Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
of Metals
500
CONTINUED
Stress (MPa)
400
300
200
100
0
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010
Strain
Mechanical Properties
• Stiffness Elastic Modulus or Young’s Modulus (MPa)
• Strength Yield, Ultimate, Fracture, Proof, Offset Yield.
Measured as stress (MPa)
• Ductility Measure of ability to deform plastically
without fracture Elongation, Area Reduction, Fracture
Strain (no units or mm/mm)
• Toughness, Resilience Measure of ability to absorb
energy (J/m3).
• Hardness Resistance to indentation/abrasion (Various
scales, e.g.; Rockwell, Brinell, Vickers.)
Stress and Strain
• In a simplistic sense, stress may be thought
of as Load/Area.
• Similarly, strain is the deformation of the
component/original length.
• A stress may be direct, shear, or torsional
leading to corresponding deformations.
• Stress cannot be measured directly, but
deformation can be.
Direct Stress Examples
Load, P Engineering Stress Load, P
P
∆L/2
S=
∆L/2
Lo Area
Ao
Ao
Lo Area
∆L Ao
e=
∆L/2
Lo ∆L/2
P
Engineering Strain
P
Direct Stress Tension Direct Stress Compression
Tension Test
Measures P
Extensometer
Measures ∆L
Typical Universal
Testing Machine
Modern Materials Testing System
Hydraulic
Wedge
Grips
Specimen
Extensometer
ASTM Tension Test Specimen
Ao=0.20 in2
0.505" Dia
2” Gauge Length
Lo
Raw Data Obtained
Total
Elongation
Uniform Deformation
Load, P (kN)
Maximum
Load, Pmax
Elastic
Load, Pf
Deformation
Elongation, ∆L (mm)
Engineering StressStrain Curve
Elongation
Sy
Engineering Stress, S=P/Ao
0.2% offset
yield stress
E (Ultimate)
Su
E
Proportional Limit
Engineering Strain, e = ∆L/Lo)
Duke’s Quick Tip!
• Express Load in Newtons (N) and Area in
mm2 to get Stress in MPa.
N
2 ≅ MPa
mm
• Mechanical properties of metals are almost
always given in MPa or ksi.
• Imperial units: Load in kips (1000 lbf) &
Area as in2 gives Stress in ksi (kips/in2)
• 1000 psi = 1 ksi = 6.89 MPa
Hooke’s Law
Elastic Deformation
• Elastic deformation is not permanent; it means that when
the load is removed, the part returns to its original shape
and dimensions.
• For most metals, the elastic region is linear. For some
materials, including metals such as cast iron, polymers,
and concrete, the elastic region is nonlinear.
• If the behavior is linear elastic, or nearly linearelastic,
Hooke’s Law may be applied:
S = Ee
• Where E is the modulus of elasticity (MPa)
Modulus of Elasticity Stiffness
500
Stress (MPa)
CONTINUED
400
300
200 E=
∆S (300 − 0)MPa
= = 2x105 MPa
∆e (0.015 − 0.0)
100
0
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010
Strain
Atomic Origin of Stiffness
dF
E∝
dr ro
Net Interatomic Force
Strongly Bonded
Weakly Bonded
Interatomic Distance
Shear Stress and Strain
Shear τ
Shear Stress,
Strain,γ
Shear Stress
G
Shear Strain
shear stress, τ = Shear Load / Area
shear strain, γ = angle of deformation (radians)
shear modulus, G = τ /γ (elastic region)
Elastic Properties of Materials
• Poisson’s ratio: When a metal is strained in
one direction, there are corresponding
strains in all other directions.
• For a uniaxial tension strain, the lateral strains are
constrictive.
• Conversely, for a uniaxial compressive strain, the
lateral strains are expansive.
• i.e.; the lateral strains are opposite in sign to the
axial strain.
• The ratio of lateral to axial strains is known as
Poisson’s ratio, ν.
Poisson’s Ratio, ν
ex ey
ν =− =−
ez ez
For most metals,
0.25 < ν < 0.35
in the elastic range
Furthermore:
E = 2G(1 + ν )
Plastic Deformation
Elastic Plastic Elastic Plastic
Elastic Plastic
Sy
Sy
Sy
Stress
Most Metals Al, Cu
Clad AlAlloys
Low carbon Steel
Microstructural Origins of Plasticity
• Slip, Climb and Slide of atoms in the crystal structure.
• Slip and Climb occur at Dislocations and Slide occurs
at Grain Boundaries.
τ
Elastic and Plastic Strain
P (e,S) e = ee + e p
S
ee =
E
Stress
e p = e − ee
Total Strain
The 0.2% offset yield stress
Strain is the stress that gives a plastic
Plastic (permanent) strain of 0.002.
Elastic
ep ee
Elastic Recovery
Loading Loading
Reloading
Stress
Unloading
Unloading
Strain Strain
elastic strain
Ductility EL% & AR%
• Elongation
L f − Lo
EL% = x 100
Lo Lo
Lf
• Area Reduction
Ao − A f Ao Af
AR% = x 100
Ao
Ductile Vs Brittle Materials
• Only Ductile materials will exhibit necking.
• Ductile if EL%>8% (approximately)
• Brittle if EL% < 5% (approximately)
AX X
B C
Engineering Stress
D X Brittle Ductile
A & B C & D
Engineering Strain
Toughness & Resilience
• Toughness: A measure of the ability of a
material to absorb energy without fracture.
(J/m3 or N.mm/mm3= MPa)
• Resilience: A measure of the ability of a
material to absorb energy without plastic or
permanent deformation.
(J/m3 or N.mm/mm3= MPa)
• Note: Both are determined as
energy/unit volume
Toughness, Ut
Su
Engineering Stress, S=P/Ao
Sy
X
ef
Ut = ∫ S de
o
(S y + Su ) EL%
≈
2 100
Engineering Strain, e = ∆L/Lo)
Resilience, Ur
Sy Su
Engineering Stress, S=P/Ao
ey X
Ur = ∫ S de
o
Sy e y
≈
E 2
Sy 2
=
2E
ey
Engineering Strain, e = ∆L/Lo)
Typical Mechanical Properties
Metals in annealed (soft) condition