PRACTICAL RECTIFIERS 4-1 The vacuum diode ‘The vacuum diode comprises hot etode surrounded by & rect ode iside an evacuated enclosure, usually lass as ‘etched in Fig 49. At sufiienly high temperatures electrons tre emied from the cahode and are tracted tthe poniive Stode. Electrons moving Ivo the cathode to the anode coma tate scares they do au when the ana spake with reper FIGURE 41 Curent chet of an ie to the cathede. When the anode i negative with reapect wo the ‘ithe, elatons are rep bythe sade a the reverse ct {eatin sro. The spce between the sede and cathode i exact ted, wo that electrons may move beoeeen the electrodes ne ‘ded by costo wth yar molecales. “Cathodes in vacuum diode ake several dierent forme. ‘The free electrons in any conductor given stent energy by heing. wil ecape Irom the wold. Some materials ste muck moe tt factory inthis respect than others, however either because His ‘elativey ea for electrons to espe becuse the material a tafe) withstand high temperatures. Tungsten, for example ft tefl cathode materi, cia retsine te mechanical rent shenreme temperatures. A thn layer af thin onthe aurlice (Of 3 angen cathode flamentincreses elect eeision, and Speedie curent anne a temperatures of about 108°K, “Tis finm of calade & diroaly bested by an eee curten the sway the Elen in am ocaescent lamp Teed in vce “decesautble for highvahage applicaions. ‘he conventional ‘symbol fora vacuum dode of thistype shown in Fig. 8 "The modern aaidecowed cathode, which consis of @ meal ‘sleeve cated with inte of baum and aronthy onde, the most efbaent electron emitter developed dae. Copions ee ton emision is obuaned t temperatures near 1OWK, whic ‘means thatthe power Feqused i muxh less than for tungsten, ‘sual the oxide cathodes ndirety heated by a separate heater located inside the metal sleeve, as Ia Fg. 42 Ths boats the Inater curren elecclly from she ethos connection, which considerable advantage in eleetonic circus Alb, an ac heater IGURE 42 shah of exude ‘current may be wed without introducing undesirable temperature ‘artons in the eathode atthe Frequency ofthe Renter current (Oxide cathodes are employed inthe great majority of sacs tuber The heater wr ofen omited ip dhe conventional crit Seba, Fig. 3h, sine ie po dee ave part a the air. ‘When the anode is negative wih espect othe cathode, the lee son current aero andthe reverse character emetic ‘tan ideal diode. ‘The forward characters determined by ‘he modon of lecuons inthe space between the cathode and the anode when the anode has postive potential For simpli. “onsider a plane cahode and a plane pall anode separated by {Tasance das in Fig. 4 Asfune thatthe potential diference ‘etween anode and cathode is y and that electons ae ented hom the cathode with zero veloc, which is very nearly tue in practic, Tone electron is present in the cathowe-anode space, it exper ences fore caused by the electric field Yald and i uniformly Seckerned othe anode, The toa curren not the sim of fhe currents de to many individual electrons, however, ‘The GRE 43. Ch yb fo ct ie of flor @ @ fo ce ea | ede {eternumber of electrons emitted frm the cathode so reat thatthe tlecric feds due to the electton charges dealer the Tor fd fd se wp by the applied vokage “Therefore, the ef a fect of al the eeceone mis be consider simultaneously. This Idone by apphing Poin quation hich i asclly efor thon of Contr aw seating eerie ld 0 charge distin ‘The woluton of Poisons equation ves the potential Pac pin ina region comcaining a volume deny of charge Here at the number of electrons por weit volume, and #8 the charge on cach electron. Teone dimension, susable for Fig (ch Powons ‘equation writen ww ‘The current deny berween calhce and anode is from Ba 13), Jo-w a where isthe velocity ofthe electrons andthe mi sg secu for the negaive change ofthe electrons Acordia wo the define tio of penal (work pet unit charge) the Sine energy of an ecru at any pin related tothe potenti at that pithy Yom = as) here mis he electronic mass. Inducing the current density from £4, (4 ana v trom Ba {45} Poisson’ uation Become B-2-16)" wo “The wl thie Werenial equation for Vis mts ws wert sae. nang thatthe elestric field atthe cathode is zero, These approxima: ts are quite accurate in practi des, Since we are interested in dhe current between cathode and anode, puts d'and Y= Fin, (85) and ove for he err Sensity. The ees is $C a0) “This equation, town a le, show ta te cre ai asthe power ofthe vokaye, rather than asthe br power, 2 ‘in Obms'tsw." ‘The currentvelage chractertic of 4 vacuum CURE #5: Cornessgs ie sca dish ee doe is therefore a horizontal line in the reverse dvecion and 4. (66) in he forward divecson, se shown in Fig 43 “Actually the forward chsracterisis of prt vacum odes separt somewhat fron E5(65) bees the elses are nor ‘aly oyindial rather dan planar and Beaute of them pic ons inoduced im deriving Child law- For thi reasua the {onward charsceristis of practical diode are determined expe mentally, ‘These chareenate currentwokage curves ave re ‘coed graphially in manufacturers complains kaon a abe mona “According to Chit’ lw, the current density in a vac diode ‘depends upon the separation d between ale and cate ell upon the anode voltage In aon, the wal cusvent of any “ide varies tec wih ie aren ofthe eathode Ths tips Me to obtain diferent curreot voltage characteris by akering the geomenic shape of the anode and eathoe. "Two amples of pratieal diode characterises are gen in Fg. The type BUH diode is 2 mediumpower reer the type IV2 dade designed for highvotage low-eurtent power suppiicn. The ‘de-cathode separation Js coosierabe tm the 1V2 in order to Iniimize the pouty of a discharge passing between sone sd Cathode onthe reverse portonofthewltge ele Consequently.the eurent inthe forward direction s much amar than inthe {se forthe SUS in confor with Cuil’ aw The 304i de figned for ue at lover vayes, 6 the separation between anode and cathode m sina. "The forma caren coreapondingly {renter athe sume forward olay. CURE 6 srl rad haf Iw ac dr ae wah ifr ac Steet omen To any praca vacuum diode the reverse current is nat aly zero, beats of eka carent on he suas ofthe as ne {tors and sir secondary elfecsTypicaly the teserse test nee i ofthe order of 10 MAb. Since dhe forward resistance say be of the order of 100422" s stale operating eter the ratio ofthe reverse resance tthe forward resianee, a the Yrcifatan ra, is apprecibte "The interelectrode copacianee tetveen the cathode and anode limits the nxn reuency st which a vacuum diode i useful"The eathde-inode capaci feactance is eHectively in parallel wih the ckctron cuenta tends to short ou the reverse restance at high feqlences (ue Rare 13). 42 The junation dodo As wil be shown in Chap. 6, the ain of certain forcign stows to otherwise pave semiconductor materials wh ss ger or sien produces tee eectna which cary doce en “A yemiconductor crystal containing auch Toren sons is ale an epectytalbecatse a the negative charge af the current ‘arying electrons. Sines by incorporating certain eer Kinde ‘of foreign atoms the semicon appears cont current by postive curren carries. Such > ey called 4 spe on dior because the curent cater have + postive charge Ie pout change from type to pay condi nthe ane ‘exysal by introducing an abrupt change from one impurity type to the other across a given region of the semiconductor. “The jue ton beeen an inp region and # pnp sepon im a sem Scorers cles po, ry go een The feafingeharaeict of anton de Cb deed {he flowing way. lon inthe mype tego tad de ito the paype jon ath ncn neg thi competed by ‘Sino of consindc Nese det. foe amir, ‘Bough iporant. concenmon of trons inthe prope Since the cancion of ecco ch fares the maype ter tan nthe pgp, he ton cure om hen eon ‘ould dominate it were not for the presen f 8 posal oe ihe janeton nich reduces the curent Bow in hs don ‘The polar and magi ofthis iva potential ference ae sch arto make the tro coren aa A sul angeren ppc to the pote carries clnsug the onto beeen the hd pepo ‘When the pe jnction sin equiv the intereal potent tarver ext tne the mand eons since cheat cal in Tig 7a The uci, aul rom cero dif {rem the msde vel octet nich ner ome tras lentng the pode” Suppose tom an excl petal ‘pled the jrtion sa nse the ere bre, asin Fig 47h “The nuber of eictoneeing erste uncon from the » region ach reduced sae very few ler hae slit energy to sarmount de bger potest bier On the “aer hand the mumber moving tom We pote ee nua. feted Heer these cetrons enous o bres Thus net oven exit ts inte the sal sue etre {hep region. Ihe polity af he externa potential every Fig 17th interna bare reduced Farge cs he ‘ber of eeeroneimthen eon sogres Aga telecon Coren ftom paypeto ype remus ated, The meta {env in thie ces ung and correspond toh forward dircton “The revere polity teens the fen heir ae eel cetyl crn in determining the cherent-volge character of he onion diode, te mane comsideatons apply tothe cea ced by the pose tavern ott ce by ero, the ond Carre thetum ofthe wn Yorusng aun en the cont fr the curren fom the prin othe Foon proportional tothe clean conenrtion the p region heat bain, ten vehere Cy contan inven the jncton area and properties tthe semiconductor cepa which are not ore interes hee “The minus signin Eq (17) accounts forthe negative charge a the electron. Aeonding tthe preceding dacnson, fis de