tototo pro-rir)-ed. some ma'Lerial for the groupt s sewing machines. In October the

chi'.igionran r.ras busy pu.rsuing Tototots direotor for help in securing a banl< loa.n

.bo buy a tractor ( see later). In the garne month Tototo introduced. a savings

club for Anr]:eni members: 31 'nomen joined. a.nd deposited 442sh betneen them.

The f'ollordng month 49Osh uas deposited: its acoounts, hor'rever, r'rere in a

cornplete sharnbles follorring the chairvromanrs reoeipt of palrments outside of

schecluf-ecl meet ings "

]tal-rns. coDra a.ni l:omen

The chain.lornanr s rnost spec'bacu1-ar mani.pulation has been of l,lorld. Vision

i L;e1f. Sone instrulces of this have already been cited. It is nowhere more

eviclent iiran in the establishment of Arnkenits main enterprise: the production

a.rrtl sal e of copra.

Irt i-Ls early years Arnl,,cni had considerabl-e clifficulty in obtaining land

- ci" Lher L o cultivate or j:uild a mee'bing-place upono Different fields were

 bomowed for short periods. One, just below Chilulu primary schoolr had

to be aba^ndoned by the group because of a dispute betueen its Jibana or.tler

I

. a:rcl Giriarna cLaimants. In L9B4 the grcup cultivated ^ E acre fiel-d at

Kizingol € tm awailr and lent for just one season. In the same yehrtire

group also bega.n cr:-Itivating a * acre field. at Forirrie or.rned.by the locaI
I
church and rented- by Amkerri fort5osh a year. Then, in August I984t 'blie
I
group and. Project embarked- upon a nelr trackr accluiring assets in land., na.Ins

( a^nd-tree produce using tlre consid.erfble financial resources at the Projectrs

disposalo Over-the nert few months 3lr680sh r,ras paicl out for this p'lrnose,

mostLy to local landor.nrers compelled. to raise mortgages on 'Lheir prcnert;i

( through pressure of financiaL circumstaJrces. Thts separate transactions are

d.etailed in Table 14 belou"

TA3Ltr 14
t

DATE PAYI.TM{T NATURE OF TNANSACTION ltIl'1iltssB5

August/ 2rJOOsh lO coconut palms pledged to (r) the chairrrome.nrs

llovember in 2 Amlceni for a period of I years claughter a.nd 13 year
L9B4 payments by an or,rner r'rho wanted. to raise olcl son, e.nd a loce.l
the money to send his daughter ma:r. (t) 2 menl one
'bo secondarXr school. the husband of Anl:enits
sccretary.

September 4r040sh lJ orange and tangerine trees the ProjecL nanager,

l9B4 iw 2 together r.rith 'coconut .paIms t:orl<er, and
payments pledged for a period. of I years. agricul'bural e:t-bensio:r
To enable the or-mer to send his lrorkero
son to secondary schoolo

September 1r2O0sh to be re-burned to Amkeni in the rlr4o

1984 form of 2r4DO coconuts valued
at 9 cents each. So that the
ol.mer cor:J-d pa,y his sonrs
t - secondary school fees.
 56

T.I$LE 14 (cont)

DATtr PAYi:i]-{.lT NATURN OF TRAIISACTIO}T tI.ITIfESStrS

Sep'Lember 1lzl{Q5[ 4? pal-ros pJ-ed.ged.to Arnkeni for .tho Pro ject r,rorker a.nd
19 8 4 an indefinite period. The agricultural ertension
oriner (now dead.) did this to r.rorker, the chainlomanr s
redeem his debt on the same husband and. his younger
palms to a previous morf6ag'ee. brother.
The present nr<.rrtgage must now
be redeemed. by his sonso

0ctober 5r 5O0sh 100 palms pledged. to Arnkeni the Project managert

r9e4 Ln2 for a periotl of 10 years. fl:'e book-keeper and r.rorker.
palnnents ol{nert s d.aughter had left her
husband and returned. to her
father: he needed the noney
to return her bridewealth"

0ctobe-c !1O0Osh 10O palms pleclged. to Amkeni IIr 3o

l9Bri '(period. not stated) by the

Chilu1u sub-chief so thdt he
could buy cattle for zeto-
gtazi,ng"

Oc-bobcr !O0sh to be repaid to Amlceni as the chain"lonanr s

L9'd4 11000 coconuts valued a+ n husbanrd.
' cents each. To enable the
otrner to send'iris d.aughter to
I(aloleni village poltrrtechnio.

Oc'r,obcr 5r 5OOsh purchase outright of 2 acres of the seller agreed. to go

T9B4 larmland (r.rithout palms) at to Kilifi r'iith Arnkeni
I{izingo. Solci by a young Jibana representatives to change
rna.nto pay brider*ealth for his the nane on the title
r'rif e-to-be. d.eed. from that of his
cleceased father to the
lioment s g?oup.

De c e m b e r 6 rOOOsh 1f; acres of farmlancl lrith pal-ms (a) tfre Project book-
t9B4/ in 2 at Vuga, pleclged- to the Project keeper a^ndagricuJ-tura1
Selrternber PaYments for a period of ) yeard so that bxtension worker plus 1L
tg85 the Jibana or.rner oor.rLd repay Arnkeni members trnd the
brider"realth received- for his husb:rnd of one of them.
daughter, nou separated from (t) 2 men.
her husband.

31I 6Bosh
 jI

Three types of tra^nsaction are represented in this list. Firstl ouiri6ht

purchase of lancl (t case). Secondl the mortgaging of palm produce, the loan

to be redeemed upbn the collection oI*a fixed. nurnber of coconuts by the

mortgagee (.O,rntceni)r the fruit valued at a price loruer than the going ma.rl:ct

rate (2 cases). Third, the mortgageng of l-and and/or palms to be recleened

upon repalrment of the originaL Ioa^n r'rithin a fixed (4 cases) or inclcfini'bc

period. (2 cases). Failure to recle:m may be avoicled. by'bra^nsfer of the nnorbgr.ge

to another mortgageer or settled. by outright sale of the land.

Thus, by acting as a mortgagee, l,mkeni/the Projec'b has acquired i-bs ? rirain

fields, one purchased outriglrt, and a hos'b of rigtrts in trees, especially

pa1ms, ancl their produce. This couId. not lr.ave been achieved r'rith.oub the

filr.ding unrrittingly provid.ed. by I'Iorld. Vision. The iclea to start acqrriring palns

orig'inated w:ith Arnkenirs chaizvoman a^nd rras approved bythe Project cornrnittee.

Ilor.revere r.ilren repori of this reached. World Visionrs headquarters in l{airobi

they ord.ered pa6rments to stopo fho reasons were given. First; because tiris,

enterprise clearl-y d-id- not benefit the commr:nity as a rihole. Second, because

it ma.clethe chr.:rch look Like a iinancia.l- institution. This r,ras in Decernber 1984.

l'ieed.less to say it was too late. A large number of patr'men-bshad- alreacltr' been

rnade from Project funds ingolving long-term committments of up to 1O ;;ears.

tr\rture d.ealings lrere shifted ffom Project to gr-oup accouuts. Until Janua4' 1!8!

these ha.d been kept by Project staff; hencef,or-bh 'bhey r'rere entrrrstecl io the

group secretary. Procluction and sale of tcopra. as ltell as fruit f rom the trecs

pJ-ecl.ged.to the group vlent aheade sorn€ entered into tlre group accounts a.ncl sone

going j-nto a clrurdestine savings accor:nt1 free from llorld. Vision scrutiiryl

opened. by Project staff for the purpose. It r.ras agreed that thj-s and- va.rious

rrritten agreements r.lould be passed on to the r','omenrs group in the event of the

Project being r.ror:ndup (at tl/e moment Project staff are on I year contracts).
 'sli

The enterprise has proved. trery successful; provid-ing Amkeni rdth the

m6ans to continue its investments trithout Project a^ndl'iorld Vision frrncls.

Recorried. saLes of corrra and fmit in the first B rnonths of 1985 are shor,n

in Table Ij.
I

TASLE Iq

I.iOIi'III SOLD
TYPE OT PRODUCtr I]i00i.lt

Ja.nuary copra 4r133sh

oranges and tangerines 2n
Febn:.ary copra 1,814
oranges 300

Ivlarch copra 3r/ioo

April copra 2r?no

May copra 2r4O0

June copra 4rlOO

August oopra 700

TOTAI, 19r 897sh

Labour costs in collecting cocorruts are rninimal - in Jairuz'E7 r'|tc 8roup

'l

s'Lorage - anc]"rnuch of
.

spent 2O2s:n on having coconuts felled. a.ncl in building

the'laboux in preparingfhe kertrels for dryiirg is provicled' by 6Toup;nernbels

themselves. Amkeni sold i'bs copra for 4sh 8O cents per }:ilo io tlte Cltilul-u

bra.nch of the Jib:r.na C6-opcrative Society. It uas, hottevcr, air erratic

a1d. the group r.ras pla.nning to talce future !6rvests to Indian bqyers
-Dayer,

in lriornbasa (vrhere the offered price r^ras 6sh) in defiance of l3ovelnrnent

directives.
 59

I:r September 1!Bl Amlceni had a healthy bank balance of 2!r8!Osh and
';he che"in,ornan lrar,sse'btinga"" sights on a.nother'enterpris.e: purchase of a

tr:ictor to hire out to farrners in Chilulu ancl furthef afieId" Given a clemancl

far in ezcess of the meagre supply she estimated that tiris coultl bring in an

income of l-OrOOOshin 2 nsnlhtr ploughing "*,jryun p"" r.""". A tractor a^nd

its i:ccessorj.es nas costed, at 286rO00sh:, 23OlOOOshfor the tractorl 30lOOQsh

for a pLough; 2)rOOOsh for a harrowl anrl c.LrOOOsh for the first yearrs

insurauce. This i'roul-d require i loan" To this end. the chainroman tal}:ed. to

chulch officiaLs in ltrairobil visited banks in l.Iombasa vrith Tototor and- r.rcote

Le-i;ters to the area councillor, d.ivisional officere ohief and. CDA. Nottring

had been fixed. up by early 1986. I{ea^nrihiLe the grsup ha.cl embarketL upon yBt

another enterprise, opening a shop in a builcling or.rned.by the chai:r.romanrs

lrusband"

its acrluisition of palms and other assets Amkeni has acted. as a

corpora.te en-breprene-ur" This represents a novel variation upon the process

clescr.iirecl'by Darvid- Parl:in in ]ris Palms. lline. ancl tlitnessesl a stud.y based

upon resee.rch among the Girianra of Tsalcarolornr in t966-57.4 Parkin fowrd. that

irrd-iviJLual Giriarna entrepreneurs tlere obliged. to cultivate locaL networks of

j-nforlrr.tion anrl secure the approval of local el-cters a"nd household- heads in

ord er to pursue and. validate'bheir transactions. At the same time some

r;ucc,:sr.jf!r1 entrer.,reneurs achieved. pei,rtial release from the redistributionaL

uetnr::rds of irou;ehoId economy by converting to Islamo .Among the Jibana of

neiglrl;ouring Chilulu conversion 'bo salvationist Christianity pla6rs a simiLar

role, rcleasing conver*s frornthe obligation to d.rink pal-rn r,rine rdth their

treighbours a:rrl clivert cash tor.rards the meat-sharing ceremonies which are

clurll+c'ber"ir:tic of i'rurerals and other ritual oocasioqs. Among converts both of

these precLi-ces are strongly clisapprovod. They are also disapproved W the

:;t;r'Lc. In ).979 't,he col.lcc'tion of palm uine, which rendors coconuts useless
 50

as source of copra, was bau:ncd. by the governrnent., Eouever, its

,a
-
consrulption continues, although less openly aJrd on a muoh reducecl scaleo

At func;rals a.nd. sinrilar gatherings purchase of a 2Osh permit from the police

scsull'etj irirplicit approval for the open consumption of patm rrine a^nd it is on

snch occasiotrs that friction be'bvreen Christians and. trad.itionalists can be

' '-
r:ros-bconu:ronly obselr/ed. .

As a corporate entrepreneur legitimated. by the state Amkeni is spared.

cornrrrerltia.lobligations: its involvement in comrnuhity d.evelopment fulfils a

{
parallel purpose. I'b has rel-atively little need to cultivate locaL contacts;

inore i-rnpor-bant are the nider netr"rorks of inforrnation whj.ch haie secured. access

to outsicle funds. Its possession of thqe anct high profile in the community

ar'e sufi'icient to rirav lanclor.nrers in need of loans tcvlards it. The pattern

of these ireecis, rneanuhilel has changed, p.rity as a resuf-t of increasing

sbi.,Je in'Lerventiono llhere Parkin for:ncl that brid-ewealth demand.s and. to a

l-esser e:,:tent sickncss and d.eath prompted- the majority of Tsalcarolorm

'Lransac-bions in lanc1 and pe"Ims,
tire small- Amlceni sample, for r.rhat it is
'.:ot'iit, shor:s a strilcingly different patterno 4 out of t lc,utdotrners gave

school fees as 'blreir main rnotive for mortgaging property, nhile only 3 cited-

bricleueal-th e:rpenses (in 2 oases the return of bridewealth for a d.aughter: see

Table 1{.). One ma.n, -bhe local sub-chief , needed a l-oan for investment in
I
air alterrrative enterprise: the establishment of zero-grazing forr daiqg

nrorluction (it is not recorrled. rvhy he subsequently offered- to dispose of this

-bo Arni:eni). State interwention in the form.of land registration has also

reciuced- the role of elders as uitiresses to tra^nsactions. One of the Project

uorl:crs obserwed that any Kenya^n is nor.l.entitled. to aot as a r^litness, a claim

born6-out in tlre contracts clrar,rl up for Amkenirs transactions. Project staff

tiere anong the uitnesses to a number of theger oil one occasion along r.lith 11

Aml:cni mcntl)erc. 'fltc rnost crtreme instance of this shift in the reauirements
 6r

o1' 1 egi-bimation r.ras the inclusion in one contract of the chain+oma^nrs 13

year-o1cl son"

Boosted by ilorld- Vision fundsr Amkeni is beginning to outstrip its loca1

cot:tpetito:"s. One accrunulator o{ palms in Chilulu is the husba.nd of 2 group

members. Another is his son by the first of t!es9 tromen, and it vras from

hirn thrr.t one landoirner sr'ritchecL his d.ebt to Amkeni (see Table 14). This son

a.lso orms a sl:.op. His brother, a son by the,second- r.rife, is the or.rner of

uhat r'ras untiL recently Chilululs only otherlretail outlet, a smaIl kiosk.

These 2 stores nor,r face competition from Anlcenirs ner.il-y opened. shop. None of

these relatecl men can match the scale a^nd.d.iversity of Aml;enits enterprises.

iThe ner.r tailoring business poses a chal-Ienge to Chiluluts 2 ind.ependent tailors,

a r:riul ard a r'Iomo]1o The r.rater project will bring Aml.ceni a monopoly on sales of

r'iater, rilrile plans to expand- into dairy prod.ubtion ancl tractor hire rrould, if

acirievecl, put the group r^relI beyond- the "u..fr of its rivals. Oil'renrise it is
\
lef'L to enterpri-sing individ.uals to mal<ethe most of their corurections lrith the
'fhis is t,iha-bthe sub-chief has done, his mother and younger brotherrs
iir.oup.

tdfe bo'tir nembers of Amkeni. One memberrs husba^nd., rrho runs a smalI tea-shop,

has rented the shed l.rhich used. to house tlie vill-agers only grincling machine to
-Lhe Project to use as i'bs office, and it r.ras he r,rho coll-ected. 20Osh for

funkenits ha.rambee in llovember 1985 (see Table 13).

This pattern of competition and uneasy alliance is reproduced in Amkenits

rela'Lrons rrith other groups in the areao One of these, thc Bid-ii Coconut

Business Self-Iie1p Group, based- in Jiba^na Tsakarolovu, was founded. btrr the

husbanrl of funlcenif s chainroman in late 1!B{. To put it mild}y they do not see

eye to eye. Unlike his vrife Bidiits chairrnan is only a nominal- Christian, all

irrveterate boozer of palm rrine and. a fail-ed entrepreneur. A retired schoo11

teacher he tror.r rents the buil-ding uhich once housetl his oror slrop to Arnkeni-,
 62

-bhe Projec'brs agrisu-ltura} e:rtension lrorker and the bus oonductor. Bidii

meets on Sunclay rnorningsl when al-I self-respecting Christians are at chr:rcho

It rrn,s registered in April 1985 r.rith the aim of prod.ucing and. sell-ing copra.

In October it paid out 33!sh for.6?0 coconuts, dried. and soltl as copra to the

local co-operative for l8Jsh. By itrovember it had. ano'bher 31J1O coconuts

l-

pledg'ed. to i* by 1oca1 landormers and rias hoping to buiId the on1-y drying hut

j-n tlre ii.rea to procluce first and. second. grad.e oopra rrhioh could then be sold

fot'a higl..er price than the j-nferior grade oopra which Amkeni ancL other local-

entreprcneurs procluce" C,overnment agricultural- officers had. promised. to g'ive

adrrice on the constrarction of this facility and Bidiirs chairmax/vas on the

lookout for a loan for this purposel complaining that Amkeni (his lrife) wou1d.

not g'ive him any help and access to its or.nr channels of information.

lrollor:ing-bhe untimely d-eath of Bid.iirs male secretary (who had. earlier turr:ed

clorm the position of Chilulu Amlceni Pro ject manager: he had a kiosk to rrrn),

he asl:ed his rrife if he conld borror+ the Projectts agricrrltural- ertension

rior'l:cr rullil another literate member could be taken on" She replied. by

advisrng him to d-o the job h:imself , relinqu5-shing the chair for someone el-se.

Bicliits treasurer is also a man, but l-4 of its 2/t members are nomen ancl it is

the oity r,rixed group of its lcind- in the area. 11 of these rlomen have also

bccornc rrrernl)ersof Urafiki r.romenrs group in l,lr.randaza, formed in August 1985.

Urafilri mernbers had- started- selling rnalcuti and had rented a fieLcl at 3o0sh for
'/- ycttr:.
iidiits chairmar l,Ias, rrnderstandablyl rvorried that this uouJ-d.

d-etract frorn their committment to 'bhe gruup and. in November r.ras busily

exJrorting the lromen to pay up thei:: 3OOsh Sidii shares before sribsoribing to

Urafiki.

Also in the Jiba:ra part of tJakarolovu, a short r.raIk from Bidiirs meeting-

pIace, is the sesame field qultivated. t6r Amani vornents group. This and 2

o l , l t r - - t 'l ' i . r - ' l 1 1 rsr c l r c l c r l b ' l , o ' L l r c gronp by a locnl Jibrrna eltlcr; nn accumulator
 63

of palms anrl, Iil:e his Giriama counterpartsr a l'{uslim convert. d I'luslim

riientbers of his family nere also members of Amani" Bidiits chairrnan r'las not

on 6oocl terr,rs r'ri-th himl the resu-Lt of a past dispute over the mortgaging and
"d'isparaging
orrncrship of palms. Amanirs members, meanrrhil-er about the
.wef@
overi; Christianity of Anrkenj. and its chairr'roman: the group had been forrned.
t-

after its fou4d.er mernbers trere denied entrance to Amkeni. Allied. through their

comtTlonobeisautoe to the state a^nd the agricultural- assistance which Worl-d

Vision provides, the different r.roments groups in the area are also competing
I
for the funds r"ilrich such bodies can supply. To date only Amkeni has succeed.edt

amd nonel uith the partial exception of Bidilr has startecl investing in

pa1ms, not to mention the host of other.enterprises which Amkeni has embarked

unotlc The rest remain more cl-ose1y tied to ggvernment objectives: their

producti-on of sesame, a ner"r and wrtried cash crop in the localityr being one

e:rarnple of thj-so '-

llCUi.ilillCLlS Gi{IDER AlfD DIIIFEREITTIATI ON

Cor.porl,.te. entrepreneurs do not automatically confer the same status upon

1:eir ipdiviclual members, especially vrhen these individualsr are llomen and the
-
fruits of entreprenerlrship are not divid-ed. among them; Most Amkeni members

are l.ockeri in a patter.n of gender relations and clifferentiation from uhich the

gr.oup has yet to extricate thern.

j,iembe''s irnrl'bh.eir househol-ds

In late l_985 Ankeni had {.! members, aLI of thern uomen. Irlost were Chonyi

ancl Ji-ba:ra l{omen t'iho had married into the area: of 43 surweyecl 23 were Jibanal

18 Chonyi a.nct 2 Giria.ma. I.,lost l-ivecl near Chilulu primary schooLl 11 at

Kizirr3o a"nclone, a daugirter of Amlccnirs chaintomanr in llombasa. A number

ita,i- rccei-vecl sorne p"irnoJ eclucationl but ve'ry fer'r liere literate. The yorrngest
 6Tn

rnember vas 1! and a sample of over' half of the group members sholls an age

distribution uhich refiects the chain'romanrs recruitment of her age peers

to6;etlier vi'ttr junior lromen from the same extend.ed. households.

IAI]L]I 16

AGE III YUARS . I-

T5-L9 1V-ttl. zj-29 3o-i4 3j-39 4D-44 4>49 n-54 5i-r9 (f,-6q

Table 1? prowides further information on the 28 nomen in this sampleo

The stnrcture of households a^nc1residence is broadl-y similar to that found

in Diani. one large extendetl compound, the home of the man who owns ilre

Projectts officel housed p 6roup mernbers, while.a fur*he" 4 io"=. close kin

liuing elsetrirerei in all over * of the groupts'total- membership. The

rela.tionshi.p between these r.ronen is shor.nr diagramatioally in Tabl-e lB. There

arer houever, tuo important points of contrast r.dth Dianil a d.ifference in

the s'Lrrciure of gend.er relations the d.egree a.nd-form of capital

_reflecting
pene'bra-tion in Jibana"

irirstl Lhe rate of divorce and separation is ertremely low: alnong Sroup

t;rem'i:':r'si'b is non-existento 35 mernbers were mamied and 10 were r.ridons: the

large tnunber of r.ddows reflecting the higlr propor.bion of olcler members ernd a

lor'l rate of remarriageo 0n1y one l'romanhad been married more thah once, after

being l.ridorrecl by her first husband. This can be taken as a measure of tbe

resilience of hortsehoLd. econor{r in the &!€&r hrt another r{ay, r^romenin and

erounc]- Chi1u1u remain more firmly uncler the controL of men a^nd divorce ls not a

verl' viallle option. i'lonen themselves rationalise this by saying that even if

thcir lmL:'uancls are ubter clrwrkarrls-ttrey feel obliged- to remain at home to look
 65

Tial,ti l-7
,a
\.

AcE iiAitrral, Tor/il, tlo. oF I{uliBANDts IIER PosrrroN rl't GR0UP

STA'IUs IiO. OF TIii'SE Tfi,iPLOYI.I]il'iTI'IIPLOUIIEI{T AI{D PROJUCT
CI|ILDRN'I T)IuD

)-g I'1 1 I'lbmbasa

( Project
?3 I.1 2 IooaIIy nelt treasurert
t- comrnittee tnernber
(= rrojuct
r'lorl:er)
27 i.I 1 lJombasa

t 2 8 i l 5
2 8 l i 4 1oca1Iy
2 g i i 3 I,Iombasa sec. sbhool Prn ject oonm.treasllter
teaoher

2g i,i 6 Idombasa

2 g r r 3 I.lombasa

31 I,1 4 Garissa
^' Ioca11Y
32 I,I 9
-r r.
))
i1
ir
t{
u I.lornbasa

3 5 r i 6 t
3 6 i i 3 t . I i a l o l e n i
ex-Project comfn.lemb
4 0 I 1 7 1 l o c a l 1 Y
!,5 tl 6+O 2 -
vice-chair-tIoR?rI1 e:c-
t 7 1 1 9 I l - o c a l } Y
Project c o m r n . m e m b e r

!,9 1.i 10 1 -
l,lombasa vice-treasurerr Pro ject
, L I I B
comrn.secretary

52 ': 11 2 - ject
Pro
l::i:i*,,""o", lliil;;Sil#l
S 2 I i g r o u p c o r r r n . m e m b e t
5tt I.i 10 ?
l'l 3 1 group comm'member
55
5 6 1 , 1 : - . 2 2 - o L d t r e a s u r e r
II <- g:roup comrn'member
56 9
11 6 - Project comm.member
56 ll
& i l 5 2
60 II I 1 Project comri'member

6'.2 u 10 6
 66

TA3Ltr 18

t-
I
t] rI
I
I I I
I I
I I I E
I
I I
I I I I
t' I I I
L J I
I I
I I
I -l
I

I
-1
I | ^rH L
I
I I I
I A-sl,
I
I I I
I
L_ _ _ J L L J

key: A=male 4'A'=marriage residcn'bs of ihe sa,me

compotucL arc sjro::r
Q = female -f-., -l;ire
^l o = cleceased
encloserl ui'i;hin
A A= :ilil';3i, :1. brol:en Ii-ne -
the above

X.= o1-Ir€r of the Projeo'Lrs office. A - I'l = Amkeni memberct one deceascd:
and ex-mernber of the Project cornmittec; B = ev--neml)er
A - group rrice-chai"rlro*rn
D = group vice-secretary; F = clied in 1!Bl, her
of ilre Projec-b committeei
iu; G = group secretary, Tototo co-ordina,''cor
position in the group inheri.bed-ty
pro ject committle;' Ir = a primary scirool teacher at zia.ni.i K,
and member of thE
L arrd. I,1 joined the group in 1983.
 67

af'ber ilieir chilrlren rather than nrnning auay, rdriLe they ascribe the higtl

rate of ciivoice arnong the Digo to Islarn and" the greate_1 d.egree of economio

freeCorn rdtich Digo r'rornen enjoy. If a r.;omanruns ar.ray from her husband- then

her father must return her brirlewealth: a reversaL of fortrures which fathers

are not very hapoy to entertain, as it rnay plunge them into debt (tirus the 2
. l -
cases in Tab1e 14)" Bz'ideuealth payments are d.ouble those-in Dia.ni - 6rooosh

can be asl:-ecl for a d.aughter uhether ed.ucated or not - another mark of the

conpe.rative strength of househeld. €conorrgo I,IaIe household. control ertends to

8?oup membersirip: the inherit*rl" of a d.eceased r,Iomants membership and.

subscrip-bions by her sont s r.rife in lp8! was deterrnined. tpr her husba^nd-. In

funlcenirs seconcl sarrings cLub meeting women e:qpressed. fears that tbeir accowrts

tniglit be inherited. by child.ren other than their orrrro The meek submission of

Sroup netnbcrs to their chairvrornanr s dominance is part and- pa"rcel of the same

synclrorrte: rnost rrere not prepared. by 'Lheir erpOrienoe at home for ar5r other

role. r

Tjre seconiL cont;-ast r.ii'i;h Diani is in the nJture of male employment and

ac'',;i.rity. A l-arge number of men find and. remain in employment rrntil

re-Lj-r'enen'L: 75"i in the sample of group membersr husbands shor.m in Tabl-e 1!.

qlartT.;l 'l o

ilO i{Uii31ilil) IIUSl]AI[D lu,rplorm TIUSBAI.ID

UIIU,IPIOYuD
,.ii-,,ior: -t
ecL l_n i.lomDase/ 1ocaI1y retired no riork
el serrhere

10 I6 4 B
11=4.4

,Secause of th.e clistances involved men r.rorking in l,lombasa usr:a1Ly irave to rent

acco:nodation in tor.m, returning to 0hih:J.u only at neekends. This provid.es

iitr ot-liii'Lionlrl rlr.in upcX'L'cir incomel aIt'ough they are at least regtrlar
 68

TANL]I 20

GiTOUP}Iu.IBER SI.IBIJCRTPTIONS
PAID HUSBAI{DI S OCCUPATIOItr

1 \
6 2 6 sh none, accumulator of palms
2
60B t
none, accumulaior of palms
6q l'lornbasa, or.rner of P r o j e c t o f f i c e
A
6oo none
5. )yo no hueband
6. conr.riitee 596 no husband.

l. vice-secretary )ol I'[ombasa

B. cha.irltoman trtrQ
none, retired.
9. secretary 558 Itlombasa
10. 2)o no husba^nd.
11. vice-chainroman 542 1ocal
12. cornrli-ttee 534 I(alo1eni'
13. q?2
none
I4.. corrunittee 530 none
L5. 526 I,lombasa
IOo
526 no rhusbancL
L'l. 523 loca1
18. 5r7 local
L9" qno
Local .
20. old. t=.easurcr t|Yo none
.)1
-)- o
47o I'iombasa
22. 4.64 none
2 3. rri ce-treasrr-:rer l,lombasa
.)i
4.47 l'lombasa
25. cor'.rni'btee 436 none, retired
26. 413 no husba^nc1
11. 4.13 no husba^ncl
28. 403 none, retired.
2cl
395 i'Iombasa
JUr )AA
)v+ ]10ne
31. 218 no husband

vrsi'Lops 'bo 'bheir

hornes, not migrant laboJers in the fulr sense. orry a
fetr rttvest in palms otherbhan their or,n:r.
arrd ther.e is consiclerable ind.ividual
variaiion in the arnount of financiaL help they give to their lrives. This
varia-bion is refl-ected. in'bheir r.rivest contributions to the group. Table 20
recorcls the totar subscriptions paid betr.reen r!81 and. 19g5 by the 31 rvomen r.rho
joined- -i;)re gpoup in its first year. The 3 most regular contributors ha.d.
inir;bi'"rrrl
I ul'ro can ltc cl assccl as accumulators. .Othenlise men living at home
 69

are liable to d-ivert what income they have torra$s the consump'bion of palm

lri:te. l{idovrs are not necessa.rily-r,rorse off than their married neighbours,

especially if they have no children to support but ones r.rho car. suppbrt ihem

in turn" Others, houever, are_not so fortrrnate. Thus the rioman at -bhe

bottom of Table 20, a vridow with a d.aughtcr in seconclary school e.nd a

dauglrter (divorced-) o,nd grandchild. at home to support.

Hornenls income cu]tivation ancl d.ifferentiation

AparLrfrom the cash suppl-ied by their husband.s or childrenr ntost ',;onen

have access to comparatively little income. There is no market in ChiLulu arrcl

little d.ema^nd-
for cooked food" Some women seII bananas a.nd other fru.it from

their homes on a casual basis" tlomen, child.rene and. to a lesser ed;ent ncn

make roofing g$[!e sold at .a much Iol'ler price tha,n in Diani. During tire
'[O
production season the price can drop to 30 cpnts per piece, rising to cen'bs

in Jgly and August, and it is difficult for even the most energetic proclucers

to malce'l-rOOOshin a year. One eld.erl-y r.romarr able to make only J'pieces a

dayr obserrred that it took her 4 deys to earn the price of a 2 i:g bag of

rnai_ze flor:r._ Othervrise marly r'romenkeep small herds of not morc than 10 goa'bst

often bought t6r their husbandso These are kept for meat-sharing rituals or- sold

nhen occasion demands. I,larried r.lomengenerally look to their 1115!3.nds for heln

in paying -bheir group subscriptionso

Idost r.ronen cultivate field.s or'rned by their husba^ncls and husbanr4sr }:in anc1-

perform tire bulk of agri c6tural labouro Group members rnalce considcra"ble use

of oasual l-abour on their fields, as a :rrl-e employing other l'tomen' Ta"blc 21

d-etails the agricultural enterprises of I group members in thc long rains of.

1985" Some, but not a111 of the casual labourers employecl by tlrese lromen

were paid from Project funds. Group members ,*"" *torted eur avcrage of 4OOsh

each in L9B4 and 5o0sh each in 1985 for this purpose, .plth.ough some lrorien
 70

TA]]Ltr 21

I'Ie Fi OINJDR AIIDA LASOUR CROPSi iIARTESI c0t[,im{Ts

CULT. ATID OF
IN COSTS STAPLE
ACIIES

T 1 husband. 2+ prepared by tractor maize good no palms on this

for lOOsh from Proj. (8). field. and" enough
money arrd most of bdans mai-ze gr-own to last
cultivation done by (+) a1I year.
a pcrmanent labourer
paid c.500sh a month
t6r her.

U 2 husband. r.reed.ed.
W 4 Jibana rice $ sacks onJ-y errough for a
r,romenpaid by her. maize. poor fer.r months, by
l{ovember buying
? husband 1 N- acre cuLtivatecl mar-ze poor maize flor.rr from
of by labourers using (g) the shops.
para11e1 Proj. money, the beans
cousin - rest herself. (+)
l:orror.led

V 4. husband 4 r'romen paid. a total- maize good fertilizer and

of l2Osh to cassava pesticid.e used. (her
cuJ-tivate; lleed.ed. husband. is the Prpj.
herself. r.rorken). IArougir
ma,ize to last for
husl:and 1+ 3 uomen and one ma"n maize v.good more than a year.
paid a total of 360 cassava
sh to prepare the COl,J-peaS
fiel-d. J }abourers
paid loOsh from Proj.
money to weedo

lJ 6 husband 2 Duruma and. 2 rnaize 3 sacks insufficient for

Jibana tiomen cassava the year.
ernployed, adcling or.,rn
noney to Proj. grarrt.

husba^nd (as above) maize 1 basket crop shad,ed b'y

, glosely growiug
) palms.

'
X B elder 3 Jibhna women paid rice l- sack poor, too margr
brother a to'baL of 2{Osh; weeds.
also r,iorked. herself
and 6;uarcled, r,rith her
children.
 ?r

TARLII 21 (cont)

I.ie Fi OiNIDR LA!OUR CNOPS IiARVtrS[ COI.[,Ifr.{TS

Y q irusbancl cul-tivated hersel-f rritfr maize f sack buying maize flour

2 Dunrma a:rd 2 Jibana from the shops.
r.Jomenparid 35osh.
lieed.ed. for lJosh (rnoney
frorn the Pro ject).

IC lci.3hbour I+ ! Jiba^na r.romenpaid a maize 10 saclcs field at Kizingo

- rentecl total of 20Osh to cassava r'rith good. soi-l.
for 20Osh cultivate and 1!Osh to Ilarrrested. enough
e) year rleed.I acre. Other $ maize on both
acre r^rorl:edherself. t field.s to last all
f,e&fr

11 husba.:rdI s 1+ uorked- unaided. maize 2 sacks

p;:.ternaJ. cassava
uncle

'Z 12 hu-sbandt s r.iorked r.rith husbandr s maj'ze 16 saclcr enough maize to

fatlrer rnother. Cassava feed. the house-
hol-d. all Jrear
3
-1-3 lrusbanclIs crrltivateil by 7 maize 2 sacks round.
futher Jibana arld J Durtuna cassava
l'romen for loOsh from beans
Proj. money. I'leed-ed. CO1,l-peaS
r.rith husbandr s r,rothen.

ile = lll,i.BilR, Fi = flt}llD.

tlt = &:rl:ctti!s ciralin'tomanr V = thq nevr treasurer, X = group committee member.

claimecl rnuch less ancl-others received- more - one is recortlecl as having used

Ir62osir frorn Projec-b firncl.s over the 2 years. Large though';lr.ey are, these sums

are not sui'ficient to cover all of the r.Ioments recltrirements in agricultural

labour ancl nnany acl-ded'bheir or.rn fabour and-for money to complete r.lork on their

fields. I,ioreover, this assistance did. not tnansl-ate directly into agricultural

Procluc-bivityr rilrich l.ras more closely linked to soil qualityl use of chemical-

inputsr and. presence or absen'ce of paIms. It is ironic that one of the most

successful crops in the sample rras grol.rn t6r a member r.rorking alone rdth her

rnother-in-IatrJ.
 7z

. ili-rwes'bs of -Llre rnain staple - a loca1 purplish variety of maize called_

Jibua - exhibit a rrj.de,ratlge of variation betr.reen lrcuseholds. 3 of the l
r;rrmrrleclI'e1I r.lay short of subsistence reouirements.and rrere forced. to rely
upotr ma'ize flour purchased. from the shops. others prod-uoed. sufficient maize
for hone consurnption, and one proCuced a surpluso ltronel hor"rever, rras
plairning to offer maize for saIe. Iilaize, like,-bther.crops g'otm by lromen,
is cuJ-'Liva-beclalmost exclusively for subsistence purposeg: only one 6roup
ntember, r"iife of the gl'rner of the Projectts officel r,I&s fou:ed. to be selling
surplus rnaizeo 3 group members - the chai::woma.rr, her sister.-in-J-ar.l, and.
tlre vi-ce-secre'bary - hirecl tractors to s*ltivate ]r9}5t
in rirril_e 2 others _
the vice-cl'raj-::r'rotnan and the rvife of her |rusband-rs brother - used. anr ox-drarsn
plough. The rest r.rorked.their fields W hand," Accorcling to the projectrs
agricultural extension trorker this rnirrored pr:actice in the conrnrrnity as a
t'iholer r';here agricultural enterprises r'rere subject tcj the same range of
vllria'i;ion

Gr:oup rner:ibers have, hor'rever, received. a degree of assistance I

denied. to
their ueighbours" -AJthough this is not r6flected. directly in ilre success oJ
othcn;ise of' their efforts to secure subsistence d.oes point
it to a pattern of
tiiff'crcntiation t':hich increasingly favours Amkeni members. First, through
'Lhcir
drility to enploy casual labourers. The sample in fable 2I incLicates
the e;':s'bence of a pool of such labourers outsid-e of the group, most of them
lcca1 r"olilcll, mlLny rritlr child.ren to support and l.iithout lrusband.s to support
'thcit'
Tal:l e 22 shotrs tlte provenarlce and- sex of 18 paid cultivators r"drose na,nes
:!re recorded in Projec,o accountsr OnLy 2 members are recorded- as having been
pa'irl to d'o suchl'torl:, both on one-of the grouprs fields. one r.ras a r+idor.r 'lr.o
r'lori:od' i'or' 2oosh1 the o'Lher a yourq lrornan uho r.rorlced for rloosh in Ausust I9B5
&i"ber lr::vi:r5 l;-!'olr11t:nougJrlo feetl lrcr or'rn ]rousehold earlier in the year (f in
'r'airle 2I). ()-Liier
Jloup mcrrl;ers intervier.recl only actmitted- -bo having perforned
 73

'bhe
such irorl.: in Pirst.

TAlI,ll 22

JIRAl{A CIIOIffI TOTAT

f,ti.iALIl
L2

TOTAL : o
z /

l l
Second, although 6roup rnpmbers d.o not receive a,:ny cash income frorn

Arnj<eniltheassistancegiventothem.bhroughtheProjecthelpstore].ease

incorne fr.orrr other sources r.rhich would othenrise tb tiea to the sane tasksc

Conpl'.ri-son betr.ieen A6riiraye a.:rtLArnl',eni shorls that in general Arnkeni members

have r;ruch l-ess difficuJ-ty in meeting group subsdriptions and palrments,

r;hile in 2 months they cleposited almost tr.rice as muoh in their savings club

as A5.drrr3le rnembers clid over a period of 6 monthso Amkenirs chai::t'Iomall

conpla.ins that sorne of the l.rorse subscribers can l"reLl afford to Pail uPr but

fa.i1 .Lo do so clespite the threat of expr:J-sion from the group. This threat

las 1ot lteen ci1r.riecl out: none is f-ikely to give up the va.rious benefits

r;';'.inl, +la
r /rrI v:r 'r^1r11 and Project provide tlithout a figlrt. The Pro ject r'las

p.:.{::.'}r'li,-rtrpr'l
trrr l.{61lf,. Vision
' , j ! v q | J . ' llith a vier'l to helping the whole connrunity. In

.:rrnl. nrqnon-rq- particularly e r Y ! g ! 4 - - d through its SpOnsorship programmer it has

l r L ' L

hclperi to insulate l-ocal- households frorn demands made t6r the state; But-this

bencfit !s equally distribu'ted among Amkeni membersr who have reaped maqy

o'bher rerrards fronr the Project besiri-es. Through Arnkenirs calculateil

apprropriation of the Projectl l{orld Vision has become the r:nrritting sponsor

of cconoriric cliffcrcntiaLion in the commwrity: a differen'bie"tj.on mo.st clearly

oisp1.;ri,cc1 in i\nl:c1its accu,Tulation of palms anrl its membersr emplofment of

a5ricuItulal I a.bour.
 74

m.""i t " "tr"i",.t

The architect of 'bhis appropriation has been Anrkenirs chainroman, a

na,"sccni.;entrepreneur in her or'm right. I'b was trcr deLision not to divide
-bhe profits of ^A.,,nl:enirsenterprises, but to plough them back into further

venturesr argrting that to do o'bhenrise vrou1d.,d.iminish the groupts capital

ancl only prowicle small short-terrn benefits, to1t" members. Askect if she

r:ould divide profits from a tractorr she replied. that she thought instead

that it coul-d. be hired out to g?oup members at ha1f the norrnaL rateo As the

Projectts social r.rorker she already has a regular income of her ovrn, enabling

herbo ernploy a full-tilne labotrerr a Giriarna man r.rho earlier worked. for the

or,mer of the Project office. A rborn-againt Christian since l-956t she has

progressively clistanced herself from her palm wine-drinking husba^nd.;' assumi-ng

li role in tire household, then the groupl rflore generally rese:rred for men.

Leadership of tire group has brought further status ancl recognition" She is nolr

vice-chilinronaJr of the sub-location d.eveLopment committeer vioe-chairr.roman of

rlorrents iiroups in Kaloleni division, sits on the committee for r.roments

clevelopment in Kj.lifi d.istrictl and inrlate 1985 was appointed. nomenrs

representa.tive on the district development committee"

By contrast most Amkeni members are illiterate, do not go to church, and.

]rave no paicl employment" ,t" a mle they submit to the chairwomancs dorninance-

oi' the gi:oup: it hasr after a111 brought them a number of benefits. [here

are, hor:ever, elements of a passive resistancer rooted in their position as

mernbers of less progressively oriented householtts. Attenda^4ce has proved.

clifficul'b to enforce: betrveen I'Iay 1984 and August 1985 an averag€ of 21 t{omen

r{ere present at group meetings and. only 21. members attended. more than half of

thcse" In 1984 the chain^roman rro'be a set of rules threatening expulsion to

poor subscribers and persistent absenteesr arld had these typed. out and

clis-Lributed- to 6Toup mernbers. Bu-L no action r.ras taken i:nd the chainroman later
 75

confirled that she r'ras afraid- of the consequences shouLd. she try.

If a locus of opposition can be identified.l then it is to be for:nd. arnong

the 13 riternbers associated. uith the extencled. household shor.rn in Table 18, the

vice-'c\irirlJornan anrl ihe secretary.of the group among them" l.lhen the Project

cornr:ritiee uas reor8anisecl in August 1985 the vioe-chairr.Ioman and- her co-yife
r-
r;ere clropped. Other appointments shovl the chairvloman strengthening her hand.

The 'breasurer of the Project committee, vrho also became a group member in 3_t8l,

is her 2) year old daughterl a secondary school teadher living in ldpmbasa" The

secretary of the corunittee is her nextdoor neigh.bour, another committed-

Christian, often cal1ed. upbn to reacl the pra1rer at the start of Amkenirs

meetiugs" In 1-!86the 2l year olcl r'rife of the Project worker (she joined. the

group in 1984) r,ras d.ue to take over as the'grouprs treasurer from the chainlomants

fatirerrs sister, rrho had ear'l ier replaced- a member of the vioe-chai::vromanls

e:ttentieci househ.old. In lTovember 1985 stre was locked in dispute r,rith the group

secrc'bary (the vice-cirain.romants daughten-in-law) over palrment of a baby-sitter

ihey hird- shared. vrhile attend.ing a Tototo savings club seminar. Her husband.,

al-so ernbarking upon a career as an accumulatob of pa1ms, remainsl like other

Project staff, firmly at the chainromanrs beck and call_o

Tlte significance of this exbendsrbeyond mere patronageo As a result of

these rnanoeuvres a nunber of educated. r.romenhave moved into key positions vrithin
'Li're g::oup. This eviribits a patterrr commonto the clevelopment of marly uomenl s

groups, as t,hey corae increasingly under tire control of members more qualified.

to rtur their enterprises and less likely to submit to the j-nfluence of household.
I
econolny.

llotes

lo A't:cni liot:tct'r.rs Group a.nc1Chilulu Aml<eni.Project'. tlntervievr r.rith the above

r;i(:)lr,:r.ono(r
i;r'or,rpanrl |r'o.icc'b 1ty litr.r;jo Voivoorn rrnd l-istcr Kl"dzu of'the Training
 IU

Projeob in Pedoloey, IIth October 1984.' 5pp. typescript clated liovember

,- 1984r availabLe in the Projectrs Chilrrlu officeo

4 r
2. Early improvement is documented in the repor* cited above"
|
3. One r"romenrs group in Tsalcarolornr is saitl to have been formed. at the prompting
of memberst husba^nds, hoping to sesure aid forbhc constnrction of a 1oca1
d.ispensary. Personal comrnunication from I'I,onica Udvardy (f 995).

, 4. David Parkin, Palms, l{ine, anrl Witnesses: zuUfic Snirit anA p"lvlffi
' Booksr f972). This
in an Africa^n Farr,ring Commr.:nity (London: Intertext
economv
householcl capit'a'
andinclisenous
;mH-t5"T;t-tz"::*i;-"l:H"f
_ /

a
 77

I,[.:i;iro uonie]rrs SToup is base'j in thefisiring viliage oi'I'I:r:-iro on i'lasini

.lZ oi l,iornbasa alrcl Ii; l.rn offsho::e of ibe Shinotli peirinsula.

islandl kn souil:

a conpact setilement of sone 5o house]rol.isr r:iih a total popuiation

I.[:uirn is

of about Its iDhibitari'i;s clescribe t}:enselves as Shira.zi and speal: a

4OC.

cl.iaLect of Suar-rili calleci Cl}ffunii; also spol;en on !'.:-:lzi islancf i;o the nortir'

ancl in a fer.; villages on the nearby coast. It:r'iro has its ornr sub-C-ialeb-b of

Cirifurrdil refleci;ing a higtr c'i.eg:reeof in'terrriarriage r:iihin tlic village. Tire

an1
v r s J r:. n-i,her. rri'llage on 'uhe is3-andl tiasini, is populaiedr by Vurnba, speal;ers of

a ver?r differeir-b Sr.;a1il-i clia1ect. There is a historl- of conilici betr:eetr',;he

2 peoples, and ilasini bas its ot'n l-:omeitrs g?ouilo Tl:e island as a r';ho1e is

f:.oi:: the naiiil-a,rrd. as pa.rt of Sli.inioiii-ii'a.sitri s't-b-l-ocai:ionr Potr3r.'e-

ac'i_rninistere.i

r1i A.ir.r l naa=i nn,

!Vvc! vIv in ti:e lisanbi;eni clivisicn of iir':al-e disiric'L . Researcll tilere
I\l-V-JlllJ

r.'irs coticiuciei. in January a-nC'Feb=crary L)86"

FCIJ:;DAT]ClIS
:
follor'iing the e:lanple set
I,X:l:i:.o l.roriletlrs gToup r'las fouriried. on 2i \',eq[ 1979t

|'l:r:irors 1^iastl:e firsi 6r'oup olt "he isla:ido It

by Shirrioni o1 iire rirainla:rci.
-blier' matr?+er of the South
r,,-asforsecr on ilie initiative of 2 loca1 neir, one of

co-opera-bive in Silinoni a:rcl-nor.: Ii.frlIU chairuan for the locatiotr"

Coast Frsheries

the:l in her late 20s;, becane the g:roupts iirsi chairr':onan'

iiis e1der. sister,

post rrntil 'uhe follor:ing yeart r:hen slie stepped cior':r a:rd
Slre renaine,i in the

sister. Uucler iireir leariership the group macle its

r.:as succeedeci by her younger

gelleration and chose its firsi projec'b, securing a

first forays into incone

gpvernnent grant for tire Dlrllpose'

to pa.y a. lOsh cirira:ce fee auc1-a 5C cents l:eelil-1r

l,cnbers l:erc reo.uire'f

subscription, l-ater sPPecl to Ish. A dozen or so l;onelr joi-ned- r"herr the Group
 lo

uas found-eci anci mer,tbership grev in a steady tricl:Ie rrntilr bf, 1"984, it

haci reacired. 63. Uncicr the first chairrronall group menbers started making

oor.'rie sJreLl trecl:I aces after 2 itinerarrt entreprelleurs, a naJr anci a l..:onan

frorn Kualer lr.ad prornised. to fincl a market for them. 3ut the couple fail-ed

to return a"nd members r.rcre left trying to selI their neclllaces to tourists

at Sirinoni" liauy rrere solri to the chailr^,'o::ranfs father, one of I shop ol-nrers

in i'[ci.:iro. At 2sh per neclclace the return to the proclucers L'as too 1or.r ancl

the enterprise r.ras subseouently aba:"icloneiro

Undr-er tl:e second cha.inrorno,rr ?, rior€ pronj-sing trad-e r.las fou:nc1. This

fol-l-oi.ied. a visit froni the chairr:on:an and. co-o:'dinator of Shimoni',;rorTlcllfs group.

Sirinoni hacl begun r.;or.I:ing uith Toioto ilonte In,iusiries in 197E1 producirrg r.;overr.

handicrafts -bo be r;arkeieC. throug'h Tototots shop in l.lonbasa. The co-ordinatorl

a youns rilan, suggested" ihat ihrliro do the sa-:ne, bringing its gooi.s to ihe

maiitand- to be coilected by Tototo. This tirey bcgan to do, in 1980. (fne

hisrr,orX;'of tiris enterprise is exa:,:ined. in ctetail iri a later seciion). In early

1982 the gfoup v,'as adopted. bi'To'boto. The first co-ord.inator, a troman of 181

proveC r:apopular uith otlrer inembers and quit the post in liovember. Unrie111

slie later dropped- ou'r of the grrcrtp, Her place l.;as talcen in 1983 bJ'the grouprs

first secreta.ry, then 20, anci another Jroutlg secretar-'r,- rias appointed.

I.ieairr;hj-l-er the group hld cirosen a projec'';: corrstrttction of a rnuJ-ti-

purpose builcling to act as a kiosi-, (sria1L sirop), ilursery scirool, office and

rneetJ-ng-place for the groupo In August 19BO the g:roup was reg5-stered. r.,'ith the

Iii-tristry of Culture anii- Social Ser'r5-ces audr helped. b3r the CDA' opened a banl:

account in l,lsanbr'reni r.rith the nnininunr d.eposit of loOsir. In Oc'i;ober the grolrp

rias g:iven IrOOOsh for its project by the l,linistry. I{orlc on tbe building

progressed slot:ly: by Scnternber 1981 the group harl bought 2 tons of cenent,

4OO coral- blocksr ar1d.had paid a builder 11OOOsh. Ilor:ever, no sooner haC.
 79

uorlc begun on the fou:rd.ations than a local man informecl the group of his

or.rnership of the p3-ot they r+ere builcl-ing upono !'oIlor.{ng his refusal to come

to terrns r.ror}: carne to a halt. The project was not abaircroned, but it was not

until December lpBJ that another pl-ot was fowrdr on land belonging io l'Ii:r'iiro

primarX' school.

SUCCUI.TBING
TO TRADITIOTI

Choosin8 another project

Follouin.g its adoption i4r Totoiol the group l{as encouraged. to choose

another project. I'lenbers d.ivicled over 2 alter::a'bives: const:ruction of a r,rater

resevoir or purchase of a. boat. Bo'i;ir of these reflected l,Il*iirors islanci

isolaiion" A boat co'ul-ir be usecl to fer-r1' passengers and their l-oads bctr.;eeu

i.i:r-.'i-ro arril- the mainland at Shinoni, site of the nearest ciispensarnr a"rrd teriinus

fora bus r.ihich travels tjrrj-ce C.ailJ' to l,lsarrbi;eni a:rd ldonbasa. I.,iost of the

poientiel passetlgers r.rere l.Iomen airci il:eir snal-1 children trho othen,-ise ha.d to

rely upon the irregular servj-ce provided by local fisherrnene charging lsh per

adult for each crossing. The srnall hand.-padd.1ec1ciugouts usually useir for this-

purpose tal;e tl:e best paz.t of an hbur to cornplete ti:e crossingl a ris$ venture

r.:hen seas are rougho A motor-driven boat rrrn by tire group r.:ould cut dorrn ihe

crossirrg to 1!-20 n:inutes, calrl' nlore passell€iersr md reduce the long hours

of r.;aitil,1g o11 the shor.e for a fisl:er,iran r.:j-l-lirrg to riclle the trip. Cotrstnrction

of a vater resevoirr olt tire other hand.I uottJ-ii- sern-e arr equa1l1r pressin6 n.eeci"

Apart fror: raintraber Hasini island lias no natura.l, resenres of fresh l;ater. For

over half of the year villagers are denendeirt u-pon r';ater ferried. across frorit

the nainland: d.uring the rains rainr,iater is charuelleC. dor',n cot-rcrete slipways

into ccucrete-Iined. pits and drar.n from these. In ii:r:iro there are a smaL]

nurnber of privately-oinied. resevoirs and o:re bel-onging io the rfioIe village frorrt

r.;hicir riater is sold for as long as it is available. A resevoir or',:neclby the

 BO

6:roup riould oonsidLerab}tr' inprove the loccJ suppIy of r.;ater. arra help reduce

i.coendcnce upon thc e>:pensive inports from Sjrinoni"

The r.:ater pr-ojec'u r.ras pr\cposed i4r the ge.oupr s ner.r chainloma,nr its

treasurcr, ancl- a conrmittee r,rember, thc mother of the first 2 cltain;ometl.

[iris fanily fourrecf i;he core of r:]la.t can bc iresigirateci as o D]o!'r.cssive faciioir

t:itirin the group. Their irnneciiaie rclationships are shor.rr in Table 23. Unlike

nost lkuiro villagers thetr'are Sajuni (G\ur}'a) fron the Lanu area on Kenvats

norther:r Sr:ahili coast an:.d-have continued to marry outsid.e of as r.rel] as

inside the local Shirazi cor:r.nulity. Their r,iobility l-ec1-to tire first 2 cirair-

lrorTietlrelinquishing the post, subsequently tal:en bt'a Ioce"l uor:ten r;l:.o put

i:erself fon;ard ancl-vas accepted. td,- the i:hol-e 8-r,'oup. To6ether tirey pressei. for.

co:tstluction of a t';ater resevoir, argu-i-rr3 that this l.rouJ-d.be easy io nai.ntain

alrri rlur, pror,'ici-ing a" seasona1 souJcc of incor:re a:rd- r.tater to irelc l.'lonen rr-itl:

tireir hous;ehol-d choreso A boatl the;' argneci-" 1a,1' too far ouisicLe of

t;onienl s erperience: to opcrate ani. nain';ain the enterprise they r.roril-d be

heavily d-epencl-ent upon rnen, uldle tlre naintenailce costs of a boat a:rd en6'inc

r';oulci- be much higher tiran ti:ose of a ruater resevoir once ii hari been built.

A boate hor.iever, pz.onised a nore.reg-:J-ar incorne as rrell as easier access to

tlre nainla,ni. a.trctall its facilitj-es. Suppo:'ters of a r.rater prcject r"rere

ouitl.u.::ibered a"nd.'Lhc group cirose to inyesi in a boe*. In the eve1t, the

rrro.-T,esisi'i
j--"1r4 rrn f:'n*i orr nr.orinrl irrsruified.
vrL,jr yrv v\?r rJu:J
urr+vr,. in
rtt its
J 9p fearc.
I Thc l1e1i c11.r,efp::ise, nruclr.

to its detrirnent, lras mociell-ed closely upon its courrtcrparts j-n a nnale-

doninateC- rlornain. Control of the group, mearwhile, slipped out of the

ha:ri]-s of the nrogressive faction alrd into the arms of traditiorr"

An enternrise at sea

Tototors i.i-rec'cor begam solicj-ting aii. for l,ncuirols ner; project in ljB2

anC secu:reci ti:e support of i,lAlCil, a Canaaian donor. After ilr.e ctistrict
 81

TAtsLril23
Bajuni Shirazi/l'l:r.;iro

Bajuni A, born and marrieo

in Larnu before moving
sli.op-ormer
to l,[',rriro
in I'l:r:j.ro

Shirazi
/t'l:rdro
Vurnba

iu l,ionrbasa
Sajuri

Shirazi
Penr'ba /tii:r.iro
Sirirazi
(Tanzania) Vr:-r,rba
f ii;rtiro
In l.ionbasa

Segeju (Tanzenia)

liey as in Table L8: shor:s ciivorce

I.!',iriro r.rer,rbers A-D: A = corrnit'fee r:cnber, supportr,er of r:ater llro ject; 3 =
frrst chairr;oman, left the posi because it r,rade it difficult for her to
travel ar:c1 stai' eI ser;herei C = second chairi:onan, appoiutecl not electcda
left the post and- trr.oup ltpotl rer.rarriage in l,iombasa; D = collccior of
subsoriptions for I'[cua;itur5- uari..
E = irritia''cor of the vlonents gToup, forner manager of Souih Coast Fisheries
co-operative and 1or.r }',AlU chairman for Pongr;e-Iiidimu locatioir.
 BZ

corin'r:rrii;y develop::ien'i; officer ha.c16jven Tototo aJr assurarrce that -t,hc r.ronen

l'iere capable of managiug this en'bernrise, the group t;as .presel-becl r.:igr a

cheoue for 35ro0Osh. Tlr-is t'ras rn August 1983. Group nembers themselves

raiseci jrloCsir rri*h a losh subscrip'cion. This covered the cost of a neu

eug:itrel bou3i:t tor 2{r5t18sh iu l,ionbasa, but r.;as not enoug}r for the boat as

r;e111 Friced a'o 20rOO0sh. This hari been Locatecl in Lil:oni bj, tlte j,kr:iro

rril-lage clia:inlan a:rd. ihc CDi\ from iisanbr:eni. Ti:e Digo sel-Ier agreed. to talce

I3rO0osjr aild gave-bhe Sroup 3 r'reei:s to pai'.tire remaining ?rOOosh. After tal:ing

cielivery of the boa'b the group ask-eclTotoio for a loan of 5rooosh io help meet

u.r!-c
thi ,Jsit,rerlu.
ncr;:rar* The loan rlas gra:rted, ',o b€ repaid. b;r g:.oup j-n nioiiiirly
nenbers

itrstr.Llnreir.ts of 3l_0sh"

I'lniirors boat wen.r, into oirerai;ion oii 8 Ociober 1!831 plying betr,:een

lQ:r:i:.'o and- Shirnoni" A rdriverr, tire ]msba:ri of a group rnenber, r^ras ernplcjrecl

to rrur the boat and. bu;' peirol fror,r ui:turd-a.for iis en5ine. Group rnenlers

thentselves tool: it in turns of 3 d.ais eacir to r.rorl: as 'ch.e boai t s t couductorr ,

collectiirg passengerst lsh fares and- ilre varying amorrl.ts char.geci for their

Ioads. Apari from occasional interruniions the boat ra:r everl' ciay of the rreeic,
betneen about 6 otcroci; in ilre nolfiing anc 4,in the aftenlooric

Fron the outset the enterprise t{as 6sir-g.l:t in ilre tran r.;hich i;he progressive

faction had r;arnei. agaiirst. FoIlor:iir3: the practiqe of local- fishemen incone
from tire boat r.;as C.ivi'j.ed. into rougirly equal por;ions. In ilre case of fisi:ing

boats these vary in num'ber according to 'uhe coinirosition of labour., the relation

bettleetl am. olmer and his crstr'(if not the same person)r aJld ihe techlical

requlrernents of a particuJ-ar enterprise. In other r,rords thej-r shape is

d'etermined- by the relations and means of proiuction as, these varlr from boat to
boato The o'.'ner of an outrigger ca^rroendglite for examplel set aside a
portion for hinself, one for the crerr, ano a tirrrd for tite purch.asq, of bait.

The ot.'::er of a notor-por.,'ered. loat night mal:e further provision for ihe rurchase
 R:'

of peirol anC maintenarce of the boat an<i its engine. Copying this model-

the nornent s group bega::. by dividing their boat irrcone into 3 portions: one

for the d.riverr one for petrol, anld.one for the €Foup a^rrclexpenses in

generaL. Later, nJren the enterprise ra:r into teclrnical difficulties they

cleated a fourth, separate, portion for maintena,nie of the englneo

Tz'anrsfereci to the groupr s enterprise this practice had a number of

unfortu:rate effects. First, it.rneant that the boatrs driver reoeived a fixed

proportion of the boatrs inoorne: ol1e third in the first perioC of its

operatione much more tiran if he had been paid a set monthl-v r.rage (see Table

2r', be1,or';). Secorrd, and to conp.orlrd ma';ters, group rnembers liorhi-ng as the

boatrs conducrr,or lr,€re paid ai the srna11 fixecl rate of lOsh per clay: conCuctors,

least of al-l- l{orflen, are no-b a nolnal feature of boat crer'rs. Sor r^ilrere a rnal-e

driver cor:J.d average 1r?OOsh a rnonth, 'r,he r,,oneu thcrnselves nade litFIe rnore

ihan 3OOshe rnucj: less indi',ridtr.al1yo Profiis fron tire boat r.;ere not othenrise

i.ivid.edL arTion6 group members- a"nd by follorring the rnodel of menrs fishing

enterprises 'bhey effeciively overpaici their drivers and. exploited their olrn

labour. Third, ihe praciice of ci.ivicling their income into portions had a

d.isastrous effect upon,the enterprisers accouniso In the records r':liich the

group kept the ciifference berr,ueeil bud.geted- incorne - the portion set asid.e for

a particular purDose - and actual exlenditure is'rrot ah'tays c1 ear. Over time

the accou:rts becane prosressively rnore confused, a confusion ';.:hicli rias to cost

-r,he group dearo

The appropriatror: of the enterprise to traciitional practice r'ras confirnecl

in uneqrrivocal fasirion by an ear1y action orr the pari of some rnembers of the

g.roupr s connittee. Acting riithout the lqior.iledge of other nembers they bought

a piece of blacl: cloth ancl, a chicken with group funcls and tool: these to a

traciitiona1 i.ocior o11 the mainland io provicle the boat rdth protective meciicine"

Againl this rras in keeping uith tl:e prac-bice of local fishernenr or at Jeast
 Q A
e+

t h e nnore traiitiona.ll-y-oriented- of thern" Follorqing this act conf-Iici with

the procTessive faction came incleasingll'out into ttte openo

Tlie first victim was another committee nernber, the rno'Lh6r of i,lkrrirors

first 2 chairi^:oilero The corn-nittee had agreecl to carry bo]:es of maize flor:r

d-estined- for the shop she ran r.,'j-th her husbancl ai half the norrrral rate, n
cents instead- of lsjr per boxo Hor.:ever, after loacl.ing a consig,rt:rent oirto the

boat at Shimorri the d.river, r:orl:ing as conductor as r.relI, refused. to accept

hal-f pa;'r',rent aud ordered. -r,hen turloaded. (this r.ras the second. d.river em.oloyed. by

tire group, the husbancl of a cor,rnittee rnenber and- also of l,&trvirors first co-

ordinator.). The argu-nrent r^:hich ensued r,;as oi-ilJr seitled b1i the inte:rrerrtion of

l'kr','j-rols village chalr'rnan: the red.uced rate 1.;as accepted ancl ',,lie flour

transporteC.'co l0lrirol though -r,he dz'irrer refused to assist her in carrX'i1g i-t,

fron ihe boat to the shoreo The folioi:ing aftenroon she refusei io help o.i;her

merabers prrll the boat ashore for the night, arg:dLng tliai thj-s rras the rlriverrs

iob - hc had. left it to a young boy r'ilro r.ras forced- to call- for assistance frorn

the vill-age. The next d.ay the d,river again refused to help her r;nload. a

consignment of fl-our for the shopo Angered. by ihese incidentvs she r.;ent to the

chain':ornan an.1 c.emand-ed.

that he be'suspendeil fron his d.uties. But the rest of

the comniti;ee refused, telling her not i;o be fool-ish. Fol1or:ing this she

quii her post on the conrliiiee and stonped- pl3"y!ng an aciive role in the gfoup,

to the e::tent tirat she C,-id-not make use of tjre boat age,in and transferred her

irade to other vesselso

The crisis that rtas brering carne to a head nhen the boatrs eng-ine was stolen

after exactly '/

J rnonths of operation, on the night of I,iay 1984" I.b ua= on.

of J engines to d.isappear frorn the area over a short period, probably the r+ork

of thieves from Tauzaniao !Iad. it been insured. by alr insurance comDaily rather

than a local medicine-rnan then much of the trouble vhich follol.red night have

been avoiclecl. As it tur.necl out the group couJd not afford another nel.' eni;ine
 85

arrcl in the storn r.:hich follor.red. slippedr further into the clebt of men a.nc1

the clutches of tradition"

FoLlor.;ing the theft the village chair:nan took it ui-ron himsel-f to

organise a search for the stolen engine" llith police consent enquiries were

made as far afielci as Diani and the north Ta:rza;rian. coasto llhen these met

t'iith no success he turned. to the tasll of finclin.3 a" replacer:'r€nto To this cnd

he visited the sub-chief at Shirnoni and ri:r.ote to the d-irrisiorra:l officer in

Iisanbr,'enio It was tirere thai an engine r,ras found, being sold by a Digo man,

r.;hose orrn boat l'ias no'longer seavorthy, for 12rl0Osh. It r.ias bougbi by the

group uj"th BrOOOsh fron its ba"iil: accoturi anc'|.a foan si A.tloosh fron the

village che.irrra.nr and r':ent iirto operation in Sep'i;ember 1984.

In his zesi to sectLre recont)ense for his senrices and paynreni for 'uhe

seccno-hairci engine ti:e chairr.'iat: scrutinised the grouprs acco'ulrtso I1 fact jre

ha'.rtbeen l:eeping his ornr recorci of these chuinr< L9B4t nnal<ing a copy of boa.t

receipts every afiernoono Accorcli:ig to this record j-ncorne ftor.r ihe boat

betr+een JanuarX' and llay anor:::'i;ed to just over 16r488shi 6tS6osh after expenses

had been subtracted.o Presenting thcse figrres to tl:e treasl'-rer and- secretary-

he asl.:ecl if iiiey agreecl riith his cil-crtations. Thelr s1i6o l.luch to his disrnal',

hot':ever, tltey had. no noneJr to shor; for ito Ass.uring that ihis had been lost

or stolen he contacted officials in I'isanbr.;eni anci Tototo in ],;onbasa" Su'itsec'.Le,nt

el1r-rtt.iries provec incoitclusiveo Tl:e chairr.ra:ll s arg',:,rent cioes not tal:e accor::ri of

Brl6Jsh r:hicl: the group had in the barrli and used to pai'. for the seconcl eng'ine,

morley tirich thc group apparently ciid not have r:hen tlie enterprise began. Sti11,

marly group menbers al-lege that large srrms of rTroneyrrere taken by their treasurer

vho, nonetheless, ,renains in office" The grouprs or.n accor:nts are not very

helpful in, resolving this issue. Tirey r,:erc lcept, mostly in ey-ercise books, by

the secreta:Xr and. the ,treasurer. Unforirurl.tely thel' are inconr:l ete and d-o not
 B6

IASLE 2/l

].!0ilfil SCURCE IIiCOI,E DRf VEITI S CTi]]IR B/iL/u;CE

FTOII BOAT POIITIOi: E,,(PN;SES
/ nr u'-ru
\ r1:ll.itulr t
COilDUCT0,letc)

o c r .8 3 R 3rO34
r a n r
L 9 Qz ) . 4 )
O e
L t45O.fr 557.65
fron Bih
C 3r1O4 rro25.B5 rr4n.n 627.55

1 , g8o.90 L , o y > . :) 1r171.6o

I a ^ F

It0v.83 R 41848
c 5t52/r 1 t739.& d
z1 lzOcJU
a d / \ ^
1ro58.30

DEC.83 fi. 3t479 O ?/4 2r203 34.2

c 6rTjg.go 2 rt87"75 ]-r4l.9 3r103.15

J.Aii.84 R A 'r (.e

wtLv).
trn
rN'
2t732.fr 3,5C3.50 -70" i0
rt
71123.39 2 1337
"n 1 l?q
J t L i J v 1 , 3 4 7 .B O
V 4r9oz

FB. 84 R 4r57! I, Ul-lf

n
a9503oJ_9
a O a r ^
373.9C
C J'VVJ 1,B5O 2,608"l_0 ]-1206.9c
V 4 1814..fr

I'IAR.84 R ( 4, 3zo. 5,9; (rr4z?.30) (tt_&t) ( 2r 433" 2o)

4r3zO,5P 1 r427.30 4()u 2 r433"20
1r 3 r3 3 O . ? o

aPR.84 l ; e o ^ \ / - t / / r a \
t!<)L o )J
\ J: )ou/ \!lz+ooo)ui !7Oia

3,580
- A / /
J t i;-OO.
- ^

i)L/ 1r61,2.n LIIL

1t
2,5& .5O

i. ^1r
I.:JII
O,
(//+ T)
IL (rrlzr) ( igo) ( 6c) ( Bir)
to ?th 1an 6 8tt
!liaL

v oor

TOT}IS JL , J- ./ 11,771.05 r a rOry

IJgJulotI-'
1a
6,160.35
37, i47 !2-r424.30 i 1
I -) l uUri-o;i'V
On r t
11,119
 e7

TADLE 2z| ( cont)

I.ICillii SCUIICE IIiCoilD FnOi: DJIIVIIRI S o'ItiE_1 S.qLNiCI'

SOAT PONTIOJI !X(PiB.ISES

1-0i{T;x,Y 4t474.I4 tr 6Bt.57 lr9]-2.5l 8Bo.o5

AiTRAG]J !1588.42
5r335"28 Ir77li.9O ]-1972.O5

SUS-TOTAL R t9 r95B 4roB9.10

JAl;-]'!AY 22 roog"U 6ri29.9o
v ^ /
I{)1{OOr
, n O F ^
{U 6r36.J-

ft = a.s recor.ied- in group accor:nts; C = corf^ected frorn incepeudent adi.ition of

daily eni;-ries; V = BS recor.ie'i b;ti tire l,L:r':iro village chairinan.

alua.trs balance: i:r pari a ::esuJ--bof the practj-cer descz'ibeC abover of

drvidin.g i::cone in',;o pc'r'tions. l.ioreover, for some period.s ciifferent a::ci

conflictirrg recorcls are availabl-eo Tabl-e 2zi is recolrstz-acteci fron the accor:.iri;s

kep'u during ihe boatts firsi period- of opera-,,ion. 3oth recorrj-eci and corrected

figur.es are siror'n:f i;be lat-i;er bascd- urron 5-:rdeperrcient calculation fron dail-y

entz'ies, auci the viilage chairnefi'rs recort'' rs ac'ded' for 1984'

rrllr ^-,^
i'1lese argunents over no'iey clainedr a seconcl- viciim: ih€ gfoupt s third

'rhe connltteets faiLi:re -i;o keep her inforned-

c1.ai:1.;onano Tai:ing e::celiion to

a,boutr,the state of tire gro!-Fts accoulrts sl:e te::Cered her resiSna-i;ion in

r,.r.it.irrc-
u.r ! utrrSo Tt r,r2s sone r.ieel:s be-iore the g:roup co'irJ-C-fitrc]- a repla,cement for her"

01e ulopposerl casd-idaie, closely relateir io tire g'roupts first 2 chairr';oment

lras stoppei. fron ial:ing up the post by her hr:.sbando It finally boiled d"or'nrto

a ciroice betri,een the village chairr"raqts sisicr (anottrer ciose reLative) and the

elder sisi;er of the 6ryoupts co-ordina'bor, a comrnittee rnember. The latter r'lolr

the vote. She tool: office i1 micl-September 1!8{1 shorbi-y after resumption of

the gr.oupr s enterpriseo Her eleciion vras amother blor: for tire progressive

fou3th, cl:airrioman vas the tQrreetrt of I'!:r:irots chal:aclll

fac-tion" The ner;,
 BB

( ,

a danoe enploying d-nrrns anc'i-trffnpets ir,rported. frorn l,lombasa ancl played at

_ $eddings anti otirer festivi'r,ieso Cbel:acha is danced. by a1L vi)-lage viomen,

( -
uearing the white robes usually wonl btrr men and mirnicking tabooed. sexral

practices inclurling anal intercourseo As sucL it is a chal-l-enge to male

, ?oihoritye and l!:r.rirors rnen had moved. to stop i'b being da.nced outdoors,
I
jealous otl ihe possible consequences of this open d.isplay of se:nral licence

by their r.;ives. It isl hovlever, a ci:allenge which is contained and

( neuiral-ised. by its restriciion to irnportant ritue,l occasiorFl a staged inversion

of gEnd.er relations characteristically confined. to rites de passage.l

l'iki.:irors resuned- enterprise sard; d.eeper ir:'uo the traciitional domain" Its

( accorurts becar,re conpleteli' d.isorganised. a:rd. the recorcling of real enpenoitules

feII btr' the uajrsj.d.e. I{eanr*}ri}e the cornnit-bee accurulated a series of debts,

nrost of then to men. Tire fr:l-I er'r,ent of these ciid- not energe untiL a heated

Ir ' goup meeting in Jarruary 1986y r,rl:en marg'mernbers cl-airned. tha.t i;his was ihe

first the-y had hearrl of them. In fact no one individual- knevr the ful-I list t

vilrich is shovm in TabS-e 21"

(

TABLE 25

CLAII'rA].IT PUII?OSE 03 LOAiI OTNSTNIDII'IG CtAIl.I

1o a loca1 man used torrards sea:'ching for ihe

stol-en encine. 100

2. the village bus fares to iior,rbasa anril else-

chairr.ia,n trhere, searching for the stolen
eilgr-ne 305
for purchase of the seconcl-hancl
eng'ine (4r5oostr loaned in a3.1) 900
purchase of a coil for the
engine 50o
to pay a mechanic in Shimoni 100

3. a looa1 rnan for bus fares to lisar.rblretr-i and

other expenses in pu:'chasing the 'r 7r)
second-hand engine
 B9

TASLE 2q (cont)

cLAll.ruiT PLJ-IIP0SE0F L0Ai] CUTSTA]]DIIIG CLAIi.J

4. a Local- na"n tor.rar',c1spurchase of the seconi--

hand. engine 15c

,. a loca1 man tor.rar.ls purchase' of the second-

hanL eng'ine tfr

5o a loca1 rnan to bq' petrol - n

7" a locaI man to buy petrol n

Bo the groupts to bi:y peirol 200

treasurer

TO!AL 2eI'lJsh

Tire seconci-han.J. engine proved more ti'oubl-e tSan it was r';ortho Ii kept on

breaking dor.m a.ncl needecl reoeated repairs. The boat ent,erprise was frequently

interrupted: records inclicate that before the engine fina13-y gave up the girosi

in nrid ;-g}112the boat was only in operation for a total of B! dayso Little more

than a nonth after. the eng"ine ha.d been bought 1elOOsh ha.d. to be si:ent on its

repairo In lioven'Ber 1984 a Luo entrepreneir-r, ,d-ealing througii the village

chairrnane offered" to fix the eng'ine in retur:r for beirig given use of the boat

to fish at night" He took the boat for 11 days, each dayr s use reckonecl as

equivaS-ent to 2OOsh in hire chargesl the total (ZrZOOstr) covering the costs of

his repair vlorl:. In fact the repairs cosi much more - 3r460sh according to ihe

village chairrnan. Finding hiroseJ,f on a loser, the Lr:o man sued the village

ohairrran [or. 6rl25sh in a I'lornbasa court. 3ut tire chairman argued thal in fact

it was he who r.tas orred riloneJr, 2r06Osh nhich he had- spent on financing the

repair lrork, having raiseC. over half of ihis sun by selling his r:atch. The
 on

Lrrc abandoned. his claimo Througirout this fiasco the boat a^nd its eug:ine

were notiring more tiran par'nrs in ari econonic gaxner a gaJne rrhose m1 es were

set by men.

In August 1985 the (European) or.mer of a rece:rtIy built hotel in Shimonit

a member of Tototots goven:ing comnitteer offered to tak-e l.[<r':irors ailing

engine auray for repair - provid.ing it r.ras r;orLh tlie expense. The group was

only too haprry to accept. The boat, meannhilee rras out of action rintil- mid-

January, ro'hen a local- man approached the group and. started. hiring it for 50s1:

a.dary'. Using an engine provicied by a Kiln:;m in Ukundar he resumed. the ferry

serri'ice uhich the r.;omenrs group had susnendeC..- E:ccuraged by the prosl-'ect of

a reguJar income - as nuch as they had- made rihen running the se:rrice thernselves

- g?roup menbers turned to d,iscussing nhat tirey corrlci d.o vrith it. True to for:n

a cij-vision into 2 portions tlas suggested: one to repalr their nel-fly enulrrerated

d.ebts amcl one to buil-d their nulti-p'orpose house or1 its ner'r-found pIot. fhe

hire arreJlgerrlent, hor.:ever, l-asted no more tliau a fortuight" TIte man hiring

the boat bro!:e an agreenent to share profits td.th his i(ik:3-* partner', and the

eng'ine was clained backo Still lraiti-ng for a verdict on the future of their

orrn eng'ine, the group uas bacl: at,square one"

Rescue cane frorn more distant shores. Unhapptr' r',d.th tlie nremature decline

of l,l:wirots enterpi'i-se, Totoio had noi bee:r idleo Follor'ing the theft of the

firsi engine, if,<r.iirrc r,;as inc1uded. in a furCing nroposal submit'r,ecl to a U. S.

d.bnorr, the Parish of Trinity O,rurch in the City of Neu Yorko 3OrOOOsh r,.'as

reguesteci to buy a n"i, engineo The monetr' ca.nre t\rrough in April 1986" A ner.r

engine r^ras bought in liombasa, deliverecl to the #oupr and on 22 Apr:J- I'Drtrirors

boat uas back in operationo On all- accouats the enterprise is being conduoted

much as before. The driverl nor'; the husband of ihe groupt s treasurer, is

still being paia a fixed. proportion of the boatts income" Without further

inte:rrentions fron Toioio it is likely thai sorne of the problens uhiclr earl-ier
 9L

dogged the enterprise tril-l recuro Or the face of it I'krrirors enterprise

constitutes a bol-tl thrust into a.n othenrise maLe-domineted. aomain" In

practice it oonstantly r.urs the risl; of being app:ropriated. in turrto

Four ffroups in one

The influence of 'braditional forrns of organisation has not been an

entirely negative oneo The reo:rganisation of group subscriptioirs provides a

striking instance of this. h'hen the boat en'berprise was in operation the

gr.oup stopped. colleoiing subscrip'i;ions fronr its nenberso In liovember 1-!B{.,

lacking a^ny other so'drce of income, a ri"elcl-y subscription r.ras reinstitrrted- at

the neu rate of 2sh 5O cents per heado At ihe suggestion of one of tire members

its collection rvas cornpletel-y reorganised. The mod.eL for this reorganisaiion

r.ras i'i1;,ld-rots d.ivision into 4 v;ards - I'i1n-:ajurdr Pwairir l,luttani anci Bogoa -

rrhich intersect at the village nosoue. O: the basis of menbersr-.residence in

one or other of tjrese the group r.;as Crivid-ed- into { sectionsr 3 t"dth 1)

menbers and one r^;ith l-8" A literaie rnernber from eacir section tlas assigned. to

collest its subscriptionse recorded. in sepaiate e>:cercise books before being

pooS-ed in the weeldy meetings of the r,rhol-e groupo [he raiionale behind this

innovatj-on uas to rnake collection basier ancl 1e raise the leve1 of contributions

by fostering a sense of competition betrveen the different sections/ward's' As

such it has proveC" a resor:nciing success. By the eud of Jarruary fer+ members

r.;ere behind in their subscr-iptions and the ones i;hat r.rere !.:ere either av:ay

visitirrg relatives or about to pa5' up. Beyond providing rrillagers v.'j.th a sense

of resld.ential- identi.ty the uards ser\re no otirer organisational purpose in

vi11-age 1ife" 3y adapting thern to its orrll pltrposes I'[;wiro has succeeded, at

least in the short term, r'ihere other groups have faiLed: enforcine (in tHe

nicest possible r*ay) the reguJ-ar collection of subscriptionso

 o2

Al{D TI{E ISIAND E00l{01'ff

WOI,IEI,I

( lhc simc'ture anc-',practice of household. eoonorny in I'0:r.riro is sornetrhat

riifferent fron that found- in the other locations ciescribed. in this report.

Tire range of J:ousehold enterprises reflects l,t:rrj-rots island positione rhile

I the relations of prod.uc'bion and. gend.er vhich gpverll these talce a form uhich
-
is rnodified by Suahil! practice. One feature of this practice is a long-

stanciing aclhcrence to Islarn anci the existence of a strong indepencleirt

( trarlition marl:edIy d-iffereirt from the culi;u-re of the agricultural villages

of l,ionrbasats h:inier1and.. To outsiders forej.grr to this tra.irition l,[:r'd.ro is a

conse:lrative backr';ater, repressive to r,roneilo The realit3t is rather

( different ancl in sorne lrays the r:ornen of l,[',r:iro e:rjoy a meas'[re of freed.orn
1

denj-ecl tJreir na"inl-an:d counterparts. Nonetheless, tiris freed.om is

cj-rcixiscribed ani.r lilie the islancl econor.qy itselfr is tl.reateneC by

I econonic interventions fron outside.

I'ienbers and'i;ircir ircuseliolds

I,l..rriro r,iorneuts group has 63 rnenbers, the najority of the villagers ad.u1t

fenale popuJ-atioll. Idost of these r'ioriiel1r^lere borr:. in }&:r.jro of Shirazi

pareuts and nost are narriecr- to 1o6al- fishernen. The rnajority have received.

no fornral- ed.ucation: I,[:i':irots primary schooll l'rhicir has aboui 1?0 pupils,

r;as not built u-n-'cil-1981, replacing an earlier school in the mid.cile of the

islanci r.,,hicl'i serwerl botb of its vi11a6cs" LoceJ child.relr also ai;tend. Islanic

classes b.t the rveel:end, and in Augu-st 1985 sinnil-ar classes l.:ere begun for

. arl-ul-t women. Idany group rnembers attend theser . hel-d. at 4 o t clocl: in the

afternoons, lear'.ring to write in Arabic. At present there is no nursery

sclrool anci no other adult education classes in the villageo Feu aCult ltornen

can recJ.:on tryr 'chc uestern calendar, ancl the d.ating of the logs kect. for

To'boi;o slior.rs a confused. nix rrith the Islaliic cycle.

 93

A sa'npl-e of 16 group members sllol's a:r average age of 3?, similar to

that of Aguira;re menbers.

TASLE 25

ACJEIJI YNAJTS

1 20-24 2>29 30-34 3>39 4a-M 4>49 5tr'-54 5>59

2 1 5 2 3 1 1 1 -

Informaiion on the marital histories and offspring of ',,hese lJornen is given in

Table 2'f.

( I.iai:y nomen ma::ried fo:: the firsi tirne it:. their ri::ji.-teensr a practi ce

r.ihich is nor.: chaarging as-: a resrd-i of school atteui.anceo l,larriage palnnents are

nracieby bridegroons thenselvesl not lX, their fatherso These pairnenis are

I norrnally i1 the ranse of 3-!r3oOsh, and in some cases j-nc1uc1e fu-r'nj-ture. The

monsJ- is no1 g"iveri to tbe brider s fatber bui to other matrilineal and- patrilineal

kinl ancl- is used to pay for the uedd.ing ar:'J ec-uip the household of the nel'fly

| 6ar:,ied coupleo This p4.rirent rs not returrred after divorce and- subseo.uent

mar.r'ip.ges are generall-y free of cefernony. Divorce is as cornon as in Diani.

ft is usually ilj.tia'ted by uonen blr-t effecteci b5' nsrt. Ut'iier Islarnic lari l'iolTlen

I can clairn maintenance pements if iheir.husl:anC-s can be pl'oved neg'ii3ent: one

group mem5e:. r.ras plr.niiing to clo -liris foIloi:i:rg't)re prolon3e'J abseirce of her

husbald-, but r.:as nrol-lified uhen he xeauurtteclo ltt early 1986 only one group

|
mernber r';as fowrc
---at,-
to be currently
-ri--^-^^j
cj-ivorced ^-.r .--:!1.^
and l'iithout a husba-rtclo

'usualIy
Over BOl" of rnarriages take place beti.;een Sirirazi bor:r in I'kr'iiro,

(classificaiory) cross-cousinsl tire preferreci ca'i;egorX' of spouse. There are

(
no distinct resj.deniial writs inie::meciiate in size betueen the villagee nith

its clearly defirred bou:tclaries, conpact settlene:rt anC- intlicate vreb of

interrral '.ela-uionshipsr and the i:.rdivid.ga1 houseirolcis r.dil:in it, Table 28

(
TIu3LE 27

1 1 / q
AGE St N O ^1 rr+
h n
ttJ
f
ltt
l n
ttJ
Iie

22 Ii 1 2
23 .Itl t 2 3 co-ordine:tor, col.I ector
for l.[urrarri r.Iard
26 r,i t 2 3 t_
30 li L 2 a

32 r,1 5
2 ,n,
cTJa
tr
) 4 1 3 fiz'si cirairrroiran
1 a i l 'l
JJ I'1 L o+l-+I t+ L com'.rittee rnenbel
t
J4
t
l.l 2 4 Ll 1 cor,rnrittee member
a
JL'r
^ tt
.t r 2 1+! I 1 ! 1 e--vi ce-chairnoman ( quit
,r .r :rJl r nv : ra - . i ' l *' aI r
\
/

36 },r I t] I b

36 I1 I 6 2 tl 1 3
+L H 2 ->iu l- 1 1 1
.-t J f,i 1 11 Z
.-l
I 2 3 2 2
'lc
l- 3
d

43 ]i
1 a vt ce- cnaL liljonan

49 j..! l- a I 3 5 ex-co::rittee nenber

l/l
t,l 2 2 L 1 1 4
) l lil a I .L l - 7

key as in Table ?: 0 = nuqber of co-'..jves; i,Ie = nunber of clr.ildren married and

not livine in the houseirold"

mean nr:."0'j:erof mar.r.iages = 1r!! n'iean nir-nber of children = 6.1-; mean nr:.nrber
stil-I alive = 4.5; no:.tal-ity rate = 2J.Jl':':1 rnean nu.mber of dependent child-ren
(bom by ti:e l':onarl herself)- 2.!.

siio{.-s tite der,iogra;idc struci'ure of 16 irouseholcisr housing a total of 20 group

rnernl:erse soiii€ i.ihose husbanis (not incl-uded- in the table) r'rere more or less

perna:reirtlJ' absent fron the village or living uith other t'riveso

The lovr resid-ential nnobility of lromen is liri]<ed to their right to inherit

and or.,r1property in th.e forrn of houseso Sone thrce-quarters of the houses in

l'I:r:iro were olmed- anc- their buil-ding parbly fina'nced b1- l','onen. oll separation

it is the husbands r,,'homust move outo Some l.'on:en idrerit the houses ot'med by

thei:'mothers; other.s coltinue 1ivin6 in'chem r:ni;iL they are able to build
TASLE 28

IIOO OF .ADULTS ciflLnP,gi TC/IAL

GRoUPl,IlX,BEitS male female

1
I
1

l_ 3 7 11
a l_ '7
z 4 I

1 I 1 3
1 2 3 q

z I 3 ? 4
l_ t
1 2 4
l_ 1 1 L 6
I .7
1 I I o

L 2 I
I 10

1 1 1 3
1 1 a 3
I l- 1 7
2 1 z 4. 7
1 3 z 3 a
(J

1 1 l_ I 3

zu I I 25 60 LO2

their orm" Before the advent of lanc1 registration there llas no restriction

upon the or'mership of Land in the village; rights in a plot uere establ-ished.

simply \r clearing and building upon it, and lost just as e'asily if the p1-ot

l;as abandoned.. Rigilts in ag:'icultural Land were sir,rilarly established by

cleara.nce anrd rernained. in force as long as the /

1and r.ras continuously

cr8tivated" A t}:ir"i- of the fiel-ds r,;orked W group nenbers were ovmed t6r r,'ornen
 oA

(either themselves or their nothers), olrnersh.ip rleriving from their labour

in clearing the land and reoently sarlctioned by l-arrir reg:istrationo

Labour. j.ncorne' ancl expenditurg

Tabl-e 2! d.etails the agricultural enterlrises of 13 group members in 3-!B!"

Only one woman interuieued - the first chainn'oman - d.id not nornrally cul-tivatet

except ir occasiondJly helping her nother. { rrornen, Cr trr tr'and I in the table,

did not cuf--r,ivate in 1985r uhile orCy one r'lorn?rr1 3r cultivated. d.uring the

shori as wel-l- as the 3.ong rains.

[A3Lg 2a

Me Fi O}JlIUt AREA L43OUR CROPS HAN.VIST coi,[.IuiTS

CIILT.
Iii
ACRES

A' 1 borrorred l- ctrl-tivated l..-ith eaten strai-girt houseirold

-l-rrr
mn*han nother (rnembers from ihe field heavi3-y
of the same d.ependeni
buJ.lrush
household) upon food
nillet 2 boxes*
bought frpn
sorghurn poor the shoos
2 molber (f*) not cr'otivated

3 3 husband rvith husband. maj.ze 4 sacks grain har'rest

lasted- 6 months
sorghurn 2 saclcs
,
a'l a
v4 v
: 6r vc+ i4 . v n o none
cassava none eai,en by goats
grourdnuts snal1
tornaioes
cabbage
carrots
auberg:ines
onions
peppers
cirillies
( in tiie sborb r a a n s J :
beanrs none eaten btr' goats
col.l-Deas t uox
 97

reLr+ (cont)
I'ie Fi OlE:trR AilliA LASOTIR CROPS }iANV-JST C0l.rl.IHiTS

C 4 brotherrs r:o&o not cultivated. Iives in the

ciril-d.ren same household
as Br her
d.aughter

D 5 I:usband- FJ uith :',rother maize l1r 3o

(or 6) sorghun 4 sacks
eI eusine poor eaten by bird.s

.bi o
a .
nusbano 1 1 o3 r not c',rl'uivated. illr pregnant
r'-itir a c/hil-d
vrhicir d.ied. at
birih

F J husband Ilo ?r not cul-tivated. caring for srnaIl

child.r.enr all
food. bought frorn
shops

husband 2 sorg).nrn -!- sack hanrest lasted-

G B al-one
(or 4) eleusine l- box
5 months

H t husband 1+ ld.th fathe:r-in-larr maize l- sacl: maize a.::d

(oi 5) eleusine
sorghum I D4Vl-
finished,
eleusine 4ke sorgirum still-
being eaten 6
nonths l-ater

I 10 elder culiiva*ed bY naize I sacli about half of

brother yo'rlllger sister . harvest
sorgirum a sacl:s
(ti.vin6 iir iire. renalnLllg fr'I!eI
sane householrl) 6 months

J Ll motirer rrj-th her eLC.est son so:'gitum 2 sacl:s sti1l eating

anci mother after 6 moirths

K r:ii;h i1s3 sJdest \ maLze 3 saoks d.:-d.not l-ast 5

12 her om
daughter and months
sorghun SNAII
rnotherr s sister
eleusine eaten siraight from the
1ael-o
 9B

TABLE2a (cont)

I.le Fi OlniER ARNA LASOUR ciloPs IiATtVEST cor,x.tmiTS

L 13 husbancl 31, cleared. hersc1f ma"ize good. sti1l eating

(of 2l-) e.^nCpaid. a local after 5 months
man lO0sh to and able to sell_
cultivate half of lthe crop
for l-)OOsh
sorghr:ro 2 sacks still eating
after 5 nronihs
cassava
bamanas
oranges p1a:ried. recerrtS-y
mSngoes
and not yet
bearing fnrit
1{. husband (2+) no'i cultiva'i;ed. at Yrrngi (near
I{ajoreni) on the
inainl aird

l,i 15 her oi..irr alone maize poor

sor.gh-rrn poor

16 husbanC. IIo &o not cr:J-iivated.

.tt there
are !6 boxes to the sack

For rnuch of the year mar6r housgirolds are dependent upcn food. staples

bought from shops on the mainland or in the vilIage. This der:endence is said

to have increased in recent years arnd.lror,ren r'rithdrain labour frorn agriculture

as the nr:rnber of retail outlets has gror,m and cash income become more rearlily

availablel although islanders have long exchanged. the prociucis of fishing

and coastal traae for crops and other goods (including iron tools) produced on

the mairrland. fhe island, lacking gror:nd r.rater and stretm with outcnops of

coral, does not offer a particularly favourable environment for cultivation.

I'iost l:ouseholcls cultivate only one field a,:nd fer.; meet their anrluaI subsistence

requirementso Only one household in the sample l;as in a position to seII

surplus grain: the only one r;hich enployecl casual labour. Labour is generally
 99

d.rar.m froni l:ithin the household.. tlen sornetimes assist ir:. crrl-tivationy often

iu the late aftentoon after retuming frorir fishingl and build the fences

uhich sumound fields 'i;o keep off the gpats which roarr the island" Othervrise

most agricultural labour is perforrnedr. t6r vlomen.

Together uith other forms of ]rousehold labour this takes its to11 upon

wornenrs participation in group activitieso This v;as particuJ-ar1y eviient in

Jarruary-FebroarX' 1986, when manJrgroup members r.,'ere vrcrking on their fiE]d.s in
the rno:nings and. late afternoons, clearing wrdergz.or,;-thin prepaz,ation for the
onset of the long rains. Those uho carne were usually late for group meetings,

ancl.i;hree-ouarbers oi tttu menbership did. not turn up at a13-o Tabl-e 30 is based.

uFon a.ttendranrcerecords for the pcriod- l-982-85, and shows a marlced fal-I in 19e5

vihicir can be linked to the d-eclining fortr::res of the boat enterpriseo

Tl3Lg 30

T}]AR iilGIEST LOI.}]ST AVNRAGE

ATTillDN.;Ctr ATTXr-rAllCE ATTN]DAJICE

t982 36 1 5 23
1gB3 1 ? 2g

tg84 4tr. 1 q 28
'lq
t985 o
o

Or 2 oocasions the groupr s fir'st co-ordinai;or made e>:plicit reference to the

dernands cf household l-abour upon her or.m time. .On the first of thesel in l,ia1'

l9g2t she vroterri.lo a:1y taslc today because nqyself I did- not go to the meeting

I uas r'rashing n6r clotires a^nd after that I go to take firev.'ood at I'ilarngrrni a-nd

ccme uith it.'r Oe the second occasion, g.rrring Tototo notice of her d-ecision

to o,uit in }tovernber 1!82, she ascribed her failu:'e to attend a meeting in

I'lombasa to her urrclets refusal to let her go, because of v;ork whicir had to be
 lnn

done at home.

l'lhen free to do so 11'onenare also kept busy pursuing various sources of

incorne. Tr,lo of the most irnporta,nt of these in I'Ikr'r-iro derive from the

collection and sale of rnarine produce:' octopuses and cor,rie slr.eIIs. Soth

are collected. from the local- shoreline, only by women. Octopuses are

collected. fron the reef at Io'u: tide, often by l.'onen rtorl:ing in srnaIl groups,

using sharpened stichs as spears" This can on1-y be done in the morning uhile

ihc srur is sti11 1or.l; the tides perrnit collection over a period. of 5 or ?

d.ays twice a month. Up to 2O can be gathered- by one r{onan in a morning. The

d.eadtoctopusels are then hung on poles to d-ry in the swr, an& sold to visiting

traclers from the mainland for 3-6s!: each depenC.ing upon 'lheir sizeo A good-

catch miglt fetch 30Osh, though tJomen ofi;en corne al,JaJrwith nuch less. Cor..,riesr

on the other hand, are sol-ci fs3 llsh a tin (c.18 kg) to l,&l.rirots Saju:ri shop-

keeper lrho sells ther'.r in turn to an Inoian exporter in l,Iombasa. In February

1986 he coJlected. TO tins anC. rnade a net profit of sorne 1r28osh, over l8sh per

tin. llomen vllro gather cowries report being able to make 10O-35Osh everX'time

they sel-1 them, though they do not do this every month. Trade in both

octopuses and covries ?rops d-uring the cr{tivatillg season, whil-e just over

hal-f of the group mernbers intervier';ed engageri in neither, some because they

founci the r:ork too onerouso

lJor,ren also make and seII a variety of ciifferent kinds of breai and

confectr,ioner?' r.rithin the _vi1-1age, some using ingred.ients bought on the

mainland.. Just unrler half of the uornen interrrievrei. d-id- this, mal;ing up to

LO0sh per rnontho A fer; vronen trade produce directly from the mairrla-ndo The

most enterprising of these - the l.romar1viro had a saleable surplus of maize -

made l-{gOsh a month b;r selling coconuts brought by herself or her husband from

lrlajoreni. Othen;ise (and sone men) lceep s:rnal-i hercls of

some r-romen. goats

(usually 3-5) for slaughter or s ab: a.n a.o-ult goat fetched. 2OOsh in l!g.:iro in
 101

early L986. There was only one rotating creC.it association in the viIlage,

operated by B l;omen and 2 men in l,lcr.rajwri ward r,rho cont::ibuted 2osh each

every Fridayo 4 of these r.rere group mcrnbersr 3 frbrn the same Bajrrrri fanrily_

(see Table 2l above). In Januarf,'the group began a savings c_ub, introduced.

btrr Tototo, arld 9 t'rornenpaid lsh each to join" Like oiher Tototo savings

clubs it uas offered.5OOsh (florn FAO and Women in Progress Ltd., a l{airobi

NCO) to siar.t a snal1 enterprise: at the serTremeeting l,lcrtiro members d.ecicled.

to use this to import coconuts from Shimoni.

Invol-vement r:itl, Toioto has provid.ed. group members with another so-urce of

incorae: prod.uctio:r and. sal-e of lroven har:C.icrafts for Totoiors shopo Hor.r this

came about has already been d-escribed. The group used. this tra.de to repay its

1983 loan frorn Tototc; but nost benefit has gone d.irectly to inclivid'raL

nen'l:ers and their households. Table 3l-r baseC. upotl lecords kept by Tototol

suiitnarj-ses ret-anrs to individ.ual p:'od-ucef.s betr,;een l-981 anc- 19.35"

TlisLE 3l-

ItrO. 0F TOTAL III65:EST IIIDI\rIDUAL AVERAGEPER.PRODUCER

PRoDUCli.D-S REC]fiVD iotal per nonth total per nonth

'7tr,
1g81 43 1r503sh 57 .A+ . I J 37.27 3.10
tg82 <A' Ltt432 718 5 9 "8 3 211.7C t7 "54
1983 7r o 6 9 29"4t rzt.B7 10.15
t9B4 o1 19,071 t)l A1 ^P.
307.r9 )tr. A1

t9B5 63 , 6 -
z I r4oL.>J lr72o 143.33 435.2t 3 6 "3 5

The net profit to producers is sorner.;hat lgwer, because they have to purchase

the d.ried- strips of palm teat (utini-u) and dyes r,:ith rvhich their irand,icraits

-.a!e rnade. Ukinclu is boughi; on the mainland - there is none on the island. - in

sr;iall- bund.l-es cos'cing 2sh lO cents each. Dyes are brouglit in smal-L 2sh packets
 l.o2

froiu i,lombasa: the od-y na-Lural d-ye on the island is henrra, occasional-Iy

used in bod.y clecor.ation. Table l2 sr:,'.r.narises inforrration on the purchased

inlruts ano prices of the main gpod.s uhich I'il:r';iro members protluce for Tototo.

Labour ariti tra.ns;ort costs are no-r, incl-uded.: oval- tabl-e matsr for exe;npI et

fetch a higher price for proaircers than square ones because they are more

difflcuIt to rnal:e.

TASLE 32

ITE.i COSI TO PRODUCEP. PiUCE PA]D I.IJ]JT TOTOTC ]IET

--,--.^i.. ^--^- +^+^1
TO PN.OFIT TO RETAIL P:IOIilIT TC
Lu!-:rruu s.)'
s- uu eG: Torofo
Pl.oDUcEn PnoDUCgt Pitrc-q-

flloor nat N 90 2>J 160 4n 2c0

t,- -losh
5 oval 12.50 10- 22.fr- ]-]O2 69.F- - 2o0 98
table nats - 20 32.9 79.fr

5 sqirare lZ.rJ l-o- 22"7J- 72 39.Y- 15O 78

iabie nats 20 32.fr 49'n
i
fan 2"n 4 6.fr 12 5"fr 2A B

hai; I.f, 5 13"5C V 1.5O 25 10

large 25 20 !,5 3C -!5 n 20

1
irandbag

nedi'.r..r Lz.n l-O 22.n 25 2"9 rP l-5

handbag

, s ma l - I 7" 9 6 1 3 "5 0 15 1.5o 30 ) "5

ha,ni.bag

1!86 p::ices shor'lr

Although the average returrr to producers wi,s comparativeLlr sna111. even

in 1!8!, tra.de in octopuses a:rd cor.rries is said. to have dropoed as a resul-t

of ha:rclicr.aft produc',ion. Group rnemberswere correspond.ingly distressed. l:hen

the mar.icet for therr hancij-crafts carneto a stanC-sti]I at the end of 1985. In

January 1-!85 tototo siaff retunreo ihe bulk of their last orcie:' to the group,

telling group menbers that they had faileci io se1} the gCods at shovrs in
 103

Nairobi and ldonbasa anrclthat tnere was no room for them in Tototors store.

Producers are paid. by Tototo r.,'herrtheir goods are sold: follorving the r.eturrr

of their baudicrafts I'romell complained. bitterly that their investment i' ulcindu

anci tiyes hac been in vain. Jlrriiro members have no other narket for their

ha,.nd-icrafts: what littIe scope there is for selJ-ing them to tourists on the

nearby mainl-and has been tafcen up by Shimoni llomenrs g?oup, whicl also produces

these gpods for Totoio. Irt co:rseouellce group mora\e fe1I sharpLyr ancl the

blarne for. this r'las tura.tlimous3-y pu-i; upon Tototo.

Wonen generally pool their income wiih tireir husbands. $lj-ves are not

obliged to surrend.er this incone, but usually spend it on the househol-d. Ore

member said'r,hat if sire earired loOsh from cowries she rnighi go out and buy

clothes for her irusband.e anrd t:as d.escribed. as a ttgood vriferrby oiher wonren.

Another notea that if she goi 3COsh fron oc'copus sales it l;or.:fd- enabl-e her to

bt.u,*-a bag of cenent for her house. l{onen. are equally depenient upori incorne

provid.ed- by thei:. husbands: 3 l.romen inte:rriei.;ed were'who11y d_ependent in early

1986, having abarrdonedl for d.ifferent reasons, efforts to sec'ure an

ind.epend.ent inconeo 2 women reported getting no hel_p fron their husband_s and.

3 ha-d. husband.s liho r.iere absent for most of the year and. only gave flreir vrives

noney on home visits. These worTlenrely on both their ovn3 solrces of incone

and help fron other household members and. lcin: one lroma:re v;hose husband. was

absent for up t,o 2 yean's at a time, 1{as given money by }rer motherts br-other,

the head. of the household. Ariother, the groupt s co-ordinator, period.ically

vrent to stay in l,ialindi uith her husband. and co-uifel leaving group recorcls

ukept in her absenceo

Tabl-e 33 shol;s the occupation or othenrise of husbands in a sanple of 16

group members. 2 of the absent husband.s uere traders based. in l,,ioa on the

northerzi Tanzanian coast: there is consirierable traffic across the nearby

bor'ler betvteen Kenya and Ta:.rzairia, and a fair ar,roult of sr:ruggling. Brrt mosi
 101

TA3,Ltr33

NO IIiJSBAIID HUSBA]ID U{PLOYM

widor-red. absent fishernan: fisherman: shop-
boat or.nrer no boat o\';ner

gr"oup menbersr husbands are local- fishernen. 6C men in l.l*uiro are registered.

members of the Souih Coast Fisheries co-operative in Shimorui, nhich began in

1966" Thq,' fish everXr day except Friday, the da1' of prayer, a.nd.brihg their

catches ashore i:i the earS-y aftenroons to be r^reighed by the 1oca"l- co-operative

secretarX'. The oo-operative pays the fisherrnen 10sh per kilo of (large) fish,

Lsh of this set asid.e in a fi.:.:rd for l,1l:,;d-rors school and Islamic classeso Ou

an average d.aovin Febr-.rElry (19S6) it paid out 2lOCOsh to L6 tishermetl. Only

a third. of I'?',r+i-=ors fishernel orv]rrtheir or.nr boats: the rest rtor]: t':i-tir close

kin o:: others for a porbion of incorne frorn the catcho The exanple just cited

gives local- fishermen an averagp income of 3Osh a dayr 9O0sh per month. Daily

co-operative payments vary over the year bettreen about 5C0 and )rOOOsh. A

good dayts ca'r,ch can bring in 60Osh and record.s in Shimoni shoti ind.ividual

fishernen in the area earning up to 20r0oosh in a single r.ionth" These aret

hov;ever, exceptiona3- cases a^nd d,o not take account of the diwision of ihe

proceeds anong crel{so The trariitional division into poriions indicates that

boat or.rers also d.ivert a good part of their incorne to capital reinvestnent

a^nd.mainten_anrce of their enterpri.ses" In l'l:vliro fishing is done vrith nets,

lines and traps, only the latter made and sold loca1Iy" 3 willagers.ran

moto:r-por.,'et€d.-boats (oosting l>n100Osh)r 3 or^med.outrigger canoes (15-

2OrOOOsh) und the rest dugouts with sails (16rOOOsh)"

While households are usually well supplied witir fish, a sigr:ificant

proport5-on of their inco:;oe has to be spent on purchases of food staples.

 - 105

llater is particularly er:peYrsive: 2sir plus per 20 Litre container from the

l-oca1 resevoirs arrd Jsh per container from the mainland r.,'hen this supply ru::rs

o[to During the d.ry season households may fin,i theraselves spending betr,reen

2BOsh and l6osh a month on r.rater, d.epend.ing upon their size. These erpenses

are usually borne by r.romenrdth the he3-p of tl:eir husba^nds1 and in marly cases

leave Littl-e to cover other ey-penseso Female-headed househol-d.s face the

greatest difficr-lty; and one group menberr a lridor.rr had to pay -for the

building of a neu house lrith 3 floor mats she had made. On the other hand,

some schoo3-boys pay for their or.m uniforns by fishing in the holidays; while

the fr:nd. established. from sales of fish to the co-operative covers marJr

primary school exPenses rnhj.ch r.roul-d normally be bor:re by parents. I,larried men

do not..as a :rrle br:y l-uxury goods for themselvesr though sone, like the

village ohairmanr can afford to invest ii: specr:-lative ven-tureso

Changes in the island. econo!",ly

The relatively stable economy r;hich has been d.escribed above is nor,r

threatened. by conrpJ-ete tramsforrnationl the direct consequence of exter:raI

interventionso The first nail in the coffin r.ras land registration, which

took place on the island in ltlp-Bb" Sefore thiis isl-anc1 land was held in

conmon; nou i.slanC.ers have been issued r:ith titl-e deeds for the p1ots and

fiel-ds vrhich they happened to be occupying at the tjrne. In narly cases land.

registratior: discrininated j-rr favour of men, nor,; holding tuo-thirds of the

tit'les for fields largeLy r.rorked by r,rornen" The d.ifficuJ-ty this oreated for

the groupr o building pro ject has already been describedr r.rhile its effects

upon patterns of ir*reritance remains to be se€rro Some island.ers, anticipating

what woul-d happen, cl-eared. mucb, larger a"reas than they nornral-Iy worked - hence

the 21 acre field shor.n: in Table 2) - and a sna1l nurnber also l-aid. cl-aims to

p1-ots on the rnainl-ando Disputes brpke out betvreen the Sltirazi and the Vumba,

who cl-aj-rned.J21ge areas of l_and close tc l,krriro - includ.ing the village

 106

footbaLl fiel-d - and others at the r:ninhabited end of the is1and. furthest

frorn their o1'r1 viIlage. Some rrillag€rs were l-eft ldtli relatively srnal1 pJ-ots,

nol.J pen'ranently fixed- in size anrd.locationr and the prospect of l_a:rdlessness

resultj-ng f"o.* the sal-e anri raortgaging of land has arisen for the first tirne.

Ti:is process threatens to be accelerated by tor:rist d.evelopment. For

mar\l' years there r.;as only one hotel on the mainlarrd near Shimoni and a single

tourist restaurant in lrlasini vi11age. In 1!8J a seconC hotel- was opened. in

Shimoni and. a ner: restaurant ie being constnrcted in Wasini, r;hile other

developments are in the offing" At first l,[:r.d-ro villagers were resistasrt to

selling their land. to d.evel-oDers3 the first outsider seelcing to br4y land \r

one of the locaI beachesr a Gernarrl was turned aniayo This resistance has

not'i crunbled wrri.er the influence of 2 faciors: need (and greed) for cash, airit

the prospect of infrastmctural and other benefitso

The 1ocal age:rt oi this tra::sfoni,aiioryhas been the brother of l,hriirots

firsi 2 chair',.;or:len, the recenily elected KAlilJ locational cira.irrnan, with his

sights non set on the position of area cor:ncillor (see Table 2l)" Like his

Bajuni parents in !'ncr.:iro he or..Trs a shop, and is buil-ding another, both at

Shimonj-" He also or.ars a r:rotor-pouered boat, used- to ferry fee-paying tourists

to llasini and the marine park to the south of the isl-ando He has also bedil

proviciiug his elCer sister r.rith occasional E\ropean visitors rvilling to rent a

roon in her house - the first tine accornod.ation has been lei to tourists in

I8';r;iro" In keeping with his courtshif of another r.rorld he d.rinks beer,

flouting Islar.ric prnhibitiorr" I'iore significant. for the f\rture of l.I}:1,'iro,

hor.lever, has been his role in arranging sales of lando Over the last'2 years

or so he has induceci a nunber of vill-agers to sell- their l-andr acting as the

ageut for an D:glish hotel- ol.mer from up-cor:ntry. Ttre prices paid, 4O-lOOlOOOsh

for plots scattered across tire is3-and, contain sufficient incentive. In early

1!86 sonne grouli nenbers expresseo an interest in fol-lor*ing suit. These included
 107

his or.n mother and. sister, v;iro connplained. that he was refusing to handle

the transactionl presr:rnably because he knor*s, unljke many of lds clients,

the va1ue of holding onto 1anC.o

He a:'gues that the constntction of tourist lod.ges on the isla^nd will bring

a t';ide rarig€ of benefitse not least a cheap arrd- reliabl-e supply of r.ratero

Tliis is lilrere mar:g' villagers place their hopes, believing that tourist

developnent aiIl be acconpanied. b.t a subnar.ine pipeline or construction of r,rateq

resevoirs large enougir to provid.e an all year round. supply" Earl.ier

d.evelopnents have brought d.ifferent forms of conmunity benefit. Constx'uction

of llasinirs first restaura.nt r.ras pernritted on condition that a fixed nerceniage

of its tatiings be put into a fr-rrrd fo:: vilJ-age d.evelopnentl orig:ir1aIly this f.ias

to }:.an'e been for botl: the islandts villa€psr but has been appropriated t6,'

I'Jasiui a-oneo Tlr.e or:ner cf Sliinouits ner;esi hotel- is cor.rnitted- to pay half of

the costs of staff acconoC.atioi: for a. health centre in the vii1age.2 I,kr.i""ru
-uillagers are nor,i keen io get their or..:r sl-ice cake.
of the It is al-so argued

that iroieLs neerr i&.rd.ro v;i13- provid-e en:ployr,rent opport'anities fo=.villagers and

create a l-ucrati-ve rnarhei for local- fisher':len a:rci hancl-i-craft producerso This

majr or may not be true" tsut r.rirat ls rnore cerbainl ancl not admitted, is -i;hat

the islanri uiII becone a Diani in rniniatureo

I,iotes

1o Se:,rral politi.cs in l.Xl'.tro d.o not take the form described. by Bujra in her
si;uriy of a Sajuni vilJ.ageo The Shirazi have not ernploye6- slaves i:r the
recent pastl l;omen, not men, pla.J' the major role j-n cu-ltivati_on1 and
they d.o not engage in labour rnigration/prostituiion on a.r-$rlarge scale.
.I,lcr';irors oi.at Baj',r:ri are, ho','lever, rather more mobilco See Janet Bujra,
tProduction, Propertyr Prostitution: 'rSe:cual Pol-itics'r in Yurnbef in
,
Hazel Joirnson ancl Henry Sernstein (ed.s), T):ird I'lorl-d Liv"u of St*gslu
(Loncl-on: Heinenann, I}BZ). ft rnight te
prodtrction preclucles any confirrenent or restriction upon their visibility
in I'E:r:iroo

2o In Aug;usf l 985 Tototo organised r,renbers of l.f;r;irr, Si:irnoni and Alzua"ni

r.;c,nenls grouDs into a connittee to press fo:' tl:e j-nclusion of materuity
 1rrQ
I.\.,LJ

facil-ities in this centre. 3ut the possibilitlr 63 NOIi-AD (the llonregian

Agenq,r for Inte:rrational- Developnent) supporb for this project anoears
to have beerr o^uashed. by a report r.rrltten by a volu:rteez' after in'cervier.ring
Shinoni members" This report is strong1y critical of the woments ability
to nur the project and of Tototors relationship lrith'i;he group"
 r :1O
L v /

:ct'iAliI tiotlf,irs G;loL? : -A.GA:.Ii;I LOCA'ITOII

3omani :rc.rents .group is based. 1n tire ',i.llage of 3onani t 20 k* north of

iialindi torrzrsi:ip and 14.0 krn norih of i"lonbasa. Bonani is a small. cenire lrith

7 shops , 2 gtirnu.rng machines, a Pentecostal- church, a rnos(fue and a primary

schooLl ancl has a populaiion of *out IrO0Or ftostIy Giriana. It is

acinini-stered. as pa.rt of Bonani sub-locarion (population c.!,OCC), l.iaga:'ini

locaiionr i;l tbe l.larafa clirrisron of Kilifi ciistrict. .lona:li ,,ras the first

of a n'anber of ,',oour,is groups to be formed in the area. trhe ',ri1Iage also has

a menr s group, although tj:is is now inactive. Research in Bomani was

conCucied in llovernber-Decenber 19S5.

-iEARS 1
FOzu,HTf'rfd

Bona:li is the oiclest cf ;i:e groups;'lildied in i;:ris reeoz.t. Like AgiiraTe,

it has rts orrgins in a:r ar-iul-t eaucaiion class rnrriated. b77 t" nan and. atiended.

by l';oneng a self-i:.elp inlblative r.rhich received ofiicj-a1 1-.ac1:1-n5

i'rom tire

starto Untike Ag';iraye, hor,.;evel, it r.;as forned before the r.,onents group

prog?anne 'book fuJ-1 effect i:r the area. As such 3onani was sl,.ared..:nany ot' the

dcma:rdS ghiClr sfier:* :7r^r!:s in their ioz'na.i;iZe sta.ge anC rr,as lefi -r-ery nuCh io

lts orr-n clerriees"

Boma:tirs aduJ-t eci-ucaiion cl-ass -ir'c.siou.ncled i:r -la:.cir i9?j afier a l-ocal nan

suggeste'.l ihe id-ea io hj-s fati:.erts broiher an'l;. nei;hho:rrr.',refcre appr.oaclr.ing

the sub-cirief" Ai thi.s time the:'e:.,;as no fornal ei-ucaiion of any kind.

available',.iithin the willage: the l-ocal prinary school- uas not built',urtiL

1981. The tiornan he asked. io gp rcu:rd and nersua.de other',:onen to join the -cIass

became the chain.jornan of its conrnittee and. l-ater of the tronenrs group. Herself

illiterate (and. a poor speaker of Svrahi.li) she was well- suited. io ihe task

follo',iing her lersis-lent and. ultina,uely ::r:ccessful effor*s to secure an eCucation

 l_lc

for one of her o',.n: clrillren" She r^ias living in ilakalar sorTredistance

inlanC. of 3onc.ni, i;hen ber husband d-ied-, leavi.ng her rrith 4 yo'rng ciaughters

ancl _tregria.nt i.;ith her cnly son. Fol-lor.;ing Giriana practi.ce she a,rld her
'o-v -iowever,
c:riidren uere inherj-ied. her deceased. husbandr s el-,j.er brotirer.

rrhen the boy came of age irer ner.r ir'':-sband refused to send hiro to school. Angered

by iiris she registered a secret conplaint with the loca1 chief, uith i;he

result i;irat her husband. ivas gaoLed. ior 1-2 dEys '.:-ntiL he capitulated.. But he

refused. ro pay irryr-ching ior'rart'.s the boyr s ed.ucation. Fincling things d.iffi'ru.lt

mother:md. son noveci to Sonani, where one of her daughters had marlieci. This

was in 1963, after the boy had. completed.4. years of scirooling. Iielped. by her

daughter ar,nd son-in-Iaw she started c',:ltivai;ing cottonl but her husba.nd-

',iisited. afi;er every har'rest to cla.in ihe incone ano any otl:.er saleable

''i -'L+
rn<req<i nn< <l.a , ! r r . o : r ! : :" 6
^ ^v' s
- ao rT1 1 T € s l o l i s e to ihis she'r,-rrned- to a source of

ii:.oone '.:hici:. ste could itiore re3.Cily contrcl uithout e:ce:na- inierference: ;he

lcrel..'r:tg and sa-l e of inaize bee:.. Iiel-ped. by ihe proceecls frcm 'i;his her son

cor:rp1eteC. boih ;:.inari' c!n,1 seconclary eciuca,tion, continued on to teacirer-

iraini-ng e:ro is now ;he headnasier of a p:linary sclrool in a neighbouring

rri'l'l qco- Tn ioJl iris inother was stil_l strrr6gling to see him ihrou.l1 scirool e.ncl

the repu;:ationthis e a r r r e d "h e r n a d e h e r : l obvious choice to canv?ss for the

new a,if''ri-i etlucaiion classo

A 1rc';-::3, recenily narried, : . ; o : ' ! a , n' j i a s c i r o s e n io be i;he classrs ieacher

'ccct:e ',he
e.nri si;.b;erruentl-;r :ecreiarX' oj ti:e l' o:enrs g?oupo S h e : r . 1g 9 l a r : - 3 i i t

'n:r-..:orr n
v L 'al erv< q s;;.rted at the sane tine. In the first jreaf She i.;aS paid. 1:;r
t

subscriptions brou,ght by iire pupils once a rnontir: 2sh per ehild. for ihe

nursery and. 4sh per uonan for the a.dnlt eclucation c1ass. In 1974 -the Social

Serv:ces de;artnent be;an paying irer 1!Osh a nontit ior irer ad-ult ieaching: ihe

nursery class ccniitrued vrithout external support '*ntil 1982, r.rhen a member n f

'Ioioiors coirnittee began iaying ihe tqacher 2l0sh cer nonth" I'lore
3ov'::rring
 I11

ihan 20 r.tomen joinecl the adult ed.uca"tion class, incl'.:Cing ihe 2 r.rives of its

iorinder. Sone neasure of its success ca.n be gauged fron'uire fact that i,ihen
t .
tne teacher/secretary left tson:'rri in f983the grouprs accor:rrts r.iere kept by a

l.r'orria,rtl then vice-secretar;r' r,lho cordd. neither read nor wrir,ie at the classrs

incept:-on in 19?3.

The .c'rea-ter. 11s2',spreof success is that the cl-ass evol-vec1 into a l.roments

8:aoupo This pz'ocess'oegaJ3 j-:r -ihe collective effor-b of ihe irornen io constrr:ct

a. buiicling for iheir cLasses. Tirey cut a;rrd.canried. poles for the strrrcture and.
'iOsir '.rlth
raised- 150sh for i;ire actual burld-ing and i;o roof it rnakuti. In

Decenber L973 this br:il-tiing fel1 domr and- tire class r.roveC to another rented for

2Jsh a rnonth. In Janua?;l l-97B'i;hey moved. to 3omanits recenily constructed

Fentecosial ci:u:'cir arrd. laier in 'bi:e s-'i-iched to a iree beliiir,-l ihe groupt s
Teat

ner.r baicery. Final-ly, ai; ii:e enci cf l-961, iirey noved. io Lhe nee.;"oy burlCing

af iiie Boriranj- ?:'o3:'essi-le ilenrs g?cupr r.;h:cn llad been iorrncled. in L)'lj.

Tn 1974 ihe ::onen re.ge"n a Zs'n l;eek17 stbscrrliion r:ra a roiaiing c:ed.it

associa'i:ion based. u!oi1 ccn-Lribuiions of 5::h per nenber per r^i€eko !l::is noney

uas cizviCed. at the end of eve::y nonihl benefactors receiving l-Oosh each r.;h.iIe

il:eir nunber '.raried according to i;he total sr:.n collected" Tn ]-976 the nomen

bega:r to offer i1:.err collectirre labo'ar serrices to oiher far':rers in the atee,

r:hnrcin-
vr:*:
pi. f.he rate
k v oi lOOsh :rer acre. A;:,onE ihe sen-ices tie;4 pe:'fo:':r-,ed
5;1ltJ

rrere hoe cr-rJ-ti:ration a.rtcl cotton rarrwesiing. This i;as an ilre.3.-rJ-ar aczi-vity

enC-not all of ti:e l;onren'cook part. lhose r:iro ciirl hati-chreir g:'oup and

- ^+^+i -- ^-arl; r associ-ation ;ubscriptions

4 v s aL uI116 v! ve! ! laid- irom the lrroceeds, rihile the

bale.nce vas divided. out a:ron3 thern for i:rrlirriclual useo In ihe salne jreart

1976, the r.ronen onened a ba^nlc accoiurt in idal-ind.i l.ritir noney saved from i;ireir

strbscri-ltions . rurder ihe na.:re of Jaribr:.ni ( "1"*,t s trir! tt) :.rornents group. 'll:e

firgi;';;-ife of the adult classts founder l.ras appoinied 6roup treasurer, a

position she held. i;htough to L979. In 19?? '::re group aas visited. tpr and
 LT2

regisiered" sith the l'linistry- of Culiure end Social Services. Ask-ed. to choose

a project the riomen clecid.ed- upon a bekery: at this tir,re ihe nearest supply of

fresh bread, valued. as a breakfast food, r+as in i'Ialindi. In keecing '.rii;h

-Ministry
policy the wonen l{ere adrrised to coniinue accur.rulating funds through

their group subscrintj-onso More substaniial support c1id. not cone 'oirtil ihe

foLlor,ring [ear rrhen, thz'ough the local offices of ihe i'tlnistry, the group

was introduced to its inajor alLyz toioto Iione Industries.

COIIDITTO}IS. A}TD ACCIDII{TS. OF EITERPR.ISE DF'|-/ELOPI\EIT

Tototo a.nd. the bakery project: establishment and. expansion

Boroani l{as one of i;he first 6 groups taken on by Tototo at the start of its

rr:ral wonents lrogramne in 1978, Ir al-so pr'ovecl to be tlte nost successfuL1 and

for na:4r years ttas the shoi..,1riece of ihe par'iicipdtory ne-rhodologl arlopted by

fototo fron its U.S. sDonsor, lior]-d Educaiion Inc. Bonnanits teacherf secte-taql

';as appointed- group co-o:d-ina't,or1 trained in nonfoi:raI techni'tues, a.nd.pu+,

these to impressive use in inobil-ising ihe grol:.p a:rd- soluing ihe pz'oblens which

faced. it in establishing the baicery project.

Serious d.iscussion of this project began in April 19782 by October the

l.IorTrenr.rere alrear\r baking loa.ves in tireir first, nakeshift, bakery. A plot j-n

ihe centre of Bonani rvas clonaied c'J ibe :cti"ier of the groupr s only Slva}ili

-lo tire ga.oup in

member ("nd, fron 19?9, second treasuu'er) a:rd signed- over the

presence of the chief arrd sub-chief. Lecl lry thej.r co-onlinator anrl encou:.a6ed"

W the Tototo facilitator (fiela super"risor), r.rho .risited 3ornani 7-12 i;inres

every nronth in ihe first year, the v;omen contr:bui;ed. their labour a.nd. raised

various subscrip'tions to assist in ihe building of the bakery. The group tried

to enforce attend.ance through the inposition of a 2str fl cents fine, upon

absenteesl aid. a'i one stage threatened to seize srnal-l- stock irom menbers rihc
 1 ' r1

failed to pa,y a Jsh build.ing subscription. At 6=oup nreetings the secretaryf

co-o:xl-inator discussed. tt." i"porta:rce of irygiene and. latrine constnrction in.

preparaiion for the stringent official healili requirenents which the bakery

r*ould have to rneet. i'leanwhiler a's the enternrise d-eveloped, different

problems in its orga.nisation were tackled. as they arose; ainon€. ihem rosters

for bakingr forr:s of ind.ividual renuneration, imprrcvement of the prod.uct,

and- hol to narket the 1o".r.=.2

The enterprise e>r'pand.ed-

steadil-y over ihe nerb 5 yearso Group accor::rts

show that betr+een l-978 and. 1!81 alone 33r483sh was spent on build-ing, rebuil-d-ing

and. frtting the bakery. A significant proportion of the early fwrd.ing carne from

the group itself, dranm from the profiis of bakj.ng e^nd the groupfs necklace

enternrise (see below). Other..rise nost of the capltal was pro'rid.ed. by oritside

souxcesr both the govern-'nent and- rriGos. Tabl-e J4 sunmarises the major exter.rreJ

inputs between l-9?8 and 1983.

TA3LE 33

DATE DOtf0R i"Ozu{ OF ASSISTAIIICE COST

(r.lhere loow:e)

Aus/Sepi; parliarnentary cormgated. iron sheets for 2 r0OOsh

t978 candr.late for the bakery zrcof
l,Ial-ind.i i'Iorbh

*
l.I.c. c. K. a used oven, the services
rL - o
/
"t R
v Kananai of a builder to insicJL it
Conference and. bakery training for ihe
Centre group rnenbers

1978 Tototo Home a loan to buy equipment,

Industries
700
includlng baking trays and
tins, for the bakery3
subsequently repaid by the
gapup

1 A70 Tototo lIome a cash grant to purchase 1-rOO0+

Industries ing:redients for baking
 t l l

TAA,E 34 (cont)

DATE DO]ION, FORI{ OI' ASSTSTAI{CE COST

Febn:ary ldinistry of a grarit for purchase of 4eOOOsh

f979 Grliu::e and ingz'edients and- e:roansion
SociaL of the enterprise" I'he
se::rrir:es cheque was nade out to
Bornani r'loments group'- a
changp of name encoura€€d
o5r Tototo - a-nd. d.egosited.
in a second bark accornt.

( 19BO the Anerica^n a net{ ovenr to be used. in c.410OO

Wornenrs conjr.:ac-bion with the first
Associat,i-on, (together capable of baking
Nairobi 3OO loaves a d.aY)

_ July i,iinistry of a grant for rebuilding of 10r0OO

t 1981" Gulr,,ur€ and. the bakery
Social
Seruices

Decenber Lioness Clubr a water iank for the bakery

( 19BL itrair.obi

' 1eB3 25'000

;::J:lH*'*" ?.f,T::=;ffi:l'?i:"il1n,u" ,
Ad-visory - arid- installation
transportation
Corsniitee (ltlC) r of a new and. larget oven
Itrairobi capable of baking 5OO Loaves a
d.ay. This was in operation by
April 1983 a^nd-was officia.llY
openeC. in Septer.rber t6r an
Assistant iiini-sier for
D:viron-nent a-nd-ilai;uraJ- R.esources.

Febrr:"ary a nenber of fire-proof bricks to surrpund

lqBl
L ) V J Toioiots the new oven
governing
^^.-qi **aa

' J +
the iI.C.C.K., l.iational Christien Council of Kergrar is Tototots parent organisa'r,ion

From the beginni.ng the enterprise was heavily dependent upon erternal

inputs a3d adrrice. The negotiations over the ATA0 garrtl ';rhich 'oegan.in i98f ,

r:nd.erline the extent to tvhich the enterprise was subject to decisions taken.

outsid.e of tlle groupo It was Tototo lrho contacted ATAC; 4rr liGO with its ovm
 l l a

ind.ependent field of interest. In line with these ATAC pressed for the

instaf lation of a.n energf efficient si'-stern in Bomanirs bakery. In Jwre 1!82

they sent etltechnical consulta^nt to Borna.rri to review tire possibilities. IIis

reporb recommended tb.at erpa:eded. oven capacity. (which is uhat. Tototo end tbe

.t'romenwere asking for) be accompa.nied. t6r increased. wa,ter storage :::ed planting

of a tree nursery to provide a cheap a.nd. ecolog:icaUy hannless supply of fuel.

In pursuit of this ecological goal lototo were put i^n touch with another

orga.nisation in Nairobi, lh.erry Developnent Internationalr alrd the group set

about finding a suitable pl-oto In tb.e event none was fouadr the idea came to

nougbte and ATAC settled t'or a larger oven nhich also heated. water from ihe

bakeryrs exj.sting storage tafiko This rvas not, however, the Last of ATACTs

i-ntenrentions in Bornani."

Oiher enk'rlpriseg

When Tototo began riorking -"rith Bonani a:rother p:'oject was r:li.ei1.iay:

cultivation of a collective field.. ltro d.etail-ed record of tiris enterprise

surrrives. According to the first secretary 2 acres of l-and- in neart[r Kaenbeni

ltere borrorqed- from a SwahiLi landou-ner. In l-979 this field was a!-',,ivated tn/

tractor for 2OOsh a:rd planted. in maize, then cotton" Tb.e naize crcp l^tas

divided. alnong g:.oup mernbersr as was 4OOsh from the sale of coi;ton {3:cup

gccor:nts simply show a"n incorne of 30Osh f:'orn cultivai;ion and no expend.iture).
'oy d-e.;elopedr
this field. uas subsequently reclained. its oueer and, as ihe bakery

no attempt was mad.e to continue the enterpriseo

Idore lucrative r,,rhile it lasted rras the har.,ticraft tra.de inii::ated- blr Tototo.

This was based upon the production of trarU-tional Giria.nra nda"].e neckJaces for

the tourist market. The vromen bought l-engths of ndqle copper wire from

specialist producers and fashioned. these ini;o rriwele, heavy pendantsr aJrd

vira^ngi, with brase and colorued- beads edd.ed.. lf feet of viire, bou4bt for 1sh,

was enough to nnake 2 or 3 viwelel the cornnonest product, so1-d to Tototo for
 u-6

10sh eachl r.'ihile virangi fetched.20sh. Wcnen report being able to make up

to 1OO or 15O viivele in a vreek a.nd at one point group rnembers engaging in this

trad.e are record.ed. as making betl+een 35sh a.:ad.5OOsh each in a fortnight.

Tototo shop record.s shorv that in i978 L4r95tsh was paid. out to indiuiC.uals and

)2Os1n to ihe groupr r.ihich took the _oroceeds from one necklace in every baicb

an inC.ivid.ual ozrcd.uced.. This noney was pi-ougbed. back into the bakery along

riiti:. the rnoney raised. from group subscriptionso The ',+ornenl irollever, pr-cduced.

nore neckl-aces than ti:e Tototo shop could sel11 and- after 2 years the trad.e

came to a halt along lrith other forrns of handicraft produclion which Tototo had

aiternpied. to introduce" Looking back upon ihis enterprise group nembers blarne

Tototo for its faih:re, aJr er'rerience sini1ar to llkr.rirorso The Loca1,

l,laiindil narket for necklaces remains sraall - thef are bought by Kamba rnid.dLeriren

and. sold to tourists in ihe town - and nda.le prod.ucticn is not a significanrr.;

source of incone in Bona:ri; nu.ch tir.e losii;ion t"rhen ihe groupr s traCe with

Eototo started.

i.lhen the neckl-ace er:.terprise beganr it attracted a nurnber of new nernbers to

ihe groupo A contingent of about 20 wonren joined fram ltlad.zql,arlj and. Purn',.ranj.r

some mil-es west of Boman:i anr.d a^n hor:rt s walk fron iire bakeryo !hi-s proved. a

constraint upon ihei.r acti'le pariicipai;ion in i;he grollpo In early 19?9 it i*as

suggested. tirat they nrig'ht start a separate Droject in I'iad-zayani to nake nore

effective use of their iime err.d-labour" This problern car.re to a head. l-ater in

ihe ;rear',rhen tne itreAze:Sani and Farn',ra:ri uon:len failed to contribute their laborrr

to i;he construction of a tea kiosk in tsomarii arrd were asked to pay a cess to

nake up for the fasto Following ihis, in lt80r they J.eft the glpup to fo:rn

their own i.n l{ad.zayani" This ga"oup, "'rbich buiLt its orvn tea-shop, was

adopted. by Tototo in its or'm rignt in 1!82. Bona.nits kiosk projecb, meanvrhile,

d.i€- not take off. But the group d.id- taf,<e on a nurnber of new members io nrake up

for the lost contingent. Th.is was ,loue after consr.:J-tation between the ci:ain.;onan
 11?

and. ihe 1ooal chief, a^nd brcught Bomanit s ;lenrbership rrp to 53.

The crisis and iis aften':ath

Fol-Lowing the d.eraise of these enterprise s-and fts abar:.d.onmentof regular

.grcup subscriptions, -a1l- aitention r'ras direc'i;ed. sposs tb.e bakery. Al-1 seened.

wel-l r:ntiL 19821 althougt3 Foitp nembers ?rere d.isappointed" wiih the snaI1

profits r.ihich the bakery appeared to be rnaki-ng. fn Janu"aaTlgBZ the groupts

secreta"rXr (siill the co--ord.inaior, but no longer paid. t'y Toioto) left lonrani

for a yeart s nurse4y school iraining in ltatugar south of Mornbasa. Eer oLace

as local nursery i;eacher was taken by the yor:ng daugtrf,er of a group mernber,

the third trea,surer (f 98e-85) g whil-e the woment's adult education class

ienporarily joined- with one starteA W ihe nenls group a:rd taughi by their

secreiary: an experinent lvh:ich, hor';ever, d.id. not last: longu In the absence

oi -bheir secretany ihe gznup .i.id- '.;eLl; and ihisr paracloricalljfu bro'rght,

their problems out into th.e cpen. In Janru.ry bhe 6roup raised- leOOOsh, 8OOsir

of iiris providei, by the ner.r treasurer, to paX- off d-ebts wirich had accr:nmlated

with the locaL shcps for the purchase of aheat flou:rr reposiiion their ovens,

renew their licence and. bql a frarned photograpb of the Presid.ento In Febnrarlr

they raised anoiher 11OO0sh to rirake a buJ.k pu:rchase of wheat flIour. With the

profits fronr baking with ihis the Eroup bought a bic;rcle (zrOOOslr+) io assist

in narketing, repaired the bakery- buildingl prrt noney- aside to be clivid.ed.

e.norlg the rnenrbers, and. had. l-rOOCsh left over. At the end- of the year this r,ras

tak-en by the g:lupts secretary io be d-erosited. in i;l:.e banlr, along rriih the

profit fronn a d.isco r.rhich ha.d been he1d on the balcery ploto The vrorner were botb.

pleased. a^nd.surprised at the yearf s achievementsr and bega.n uondering why

simiLar prrcfits hacl not sholm in earlier Jreaxso At first suspicion turrred. upon

the ohainioman a.nd.the nelr treasure?, before attention srritched. to the grouprs

secretary, rvho ha.d. always kept the accor:n*s eJrd taken their monenr to the bank.-
 118

Serious encluiry begen in 1983. The chief was caLIed- in a.nd asked. to look

over the groupr s books. He begen in ApriJ- a^nd gave up in Ju:ee, r.lnable to

reach anXr d.efinite conclusion. In Jrrne the groupl s secretary, who had been
taken into fi:.Il-iirne employment by Tototo ast a:r assistant fieLd. suoe:rrisor,

moved with her family to a. neart[r village where they bad. a L2 acre fa:rrlo In
JuJ.y ATACTs Project llanager uisited. Bornani to checic up on their 2JrOOOsb gra.nt.

Rlnding tb.at noi all-.was in order, she returned ]-ater in the month '.rith a

Director of Eechrrosenre, a financia,l a^ndaccowrting' se:rrice based. in Nair.obi.

In lugust a Technoserve aud.itor was sent to Boma.ni and chased up the ex-

secretary, who had retained. margr of the groupf s accor:nts a^nd-receipts. Asked_

bow rnuch money the group haC in tbeir berk erccount sbe ga.ve a d.iffereat figure

to that which she had earLier given'the chief. These sums were in the range of

?-BrOOOsh" On checJring, horvever, the 3onanj- accor:nt showed a-lalance of or4y

llBOOsh. The money roust, she said., be irr the Jaribur:i accou:et; but she

could not rennemberhon rnuch because it had not been used. for sorne tirqeo On
being asked. to produce the releva^nt receipts she said that she irad. taken them

to Tototors Dir,ector in llonbasao As it turned. out the J^a.ribuni account he1d. a

mere 53tstr {! cents. The combined. d.eposiis clearly ie1l short of the amount

which the secretary had. been given to bazrk at the end. of 1982), ruogether lrith

3r3o0sh from the -{TAC grant whj-ch she had. been given via Totoio to acccunt to

the groupo Meanwhi3-e the group accow.ts for January-jrure 1983 showed.a pei;ty

cash balance of lii;tIe more than zt8lsh.

Faoed. with these facts and evid.ence of other imegularities Technose:rre ald

the group members pressed. for astion to recover the rnissing fi:nds. llotl::ing was

achleved. r:ntil Janr.:ary 1984r when the forrner secretarXr was j.nduced. to sign a

formal statement admitting the loss of 2lr'f2!sh 30 cents plus various ba^nk

receipte and acceoting her accowrtability for this losg. Thls statenent was

also signed by 11 witnesses including her husba.nd., the Technoserrre aud-itor

 119

grcup officergl the chairman of the menrs group, the chief and the sub-chj.ef.

Table ll shows the list of missing fr:ncls as reconst:rrcted. by the [eob.nose:lre

t .
auditor.

TAsLg 35

t cLATMANT NASIJREOF CT,AIM Al,lOUNI

the found-er of the bal-ance of a g:ift rnade to the. i-1!35.7O

tbe ad'*Lt group in 198O. Disappointed. t6r
educa,tion class the poor shordng o'f the bakerly he
bad. purchased L;2BOsh wortb. of:
wheat flor:n from a wholesale,
supplier in Sngoni a^nd.sold- it to
group members bit btr bit over a
month or so before presenting them
wj.tb the pr.ofit: 3r??5sh plus.
(. After putting some of this asiale
as the d.eposit on a, biqrcle and.
using it for other purposee the'
balance was g'iven to the secretanry
to tiake to the bank.

a Bomarri shop- d.ebt for the purchase of wbeat 281.95

owner flour by tire group.

a Boma^ni shot d-ebt for the purcha,se' of wheat 482.&

( owner flor:r and lard by the group.

the groupr s 3rd d.ebt for the purchase of r-heat 500

treasurer flour by the grorrpo

a local ta;ilor rernaining d.ebt for the ser^ring of Lrl-96.fl

bak-ery un:ifonns for the g:pup
(totaf cost 2r1!6sh plus: only
11OOOshpaid. t6r the secretary).

the womenrs gr.oup prrcfite frrorn a d.lsco given to the 1rl-02

secretary to ba;rk

I the womenrs group prcfits from baking in 1!82 given 1rlOO

to the secretary to bank
 120

TA3LU 3q (cont)

CLAI}IANT I'IA.TURE OF CLAIM ATiOUNI

the woment s group firnds shorring in group records t4ro42

brrt rnissing and rlraccor:nted
for.

ATAC money frorn gra^nt given to the 3,3OO

secretany via Tototo to account
to the g?oup.

TOTIT 23t9&.55

The toi;aI sr.rmmissing according to this reconstnrction is sligbtly different

from that given in ihe signed- staternent and it is d.Lffictrlt io'reconciLe the

trio. Examinaiion of surrrivj-ng goup accou:rts froro the early perroC. and- the

Technose:sre audrtorts calculatj-ons rrriiten into these showl moreovere that

a. number of errors.
be nra.d.e i{hile there seems liitle d-oubt tha,t the secretarT-

d"id-m:isappro-.,'.'riategroup funds, -it is impossible to verify the e=aqb arnouJtt.

Given ihe inconpleteness of avail-able records - some group mlnnbers cl-aim tha,t

the separate bread accounts were b'ar:rt by the secretarXr when she left Somanj. -

ihe aud-itor had. to resort to the recollections, claiims and counter.-claims of

g:roup rnembers. This enquiry took place in a very charged' atnroslrhere and 'uhe

bj-tter:ress this affair generated has yet to subside. Looking backr group

nenbers say that they now recognize r,rhat they d.id. not at the tiine. tsefore the
'r{hen she
crisis they had ccnplete i;nrst in their secretary a^nd.teacirer.

sr:rnmarised. their- accou.nts in Thursd.atrrmeetings they had no reason to di sbelieve

her a.nd-no one else was sufficiently literate or felt cornpetent enough to cr.oss-

checlc the accounts she kept. l.lhen she toLd group roembets that thel€ was no

reason for others to accompany her to the bark they never suspected. that she

might have different plans for their fundso Now the6r thiDk otherw'ise alrcl
 121

believe that over the years she was pocketing nonelr ent:rrsted- to her bit by

bit. Vlewed. in retrospect particralar inoidents sta^nd out. Some of these

have aLrea.d.,,vbeen touched upon. The thirrC. treasurer reca1ls, for exam.ple,

that when she weat to colLect 1r600sh owed. to the group and. individ.ual members

by a, Congoni custoner in 1!82 she arrived. to find that lrOOOsh bad 6,f1.saay

beea taken by the seoretanXre tb.e porbion oned to the gtoup as opposed. io

indi'ridualso When investiga.tions ilere r:ndemay in L983 these 2 woreen argued.

bitterly over sirnil-ar'incidentsr d.isputing su:ns whicb had. been tritb.d.rarrn and

purchases they had nade together.

fhis affair has had a, d.ra.n,atic effesb upon tbe groug a^nd its eaterprise.

(_ In this respect ritcbcraft belief has played. a^n iinportaat rcle. The background.

io this is as folLows. l'{bea ihe bakery ivas :-j-rst buj.lt the secretary arranged-

for a ned.icine-nnan from another village to come a.nd.install protective

medicine inthe building. fhis was to proieci the enterorise from the

nacirj.nations of jealous husband.s and otherso fhe ned-icine was instaLl-ed in ibe

presence of 2-3 other group members. l{hen the secretary 1ef-t Bomani in r:rid

1983 they d.i-scovered.that it had been removedo I'hen, in October, alarming

ihings--started. happening. F.rma.nfaeces, stranrgely odor:rless, were found one

inorning outside the bekery door after. one of the womenhad beea beking through

ihe rright and had. neither seen nor heard. anJrolre apprrcach. On another

occasion bread. doUdr rose excessivelyl burst open, a^ndsrnalL biting ants

swar:'nedout from it. A consignnent of fresh loaves taken to be sold in !,Ia]-indi

was for:nd. to be stale upon arrirra.l and- had. to be thrpwn d\!{/t In-December 5

boxee (fq4 kS) of wheat flor:r failed and had to be written off. tr'ina1Iy1 in

March lr914, the glass frames hold.ing the groupte licence, registration

nurnber, and picture_ of the Presid.ent wero found one morning smashed,on the

bakery f1oorl whlle tbe registration nunnber ha.d.been d.eliberateLy scratched.

 r22

out. Frigbtened W these events all but a handfiil of women stopped. coning

to the bakery. The inplication was that the former secretaey had rernoved tbe

bakeryts protective medioine and $a-s in some way resDonsible for vbat nas
'h.appenlng. This had a more potent effest upo,.* the women wbo were not

edb.erents. of a. world. relig'ion but followerg of- tradiiional Giria.na practice.

llhile a large.nunber retrrrned. to bakiag in 1t84r over half of ihe group

members d-ropped.out in the course of the yearl sorl€ at tbe insisbence of their

husba^ndso Tlris, as Table 16'shorvs, included nos+ of the traditionali'sts.

T.AgtE 36

RB,IGTOSi Lmt I1{ 1983-84 RE'IABrEDACTilTE Tot.al,s

/snu-tc$rvn

Christia^n 14 15 30

MusLin 3 z

1'l
TraCitionalist 13 4

TOT.AL$ JU 22 >z-

* exol-r:rles the er-secretary, a RornanCathoLic

fhe womerr.*ho left at this time have sti1l not returr:ed. to active participation

in tb.e group and are eupbenristically said to be rrrestind'. Active mernbershope

that most of them r^rill return to the grcup and think that it is only a roatter

. of time before they do. The Locfl sub-chief thinks that they should. not be

allowed. back in but the group d.isag:reesl althougb. they have enterlained. the

tbought that those frorn the 1t8O intake wbo left should. be penalised. t6r having

to pay sonethlng in reoognition of the labour and rnoney wbich 19?3 nembers

_ earlier invested. in the group. Roughly equa.L numbers of 19?3 and 1!8O members

lefb in 1!83-84: arnongthe former were the r,rives of the adult ed.ucatfon classrs
 121

fotnder. Religious affiliation provides the only significant correlation,

a fact recognised. b'y the lromen themselves. T'leis affaj.r has left the group

dominated. by Christia,ns in a, way r,rhich it was not before the crisis. The

effective weeding-out of women who nigiit be considered. more firmly rpoted in

an' ethos which is characteristically ininrica"l to the d.evelopnent of capitalist

enterprise can be ini;er-oreted. as a neat result in terns of the logic of this

enterprisers developmentr atrr accid,ent pronooting its -further rationalisation.

Another conseqllence of this affair was a real!.gnnent ia relations between

the group and. the NGOs supporting it. Tototol placed. in a somewhat awlnrard.

position by their emp3-otrnoent

of the groupr s forrner secreta.:qr, d.id not inteq/ene

d.irectly cluring the crisi.s; a task takea olr b;r {IAC and- Bechnosetsreo Tb.e,ex-
secretary, no.w an assistant field. supe::visor, renained Tototor's main contact,

t.ltb the group a^nd g-iven the accusations whj-ch were d.j-rected toward.s her ii is
hardly surprising that thls contast was suspend.ed.-i;hr.or:gh1984. triollordng h.er
signed' adoission of gtilt no arangeneent ha.d.been na.d.efor repatrrment of the

m-issing ftrnd.s and none was forthcoming. ATAC a"nd.fechnosexve continued. t.o press
for action a.nd-in November 1984 arra^ngeda neeting rith Tctotors Director,
Bomanits new secretarye arrd her accussed. predecessor at Karr.amai. It was agreed.

that fototo wor:]-d.d-ed-uct the 313OOsh nissing from tne -A.TACgrerlt from the

latterts sa1ary and 3lOOOsb.of ihis was given to the group the following montho

Tototo maintained, then as now, that theft of the nrissing fi:nd.s could. not be

prcven: the loss couLd equa13-ybe ascribed to rnistakes in book-keepingl while

i.t was clear that roost of the grouprs prcfits over the period. irr question had

been reinvested- in build.ing a.nd equippin€ tb.e bakery. In any event when tbe

a[eg€d. misappropriation took place the secretazy qas not a Tototo employee:

Tototo could. not therefore be heId. accor:ntable for the nrissing ffrnd"s, a problem
lvhose, solution lay rrith the 1ocal authorities.
 L24

Aga,inr more interesting than tbe elusive tnrth are the effeots whicb

these d.ifferent stances bave UaA. llhe problem remains in- ttre hand.s of tbe

local" adninistrati.on a.ad to d-ate no action has beqr taken. As a. result the
g?couphas become progressively estra:rged. frorn the local agents of the state.

Despite repeated. requests to do sonethiag about sectrring repa6rnent of the

ndssing f\mds tb.e-chlef a.nd.sub-chief have not d.one arrythiag', whiLe.the group

has tri-ed.r ur3.s11ccessfti-LJ-yiappealing over their heads to higher autborities.

Some nemberg suggest tbat they are acting (or rather not actlag') in collusion-:

vrith tb.e. ex-secretarXrr who nor trol-ds posts in KAI.IUup to district 1evel and.

has a^ number of influential corurestions. In any case the wonen generalS-y bo1d.

their chief ancl sub-chief in Iow regard. and. ha,ve as fiJitle to clo with then ae
( -
possible. Cne way this is manifested is in their relusta^nce to participate

fuI1y in 1ocal fi:nd--raising drives. In December 1!B! the third treasr:rer,

whose earlier eathusiasm for s:uch events had earned. her the aiclgrane I'Mana

Hararnbeerrr refused. to the sub-chiefrs request that she attend. a- fr:nd.-raising,

telling irin that she had enough '*crk to d.o at home a.nd.in the bakery and. noiing,

laterr that he coul-d.not force her to parbicipate. This is a position which

-their
und.evelopecL groups a^nd. members oa.rl generally not afford to takeo

l'leanwhile the group hadl for obviou-s reasonsr become estranged. from

Tototo. Technosexve, on tbe oib.er hand.r took an j-ncreasing interest ia

Boma.n:i. At the beg:inning of 1!84 their auditor introd.uced. a new system of

book-kee.Ding a.yrd.advised. the ne?r secretary (and. adt0t/nursery teacher) in its

us€r 3 wieldy leCgers were purchased. by the grcup: one for imprest cash, one

for cash sal-es a.nd one for ba.nk tra.nsactions. Thereafter the aud.itor visited.

Boma^ni every 3 or { months, penrsed. the accor:nts a^nctadded. copious notes for

the instruction and benefit of ttre secretary. fhe hoped. for effeot of these

a^nd subsequent interwentions was further rationallsation of tb,e bakery

enter-orlse along capitalist- linee. Technoserve renained in contact with Tototo:

 L25

after their ar:ditor had visited. the group in July L985. they rrrote obsenri.ng

tbe nebd. for bakery rosters, a code of nrJ.es, and. prrcfit-sharing upon a

pre-d.etermined. base. Tototo, however, whj.le accept5.ng tb.e need for

ratioaalisationl wer€ uatr.appy with the technocratic a.nd.forrnal- style of

Technoservers interventionso Eb11or+ingiheir renewed engag€ment rrith Bonrani

and. the opening of its tea-shop in Ll8l (see below) 1 Tototo thanked. Techno-

setlt/e for their assistance and 1et then h:ow that they wordd continue the
job -i;hemselves. Ir llf,arch )_986 [ototo folIor*ed f,b:is up tryr sending one of their
(
ol.m staffr a, volr.utteex second.ed.frorc Lutbera^n Horld Re1J.ef, - to rvork rrith the
wonen over a 3 non*b period.'and. review tbeir businbss a.nd accounting practice

in a style more apgropriata to Tototors nonfo:ma.l'ethos. At tbe sarne ti.rne the

( ___
er-secretar?- swapped. places with another assistant field. super-,risor aJrd.,..ras

thds removed. from <iirect contact irith the groulro

Status a;rd d.evelopnnent of goun enterp:'ises

Ietailed r'ecord.s of bakery sales ar:.d.costs are not available for the period-

before the crisis in 1983. fn 1!81 sales of bread a^re record-ed. as totalling

2lrooosh (a.n average of !r?5osh per nnonth) tut the frrll list of expenditure on
ingred.ients and. rnarketing' is nissing. The ATAC consr:.ltarrt Jent to Bomani in

1!82 estimated i;hat tbe bakeqi was making sorne llJOOsb. every nonth. Ifowever,
the reccrds kept after Technoserr/ets intenrention show the enterprise in a
rather less coinfortable situation, stnrggling to break €V€nr fhis inforrnation

is sumnarised. in lable lJr show'ing bread saLes anrl direct prod.uction and.

mar*ceting costs between Ja.nua,ry 1984 a^naAugust 1985. This d"oes not show total

bakerXr gutnutl but. only the portion orgenised. collectively by the groupr Since
the starb of the enterprise ind.ividual members had also baked. a.nd.sold. brea.d. for

individ-ua.l prcfit, th.eir main source of renurneratj-on frorn the bakery. No

recolrls are kept of this individual ira.de, tlror:gti the levels of productlon are
fixed by the group. From 19Bo througlr to 1985 indivldual prod.uction was set at
 L26

hal-f the volume of pr"od.uction for the group.

TtstE 3?
IdONMILY NO. OF
Dro$fivYEAR INCOI.IE ffiPBIDIITUNE B.OLA}{gE BAKERS

Jaau.a4r r-9B4 41 62osl 21167 2t453 19

Febn:ary rr air6n 1?r OO5 - 3r 355 30

i'tarcb it 12rrg5 ]- .4r 446 -2r25L

April rl 1 4 r0 ? o 13,685 385 22

May rl
9 1235 8r433 Bo2' 20

.Itrae rt 6 r4 @. -852 15
7 r3tZ
rr groBG 17
t -_- Ju-1y 9 t865 773
August rr 4r827 _1I
5to4o J

Septernber 'r 5fi84 o t oo\J -676 T2

October rr -735 10
4r283 5ro18
llovelirber rl 2r376 21226 150 9
Decembe:e' rl 8r694 g,o4B -35+ 13

Jarrua:qr L9B5 3 ro 9 O 3r 513 - Q3 7

Febnrary tl 3 ,3 OO 21268 1r032 8

lilarch rl

April rr 3,120 41829 -].t7o9 10

Ma.y rl 41oI! 5r3BB -577 10

June rl 3,L20 3r 141* _21 9

July rr

August rl 417j.2 31984 728 12

suB4oTtS 1gB4 96t259 loo,126 -3, 86?

SUBJTOTIL 1985 22 rL53 23ttz3 -970

TOTAL 1 1 8r 4 1 2 t231249 _4,B3T

* incompLete
 121
- - I

The price of the roain ing:red.ient (wheat fior:r) a,nd the wholesale a.nd.

retail pritces of the prod.uct (loaves of bread.) are fixed tvy the goverrunent.

fb.is pricing stnrotnre d.oesr howe!€r, leave.sone room for profit: in theorXr

baking profits should. represent between one fifth anrd one ttdd of total sa^les.

Table 38 is based. upon December 1985 prices for the prod.uction and sale of Q

loaves.

TAsLE ]B

SAT.6 COST$(locat- retail pnicee)

42 Loaves at wholesale 12 kgl (6 tagF) of wheat flour..o....?8.90

price of 3'5o per loaf"""14?sh .* uo,.of yeast...................... 4.
( - {2 loaves at retail * k ' So f } a r d . . . o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.35
price of 3'?0 per 1oaf"""LiioQo
*rcg of sugar....,.................. 1.85
) 2 * S o f s a 1 f ,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
2 0 l i t r e s o f w a t e r . .. . . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . 3
b u n d l eo f f i r e u o o d . . . . . r . o . . . . . . . . . . . 2
4 2 p l a s t i c w r a p p e r s . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.4O
transpor* to narket.. .........between C-
1)sh

between 147-155.4Osh between 104.15-119.15

profit ott P loaves = 27.85 - 5].,-25 sh

Group mernbers confirned that ihey regularly nade profits of this orCer from

their indiuidr::.l beking. Given the groupt s failure to achieve comparable

results it is clear tb.at ba^king is not as efficient as it night be a^nd.that

the group absorbs nost of the wastage which occurs in the course of prod.uction

t6r women who are also baking for indiviclual profit. The fact that no records

are kept of inclivid.ual- baking nrakes this d.ifficult to check a.nd control.

Bomani shares thie problem rrith a^nother Tototo-sponsored group and. bakery
 I28

nhere ind.ivid.uals have similarly favoured their own over groud baki.ng.3 This

is part and parcel of a more general phenomenoa: the inefficiency of collective

as opposed" to household oroduction.

Frora late 1984 on the group eryerienced. consid-erable d.ifficuJ-ty ia

obtainj.ng a.d.equate sarpplies of wheat flor:r, this

a.u,cL in turrr had an ad.verse

effect upon the bakezyrs maz*ets. The flour has frequently been poor in qrrality

and loaves have spoiLed: on other occasionsr as in ilarch aad july 1985r the

supply of flour d.ried. up altogetbero Sub-sta.nd.ard. flor:-r ca.n only be reeognised.

after rnixingl a.:rd it is d.ifficult to seclt:pe arr3r conpensation from retailers a.nd.

wholesal-e supplierso In August 1985 4 boxes (g5 *e) of flIour fai-led and. the

group only got their money baolc on orr.. the state-o'wTred supoliers, ASfAt
{
claim that poor quality resul-ts frorn the rvheat croo being ha:rresierL too ear1y.

Bui ii is aLso a consequence of poor storageo Elor:r in bores (targ€ packets

containin€ LZ 2 kg bagE) is pariicuS-ar1y prone i;o deterioratioa. Or:.eway round-

these prcblems is for the group to brly flIour by the sack (J boxes rvorih). Bni,

the nearest place sacks can be obtained is direct fron, ATTA in Mornbasaand. the

ertra transport costs this wor:J-d.involve are generally considered. too high.

Instead a 1ot of the g?ouprs flour comes in boxes fron 1ocal retailers in Bomani,

more expensively than if it lrere obtained. from wholesal-e outlets in i,laLindi.

Following its d.ifficr:l-ty in maintaj-ning the level and. sta^nd-ards of

prod.uction, the bakeryl although stil1 the only' one in the area, has lost

most of its rnarkets to competitors from further afieLd" Table 39 ind.icates the

past and. present status of these markets. As a result of their d.ecline

prod.uction has been halved. Between L!8O and. rdd-1985 individua-L bakers baked.

1 box of flour for the group arrA + a box for themselves. In October 1985 this

was cut to 3 a box for the group and + of a box for indivldrlal profit. At the

same time, following advioe from Tototor individual sales were restri.cted. to

the markets outsid.e Boma.nl where bread can only be sold at the wh,olesale prlce
 'l
20

TABLE 3q
INTTIAL
SIZE OF STASU$
PL.[CE tstrrER ORD&?. DEC.85 COirfi.miTS

Marafa. 2 Giriarna 5O loaves stooped. this order, originally

hotel* every 3 in mid- secured. 'oy the chai::woman,
oll-rrers iLays \gB5 was fi11ed- by the group
( rather tha.le ind-ivid.r.ra.1
bakers) a"nri transported. iqy
bus for LJsh. Ore of the
ol'rners is the ch-ief of
Marafa loca.tion. lta,rafa has
a woments g?oup which is now
building its oror blkery.

Ma.urbnri SwahiLi 60 loaves 50 loaves this ord.er lras-initiated. by

hotel every d.ay every lbhe owner lr-irnseIf. I,lhen it
owner other d-ay was not net in mid-1985 and
h.e was not inforrned. wbg'- he
began taking loaves from a
( -__ bakery in Kilifi. Tbe Bomaai
order was restored. in November
but halved-. The order is
diuided. between the group and.
indivi-duals and- the gzoupr s
cg-clist is paid 12sb. to
iranspori the loavee.

Lanru Svrahili 2OO loaves stopped. the same bqrer as tbe

hotel (period. not pre-1t81 Manbruui order. fhe loaves
owner stated.) were taken to Larnu t[r brrs"

Itrgoner::i IIo 6o Ilr €!o stopped. bicycle transpor* cost 1Jsb.

pre-I!B{

Mjanaheri Giria-na 5O loaves stoppe{ order for group loaves

hotel every other in mid- secured. W the 3rd treasurer.
owner d-ay I9B5 Bicycle transport cost 10sh.

Congoni Giriana 4O loaves stopoed order filled- by the group

hotel every- d.ay in mid- a^nd secirred, along with
owner L9B5 other Gongoni ordersl by the
lrd- treas.,rrer. Biqlcle
transoort cost 10sh.

Gongoni Giriarna 20 loaves stopped. order fi1led by individual

shop every day in nid- bakers.
owner r..9B5

Gongoni Swahili 10 l-oaves stopped. order filLed. by individual

hotel every day in mid- bakers.
owner 1985
 130

TA3LE 39 (cont)

FT,ACE tsITER ORDM. STATUS coru'lEllTSl

-Kensalt
Gongoui irregular stopped. or.ders brought W group
order for in nid- members working casrrally
1OO-150 rg85 at the salt works.
loaves

ldalind.i n. aa Ilr &. stopped. loaves transpor-ted. t6r bus.

in 1983

Marike'or::ri Giriama 20 loaves began in order secured. by the 3rd

kiosk every l I'Iovember treasurer and initially
owner d.ays 1gB5 fi11ed. by ind-ivid.ual bakers.
Soraar:r:i individual constant loaves sold from the bakery
customers trade and, beginning in October
subject to 1985, from the grouptg ofir
'
availability hoteL. Restrisbecl at the.
| -.- of wireat same tfune to tbe group and.
f]-our so1d. at retail prices.

* a hotel is a tea-shop/place senring cooked_ food.

of 3sh 5o cents per loaf. iienceforih only group brea.d nas io be soLd. in Bomani

itseLf at the nore profitable retail price of 3sh ?O cents. fn ear3-y 1986

ind-ivid.ua1 baking was stopped. altogeiher.

In late 1985 the group was responding to its marketing problems tryr seeking
to establish its orrn retail, outlets. In llarafa ihe wome!:.planned to open

a storel to be rr:n by a paid assista.nt alrd. selling Bornani brea.d. as weLl_ a,6
fresh vegetablee. A suitable build.i-ng was located. but permission to go ahead-

vdth the ente{orise was blocked W the 1oca1 chief, a former qr:.stomer and. hotel
owner hirnself. More pronising were plans to buil-A a. sma1l kiosk in Gongoni from
which to selI bread and hot and. cold. d.rinks, again using a paid. assi.stalt.
fhrougb the efforts of the 3r4 treasurer a plot was gre.rrted. to the group free of
cbarge and. pbrmission to buiLd. was g?arted. in December b,y the chief of tr\:nd.i.sha
location. MeanwhiS.e, the group had opened its ou.n hotel- 1n the bakery building,
realising an ar:nbition d.ating from 1!J!. fhig was achieved. with the help of
 131

Tototol which bad renewed its active invoLvement r,rith SonEJri follorring a
plea made W the chain+oman and 3rd. treasurer in ea,rly 198j. flrd hotel was
officialLy opened btrr lototors Director in Octoher, a^ndthe group presented.
rrith utensil-s a.nd.ingred.ients -for the irritiation of the enterprisei Taking
it in turr:s F'core of active nembers bega^nselling tea, sometimes scones
and. other kinds of sweCt breadr. and. loaves from the bakery. Ingredients for
the tea were bought as need. arose from the local sh.ope whiLe other produets
were provid-ed. by both group members alrd others. Tbe erbra 2o cents gpined

$r seLling loaves at retail prices was to be retauined in hotel accor:nts, kept

sepa.rately fron those for the bakery, but th-is has not bappened.. scones
baked. in the bakery are being so1d. for individuaJ- rather than group profit,
I -_-
thus negating the pronrised. benefit from orodusb diveisificaiion into ar.eas
free frorn governnent price reglrlation. Fo11ow'ing the inter,rention of Tototors
Lutheraa volutteer the wolneo bega.n purchasing manJrb.ote1 ingred.ients wholesa.Le
in Malindi. Eotel profiis, bowever, remain small: in April 1986 it maj-e
just r:nd"er 4O?sh, subsequenily invested. in the pu:.chase of more utensils.

There are 2 other hotels in Borna.niand tf,e cLientele,is smaI1, a ihizd. to a

ha.1f being group rnembersthemselves. Members worktng in the hotel have not
been renumerated. for their labour, r*hiLe a lot of purchases ale mad.e on cred.it

and debts of llsh or mo(e are accr:r,n:J.ated.

everynuek.4

Ihe group has also returned to anothen early enterprise: cultivation of

a collective fie1d.. In 1984 group members started cultivating a Z acre field

in nearbtrr Marikebwril renteC. from a Swahili owner for l5Osh a year. The
resulting sesa&e crop was sold. for 5OOst and cotton for 1r2OOsh. 5OOstrof this
wa's spent on polythene wrappers and. flor:r for the bakery, all of which
spoiled. Hla.:nswere afoot to d.iviile the remaining 112O0sh between the women

wbo had worked the field accordlng to their d.j.ffereat labour lnputs: but by.
the end. of L9B5 this had stil-l not been done. In 1985 the group failed to
 132

obtain secarne seed. and instead greil a. crop of maj.ze, most of which was

stoLen from the stalks before it could be ha,rrrested. Ehe cotton crop was

sti1l being picked. and sorbed at the encl of the year. fn 1985 the group

also &iscussed. the possibility of grolring pio.*pifes at !{akal-a1 narqr rniles

inland of Bomarui and near the home of one of the members. rrlhil-e a processing

antl canrring factoqy i.s curently being pfanned- for the area, the wonen

erpressed. resenrations about the diffiorlty of inarkeiing tbe cropl whicti is

br11ry a^nd otherrrise wouLd havs to be traasported. quicicly to l{alind.i.

IIOUSEiOLN;ECOIIOIfT

Members a.nd tbeir bouseholds

| _,_-

Tables dP-42 surmoai.ise inforoation (a6e, nan-talfchil-d-bearing ieistory,

and esbended. houseb.old composition) on l-2 active a.nd.inastive members and- the

household.s to wh:ich tbey belongo llost merobers are Giriarna from i;he hini;erl-axrd.

of Malindi" 0ne, the 2nd. treasurer (now inactive) I is SwahiLil while the

4th treasurer was borrr in Somani to a Dununa father and. Giria^na mother (also a

group nenrbe:r). tr'ew have ha.d.anqr scbool educa,tion and a nurnber were first

married. in their early teensr some yeats before they bore childreno Bridewealth,

paynients ralrge between 4rOOOsh for ant r:ned.ucated.-d.aughter and. BrOOOstrfor a

sc&rool leaver, and may be parbly paicl in cattle. Polygrrly i.s practised.

regardl-ess of relig'ious affiliationl a^nd11 members (fOO were co-r.v'ives. In

1985 26V wete either widowed. (l5f) or divorcea (ff%) I anC.the interviewed-

sa^mplehad an'avera€€ age of 36. Resid-en?ial anangements are sirnilar to those

in Dla.ni a.nd.Jiba.nal al-ttrough members househoLd.s are rather more d.lspersed and.

only hal-f of tb.e wone! live itr Bom:ni itself"

 133

fasrE 40
A@ IN IEARS
t>tg 2a-24 2>29 30-34 35-39 &-44 4>49 fr..54 5>rg 60-64

2_

TABTE 4,1

acE, @u6t. st lI 0 c, cl F *#n3#s5

L9 M 1 z inacrtive

2l std..? D 1 1 1 1 secretargr

22 u z 1 1 1 corunittee
1____
30 i{ A
z 1+6 5 !
active

3L std.z .r{ I 5 2 1 inaotive

32 lt I
3 3 1 a active
/
35 sta.3 D 2 1+O+5 t_ 1 2 1 active
A1 11 1 B 1 7I
z inactive
, 1
+L 1,1 1 10 1 B l_ n 2 1 1 inactive'

46 l{ 1 I L5 1 11 1 2 2 3 3r.d treasllrer

47 ld 1 I , I 3 2 ' l lst treasurec

inactive
54- II 2 >+0 1 chai::,1'iomanr

key as in Tables 7 and 27.

mearl nurnber of narriages = 1o 3i nearr nr:rnber of children = 5.5i mean number
t -
stiLl aLiv.e = 5i mortalitlr rate = 9fr; me'Yr nurnber of depend.ent c.fl]-lclten l\ oorn
W the womanherself) = 9.2.
 l_34

rAsrg 42

Rg,agrol{
BEN}IffiN r\O.0F ADULT$ CIiILNRBI TOT.AL
E(Tn{Du) GROUP
IIOUSE{qT,NS MEMBERS] male female

headed bry a I 3 4 2L 2B
na.n with 2
rrives in 1 (r) 1 3 4
separate
househo].ds

( ' iacluding a. 1 2 7 10
son lrith 2
i
-;
wives in (r) 1 1 ?
separate
houseb.oLd.s
3
-:;
i t2

headed- by a 2 L 6 1L
nan wii;b 5
nives in Z (:.) 1 1 2
separate
households

L2 1B

1 2 2 1 0 1 4
- _ -
3 t5

5 1 A
I+ 22

1B 2g

[oTtL$ T+ 20 36 1L0 166

 135

Gultivation

. Boroa.ni lies r.ritbin the lO-crile strip forurerly he1d. by the sr.rltans of

Zaaz;,rba,rr:nder British administration. Inland of tbe strip are 3 ertensive

settlernent schemes: t1a€ariai, Strauri liloyo and. Ra^ura.cla,the first of which

was initiated. in 19?B ir:.th assista4lce- from the -lustralian governmeni. Land.

on these'schenes ls being consolidatetl into 3O acre plots for r*hioh title

ca.n eventua,lLy be secr:red W palrmeni of 6rCOOsh. Most of the Land. rrithj-n the

lO-miLe strip is still- owned.by people the 1oca1 Giriarna, refer to as SwabiLi

or Arabs, while some patches are d.esignated. as Crowr (governmeat) fana. As

a conseqlience tnost resid.ents of Boma^n:ia.ledthe sui^round.ing villages live a.nC.'

cultivate on l_end which they d.o not. have title to. soma bav.e, reached
(_ _
agreenient liith the Swa.hiLi landovrners a.nd.orl-tivate ihe la"nd. for free; others

paf a yearl-y rentr-often nominalr for its use" Ttre najority of landoiqners

are absentee, living and. n:nning businesses in lfalindi, Mombasa and. other

tor^nrsl and. nary Giria.na cultivate as souatters without reference to the

oi,rnerst This bas resulted. in a secondary tier of 1a^nd rights and rowrershipl

operating among the Giriama themselvesa land. anrd trees are bougtrt qnd. solcl

regard-less of fu11 legal ownership. Large areasr of land remain uncleared. and.

some loca1s have obtained. ertensive holdings ihrouglt clearing busb, nore'

ertensive than those available in other coastal d-istricts. There is, however,

considerable insqcurity over'1and holding. tr'rom ti.nne to time Swahili l-and.owners

press their clainns: to repossess land they only have to compensate squatters

for the trees they have planted. Loca.l resistance manifests itself in the form

of ritchcrafts on€.Swahili family

in Boma^nlrithdrew tbei"r claincs after their
-of
father su.ddenly fe11 111 a^ncld.iecl in the course an attennpt to repossees his

l-and.. fnsecurity is greatest over-resid.ential plots- ar:,d.this has fostered. a

higil rate of resid.ential rnobility in the area. Even tbougb the woments group

has title to the bakery plot tbe former owner6, luoluding the inactive 2nd.
 136

treasurerr continue to bold d.iscos on it from r.rhich they alone reap the

profits.

ftrltiva'bion and related. activities are conducted alnost continr:ously

thrrcugh the year. ldai-ne, the rnain subsistence crop, is often interpJ.a.ntecl

il:ith sesane and. its haruest in August ca^nbe folloffd'oy the plaaiing of a-

second cash-cropr cotton. tr'o11owing the cotton hanrest the cashewmrt

season beginsr lasting througti to the long rains and the start of the nert

(' yea"trs agriarltural cyclo. l{ost agricrrltural labour is performed. tryr women,

assisted. by their childrea ia the school hoLidays. Table 4j surrnarises the

agric'ultura^I enterprises of L2 group members.in, l!Bj, a.rrd.shows a consid.era.ble

t variatiou, related. in pazt to differential Erccess to pr.rrobased. a.d. other

inputso

TAsLt 43
A8E]L
clll,$.lll
Me Fi PLA0E OMIER.SEP ACNES, LASOIIR CROPS, EAR\TEST COi,ff'IN.{TS

A, 1 Ka^nagoni husband. IO co-w'ives and maJ'ze 20 sacks no fertillzer

B, (to te child.ren, (B acres) used., random
C. incorporateil weeded. once pla.nting
- in settlemeat
COrlFpeag f sacks for home
scheme)
(6 aores) consumption

z Ranada husband.; 7 as above n4ize: 2{ sacks

borrowed
( to 'oe beanrs none crop d.=-ied up
incorporated
in scheme)

3 Bomani husband.; 4 as above, naize poor plants

bor:ght from (of weed.ed.twice diseased-, crop
Snahili 62) eaten straight
owner riith - from field..
2 other men Only enough
rnaize grewn on
al-l fiel-ds to
l-ast 6 months.
cassava
cashewe
 137

[.[3LE 43 (cont)
T

Me Fi PL&A0E O}NiER,sEP AREA LA30iri. Cn0PSj HARVEST COIII.IE{TS

A t 4 Kaerobeni husband 10 as abover, with cashews whole l9B4-85

B, bought frqro - help frorn cashew crop
c. a Giria:na; busbancl soLd. for
gover::ment 4r500sh for
1a^ld husba^nd.

5 Marikebuni husband 1+ with sonre najze' poor

oays Svrhi 1i wife and
' or"rrlel 2Jsb. a cb.ildren;
cotton pesticide
year ($ acre) bought by
( belped. by a
female busba^ncl; not
casual so1d. tryr
labourer December
paid. bgr iier sesame l- saclc a good. crop,
so1d. for 2@sh;
.1,.-** monq; to
husband.
6 Boma.:ri husba.nd.r 2 cul-tivated. by ma].ze 33 sacks enough maize
bought f:'om (of iracior, i;o last most
Sriairili o'*.-lt€r 62\ plarrted- of the year
r.;ith 2 others i;hemselves
( sane plot as cashews
and- lreed.ed.
3r above) once b3r casual
l-abourers; all
paid. by husbanid.

I'laja- husba.nd., I2z cashews

ba,zitj' bought from
a Giriarna;
on government
land

B l,tisufini husba^nd., 15 casnewg rg84*85

bought from cashew crop
a Giriarna; sold. for
Svrahili 1and" 2r6O0sh'fcr
husband

E 9 Mapimo cleared. t6r 1+ with husba.ndt s maize poor no fertilizer

husbancl a.nd. brothers I
his 2 brothers; ges€une none not weeded or
wives
Swahill 1and. ha::rrested.
because all 3
wonen
pregnant

10 Mapimo cleared. t5r 1 as above maize poor

ber; Swallill
owner
 I38

tagrE 43 (cont)

lds Fi PLACE OI{NER,SHIP ARE& L.ASOUR CROPS{ HARVEST C0lrll{BITS

E 11 l{apino cleared- t6r I as above maize poor- eni:ire'naize

husbandr s crop eatea ty
brother; December
Swabili Iand.
cottou DOOr no pesticid.e;
crop soJ-d.for
lOOsh for
busba^ndts
brother

t
F. 12 - Marjjrebuni ctrltivated 2 with naize 1 sack no fertilizer;
uith (of 3) chi-Ldren poor'harrrest
pe:missioor of and a.:cd depeaderrt
SwahiIi, owner' husba.:rd. upolr. shops
cotton poor ' no pestioide;
t sold. fo:r lOosh
b5r husband.
cashews

13 tlarikeb'rni sb.e bought I worked alone cashe$s 1984-85 crop

frora a, sold. for 4OOsh.
Giriama; by husbard
Swahili 1and.

G 14 ltlarjlebuni borrowed- b cultivated. by maize, 10 sacks cor*-d.ung

fron Swahili 'i;ractor for spread oa field:
owner l2Oshr paid by ' harvest pooled
her. .llso pa;id. with her rnother
l80sh to 3 (n), ri.ving in
Giriama wonen the same
and 1 rnarr.to household.
plant artd weed; -----^
sesarlle crop sold to
further belped.
local- shops
by mother (E)
for 2jlsh; her
and sisters
money

8 15' Sosoni oleared with 4 cultivatedr as naiae JB sacks all fleld.s

husba^nd-; (of other fields, spreed with
Swahili land. LZ) r.i.th'the help of cow-dr::lg
'a
permanent rna.Le 'o6r
tork"r, pai& o. cow-P€as none eaten
cattle
lOosh a week t6r
her husbandl margo€s none low rainfall
someti-mesher.
co@nut Parm8 pla^nted. ln 1983
lieed.ed"tr+ice,
harrrested with oashews
children" Trees
planted t6r husband.
 139

TABTE 43 (cont)

Me El PLACIIE OI.INEB,SHIP AREA LABOI]R CROP$ SARVEST COMMHIITS

H 16 Maoiroo bormwed Z cultivated. by mai-ze 51 saclcs

from Swbhili. tractor for
sesalne
owller 4BOsh; 12
Giria^oar ] merr.
a^nd 5 woaen
paicl 3OO.sh, to
weed.. Eusband
also beLped.

l7 ltlapirno she boggbt 3 "otti,ttted b'Y maize llt saclcs

from a (.or tractor for
sesa&e- eatire
Giriaroa; T*) l?Oshi sarne sesa$e crop
Swahili owned casu,al so1d. for
lator:rers paicl
116oosn;
3OOsh to weed.. mon€[r to
Other wor{<; husba"nd.
especial1y oni
the sesame ca-ssalra for home
crop, Cone t6r consumptiom
househoLd
cashews
members.

LB Bomani borrowed 4 crrltivated- W rnaize 35 saclcs a lot of the

fron her housebol4 crop eaten
mother who members strai-ght from
had. earlier tb.e field..
obtained. The totaI,
perrnission to household.
cultivate rnaiae crop of
frorn the 2{} sacks is
Swatrili oilner sufficient
for home
consumption.
In 1984 40?
sacks were
harrrested- a.rrd.
th.e surplus
given to her
husbaJd.r's
brother.

19 Mapino she bougbt * oashews

from a
Giriana;
Swahili or,nrecl

20 l'lapirno cleared bgr pla^nied the cashews

herl SwahiLi treas herself
Land
 I&

TABLE+3 (oont)

Me Et PLACE OHMERSIII? A3'EA LISOUR CROPS EARVES{I COIrtsIBllt$

E 2l Mapimo husband. pl.anted by cashews L)BQ-$5

cleared; husbarcl cashew crop
Swa.hi1i so1d. for
1and 3eJOOsh for.
her hu.sbaltd.
22 illapimo husband. t6 plarried bry oa,sneltg (a gpod yea.r
cleared.; husband bringe in
Swahili ?-Brooosn)
Laad

23 Mapimo husband L planted by ca.shews

cIeared.l b.usband.
St"rahiLi
1a&d-

I 24 Bomani sbe 1+ w-rth: ber maiae' J saclcs

( -
borrorved children
cassava
from the
SirahiLi
oliner

25, Kaembe:ri she bouglit', lt 'rritb childres maiae 3 sa,cks

from a (or 5)
casherrg Door o1d trees;
Giriana; 1984-85 orop
Slrrhil i Land
so1d. og1her
for c"2B?Eh

26 Shauri bomored l+ Giriama rnan maize { saclcs ha:rrest poolecl

Moyo from her paid. 35osh. rritb her
fstberr s tryr her to fathert s;
br"other; on clear the sufficient to
the settlement fielil last all year
soheme

J , 27 Kaembeni - husband. 2_ cuJ-tivatecl maize good

K borrowed' (of \r tractor
from Strahil! B) for 48osh sesane
oHner aad 5
oerrnanent
workers (3
Sanye
coupLes)
paiil c.{Oosh,
each per nonth
by tbeir
husband' co-
wlves a,lgo
worlced.
 141

TA8LE 43 (cont)

Me, El PLASlts OWNM,SHIP ANEA LASOTIB CROPS H.mj/EsT co!0,IENTS

J , 28 Ntsanga,- husba^nd.;on co-flf-ves salze 3 sacks harvest kept:

.I
K mall settlement (ol alone with another'
scbeme 30) co-rife at
b.ousehold. in
Ntsa.nganali
qa qtmF

29 MtsoLo husband. 3 co-ll'ives naize gooA toial crop

bougbt (of and. suffi.cient\o
outrigbt 6) perxnasegt last all Yeac;
( labourers stiI1 ea"ti-ng
I the 1984 crop
sesejtre good entire crop
soLd. t6r
hushand. for
--'' c.1 r B:iQsh'
{

L sbe PaYs she paid a naize 10 sadcs Oor+_rh:ag

3O Marikebuni spread on
SwahiLi Giriana naa (t acre)
owner 120sh a.rrd woma.rl field
a year LOOsb to crop sofd. bY
sesaJne
cultiqalie' (* acre) her for 20oshi
and. weed.;
also worked cottos' good crop sold bxr
herself (t acre) her for c"
with sonts 55osh
llife

she oleared; 3 Giriana. rnaize, 6 sackg poor

31 Shauri
.T.oyo on g0vernneJlt men pa^id. a
ca,ssava
Land. on the total of
settLenent 1110Osh to
schene clear and.
lreed

she bought 16 cashews

32,, Sosoni
fr.om a
Giriana;
Swahili lard'

she bought. 4 cashe*ls 1984-85 crop

,, Sosonl
frvm a soId. t6r her
Giriamal for o.574er'.
Swahil-i land
 r42

Income

As Table 43 indicatee income frrom casb crop sales is usualLy taken W the

heed of the householdr regardless of land ormership or labour inputo Most

household hea.d.sare nen (aff tut one in Tab1e {2) a^nd-for mantrrof thero this is

their urajor sou.rce of income. Catile oldnership is geaerall-y resi;ricted- to nen

wbo a.1so have some forn of employment. fabLe 44 shows the occupation or

othenrise,of group rnenberst husbands. It should be noted. that rna,rSr

women

rrith.out, busba.nds, especiai-J.y divorcees, live in e-tlend.ed. hoLsehold.s hea.ded.b3r

otb.er male kino

fasrrE 44
( - *
NO IIIJSB.AII-' iiLrsS.gJ{D El'iPT,orm IiUSBAIIDUNB'trT,0fm
widowed. divorced. own seLf: other
business enpl-oyed

B 6 r9

L+ 16 L>

no.of husba.nd-s= 49t nooof group mernbers(past and. oresent) = 55

Susbandst controL of inconre is not confined. to the proceeds from crop sales

alone, but ertend.s to all pr"oducts of theil r.ri.vest labour. In l-ocal Giriama

practice their control of incone is absoluter- thoug! bow they choose to

exercise tbis control and what portion of her income a rife may be allowed to

retain are subj6ct to v.ariation. Tbj.s is the most- important factor in

d.eterrnining what effect group *"*iu""t income has; most of thern are first and

foremost members of bouseholds which they d.o not head. [he group itself doee

not trave the power to d.eterrnine what happens to the incorne it prnvid.ee for its

memb.ers. Ind.eecl tbeir very rnenbership cf the group is typically conditional

upon the agreement a.nd support of their husband.s a.nd household heads. Thue the
 143

formd.er of Somanirs adult ed.ucation clasa, who. ba.d.bis 2 wives join in L9?3.

When the bakery glas in operation he paid. for a.nothgi' householcl memberr his

recentl3r wid.owed motb.erts sister, to joia the group a^nd.when she d.ropped. out:

througb illness bis yor:agr thirdr wife took her pIace" the:rl in the wake

of tb.e 1!83 crisis, he pul1ed a3-1 3 wives out of active participation in the

gloupo

Ironically it r{as the sanre pattenr of househoLd. control w}r-iob.contributetl

to tbe denrise of Sonan:i Progressive Hents group. fhis was found.ed in 19?9 aad.

later adopted t6r Eototo lritb a fishj-ng project. whioh proved. soroewhat inappropriate.

to. local. coaditionso Very few members were experienoed. fisbe:xr_en a,r:d tbe rest

were- r:n1rilling to r:nd.ertake the ctifficult work of -fishing at nigbt far a,+ray
( - -
from horne on -i;he Tana river. Dissatisfied. ,iih ihis state of affairs members

bega^n taking group fr.:nds io invest ia indiv:d"ual noney-naicing gchemes. Among

then 'nrasthe adult classts formderr wb'r,ook mone6rto trade it rnaize" A.long

with others he end-ed.up in d.ebt to i;he grnup. tJnabLe to reach coll-eotive

d.ecisions a^nd.rmbappy with the smal-1 income lshich tbeir collective enterprise,

produced. the grbup, d^issolved into inactivity in 1!83. In effect. the rnen we1g

wrable to adapt their roles a.ncl (rnonetary) e:qpectations as indirridual household

bead.s to the ver:f aifferent conditions of a groupr a"nd.a^e a. result it failed.

l{omen are rather nore accustomed. to co-operation ( a,ad.being toLd w}lat to do), and

a,S second.ary earners of househoLcl income ar€ llpre readil-y sat'i.sfied. by the flriit-s

of collective enterprise, hovrever smal1 they may be.

UnLike the othel g?oups studied. in this report Soma^niltas a long history of

prrcvidin€ lts memberg witb incorne tb.rougb its enterprS.see. Tbe chairwonait

eqrripped. by h.er personal. stnrggle to 3ecure an& control an ind.ividuatr income

( see above) 1 played a.n importa.nt role in encoura4'ing her fellow rnembers to

follow suito Hlren the neclclace enterprise was r:nd.ertiay she pressed. produoore to

sav6 sone of their income by investlng lt in gpatgr arrd in some oaces she kept
 tM

mone5r d-ue to individuals r:ntil they had acottu'.t1ated. enougb to do so. fbis

policy met witb some successr a^nd.some rnembers began to invest in stoclc (see

Table 46 below) , af i;hough there ltas no guarantee that the,y would be allowed.

control of the incoure from iheir herds rather tha^n being o-o1iged. to speud. i-li

on household need.s whi.ch their husbancls oitgnt otherirj.se be exaes?ed. to provideo

Sigrlificantlyl wh.en money frpm necklace sales was brought by [ototol the

r.romen were encouraged to show it to iheir busba.ad.s before bring'ing it back to

tb.e chairvioura,nr a,n act of obeisaace to tb.e real stnrqbure of oontrol designetl

to forestall a.qy objections. One woman recalls that her husbaad. freely

slarrghtered. her goatsl kept together rrith bj.s orae herd., for household

consumption, although she salr notbi:eg wroag rit_h this.

( -
Since 1!8O nost income provid.ed. by the group has eome from the bakerXr,

both from baking for individual profit and froin d.ivision of coilective group

profits, The relation between individ-ual a.:rd group baking a^nd.the effect this

has had upon the efficiency of the latter bas alrea$r been discussed.. Saking

rosters are not enoloyed. and there ,i.s consid.erable variation in the frequency

of baking from one member to another: one constrai:rt upon membersr participationr

is tbeir ability to buy the ingredients for individua.] baking and so make ihe

effort r+orthwhileo Tabl-e {J showe ind.ividual contributions to gqoup sales

between Ja.nuary 1984 a.nd August 1985. Gi,ren the fixed. ratio of group to

ind.ividua,l baking (Z:1), individ.ual. profi-ts are estirnated. at oae-sixth-of group

sales (see Table 38 above).

rABrE 45

1984 1985 TOTAL 6t. PER OVER

Me tIB G$ }[B G$ IIB ffi. PROFIT I'IONTH -ALL

1. 9 6 tj z 5 2:f,,o 14 8652 TW I03 72.\Q conmittee

2 . 9 5oo6 5 3000 L4 Boo6 1334.33 95.30 66.71 commlttee
 t45

TA3LE 4q (cont)

1984 1985 TOT!L ESf. PER OVffi,

Me I{B GS I'(B 6 MB GS PROFIT i,IOt{fE -.ATL
I

3, 12 6228 3 g t2 7].40., r.19'o, 79"33 i9.n

4" 11 5876, I 4Bo 1t' oJ)o 1059.33 EB.z7 52.96 3rd treas.
5 " 9 4 /f,o . 4 r754 1?. &rq to2r.66. ? 8 .B g 5t;28
6 . 4 3198 2Bg" 9 6w 101_5 I12.77 n.75
7. 10 !476 4 r3 9 3 .g o L+ 5869.n 9?8.31 69"87 48.91
8 0 7 52fr 7 52fr 875 t25 43.75' €3-COlEDo

9 " 8 4336 L 720 10 fr56. 842.66 84.26 42.13

10. 7 418' 2 B5L 5o3?, 839.50 93.27 4r.97 eX-COmm.

lL . 10 346'l 3 852 13 4319 719.83 55.37 35.99

g ex-vice-
12. 3972 1 180 10 4t52 69z 69.2o 34.60 cb.a;i:31o.
t --- 13. 7 3 3 6 2 ,. 1 n+ B 3866i, 644.33 8o.54 32.31
-- a a /
14" 6 3340 6 3340 )ro. oo 92.77 27.8 3
L). ) 2 2g B 996 n
{ 549 78"42 27.4 5 conmittee
16. 6 2940 6 2940 49o
Or
OIo
a?'
OQ 24.9
q. B 2A22 o
o
2022 487 &.87 24.35
1B. 6 tg25 492 6 2nB 403 fr.37 20.r5. 4th treas.
!9. 6 2310 o 23ro 385 64"t6 t 9.25
20. 3 t466- 3 840 6 2n6 384.33 64.0, rg.2l
2!. 2 1232 ^ 6 22o4 367.33 6]-.22 1 8 . 3 B committee'
.+ 972
22. 4 7go 3 1J44 7 2t34 355.66 50,BO u,7B
23. 5 20r. 5 2050 34t.66 58.33 u.08
24" 5 ]-789"& 24D 6 2o2g.4D 3 3 8 z
.3 56.37 t6.gt
t - 25. 5 1832 6 1832 305.33 50.BB r5"26 \i:Lce-sec.

26. 4 t245 3go 5 1635 272.p 45.41 L3.62

27" 4 l-4?o 4 1470 245 5r .25 l.2.25
28. 5 LTl.2 I 24o 6 L352 225.33 37.55 IL.26
29. 3 984 1 120 + 1104 184 46 9 " 2 Q committee
30. 3 1050 3 1050 j.75 59.33 8.75
31. 2 1050 2 1050 t75 87.50 8.75
)2. 2 1050 2 1050 ]-75 B7.F 8"75
33. 3 820 3 820 l-36"66 45.15 6.B3
34. 2 530 2 530 105 52.F )" a)
 t46

TasLE 45 (cont)

1984 1985 TOT.[L EST. PER OVM.

It[e Irts GS m GY-, I'{B G$ PROFTT I,IONIE -!I,L

35. 3 575 3 575 95 . 8 3 3t.94 4.79

36. 1 4n 1 &o 1A
l v 7O J.5O
37. 1 420 1 PO lu ?o 3.9
't
38. I 420 1 PO 7o ?o 3.50
39. 24D 1 240 N N 2 secretarXr
40. 24D 1 2N p N 2 chairvom=n

I 41. z]-.o 1 z].:o 3, 35 L.75

MruI{ 23M.79 5 4 0 .3 3 2BBB"12 481"35 74.20 24.0.6 sb

key: Me = memberl lrlS = nurnber of months j-n which. baked; GS = contribuiioa to

t- group salesi SI.PROEII = estinated individual orofit over the whole periocli
PF.R :iONfIi = estirnated. indivi.dual profit per month baked-; OIJERILL = estinated.
individua.l prefit ove:r tbe whole period. (2O months).

Hhile the returns upon actual labor:r are reasonabler these figures indtcate

that over tj.me income gs:ined. from individt:aI baking is quite sma11 compared with

the sources of income arrailable to some wonen (sg,Ie of 2 boitl-es of rnilk per d.ag;

wouldr for exarnple, bring in l8osh a rnonth). From tiris point of view it is

significant that some group members have continued. rrorking fron time to time as

casua.l labor:rers at the sal-t works nea,r Congoni, where they ca.n earn 4O-8Osb ia.

a datr a.nd.up to 5OOsh j.n a fortnight. Among iU""u wonen a're members 6, Z.Z, Z7

and.-35 in Table {l; 3 of thera divorcees. a.rrd.one whose husband is r:neropl-oyed'.

In general-1 however, woments opportr:nities for earning casb in Somanj. are

linited. and some are consid-ered. be6rond the pa.1e by the active core of Cbristian

(and lftrsllm) members: pa-id agricultural labour carries a hear4y stigma and meuize'

beer brewing ls proscribed. for them (the ohairwoman gave up beer brering a^nd

converted to Chr{.etianity a,fber od.ucating her son). Saking catt prcvid.e roucbi

need.ed.oash, for-the housebolcl. In this respect bousehoLd. heads stand. to benefit

 r47

as smch as the women themselves. One woma.:lwas pr:l]-ed. out of the group by

her uaemployed. husba^rrd.because she refused. to give ldn the proceed.s fron her'

baking. As-i* cond-ition for her possible return he d.emarid.ed.

that group officials

come to discr:.ss the matter wi',h him; an offer which they rejected. ldale

contrrcl of womenr s income ca;n aqt as a {isincenij.ve io individr:a,1 baking. Ote

active member only bakes for the group because her husba^nd, an eatreprenellr

r,ritb a shop and- 2 grinding mach-ines, takes nost of tbe money which sb,€ eams.

Her youngei co-w'ife, rather more adept at- persuading hin to let b.er retain a

sbare of her income, continues to bake botb. for herself and the Soupc

Bakery profits been diwided 3 times. Iur 1!BO members received l0Osh
_have
eacho In 1982-83 they received varying sun6 accord.ing to th.e nrmber of times
t-
they lwi baked.o in Mali'198d-lOrOOOsh'tras divided oa the sane principle r,riih the

help of the fechnoseffe auditor. liembers were g'iven llsh- 50 cents for their

first baking anct'lLsi: 5O cents for each subsequeat one. The incornplete recorriti

which sunrives shows ibat: they received d.iffe:r'ing arnounts up to 3l6sh 40 cents -

tlris for the equivalent of 29 days' l-abour. TabLe 46 outlines tb.e uses to- which

interviewed. nembers put the money- fron ttris a.:rd earlier d.ivisio11.sd.

TA3LE 46

*
Me YEAR AI.'IOUNT USE
RECEf,\TgD

1g80 1OO-sh spent on buying a yolmg cogt from her husba^nd; W

1985 sh.e hpd 4 cows a.nd was selling 2 bottLes of mi11c
a da6r for a tota"l of 6sh. The cows were kept in her'
husba^ndts herl"

H lgSo lOOsh add.ed.to 4o0sh from her individua.l baking and boqlht
a cow. By 1985 had. bred. J others a.nd was seI1ing. 3-4
bottLes of milk a datr for Jsh each. Cowekept i:r her
husband.ts herd; a herrisboy paid 220sh a nronth b3r
herself, her husba;ndr a^ndher daugbterl e.
 148

TABLE 45 (cont)

Me YeAn AUOUNf USE

B 1982-83 2fish. spent on llood at-home.

g 1982-83 250ph bought 2 goats. 3y 1985 'nat 6, kept for slaughter.

( - .
J 1982-83 SOsh bougbt a yo,.rng goatr r+nich died-.

A l-9B4 350sh spent orr her sonrs second.ar5r school fees.

I
D. L984 ?Osh spent on daily bouseholcl needso

n' L9B4 3OOsb bor:gbt 1 acre of cashews fron a Giriama for 2OOsh;
th,e oroceed.s from the crop are taken b;r her h.usband.
( --- Renrain:ine l-OOsh soent on food.

H l_9B4 3OO+sh h.elped. husband. pay second.ary school fees for their
SOIIo

1 1984 lrrcr bought 3 gpats which she t..ate:r so1d"

J 1984 rl or. bougbt clothes for herself a.nd. her chil-dren'o

x l&ters refer back to Table 43

s income tend.s to be invested. in ibe househol-dr

Wornenr either voiwttarily

oi in accordance with the rishes of the househoLd head. When it is not

transferred. directly to the householcl but invested. ln indlvid.ual enterprises

then it is 15Jce1y that the profiis from these rs"iLL be used. to the genera"l

benefit of the householcl - in some cases to the particulac benefit of the

household. head.: the net effect being mucb the sarne. l{onent s acocss to incone

does not necessarily cha^ngetheir status or increase their bargainingbpowor

within the houeehold: these tend. to be subject to other, eristlngy

considera.tions. Tiris ca.n be seen in the case of the }d treasurert

 r49

E ln Tables 43 a.nd {6, one of the nost active a,nd.enterprising o.f group

nembele. Apart from those given a;bove hel sourcee of income iaclude the

sale of water (lringing in sone ?Osh a dry) brought from another village

to her household. by her soas ( stil-l at primary school) using'2 d.onkenrs

ouaed iry b.er husband.. In 19?8, with tbe consent of trer husband., she bought

2 fieLd.s of cashewnut trees for a, total of Lr206-sh. Eer busbaad. contlnued. to

tad<e the proceeds from the sale of cashews from these field.s a^ndone other

wb.icb she had. cleared herself some years before. fn I9B5r horrever, he

d.ecidecl that she coulA benceforth keep tJre rnoney herseLf. Els reason for

d.oing this was to make his.Fanagement of this and anotb,er wifers householat

easier: instead of taking tb.e noe€fir a^ndtben harring to give nost of it baclc
( -'.
'bo his ',iife for various household etrDensesr it nade sense to let her'd.o 'Lb.e

bud.geting berself. Enployed on and off as a nasonr owning a herd of cattle

and. rnanaging aJ1 agricultural eaterprise sustaj:red. by bousehold membersr

-incone and labou= tbatr met all of their basio subsistence reqrrirements;

sufficient income was l-eft for hiin to be able to oorafortabl-y reLinquish some

oi ttis e,ontrolo Bhis was not a consequence of his wifers income or group

membershS.pl but tbe outoome of a more genera"l: understanding bettireen tbem ini

a situation in which there was compar:'ativeLy little pressure upon the

househoLcl.

One of the factors underlyins this uld.erstaltding aJId their entrepreneuriail

enthusiasm was shared membership of one of the Local Pentecostal churches:

Ptr'A, Pentecostal EVa.ng€lica1 FeLlowship-in Afrj.oa. They were both lea'ding

'members sta.nda;rd.bea,rers of rigbteousness in the
of the looal congregatioal

commr:nityo The attitude tbls fosters ie illustrated. in the folloning inoiilento-

Ore d.ay in 1985 the ex-treasurert s yowrger br.other anrnor:ncedtb her that he

had made 3lOOOsh fr.orn his work a,a a, builder a.nd sbe offered. to take 2rOOOsh bf '

this and buy cattLe for hln ae a sensible ievestment. lhrch to her 'llsgust,
 150-

bowever, he spen',, all of i;he money in 3 dayg in bt5flng beer and. aistributing'

g-rfts to his friend.s; anr actior, consisteat ldth the redistributional: ethoe of

bouseboLd economilrand sharply at odds r,ritb her protestant ethlo. flie loca1

firndamen'i;alist churches (fm't, PAG - tbe Pentecostal Assemblies of Cod,

Saptist and Seventh, Dary Ad.ventist) encoura€e nembers to pay i;heir social dueg

througb the church, and. to this end ask then to surrender lO$ of aL1 iheir

income. Tbus ncost of the active members of the womenr'sgroup give portions of

their ipdi-1ridual incone to the churches tbey belong tor tb.ough bow strictlg

they a.dhere to the nrLe is d.ifficult to sayo Cburch merobership alone is not

sufficieat to foster the restrtrcturiag of gender reLations and. household-

obligationel an& nost ghristi.ans remain closely tied- to traditional- praotice.

| -"* member shot':r in TabLe 45' (f) wiro bad no control

Thr-rs the situation of the other

othe*rj-se 'unenpiotrred., rras the PAG pador

of her casheg incone: hgc husbard,

in Mapiroo

Tbe sonenr s group itseLf bas cone increa,sing!-y under the control of women

whose furnestio circumstances permj.t tbem a degree of freed-om nc'ti enjoyed- by

the nrajority. Againl thls is not so nuch a conseguence of group membership

as the reve?se! although menbershi:p does prcvide such'women lrith opportunities

for lea.dership a^nd entrepreneujrial- acti\rittr nore ertensive t?ra.rt those available

to theu at home. The new rr,r:€ESr:a€r, no; one of the rnost' active of group

members, is the r,ri'fe of a Irhrslim oonvertr a shop and grinding-machine owner

in Boma^ni. the secretarlt ie the daughter of her predecessor a.nd a young

divorcee with a re$rlar sourc€ of j.ncone from her nurserXr a:ld adult education

teachj.ng-in tbe villageo the ohairrroo?ur; :nea.nwhile, is now the hea.clof her

own houglbold a^nd.enjo,ys the supporb of .her working son: the suoceseful

o.Jtcorne of a long battle aga;inst the repressive controls of .household econorl$o

 151

Notee

'
L. No rritten accounts su.rv-ive fron tlr-is period. and.1 while agreein€ upoa
1 the general. outliae, group members interrriered. in 1985 gave wiclely
d-iffering accorrnts of parbicular activitiesr their chronologr and. the'-
sluls of none6r involved. l{here such disa4reemeats arise th.e accor.urt
given by the groupf s first secretary a,nd adr:-lt ed.ucation teacber is
fo11owed."

I 2. See. lforeen Clark, Ed.ucation for development a.nd the nr41 womg13rYoI.
II (New Torkr Worf fe
tra;ining a.nd its inmedia-,,e effects.

3. fiiis is-Panga^ni wornenrs gToup, nea.r Kaloleni. Personal communica.tion

: 1'rornCandace Nelsoa (fgg:) o .
(
4. Info::nation on the recent d.evelopmeat of tb.e botel wa^sprovided by Peter
Eckart (lgg5).

('--
 153

INCOIM GN'IERATIONAI{D ITS; EflT'ECTS

HOW TO GS{ERATE INCOI'IE

In order to establish major j-ncome-generating enterprises vromenrs gloups

rely heavily upon funding and other forms of assistam,ce d.ispensed t6r erternal

agencies and. they invest considerable resources in sectrring suoh support"

lfithout it they calrnot hope to free themseLves from the various constraints

vrbicb opera,te upon themo These constra;ints stem from both the- character of

Iooa"L household eoolo;qf (subject to various forms a.nc[degrees of capital'

penetration) a.nclthe constitution of wonoenrsgroups aB registered agents of,

the state. The state plays an arnbivalent role in this process: on, the one

ha.nd it places upon g?oups and the households to whioh their

a nxnber of d.ema.nd.s

members beJ-ong; on the other j-t offers thern a. cha.nce to escape these d.emanclsby'

distributing ftrncLs to groups and W provid.ing conlacts rritb NGOJ a.nd so access

to the largpr resources at these agencieJ d'isposaI.

Woments groups thernsefves have acoess to the Laborrr of iheir memberg-a,ncl

cash provid.ed. by them or their 66ussh6!d.s. fthe amount of income which tbege

householcls (a;1it women as household. membem) are prepared. to invest in groups is

'demand.srrpon them, their ability to meet theser - aJIA
conditiongd W the sun of

the retu:ra thqp ca^n expect from this as opposecl to other investmentso Investment

in a group typically prcmises no more than a long-term returnr espeoiall'y when

subscriptione are spent of fund-raising events a^nd on enterbaining visitors" As

a resl1t group subsoriptions are usua^LIy srnalJ"- smalLer tha,n the sr:ms invested

in different kincls of individual. savlng orgsised bf groups - artd' often difficult

for members to susta|no Labour investments a,re subjeot to a similar set of

constralnts, as is the time which membereare prepared- to d.evote to group

meetlngon Groups d.o not possess tho power'to sepapate members frprn thelr
 L54

househ.oLds or enforce partloipation. Untlsr these oircumstances it is not

easSr for glroups lroiklng alone to establlsh rriable enterprisee.

NonetheJ-esse encouraged. b'y the government to help themseLveg befo:ee

soliciting he1-p from outsi-de, young g?oupe tlo experiment r,rith a wicle range

of enterlprises. The comrnoneetof these is colleotive cultivation Th:is form

of enterprise receives explicit etate support in the form of advioe a.nrlr in

the Jase of sorne favoured. cash oropsr free seed.l both d.ispensed. t6r governroent

agric.rrltural ertension officerso As such it is an irnportant aspecft of womeatg

groupFr appropriation as locaL agents of the sta,te, d.isseminating agricultlra{l-

techniqueg a.nd.policies in parts of the cornmunity where other agentsr except

the prinrar-jr school-s1 rareLy r-eacho Howeve:er the support given is genera3-Iy'

insufficient to turn tb.ese enterprises int-o lucra,tive money-spinnerso l{arqr

groups canno.t afforcl tbe purchased. inputs which they are advisecl to use a:rd

cultivation remarins a. rislcy businesso. Labou.r inputs are restrictetL W the

constraints aLready outlinede a:rd cultivation of colleotive fields suffers

from competition with membergr household- a€nic'tt1tural, enterprises being'unden-

taken at tb.e same time. Perhaps more importarrt I the acreages und.er coLlective

cultivation,axe typically smaL11 often l-ess th.an the area worked. by individual.

households. The government d-oes not nrLe intet:vene to make plots availablet

and. groups have to borrpw or rent fields. Such land is not always easln to

obtain or hold on too The net effect of these constraints.is tbat groupg reap

Little reward from their collective fields. From this point of vlew it is

interesting to compare Amkenita agrj.cuLtural- enterprise before a^nd after

receiving tlorld Vision-supporto Even after this intervention the grouprg a^nrutal

inoome frpn cultivation remained smalL oompared.with the fruits of ertensive'

investment in palmsr ol1 a scale nore appropriate to the r'equlrements of

capitalist enterprlseo
 L55

Tlle groups stud.ied. in this reporb also erperimented. rrith other forms of
enterprtse. Bomani meurbers sold'their collective agrlc'ultura1 Ltabor:r to
looal household.sr a temporary e:rped-ient,which reproduced. existing relations
of production and gendero Mkw'iro memberg producecl corrie necklaces and.
failed- to find. a market which d.id. not oven-erploit their labour. Amkeni
members triecl selling chapatL in en area- where there waa scant d.ema^nd.

Agrriraye members tur':led. to the prod.uction a^ndroarketing of ma^tsuti" In rnanXr

wa8rs this was the rnost .pronrising of theeqenterprises, b'ecause the group

a.d.optecLthe role of a niclcllernan in selLitrg a. protlucrlt, for which there was (afi.d.

i") oonsid-erable dema^:rdo However, furtber d.evel-opment of this enterprise.

wouJ.d.have required possession of transporb and. storagt facilities, enabling

the group to br4y makuti when and where the prioe rva,slow and. sell thern when
a&d. where it rvas hi&. This in tr-rrn wouLd require a"rroutlay of capital l*rich
the group d-oes not posseets. Like the other enterprises mentioned here it was
cliscontinued. in favour of other prcjects.

llone of these smal-I enterprises, except aguirayers, was lilcely to

attrac;b govenrnent supporto Each grorrp ha,cL, however, attractecl official

attention through their self-help and fund-ra^ising efforts" In the case of

the 3 older groups this was not difficuLtr each was the first group to be

formetl in. its respeotive area, wtrile onel Amkeni, wa,s forrned. d.irectLy at

offioia.l instigationo The same 3 have. slnce recelved goverlaent grantsi

Amkeni for a; welfare proiest, Bomani for a.n income-generatlng pr.ojec# a:rd.

Mklriro for a conbinatlon qf bothb Amkeni a.nd Bomani received. these gllalrtrt

after they had- obtainetl the support of N@s3 while Boma.nil ltke Aewtlayer

wa's flret intrccluoecl to lts N@-al1yr Tototoz through,offLola]. contastso

ldost gra^ntg made by the government a^nd.tbe Mlni'stqy of 6\.rlture a^nd.Soclal

Servlceg ln particular ar6 compara.tlvelp snallt the orr:rent no:m ls lOrOOOah,

 r56

although 'there are some notabl-e exoeptions of whicli. Ankerd i's one.' Groups

can raise similar s1trnE, sometimes morer bry hosting hararnbees w'lth official

support: at suoh eventB the larger contributions tencl to be nade b5r other

womenrs grcups ancl N@s. [']rese sufiIs are often i:rsufficient to estabLis]t the

prrcjeote lrhicb. groupo have in rnind; anct this !s where, the N@s come into

their omwn"
I
The NGgs have mucL more to offer-than the capitaL which larger enterprises

requireo In the case of N@s operating r+ithin Kergra,they play a^n aqtlve roLe

in pLa.nning and advising or a,ssisting woments groups ln the opera'tion of their

enteqprises. Sucb internrentions are necessarTr because the d.evelopment of these

enterprises frequentl-y represents a- radica.l departure from the prevailing

conditions of housebold.eoonomy, althougb tbe inte:rrentions which are made'

are not always apprrcpriate to these oonditions" Collective womenrs onterprises

bave no for:3&atio3 in th-e historical economy of the Kenyan coastr and woments

gsoups themselves have been'formed'.ancl organised on the model provid'ed' W the

ggvernnentrs womenls group prog?amme. I{ornenf's.primary experience is in- ntnning;

or provicling the Labour for enterprises und.ertaken t6r or for the housshold"

Even rqhere these enterprises a,re their or+rlthey general-Iy have littJ-e' control

over what happens to the products of their labor.m: if the product is not takenr

from thesl, then almost certair0y they wilL be obliged to invest it in the

houseboltlo Th-ls experlenoe togethe:r witl! its coroll4ryr the genenally Iow

leveI of womenrs educatione Leavee the majorLty of wonenls group members

i3-3--prepareil to :rur what: a"re in, effeot smalI-soaLe capitalist enterprlges. llbe

managprial a^ndtechnical requirements of theee enterprises preeent repeated

diffislrlties. As a consequenoe groups often com6-r:nder the aontlrql of members

who arg better equipped. for the task: thig is a posltlve outcome in terms of

the logio of enterpr-Ise developmeyrt, but one whlch sltg uneasiJ-y with

oolleotive an6 partlolpatory ideologr. Even so1 oircumsartbed. by householcl

 t57

economy and. threatened. t6r other capitalist interestsr enterprd.see n:n tho

continua.L risk of failrrre; a situation from wbich they ca.tc-onlXr'bope to be

resoued t6r NGOs.

fhe IIGOs concerned diffbr in their

r.rid-e3-y= approaches a,rratin some cases

tb-is resuLts j-n friction between then, though this is rarely expressed operrly.

Those ba,sed-in llair.obi tend. to remain at some dista.nce.from the groups wtr-ich

they heLp. In the case of Amkeni this alLowed t?re gnoup to'appropriate the

set:\rj-ce6 of Worlcl Visionts sta^ff a^nd.d.ivert the fr:.nds they managecltowar"cle.

group enterlpr.ises. Thid has been much.to the benefit of these enterprisest

though not exactly what l{or}d Vision b.ad in mintl. In Boma^niTe6]inosertre'

introd.ucecl a corirplex set of accounts and pressed. for other reforms in tb.e

ma^rragement o f the bakery enterprise. A rather'different approach is offered-

by fototoe a, l,Iombasa-based.l{@ lrith its ovrn 5-ntegrated. womenrs group

progranune in Coast. Province" Fron Tototots point of view both of these

intenrentions have been inappropriatei Arnken! was spoifitd W t{orlcl Vision

fund.inge Leaving d-ecision-rnaking-concentrated. in the hands of the cha-iruoma.:rr

And while Tototo agreed. on the need- for reform in Somanir it ttisagreed. with

technocratio natr:re of Technose::vets input and laten sent- out its olwr

rroh.:nteer to work more olosely r.rith the group. ThesF judgements are rootetl in

Tototots participatory methodolory artd long erperience of'wor{<ing with

womenrs groups on the coastl the frults of ertenbecl co-opera,tion with a U.So

orga^nisationl Wor1c[ Eduoation Inc. Study of Eototo-afflliated groups

indicates, however, that, the suooess of its methotl is attrd.butable not so

muoh to nonformal eclucation itseLf as to the close ard. repeated contast

between its staff a.nc[the groups. ftre groups themselves tenaL to be prlmarlJ-y

interestect in the capitaL whlch fototo ca:rr secure for thern from intenxational

NGOs, though they also weloome Tototors advlce and. support. fhe case-studles
 158

sbow that tluis eupprt doee not tra,nslate automatioall.y into entrepreneurial

succesn. Tototor's resoupceE antl smal] sta^ff ars now stretchetl over more ttralr.

@ groups, while tbe staff themselvee have not been trainecl in.the kincl of

skills which enterprd.ses require. Tototo and. similar agenclee arer- howev.er;

in a muoh better position tha,n othen organisationE to take.effeotive.action;

and Tototo llas al-rea.fur respond-ed. to this and. other recent evah:e.tion6 W

restl:ucturing its progrsrrme' of work with groups a.nctbtrr accepting the' services

of, a business advisor employed. t6r l{orlcl ftluca,tion. ta train and. clisc.:ss possib!.e,

action with lts fielcl staffo

fltre case-str:dies indicate that enterlpr5.ses are mor6 likely to be successful'

if they az'e chosen with respeot to loca1 economic conditions. In shorb',

enterprises r+hich reproduce existing processes of indigenous capital accumulation

prornise better resultso llarrdicraft productionl vrid.ely pronotecl as an appropriate

r:nd.er*'aking for womenng groupsr d.oes not.faLl into this categoqf. of the
.Two
groups studiect, Mkw'iro ancl tsoroa,nil have prcduced- ha^nd.icrafts for [ototors shop,,

in Momlie,sauoIn both cases this pr.ovid.ecl womenwith a,n important short-term

source of incomel sometimes more thalr they cterived. fron other errterprises blrh

rmrch less over tine tha^n a f.iving montifly wage. Producers in Mkr'riro po'cketed.

(and spent on theiil householcls) most of the income which thie brought tb.em. In,

Bomanl a. portion of the income tras transferred. to ths greup and constitutecl a.:r

iraportarrt lnput toward.s oonstnrstion of tb,e firsb bakerXr buiLcting"; Ini botb'

ldkwiro and. 3orna.nl, the ltand.icrafbs prod.uced. were based. upon eristing: forme of,

ha^nd.iora.fb.procluotion unalertaken by tndlvicluatrs. Neither was a major Looal

industry. [buee when tbeir ord.ers w@e o'urbalIed t4r Tototol botb ra.n into

probLems. One rea,son Tototo stopped. these ordere was becausa the women-were

prod.ucing mloh mor€ tha.n they ooultl seLl: 6 yeara later BomanJ.necklaoeo are

sti$ gtoolcpLLed ln Tototot's storer waiting for a buyero In the a.bsenoe of

 L59

alternatLus narksts that aouLd a,bsorb the noLune of produotlorr thenr litt was

inevitable.'tha.t th.ese enterprises sboulcl griDit to: a halt.. feither was

orga,nlsed a,E a, colleotive enterprise (in nhfch, for erarnpXe; the group

wouLcl purchaae bosio naterials)l they: f\:nctionod. ingUead. as ertensions of

honoe pr.otluotione puttiag pr.oducers at the merosr of a.rr unreU:able ma,r{certo

I{asdicraft production ditt not get off the grouncl at all for Agwiraye

because the form of production which iototo tried. to introduce had no basis

Elterprises which are new to a cornmunityr particrrlarly

in loca1 econorny.

tbose which are ca,pitqfL intensivel are difficu.lt for groups to operate

suocessfully. First, because they lie.far outsiale the experience of group

mernbers, who tbus require, conti:rued inputs of advice from erterrra,l a,gencioso

Th-is problem is magnifiecl in the case of enterprises employing compler

technical processes incLu.ding. machiner?:r r.hioh may also be diffioult for

groups to maintain or expantl without further injections of oapital frorn tb'e

outside. Third, such entefprisee are characteristicalltrr bor:nd.ed W officiaL

oontrels (inclu.ding: state-reguJ-ated. pricing of their raw material-s a^nd.produots)

and, especially wbere they employ coLiestive Labour, it nay be clifficrrLt fon

them to compete with rivals in the private sesto:ri Ag a result it is not eaq;''

Bomanits bakery has been afflicted try

for them to remain eoonomica-lly viable.

al-L of these pr$b1ems. suen though it was the first to opera,te in the !'lalindf

subsequently losb, rnarsr of its markets to competltors from Kilifl ard

a*.a, it

f\:rther afielcl ancl now has 1itt1e hope of rnatchi'ng the performa,nce of a bakerXr

recently esta,bllshed ln Mallndt town ltseLfi Somanirs nlra.l l-ocatiorad'oes not

reepeoto Mknfu"ors ferrXr serrioe is rather better pLaced a^nclin

belp in thls

to looaL cond.itions; It hast houever, be9:r

mar{r wa{rs very appropriate
the intenrentiong of men (ae well ae
diffiouLt for the group to rr.rn d.thout

NGO') and has yet to be ertrloatecl fron tb,e close embraoe of traditional
 Lfi'

'
relations of'prod.uotionr and- gendero It fs inter€stLng t9 note that the groutrl

ma.deas mroh l.f not more from the enterprisa when they rented it out to sorneong:

elss. This. prcvicled.e oor€ev€f,1 a fixed ancl reguS-ac'incomer stra:ightforward.

to record alcL not so easil3r misapprroprlated. G,ven the various @nstraints

v&ich operate. upon coLleotive enterpriseg sucb m:inima"l involvement in their

d.ay to ctay rurrning: p?eseats a solutiou, to nran3rof their problemso [lte

replacement of (unpaid) colLeotive Labour t6r forma3- wage labour is a,nothe:e

means by which grea.ter effioiercgr rnisht be achiered.l 48 BomaJd cliscovered'

wben they enployeel a schoolboy in their botelo

Ttre simpl'est way to avoid seare of these constraints is to choo8e the right

enterprise, in the first p3-a,ce. flie easiest enterprises for groups to ]run and.

maintai:t'a,rearguabllrthosewhiobreproduceeristingprocess€sofcapital

accunqlation in the 1ocatr commr:nittrf. As such their viabjl-ity, ts prtve:rr the

knowleclge, needed. to nrn therro i's rea.dily arra^iLab1e1 a,nd theg requi,re less

support fron erberrral agenof;eq .Ankerriits specru-acular acq:rmllatiom of assets in

pa1i1s atd i:ts exparsion irrto other enterprises at the expense of inctivid-tral

entrepreneunn, outsmarting lforLd Vision i3l the processr, provides a striJcing

illustratior1 of the ad.va.ntages of this stratagem. The conditfous of capitatr

aoo1;sru1ation: varSr from pltace to plaee: investmeat ir. palms would not; for

exanpXel be. as appropria,te_ in Lianj..l wbere this forrn of capita.l accunulation

has now beenrdisplaced. lgri"ayets recent d.ecision to bu-il-ct a bouse with rooms

to Let is muoh rror€, in tr.r:m wlth Local- devel-opmentsr which have brcught large

nr:mbers of migrant worlters ltrto the areao RentaL houses are not difficult to

bulld, reqrrire re1atlv€ly 11ttLe rna*tntenancer do r:ot utilize coLleotlve

labour a4d. provid.e a regt1.lar inoome. B3r eetabLlshiug sucb enterprises woments

groups are rnuoh mor€ likely tha,n othe::wlse'to fr:LfiL1 their promise as

corproate entrePrensultsc
 161

ECONOMIC
MFECTS

In so fa.:r a"s tbey are able to escape the oonstraints of houireb.olcl

( enterprises become mrbject to the logLg of
economy groups antl thei.r
' capitalist d.evelopment a.nd acbl in effec# t &a agents of economic

differentiation. They do this in a number of .ways. Rlrst; by shedcting' or

t' -
exol:ding members whose domestio circumstances a,r€ s:troh that they find it.

difficult to sustain group roeNrobersbipand tb.e tlena.ntLs upon cash-, ancL lal]ou:r
'chilclren.
whiab it entaiLso fhis particu3-arly: affects divorcaes with yodng
('
In the urainla.:ecl comuritieg where viriLocal marr{'age' is the rrr}e the

residential- mobility of women trporr,divorce or remarriage adcls a furtb.er

oonstrariut upon their abili:ty to sustain membership. Initiaa recn:titment

(
tend-s to cover a broad spectnurl to -the exclusion of young r:ama:ried. womenl

the ofd and infirml those who are sceptical of group success or whose

husba,nd.sane resista.nt to them joiningr ancl foreigners to the commu:dtyr

I
As a resglt marry womeg in the Least; fortr:nate categories rema:ir outsicle of,

gsoups;

Seconcl1y, groups whj.cl! are lrodcing: free of householcl econonsf tend to

come increasingly under the'contr.ol of rnembers wbose backgrround ,rri ao*""tio

ciro-unstanceg rnake them better equippect to n:rr their enterpr5'sesi- rrn o-ther'

words their d-evelopment favours women vrllo already occutrXlia rel-ativeltrr fortunate

positioa in their tlousehoLds ancl/or the conror:nity. This inolu'des women who a,re

eduoated and. thue able to keep group reoords. It aLso lnolrrdes women who inr

one vradaor another have suooeeded in: eecaplng: some of the restrlotlve

oonditlons nornalllr affeotlng thei'r gender.' The chair:trornen of Agrriraye,

- to supporb then and. free fron tbe
Ankenl a3d Boma^nl' aLl $rithr grown ctril.dren

control,of thelr (fn .Z oases fo:mer) hugbands" Group membership prorrid-es such

uomen gdth a.n opportuntty to €xerolse ard further d.eveLop thelr entrepreneurlal"
 L62

talentsl ancl theSr' "t".1JJce136 to beaeflt from.thel-r positi'on much more

than thelr oolleaguee" I:r some case6 they magrdo so i3.J-fclt1trr; tlr
rnisappropr:iatiJrg f\rads; a^nd.while d.aruag:irxgto group enterprJises ltu tlls.
short-term thie erpeqlenoe may eventrral-Iy ha.ve a positive effecfi lr{)onr_
thei;n,
orga.nisatior; as tlle history of, Bomani showsl

Thirdlyr where enterprises a^re succesgful they sril-l inerritablg pJ-ay a

Partr however sma111 in transforming the structuree of housebolcl economg:

whioh tb,re:lten to appropriate them in tur:u The d-evelopment of Amkerrire

enterpriseer promoting a p_roc€ss of differentiation which f,avor:rs only some

women and their householdsr points olearly to thls possibility.i- .trlthougth
the benefits of tbis process are not equally feltr it raigJit be noted. that

certain types of capitalist- d.evelopnent do not necessartly result in a

wofiiening of wornenrs status: in ma4r waysthey ma6;be considered. better off.
when householcL ecorrcny f;s destroyecl, if not wh€rr,ft is prese:rred. in

emascuLatecl form as a, reserve of cheap labou:r'i; l,leanrihile tlte role of womep!,s

groups as agents of capital-ist d.evelopment, givee sone lromeu:a ohance. to

partioipate, in thf;s proc€46 on.:favourable ter"msl a chance whtch tbey rai4{r

otherrri'se not llavdo'

In generale thoughr groups and. thelr enterp:ri'ses remain severeJ-y

constrained by housebola eoononqr. Eew succeed. in generatiag substa.ntia.l

profits a^nd.few provicle thelr member$ lr'ltb lncono on: a reguTa"r basfs. I{hen.

they cto the amounts are ustrally so snal,l- as to comprJ.se only a fraqH.on of a

livtng lra€er al.though: thls should not be taken aa a, measun€ of their valua

to the women oonoer.ned. l{llat'happens to thl's lncome ancLwhat effeot it ha^a

are agaJ.n d.etermined W tlte stnrotur€ of,'household. eoonongro Woment.sinooroe

Ls usua,l1y treated. as income for the household., whether or not it le

approprlated W the householtl head or ilhetherl irrdeed., the woma.:rr

heads hea3
 163

oror househol-d. As suoh lts \raLue is not negllgible but ltt foms alx
important supplened to. otber sounoes of inoone available to womear in
some instaloes clisplaclng tbm. In some cases it magqdi'splaoe, the income
pltovicted' bf a'husband.g orr to put it. a.notb.er wagr.,rouxd, mailr red.uc6 the
husbarxdts obligation to contribut€ flom big orcr pockote thue lea1ring him
-'Wlter:r
oilh more inoome at his tlisposat. income iB hand.ed.over or otherr,rise

fincls its way back to husband-s t]iere is no gua,ra,ntee th.at wornen lri1l play a
roLe. iq tletemining how it is iavested., or whether it wiLX be invqsted. ln:

the househoLcl at allo Contrargr-to the naive assr:mptions-of inoome

generation theory (it it can be spoken of as such), womentis-poss€ssibrt of

income d-oee not arrtomatical-3-1r improv.e thei:r status or barga.irdngtpo.fler.

r'rithin tlre tlousehold; This is more 1iJcely to o-ccu:c' if at aI1' where

overaLL bousehoLcl inooroe is aJ-readtrrhigb and sufficient to cover basio need.s.

The' smalil arnou4ts of incorne provid.ed b'y l.romen-from their grcuF errberprises

are r:nlilrely to tip the bataace. Againl this fav6.to* those who are a^lreaftr

more fortr:nate *nT average. In other respecbe the income which tniclcles

dol.m through woment's groups helps to insulate householct econorny frorn the'

pressurss aoting upon it frtm the outsid.eo; h"onical\r the women most in,

need. o.f thi* inoome, those w:ith young children and w'ithout husba.ledls, a.re

the ones whor partly because they have littJ.e monetrrin: the first pla.ce,

find lt difficult to remain in wonent's groupsd

SOCIIL ffiFECT$

'lfhis
reporb has not examined. welfare projects in d.eta.ilr tb.e oonditiong

of -their establishnent are similar to i.ncome-generatlng pr.ojeots a.nd.their

immed.late effects ar€ generally obvious and not iliffiqrlt to evaluate. Eopes

hale also been ra^ised.r howevory - that womentrcgroup membership aJd income-

genera'ting efforte nay foster moro general. soolaJ. a^nclwelfa,:re benefLts. O:rc
 L64

najor intereet in this regard. has their possible effest upolt attttudeB aud.:

beh.avlour. relating: to fertiliffr lnoludireg receptivltfg to famtly pla^nnLng.

This topLo is treated. at some lengtb here both beoaugo it formed. a.:rrimportanlt

corntrrcnentof ear.Lier phases of this stud5r and because the resultirrg'fildings

have an eoonomic erplanation; relatilrg tlirectly'to the characts:s'oE hor:seholtl

e@nomsro

Population: gowth: and the,need for fani-l-y pla.nning are. subf,esU-sof'major

canoern i:r KerSya" In L986 Keqra has an estinated. poprrlabibn of over' 21

uril-I.iorc peopl-e and a,n, estiroated a.nrruiil grorrth rato of 3.8S.1 Variorrs measrunes

are in hand. to limlt population grorth: in August, 19gI the Presid.stdi

d.eclared. that" parents shorrld Limit themseLves to 4 children.- womethbearingr 5

or more children were hencefortb. to be d.enied. materrritSt Ieave.z The 1p8{

Kerqra Contraceptive Prevalence Su:rre5r showed that whil-e b$ of women lrere

.aware_of contraceptive user only 29/" han' ever uEgA thero: fig:r:ree whicb" wett€
?.
fou:rd. to be lower arnon'gth.e Mijikend.a peoples of Kerqrats.coast.J Inr response

to this situation the' gover?merdi has annorlrroed that it lr:iIl spend BOOimiLLiorr,

sh orr faniLlf planning progtarnmes ovel the nert' 4 yeare.4 Womenf'sgtoupg

have been iclentified. as one possible, vehic].e for gettiag tbis nessag€ €lorroEoe

To thig encl theSr arle occasiona,lly visited by govemnent ertension offlcers

andr in exceptionaL .casesn have.beoome the focus for planning cl-iniceo

-f*ify
One Tototo-spon€orecL group, Idakiwoe holcLs monthJ-tr1cl-irrics supported. b6p GI$PA

(tne Centne for Development and. Poprrl.ation Activities, based. in;llashS-ngton

D.C.) end the, Minlstry of Eealth: in L985 6 group memberer atl of then aged

between 2l and, Jg, were reported. to bs u.sing famlLy pLannirg-(ttrere were. 38

iottve. members ln the grorrp).5 In generall bowever; reoeptivlty to farntLy

planning ie lowo A su:rrey of 13 Tototo-affillatecl woments groups conducted. W

l{orLd Ed.ucatioir in 1983 showed. that contracept!.ve uste t6r thelr members was tnuolh

Lower than the national'. avera€sr whLle olose +o 9ofr knen about; some form of
 L65

birtb controll Legs thaa i-llt{rciIlrai.ever r:sed contraception a.nd.lesg tha;n 6fi

w9!6: Crrment userg.

Ilr interpreting this result various factors ha've to be taken into a,ccou:rte

anong them the fact that ovsr a third of the gToup members surnreyed. were over

QJ yeata of agel r+hile' 2L/, were widowetl, separa,ted. or divorced. This does.

not explainl however, the low receptiviff to family p1a^nning given the higb

lpve1 of awag:enessi a^rr alra^reness stimul'ated. t6r gov_ernrnent progra&m€s ald.

disserdnated throrrgh organised neetings a.ni[ the med.i3. Ehe 1984 Kirq;:a.

Contraceptive PrevaLence.su:rrqr showed. that on averag€ l{ijiJcend.a women-wanted.

famillee of ? ohiLd.ren; one more than the nationa,X anrerrg".6 tfhile the

Sunre,lr recogrrisog the'influenoe of ed.u.cation a.nd residence upon attitud.es to

family planning - ed.ucated. urba^n dwellers are 1ike1y to be more receptive - in

g€neral- there is little r:nderstarrding of the structural' d.eterminaats of this,

n
situ.ation.r It isl in f,act1 not bery cl-ifficuLt to explain. Irr the context

of housebold econorqy ohildren are'treated. as an investmentt rrot only cto they

provid.e art inporba.nt labor:r regdr:rce for the houseliolcl but they al.so hol-d the

pronis€'of rfgture, teturns providing parents with oasb, a.:rd'socia.L security

rrhen tbey are, oldera One Agrdraye rnember mad.e this abuncta.ntly clealt

complaining that her seoondarXr school-ed.ucated. son had provideA no retunr at

aIl to b.er since,he had. Left school antl become,a beach-boyo "Given a cha.ncetrl

she said., rrl woul-d open a ba^lrk acoounts but now my childrefu are'the balkrr.

Rather tbarr chang:ing attitudeE in the nrral- area,E ed.ucation has been sucked-

into the pr.oce6s. While it ls trtre that chlld.rsnts ed.ucatlon lrithclraws

Iaboun.fron the householcl thie is oompensated.-for'in othor wailrsc Sriclewealth

pa6rments cLema.ncted.
for clarrghters refleo-b the costs of their ed-uoation, whiJ.e

the more educated. chiLclren are the greater the cha^nce that they will seslrre

good. mplotrrment ancl prowld.a thelr parents ltlth lnoome'in the years to @me.

Tb,e lmportanoe.of thls has alrea.dgr been touohecL upon in tb'e,oaa€-studl€s'

 t66

thus the reLation betweeu the chairrronen of Agrlraye ard Sona.rlt aad. their'

chj.ldreno Parents ar:e unb.apg;. shouJ-d. gror.m-up ohlltlren fai-l- to meet these

expectationsl ancl in, som€Dcases the tend.eno6rfor educated claughtem to

marqy a3d leave home before rrepayingr their parents fo:r their eduoa.tf.on Ls

given a,s a; reason fo:r not sencling tlaughtere oc. to: second-argr school.

- Ihder these circunstances it is not surprising ttrat family planning

progta^mnee have a l-irnitecl inpact in the nual "tL"" and- among womenrs groul'

menbereg the more chiLclren they have then the greater tbe returts. [']r!s

e@nomi,o Logio is supported W a. rangg of belief6 and attitudee. Parente

with Large faniliee enjoy ldglL etatusr infer-tility aroong:ltomeh 6axrfes a

hearry stigrna (intertitity arnong men is diffisult to substaatia#e).. In Diani

women mairrtain that pr^oLonged.sexua,L abstinence can result in l$ness and

oau.se the body to seize up. Sinilar feare surround the use of contraception.

Womenbelieve, with some justificationl that coa,traceptive pial-s can resuJ.t:

in higb bLood pressure or multiple birbhs when their use is stopped., arl.ctthat'

injections of Depro-Provera, can produce infertiLity. Sorneresentr quite

rightlyl the fact -that they and not nerri at€ the maSn objeats of oontra,ception.

0ther beliefs have lese foqndationo Imported. yellow ma.ize' fron Norbh Am'erica

is widely believed to contailr contraceptive ,tnrgs and cause'infertility. A

sirnilar-.a^nd r,riclely publicisetL scare br.oke outi in Kergra,ls Central Provj.nce 1n

ea,rly 1986 when it was rumoured that the gpvernlnent wae laoing the miLlc ,supplied

to scbools with contraceptives. The vcidesprea,aLourenoy of such fears are some

measur€ of the resistance to famiLy pLa^nning ln rura;I €lr€Bsr 41tr the indioations

are tha.t Euch Teslstanoe.r,r!]-l petsist untl1 householtl €oorlomy undergoes majon

tra.nsformationo In theory womenls groups are inL a position to oontribute

towarrd.g suoh a, tra,nsformatlon: in praotic€ the majority l€main'tleeply enneshed

in tb.e resistant stnrotuTeg of householcl eoonoqi. Thlg ls not to say that

 t67

family pJ-anning prograrnmel b..t nq sffecUo I:r the short-teru tU"y oau hope

to effect seleativc irEe of' contraception Sr womeni(a.nd rnen),wherL theg

recogrrise tha,t clrcu:nstantces aftt appropriatal s5'gntfica^nt Li:nltatioa of

fanrily sizer howeverT remarias a c[lsta:# pa\ospecftb

It is clear that r.roments groups a.nd.their enterprisee ca$not. be expestetl

to effeot socia:L a^nd ee,onornio change ovenaight. This shoulcl notl however,

be the only criterion upon r.thich they a're evalua'ted. For'women themselves

they provide: a. r€mgc of opportr:nitieg which thqf- are sustonprily-d.eniect. Not

least of these is arc' opporbunity to participata j.:r cormunisa affairs and

dwelcpnent" take considerable

Womern pride in their graups ancl the recognitiorr

whicb, thls bringethen. As long as'they continr:e to recelve supgort fnon the

goverr:ment a.nd other agencies r,romenls groups r+iLl continue to serve as a:r

importa.nt tool. iu Kenya.lr ?IomenSEstnrggLe for sel-f-d.eterraina.tion.

Notes

1. These figr:res are proJections from tbe 19?9 censuso sorrrcer office of
the Ministry of Finance and. Pla.nning; I'tombasa.

2o rFour'child.reD'1inlit1 nrlee l&itr lea.d artiols (bf, Ne1son'Qsienn) in Ttie

Stand.a.rtl (Uairobi) I Saturdagr 3 August 1985. the nr}ing on rnaternity
ffi.r!.yaffeoisemp1oyedtovrrr-ldweJ.Iere1arreart1rmofepreC[isposed.
toward.g family planning tha.rr n:ral women and their farnil-tes"

3" rContraoeptive.use disappointLy lowt, article-by Job Glthinji in the.

Daily Nation (t'tairott), !{ed-nesd"y Z3 April 1986, po21.

rsln 8OO rnill-ion slated. fon farnily planningf , a:rtlole bry Job Githinjl ln
4.
the DaiLy Nation (Uairotf) r Thursd-ay 16 Jarruary 1986r p.lo

Luoy Langstaff, personal oomnunlcatign (f985). Se_ealso-tindse6r E[].sum,

5. in"LoUinE out io yotng wonent.in the Interrrational. P1a&rred.Parenthood
For:nclatiJn'" &:L9 EIr 2- (L985) o -

6. Feferenoe oitecl ln note 3 aboveo

7. r,,peopLe ln Kenya favorrr large. famillesrtt eays N.AoKeyonzol the researoh

'rflre reasons are baffllng to
direotor of Kenyals famil-y welfare centrel
us'rr, quoted. btr June Kronhol-2, rAnguish Ln MrLoal Kergrata future dims
'
as population "ir"g"" and eoonoqn falierat r lrhe Wa"l1 Stnest Journal (New
York), ilonday 11 ApniJ- L983r p.In