DENSITY, STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF DATA, GRAPHICAL DATA ANALYSIS AND SPREADSHEET DEMONSTRATION Aims and Objectives: 1.

To practice the use of the analytical balance. 2. To gain experience with different methods of measuring the volumes of regular and irregularly shaped objects. 3. To gain understanding of the concept of density and its evaluation. 4. To use a graphical approach to data collection. 5. To apply statistical analysis to data collection. 6. To observe the use of a computer spread sheet for calculation and data analysis. INTRODUCTION Density, a scalar quantity is defined as the mass per unit volume of a substance. As such it dependent on those two quantities without which it cannot be calculated for. It gives a fair idea as to how matter is spread about a given volume. It is measured in g/cm3 or kg/m3 It is defined as the ratio of mass of a substance to its volume. It therefore gives an idea about how matter is spread over a given volume. The mass of a substance (body) is defined as the amount contained in that substance and it is accurately determined with either an analytical balance or digital balance and this is done accurately. It standard unit of measurement is grams (g), however in dimension analysis it is denoted as M. Volume is the space occupied by matter in an object. The volume of a substance is determined by using a measuring graduated cylinder or eureka can. For the graduate measuring cylinder, the volume of a substance is calculated directly from the change in water levels but for eureka can when a substance is suspended into it, the change in volume is equal to the displaced water. This method is used to determine the volume of irregularly shaped objects. However, the volume of regular objects is determined by finding the product of the dimensions. That is: Volume (V) = length (l) x breadth (b) x height (h) Or Volume (V) = (l) x [radius (r)]2 x height (h) Or Volume (V) = (length) 3 The standard unit for volume is cubic centimetre (cm3) or millimetre (ml). Density is a very important parameter which does not depend on the shape of the body whose density is being determined. In the experiment, data is collected to determine the density of objects using three different methods. Mathematically: Density ( ) = mass (m)g volume (v)ml The first method involves determining the mass of the object with an analytical balance. The dimensions are then measured in centimetres and the volume is calculated using a relevant formula depending on the shape of the object i.e. V = L x B x H. The ratio of the mass to the volume gives the density. The second method involves determining the volume of the object from three weighing and the density of water. One of the wooden objects is placed in a preweighed 25ml graduated cylinder and weighed. Sufficient water is added to cover the object to an accurately measured volume mark and obtain the mass of the cylinder, object and water. The final method employs water displacement in the determination of the volume of the object. Water is place to an accurately known level in a graduated cylinder and the wooden object is carefully lowered into it. Because wood is less dense than water, it will float and will again have to be pushed and held below exact

water level in the cylinder. The displaced water volume is the volume of the wooden object. The density is then given by the mass to volume ratio. CHEMICALS AND EQUIPMENT Analytical balance A 50ml volumetric flask Beaker 25ml Graduated cylinder A wash bottle A 30cm rule PROCEDURE
A. Obtaining The Densities of The Objects By Their Dimension (length, breadth & height) and Their Masses

5 wooden objects A, B, C, D, E 3.50g of NaCl crystals N-butanol solution Distilled water Broomstick

1. 5 wooden objects named sticks A, B, C, D, and E, all of the same colour but of different shapes and sizes were selected for the experiment. 2. The mass of stick A was accurately weighed on an analytical balance and the value obtained was recorded. 3. The dimensions of stick A were then measured using the 30cm rule and again the values obtained were recorded. 4. With the mass and dimensions of stick A, the volume and density of the stick was easily calculated for and then recorded. 5. Steps 2 through 4 were repeated for the remaining sticks, B, C, D, E
B. DETERMINING The Densities of The Objects From Three Weighings And The Known Density of Water.

The densities of the same five objects were determined using the following three Using the analytical balance the masses of the following were obtained for in the same order as below: 1. The empty dry 25ml graduated cylinder. 2. The cylinder with Stick A inside is determined 3. The cylinder with stick A inside, filled with water to an accurate level(((((gfr tr85t89y827282))))) 4. The cylinder, wooden objects and water filled to an accurately measured volume. The masses of the various wooden objects were determined with the analytical balance. The procedures stated above were repeated for sticks B, C, D, E with exception of step 1 was result will never change
C. DETERMINING THE DENSITY OF OBJECTS BY WATER DISPLACEMENT

1. The masses of the various wooden objects were determined with an analytical balance. 2. The respective volumes for objects A, B, C, D and E were determined by submerging each piece of wooden object in an amount of water in the graduated cylinder whiles recording the initial and final volume readings. 3. The change in volume was then calculated by taking the difference of the final and initial readings. 4. The wooden objects used were dried.
D. DETERMINING THE DENSITY OF CRYSTAL SODIUM CHLORIDE.

1. A clean, dry, empty 50.0ml volumetric flask was weighed using an analytical balance and the mass was recorded. 2. 2g of crystalline NaCl was then measured for using the analytical balance. 3. The 2g of the NaCl was added to the volumetric flask and the total mass was measured for. 4. A little n-butanol was poured into the flask just enough to cover the NaCl . 5. The flask was then shaken and stirred until all the air bubbles trapped within the NaCl were removed. 6. More n-butanol was then added to the flask up to the 50.0ml and the mass was then determined for.

7. The mixture was then decanted by pouring the n-butanol covering the NaCl into the large beaker in the laboratory for recycling. As much NaCl was dumped into the other large beaker. 8. DDSSSDSDFFFSDfdThe volumetric flask was washed and allowed to dried TABLE OF VALUES
Method 1

Objects A B C D E

Length/cm * 0.90 0.90 1.10 1.00

Height/cm 7.70 6.10 5.50 2.00 1.30

Breadth/cm * 0.80 0.90 1.10 1.00

Mass/g 2.53 1.23 2.26 1.25 0.71

Volume/ml 4.899 4.392 4.455 2.420 1.30

Density/gcm-3 0.516 0.280 0.507 0.517 0.546

* NB: Object A was the only cylindrical object, hence it had a radius of 0.45 cm and thus, a diameter= 0.9 cm. The rest were cuboid in shape.

Graph of Mass Against Volume For Method 1

3 2.5 2 Mass/g 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 1 2 3 Volume/cm3 4 5 6

Method 2

Mass of empty dry cylinder, M0 = 43.42g Mass of the cylinder + wooden object = M1 Mass of the cylinder + wooden object + water filled to the 25 ml = M2 Volume of the water = VH2O Volume of object = V0 Mass of wooden object = M1-M0 Mass of water = M2-M1

Objects A B C D E

M1 /g 45.93 44.65 45.70 44.61 44.07

M2/g 70.35 68.91 69.83 69.12 68.39

(M1 - Mo)/g 2.51 1.23 2.28 1.19 0.65

(M2 M1)/g 24.42 24.26 24.13 24.51 24.32

VH2O/(ml) 25.00 25.00 25.00 25.00 25.00

V1/(cm3) 0.58 0.74 0.87 0.49 0.68

Density/gcm-3 4.328 1.662 2.621 2.429 0.956

Graph of Mass Against Volume For Method 2

3 2.5

2 Mass/g

1.5

0.5

0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 Volume/cm3 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

Method 3

Objects Mass Objects A 2.53 B 1.23 C 2.26 D 1.25 E 0.71

of Initial Volume(Vi)/ml 15.00 15.00 15.00 15.00 15.00

Final Volume(Vf)/ml 21.00 21.40 20.90 18.00 16.60

Volume Object(V0)/ml 6.00 6.40 5.90 3.00 1.60

of Density/gcm-3 0.422 0.192 0.383 0.417 0.444

Graph of Mass Against Volume For Method 3

3

2.5

2 Mass/g

1.5

0.5

0 0 1 2 3 Volume/cm3 4 5 6 7

CALCULATION/ POST LAB Density = mass volume 1) Method 1 Mass of A, MA = 2.53g Volume of wooden object = r2h = 3.14 x (0.45)2 x 7.7cm = 4.899cm3 Density (A) = 2.53g 4.899cm3 = 0.516g/cm3 Method 2 Total volume of cylinder + object (i.e. A, B, C, D or E) + water = 25cm3 For A; M1 Mo = (45.93 43.42) g = 2.51g M2 M1= (70.35-45.93) g = 24.42g H2O = MH2O VH2O Mass of B, MB = 1.23g Volume of wooden object = l x b x h = 0.9cm x 0.80cm x6.10cm = 4.392cm3 Density (B) = 1.23g 4.392cm3 = 0.280g/cm3

But density of water = 1.0g/cm3 VH2O = MH2O = 24.42cm3 Volume of A = 25ml 24.42ml = 0.58cm3 A = 2.51g 0.58cm3 = 4.328g/cm3 Method 3 Using Stick A: Volume of object V0 = Vf Vi VA=21.00cm3 15.00cm3 = 6.00cm3 MA = 2.53g A = 2.53g 6.00cm3 = 0.422g/cm3 VC=19.50ml 16.00ml = 3.50ml MC = 1.40g B = 1.40g 3.00ml =

0.40g/ml

2) Average densities Method 1 = 0.516 + 0.280 + 0.507 + 0.517 + 0.546 5 = 2.366 5 = 0.473g Method 2; = 4.328 + 1.662 + 2.621+ 2.429+ 0.956 = 11.996 5 =2.399g Method 3; = 0.422 + 0.192 + 0.383 + 0.417 + 0.444 = 1.858 5 = 0.372g Standard deviation (s) = (x )2 n-1 Method 1; s = (2.366-0.473)2 5-1 = 0.947 Method 2; s = (11.996-2.399.78)2 5-1 = 0.202 Method 3; s = (1.858-0.372)2 5-1 = 0.743

3) Confidence limits, =

ts n Whereby s is the standard deviation t is the degree of confidence Method 1 50% = 0.473 0.741x0.947 5

where t = 0.741

= 0.473 0.314 lower = 0.473 - 0.314 = 0.159 upper = 0.473 + 0.314 = 0.787 90% = 0.473 0.76x0.947 where t = 0.76 5 = 0.473 0.322 lower = 0.473 - 0.322 = 0.151 upper = 0.473 + 0.322 = 0.795 95% = 0.473 2.78x0.947 where t = 2.78 5 = 0.473 1.177 lower = 0.473 1.177 = -0.704 upper = 0.473 + 1.177 = 1.65 Method 2 50% = 2.399 0.741x0.202 where t = 0.741 5 = 2.399 0.067 lower = 2.399 - 0.067 = 2.332 upper = 2.399 + 0.067 = 2.466 90% = 2.399 0.76x0.202 where t = 0.76 5 = 2.399 0.069 lower = 2.399 - 0.069 = 2.330 upper = 2.399 + 0.069 = 2.468 95% = 2.399 2.78x0.202 where t = 2.78 5 = 2.399 0.251 lower = 2.399 0.251 = 2.148 upper = 2.399 + 0.251 = 2.650

Method 3; 50% = 0.372 0.741x0.743 where t = 0.741 5 = 0.372 0.246 lower = 0.372 - 0.246 = 0.126 upper = 0.372 + 0.246 = 0.618 90% = 0.372 0.76x0.743 where t = 0.76 5 = 0.372 0.253 lower = 0.372- 0.253 = 0.119 upper = 0.372 + 0.253 = 0.625 95% = 0.372 2.78x0.743 where t = 2.78 5 = 0.372 0.924 lower = 0.372 0.924 = -0.552 upper = 0.372 + 0.924 = 1.296 4) Determining the densities and volume of an object with dimension was without a doubt the most precise method used. This is because the obtaining the masses and volumes of the various objects were relatively easier as compared to the other methods. All that needed to be done was measure the dimensions (length, radius, breadth and height) using a ruler after which I took the product of these quantities to acquire the volumes of the five objects. The reading on the analytical balance gave the mass of the objects. The densities of the various objects were calculated by taking the mass to volume ratio. Because the formula for calculating the volume of the regular solids is standardized, any error attained would have been due to parallax and the error was minimal compared to errors obtained in the other methods. 5) The average densities of group 2 were unlike those of my group because of the different kind of wood used thereby producing varying values in mass and volume of the objects and thus varying densities. As such, dissimilar results in average densities were obtained. 7) Advantages a) Because the graphical method defines precision of the experiment, it clearly spells out errors. b) The graphical representation of the experiment makes it much easier to predict the trend of the c) It is an easier way of obtaining values of densities without performing a series of calculations. Disadvantages a) Drawing the line of best fit for experimental is quite difficult for data which is scattered as a result of error. b) Running of experimental values to suit a chosen scale contributes to errors.

Solving For the density of The NaCl 8) Given that: Mass of NaCl, MNaCl= 2.0g Mass of empty dry 50ml volumetric flask, Mx = 29.60g Mass of the flask + dry NaCl, My= 31.60g Mass of the 50ml volumetric flask + 50ml N-butanol + 2g NaCl, Mz = 71.43g Volume of the solution, Vs= 50 ml Density of N-butanol, = 0.8098 g/ml-1 Hence mass of N-butanol , MN = Mz - My = 71.43g 31.60g = 39.83g Since n-butanol = 0.8098 g/ml Volume,Vn-butanol= Mn-butanol = 39.83g n-butanol 0.8098 g/cm3 = 49.18ml Hence volume of NaCl = 50ml 49.18ml = 0.82cm3 NaCl = MNaCl = 2.0g VNaCl 0.82cm3 = 2.439g/cm3 9) The NaCl density was more precise than the wooden object. This was due to the fact that, the volume was more accurately determined in comparison to that of the wooden object. The three different methods carried out in determining the densities of the wooden objects involved various procedures which increased the percentage error. For example, different dimensions, volumes and masses ad to be recorded before the actual volume, mass and density could be calculated. Precision was reduced because many approximations were made during the reading of values and when calculating. 10) The average experimental value NaCl value for the class is not coinciding with the accepted NaCl value. They differ by 0.274gml-1 11) The accepted value for the NaCl density is 2.17gml-1 Hence error = (2.439 2.165) gml-1 = 0.274gml-1 % error = true value expected value x 100% true value

% error = 0.274gml-1 x 100% 2.165gml-1 = 12.66% DISCUSSION It can be inferred from the definition of density that density is directly proportional the mass of the substance but inversely proportional to its volume. Thus as mass increases, density increases and as volume increases, density decreases. It was observed that the wooden objects were less dense than water. After comparing the averages of experimental densities to the graphical densities were about the same. The graph was a scattered graph and thus a line of best fit was drawn for each graph. SOURCES OF ERROR 1. In determining the masses of the wooden objects, various approximations had to be made because of the unstable nature of the analytical balance. 2. Upon transferring the NaCl into the volumetric flask, some got attached to the neck of the flask, thus not all the 3.50g of the NaCl was used. 3. The 50l volumetric flask was not exactly dry and so altered the values of the masses.

12) When you have a set of data with one data point that seems very different to all the rest, there must be a scientific basis for deciding whether to reject that point. You should not just throw it away without justification. If you have a series of repeated measurements of the same property, (e.g., viscosity, heat capacity ratio, surface tension, magnetic susceptibility, etc.), then the Q-test is a useful statistical way to determine whether one of your points in that series of measurements can be disregarded. The Q is the absolute difference between the questioned measurement Xq and the next closest measurement Xn divided by the spread of the entire set of data. Q = (Xq -Xn) If Q is greater than the values for a particular confidence level, the measurement must be rejected. If Q is less than the values, it must be accepted. PRECAUTIONS 1. It was ensured that value reading that appeared the most was recorded for the respective objects 2. All readings from the volumetric flask and cylinder were taken from the bottom of the meniscus. 3. It was ensured that all bubbles were eliminated from the pipette from the pipette before taking the readings. 4. All traces of water were wiped off from the volumetric flask and h cylinder before they were weighed as dry and empty.

ERROR ANALYSIS a) The woods absorbed water and this might have increased or decreased their masses. b) Error of parallax might have occurred whiles taking the reading from the meniscus or from the ruler whiles taking the dimensions. c) Fluctuation in the in the readings from the analytical balance. CONCLUSION On the whole the method of taking dimensions of a solid is used to determine the volume of regular shaped objects as well as their densities. The method of water displacement is used to determine the volumes of regular and irregular shaped objects and their densities. The aims of the experiment were attained. REFERNECES 1. Introduction to Chemistry by Chopper and Johnson, pages 40-41. 2. Essential Chemistry (Second Edition) Raymond Chang pages 430-439.