Thermodynamics and heat
transfer
3.1 Heat
3.1.1 Heat capacity
Heat capacity is the amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of a body or quantity of substance by
1K. The symbol is C (units joules per kelvin, JK ~)
Heat supplied Q=C(t,—t,)
where: ¢, and ¢, are the initial and final temperatures.
3.1.2 Specific heat capacity
This is the heat to raise 1 kg of substance by 1 K. The
is joules per kilogram per kelvin,
Q=me(t,—t)
where: m= mass.
3.13 Latent heat
Thisis the quantity of heat required to change the state
of I kg of substance. For example:
Solid to liquid: specific heat of melting; hy (ke~!
Liquid to gas: specific heat of evaporation, hig (J KB~
2.1.4 Mixing of fluids
fm, kg of luid 1 at temperature ¢, is mixed with m, ke
of fluid 2 at temperature ¢,, then
Final mass m=m, +m, at a temperature
miesty +mycaty
myc) + Macs
3.2 Perfect gases
3.2 Gas laws
For a so-called ‘perfect gas"
Boyle's law: pr=constant for a constant
temperature T
v
Charles law: -=constant for a constant pressure p
where: p= pressure, V=volume, T=absolute
temperature.
‘Combining the two laws:
py
2 constant =mR
P= constant
where: m=mass,
R=the gas constant
v
specific volume v= — (m?kg”)
so that: po= RT
3.2.2. Universal gas constant
If Ris multiplied by M the molecular weight of the gas,
then:
Universal gas constant R,=MR=8,3143,
Kyke™!K~! (for all perfect gases)APPLIED MECHANICS
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101THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT TRANSFER
3.2.3. Specific heat relationships
‘There are two particular values of specific heat: that at
constant volume c,, and that at constant pressure cy,
¢
Ratio of specific heats 7="®
3.2.4 Internal energy
This is the energy of a gas by virtue of its temperature.
u=c,T (specific internal energy)
U=me,T (total internal energy)
Change in internal energy:
J—U,=me,(T,—T,)
ayy =e(T2—T)
3.25 Enthalpy
Enthalpy is the sum of internal energy and pressure
energy pV, i
hau po, or H=U +p¥
where: h=specific enthalpy, H =total enthalpy
and it can be shown that
he
Change in enthalpy hy
Plo, =0,)=¢,(T3—T1)
H,—Hy,=me,(T,—T,)
= ly -u))+
3.2.6 Energy equations
Non-flow energy equation
Gain in internal energy = Heat supplied — Work done
Steady flow energy equation
This includes kinetic energy and enthalpy
=9- w-(258
103
or, if the kinetic energy is small (which is usually the
case)
hy hy =Q—W (neglecting height differences)
3.2.7 Entropy
Entropy, when plotted versus temperature, gives a
curve under which the area is heat. The symbol for
entropy is s and the units are kilojoules per kilogram
per kelvin (kJkg”*K~').
Tds
3.2.8 Exergy and anergy
Ina heat engine process from state | with surroundings
at state 2 exergy is that part of the total enthalpy drop
available for work production.